APPLICATION OF “SCADA” FOR

DISTIBUTION TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

CONTENTS:

ABSTRACT 3

CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 6
1.3 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS 7

1.3.1 LOAD MONITORING CIRCUIT 7

1.3.2 HIGH VOLTAGE MONITORING CIRCUIT 9

1.3.3 TEMPERATURE SENSENING CIRCUIT 10

1.3.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER 12

1.3.5 CLOCK GENERATOR 14

1.3.6 DIGITAL DISPLAY 15
1.3.7 F.M TRANSMITTER 16

1.3.8 F.M RECEIVER 17

1.3.9 SIGNAL AMPLIFIER 18

1.3.10. FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER 20

1.3.11 POWER SUPPLY 21

1
CHAPTER – 2

DETAILS ABOUT WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

2.1. MODEL OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 22
2.2 COMMUNICATION CHANNEL 24
2.3. MODULATOR 25

2.4. DEMODULATOR 26

CHAPTER – 3

DETAILS ABOUT MICORCONTROLLER

3.1. DESCRIPTION 27

3.2. CHIP TECHNOLGIES 28

3.3. DESCRIPTION 89C51 MICROCONTROLLER IC 29
3.4. FEATURES 30
3.5. PIN DIAGRAM 31
3.6. BLOCK DIAGRAM 32
3.7. PIN DESCRIPTION 33

CHAPTER-4
4.1 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH LIST OF 39
COMPONENTS
4.2 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS 40

CONCLUSION 41

REFERENCES

2
 ABSTRACT

The aim of the project work is to protect the distribution transformer or

any other power transformer, burning due to the overload, over temperature and
input high voltage. Normally most of the transformers are burning because of
these three reasons; hence by incorporating this type of monitoring and control
circuits, life of the transformer can be increased. In addition to the monitoring
and control, information about these three parameters can be transmitted to the
nearest electrical office where the maintenance staff of the electrical department
can monitor the transformer continuously without going nearer to the
transformer. For this purpose, radio communication is utilized in this project
work, so that, due to what reason the transformer has been failed, at what time,
when the power is resumed etc., can be monitored and this information can be
stored in a computer at the receiving station. With the help of this kind of
system, the maintenance staff of the department can have a continuous vigilance
over the transformer.

3
 CHAPTER – 1

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, with the advancement of technology, particularly in the

field of computers as well as micro-controllers, all the activities in our day to
day living have become a part of information and we find computers and
micro-controllers at each and every application. Thus, the trend is directing
towards computer based project works. However, in this project work the
basic signal processing of temperature, load current and input high voltage
parameters related to the distribution transformers are monitored with analog
electronics only. For measuring various parameters values, various
transducers are used and the output of these transducers are converted to
control the parameters. The control circuit is designed using micro-controller.
The outputs of all the three parameters are fed to the analog to digital
converter for converting the analog information in to the digital information
and this digital information is fed to micro-controller. The output of the
micro-controller is used to drive the digital display, so that the value of each
parameter can be displayed. In addition to the digital display micro-controller
outputs are also used to drive four relays independently. These relays
energize and de-energizes automatically according to the condition of the
parameter. Out of four relays one relay is treated as common relay and
energizes automatically whenever any parameter exceeds its present value.
This relay contact is used to break the supply to the transformer primary. The
remaining three relays are used for the three different parameters, to transmit
the information about the failured parameter. For example, if the load is
more than the rated load, then immediately the micro-controller energizes one
relay out of these three relays and this relay contact is used to provide supply
to the low frequency oscillator, which produces a perfect square wave of 1
KHz approximately. This low frequency is fed to transmitter as a modulating

4
 wave, which is super imposed over the carrier and transmitted as a
modulated wave. Likewise for other two parameters, two different low
frequencies are generated. The idea of generating three different low
frequencies is to identify the failured parameter and to transmit the failured
information.

In the receiver, the received information in the form of low frequency

as a modulated wave is demodulated, amplified and converted into
proportionate DC voltage using frequency to voltage converter. The output of
this F/V converter is again converted into digital pulses, which are essential
for the computer. Here the computer is used at receiving end, where the
receiver is installed; generally the receiving part of the system can be installed
at electrical office.

5
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

1.3 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

6
The detailed circuit description of the project work APPLICATION OF
“SCADA” FOR DISTIBUTION TRANSFORMER PROTECTION” is
explained in section wise. For better understanding the total circuit diagram is
divided into various sections and each section explanation along with circuit
diagram is provided in this chapter.

7
1.3.1 LOAD MONITORING CIRCUIT
The current transformer used in this project work is designed for
5Amps i.e., the current flowing through the primary is restricted for 5Amps.
But in practical a higher rating transformer can be used according to the rated
power of the distribution transformer. Most common industrial CT’s have 5 to
10 Amp current outputs and can generate high voltage levels when not
connected to a burden resistor.

The CT used in this project work is nothing but a step-up transformer.

This transformer is designed in 1:50 ratio, so that the voltage developed across
the secondary is 50 times more than the voltage induced at primary. The
voltage induced at primary is proportional to the load current. The CT
secondary when it is open circuited, the voltage developed across the open
terminals may be very high because of the step-up ratio, and therefore, the
secondary winding of the CT should always be connected to a burden resistor.
The secondary AC signal, which is proportional to the current flowing through
the primary, due to transformer action, is rectified with the help of a diode
(Half wave rectification) and then filtered by a filter capacitor. This DC
voltage is a variable voltage, which varies according to the load current. The
variable voltage from the CT secondary is fed to analog to digital converter
for converting the analog information into digital information. The output of
the A/D converter is fed to Micro-controller unit for taking the necessary
action. The current flowing through the CT primary can be measured, for this
purpose, digital display is provided at the output of the Micro-controller Chip.
The following is the circuit diagram of load sensing circuit.

8
9
 In the above circuit, with the help of a 470 resistor connected across the
CT secondary, the ripple can be suppressed and real value can be obtained at
the output of CT. This voltage can be adjusted to the required level, for this
purpose 2K variable resistor is used and the final output taken from midpoint
of the preset. Since it is a prototype module, in this project work for the
demonstration purpose, a small transformer of 230V secondary at 1amp rating
is considered, and it is treated as distribution transformer. This transformer
secondary is used to drive the lamp load through the current transformer
primary. For this purpose two No’s of 230V 200W, 100W AC lamps are used,
one lamp is treated as nominal load and the other one is used to create a fault
i.e., the transformer secondary is designed to drive only one amp load, if the
load is more than one amp then the transformer may burn because of over
load, to protect the transformer burning due to the over load, the output of the
load monitoring circuit is used to drive the relay through the A/D converter
and microcontroller. This relay contact is used to break the supply at the
primary side of the transformer. So that once the transformer is overloaded
automatically primary supply can be disconnected.

1.3.2 HIGH VOLTAGE MONITORING CIRCUIT

The Line voltage sensing circuit used in this project work is capable to
measure up to 250V AC. For this purpose a step down transformer of 6V-0-
6V, 500mA, Center tapped secondary is used for monitoring the line voltage
continuously. In the prototype module, the line voltage can be increased
through the autotransformer, the output of the line voltage sensing circuit is
fed to micro-controller unit through the A/D converter, so that according to
the received digital information form the ADC, the micro-controller energizes
relay. This relay contact is used to break the supply to the feeder cable.

10
 The output of the line voltage-sensing transformer is rectified and
filtered for obtaining pure DC voltage. The final output is taken from the
midpoint of 2K variable resistor (Preset), so that the voltage applied to the
A/D converter can be controlled. As the line voltage varies, according to that
output voltage also varies. This variable voltage from the potential
transformer (PT) is applied to the A/D converter. The applied voltage to the
ADC should not exceed more than 5V, so that the output voltage is clamped at
+5V DC, for this purpose, 1W, 5V zener is used. This circuit is designed such
that, the voltage applied to the transformer primary, if it is more than 245V
AC then immediately the microcontroller energizes the relay and breaks the
supply to the primary, by which the transformer can be protected burning due
to the over voltage. Since it is a prototype module, the output of the
transformer is restricted for lower voltages for the demonstration purpose, but
when it is implemented for the real time applications, at that time the output of
the distribution transformer will be around 220V AC, and with the help of this
kind of voltage control circuit, the household electrical gadgets like TV,
Fridge, Tube, Motor etc., can be protected burning due to the over voltage.
The following is the circuit diagram of the High voltage Sensing

1.3.3 TEMPERATURE SENSENING CIRCUIT

In this block, two op-amps are used to form two different stages. The
first stage is configured as differential amplifier and the second stage is
configured as gain amplifier. In the first stage an ‘NPN’ General purpose

11
transistor (SL100) is used as a temperature sensor and this transistor is having
‘TIN’ metal body so that it can absorb the heat properly. This transistor is
connected in feedback loop (input to output). This first stage is designed in
such a way so that, as the transistor body temperature rises, according to the
temperature, the base- emitter or base-collector junction resistance decreases.
This first stage is designed to generate 2mv/0C which is not sufficient for the
calibration. Hence, using 2nd stage this voltage is amplified, and the gain of
the 2nd stage is 10, so that (2x10) 20mv per degree centigrade can be obtained
at the output of the second stage. This variable voltage (according to the
temperature) from the output of second stage is fed to the analog to digital
converter for converting the analog information in to the digital information
and this digital information is fed to the microcontroller for taking the
necessary action.
The circuit design consists a basic transducer, which converts
temperature in to equalent voltage. For this, transistor ‘SL100’ is used as a
sensor. The transistor junction (Base & emitter or Base & collector)
characteristics are depends upon the temperature. For a transistor, the
maximum average power that it can dissipate is limited by the temperature
that collector - base junction can with stand. Therefore, maximum allowable
junction temperature should not be exceeded. The average power dissipated in
collector circuit is given by the average of the product of the collector current
and collector base voltage. At any other temperature the de-rating curves are
supplied by the manufacturer to calculate maximum allowable power (Pj).

(Pj) = Tj-Tc
Qj

Where TC is case temperature, Tj is junction temperature and Qj is the

thermal resistance.
The entire circuit design of the temperature sensing circuit is given
below. In the above circuit diagram with the help of 2K preset (variable
resistor) connected at the input of first stage, the initial room temperature

12
corresponding output voltage can be adjusted for the easy calibration. The
output of the second stage is clamped with 5V zener and the same output is
fed to the A/D converter.

For sensing the transformer body temperature, a sensor has to chosen

based on the following requirements.
1. Sensitivity and accuracy
2. Temperature Range
3. Desired life of Sensor
4. Budget
In the prototype module for the simulation purpose, ‘SL100’ NPN
Transistor is used as sensor because semiconductor Temperature sensor are
best suited for embedded applications as they tend to be electrically and
mechanically more delicate than other temperature sensor types.
In the present module, as the resistance property of the transistor cannot
be used directly for interfacing, this transistor is employed as a feedback
element.

1.3.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

13
 The outputs of the various parameters are fed to A/D converter. The
channel selection depends upon the address selection sent by the Micro-
controller. This ADC is having three address inputs to select one out of eight
channels of the ADC. This ADC 0809 is a successive approx. Analog to
digital converter and the clock rate at which the conversion is fed from the IC
555 timer configured as astable multi-vibrator. The digital output after
conversion is fed to Micro-controller
For ADC to start converting the data after selecting the channel by
sending the address inputs, the start conversion signal is to be sent by Micro-
controller. Then ADC starts converting the analog signals voltage into
corresponding digital data. For Ex: The following table shows the digital data
corresponding to analog input.

After conversion, the ADC generates EOC (End of conversion). This

indicates to Micro-controller that the conversions is completed and take the
digital data corresponding to analog input.
The following is Circuit diagram of A/D Converter along with its clock
generator

14
 In the above circuit diagram 555 timer IC is used for generating the
required clock pulses.

1.3.5 CLOCK GENERATOR:

The required clock for the ADC is generated using 555 Timer IC which
is configured as Astable multi-vibrator (Self Oscillator). In this mode of
operation the required frequency can be adjusted using two external
components i.e., resistor and capacitor. Keeping capacitor value constant
where as by varying the value of resistor the frequency can be adjusted from
1Hz to 500 KHz. Here the required frequency is 100 KHz approximately.
In the above circuit diagram 555 timer IC is used for generating the
required clock pulses. Frequency can be adjusted using variable resistor 100K
(Rb). In this circuit, the external capacitor charges through Ra+Rb and
discharges through Rb. Thus the duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of
these two resistors. In this mode of operation, the capacitor charges and

15
discharges between 1/3 VCC and 2/3 VCC. As in the triggered mode, the charge
and discharge times, and therefore the frequency are independent of the
supply voltage. Here the timing resistor is now split into two sections, RA and
RB, with the discharge transistor (Pin 7) connected to junction of Ra and Rb.
When the power supply is connected, the timing capacitor C charges towards
2/3 VCC through Ra and Rb. When the Capacitor voltage reaches 2/3 VCC, the
upper comparator triggers the flip-flop and the capacitor starts to discharge
towards ground through Rb. When the discharge reaches 1/3 VCC the lower
comparator is triggered and a new cycle is started. The capacitor is then
periodically charged and discharged between 2/3 VCC and 1/3 VCC
respectively. The output state is high during the charging cycle for a time
period t1, so that

The output state is LOW during the discharge cycle for a time period t2,
given by
t2 = 0.693 RbC
Thus, the total period charge and discharge is
T = t1 + t2
= 0.693 (Ra + 2Rb) C (Seconds)

1.3.6 DIGITAL DISPLAY

The following is the Circuit diagram of Digital Display Driven by the
micro-controller

16
 In the above circuit diagram, four common anode 7-Segment displays
are used for displaying the motor speed. The output of the Micro-controller is
fed to digital display through the latches, for this purpose IC 74573 is used,
this is a octal transparent D-type latches IC. To drive the displays
independently 547 transistors are used. A seven segment LED is a device for
display of numbers and letters. It contains seven LED bars, which can be
turned on by placing the appropriate signals on the appropriate pins.
In order to produce a specific number, we must light the correct
segments of the LED. For example, to display the number 3, we must light
segments a, b, c, d and g. By which we understand that the pattern of lit and
unlit segments can be formed into a binary number.

1.3.7 F.M TRANSMITTER:

The following is the circuit diagram

17
 In the above circuit design, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is
varied directly in accordance with the base band signal by means of a device
known as VCO (Voltage controlled oscillator) one way of implementing such
a device is to use a sinusoidal oscillatory having a relatively high – Q
frequency. Determining net work and to control the oscillator by symmetrical
incremental variation of the reactive components. Thus the tone signal
modulated at 100 MHz carrier.
To understand how radio wave are generated and radiated into space,
consider alternating currents of suitable frequency fed into conductor or wire
of suitable length called the antenna. Fast moving alternating currents produce
a moving electric field around the antenna. This field in turn produces a
magnetic field at right angles to it. This combination of electric and magnetic
fields constitutes the radio wave or electromagnetic wave which is a form of
radiant energy.
1.3.8 F.M RECEIVER
The FM receiver is located at the remote end. The first stage of this
remote end unit is the F.M. Radio Receiver, which is designed with Phillips
IC TEA 5591A. In the circuit diagram an LED indicator is connected at Pin
No.7 of 5591 IC, which glows brightly, if the receiver is tuned perfectly with
the transmitter.

18
 The F.M. receiver, which operates at 100 MHz, will have an
intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz and bandwidth of 200 KHz. This IC
consists of a built in RF amplification circuit. It matches the input impedance
of the antenna. This IC consists of F.M. Detector including amplifier of
modulated signal (RF amplification). Two sections of LC are provided and a
ceramic filter is used to filter the IF of 10.7 MHz the FM demodulator is
basically a frequency to amplitude converter, which converts the frequency
deviation of the incoming carrier into an AF (Audio frequency) amplitude
variation identical to that of modulating signal. In demodulation any change in
amplitude of the signal fed to the FM demodulator is a spurious signal.
Therefore it must be removed, if distortion is to be avoided. A limiter is a
form of clipping device. It is quite possible for the amplitude limiter to be
described to be inadequate to its task, because signal strength variations may
easily take average signal amplitude outside the limiting range. As a result,
further limiting is required. In practice, two amplitude limiters are used in
cascade. This arrangement increases the limiting range satisfactory. To ensure
that the signal fed to the limiter is within its range regardless of input signal
limiting range strength and also to prevent overloading of the amplifier, the
AGC (Automatic Gain Control) is used. Instead of designing a double limiter,
the better performance is obtained by using one limiter and AGC. The
frequency-modulated signal is fed to a tuned circuit whose resonant frequency
is to one side of the center frequency (CF) of the FM signal, the output of this
tuned circuit will have amplitude that depends on the frequency deviation of
the input signal. The following is the circuit diagram of F.M. Receiver.

19
1.3.9 SIGNAL AMPLIFIER
For maximum power output and impedance matching the audio
frequency driver transformer is used in the signal amplifier circuit. The design
equation of a driver transformer is
Ri = 1 Rl
n2
When n = Ratio of the transformer = N2
N1
Where N1 = Primary winding and N2 = Secondary winding. The following is
the circuit diagram of signal amplifier.

20
 The signal, which is detected by the receiver, is further amplified with
the help of above audio amplifier. In this circuit, the input capacitor 0.1 MF
permits complete input power to flow into the base circuit. It also blocks the
DC component to flow into the base circuit. The 330K resistor works as a
biasing resistor. The purpose of this biasing is as follows.
The operating point may then be suitably placed in this region by
proper selection or dc potentials and currents through use of external energy
sources. With a properly selected operating point, the time varying component
of the AC input signal. Say base current in common emitter amplifier, results
in output signal of the same waveform. An improperly selected operating
points results in an output signal, which differs in waveform from the input
signal, such an operative point is unsatisfactory and should be rejected. The
selection of suitable operating point is vital for linear amplification. The 100Ω
and 330KΩ forms as a input resistance of the transformer primary. For
securing maximum transfer of power from the amplifier to the load, the source
impedance should match with the input impedance of the amplifier transferred
to the primary of the transformer. Similarly for maximum transfer of power
from the amplifier to the load, the output impedance of the amplifier is
matched with the load impedance. To get large output the two secondary
signals are cascaded and output is taken for further processing. The output of
this signal amplifier is fed to the F/V converter.
21
1.3.10. FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER
The output of the signal amplifier is converted into DC voltage in
proportion to the tone frequency, with the help of phase locked loop IC 4046
and Multi-plexer IC 4053. The amplified signal is fed to the in signal (Pin
NO.14) of the device, which is the input of the phase comparator. The other
input of the phase comparator is fed from the internally generated voltage
controlled oscillator (VCO), whose frequency is set with the help of external
capacitor connected between Pin 6 and 7 here PLL is used for
synchronization. The output of the PLL is fed to the Multiplexer. The Signals
of the phase comparator – I and phase comparator – II are fed so that the
output is multi-plexed with the help of IC4053.The output of the F/V
converter is fed to the Analog to digital converter circuit for converting the
Analog information into digital pulses. The circuit design of phase locked
loop with multiplexer and its associated circuitry is shown below.

1.3.11 POWER SUPPLY

The required DC levels are derived from the mains supply for this
purpose a step-down transformer of 12V-0-12V center tapped secondary
transformer is used. The current rating of the transformer is 750 ma at
secondary. The secondary is rectified and filtered to generate 12V smooth DC
22
which is un-regulated voltage and which is required to drive the buzzer and
relay. With help of positive voltage regulators, a constant voltage source of
+5V and +9V are derived, for this purpose 7805 and 7809 3Pin Voltage
regulators are used so that, though the mains supply varies from 170V to
250V, the output DC levels remains constant. The following is the circuit
diagram of power supply.

CHAPTER – 2
2. DETAILS ABOUT WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

23
2.1. Model of a communication system:
The overall purpose of the communication system is to transfer
information from one point to in space and time, called the source to another
point, the user destination. As a rule, the message produced by a source is not
electrical. Hence an input transducer is required for converting the message to
a time varying electrical quantity called a message signal. At the destination
point another transducer converts the electrical waveform to the appropriate
message.
The information source and the destination point are usually separated
in space. The channel provides the electrical connection between the
information source and the user. The channel can have many different forms
such as a microwave radio link over free space a pair of wires, or an optical
fiber. Regardless of its type the channel degrades the transmitted single in a
number of ways. The degradation is a result of signal distortion due to
imperfect response of the channel and due to undesirable electrical signals
(noise) and interference. Noise and signal distortion are two basic problems of
electrical communication. The transmitter and the receiver in a
communication system are carefully designed to avoid signal distortion and
minimize the effects of noise at the receiver so that a faithful reproduction of
the message emitted by the source is possible.
The transmitter couples the input message signal to the channel. While
it may sometimes be possible to couple the input transducer directly to the
channel, it is often necessary to process and modify the input signal for
efficient transmission over the channel. Signal processing operations
performed by the transmitter include amplification, filtering, and modulation.
The most important of these operations is modulation a process designed to
match the properties of the transmitted signal to the channel through the use of
a carrier wave.
Modulation is the systematic variation of some attribute of a carrier
waveform such as the amplitude, phase, or frequency in accordance with a

24
function of the message signal. Despite the multitude of modulation
techniques, it is possible to identify two basic types of modulation: the
continuous carrier wave (CW) modulation and the pulse modulation. In
continuous wave (CW) carrier modulation the carrier waveform is continuous
(usually a sinusoidal waveform), and a parameter of the waveform is changed
in proportional to the message signal. In pulse modulation the carrier
waveform is a pulse waveform (often a rectangular pulse waveform), and a
parameter of the pulse waveform is changed in proportional to the message
signal. In both cases the carrier attribute can be changed in continuous or
discrete fashion. Discrete pulse (digital) modulation is a discrete process and
is best suited for messages that are discrete in nature such as the output of a
teletypewriter.
Modulation is used in communication systems for matching signal
characteristics to channel characteristics, for reducing noise and interference,
for simultaneously transmitting several signals over a single channel, and for
overcoming some equipment limitations. A considerable portion of this article
is devoted to the study of how modulation schemes are designed to achieve
the above tasks..
The main function of the receiver is extract the input message signal
from the degraded version of the transmitted signal coming from the channel.
The receiver performs this function through the process of demodulation, the
reverse of the transmitter’s modulation process. Because of the presence of
noise and other signal degradations, the receiver cannot recover the message
signal perfectly. In addition to demodulation, the receiver usually provides
amplification and filtering.
Based on the type of modulation scheme used and the nature of the
output of the information source, we can divide communication systems into
three categories:
1. Analog communication systems designed to transmit analog
information using analog modulation methods

25
 2. Digital communication systems designed for transmitting digital
information using digital modulation schemes and
3. Hybrid systems that use digital modulation schemes for transmitting
sampled and quantized values of an analog message signal.
Other ways of categorizing communication systems include the
classification based on the frequency of the carrier and the nature or the
communication channel
2.2. Communication Channel
The Communication channel provides the electrical connection between
the source and the destination. The channel may be a pair of wires or a
telephone link or free space over which the information bearing signal is
radiated. Due to physical limitations, communication channels have only
finite bandwidth (B HZ), and the information bearing signal often suffers
amplitude and phase distortion as it travels over the channel. In addition to the
distortion, the signal power also decreases due to the attenuation of the
channel. Furthermore, the signal is corrupted by unwanted, unpredictable
electrical signals referred to as noise. While some of the degrading effects of
the of the channel can be removed or compensated for, the effects of noise
cannot be completely removed. From this point of view, the primary objective
of a communication system design should be to suppress the bad effects of the
noise as much as possible.
One of the ways in which the effects of noise can be minimized is to
increase the signal power. However, signal power cannot be increased beyond
certain levels because of nonlinear effects that become dominant as the signal
amplitude is increased. For this reason the signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N),
which can be maintained at the output of a communication channel, is an
important parameter of the system. Other important parameters of the channel
are the usable bandwidth (B), amplitude an phase response, and the statistical
properties of the noise.

26
2.3. Modulator
The modulator accepts a bit stream as its input and converts it to an
electrical waveform suitable for transmission over the communication
channel. Modulation is one of the most powerful tools in the hands of a
communication systems designer. It can be effectively used to minimize the
effects of channel noise, to match the frequency spectrum of the transmitted
signal with channel characteristics, to provide the capability to multiplex
many signals, and to overcome some equipment limitations.
The important parameters of the modulator are the types of waveforms
used, the duration of the waveforms, the power level, and the bandwidth used.
The modulator accomplishes the task of minimizing the effects of channel
noise by the use of large signal power and bandwidth, and by the use of
waveforms that last for longer durations. While the use of increasingly large
amounts of signal power and bandwidth to combat the effects of noise is an
obvious method, these parameters cannot be increased indefinitely because of
equipment and channel limitations. The use of waveforms of longer time
duration to minimize the effects of channel noise is based on the well-known
statistical law of large numbers. The law of large numbers states that while
the outcome of a single random experiment may fluctuate wildly, the overall
result of many repetitions of a random experiment can be predicted accurately.
In data communications, this principle can be used to advantage by making
the duration of signaling waveforms long. By averaging over longer
durations of time, the effects of noise can be minimized.
To illustrate the above principle, assume that the input to the modulator
consists of 0’s and 1’s occurring at a rate of 1 bit/sec. The modulator can
assign waveforms once every second. Notice that the information contained in
the input bit is now contained in the frequency of the output waveform. To
employ waveforms of longer duration, the modulator can assign waveforms
once every four seconds. The number of distinct waveforms the modulator has
to generate (hence the number of waveforms the demodulator has to detect)
increases exponentially as the duration of the waveforms increases. This leads

27
to an increase in equipment complexity and hence the duration cannot be
increased indefinitely. The number of waveforms used in commercial digital
modulators available at the present time ranges from 2 to 16.

2.4. Demodulator
Modulation is a reversible process, and the demodulator accomplishes
the extraction of the message from the information bearing waveform
produced by the modulator. For a given type of modulation, the most
important parameter of the demodulator is the method of demodulation. There
are a variety of techniques available for demodulating a given modulated
waveform: the actual procedure used determines the equipment complexity
needed and the accuracy of demodulation. Given the type and duration of
waveforms used by the modulator, the power level at the modulator, he
physical and noise characteristics of the channel, and the type of
demodulation, we can derive unique relationship between data rate, power
bandwidth requirements, and the probability of incorrectly decoding a
message bit. A considerable portion of this text is devoted to the derivation of
these important relationships and their use in system design.

CHAPTER – 3
DETAILS ABOUT MICORCONTROLLER

3.1. DESCRIPTION
28
 The micro-controller is a chip, which has a computer processor with all
its support functions, memory (both program storage and RAM), and I/O built
in to the device. These built in functions minimize the need for external
circuits and devices to be designed in the final applications
Most micro-controllers do not require a substantial amount of time to
learn how to efficiently program them, although many of them have quirks
which you will have to understand before you attempt to develop your first
application.
Along with micro-controllers getting faster, smaller and more power
efficient they are also getting more and more features. Often, the first version
of microcontroller will just have memory and simple digital I/O, but as the
device family matures, more and more part numbers with varying features will
be available
With all the 8051 manufacturer’s products taken into account, there are
over two hundred different 8051 part numbers, each with different features
and capabilities. For most applications, we will be able to find a device within
the family that meets our specifications with a minimum of external devices,
or an external but which will make attaching external devices easier, both in
terms of wiring and programming.
For many micro-controllers, programmers can be built very cheaply, or
even built in to the final application circuit eliminating the need for a separate
circuit. Also simplifying this requirement is the availability of micro-
controllers with SRAM and EEPROM for control store, which will allow
program development without having to remove the micro-controller from the
application circuit.

3.2. CHIP TECHNOLOGIES

Microcontrollers, like all other electronic products, are growing smaller,
running faster, requiring less power, and are cheaper. This is primarily due to
improvements in the manufacturing process and technologies used (and not

29
the adoption of different computer architectures). Virtually all
microcontrollers built today use CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor) logic technology to provide the computing functions and
electronic interfaces. CMOS is a push-pull technology in which a PMOS and
NMOS transistor are paired together. The following is the circuit diagram of
push-pull configuration

When the input signal is low, the PMOS transistor will be conducting
and the NMOS transistor will be ‘off’. This means that the switch (or
transistor) at Vcc will be ‘ON’, providing Vcc at the signal out. If a high
voltage is input to the gate, then the PMOS transistor will be turned off and
the NMOS transistor will be turned on, pulling the output line to ground.
During a state transition, a very small amount of current will flow through the
transistors. As the frequency of operation increases, current will flow more
often in a given period of time (put another way, the charge transferred per
unit time, which is defined as “current”, will increase). This increased current
flow will result in increased power consumption by the device. Therefore, a
CMOS device should be driven at the slowest possible speed, to minimize
power consumption.

30
 An important point with all logic families is understanding the
switching point of the input signal. For CMOS devices, this is typically
1.4Volts to one half of Vcc. However, it can be at different levels for different
devices. Before using any device, it is important to understand what the input
threshold level is. CMOS can interface directly with most positive logic
technologies, although we must be careful of low voltage logic, to make sure
that a high can be differentiated from a low in all circumstances.

3.3. DESCRIPTION 89C51 Micro controller IC

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit
microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only
memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density
nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard
MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program
memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile
memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a
monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which
provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded
control applications.
The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4Kbytes of
Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, five vector
two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and
clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for
operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power
saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning.
The Power-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
3.4. Features

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• 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory– Endurance 1,000
Write/Erase Cycles
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
• Three-level Program Memory Lock
• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 32 Programmable I/O Lines
• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Six Interrupt Sources
• Programmable Serial Channel
• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

3.5. Pin diagram

32
3.6. BLOCK DIAGRAM

33
3.7. Pin Description
34
VCC
Supply voltage.
GND
Ground.
Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port,
each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the
pins can be used as high impedance inputs.
Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order
address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this
mode P0 has internal pull ups.
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and
outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are
required during program verification.
Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port
1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs.
As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
(IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.
Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash
programming and verification.
Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port
2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs.
As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
(IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.
Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during accesses to external data memories that use 16-
bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal

35
pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses
8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special
Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals
during Flash programming and verification.
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups The Port
3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs.
As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
(IIL) because of the pull-ups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the
AT89C51 as listed below:
Port Pin Alternate Functions
P3.0 RXD (serial input port)
P3.1 TXD (serial output port)
P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)
P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)
P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe)
P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and
verification.
RST

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 Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the
oscillator is running resets the device.
ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program
pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the
oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking
purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to
external Data Memory.
If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR
location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC
instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable
bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory.
When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory,
PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN
activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
EA/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to
enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations
starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is
programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.
This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP)
during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP.

37
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.
XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Oscillator Characteristics
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an
inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator,
as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be
used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be
left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2.There are no
requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to
the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but
minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be
observed.
Idle Mode
In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip
peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of
the on-chip RAM and all the special functions registers remain unchanged
during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or
by a hardware reset.
It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hard ware reset, the
device normally resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two
machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip
hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port
pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a
port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that
invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external memory.
Figure 1. Oscillator Connections

38
Note: C1, C2 = 30 pF ± 10 pF for Crystals
= 40 pF ± 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators
Figure 2. External Clock Drive Configuration

39
CHAPTER-4

4.1 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH LIST OF

COMPONENTS

40
41
4.2 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

Advantages:

 Can avoid cable intervention.

 Can avoid manual intervention.
 Can send the data from one place to other place by minor
modifications.
 Can monitor the system and the signal from remote
places through some modifications.

Applications:
 In substations.

 In corporate and government power generation plants.

 In supervisory and control applications.

 In industrial monitoring stations.

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 CONCLUSION

 This project titled “SCADA IMPLEMENTED OVER POWER

TRANSFORMER WITH REMOTE MONITORING SYSTEM” is a
simulation model, by using Microcontroller ATMEL 89C51.

 The Distribution Transformers failures are effectively

protected against overload, over temperature and over voltage.

 The parameters of the transformer are continuously monitored

and transmitted to the nearest nearest electrical office for the
necessary actions.

 Wireless communication systems are used for transmitting and

receiving the data from the transformer and the nearest
electrical office by using RF communication.

 In this project the over voltage, temperature and over load are
monitored in signal system. The project is fully automated and
require no manual interface.

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 REFERENCES

Text Books:
(1) Linear Integrated Circuits –By: D. Roy Choudhury, Shail Jain

(2) Power Electronics - By: SEN

(3) Relays and their applications - By: M.C.SHARMA

(4) Op-Amps Hand Book - By: MALVIND

(5) Mechanical and Industrial Measurements - By: R.K. Jain

(6) Computer Controlled System - By: Karl J.ASTROM

(7) Programming and Customizing the 8051 Micro-controller

- By: Myke Predko

(8) The concepts and Features of Micro-controllers - By: Raj Kamal

(9) C++ an Introduction to Programming -

By: JESSE LIBERTY. JIM KEOGH
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45