2.

31 Transport systems in animals use blood as the

transport medium
The circulatory system is a system of tubes with a pump and valves to ensure one way flow of
blood. It has 4 parts:
1.
2.
3.
4.

A medium (a fluid that carries materials around the body, blood)

A system of tubes (carries the fluid from place to place, arteries and veins)
A pump (supplies pressure to keep the fluid moving through these tubes, heart)
Sites of exchange (allow material to enter the blood and tissues when needed,
capillaries)
Red blood cells are pink and
have purple stained nuclei of

white blood cells

different shapes

Red blood cells:

Transport oxygen from cells to
respiring tissues
Prepare CO2 for transport from
all respiring tissues to lungs

Phagocytes
Remove
(engulf) any
microorganis
m that invade
the body and
might cause
infection

Irregular shaped nucleus allows cells to squeeze

through narrow gaps in capillaries. Cytoplasm
contains enzymes, to digest microorganism once
engulfed
Sensitive cell surface membrane to detect
microorganisms

Lymphocytes
Produce antibodies (proteins
that help in the defence
against disease)

Large nucleus containing many copies of

genes for the control of antibody protein
production

Contains ha
containing p
up oxygen a
at the tissue
No nucleus
haemoglobin
Small flexibl
through cap

Platelets
Cell fragments for
blood clotting

Can release
blood clotting
enzymes

Plasma
Transport of blood cells, ions,
soluble nutrients, hormones,
carbon dioxide, urea and
plasma proteins

Largely water. As water has a high

specific heat capacity, it can
distribute heat around the body

Function of the blood

Regulatory functions:

The blood solute level regulates the movement of water between blood and tissues
Water (plasma) plays an important role in distributing heat
Blood also helps maintain an optimum pH in the tissues

Protective functions:

Platelets, proteins etc. protect against blood loss and entry of pathogens by the clotting
mechanism
Also protect the body against disease causing germs phagocytes engulf them and
lymphocytes produce and secrete antibodies against them

Transport functions:

Soluble product of digestion/ absorption are transported

Waste products of metabolism
Respiratory gases
Hormones

Support functions:

Erection of the penis

2.32 Combating infection: blood and defence against

diseases
Exposure to air, torn capillaries, damaged platelets enzymes are released. Fibrinogen ( and
inactive blood protein) turns into Fibrin (an activated blood protein) formin a mesh of fibres
which traps red blood cells. When this dries it form a scab which closes the wound and prevents
the entry of pathogens.
Sometimes phagocytes die as they accumulate the toxins from the pathogens. The pus
underneath a scab contains many of these dead phagocytes.
Some pathogens escape the phogocytes by:

Hiding inside the hosts cells

Staying in phagocyte free areas

2.33 Antibodies and immune responses

After an infection, some lymphocytes are kept as memory cells, which help the body to defend
itself against further attacks by the same antigen. This memory last for years and the body is
said to be immune to the disease.
An antibody is a protein produces by the body in response to an antigen. Antibodies are made
by lyphocytes.
Antibodies are:

Proteins produced by lyphocytes

Able to recognise, bind to and help to destroy pathogens
Always y shaped

An antigen is:

A protein or carbohydrate on the surface of the pathogen

Able to provoke the immune system of the host

Immunity:
1. Active: individual makes his or her own antibodies

Natural (individual contracts disease but survives. Body makes antibodies and is
now immune to further infection by the same pathogen. E.g. Immunity develops
to different strains of cold)
Artificial (vaccine does not cause a disease but lymphocytes produce antibodies
so that the individual is now immune to this pathogen)

2. Passive: individual is given ready made antibodies

Natural (mothers antibodies cross the placenta and are in breast milk- new born
babies are temporarily immune to pathogens for which mother produced
antibodies)
Artificial (antibodies collected from blood of laboratory animal and stored as
serum injection. Adult is now immune to disease. This offers only a temporary
immunity since the body is not producing any of its own antibodies)

The activity of the immune system can sometimes reduce the likelihood of survival:
1. Autoimmune disease:
Are caused by the body producing antibodies which destroy its own cells. Some
examples:
Diabetes (the body destroys its own insulin-producing cells by an immune
reaction)
Rheumatoid arthritis (white blood cells destroy connective tissues in joints and
make movement extremely painful
2. Allergies are conditions in which the body becomes sensitive to a substance and over
reacts to it. This may cause swelling and tissue damage. E.g. fever and sensitivity to a
bee and wasp sting. Allergies are treated with drugs to reduce the immune response.
3. Transplant rejection: the recipients lymphocytes may recognize antigens on the surface
of the donor organ as foreign and will start destroying it slowly. This problem can be
overcome by:
Drugs that supress the immune system of the recipient long enough to allow the
transplanted organ to become established
Matching tissues wherever possible relatives

2.34 The circulatory system

The circulatory system is a system of tubes with a pump and valves to ensure one way flow of
blood.

Arteries carry blood to the heart.

Veins carry blood away from heart.
Capillaries join both together

The main artery in humans is called the Aorta and the

main vein is called vena cava.
The movement of blood in humans is double circulation,
because the blood passes the heart twice for each
complete circuit of the body.
Arteries
Carries blood away from heart
High pressure
Usually rich in oxygen and low in CO2
(except the pulmonary artery)
Elastic wall expand and relax as blood
is forced out of heart pulse
Thick walls withstand high pressure of
blood
Rings of muscle control the blood flow

Veins
Carries blood from tissues to heart
Low pressure
Low in oxygen, high in CO2 (except in
pulmonary vein)
Valves present prevent back flow of
blood
Blood is at a lower pressure, so
nearby muscles squeeze blood back
to heart
Large diameter and thin walls reduce
resistance to the flow of blood

2.35 Capillaries: materials are exchanged between blood

and tissues and tissue fluid is formed
Adaptations of capillaries:

Walls are only one cell thick

Highly branched, so they cover an enormous area
The capillary bed is constantly supplied with fresh blood, keeping up the concentration
gradients of dissolved substances between blood and tissues. Without these diffusion
would not occur

1. Artery delivers oxygenated blood, which is rich in nutrients. Continuous supply of blood
keeps up the concentration gradient between the blood plasma and the tissue fluid.
2. Then it passes to the cells of tissues, which need oxygen and nutrients. Wastes such as
carbon dioxide and hormones are produced
3. The veins then carries away the deoxygenated blood, low in nutrients and filled with
waste products
4. The tissue fluid is formed, which is the useful substances moved out of the plasma
Problems with the return of tissue fluid: The tissue fluid is essential for the transport of dissolved
substances between blood and cells. If the blood plasma has a high water potential (the
concentration of solutes such as glucose and plasma protein is too low), water cannot return
quickly enough. So the tissues swell up with fluid. If the body is short of plasma proteins as in a
malnourished child with kwashiorkor, the body swells up.

2.36 The heart is the pump for the circulatory system

Right
Left
Pulmonary artery (carry deoxygenated blood
Pulmonary vein (returns oxygenated blood
to the lungs)
from the lungs)
Vena cava (the main vein of the body, returns Aorta (main artery of the body, carries
deoxygenated blood from the head and lower oxygenated blood out to the tissues. Blood
body to the right atrium)
pressure very high, strongest pulse)
Semilunar valves (to prevent blood running back into the ventricles when the pressure falls
during relaxation)
Right atrium (receives deoxygenated blood
Left atrium (receives oxygenated blood from
from the vena cava)
the lungs, via the pulmonary vein)
Tricuspid valve (prevent blood flowing back
Bicuspid valve (when this valve closes and
from ventricle to atrium during contraction)
the ventricle contracts blood is force out
through the aorta)
Right ventricle
Left ventricle
Tendons (tightened to make sure that the valve does not turn inside out when the ventricle
valve contracts)
Septum
(wall between both side of heart)

Atriums receive blood at low pressure.

Ventricles receive blood at high pressure

Main veins and arteries in the body:

Arteries
Pulmonary artery (carries deoxygenated blood
from heart to lungs)
Aorta (supplies oxygenated blood to the
organs and tissues of the body from the heart)
Hepatic artery (carries oxygenated blood to
liver)

Veins
Pulmonary vein (carries oxygenated blood
from lungs to heart)
Vena cava (returns deoxygenated blood
from organs and tissues to the heart)
Hepatic vein (returns blood with a regulated,
optimum concentration of food substances

to the circulation from the vein)

Hepatic portal vein (carries blood containing
variable amounts of the absorbed products
of digestion from the digestive system
{small intestine} into liver)
Renal artery (carries oxygenated blood with a
Renal vein (blood with reduced urea
high concentration of urea to the kidneys)
concentration returned to the circulation
from the kidneys)
Capillaries (link arteries and veins. Present in all organs and tissues and is the site of
exchange of materials between blood and tissue fluid)

2.38 Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease is caused due to a blockage in the coronary arteries. It is caused by:
1. Poor diet: high levels of cholesterol or by saturated fatty acids in the blood
2. Poor lifestyle: smocking, lack of exercise, stress
3. Genetic factors: being male, having a family history of heart disease
Preventive measures:

Take half an aspirin everyday (to stop small clots from forming)
Drinking a small quantity of alcohol (red wine)
Carrying an angiogram (gives a picture of the state of these arteries)
Carry out a coronary artery bypass
Dont smoke

Avoid fatty foods

Take regular aerobic exercises