Chapter 3: Intel 8086

Chapter 3 : Intel 8086

3.1 Feature of 8086 Microprocessor
3.2 Internal Architecture of 8086
3.3 Internal Registers of 8086
3.4 Signal Description of 8086
3.5 General Bus Operation Cycle
3.6 Minimum Mode 8086 System
3.7 Maximum Mode of 8086 System
3.8 Minimum Mode Interface
3.9 Maximum Mode Interface
3.10 Addressing Modes
3.11 Memory organization
3.12 I/O Addressing
3.13 Interrupts and Exceptions
3.14 Instruction Sets of 8086
3.15 Procedure and Macros
3.16 Assembler directives
3.17 Programming language
3.18 Coprocessor 8087

3.1 Feature of 8086 Microprocessor
 It is a 16-bit μp.
 8086 has a 20 bit address bus can access up to 220 memory locations (1 MB) .
 It can support up to 64K I/O ports.
 It provides 14, 16 -bit registers.
 It has multiplexed address and data bus AD0- AD15 and A16 – A19.
 It requires single phase clock with 33% duty cycle to provide internal timing.
 8086 is designed to operate in two modes, Minimum and Maximum.
 It can prefetches upto 6 instruction bytes from memory and queues them in order
to speed up instruction execution.
 It requires +5V power supply.
 A 40 pin dual in line package
3.1.1 Minimum and Maximum Modes:
The minimum mode is selected by applying logic 1 to the MN / MX# input pin.
This is single microprocessor configuration. The maximum mode is selected by
applying logic 0 to the MN / MX# input pin. This is
a multi micro processors configuration.
3.2 Internal Architecture of 8086

8086 has two blocks BIU and EU. The BIU performs all bus operations such as
instruction fetching, reading and writing operands for memory and calculating the
addresses of the memory operands. The instruction bytes are transferred to the instruction
queue. EU executes instructions from the instruction system byte queue. Both units
operate asynchronously to give the 8086 an overlapping instruction fetch and execution
mechanism which is called as Pipelining. This results in efficient use of the system bus
and system performance. BIU contains Instruction queue, Segment registers, Instruction
pointer, Address adder. EU contains Control circuitry, Instruction decoder, ALU,

Pointer , Index register and Flag register.
3.2.1 Bus Interfacr Unit:
It provides a full 16 bit bidirectional data bus and 20 bit address bus. The bus
interface unit is responsible for performing all external bus operations.
Instruction fetch, Instruction queuing, Operand fetch and storage, Address
relocation and Bus control. The BIU uses a mechanism known as an instruction stream
queue to implement a pipeline architecture. This queue permits prefetch of up to six bytes
of instruction code. When ever the queue of the BIU is not full, it has room for at least
two more bytes and at the same time the EU is not requesting it to read or write operands
from memory, the BIU is free to look ahead in the program by prefetching the next
sequential instruction. These prefetching instructions are held in its FIFO queue. With its
16 bit data bus, the BIU fetches two instruction bytes in a single memory cycle. After a
byte is loaded at the input end of the queue, it automatically shifts up through the FIFO to
the empty location nearest the output.
The EU accesses the queue from the output end. It reads one instruction byte after
the other from the output of the queue. If the queue is full and the EU is not requesting
access to operand in memory. These intervals of no bus activity, which may occur
between bus cycles are known as Idle state. If the BIU is already in the process of
fetching an instruction when the EU request it to read or write operands from memory or
I/O, the BIU first completes the instruction fetch bus cycle before initiating the operand
read / write cycle. The BIU also contains a dedicated adder which is used to generate the
20bit physical address that is output on the address bus. This address is formed by adding
an appended 16 bit segment address and a 16 bit offset address. For example: The
physical address of the next instruction to be fetched is formed by combining the current
contents of the code segment CS register and the current contents of the instruction
pointer IP register. The BIU is also responsible for generating bus control signals such as
those for memory read or write and I/O read or write.
3.2.2 Execution Unit
The Execution unit is responsible for decoding and executing all instructions. The
EU extracts instructions from the top of the queue in the BIU, decodes them, generates
operands if necessary, passes them to the BIU and requests it to perform the read or write
bys cycles to memory or I/O and perform the operation specified by the instruction on the
operands. During the execution of the instruction, the EU tests the status and control flags
and updates them based on the results of executing the instruction. If the queue is empty,
the EU waits for the next instruction byte to be fetched and shifted to top of the queue.
When the EU executes a branch or jump instruction, it transfers control to a location
corresponding to another set of sequential instructions. Whenever this happens, the BIU
automatically resets the queue and then begins to fetch instructions from this new
location to refill the queue.
Figure 1 : Block Diagram of 8086

3.3 Internal Registers of 8086
The 8086 has four groups of the user accessible internal registers. They are the
instruction pointer, four data registers, four pointer and index register, four segment
registers The 8086 has a total of fourteen 16-bit registers including a 16
bit register called the status register, with 9 of bits implemented for
status and control flags. Most of the registers contain data/instruction
offsets within 64 KB memory segment. There are four different 64 KB

segments for instructions, stack, data and extra data. To specify where
in 1 MB of processor memory these 4 segments are located the
processor uses four segment registers:
3.3.1 Code segment (CS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64
KB segment with processor instructions. The processor uses CS
segment for all accesses to instructions referenced by instruction
pointer (IP) register. CS register cannot be changed directly. The CS
register is automatically updated during far jump, far call and far
return instructions.
3.3.2 Stack segment (SS) is a 16-bit register containing address of
64KB segment with program stack. By default, the processor assumes
that all data referenced by the stack pointer (SP) and base pointer (BP)
registers is located in the stack segment. SS register can be changed
directly using POP instruction.
3.3.3 Data segment (DS) is a 16-bit register containing address of
64KB segment with program data. By default, the processor assumes
that all data referenced by general registers (AX, BX, CX, DX) and
index register (SI, DI) is located in the data segment. DS register can
be changed directly using POP and LDS instructions.
3.3.4 Accumulator register consists of two 8-bit registers AL and AH,
which can be combined together and used as a 16-bit register AX. AL
in this case contains the low order byte of the word, and AH contains
the high-order byte. Accumulator can be used for I/O operations and
string manipulation.
3.3.5 Base register consists of two 8-bit registers BL and BH, which
can be combined together and used as a 16-bit register BX. BL in this
case contains the low-order byte of the word, and BH contains the
high-order byte. BX register usually contains a data pointer used for
based, based indexed or register indirect addressing.
3.3.6 Count register consists of two 8-bit registers CL and CH, which
can be combined together and used as a 16-bit register CX. When
combined, CL register contains the low order byte of the word, and CH
contains the high-order byte. Count register can be used in Loop,
shift/rotate instructions and as a counter in string manipulation,.
3.3.7 Data register consists of two 8-bit registers DL and DH, which
can be combined together and used as a 16-bit register DX. When
combined, DL register contains the low order byte of the word, and DH
contains the high-order byte. Data register can be used as a port
number in I/O operations. In integer 32-bit multiply and divide
instruction the DX register contains high-order word of the initial or
resulting number.
The following registers are both general and index registers:
3.3.8 Stack Pointer (SP) is a 16-bit register pointing to program
stack.
3.3.9 Base Pointer (BP) is a 16-bit register pointing to data in stack
segment. BP register is usually used for based, based indexed or
register indirect addressing.
3.3.10 Source Index (SI) is a 16-bit register. SI is used for indexed,
based indexed and register indirect addressing, as well as a source
data address in string manipulation instructions.
3.3.11 Destination Index (DI) is a 16-bit register. DI is used for
indexed, based indexed and register indirect addressing, as well as a
destination data address in string manipulation instructions.
Other registers:
3.3.12 Instruction Pointer (IP) is a 16-bit register.
3.3.13 Flags is a 16-bit register containing 9 one bit flags.
3.3.13.1 Overflow Flag (OF) - set if the result is too large positive
number, or is too small negative number to fit into destination
operand.
3.3.13.2 Direction Flag (DF) - if set then string manipulation

instructions will auto-decrement index registers. If cleared then the
index registers will be auto-incremented.
3.3.13.3 Interrupt-enable Flag (IF) - setting this bit enables
maskable interrupts.
3.3.13.4 Single-step Flag (TF) - if set then single-step interrupt will
occur after the next instruction.
3.3.13.5 Sign Flag (SF) - set if the most significant bit of the result is
set.
3.3.13.6 Zero Flag (ZF) - set if the result is zero.
3.3.13.7 Auxiliary carry Flag (AF) - set if there was a carry from or
borrow to bits 0-3 in the AL register.
3.3.13.8 Parity Flag (PF) - set if parity (the number of "1" bits) in the
low-order byte of the result is even.
3.3.13.9 Carry Flag (CF) - set if there was a carry from or borrow to
the most significant bit during last result calculation.
Figure 2 : Internal Registers of 8086

Figure 3 : Flag register of 8086

3.4 Signal Description of 8086
The Microprocessor 8086 is a 16-bit CPU available in different clock rates and
packaged in a 40 pin CERDIP or plastic package. The 8086 operates in single processor
or multiprocessor configuration to achieve high performance. The pins serve a particular
function in minimum mode (single processor mode ) and other function in maximum
mode configuration (multiprocessor mode ).The 8086 signals can be categorized in three
groups. The first are the signal having common functions in minimum as well as
maximum mode. The second are the signals which have special functions for minimum
mode and third are the signals having special functions for maximum mode. The
following signal descriptions are common for both modes.
AD15-AD0 : These are the time multiplexed memory I/O address and data lines.
Address remains on the lines during T1 state, while the data is available on the data bus
during T2, T3, Tw and T4. These lines are active high and float to a tristate during
interrupt acknowledge and local bus hold acknowledge cycles.
A19/S6,A18/S5,A17/S4,A16/S3 : These are the time multiplexed address and status lines.
During T1 these are the most significant address lines for memory operations. During I/O
operations, these lines are low. During memory or I/O operations, status information is
available on those lines for T2,T3,Tw and T4. The status of the interrupt enable flag bit is
updated at the beginning of each clock cycle. The S4 and S3 combined indicate which
segment register is presently being used for memory accesses . These lines float to tri-
state off during the local bus hold acknowledge. The status line S6 is always low . The
address bit are separated from the status bit using latches controlled by the ALE signal.
S4 S3 Indication
0 0 Alternate Data
0 1 Stack
1 0 Code or none
1 1 Data
BHE/S7 : The bus high enable is used to indicate the transfer of data over the higher
order ( D15-D8 ) data bus as shown in table. It goes low for the data transfer over D15-
D8 and is used to derive chip selects of odd address memory bank or peripherals. BHE is
low during T1 for read, write and interrupt acknowledge cycles, whenever a byte is to be
transferred on higher byte of data bus. The status information is available during T2, T3
and T4. The signal is active low and tristated during hold. It is low during T1 for the first
pulse of the interrupt acknowledge cycle.
0 0 Whole word
0 1 Upper byte from or to even address
1 0 Lower byte from or to even address
RD – Read : This signal on low indicates the peripheral that the processor is performing
memory or I/O read operation. RD is active low and shows the state for T2, T3, Tw of
any read cycle. The signal remains tristated during the hold acknowledge.
READY : This is the acknowledgement from the slow device or memory that they have
completed the data transfer. The signal made available by the devices is synchronized by
the 8284A clock generator to provide ready input to the 8086. the signal is active high.
INTR-Interrupt Request : This is a triggered input. This is sampled during the last
clock cycles of each instruction to determine the availability of the request. If any
interrupt request is pending, the processor enters the interrupt acknowledge cycle. This
can be internally masked by resulting the interrupt enable flag. This signal is active high
and internally synchronized.
TEST : This input is examined by a ‘WAIT’ instruction. If the TEST pin goes low,
execution will continue, else the processor remains in an idle state. The input is
synchronized internally during each clock cycle on leading edge of clock.
CLK- Clock Input : The clock input provides the basic timing for processor operation
and bus control activity. Its an asymmetric square wave with 33% duty cycle.
MN/MX : The logic level at this pin decides whether the processor is to operate in either
minimum or maximum mode. The following pin functions are for the minimum mode
operation of 8086.
M / IO – Memory/IO : This is a status line logically equivalent to S2 in maximum mode.
When it is low, it indicates the CPU is having an I/O operation, and when it is high, it
indicates that the CPU is having a memory operation. This line becomes active high in
the previous T4 and remains active till final T4 of the current cycle. It is tristated during
local bus “hold acknowledge “.
INTA – Interrupt Acknowledge : This signal is used as a read strobe for interrupt
acknowledge cycles. i.e. when it goes low, the processor has accepted the interrupt.
ALE – Address Latch Enable : This output signal indicates the availability of the valid
address on the address/data lines, and is connected to latch enable input of latches. This
signal is active high and is never tristated.
DT/R – Data Transmit/Receive: This output is used to decide the direction of data flow
through the transreceivers (bidirectional buffers). When the processor sends out data, this
signal is high and when the processor is receiving data, this signal is low.
DEN – Data Enable : This signal indicates the availability of valid data over the
address/data lines. It is used to enable the transreceivers ( bidirectional buffers ) to
separate the data from the multiplexed address/data signal. It is active from the middle of
T2 until the middle of T4. This is tristated during ‘ hold acknowledge’ cycle.
HOLD, HLDA- Acknowledge : When the HOLD line goes high, it indicates to the
processor that another master is requesting the bus access. The processor, after receiving
the HOLD request, issues the hold acknowledge signal on HLDA pin, in the middle of
the next clock cycle after completing the current bus cycle. At the same time, the
processor floats the local bus and control lines. When the processor detects the HOLD
line low, it lowers the HLDA signal. HOLD is an asynchronous input, and is should be
externally synchronized. If the DMA request is made while the CPU is performing a
memory or I/O cycle, it will release the local bus during T4 provided :
1. The request occurs on or before T2 state of the current cycle.
2. The current cycle is not operating over the lower byte of a word.
3. The current cycle is not the first acknowledge of an interrupt acknowledge
sequence.
4. A Lock instruction is not being executed.
The following pin function are applicable for maximum mode operation of 8086.
S2, S1, S0 – Status Lines : These are the status lines which reflect the type of operation,
being carried out by the processor. These become activity during T4 of the previous cycle
and active during T1 and T2 of the current bus cycles.
S2 S1 S0 Indication
0 0 0 Interrupt Acknowledge
0 0 1 Read I/O port
0 1 0 Write I/O port
0 1 1 Halt
1 0 0 Code Access
1 0 1 Read memory
1 1 0 Write memory
1 1 1 Passive
LOCK : This output pin indicates that other system bus master will be prevented from
gaining the system bus, while the LOCK signal is low. The LOCK signal is activated by
the ‘LOCK’ prefix instruction and remains active until the completion of the next
instruction. When the CPU is executing a critical instruction which requires the system
bus, the LOCK prefix instruction ensures that other processors connected in the system
will not gain the control of the bus. The 8086, while executing the prefixed instruction,
asserts the bus lock signal output, which may be connected to an external bus controller.
By prefetching the instruction, there is a considerable speeding up in instruction
execution in 8086. This is known as instruction pipelining.
At the starting the CS:IP is loaded with the required address from which the
execution is to be started. Initially, the queue will be empty an the microprocessor starts a
fetch operation to bring one byte (the first byte) of instruction code, if the CS:IP address
is odd or two bytes at a time, if the CS:IP address is even. The first byte is a complete
opcode in case of some instruction (one byte opcode instruction) and is a part of opcode,
in case of some instructions ( two byte opcode instructions), the remaining part of code
lie in second byte. The second byte is then decoded in continuation with the first byte to
decide the instruction length and the number of subsequent bytes to be treated as
instruction data. The queue is updated after every byte is read from the queue but the
fetch cycle is initiated by BIU only if at least two bytes of the queue are empty and the
EU may be concurrently executing the fetched instructions. The next byte after the
instruction is completed is again the first opcode byte of the next instruction. A similar
procedure is repeated till the complete execution of the program.
The fetch operation of the next instruction is overlapped with the execution of the
current instruction. As in the architecture, there are two separate units, namely Execution
unit and Bus interface unit. While the execution unit is busy in executing an instruction,
after it is completely decoded, the bus interface unit may be fetching the bytes of the next
instruction from memory, depending upon the queue status.
QS1 QS0 Indication
0 0 No operation
0 1 First byte of opcode from the Queue
1 0 Empty queue
1 1 Subsequent byte from the
queue
RQ/GT0, RQ/GT1 – Request/Grant : These pins are used by the other local bus master
in maximum mode, to force the processor to release the local bus at the end of the
processor current bus cycle. Each of the pin is bidirectional with RQ/GT0 having higher
priority than RQ/GT1.
RQ/GT pins have internal pull-up resistors and may be left unconnected. Request/Grant
sequence is as follows:
1. A pulse of one clock wide from another bus master requests the bus access to 8086.
2. During T4(current) or T1(next) clock cycle, a pulse one clock wide from 8086 to the
requesting master, indicates that the 8086 has allowed the local bus to float and that it
will enter the ‘hold acknowledge’ state at next cycle. The CPU bus interface unit is
likely to be disconnected from the local bus of the system.
3. A one clock wide pulse from the another master indicates to the 8086 that the hold
request is about to end and the 8086 may regain control of the local bus at the next
clock cycle. Thus each master to master exchange of the local bus is a sequence of 3
pulses. There must be at least one dead clock cycle after each bus exchange.
The request and grant pulses are active low. For the bus request those are received
while 8086 is performing memory or I/O cycle, the granting of the bus is governed by the
rules as in case of HOLD and HLDA in minimum mode.
Figure 4 : Pin Diagram of 8086

Figure 5 : Signal Groups of 8086

3.5 General Bus Operation Cycle
The 8086 has a combined address and data bus commonly referred as a time
multiplexed address and data bus. The main reason behind multiplexing address and data
over the same pins is the maximum utilization of processor pins and it facilitates the use
of 40 pin standard DIP package. The bus can be demultiplexed using a few latches and
transreceivers, when ever required. Basically, all the processor bus cycles consist of at
least four clock cycles. These are referred to as T1, T2, T3, T4. The address is transmitted
by the processor during T1. It is present on the bus only for one cycle. The negative edge
of this ALE pulse is used to separate the address and the data or status information. In
maximum mode, the status lines S0, S1 and S2 are used to indicate the type of operation.
Status bits S3 to S7 are multiplexed with higher order address bits and the BHE signal.
Address is valid during T1 while status bits S3 to S7 are valid during T2 through T4.
Figure 6 : General Bus Operation Cycle
3.6 Minimum Mode of 8086 System

In a minimum mode 8086 system, the microprocessor 8086 is operated in
minimum mode by strapping its MN/MX pin to logic 1. In this mode, all the control
signals are given out by the microprocessor chip itself. There is a single microprocessor
in the minimum mode system. The remaining components in the system are latches,
transreceivers, clock generator, memory and I/O devices. Some type of chip selection
logic may be required for selecting memory or I/O devices, depending upon the address
map of the system. Latches are generally buffered output D-type flip-flops like 74LS373
or 8282. They are used for separating the valid address from the multiplexed address/data
signals and are controlled by the ALE signal generated by 8086. Transreceivers are the
bidirectional buffers and some times they are called as data amplifiers. They are required
to separate the valid data from the time multiplexed address/data signals. They are
controlled by two signals namely, DEN and DT/R. The DEN signal indicates the
direction of data, i.e. from or to the processor. The system contains memory for the
monitor and users program storage. Usually, EPROM are used for monitor storage, while
RAM for users program storage. A system may contain I/O devices. The working of the
minimum mode configuration system can be better described in terms of the timing
diagrams rather than qualitatively describing the operations. The opcode fetch and read
cycles are similar. Hence the timing diagram can be categorized in two parts, the first is
the timing diagram for read cycle and the second is the timing diagram for write cycle.
The read cycle begins in T1 with the assertion of address latch enable (ALE) signal and
also M / IO signal. During the negative going edge of this signal, the valid address is
latched on the local bus. The BHE and A0 signals address low, high or both bytes. From
T1 to T4 , the M/IO signal indicates a memory or I/O operation. At T2, the address is
removed from the local bus and is sent to the output. The bus is then tristated. The read
(RD) control signal is also activated in T2. The read (RD) signal causes the address
device to enable its data bus drivers. After RD goes low, the valid data is available on the
data bus. The addressed device will drive the READY line high. When the processor
returns the read signal to high level, the addressed device will again tristate its bus
drivers. A write cycle also begins with the assertion of ALE and the emission of the
address. The M/IO signal is again asserted to indicate a memory or I/O operation. In T2,
after sending the address in T1, the processor sends the data to be written to the addressed
location. The data remains on the bus until middle of T4 state. The WR becomes active at
the beginning of T2 (unlike RD is somewhat delayed in T2 to provide time for floating).
The BHE and A0 signals are used to select the proper byte or bytes of memory or I/O
word to be read or write. The M/IO, RD and WR signals indicate the type of data transfer
as specified in table below.
Figure 7 : Minimum Mode 8086 Typical Configuration
Figure 8 : Write Cycle Timing Diagram for Minimum Mode

3.6.1 Hold Response sequence: The HOLD pin is checked at leading edge of each clock
pulse. If it is received active by the processor before T4 of the previous cycle or during
T1 state of the current cycle, the CPU activates HLDA in the next clock cycle and for
succeeding bus cycles, the bus will be given to another requesting master. The control of
the bus is not regained by the processor until the requesting master does not drop the
HOLD pin low. When the request is dropped by the requesting master, the HLDA is
dropped by the processor at the trailing edge of the next clock.
Figure 9 : Bus Request and Bus Grant Timings in Minimum Mode System
3.7 Maximum Mode of 8086 System

In the maximum mode, the 8086 is operated by strapping the MN/MX pin to
ground. In this mode, the processor derives the status signal S2, S1, S0. Another chip
called bus controller derives the control signal using this status information .In the
maximum mode, there may be more than one microprocessor in the system configuration.
The components in the system are same as in the minimum mode system. The basic
function of the bus controller chip IC8288, is to derive control signals like RD and WR
( for memory and I/O devices), DEN, DT/R, ALE etc. using the information by the
processor on the status lines. The bus controller chip has input lines S2, S1, S0 and CLK.
These inputs to 8288 are driven by CPU. It derives the outputs ALE, DEN, DT/R,
MRDC, MWTC, AMWC, IORC, IOWC and AIOWC. The AEN, IOB and CEN pins are
specially useful for multiprocessor systems. AEN and IOB are generally grounded. CEN
pin is usually tied to +5V. The significance of the MCE/PDEN output depends upon the
status of the IOB pin. If IOB is grounded, it acts as master cascade enable to control
cascade 8259A, else it acts as peripheral data enable used in the multiple bus
configurations. INTA pin used to issue two interrupt acknowledge pulses to the interrupt
controller or to an interrupting device. IORC, IOWC are I/O read command and I/O write
command signals respectively .These signals enable an IO interface to read or write the
data from or to the address port. The MRDC, MWTC are memory read command and
memory write command signals respectively and may be used as memory read or write
signals. All these command signals instructs the memory to accept or send data from or to
the bus. For both of these write command signals, the advanced signals namely AIOWC
and AMWTC are available. Here the only difference between in timing diagram between
minimum mode and maximum mode is the status signals used and the available control
and advanced command signals. R0, S1, S2 are set at the beginning of bus cycle.8288 bus
controller will output a pulse as on the ALE and apply a required signal to its DT / R pin
during T1. In T2, 8288 will set DEN=1 thus enabling transceivers, and for an input it will
activate MRDC or IORC. These signals are activated until T4. For an output, the AMWC
or AIOWC is activated from T2 to T4 and MWTC or IOWC is activated from T3 to T4.
The status bit S0 to S2 remains active until T3 and become passive during T3 and T4. If
reader input is not activated before T3, wait state will be inserted between T3 and T4.
3.7.1 Timings for RQ/ GT Signals :
The request/grant response sequence contains a series of three pulses. The
request/grant pins are checked at each rising pulse of clock input. When a request is
detected and if the condition for HOLD request are satisfied, the processor issues a grant
pulse over the RQ/GT pin immediately during T4 (current) or T1 (next) state. When the
requesting master receives this pulse, it accepts the control of the bus, it sends a release
pulse to the processor using RQ/GT pin.
Figure 10 : Maximum Mode 8086 System.
Figure 11 : Memory Read Timing in Maximum Mode

Figure 12 : Memory Write Timing in Maximum mode.
Figure 13 : RQ/GT Timings in Maximum Mode.

3.8 Minimum Mode Interface

When the Minimum mode operation is selected, the 8086 provides all control
signals needed to implement the memory and I/O interface. The minimum mode signal
can be divided into the following basic groups : address/data bus, status, control, interrupt
and DMA.
3.8.1 Address/Data Bus : these lines serve two functions. As an address bus is 20 bits
long and consists of signal lines A0 through A19. A19 represents the MSB and A0 LSB.
A 20bit address gives the 8086 a 1Mbyte memory address space. More over it has an
independent I/O address space which is 64K bytes in length. The 16 data bus lines D0
through D15 are actually multiplexed with address lines A0 through A15 respectively. By
multiplexed we mean that the bus work as an address bus during first machine cycle and
as a data bus during next machine cycles. D15 is the MSB and D0 LSB. When acting as a
data bus, they carry read/write data for memory, input/output data for I/O devices, and
interrupt type codes from an interrupt controller.
3.8.2 Status signal: The four most significant address lines A19 through A16 are also
multiplexed but in this case with status signals S6 through S3. These status bits are output
on the bus at the same time that data are transferred over the other bus lines. Bit S4 and
S3 together from a 2 bit binary code that identifies which of the 8086 internal segment
registers are used to generate the physical address that was output on the address bus
during the current bus cycle. Code S4S3 = 00 identifies a register known as extra segment
register as the source of the segment address. Status line S5 reflects the status of another
internal characteristic of the 8086. It is the logic level of the internal enable flag. The last
status bit S6 is always at the logic 0 level.
S4 S3 Segment Register
0 0 Extra
0 1 Stack
1 0 Code / none
1 1 Data
3.8.3 Control Signals :

The control signals are provided to support the 8086 memory I/O interfaces. They
control functions such as when the bus is to carry a valid address in which direction data
are to be transferred over the bus, when valid write data are on the bus and when to put
read data on the system bus.
3.8.4 ALE is a pulse to logic 1 that signals external circuitry when a valid address word
is on the bus. This address must be latched in external circuitry on the 1-to-0 edge of the
pulse at ALE. Another control signal that is produced during the bus cycle is BHE bank
high enable. Logic 0 on this used as a memory enable signal for the most significant byte
half of the data bus D8 through D1. These lines also serves a second function, which is as
the S7 status line. Using the M/IO and DT/R lines, the 8086 signals which type of bus
cycle is in progress and in which direction data are to be transferred over the bus. The
logic level of M/IO tells external circuitry whether a memory or I/O transfer is taking
place over the bus. Logic 1 at this output signals a memory operation and logic 0 an I/O
operation. The direction of data transfer over the bus is signaled by the logic level output
at DT/R. When this line is logic 1 during the data transfer part of a bus cycle, the bus is in
the transmit mode. Therefore, data are either written into memory or output to an I/O
device. On the other hand, logic 0 at DT/R signals that the bus is in the receive mode.
This corresponds to reading data from memory or input of data from an input port. The
signal read RD and write WR indicates that a read bus cycle or a write bus cycle is in
progress. The 8086 switches WR to logic 0 to signal external device that valid write or
output data are on the bus. On the other hand, RD indicates that the 8086 is performing a
read of data of the bus. During read operations, one other control signal is also supplied.
This is DEN ( data enable) and it signals external devices when they should put data on
the bus. There is one other control signal that is involved with the memory and I/O
interface. This is the READY signal.
3.8.5 READY signal is used to insert wait states into the bus cycle such that it is
extended by a number of clock periods. This signal is provided by an external clock
generator device and can be supplied by the memory or I/O sub-system to signal the 8086
when they are ready to permit the data transfer to be completed.
3.8.6 Interrupt signals : The key interrupt interface signals are interrupt request (INTR)
and interrupt acknowledge ( INTA).
3.8.6.1 INTR is an input to the 8086 that can be used by an external device to signal that
it need to be serviced. Logic 1 at INTR represents an active interrupt request. When an
interrupt request has been recognized by the 8086, it indicates this fact to external circuit
with pulse to logic 0 at the INTA output. The TEST input is also related to the external
interrupt interface. Execution of a WAIT instruction causes the 8086 to check the logic
level at the TEST input. If the logic 1 is found, the MPU suspend operation and goes into
the idle state. The 8086 no longer executes instructions, instead it repeatedly checks the
logic level of the TEST input waiting for its transition back to logic 0. As TEST switches
to 0, execution resume with the next instruction in the program. This feature can be used
to synchronize the operation of the 8086 to an event in external hardware. There are two
more inputs in the interrupt interface: the non maskable interrupt NMI and the reset
interrupt RESET. On the 0-to-1 transition of NMI control is passed to a non maskable
interrupt service routine. The RESET input is used to provide a hardware reset for the
8086. Switching RESET to logic 0 initializes the internal register of the 8086 and initiates
a reset service routine.
3.8.7 DMA Interface signals :The direct memory access DMA interface of the 8086
minimum mode consist of the HOLD and HLDA signals. When an external device wants
to take control of the system bus, it signals to the 8086 by switching HOLD to the logic 1
level. At the completion of the current bus cycle, the 8086 enters the hold state. In the
hold state, signal lines AD0 through AD15, A16/S3 through A19/S6, BHE, M/IO, DT/R,
RD, WR, DEN and INTR are all in the high Z state. The 8086 signals external device that
it is in this state by switching its HLDA output to logic 1 level.
3.9 Maximum Mode Interface
When the 8086 is set for the maximum-mode configuration, it provides signals for
implementing a multiprocessor / coprocessor system environment. By multiprocessor
environment we mean that one microprocessor exists in the system and that each
processor is executing its own program. Usually in this type of system environment,
there are some system resources that are common to all processors. They are called as
global resources. There are also other resources that are assigned to specific processors.
These are known as local or private resources. Coprocessor also means that there is a
second processor in the system. In this two processor does not access the bus at the same
time. One passes the control of the system bus to the other and then may suspend its
operation. In the maximum-mode 8086 system, facilities are provided for implementing
allocation of global resources and passing bus control to other microprocessor or
coprocessor.
3.9.1 8288 Bus Controller – Bus Command and Control Signals:
8086 does not directly provide all the signals that are required to control the
memory, I/O and interrupt interfaces. Specially the WR, M/IO, DT/R, DEN, ALE and
INTA, signals are no longer produced by the 8086. Instead it outputs three status signals
S0, S1, S2 prior to the initiation of each bus cycle. This 3- bit bus status code identifies
which type of bus cycle is to follow. S2 S1 S0 are input to the external bus controller
device, the bus controller generates the appropriately timed command and control signals.
S2 S1 S0 CPU Cycles 8288 Command
0 0 0 Interrupt Acknowledge INTA
0 0 1 Read I/O Port IORC
0 1 0 Write I/O Port IOWC, IOWC
0 1 1 Halt None
1 0 0 Instruction Fetch MRDC
1 0 1 Read Memory MRDC
1 1 0 Write Memory MWTC, AMWC
1 1 1 Passive None
The 8288 produces one or two of these eight command signals for each bus
cycles. For instance, when the 8086 outputs the code S2S1S0 equals 001, it indicates that
an I/O read cycle is to be performed. In the code 111 is output by the 8086, it is signaling
that no bus activity is to take place. The control outputs produced by the 8288 are DEN,
DT/R and ALE. These 3 signals provide the same functions as those described for the
minimum system mode. This set of bus commands and control signals is compatible with
the Multibus and industry standard for interfacing microprocessor systems.
3.9.2 The output of 8289 are bus arbitration signals:

Bus busy (BUSY), common bus request (CBRQ), bus priority out (BPRO), bus priority
in (BPRN), bus request (BREQ) and bus clock (BCLK).
They correspond to the bus exchange signals of the Multi bus and are used to lock
other processor off the system bus during the execution of an instruction by the 8086. In
this way the processor can be assured of uninterrupted access to common system
resources such as global memory.
3.9.2.1 Queue Status Signals : Two new signals that are produced by the 8086 in the
maximum-mode system are queue status outputs QS0 and QS1. Together they form a 2-
bit queue status code, QS1, QS0. Following table shows the four different queue status.
QS1 QS0 Queue Status

No Operation. During the last clock cycle, nothing was taken from
0 (low) 0
the queue.
First Byte. The byte taken from the queue was the first byte of the
0 1
instruction.
1 (high) Queue Empty. The queue has been reinitialized as a result of the
0
execution of a transfer instruction.
Subsequent Byte. The byte taken from the queue was a subsequent
1 1
byte of the instruction.
3.9.2.2 Local Bus Control Signal – Request / Grant Signals: In a maximum mode
configuration, the minimum mode HOLD, HLDA interface is also changed. These two
are replaced by request/grant lines RQ/ GT0 and RQ/ GT1, respectively. They provide a
prioritized bus access mechanism for accessing the local bus. 8086 Maximum mode
Block Diagram Maximum mode of 8086

3.10 Addressing Modes Of 8086

Addressing mode indicates a way of locating data or operands. Depending upon
the data types used in the instruction and the memory addressing modes, any instruction
may belong to one or more addressing modes, or some instruction may not belong to any
of the addressing modes. Thus the addressing modes describe the types of operands and
the way they are accessed for executing an instruction. Here, we will present the
addressing modes of the instructions depending upon their types. According to the flow
of instruction execution, the instructions may be categorized as (i) Sequential control
flow instructions and (ii) Control transfer instructions.
Sequential control flow instructions are the instructions which after execution,
transfer control to the next instruction appearing immediately after it ( in the sequence )
in the program. For example, the arithmetic, logical, data transfer and processor control
instructions are sequential control flow instructions. The control transfer instructions,
on the other hand, transfer control to some predefined address or the address somehow
specified in the instruction, after their execution, For example, INT, CALL, RET and
JUMP instructions fall under this category.
The addressing modes for sequential and control transfer instructions are
explained as follows:
3.10.1 Immediate
In this type of addressing, immediate data is a part of instruction, and appears in
the form of successive byte or bytes.
Example
MOV AX, 0005H
In the above example, 000H is the immediate data. The immediate data may be 8 –bit or
16 –bit in size
3.10.2 Direct
In the direct addressing mode, a 16 – bit memory address (offset )is directly
specified in the instruction as a part of it.
Example
MOV AX , [ 5000 H]
Here, data resides in a memory location in the data segment, whose effective address may
be computed using 5000H as the offset address and content of DS as segment address.
The effective address, here is 10H * Ds + 5000H.
3.10.3 Register
In the register addressing mode, the data is stored in a register and it a register
and it is referred using the particular register. All the registers, except IP, may be used in
this mode.
Example
MOV BX, AX
3.10.4 Register Indirect

Sometimes, the address of the memory location which contains data or operand is
determined n a indirect way, using the offset registers. This mode of addressing is known
as register indirect mode. In this addressing mode, the offset address of data is in either
BX or SI or DI register. The default segment is either DS or ES. The data is supposed
to be available at the address pointed to by the content of any of the above registers in the
default data segment.
Example
MOV AX, [BX]
Here, data is present in a memory location in DS whose offset address is in BX. The
effective address of the data given as 10H*DS +[BX].
3.10.5 Indexed
In this addressing mode, offset of the operand is stored in one of the index
registers. DS is the default segment for index registers SI and DI. In case of string
instruction DS and ES are default segment for SI and DI respectively. This mode is a
special case of the above discussed register indirect addressing mode.
Example
MOV AX, [SI]
Here, data is available at an offset address stored in SI in DS. The effective address, in
this case, is computed as 10H * DS + [SI].
3.10.6 Register Relative

In this addressing mode, the data is available at an effective address formed by
adding an 8 –bit or 16 bit displacement with the content of any one of the registers BX,
BP, SI and DI in the default (either DS or ES ) segment. The example given below
explains this mode.
Example
MOV AX, 50H [BX]
Here, the effective address is given as 10H*DS + 50H + [BX]
3.10.7 Based Indexed

The effective address of data is formed, in this addressing mode, by adding
content of a base register (any one of BX or BP ) to the content of an index register (any
one of SI or DI). The default segment register may be ES or DS.
Example
MOV AX, [BX ]
Her, BX is the base register and SI is the index register. The effective address is
computed as 10H* DS + [BX] + [SI]
3.10.8 Relative Based Indexed

The effective address is formed by adding an 8 or 16 – bit displacement with the
sum of contents of any one of the base registers (BX or BP) and any one of the index
registers, in a default segment.
Example
MOV AX, 50H [ BX] [SI]
Here, 50H is an immediate displacement, BX is base register and SI is an index register.
The effective address of data is computed as 10H*DS+[BX]+[SI]+50H.
For the control transfer instructions, the addressing modes depend upon whether the
destination location is within the same segment or in a different one. It also depends
upon the method of passing the destination address to the processor. Basically, there are
two addressing modes for the control transfer instructions, viz. intransigent addressing
modes .
If the location to which the control is to be transferred lies in a different segment

other than the current one, the mode is called incensement mode. If the destination
location lies in the same segment, the mode is called intransigent mode.
Figure shows the modes for control transfer instructions.
Inter segment direct
Inter segment
Modes for control Inter segment indirect
transfer instructions Intra segment direct
Intra segment
Intra segment indirect
3.10.9 Intra segment Direct Mode
In this mode, the address to which the control is to be transferred lies in the same
segment in which the control transfer instruction lies and appears directly in the
instruction ‘n’ as an immediate displacement value. In this addressing mode, the
displacement is computer relative to the control of the instruction pointer IP
The effective address to which the control will be transferred is given by the sum
of 8 or 16 bit displacement and current control of IP. In case of jump instruction, if the
signed displacement (d) is of 8 bits ( i.e-128<d<+127), we term it as shot jump and if it is
of 16 bits (i.e.-32768<d<+32767), it is termed as long jump.
Example
JMP SHORT LABLE ;
LABEL lies with in -128to +127 form the current IP content.
Thus SHORT LABLE is 8 –bit signed displacement.
A 16 –bit target address of a label indicates that it lies within -32768 to+32767.
But a problem arises when one requires a forward jump at a relative address greater than
32767or backward jump at relative address -32768; in the same segment. Suppose current
contents of IP are 5000H then a forward jump may be allowed at all the displacement
DISP so that IP+DISP=FFFFH or DISP=FFFF-5000=AFFFH. Thus forward jumps may
be allowed for all 16-bit displacement values from 0000H to AFFFH. If displacement
exceeds AFFFH i.e. form B000H to FFFFH , then all such jump and coded as below.
JMP NEAR PTR LABLE
3.10.10 Intra segment Indirect Mode

In this mode, the displacement to which the control is to be transferred, is in the
same segment in which the control transfer instruction lies, but it is passed to the
instruction indirectly. Here, the branch address is found as the control of a register or a
memory location. This addressing mode may be used in unconditional branch instruction.
Example
JMP [BX]; Jump to effective address stored in BX.
JMP [BX + 500H]
3.10.11 Inter segment Direct
In this mode, the address to which the control is to be transferred is in a different
segment. This addressing mode provides a means of branching from one code segment
to another code segment. Here, the CS and IP of the destination address are specified
directly in the instruction.
Example
JPM 5000H : 2000H;
JUMP to effective address 2000H in segment 5000H
3.10.12 Inter segment Indirect

In this mode, the address to which the control is to be transferred lies in a
different segment and it is passed to the instruction indirectly, i.e. contents of a memory
block containing four bytes, i.e. IP(LSB)/,IP(MSB), CS(LSB) and CS(MSB)
sequentially. The starting address of the memory block may be referred using any of the
addressing modes, except immediate mode.
Example
JMP [2000H]
JUMP to an address in the other segment specified at effective address 2000H in DS, that
points to the memory block as said above.
Forming the Effective Addresses

The following examples explain forming of the effective addresses in the
different modes.
Example
The contents of different registers are given below. From effective addresses for
different addressing modes.
Offset (displacement) = 5000H
[AX] – 1000H,[BX] – 2000H, [SI] – 3000H/ [DI] – 4000H,[BP[ - 5000H,
[SP] – 6000H,[CS] –0000H,[DS]-1000H, [SS] –2000H,[IP] – 7000H.
Shifting a number four times is equivalent to multiplying it by 16D or 10H
(i) Direct addressing mode
MOV AX, [5000H]
DS: OFFSET ↔ 1000H: 5000H
10H*DS ↔ 1000
offset ↔ + 5000
15000H – Effective address
(ii) Register indirect
MOV AX, [BX]
DS: BX ↔ 1000H:2000H
10H*DS ↔ 10000
[BX] ↔ +2000
(iii) Register relative
MOV AX, 5000 [BX]
DS : [5000 + BX]
10H*DS ↔ 1000
Offset ↔ +5000
[BX] ↔ +2000
(iv) Based indexed

MOV AX, [BX] [SI]
DS:[BX +SI]
10H* DS ↔ 1000
[BX] ↔ +2000
[SI] ↔ +3000
(v) Relative based indexed
MOV AX, 5000 [BX] [SI]
DS: [BX + SI + 5000]
10H* DS ↔ 10000
[BX] ↔ +2000
[SI] ↔ +3000
Offset ↔ +5000
1A000 - effective address
Below, we present examples of address formation in control transfer instructions.
3.11 Memory Organization

The processor provides a 20-bit address to memory which locates the byte being
referenced. The memory is organized as a linear array of up to 1 million bytes, addressed
as 00000(H) to FFFFF(H). The memory is logically divided into code, data, extra data,
and stack segments of up to 64K bytes each, with each segment falling on 16-byte
boundaries All memory references are made relative to base addresses contained in high
speed segment registers. The segment types were chosen based on the addressing needs
of programs. The segment register to be selected is automatically chosen according to the
rules of the following table. All information in one segment type share the same logical
attributes (e.g. code or data). By structuring memory into re locatable areas of similar
characteristics and by automatically selecting segment registers, programs are shorter,
faster, and more structured. Word (16-bit) operands can be located on even or odd
address boundaries and are thus not constrained to even boundaries as is the case in many
16-bit computers. For address and data operands, the least significant byte of the word is
stored in the lower valued address location and the most significant byte in the next
higher address location. The BIU automatically performs the proper number of memory
accesses, one if the word operand is on an even byte boundary and two if it is on an odd
byte boundary. Except for the performance penalty, this double access is transparent to
the software. This performance penalty does not occur for instruction fetches, only word
operands.
Physically, the memory is organized as a high bank (D15±D8) and a low bank
(D7±D0) of 512K 8-bit bytes addressed in parallel by the processor's address lines
A19±A1. Byte data with even addresses is transferred on the D7±D0 bus lines while odd
addressed byte data (A0 HIGH) is transferred on the D15±D8 bus lines. The processor
provides two enable signals, BHE and A0, to selectively allow reading from or writing
into either an odd byte location, even byte location, or both. The instruction stream is
fetched from memory as words and is addressed internally by the processor to the byte
level as necessary.
In referencing word data the BIU requires one or two memory cycles depending
on whether or not the starting byte of the word is on an even or odd address, respectively.
Consequently, in referencing word operands performance can be optimized by locating
data on even address boundaries. This is an especially useful technique for using the
stack, since odd address references to the stack may adversely affect the context
switching time for interrupt processing or task multiplexing. Certain locations in memory
are reserved for specific CPU operations (see Figure 14). Locations from address
FFFF0H through FFFFFH are reserved for operations including a jump to the initial
program loading routine. Following RESET, the CPU will always begin execution at
location FFFF0H where the jump must be. Locations 00000H through 003FFH are
reserved for interrupt operations. Each of the 256 possible interrupt types has its service
routine pointed to by a 4-byte pointer element consisting of a 16-bit segment address and
a 16-bit offset address. The pointer elements are assumed to have been stored at the
respective places in reserved memory prior to occurrence of interrupts.
Program, data and stack memories occupy the same memory space. As the most
of the processor instructions use 16-bit pointers the processor can effectively address only
64 KB of memory. To access memory outside of 64 KB the CPU uses special segment

registers to specify where the code, stack and data 64 KB segments are positioned within
1 MB of memory 16-bit pointers and data are stored as: address: low-order byte
address+1: high-order byte
3.11.1 Program Memory - program can be located anywhere in memory. Jump and call
instructions can be used for short jumps within currently selected 64 KB code segment,
as well as for far jumps anywhere within 1 MB of memory. All conditional jump
instructions can be used to jump within approximately +127 to - 127 bytes from current
instruction.
3.11.2 Data Memory - the processor can access data in any one out of 4 available
segments, which limits the size of accessible memory to 256 KB (if all four segments
point to different 64 KB blocks). Accessing data from the Data, Code, Stack or Extra
segments can be usually done by prefixing instructions with the DS:, CS:, SS: or ES:
(some registers and instructions by default may use the ES or SS segments instead of DS
segment). Word data can be located at odd or even byte boundaries. The processor uses
two memory accesses to read 16-bit word located at odd byte boundaries. Reading word
data from even byte boundaries requires only one memory access.
3.11.3 Stack Memory can be placed anywhere in memory. The stack can be located at
odd memory addresses, but it is not recommended for performance reasons (see "Data
Memory" above).
Reserved Locations:
0000H - 03FFH are reserved for interrupt vectors. Each interrupt vector is a 32-bit
pointer in format segment: offset.
FFFF0H - FFFFFH - after RESET the processor always starts program execution at the
FFFF0H address.
Figure 14: Reserved Memory Locations

3.12 I/O Addressing
In the 8086, I/O operations can address up to a maximum of 64K I/O byte
registers or 32K I/O word registers. The I/O address appears in the same format as the
memory address on bus lines A15±A0. The address lines A19±A16 are zero in I/O
operations. The variable I/O instructions which use register DX as a pointer have full
address capability while the direct I/O instructions directly address one or two of the 256
I/O byte locations in page 0 of the I/O address space. I/O ports are addressed in the same
manner as memory locations. Even addressed bytes are transferred on the D7±D0 bus
lines and odd addressed bytes on D15±D8. Care must be taken to assure that each register
within an 8-bit peripheral located on the lower portion of the bus be addressed as even.
Figure 15 : I/O Space of the processor

3.13 Interrupts and Exceptions
Interrupts and exceptions alter the normal program flow in order to handle
external events, report errors or exceptional conditions. The difference between interrupts
and exceptions is that interrupts are used to handle asynchronous external events while
exceptions handle instruction faults. Although a program can generate a software
interrupt via an INT N instruction, the processor treats software interrupts as exceptions.
Hardware interrupts occur as the result of an external event and are classified into two
types: maskable or non-maskable. Interrupts are serviced after the execution of the
current instruction. After the interrupt handler is finished servicing the interrupt,
execution proceeds with the instruction immediately after the interrupted instruction.
Exceptions are classified as faults, traps, or aborts, depending on the way they are
reported and whether or not restart of the instruction causing the exception is supported.
Faults are exceptions that are detected and serviced before the execution of the faulting
instruction. Traps are exceptions that are reported immediately after the execution of the
instruction which caused the problem. Aborts are exceptions which do not permit the
precise location of the instruction causing the exception to be determined. Thus, when an
interrupt service routine has been completed, execution proceeds from the instruction
immediately following the interrupted instruction. On the other hand, the return address
from an exception fault routine will always point to the instruction causing the exception
and will include any leading instruction prefixes.
3.13.1 Interrupt Processing
When an interrupt occurs, the following actions happen. First, the current program
address and Flags are saved on the stack to allow resumption of the interrupted program.
Next, an 8-bit vector is supplied to the Microprocessor which identifies the appropriate
entry in the interrupt table. The table contains the starting address of the interrupt service
routine. Then, the user supplied interrupt service routine is executed. Finally, when an
IRET instruction is executed the old processor state is restored and program execution
resumes at the appropriate instruction. The 8-bit interrupt vector is supplied to the
Microprocessor in several different ways: exceptions supply the interrupt vector
internally; software INT instructions contain or imply the vector; maskable hardware
interrupts supply the 8-bit vector via the interrupt acknowledge bus sequence. Non-
Maskable hardware interrupts are assigned to interrupt vector 2.
3.13.1.1 INTR is a maskable hardware interrupt. The interrupt can be enabled/disabled
using STI/CLI instructions or using more complicated method of updating the FLAGS
register with the help of the POPF instruction. When an interrupt occurs, the processor
stores FLAGS register into stack, disables further interrupts, fetches from the bus one
byte representing interrupt type, and jumps to interrupt processing routine address of
which is stored in location 4 * <interrupt type>. Interrupt processing routine should
return with the IRET instruction.
3.13.1.2 NMI is a non-maskable interrupt. Interrupt is processed in the same way as the
INTR interrupt. Interrupt type of the NMI is 2, i.e. the address of the NMI processing
routine is
stored in location 0008h. This interrupt has higher priority then the maskable interrupt.
3.13.1.3 Software Interrupts can be caused by:
INT instruction - breakpoint interrupt. This is a type 3 interrupt.
INT <interrupt number> instruction - any one interrupt from available 256 interrupts.
INTO instruction - interrupt on overflow
Single-step interrupt - generated if the TF flag is set. This is a type 1 interrupt. When the
CPU processes this interrupt it clears TF flag before calling the interrupt processing
routine.
3.13.2 Processor Exceptions: Divide Error (Type 0), Unused Opcode (type 6) and
Escape opcode (type 7). Software interrupt processing is the same as for the hardware
interrupts.
Figure 16 : Interrupt Service

Vector Table
Hardware External Interrupt

Example Program Flow For A Software Interrupt

3.14 Instruction Sets of 8086

3.14 .1 DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS
 PUSH - Copy specified word to top of stack.
 POP - Copy word from top of stack to specific location.
 PUSHA - (80186/80188 only) Copy all registers stack.
 POPA - (80186/80l88 only) Copy words f stack to all registers.
 XCHG - Exchange bytes or exchange words.
 XLAT - Translate a byte in AL using a table in memory.
3.14 .2 INPUT AND OUTPUT PORT TRANSFER INSTRUCTION:
 IN - Copy a byte or word from specified port to accumulator
 OUT - Copy a byte or word from accumulator specified port.
3.14 .3 SPECIAL ADDRESS TRANSFER INSTRUCTION
 LEA - Load effective address to register
 LDS - Load pointer to DS
 LES - Load pointer to ES
3.14 .4 FLAG TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS:
 LAHF - Load \ah with flags
 SAHF - store AH into flags
 PUSHF - Push flags
 POPF - POP flags
3.14 .5 ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS
3.14 .5.1ADDITION INSTRUCTIONS:
 ADD - Add specified byte to byte or specified word to word.
 ADC - Add byte + byte + carry flag or word + word + carry flag.
 INC - Increment specified byte or specified by 1.
 AAA - ASCII adjust after addition.
 DAA - Decimal (BCD) adjust after addition.
3.14 .5.2 SUBTRACTION INSTRUCTIONS:
 SUB - Subtract byte from byte or word from word.
 SBB - Subtract byte and carry flag from byte word and carry flag from
word.
 DEC - Decrement specified byte or specified word by l.
 NEG - Negate – invert each bit of a specified byte or word and add 1
(form 2’s complement).
 CMP - Compare two specified bytes or two specified word
 AAS - ASCII adjust after subtraction.
 DAS - Decimal (BCD) adjust after subtraction.
3.14 .5.3 MULTIPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS:
 MUL - Multiply unsigned byte by byte or unsigned word by word
 IMUL - Integer Multiplication
 AAM - ASCII Adjust after Multiplication
3.14 .5.4 DIVISION INSTRUCTIONS:
 DIV - Divide unsigned word by byte or unsigned double word by
word
 IDIV - Integer Division
 AAD - ASCII Adjust after Division
 CBW - Convert Byte to word
 CWD - Convert word to double word
3.14 .6 BIT MANIPULATION INSTRUCTIONS
3.14 .6.1 LOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS:
 NOT - Invert each bit in a byte or word
 AND - AND the content of a byte or a word with another byte or word
 OR - OR the content of a byte or a word with another byte or word
 XOR - Exclusive OR the content of a byte or a word with another byte or
word
 TEST - AND function to flags, No result
3.14 .6.2 SHIFT INSTRUCTIONS:
 SHL/SAL - Shift bits of word or byte left, put zero(s) in LSB(s)
 SHR - Shift bits of word or byte right, put zero(s) in MSB(s)

 SAR - Shift bits of word or byte right, copy old MSB into new
MSB
3.14 .6.3 ROTATE INSTRUCTIONS:

 ROL - Rotate bits of byte or word left, MSB to LSB and to CF
 ROR - Rotate bits of byte or word right, LSB to MSB and to CF
 RCL - Rotate bits of byte or word left, MSB to CF and CF to LSB
 RCR - Rotate bits of byte or word right, LSB to CF and CF to MSB
3.14 .7 STRING INSTRUCTIONS
 REP - Repeat until CX = 0
 REPE / REPZ - Repeat equal / Repeat zero until CX = 0 Or
Zero
flag ZF!=1
 REPNE / REPNZ - Repeat not equal / Repeat not zero until CX = 0 or
ZF = 1
 MOVS / MOVSB / MOVSW - Move byte / word / byte word
 COMPS / COMPSB / COMPSW- compare byte / word / byte word
 SCAS / SCASB / SCASW - scan byte / word / byte word
 LODS / LODSB / LODSW - Load byte / word / byte word to AL / AX
 STOS / STOSB / STOSW - Store byte / word / byte word from AL / AX
3.14 .8 PROGRAM EXECUTION TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS
3.14 .8.1 UNCONDITIONAL TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS:
 RET - Return from procedure to calling program
 JMP - Go to specified address to get next instruction
 CALL - Call a procedure (subprogram), save return address on stack
o Direct within-segment (near or intrasegment)
o Indirect within-segment (near or intrasegment)
o Direct to another segment (far or intersegment)
o Indirect to another segment (far or intersegment)
3.14 .8.2 CONDITIONAL TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS:

 JA/JNBE - Jump if above/Jump if not below or equal
 JAE/JNB -Jump if above or equal/Jump if not below
 JB/JNAE -Jump if below/Jump if not above or equal
 JBE/JNA -Jump if below or equal/Jump if not above
 JC - Jump if carry flag CF 1
 JE/JZ - Jump if equal/Jump if zero flag ZF = 1
 JG/JNLE - Jump if greater/Jump if not less than or equal
 JGE/JNL -Jump if greater than or equal Jump if not less than
 JL/JNGE -Jump if less than/Jump if not greater than or equal
 JLE/JNG -Jump if less than or equal/Jump if not greater than
 JNC -Jump if no carry (CF = 0)
 JNE/JNZ - Jump if not equal/lump if not ’ zero (ZF = 0)
 JNO -Jump if no overflow (overflow flag OF = 0)
 JNP/JPO -Jump if not parity/Jump if parity odd (PF = 0)
 JNS - Jump if not sign (sign flag SF=0)
 JO - Jump if overflow flag OF=1
 JP/JPE - Jump if parity/Jump if parity even (PF =1)
 JS - Jump if sign (SF = 1)
3.14 .9 ITERATION CONTROL INSTRUCTIONS:
 LOOP - Loop CX times
 LOOPE / LOOPZ - Loop while equal / not zero
 LOOPNE / LOOPNZ- Loop while not equal / not zero
 JCXZ - Jump on CX zero
3.14 .10 INTERRUPT INSTRUCTIONS:
 INT - Interrupt type specified
 INTO - Interrupt on overflow
 IRET - Interrupt return
3.14 .11 PROCESS CONTROL INSTRUCTIONS
FLAG SET / CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS:

 STC - Set carry flag CF to 1
 CLC - Clear carry flag CF to 0
 CMC - Complement the state of the carry flag CF
 STD - Set direction flag DF to l (decrement string pointers)
 CLD -Clear direction flag DF to 0
 STI -Set interrupt enable flag to 1 (enable INTR input)
 CLI -Clear interrupt enable flag to 0 (disable INTR input)
3.14 .12 EXTERNAL HARDWARE SYNCHRONIZATION INSTRUCTIONS:
 HLT - Halt (do nothing) until interrupt or reset
 WAIT - Wait (do nothing) until signal on the test pin is low
 ESC -Escape to external coprocessor such as 8087 or 8089
 LOCK - An instruction prefix. Prevents another processor from taking the bus
while the adjacent instruction executes
 NOP - No action except fetch and decode
Example
AAA Instruction - AAA converts the result of the addition of two valid unpacked BCD
digits to a valid 2-digit BCD number and takes the AL register as its implicit operand.
Two operands of the addition must have its lower 4 bits contain a number in the
ange from 0-9.The AAA instruction then adjust AL so that it contains a correct BCD
digit. If the addition produce carry (AF=1), the AH register is incremented and the carry
CF and auxiliary carry AF flags are set to 1. If the addition did not produce a decimal
carry, CF and AF are cleared to 0 and AH is not altered. In both cases the higher 4 bits of
AL are cleared to 0.
AAA will adjust the result of the two ASCII characters that were in the range
from 30h (“0”) to 39h(“9”).This is because the lower 4 bits of those character fall in the
range of 0-9.The result of addition is not a ASCII character but it is a BCD digit.
Example:
MOV AH,0 ; Clear AH for MSD
MOV AL,6 ; BCD 6 in AL
ADD AL,5 ; Add BCD 5 to digit in AL

AAA ; AH=1, AL=1 representing BCD 11.
AAD Instruction - ADD converts unpacked BCD digits in the AH and AL register into a
single binary number in the AX register in preparation for a division operation.
Before executing AAD, place the Most significant BCD digit in the AH register
and Last significant in the AL register. When AAD is executed, the two BCD digits are
combined into a single binary number by setting AL=(AH*10)+AL and clearing AH to 0.
Example:
MOV AX,0205h ; The unpacked BCD number 25
AAD ; After AAD , AH=0 and;AL=19h (25)
After the division AL will then contain the unpacked BCD quotient and AH will contain
the unpacked BCD remainder.
Example:
;AX=0607 unpacked BCD for 67 decimal ;CH=09H
AAD ;Adjust to binary before division ;AX=0043 = 43H =67 decimal
DIV CH ;Divide AX by unpacked BCD in CH ;AL = quotient = 07
unpacked BCD ;AH = remainder = 04 unpacked BCD
AAM Instruction - AAM converts the result of the multiplication of two valid unpacked
BCD digits into a valid 2-digit unpacked BCD number and takes AX as an implicit
operand.
To give a valid result the digits that have been multiplied must be in the range of
0 – 9 and the result should have been placed in the AX register. Because both operands of
multiply are required to be 9 or less, the result must be less than 81 and thus is
completely contained in AL.
AAM unpacks the result by dividing AX by 10, placing the quotient (MSD) in
AH and the remainder (LSD) in AL.
Example:
MOV AL, 5
MOV BL, 7
MUL BL ; Multiply AL by BL , result in AX

AAM ; After AAM, AX =0305h (BCD 35)
AAS Instruction - AAS converts the result of the subtraction of two valid unpacked
BCD digits to a single valid BCD number and takes the AL register as an implicit
operand. The two operands of the subtraction must have its lower 4 bit contain number in
the range from 0 to 9 .The AAS instruction then adjust AL so that it contain a correct
BCD digit.
MOV AX,0901H ; BCD 91
SUB AL, 9 ; Minus 9
AAS ; Give AX =0802 h (BCD 82)
(a)
; AL =0011 1001 =ASCII 9 ;BL=0011 0101 =ASCII 5
SUB AL, BL ; (9 - 5) Result AL = 00000100 = BCD 04,CF = 0
AAS ;Result AL=00000100 =BCD 04 CF = 0 NO Borrow
required
(b)
;AL = 0011 0101 =ASCII 5 BL = 0011 1001 = ASCII 9
SUB AL, BL ;( 5 - 9 ) Result AL = 1111 1100 = - 4 in 2’s complement
CF = 1
AAS ;Results AL = 0000 0100 =BCD 04 CF = 1 borrow needed .
ADD Instruction - These instructions add a number from source to a number from some
destination and put the result in the specified destination. The add with carry instruction
ADC, also add the status of the carry flag into the result. The source and destination must
be of same type , means they must be a byte location or a word location. If you want to
add a byte to a word, you must copy the byte to a word location and fill the upper byte of
the word with zeroes before adding.
EXAMPLE:
ADD AL,74H ; Add immediate number 74H to content of AL
ADC CL,BL ; Add contents of BL plus carry status to contents of CL.
ADD DX, BX ; Add contents of BX to contents ;of DX

ADD DX, [SI] ; Add word from memory at offset [SI] in DS to contents of DX
; Addition of Un Signed numbers
ADD CL, BL ; CL = 01110011 =115 decimal ;+ BL = 01001111 = 79 decimal
; Result in CL = 11000010 = 194 decimal Addition of Signed
numbers
ADD CL, BL ; CL = 01110011 = + 115 decimal + BL = 01001111 = +79
Decimal Result in CL = 11000010 = - 62 decimal
; Incorrect because result is too large to fit in 7 bits.
AND Instruction - This Performs a bitwise Logical AND of two operands. The result of
the operation is stored in the op1 and used to set the flags. AND op1, op2 To perform a
bitwise AND of the two operands, each bit of the result is set to 1 if and only if the
corresponding bit in both of the operands is 1, otherwise the bit in the result I cleared to 0
AND BH, CL ; AND byte in CL with byte in BH result in BH

AND BX,00FFh ; AND word in BX with immediate 00FFH. Mask upper byte,
leave lower unchanged
AND CX,[SI] ; AND word at offset [SI] in data segment with word in CX
; register . Result in CX register . BX = 10110011 01011110
AND BX,00FFh ; Mask out upper 8 bits of BX Result BX = 00000000 01011110
; CF =0 , OF = 0, PF = 0, SF = 0 , ZF = 0
CALL Instruction - This Instruction is used to transfer execution to a subprogram or
procedure. There are two basic types of CALL ’s : Near and Far.
A Near CALL is a call to a procedure which is in the same code segment as the
CALL instruction . When 8086 executes the near CALL instruction it decrements the
stack pointer by two and copies the offset of the next instruction after the CALL on the
stack. This offset saved on the stack is referred as the return address, because this is the
address that execution will returns to after the procedure executes. A near CALL
instruction will also load the instruction pointer with the offset of the first instruction in
the procedure.
A RET instruction at the end of the procedure will return execution to the
instruction after the CALL by coping the offset saved on the stack back to IP. A Far
CALL is a call to a procedure which is in a different from that which contains the CALL
instruction . When 8086 executes the Far CALL instruction it decrements the stack
pointer by two again and copies the content of CS register to the stack. It then decrements
the stack pointer by two again and copies the offset contents offset of the instruction after
the CALL to the stack. Finally it loads CS with segment base of the segment which
contains the procedure and IP with the offset of the first instruction of the procedure in
segment. A RET instruction at end of procedure will return to the next instruction after
the CALL by restoring the saved CS and IP from the stack.
Direct within-segment ( near or intrasegment )
CALL MULTO ;MULTO is the name of the procedure. The assembler determines
displacement of MULTO from the instruction after the CALL and
codes this displacement in as part of the instruction .
Indirect within-segment ( near or intrasegment )
CALL BX ; BX contains the offset of the first instruction of the procedure
.Replaces contents of word of IP with contents o register BX.
CALL WORD PTR[BX] ;Offset of first instruction of procedure is in two memory
addresses in DS .Replaces contents of IP with contents of word
memory location in DS pointed to by BX.
Direct to another segment- far or intersegment.
CALL SMART ;SMART is the name of the Procedure
SMART PROC FAR ; Procedure must be declare as an far
CBW Instruction - CBW converts the signed value in the AL register into an equivalent
16 bit signed value in the AX register by duplicating the sign bit to the left. This
instruction copies the sign of a byte in AL to all the bits in AH. AH is then said to be the
sign extension of AL.
Example:
; AX = 00000000 10011011 = - 155 decimal
CBW ; Convert signed byte in AL to signed word in AX.
; Result in AX = 11111111 10011011 = - 155 decimal
CLC Instruction - CLC clear the carry flag ( CF ) to 0 This instruction has no affect on
the processor, registers, or other flags. It is often used to clear the CF before returning
from a procedure to indicate a successful termination. It is also use to clear the CF during
rotate operation involving the CF such as ADC, RCL, RCR .
Example:
CLC ;Clear carry flag.
CLD Instruction - This instruction reset the designation flag to zero. This instruction has
o effect on the registers or other flags. When the direction flag is cleared / reset SI and DI
will automatically be incremented when one of the string instruction such as MOVS,
CMPS, SCAS,MOVSB and STOSB executes.
Example :
CLD ;Clear direction flag so that string pointers auto increment
CLI Instruction - This instruction resets the interrupt flag to zero. No other flags are
affected. If the interrupt flag is reset , the 8086 will not respond to an interrupt signal on
its INTR input. This CLI instruction has no effect on the non maskable interrupt i/p ,NMI
CMC Instruction - If the carry flag CF is a zero before this instruction, it will be set to a
one after the instruction. If the carry flag is one before this instruction, it will be reset to a
zero after the instruction executes. CMC has no effect on other flags.
Example:
CMC ; Invert the carry flag.
CWD Instruction - CWD converts the 16 bit signed value in the AX register into an
equivalent 32 bit signed value in DX: AX register pair by duplicating the sign bit to the
left.
The CWD instruction sets all the bits in the DX register to the same sign bit of the
AX register. The effect is to create a 32- bit signed result that has same integer value as
the original 16 bit operand.
Example:
Assume AX contains C435h. If the CWD instruction is executed, DX will contain FFFFh
since bit 15 (MSB) of AX was 1. Both the original value of AX (C435h) and resulting
value of DX : AX (FFFFC435h) represents the same signed number.
Example:
;DX = 00000000 00000000 AX = 11110000 11000111 = - 3897 decimal

CWD ;Convert signed word in AX to signed double word in DX:AX
Result DX = 11111111 11111111 AX = 11110000 11000111 = -3897
decimal .
 DAA Instruction - Decimal Adjust Accumulator
 DAS Instruction - Decimal Adjust after Subtraction
 DEC Instruction - Decrement destination register or memory DEC
destination.
 DIV Instruction - Unsigned divide-Div source
 ESC Instruction
When a double word is divided by a word, the most significant word of the double word
must be in DX and the least significant word of the double word must be in AX. After the
division AX will contain the 16 –bit result (quotient ) and DX will contain a 16 bit
remainder. Again , if an attempt is made to divide by zero or quotient is too large to fit in
AX ( greater than FFFFH ) the 8086 will do a type of 0 interrupt .
Example:
DIV CX ; (Quotient) AX= (DX:AX)/CX (Reminder) X=(DX:AX)%CX
For DIV the dividend must always be in AX or DX and AX, but the source of the
divisor can be a register or a memory location specified by one of the 24 addressing
modes. If you want to divide a byte by a byte, you must first put the dividend byte in AL
and fill AH with all 0’s . The SUB AH,AH instruction is a quick way to do. If you want
to divide a word by a word, put the dividend word in AX and fill DX with all 0’s. The
SUB DX,DX instruction does this quickly.
Example:
; AX = 37D7H = 14, 295 decimal BH = 97H = 151 decimal
DIV BH ;AX / BH ; AX = Quotient = 5EH = 94 decimal AH = Remainder = 65H =
101 decimal
3.15 Procedure and Macros of 8086

3.15.1 Procedure:
Named group of statement which is performed particular task is called procedure.
Procedure or subroutine may require input data or constants for their execution. Their
data or constants may be passed to the subroutine by main program or some subroutine
may access readily available data of constants available in memory.
Generally , the following technique are used to pass input / parameter to procedures in
ALP
a) Using Global declared variable
b) Using registers of CPU architecture
c) Using memory location
d) Using stack
e) Using PUBLIC and EXTERN
3.15.1.1 Using Global declared variable
A variable or a parameter label may be declared global in the main program and
the same variable or parameter label can be used by all the procedures of the application.
Examples of passing parameters
ASSUME CS : CODE,DS : DATA
DATA SEGMENT
NUMBER EQY 77H GLOBAL
DATA ENDS
CODE1 SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CODE1 ENDS
ASSUME CS : CODE2
CODE2 SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CODE2 ENDS
END START
3.15.1.2 Using registers of CPU architecture

The CPU general purpose registers may be used to pass parameters to the
procedures. The main program may store the parameters to be passed to the procedure in
the variable CPU registers and the procedure may use the same register content for
execution. The original content of the used CPU register may change during execution of
the procedure. This may be avoided by pushing all the register content to be used to the
stack sequentially at the start of the procedure and poping all the register contents at the
end of the procedure in opposite sequence.
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX , 5555H
MOV BX , 5456H
- -
- -
PROCEDURE P1 NEAR
- -
- -
ADD AX , BX
- -
- -
RET
P1 ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.1.3 Using memory location
Memory location may also be used to pass parameter to a procedure in the same
way as registers. A main program may store the parameter to be passed to a procedure at
known memory address location and the procedure may use the same location for
accessing the parameter.
Example:
DATA SEGMENT
NUM DB (55H)
COUNT EQY 77H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CALL ROUTINE
- -
- -
PROCEDURE ROUTINE NEAR
MOV BX , NUM
MOV CX , COUNT
- -
ROUTINE ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.1.4 Using stack
Stack memory can also be used to pass parameters to procedure. A main program
may store the parameters to be passed to a procedure in its CPU registers . The registers
will further be pushed on to the stack. The procedure during its execution pops back the
appropriate parameters as and when required. This procedure of poping back the
parameters must be implemented carefully because besides the parameters to be passed to
the procedure the stack contains other important information like contents of other
pushed registers, return addresses from the current procedure and other procedure or
interrupt service routines.
Example :
ASSUME CS : CODE,SS : STACK

STACK SEGMENT
STACKDATA DB 200H DUP ( ? )
STACK ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX , STACK
MOV SS,AX
MOV BX , 55H
MOV CX , 10H
- -
PUSH AX
PUSH CX
CALL ROUTINE
- -
- -
- -
MOV DX , SP
ADD SP ,02H
POP CX
POP BX
MOV SP , DX
- -
ROUTINE ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.1.5 Using PUBLIC and EXTERN
For passing the parameters to procedures using the PUBLIC & EXTERN
directives , must be declared PUBLIC (for all routine) in the main routine and the same
should be declared EXTERN in the procedure Thus the main program can pass the
PUBLIC parameter to a procedure in which it is declared EXTERN(external)
Example:
DATA SEGMENT
PUBLIC NUMBER EQY 77H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CALL ROUTINE
- -
EXTERN NUMBER
MOV AX , NUMBER
- -
ROUTINE ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.2 MACROS
The macro is also similar to subroutine. Suppose , a number of instructions are
repeating through in the main program , the listing becomes lengthy. So a macro
definition i. e. a label , is assigned with in the repeatedly appearing string of instructions.
The process of assigning a label or macro name to the string is called macro. A macro
within the macro is called nested macro. The macro name or macro definition is then
used throughout the main program to refer to the string of instructions.
The difference between a macro and a subroutine is that in the macro the
complete code of the instructions string is inserted at each place where the macro name
appears. Hence the EXE file becomes lengthy. Macro does not utilize the service of
stack. There is no question of transfer of control as the program using the macro inserts
the complete code of the macro at every reference of the macro name.
On the other hand , subroutine is called whenever necessary, i.e. the control of
execution is transferred to the subroutine , every time it is called . The executable code in
case of the subroutines becomes smaller as the subroutine appears only once in the
complete code. Thus , the EXE file is smaller as compared to the program using macro
.The control is transferred to the subroutine whenever it is called , and this utilize the
stack service .The program using subroutine requires less memory space for execution
than the using the macro. Macro requires less time for execution , as it does not contain
CALL and RET instructions as the subroutine do
3.15.2.1 Defining a MACRO

A MACRO can be defined anywhere in the program using the directives MACRO
and ENDM. The label prior to MACRO is the macro name which should be used in the
actual program. The ENDM directive mark the end of the instructions .The following
macro DISP displays the message MSG on the CRT. The syntax is as given:
DISP MACRO
MOV AX , SEG MSG
MOV DS , AX
MOV DX , OFFSET MSG
MOVE AH , 09H
INT 21H
ENDM
The above definition of macro assign the name DISP to the instruction sequence between
the directives MACRO and ENDM. While assembling , the above sequence of the
instructions will replace the label ‘DISP’, whenever it appear in the program.
A macro may be called by quoting its name, along with any value to be passed to
the macro. Calling a macro means inserting the statements and instructions represented
by the macro directly at the place of the macro name in the program.
3.15.2.2 Passing Parameters to a MACRO
Using parameters in a definition , the programmer specifies the parameters of the
macro those are likely to be changed each time the macro is called. For example the DISP
macro written above can be made to display two different messages MSG1 and MSG2 as
shown
DISP MACRO
MOV AX , SEG MSG
MOV DS , AX
MOV DX , OFFSET MSG
MOVE AH , 09H
INT 21H
ENDM
This parameter MSG can be replaced by MSG1 and MSG2 while calling the macro as
shown.
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
- -
DISP MSG1
- -
DISP MSG2
- -
CODE ENDS
END START
MSG1 DB OAH,ODH ,”PROGRAM TERMINATED NORMALLY”
MSG1 DB OAH,ODH ,”Retry ,Abort , Fail”
3.16 Assembler Directives And Operators

The main advantage of machine language programming is that the memory
control is directly in the hands of the programmer enabling him to manage the memory of
the system more efficiently. However, there are more disadvantages. The programming,
coding and resource management techniques are tedious. As the programs one has to
have a thorough technical knowledge of the processor architecture and instruction set.
The assembly language programming is simpler as compared to the machine

programming. The instruction mnemonics are directly written in the assembly language
programs. The programs are now more readable than that of machine language
programs. The advantage that assembly language has over machine language in that now
the address values and the constants can be identified by labels. If the labels are clear
then certainly the program will become more understandable, and each time the
programmer will not have to remember the different constants and the addresses at which
they are stored, throughout the programs. Due to this facility, the tedious byte handling
and manipulations are got rid of. Similarly, now different logical segments and routines
may be assigned with the labels rather than the different addresses. The memory control
of machine language programming is left unchanged by providing storage define
facilities in assembly language programming. The documentation facility which was not
possible with machine language programming is now available in assembly language.
Readers will get a better glimpse of the different features of assembly language, when we
discuss assembly programming in the next chapter.
An assembler is a program used to convert an assembly language program into
the equivalent machine code modules which may further be converted to executable
codes. It decides the address of each label and substitutes the vales for each of the
constants and variables. It then forms the machine code for the mnemonics and data in
the assembly language program. While doing these things, the assembler may find out
syntax errors. The logical errors or other programming errors are not found out by the
assembler. For completing all these tasks, an assembler needs some hints from the
programmer, i.e. the required storage for a particular constant or a variable, logical
names of the segments, types of the different routines and modules, end of file, etc.
These types of hints are given to the assembler using some predefined alphabetical
strings called assembler directives, which help the assembler to correctly understand the
assembly language programs to prepare the codes.
Another type of hint which helps the assembler to assign a particular constant
with a label or initialize particular memory locations or labels with constants is an
operator. In fact, the operators perform the arithmetic and logical tasks unlike directives
that just direct the assembler to correctly interpret the program to code it appropriately.
The following directives are commonly used in the assembly language programming
practice using Microsoft Macro Assembler or Turbo Assembler. The directives and
operators are discussed here but their meanings and uses will be more clear in Chapter 3
on assembly language programming techniques.
3.16.1 DB: Define Byte
The DB directive is used to reserve byte or bytes of memory locations in the
available memory. While preparing the EXE file, this directs the assembler to allocate
the specified number of memory bytes to the said data type that may be a constant,
variable, string, etc. Another option of this directive also initializes the reserved memory
bytes with the ASCII codes of the characters specified as a string. The following
examples show how the DB directive is used for different purposes.
Example
RANKS DB 01H, 02H, 03H, 04H
This statement directs the assembler to reserve four memory locations for a list
named RANKS and initialize them with the above specified four values.
MESSAGE DB ‘GOOD MORNING’
This makes the assembler reserve the number of bytes of memory equal to the
number of characters in the string named MESSAGE and initialize those locations by the
ASCII equivalent of these characters.
VALUE DB 50H
This statement direct the assembler to reserve 50H memory bytes and leave them
un initialized for the variable named VALUE
3.16.2 DW: Define Word

The DW directive serves the same purposes as the DB directive, but it now
makes the assembler reserve the number of memory words (16- bit) instead of bytes.
Some examples are given to explain this directive.
Example
WORDS DW 1234H, 4567H, 78BH, 045CH,
This makes the assembler reserve four words in memory (8 bytes), and initialize the
words with the specified values in the statements. During initialization, the lower bytes
are stored at the lower memory addresses, while the upper bytes are stored at the higher
addresses. Another option of the DW directive is explained with the DUP operator.
WDATA DW 5 DUP (6666H)
This statement reserves five words,i.e.10 – bytes of memory for a word lable WDATA
and initializes all the word locations with 6666H.
3.16.3 DQ : Define Quad word

This directive is used to direct the assembler to reserve 4 words (8 bytes) of
memory for the specified variable and may initialize it with the specified values.
3.16.4 DT: Define Ten Bytes
This DT directive directs the assembler to define the specified variable requiring
10- bytes for its storage and initialize the 10 – bytes with the specified values. The
directive may be used in case of variables facing heavy numerical calculations, generally
processed by numerical processors.
3.16.5 ASSUME: Assume logical Segment Name
The ASSUME directive is used to inform the assembler, the names of the logical
segments to be assumed for different segments used in the program. In the assembly
language program, each segment is given a name. For example, the code segment may
be given the name CODE, data segment may be given the name DATA etc. The
statement ASSUME CS: CODE directs the assembler that the machine codes are
available in a segment named CODE, and hence the CS register is to be loaded with the
address (segment) allotted by the operating system for the label CODE, while loading,
Similarly,
3.16.6 ASSUME DS: DATA
It indicates to the assembler that the data items related to the program, are
available in a logical segment named DATA, and the DS register is to be initialized by
the segment address value decided by the operating system for the data segment, while
loading. It then considers the segment DATA as a default data segment for each
memory operation, related to the data and the segment CODE as a source segment for the
machine codes of the program. The ASSUME statement is a must at the staring of each
assembly language program, without which a message ‘CODE/DATA EMITTED
WITHOUT SEGMNT’ may be issued by an assembler.
3.16.7 END: END of Program
The END directive marks the end of an assembly language program. When the
assembler comes across this END directive, it ignores the source lines available later on.
Hence, it should be ensured that the END statement should be the last statement in the
file and should not appear in between. Also, no useful program statement should lie in
the file, after the END statement.
3.16.8 ENDP: END of Procedure
In assembly language programming, the subroutines are called procedures. They
may be independent program modules which return particular results or values to the
calling programs. The ENDP directive is used to indicate the end of a procedure. A
procedure is usually assigned a name, i.e. label. To mark the end of a particular
procedure, the name of the procedure, i.e. label may appear as a prefix with the directive
ENDP. The statements, appearing in the same module but after the ENDP directive, are
neglected from that procedure. The structure given below explains the use of ENDP.
PROCEDURE STAR
:
STAR ENDP
3.16.9 ENDS : END of Segment

This directive marks the end of a logical segment. The logical segments are
assigned with the names using the ASSUME directive. The names appear with the
ENDS directive as prefixes to mark the end of those particular segments. Whatever are
the contents of the segments, they should appear in the program before ENDS. Any
statement appearing after ENDS will be neglected from the segment. The structure
shown below explains the fact more clearly.
DATA SEGMENT
:
DATA ENDS
ASSUME CS: CODE, DS : DATA
CODE SEGMENT
:
CODE ENDS
END
The above structure represents a simple program containing two segments named
DATA and CODE. The data related to the program must lie between the DATA
SEGMENT and DATA ENDS statements. Similarly, all the executable instructions
must lie between CODE SEGMENT and CODE ENDS statements.
3.16.10 EVEN : Align on EVEN Memory Address
The assembler, while starting the assembling procedure of any program,
initializes a location counter and goes on updating it, as the assembly proceeds. It goes
on assigning the available addresses, i.e. the contents of the location counter, sequentially
to the program variables, constants and modules as per their requirements, in the
sequence in which they appear in the program. The EVEN directive updates the location
counter to the next even address, if the current location counter contents are not even, and
assigns the following routine or variable or constant to that address. The structure given
below explains the directive.
EVEN
PROCEDURE ROOT
The above structure shows a procedure ROOT that is :to be aligned at an even address.
The assembler will start assembling
ROOT the main program
ENDP calling ROOT. When the
assembler comes across the directive EVEN, it checks the contents of the location
counter. If it is odd, it is updated to the next even value and then the ROOT procedure is
assigned to that address, i.e. the updated contents of the location counter. If the content
of the location counter is already even, then the ROOT procedure will be assigned with
the same address.
3.16.11 EQU : Equate
The directive EQU is used to assign a label with a value or a symbol. The use of
this directive is just to reduce the recurrence of the numerical values or constants in a
program code. The recurring value is assigned with a label, and that label is used in place
of that numerical value, throughout the program. While assembling, whenever the
assembler comes across the label, it substitutes the numerical value for that label and
finds out the equivalent code. Using the EQU directive, even an instruction mnemonic
can be assigned with a label, which can then be used in the program in place of that
mnemonic. Suppose, a numerical constant which appears in a program ten times. If that
constant is to be changed at a later time, one will have to make the correction 10 times.
This may lead to human errors, because it is possible that a human programmer may miss
one of those corrections. This will result in the generation of wrong codes. If the EQU
directive is used to assign the value with a label that can be used in place of each
recurrence of that constant, only one change in the EQU statement will give the correct
and modified code. The examples given below show the syntax.
Example
LABEL EQU 0500H
ADDITION EQU ADD
The first statement assigns the constant 500H with the label LABEL, while the
second statement assigns another label ADDITION with mnemonic ADD.
3.16.12 EXTRN: External and PUBLIC : Public

The directive EXTRN informs the assembler that the names, procedures and
labels declared after this directive have already been defined in some other assembly
language modules. While in the other module, where the names, procedures and labels
actually appear, they must be declared public, using the PUBLI directive. If one wants to
call a procedure FACTORIAL appearing in MODULE 1 from MODULE 2; in
MODULE 1, it must be declared PUBLIC using the statement PUBLIC FACTORIAL
and in module 2, it must be declared external using the declaration EXTRN
FACTORIAL. The statement of declaration EXTRN must be accompanied by the
SEGMENT and ENDS directives of the MODULE 1, before it is called in MOBULE 2.
Thus the MODULE 1 and MODULE 2 must have the following declarations.
MODULE 1 SEGMENT
PUBLIC FACTORIAL FAR
MODULE 1 ENDS
MODULE 2 SEGMENT
EXTRN FACTORIAL FAR
MODULE 2 ENDS
3.16.13 GROUP :Group the Related Segments

This directive is used to form logical groups of segments with similar purpose or
type. This directive is used to inform the assembler to form a logical group of the
following segment names. The assembler passes an information to the linker / loader to
form the code such that the group declared segments or operands must lie within a
64kbyte memory segment. Thus all such segments and labels can be addressed using the
same segment base.
PROGRAM GROUP CODE, DATA, STACK
The above statement directs the loader / linker to prepare an EXE file such that
CODE, DATA and STACK segment must lie within a 64kbyte memory segment that is
named as PROGRAM. Now, for the ASSUME statement, one can use the label
PROGRAM rather than CODE, DATA and STACK as shown.
ASSUME CS : PROGRAM, DS : PROGRAM, SS: PROGRAM
3.16.14 LABEL : Label

The Label directive is used to assign a name to the current of the location
counter. When the assembly process starts, the assembler initializes a location counter to
keep track of memory locations assigned to the program. As the program assembly
proceeds, the contents of the location counter are updated. During the assembly process,
whenever the assembler comes across the LABEL directive, it assigns the declared label
with the current contents of the location counter. The type of the label must be specified,
i.e. whether it is a NEAR or a FAR label, BYTE or WORD label, etc.
A LABEL directive may be used to make a FAR jump as shown below. A FAR
jump cannot be made at a normal label with a colon. The label CONTINUE can be used
for a FAR jump, if the program contains the following statement.
CONTINUE LABEL FAR
The LABEL directive can be used to refer to the data segment along with the data
type, byte or word as shown.
DATA SEGMENT
DATAS DB 50H DUP (?)
DATA – LAST LABEL BYTE FAR
DATA ENDS
After reserving 50H locations for DATAS, the next location will be assigned a label
DATA – LAST and its type will be byte and far.
3.16.15 LENGTH : Byte Length of a Label
This directive is not available in MASM. This is used to refer to the length of a
data array or a string.
MOV CX, LENGTH ARRAY
This statement, when assembled, will substitute the length of the array ARRAY
in bytes, in the instruction.
3.16.16 LOCAL
The labels, variables, constants or procedures declared LOCAL in a module are to
be used only by that particular module. After some time, some other module may declare
a particular data type LOCAL, which was previously declared LOCAL by an other
module or modules. Thus the same label may serve different purposes for different
modules of a program. With a single declaration statement, a number of variables can be
declared local, as shown.
LOCAL a, b, DATA, ARRAY, ROUTINE
3.16.17 NAME : Logical Name of a Module

The NAME directive is used to assign a name to an assembly language program
module. The module, may now be referred to by its declared name. The names, if
selected to be suggestive, may point out the functions of the different modules and hence
may help in the documentation.
3.16.18 OFFSET : Offset of a Label
When the assembler comes across the OFFSET operator along with a label, it
first computes the 16 – bit displacement (also called as offset interchangeably ) of the
particular label, and replaces the string ‘ORRSET LABEL’ by the computed
displacement. This operator is used with arrays, strings, labels and procedures to decide
their offsets in their default segments. The segment may also be decided by another
operator of similar type, viz, SEG. Its most common use is in the case of the indirect,
indexed, or other addressing techniques of similar types, used to refer to the memory
indirectly. The examples of thus operator are as follows.
Example
CODE SEGMENT
MOV SI, OFFSET LIST
CODE ENDS
DATA SEGMENT
LIST DB 10H
DATA ENDS
3.16.19 ORG: Origin

The ORG directive the assembler to start the memory allotment for the particular
segment, block or code from the declared address in the ORG statement. While stating
the assembly process for a module, the assembler initializes a location counter to keep
track of the allotted addresses for the module. If the ORG statement is not written in the
program, the location counter is initialized to 0000. If an ORG statement is present at the
starting of the code segment of that module, then the code will start from 200H address in
code segment. In other words, the location counter will get in initialized to the address
0200H instead of 0000H. Thus, the code for different modules and segments can be
located in the available memory as required by the programmer. The ORG directive can
even be used with data segments similarly.
3.16.20 PROC: Procedure
The PROC directive marks the start of a named procedure in the statement.
Also, the types NEAR of FAR specify the type of the procedure, i.e. whether it is to be
called by the main program located within 64K of physical memory or not. For example,
the statement RESULT PROC NEAR marks the start of a routine RESULT, which is to
be called by a program located in the same segment of memory. The FAR directive is
used for the procedures to be called by the programs located in different segments of
memory. The example statements are as follows:
Example
RESULT PROC NEAR
ROUTINE PROC FAR
3.16.21 PTR : Pointer

The POINTER operator is used to declare the type of a label, variable or
memory operand. The operator PTR is prefixed by either BYTE or WORD. If the prefix
is BYTE, then the particular label, variable or memory operand is treated as an 8 – bit
quantity, while if WORD is the prefix, then it is treated as a 16 – bit quantity. In other
words, the PTR operator is used to specify the data type – byte or word. The examples of
the PTR operator are as follows:
Example
MOV AL, BYTE PTR [SI] - Moves content of memory location
addressed by SI ( 8 –bit ) to AL
INC BYTE PTR [BX] - Increments byte contents of memory
location addressed by BX
MOV BX, WORD PTR [2000H] - Move 16 –bit content of memory
location 200H to BX, i.e. [2000H] to BL
[2001H] to BH
INC WORD PTR [300h] - Increments word contents of memory
location 3000H considering contents of
of 3000H (lower byte) and 3001H

(higher byte ) as a. 16 –bit number
In case of JMP instructions, the PTR operator is used to specify the type of the jump, i.e.
near of far, as explained in the examples given below.
JMP NEAR PTR [BX] – NEAR jump
JMP FAR PTR [BX] – FAR jump
3.16.22 PUBLIC
As already discussed, the PUBLIC directive is used along with the EXTRN
directive. This informs the assembler that the labels, variables, constants, or procedures
declared PUBLIC may be assessed by other assembly modules to form their codes, but
while using the PUBLIC declared labels, variables m constants or procedures the user
must declare them externals using the EXTRN directive. On
the other hand, the data types declared EXTRN in module of the program, may be
declared PUBLIC in at least any one of the other modules of the same program. (Refer to
the explanation on EXTRN directive to get the clear idea of PUBLIC)
3.16.23 SEG: Segment of Label
The SEG operator is used to decide the segment address of the label, variable, or
procedure and substitutes the segment base address in place of “SEG” label. The
example given below explains the use of SEG operator.
Example
MOV AX, SEG ARRAY ; This statement moves the segment address of
ARRAY in
MOV DS, AX ; Which it is appearing, to register AX and then
to DS.
3.16.24 SEGMENT : Logical Segment

The SEGMENT directive marks the starting of a logical segment. The started is
also assigned a name, i.e. label, by this statement. The SEGMENT and ENDS directive
must bracket each logical segment of a program. In some cases, the segment may be
assigned a type like PUBLIC (i.e. can be used by other modules of the program while
linking) or GLOBAL (can be accessed by any other modules). The program structure
given below explains the use of the SEBMENT directive.
EXE. CODE SEGMENT GLOBAL ; Start of segment named EXE. CODE
that can be accessed by any other module.
MOV DS, AX ; END of EXE. CODE logical segment
3.16.25 SHORT
The SHORT operator indicates to the assembler that only one byte is required to
code the displacement for a jump (i.e. displacement is within – 128 to + 127 bytes from
the address of the byte next to the jump opcode). This method of specifying the jump
address saves the memory. Otherwise, the assembler may reserve two bytes for the
displacement. The syntax of the statement is as given below.
JMP SHORT LABEL
3.16.26 TYPE
The TYPE operator directs the assembler to decide the data type of the specified
label and replaces the ‘TYPE’ label by the decided data type. For the word type variable,
the data type is 2, for double word type, it is 4, and for byte type, it is 1. Suppose, the
STRING is a word array. The instruction MOV AX, TYPE STRING moves the value
0002H in AX.
3.16.27 GLOBAL
The labels, variables constants or procedures declared GLOBAL may be used by
other modules of the program. Once a variable is declared GLOBAL, it can be used by
any module in the program. The following statement declares the procedure ROUTINE
as a global label.
ROUTINE PROC GLOBAL
‘ + & -’ Operators These operators represent arithmetic addition and subtraction
respectively and are typically used to add or subtract displacements (8 or 16 bit) to base
or index registers or stack or base pointers as given in the example:
Example
MOV AL, [ SI + 2]
MOV DX, [ BX - 5]
MOV BX, [ OFFSET LABEL + 10H ]
MOV AX, [ BX + 9I ]
3.16.28 FAR PTR

This directive indicates the assembler that the label following FAR PTR is not
available within the same segment and the address of the label is of 32 – bits i.e. 2 bytes
offset followed by 2 bytes segment address.
Example
JMP FAR PTR LABEL
CALL FAR PTR ROUTINE
Both the above instructions indicate to the assembles that the target address is
going to require four bytes; Lower byte of offset, higher byte of offset, lower byte of
segment and higher byte of segment; indicating inter segment addressing mode.
3.16.29 NEAR PTR
This directive indicates that the label following NEAR PTR is in the same
segment and needs only 16 bit i.e. 2 byte offset to address it.
Example
JMP NEAR PTR LABEL
CALL NEAR PTR ROUTINE
If a label is not preceded by NEAR PTR or FAR PTR, then it is by default

considered a NEAR PTR label and two bytes are reserved by the assembler for its
address during the process of assembling.
3.18 Coprocessor 8087

3.18.1 Overview
 Each processor in the 80x86 family has a corresponding coprocessor with which it
is compatible.
 Math Coprocessor is known as NPX,NDP,FUP.
 Numeric processor extension (NPX),
 Numeric data processor (NDP),
 Floating point unit (FUP).
3.18.2 Compatible Processor and Coprocessor
Processors
1. 8086 & 8088
2. 80286
3. 80386DX
4. 80386SX
5. 80486DX
6. 80486SX
Coprocessors
1. 8087
2. 80287,80287XL
3. 80287,80387DX
4. 80387SX
5. It is Inbuilt
6. 80487SX
Figure 17 : Pin Diagram of 8087

3.18.3 Architecture of 8087
1. Control Unit
2. Execution Unit
3.18.3.1 Control Unit
Control unit: To synchronize the operation of the coprocessor and the processor. This unit
has a Control word and Status word and Data Buffer If instruction is an ESCape
(coprocessor) instruction, the coprocessor executes it, if not the microprocessor executes.
Status register reflects the over all operation of the coprocessor.
Figure 18 : Architecture of 8087

3.18.3.2 Status Register
Figure 19 : status Register

C3-C0 Condition code bits
TOP Top-of-stack (ST)
ES Error summary
PE Precision error
UE Under flow error
OE Overflow error
ZE Zero error
DE Denormalized error
IE Invalid error
B Busy bit
B-Busy bit indicates that coprocessor is busy executing a task. Busy can be tested by
examining the status or by using the FWAIT instruction. Newer coprocessor
automatically synchronize with the microprocessor, so busy flag need not be tested
before performing additional coprocessor tasks.
C3-C0 Condition code bits indicates conditions about the coprocessor.
TOP- Top of the stack (ST) bit indicates the current register address as the top of the
stack.
ES-Error summary bit is set if any unmasked error bit (PE, UE, OE, ZE, DE, or IE) is set.
In the 8087 the error summary is also caused a coprocessor interrupt.
PE- Precision error indicates that the result or operand executes selected precision.
UE-Under flow error indicates the result is too large to be represent with the current
precision selected by the control word.
OE-Over flow error indicates a result that is too large to be represented. If this error is
masked, the coprocessor generates infinity for an overflow error.
ZE-A Zero error indicates the divisor was zero while the dividend is a non-infinity or
non-zero number.
DE-Denormalized error indicates at least one of the operand is denormalized.
IE-Invalid error indicates a stack overflow or underflow, indeterminate from (0/0,0,-0,
etc) or the use of a NAN as an operand. This flag indicates error such as those produced
by taking the square root of a negative number.
3.18.3.3 Control Register
Control register selects precision, rounding control, infinity control. It also masks an
unmasks the exception bits that correspond to the rightmost Six bits of status register.
Instruction FLDCW is used to load the value into the control register.
Figure 20: Control Register

IC Infinity control
RC Rounding control
PC Precision control
PM Precision control
UM Underflow mask
OM Overflow mask
ZM Division by zero mask
DM Denormalized operand mask
IM Invalid operand mask
IC –Infinity control selects either affine or projective infinity. Affine allows positive and
negative infinity, while projective assumes infinity is unsigned.
INFINITY CONTROL
0 = Projective
1 = Affine
RC –Rounding control determines the type of rounding.

ROUNDING CONTROL
00=Round to nearest or even
01=Round down towards minus infinity
10=Round up towards plus infinity
11=Chop or truncate towards zero
PC- Precision control sets the precision of he result as define in table
PRECISION CONTROL
00=Single precision (short)
01=Reserved
10=Double precision (long)
11=Extended precision (temporary)
3.18.3.4 Exception Masks – It Determines whether the error indicated by the exception
affects the error bit in the status register. If a logic1 is placed in one of the exception
control bits, corresponding status register bit is masked off.
3.18.3.5 Numeric Execution Unit
This performs all operations that access and manipulate the numeric data in the
coprocessor’s registers. Numeric registers in NUE are 80 bits wide. NUE is able to
perform arithmetic, logical and transcendental operations as well as supply a small
number of mathematical constants from its on-chip ROM. Numeric data is routed into
two parts ways a 64 bit mantissa bus and a 16 bit sign/exponent bus.
Multiplexed address-data bus lines are connected directly from the 8086 to 8087.
The status lines and the queue status lines connected directly from 8086 to 8087.
The Request/Grant signal RQ/GT0 of 8087 is connected to RQ/GT1 of 8086. BUSY
signal 8087 is connected to TEST pin of 8086. Interrupt output INT of the 8087 to NMI
input of 8086. This intimates an error condition. The main purpose of the circuitry
between the INT output of 8087 and the NMI input is to make sure that an NMI signal is
not present upon reset, to make it possible to mask NMI input and to make it possible for
other devices to cause an NMI interrupt. BHE pin is connected to the system BHE line to
Multiplexed address-data bus lines are connected directly from the 8086 to 8087. The
status lines and the queue status lines connected directly from 8086 to 8087.
The Request/Grant signal RQ/GT0 of 8087 is connected to RQ/GT1 of 8086. BUSY

signal 8087 is connected to TEST pin of 8086. Interrupt output INT of the 8087 to NMI
input of 8086. This intimates an error condition. The main purpose of the circuitry
between the INT output of 8087 and the NMI input is to make sure that an NMI signal is
not present upon reset, to make it possible to mask NMI input and to make it possible for
other devices to cause an NMI interrupt. BHE pin is connected to the system BHE line to
enable the upper bank of memory. The RQ/GT1 input is available so that another
coprocessor such as 8089 I/O processor can be connected and function in parallel with
the 8087. One type of Cooperation between the two processors that you need to know
about it is how the 8087 transfers data between memory and its internal registers.
When 8086 reads an 8087 instruction that needs data from memory or wants to
send data to memory, the 8086 sends out the memory address code in the instruction and
sends out the appropriate memory read or memory write signal to transfer a word of data.
In the case of memory read, the addressed word will be kept on the data bus by the
memory. The 8087 then simply reads the word of data bus. The 8086 ignores this word
.If the 8087 only needs this one word of data, it can then go on and executes its
instruction. Some 8087 instructions need to read in or write out up to 80-bit word. For
these cases 8086 outputs the address of the first data word on the address bus and outputs
the appropriate control signal.
The 8087 reads the data word on the data bus by memory or writes a data word to
memory on the data bus. The 8087 grabs the 20-bit physical address that was output by
the 8086.To transfer additional words it needs to/from memory, the 8087 then takes over
the buses from 8086. To take over the bus, the 8087 sends out a low-going pulse on
RQ/GT0 pin. The 8086 responds to this by sending another low going pulse back to the
RQ/GT0 pin of 8087 and by floating its buses. The 8087 then increments the address it
grabbed during the first transfer and outputs the incremented address on the address bus.
When the 8087 output a memory read or memory write signal, another data word will be
transferred to or from the 8087. The 8087 continues the process until it has transferred all
the data words required by the instruction to/from memory. When the 8087 is using the
buses for its data transfer, it sends another low-going pulse out on its RQ/ GT0 pin to
8086 to know it can have the buses back again. The next type of the synchronization
between the host processor and the coprocessor is that required to make sure the 8086
hast does not attempt to execute the next instruction before the 8087 has completed an
instruction. Taking one situation, in the case where the 8086 needs the data produced by
the execution of an 8087 instruction to carry out its next instruction. �In the instruction
sequence for example the 8087 must complete the FSTSW STATUS instruction before
the 8086 will have the data it needs to execute the MOV AX , STATUS instruction.
Without some mechanism to make the 8086 wait until the 8087 completes the FSTSW
instruction, the 8086 will go on and execute the MOV AX , STATUS with erroneous data
We solve this problem by connecting the 8087 BUSY output to the TEST pin of the 8086
and putting on the WAIT instruction in the program. While 8087 is executing an
instruction it asserts its BUSY pin high. When it is finished with an instruction, the 8087
will drop its BUSY pin low. Since the BUSY pin from 8087 is connected to the TEST pin
8086 the processor can check its pin of 8087 whether it finished it instruction or not.
You place the 8086 WAIT instruction in your program after the 8087 FSTSW
instruction .When 8086 executes the WAIT instruction it enters an internal loop where it
repeatedly checks the logic level on the TEST input. The 8086 will stay in this loop until
it finds the TEST input asserted low, indicating the 8087 has completed its instruction.
The 8086 will then exit the internal loop, fetch and execute the next instruction.
Example
FSTSW STATUS ;copy 8087 status word to memory
MOV AX, STATUS ;copy status word to AX to check ; bits
(a)
In this set of instructions we are not using WAIT instruction. Due to this the flow of
execution of command will takes place continuously even though the previous instruction
had not finished it’s completion of its work .so we may lost data .
FSTSW STATUS ;copy 8087 status word to memory
FWAIT ;wait for 8087 to finish before-; doing next 8086 instruction
MOV AX,STATUS ;copy status word to AX to check ; bits
(b)
In this code we are adding up of FWAIT instruction so that it will stop the execution of
the command until the above instruction is finishes it’s work .so that you are not loosing
data and after that you will allow to continue the execution of instructions. Another case
where you need synchronization of the processor and the coprocessor is the case where a
program has several 8087 instructions in sequence. The 8087 are executed only one
instruction at a time so you have to make sure that 8087 has completed one instruction
before you allow the 8086 to fetch the next 8087 instruction from memory. Here again
you use the BUSY-TEST connection and the FWAIT instruction to solve the problem. If
you are hand coding, you can just put the 8086 WAIT(FWAIT) instruction after each
instruction to make sure that instruction is completed before going on to next. If you are
using the assembler which accepts 8087 mnemonics, the assembler will automatically
insert the 8-bit code for the WAIT instruction ,10011011 binary (9BH), as the first byte
of the code for 8087 instruction.
3.18.4 Interfacing
Multiplexed address-data bus lines are connected directly from the 8086 to 8087.
The status lines and the queue status lines connected directly from 8086 to 8087. The
Request/Grant signal RQ/GT0 of 8087 is connected to RQ/GT1 of 8086. BUSY signal
8087 is connected to TEST pin of 8086. Interrupt output INT of the 8087 to NMI input of
8086. This intimates an error condition. A WAIT instruction is passed to keep looking at
its TEST pin, until it finds pin Low to indicates that the 8087 has completed the
computation. SYNCHRONIZATION must be established between the processor and

coprocessor in two situations.
a) The execution of an ESC instruction that require the participation of the NUE must not
be initiated if the NUE has not completed the execution of the previous instruction.
b) When a processor instruction accesses a memory location that is an operand of a
previous coprocessor instruction .In this case CPU must synchronize with NPX to ensure
that it has completed its instruction. Processor WAIT instruction is provided.
3.18.5 Exception Handling
The 8087 detects six different types of exception conditions that occur during
instruction execution. These will cause an interrupt if unmasked and interrupts are
enabled.
1) INVALID OPERATION
2) OVERFLOW
3) ZERO DIVISOR
4) UNDERFLOW
5) DENORMALIZED OPERAND
6) INEXACT RESULT
3.18.6 Data Types
Internally, all data operands are converted to the 80-bit temporary real format. We have 3
types.
•Integer data type
•Packed BCD data type
•Real data type
Coprocessor data types
Integer Data Type
Packed BCD
Real data type
Example
Converting a decimal number into a Floating-point number.
1) Converting the decimal number into binary form.
2) Normalize the binary number
3) Calculate the biased exponent.

4) Store the number in the floating-point format.
Example
Step Result
1) 100.25
2) 1100100.01 = 1.10010001 * 26
3) 110+01111111=10000101
4) Sign = 0
Exponent =10000101
Significant = 10010001000000000000000
• In step 3 the biased exponent is the exponent a 26 or 110,plus a bias of
01111111(7FH) ,single precision no use 7F and double precision no use 3FFFH.
• IN step 4 the information found in prior step is combined to form the floating point
no.
3.18.7 Instruction Set
The 8087 instruction mnemonics begins with the letter F which stands for
Floating point and distinguishes from 8086. These are grouped into Four functional
groups. The 8087 detects an error condition usually called an exception when it executing
an instruction it will set the bit in its Status register.
Types
I. DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS.
II. ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS.
III. COMPARE INSTRUCTIONS.
IV. TRANSCENDENTAL INSTRUCTIONS.(Trigonometric and Exponential)
V. CONSTANT INSTRUCTIONS
3.18.7.1 Data Transfers Instructions
3.18.7.1.1 REAL TRANSFER
FLD Load real
FST Store real
FSTP Store real and pop
FXCH Exchange registers
3.18.7.1.2 INTEGER TRANSFER

FILD Load integer
FIST Store integer
FISTP Store integer and pop
PACKED DECIMAL TRANSFER(BCD)
FBLD Load BCD
FBSTP Store BCD and pop
Example
FLD Source- Decrements the stack pointer by one and copies a real number from a stack
element or memory location to the new ST.
FLD ST(3) Copies ST(3) to ST.
FLD LONG_REAL[BX] ;Number from memory ;copied to ST.
FLD Destination- Copies ST to a specified stack position or to a specified memory
location .
FST ST(2) ;Copies ST to ST(2),and ;increment stack pointer.
FST SHORT_REAL[BX] ;Copy ST to a memory at a ;SHORT_REAL[BX]
FXCH Destination – Exchange the contents of ST with the contents of a specified stack
element.
FXCH ST(5) ;Swap ST and ST(5)
FILD Source – Integer load. Convert integer number from memory to temporary-real
format and push on 8087 stack.
FILD DWORD PTR[BX] ;Short integer from memory at [BX].
FIST Destination- Integer store. Convert number from ST to integer and copy to
memory.
FIST LONG_INT ;ST to memory locations named LONG_INT.
FISTP Destination-Integer store and pop. Identical to FIST except that stack pointer is
incremented after copy.
FBLD Source- Convert BCD number from memory to temporary- real format and push
on top of 8087 stack.
3.18.7.2 Arithmetic Instructions.

Four basic arithmetic functions: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division.
3.18.7.2.1 Addition
FADD Add real
FADDP Add real and pop
FIADD Add integer
3.18.7.2.2 Subtraction
FSUB Subtract real
FSUBP Subtract real and pop
FISUB Subtract integer
FSUBR Subtract real reversed
FSUBRP Subtract real and pop
FISUBR Subtract integer reversed
3.18.7.2.3 Multiplication
FMUL Multiply real
FMULP Multiply real and pop
FIMUL Multiply integer
3.18.7.2.4 Advanced
FABS Absolute value
FCHS Change sign
FPREM Partial remainder
FPRNDINT Round to integer
FSCALE Scale
FSQRT Square root
FXTRACT Extract exponent and mantissa.
Example
FADD – Add real from specified source to specified destination Source can be a stack or
memory location. Destination must be a stack element. If no source or destination is
specified, then ST is added to ST(1) and stack pointer is incremented so that the result of
addition is at ST.
FADD ST(3), ST ;Add ST to ST(3), result in ST(3)
FADD ST,ST(4) ;Add ST(4) to ST, result in ST.

FADD ;ST + ST(1 , pop stack result at ST
FADDP ST(1) ;Add ST(1) to ST. Increment stack ;pointer so ST(1) become ST.
FIADD Car_Sold ;Integer number from memory + ST
FSUB - Subtract the real number at the specified source from the real number at the
specified destination and put the result in the specified destination.
FSUB ST(2), ST ;ST(2)=ST(2) – ST.
FSUB Rate ;ST=ST – real no from memory.
FSUB ;ST=( ST(1) – ST)
FSUBP - Subtract ST from specified stack element and put result in specified stack
element .Then increment the pointer by one.
FSUBP ST(1) ;ST(1)-ST. ST(1) becomes new ST
FISUB – Integer from memory subtracted from ST, result in ST.
FISUB Cars_Sold ;ST becomes ST – integer from memory
3.18.7.3 Compare Instructions.
FCOM Compare real
FCOMP Compare real and pop
FCOMPP Compare real and pop twice
FICOM Compare integer
FICOMP Compare integer and pop
FTST Test ST against +0.0
FXAM Examine ST
3.18.7.4 Transcendental Instruction.
FPTAN Partial tangent
FPATAN Partial arctangent
F2XM1 2x - 1
FYL2X Y log2X
FYL2XP1 Y log2(X+1)
Example
FPTAN – Compute the values for a ratio of Y/X for an angle in ST. The angle must be in
radians, and the angle must be in the range of 0 < angle < π/4.
F2XM1 – Compute Y=2x-1 for an X value in ST. The result Y replaces X in ST. X must
be in the range 0≤X≤0.5.
FYL2X - Calculate Y(LOG2X).X must be in the range of 0 < X < ∞ any Y must be in
the range -∞<Y<+∞.
FYL2XP1 – Compute the function Y(LOG2(X+1)).This instruction is almost identical to
FYL2X except that it gives more accurate results when compute log of a number very
close to one.
3.18.7.5 Constant Instructions.
Load Constant Instruction
FLDZ Load +0.0
FLDI Load+1.0
FLDPI Load π
FLDL2T Load log210
FLDL2E Load log2e
FLDLG2 Load log102
FLDLN2 Load loge2
ALGORITHM
To calculate x to the power of y
Load base, power.
Compute (y )*( log2 x)
Separate integer(i) ,fraction(f) of a real number
Divide fraction (f) by 2
Compute (2 f/2) * ( 2f/2)
xy = (2x) * (2y )
Program:
Program to calculate x to the power of y
.MODEL SMALL
.DATA
x Dq 4.567 ;Base
y Dq 2.759 ;Power
temp DD
temp1 DD
temp2 DD ;final real result
tempint DD
tempint1 DD ;final integer result
two DW
diff DD
trunc_cw DW 0fffh
.STACK 100h
.CODE
start : mov ax, @DATA ;init data segment
mov ds, ax
•
load: fld y ;load the power
fld x ;load the base
•
comput: fyl2x ;compute (y * log2(x))
fst temp ;save the temp result
trunc: fldcw trunc_cw ;set truncation command
frndint
fld temp ;load real number of fyl2x
fist tempint ;save integer after truncation
fld temp ;load the real number
•
getfrac: fisub tempint ;subtract the integer
fst diff ;store the fraction
fracby2: fidiv two ;divide the fraction by 2
twopwrx: f2xm1 ;calculate the 2 to the power fraction
fst temp1 ;minus 1 and save the result
fld1 ;load1
fadd ;add 1 to the previous result
fst temp1 ;save the result
sqfrac: fmul st(0),st(0) ;square the result as fraction

fst temp1 ;was halved and save the result
fild tempint ;save the integer portion
fxch ;interchange the integer ;and power of fraction.
scale: fscale ;scale the result in real and ;integer
fst temp2 ;in st(1) and store fist tempint1 ;save the final result
in real and integer
over: mov ax,4c00h ;exit to dos
int 21h
end start
3.15 Procedure and Macros of 8086

3.15.1 Procedure:
Named group of statement which is performed particular task is called procedure.
Procedure or subroutine may require input data or constants for their execution. Their
data or constants may be passed to the subroutine by main program or some subroutine
may access readily available data of constants available in memory.
Generally , the following technique are used to pass input / parameter to procedures in
ALP
f) Using Global declared variable
g) Using registers of CPU architecture
h) Using memory location
i) Using stack
j) Using PUBLIC and EXTERN
3.15.1.1 Using Global declared variable
A variable or a parameter label may be declared global in the main program and
the same variable or parameter label can be used by all the procedures of the application.
Examples of passing parameters
DATA SEGMENT
NUMBER EQY 77H GLOBAL
DATA ENDS
CODE1 SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CODE1 ENDS
ASSUME CS : CODE2
CODE2 SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CODE2 ENDS
END START
3.15.1.2 Using registers of CPU architecture
The CPU general purpose registers may be used to pass parameters to the
procedures. The main program may store the parameters to be passed to the procedure in
the variable CPU registers and the procedure may use the same register content for
execution. The original content of the used CPU register may change during execution of
the procedure. This may be avoided by pushing all the register content to be used to the
stack sequentially at the start of the procedure and poping all the register contents at the
end of the procedure in opposite sequence.
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX , 5555H
MOV BX , 5456H
- -
- -
PROCEDURE P1 NEAR
- -
- -
ADD AX , BX
- -
- -
RET
P1 ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.1.3 Using memory location
Memory location may also be used to pass parameter to a procedure in the same
way as registers. A main program may store the parameter to be passed to a procedure at
known memory address location and the procedure may use the same location for
accessing the parameter.
Example:
DATA SEGMENT
NUM DB (55H)
COUNT EQY 77H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CALL ROUTINE
- -
- -
MOV BX , NUM
MOV CX , COUNT
- -
ROUTINE ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.1.4 Using stack
Stack memory can also be used to pass parameters to procedure. A main program
may store the parameters to be passed to a procedure in its CPU registers . The registers
will further be pushed on to the stack. The procedure during its execution pops back the
appropriate parameters as and when required. This procedure of poping back the
parameters must be implemented carefully because besides the parameters to be passed to
the procedure the stack contains other important information like contents of other
pushed registers, return addresses from the current procedure and other procedure or
interrupt service routines.
Example :
ASSUME CS : CODE,SS : STACK
STACK SEGMENT
STACKDATA DB 200H DUP ( ? )
STACK ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX , STACK
MOV SS,AX
MOV BX , 55H
MOV CX , 10H
- -
PUSH AX
PUSH CX
CALL ROUTINE
- -
- -
- -
MOV DX , SP
ADD SP ,02H
POP CX
POP BX
MOV SP , DX
- -
ROUTINE ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.1.5 Using PUBLIC and EXTERN
For passing the parameters to procedures using the PUBLIC & EXTERN
directives , must be declared PUBLIC (for all routine) in the main routine and the same
should be declared EXTERN in the procedure Thus the main program can pass the
PUBLIC parameter to a procedure in which it is declared EXTERN(external)
Example:
DATA SEGMENT
PUBLIC NUMBER EQY 77H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX
- -
- -
CALL ROUTINE
- -
EXTERN NUMBER
MOV AX , NUMBER
- -
ROUTINE ENDP
CODE ENDS
END START
3.15.2 MACROS
The macro is also similar to subroutine. Suppose , a number of instructions are
repeating through in the main program , the listing becomes lengthy. So a macro
definition i. e. a label , is assigned with in the repeatedly appearing string of instructions.
The process of assigning a label or macro name to the string is called macro. A macro
within the macro is called nested macro. The macro name or macro definition is then
used throughout the main program to refer to the string of instructions.
The difference between a macro and a subroutine is that in the macro the
complete code of the instructions string is inserted at each place where the macro name
appears. Hence the EXE file becomes lengthy. Macro does not utilize the service of stack
.There is no question of transfer of control as the program using the macro inserts the
complete code of the macro at every reference of the macro name.
On the other hand , subroutine is called whenever necessary, i.e. the control of
execution is transferred to the subroutine , every time it is called . The executable code in
case of the subroutines becomes smaller as the subroutine appears only once in the
complete code. Thus , the EXE file is smaller as compared to the program using macro
.The control is transferred to the subroutine whenever it is called , and this utilize the
stack service .The program using subroutine requires less memory space for execution
than the using the macro. Macro requires less time for execution , as it does not contain
CALL and RET instructions as the subroutine do
3.15.2.1 Defining a MACRO
A MACRO can be defined anywhere in the program using the directives MACRO
and ENDM. The label prior to MACRO is the macro name which should be used in the
actual program. The ENDM directive mark the end of the instructions .The following
macro DISP displays the message MSG on the CRT. The syntax is as given:
DISP MACRO
MOV AX , SEG MSG
MOV DS , AX
MOV DX , OFFSET MSG
MOVE AH , 09H
INT 21H
ENDM
The above definition of macro assign the name DISP to the instruction sequence between
the directives MACRO and ENDM. While assembling , the above sequence of the
instructions will replace the label ‘DISP’, whenever it appear in the program.
A macro may be called by quoting its name, along with any value to be passed to
the macro. Calling a macro means inserting the statements and instructions represented
by the macro directly at the place of the macro name in the program.
3.15.2.2 Passing Parameters to a MACRO
Using parameters in a definition , the programmer specifies the parameters of the
macro those are likely to be changed each time the macro is called. For example the DISP
macro written above can be made to display two different message MSG1 and MSG2 as
shown
DISP MACRO
MOV AX , SEG MSG
MOV DS , AX
MOV DX , OFFSET MSG
MOVE AH , 09H
INT 21H
ENDM
This parameter MSG can be replaced by MSG1 and MSG2 while calling the macro as
shown.
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX,DATA
- -
DISP MSG1
- -
DISP MSG2
- -
CODE ENDS
END START
MSG1 DB OAH,ODH ,”PROGRAM TERMINATED NORMALLY”
MSG1 DB OAH,ODH ,”Retry ,Abort , Fail”
3.16 Assembler Directives And Operators
The main advantage of machine language programming is that the memory
control is directly in the hands of the programmer enabling him to manage the memory of
the system more efficiently. However, there are more disadvantages. The programming,
coding and resource management techniques are tedious. As the programs one has to
have a thorough technical knowledge of the processor architecture and instruction set.
The assembly language programming is simpler as compared to the machine
programming. The instruction mnemonics are directly written in the assembly language
programs. The programs are now more readable than that of machine language
programs. The advantage that assembly language has over machine language in that now
the address values and the constants can be identified by labels. If the labels are clear
then certainly the program will become more understandable, and each time the
programmer will not have to remember the different constants and the addresses at which
they are stored, throughout the programs. Due to this facility, the tedious byte handling
and manipulations are got rid of. Similarly, now different logical segments and routines
may be assigned with the labels rather than the different addresses. The memory control
of machine language programming is left unchanged by providing storage define
facilities in assembly language programming. The documentation facility which was not
possible with machine language programming is now available in assembly language.
Readers will get a better glimpse of the different features of assembly language, when we
discuss assembly programming in the next chapter.
An assembler is a program used to convert an assembly language program into
the equivalent machine code modules which may further be converted to executable
codes. It decides the address of each label and substitutes the vales for each of the
constants and variables. It then forms the machine code for the mnemonics and data in
the assembly language program. While doing these things, the assembler may find out
syntax errors. The logical errors or other programming errors are not found out by the
assembler. For completing all these tasks, an assembler needs some hints from the
programmer, i.e. the required storage for a particular constant or a variable, logical
names of the segments, types of the different routines and modules, end of file, etc.
These types of hints are given to the assembler using some predefined alphabetical
strings called assembler directives, which help the assembler to correctly understand the
assembly language programs to prepare the codes.
Another type of hint which helps the assembler to assign a particular constant
with a label or initialize particular memory locations or labels with constants is an
operator. In fact, the operators perform the arithmetic and logical tasks unlike directives
that just direct the assembler to correctly interpret the program to code it appropriately.
The following directives are commonly used in the assembly language programming
practice using Microsoft Macro Assembler or Turbo Assembler. The directives and
operators are discussed here but their meanings and uses will be more clear in Chapter 3
on assembly language programming techniques.
3.16.2 DB: Define Byte
The DB directive is used to reserve byte or bytes of memory locations in the
available memory. While preparing the EXE file, this directs the assembler to allocate
the specified number of memory bytes to the said data type that may be a constant,
variable, string, etc. Another option of this directive also initializes the reserved memory
bytes with the ASCII codes of the characters specified as a string. The following
examples show how the DB directive is used for different purposes.
Example
RANKS DB 01H, 02H, 03H, 04H
This statement directs the assembler to reserve four memory locations for a list
named RANKS and initialize them with the above specified four values.
MESSAGE DB ‘GOOD MORNING’
This makes the assembler reserve the number of bytes of memory equal to the
number of characters in the string named MESSAGE and initialize those locations by the
ASCII equivalent of these characters.
VALUE DB 50H
This statement direct the assembler to reserve 50H memory bytes and leave them
un initialized for the variable named VALUE
3.16.2 DW: Define Word

The DW directive serves the same purposes as the DB directive, but it now
makes the assembler reserve the number of memory words (16- bit) instead of bytes.
Some examples are given to explain this directive.
Example
WORDS DW 1234H, 4567H, 78BH, 045CH,
This makes the assembler reserve four words in memory (8 bytes), and initialize the
words with the specified values in the statements. During initialization, the lower bytes
are stored at the lower memory addresses, while the upper bytes are stored at the higher
addresses. Another option of the DW directive is explained with the DUP operator.
WDATA DW 5 DUP (6666H)
This statement reserves five words,i.e.10 – bytes of memory for a word lable WDATA
and initializes all the word locations with 6666H.
3.16.3 DQ : Define Quad word

This directive is used to direct the assembler to reserve 4 words (8 bytes) of
memory for the specified variable and may initialize it with the specified values.
3.16.4 DT: Define Ten Bytes
This DT directive directs the assembler to define the specified variable requiring
10- bytes for its storage and initialize the 10 – bytes with the specified values. The
directive may be used in case of variables facing heavy numerical calculations, generally
processed by numerical processors.
3.16.5 ASSUME: Assume logical Segment Name
The ASSUME directive is used to inform the assembler, the names of the logical
segments to be assumed for different segments used in the program. In the assembly
language program, each segment is given a name. For example, the code segment may
be given the name CODE, data segment may be given the name DATA etc. The
statement ASSUME CS: CODE directs the assembler that the machine codes are
available in a segment named CODE, and hence the CS register is to be loaded with the
address (segment) allotted by the operating system for the label CODE, while loading,
Similarly,
3.16.6 ASSUME DS: DATA
It indicates to the assembler that the data items related to the program, are
available in a logical segment named DATA, and the DS register is to be initialized by
the segment address value decided by the operating system for the data segment, while
loading. It then considers the segment DATA as a default data segment for each
memory operation, related to the data and the segment CODE as a source segment for the
machine codes of the program. The ASSUME statement is a must at the staring of each
assembly language program, without which a message ‘CODE/DATA EMITTED
WITHOUT SEGMNT’ may be issued by an assembler.
3.16.7 END: END of Program
The END directive marks the end of an assembly language program. When the
assembler comes across this END directive, it ignores the source lines available later on.
Hence, it should be ensured that the END statement should be the last statement in the
file and should not appear in between. Also, no useful program statement should lie in
the file, after the END statement.
3.16.8 ENDP: END of Procedure
In assembly language programming, the subroutines are called procedures. They
may be independent program modules which return particular results or values to the
calling programs. The ENDP directive is used to indicate the end of a procedure. A
procedure is usually assigned a name, i.e. label. To mark the end of a particular
procedure, the name of the procedure, i.e. label may appear as a prefix with the directive
ENDP. The statements, appearing in the same module but after the ENDP directive, are
neglected from that procedure. The structure given below explains the use of ENDP.
PROCEDURE STAR
:
STAR ENDP
3.16.9 ENDS : END of Segment

This directive marks the end of a logical segment. The logical segments are
assigned with the names using the ASSUME directive. The names appear with the
ENDS directive as prefixes to mark the end of those particular segments. Whatever are
the contents of the segments, they should appear in the program before ENDS. Any
statement appearing after ENDS will be neglected from the segment. The structure
shown below explains the fact more clearly.
DATA SEGMENT
:
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
:
CODE ENDS
END
The above structure represents a simple program containing two segments named
DATA and CODE. The data related to the program must lie between the DATA
SEGMENT and DATA ENDS statements. Similarly, all the executable instructions
must lie between CODE SEGMENT and CODE ENDS statements.
3.16.10 EVEN : Align on EVEN Memory Address
The assembler, while starting the assembling procedure of any program,
initializes a location counter and goes on updating it, as the assembly proceeds. It goes
on assigning the available addresses, i.e. the contents of the location counter, sequentially
to the program variables, constants and modules as per their requirements, in the
sequence in which they appear in the program. The EVEN directive updates the location
counter to the next even address, if the current location counter contents are not even, and
assigns the following routine or variable or constant to that address. The structure given
below explains the directive.
EVEN
PROCEDURE ROOT
The above structure shows a procedure ROOT that is :to be aligned at an even address.
The assembler will start assembling
ROOT the main program
ENDP calling ROOT. When the
assembler comes across the directive EVEN, it checks the contents of the location
counter. If it is odd, it is updated to the next even value and then the ROOT procedure is
assigned to that address, i.e. the updated contents of the location counter. If the content
of the location counter is already even, then the ROOT procedure will be assigned with
the same address.
3.16.11 EQU : Equate
The directive EQU is used to assign a label with a value or a symbol. The use of
this directive is just to reduce the recurrence of the numerical values or constants in a
program code. The recurring value is assigned with a label, and that label is used in place
of that numerical value, throughout the program. While assembling, whenever the
assembler comes across the label, it substitutes the numerical value for that label and
finds out the equivalent code. Using the EQU directive, even an instruction mnemonic
can be assigned with a label, which can then be used in the program in place of that
mnemonic. Suppose, a numerical constant which appears in a program ten times. If that
constant is to be changed at a later time, one will have to make the correction 10 times.
This may lead to human errors, because it is possible that a human programmer may miss
one of those corrections. This will result in the generation of wrong codes. If the EQU
directive is used to assign the value with a label that can be used in place of each
recurrence of that constant, only one change in the EQU statement will give the correct
and modified code. The examples given below show the syntax.
Example
LABEL EQU 0500H
ADDITION EQU ADD
The first statement assigns the constant 500H with the label LABEL, while the
second statement assigns another label ADDITION with mnemonic ADD.
3.16.12 EXTRN: External and PUBLIC : Public

The directive EXTRN informs the assembler that the names, procedures and
labels declared after this directive have already been defined in some other assembly
language modules. While in the other module, where the names, procedures and labels
actually appear, they must be declared public, using the PUBLI directive. If one wants to
call a procedure FACTORIAL appearing in MODULE 1 from MODULE 2; in
MODULE 1, it must be declared PUBLIC using the statement PUBLIC FACTORIAL
and in module 2, it must be declared external using the declaration EXTRN
FACTORIAL. The statement of declaration EXTRN must be accompanied by the
SEGMENT and ENDS directives of the MODULE 1, before it is called in MOBULE 2.
Thus the MODULE 1 and MODULE 2 must have the following declarations.
MODULE 1 SEGMENT
PUBLIC FACTORIAL FAR
MODULE 1 ENDS
MODULE 2 SEGMENT
EXTRN FACTORIAL FAR
MODULE 2 ENDS
3.16.13 GROUP :Group the Related Segments

This directive is used to form logical groups of segments with similar purpose or
type. This directive is used to inform the assembler to form a logical group of the
following segment names. The assembler passes an information to the linker / loader to
form the code such that the group declared segments or operands must lie within a
64kbyte memory segment. Thus all such segments and labels can be addressed using the
same segment base.
PROGRAM GROUP CODE, DATA, STACK
The above statement directs the loader / linker to prepare an EXE file such that
CODE, DATA and STACK segment must lie within a 64kbyte memory segment that is
named as PROGRAM. Now, for the ASSUME statement, one can use the label
PROGRAM rather than CODE, DATA and STACK as shown.
ASSUME CS : PROGRAM, DS : PROGRAM, SS: PROGRAM
3.16.14 LABEL : Label

The Label directive is used to assign a name to the current of the location
counter. When the assembly process starts, the assembler initializes a location counter to
keep track of memory locations assigned to the program. As the program assembly
proceeds, the contents of the location counter are updated. During the assembly process,
whenever the assembler comes across the LABEL directive, it assigns the declared label
with the current contents of the location counter. The type of the label must be specified,
i.e. whether it is a NEAR or a FAR label, BYTE or WORD label, etc.
A LABEL directive may be used to make a FAR jump as shown below. A FAR
jump cannot be made at a normal label with a colon. The label CONTINUE can be used
for a FAR jump, if the program contains the following statement.
CONTINUE LABEL FAR
The LABEL directive can be used to refer to the data segment along with the data
type, byte or word as shown.
DATA SEGMENT
DATAS DB 50H DUP (?)
DATA – LAST LABEL BYTE FAR
DATA ENDS
After reserving 50H locations for DATAS, the next location will be assigned a label
DATA – LAST and its type will be byte and far.
3.16.15 LENGTH : Byte Length of a Label
This directive is not available in MASM. This is used to refer to the length of a
data array or a string.
MOV CX, LENGTH ARRAY
This statement, when assembled, will substitute the length of the array ARRAY
in bytes, in the instruction.
3.16.16 LOCAL
The labels, variables, constants or procedures declared LOCAL in a module are to
be used only by that particular module. After some time, some other module may declare
a particular data type LOCAL, which was previously declared LOCAL by an other
module or modules. Thus the same label may serve different purposes for different
modules of a program. With a single declaration statement, a number of variables can be

declared local, as shown.
LOCAL a, b, DATA, ARRAY, ROUTINE
3.16.17 NAME : Logical Name of a Module
The NAME directive is used to assign a name to an assembly language program
module. The module, may now be referred to by its declared name. The names, if
selected to be suggestive, may point out the functions of the different modules and hence
may help in the documentation.
3.16.19 OFFSET : Offset of a Label
When the assembler comes across the OFFSET operator along with a label, it
first computes the 16 – bit displacement (also called as offset interchangeably ) of the
particular label, and replaces the string ‘ORRSET LABEL’ by the computed
displacement. This operator is used with arrays, strings, labels and procedures to decide
their offsets in their default segments. The segment may also be decided by another
operator of similar type, viz, SEG. Its most common use is in the case of the indirect,
indexed, or other addressing techniques of similar types, used to refer to the memory
indirectly. The examples of thus operator are as follows.
Example
CODE SEGMENT
MOV SI, OFFSET LIST
CODE ENDS
DATA SEGMENT
LIST DB 10H
DATA ENDS
3.16.20 ORG: Origin

The ORG directive the assembler to start the memory allotment for the particular
segment, block or code from the declared address in the ORG statement. While stating
the assembly process for a module, the assembler initializes a location counter to keep
track of the allotted addresses for the module. If the ORG statement is not written in the
program, the location counter is initialized to 0000. If an ORG statement is present at the
starting of the code segment of that module, then the code will start from 200H address in
code segment. In other words, the location counter will get in initialised to the address
0200H instead of 0000H. Thus, the code for different modules and segments can be
located in the available memory as required by the programmer. The ORG directive can
even be used with data segments similarly.
3.16.21 PROC: Procedure
The PROC directive marks the start of a named procedure in the statement.
Also, the types NEAR of FAR specify the type of the procedure, i.e. whether it is to be
called by the main program located within 64K of physical memory or not. For example,
the statement RESULT PROC NEAR marks the start of a routine RESULT, which is to
be called by a program located in the same segment of memory. The FAR directive is
used for the procedures to be called by the programs located in different segments of
memory. The example statements are as follows:
Example
RESULT PROC NEAR
ROUTINE PROC FAR
3.16.22 PTR : Pointer

The POINTER operator is used to declare the type of a label, variable or
memory operand. The operator PTR is prefixed by either BYTE or WORD. If the prefix
is BYTE, then the particular label, variable or memory operand is treated as an 8 – bit
quantity, while if WORD is the prefix, then it is treated as a 16 – bit quantity. In other
words, the PTR operator is used to specify the data type – byte or word. The examples of
the PTR operator are as follows:
Example
MOV AL, BYTE PTR [SI] - Moves content of memory location
addressed by SI ( 8 –bit ) to AL
INC BYTE PTR [BX] - Increments byte contents of memory
location addressed by BX
MOV BX, WORD PTR [2000H] - Move 16 –bit content of memory

location 200H to BX, i.e. [2000H] to BL
[2001H] to BH
INC WORD PTR [300h] - Increments word contents of memory
location 3000H considering contents of
of 3000H (lower byte) and 3001H
(higher byte ) as a. 16 –bit number
In case of JMP instructions, the PTR operator is used to specify the type of the jump, i.e.
near of far, as explained in the examples given below.
JMP NEAR PTR [BX] – NEAR jump
JMP FAR PTR [BX] – FAR jump
3.16.23 PUBLIC
As already discussed, the PUBLIC directive is used along with the EXTRN
directive. This informs the assembler that the labels, variables, constants, or procedures
declared PUBLIC may be assessed by other assembly modules to form their codes, but
while using the PUBLIC declared labels, variables m constants or procedures the user
must declare them externals using the EXTRN directive. On
the other hand, the data types declared EXTRN in module of the program, may be
declared PUBLIC in at least any one of the other modules of the same program. (Refer to
the explanation on EXTRN directive to get the clear idea of PUBLIC)
3.16.24 SEG: Segment of Label
The SEG operator is used to decide the segment address of the label, variable, or
procedure and substitutes the segment base address in place of “SEG” label. The
example given below explains the use of SEG operator.
Example
MOV AX, SEG ARRAY ; This statement moves the segment address of
ARRAY in
MOV DS, AX ; Which it is appearing, to register AX and then
to DS.
3.16.25 SEGMENT : Logical Segment

The SEGMENT directive marks the starting of a logical segment. The started is
also assigned a name, i.e. label, by this statement. The SEGMENT and ENDS directive
must bracket each logical segment of a program. In some cases, the segment may be
assigned a type like PUBLIC (i.e. can be used by other modules of the program while
linking) or GLOBAL (can be accessed by any other modules). The program structure
given below explains the use of the SEBMENT directive.
EXE. CODE SEGMENT GLOBAL ; Start of segment named EXE. CODE
that can be accessed by any other module.
MOV DS, AX ; END of EXE. CODE logical segment
3.16.26 SHORT
The SHORT operator indicates to the assembler that only one byte is required to
code the displacement for a jump (i.e. displacement is within – 128 to + 127 bytes from
the address of the byte next to the jump opcode). This method of specifying the jump
address saves the memory. Otherwise, the assembler may reserve two bytes for the
displacement. The syntax of the statement is as given below.
JMP SHORT LABEL
3.16.27 TYPE
The TYPE operator directs the assembler to decide the data type of the specified
label and replaces the ‘TYPE’ label by the decided data type. For the word type variable,
the data type is 2, for double word type, it is 4, and for byte type, it is 1. Suppose, the
STRING is a word array. The instruction MOV AX, TYPE STRING moves the value
0002H in AX.
3.16.28 GLOBAL
The labels, variables constants or procedures declared GLOBAL may be used by

other modules of the program. Once a variable is declared GLOBAL, it can be used by
any module in the program. The following statement declares the procedure ROUTINE
as a global label.
ROUTINE PROC GLOBAL
‘ + & -’ Operators These operators represent arithmetic addition and subtraction
respectively and are typically used to add or subtract displacements (8 or 16 bit) to base
or index registers or stack or base pointers as given in the example:
Example
MOV AL, [ SI + 2]
MOV DX, [ BX - 5]
MOV BX, [ OFFSET LABEL + 10H ]
MOV AX, [ BX + 9I ]
3.16.29 FAR PTR

This directive indicates the assembler that the label following FAR PTR is not
available within the same segment and the address of the label is of 32 – bits i.e. 2 bytes
offset followed by 2 bytes segment address.
Example
JMP FAR PTR LABEL
CALL FAR PTR ROUTINE
Both the above instructions indicate to the assembles that the target address is
going to require four bytes; Lower byte of offset, higher byte of offset, lower byte of
segment and higher byte of segment; indicating inter segment addressing mode.
3.16.30 NEAR PTR

This directive indicates that the label following NEAR PTR is in the same
segment and needs only 16 bit i.e. 2 byte offset to address it.
Example
JMP NEAR PTR LABEL
CALL NEAR PTR ROUTINE
If a label is not preceded by NEAR PTR or FAR PTR, then it is by default

considered a NEAR PTR label and two bytes are reserved by the assembler for its
address during the process of assembling.
3.17 Assembly language programming of 8086

1.Writ a program for addition of two numbers.
DATA SEGMENT
OPR 1 DW 1234 H ; 1 st operand
OPR 2 DW 0002 H ; 2nd operand
RESULT DW 01 DUP (?) ; A word of memory reserved for RESULT
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX, DATA ; Initialization of data segment
MOV DS, AX
MOV AX, OPR 1 ; take 1st operand in AX
MOV B X, OPR 2 ; take 2 n operand in BX
CLC ; Cleat carry
ADD AX, BX ; Add B X to AX
MOV DI, OFFSET RESULT; Take offset of Result in DI
MOV [DI], AX ; Store the result at memory adders in DI
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21 H ; Return to Dos prompt
CODE ENDS ; CODE segment ends
END START ; program ends
2. Write a program for the addition of a series of 8 bit numbers .
DATA SEGMENT
NUMLIST DB 52 H, 23 H, 02H, 03H, 04H
COUNT EQU 5 H ; counter
RESULT DW 01H DUP (?) ; one word is reserved for result
CODE SEGMENT
ORG 200 H ; address 0200 h in code segment
START : MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, A X ; Initialize data segment
MOV CX, COUNT ; set the counter value in C X

XOR AX, AX ; Clear AX and CF
XOR BX, BX ; Clear BH
MOV SI , OFFSET NUMLIST ; point to the first number
AGAIN : MOV BL,[SI] ; Take the I st number
ADD AX, BX ; Add Ax with BX
INC SI ; Increment pointer
DEC CX ; Decrement counter
JNZ AGAIN ; if all numbers are added point to result
MOV DI, OFFSET RESULT ; destination and store it
MOV [DI], A X
MOV AH, 4C H ; return to dos
CODE ENDS
END START
3. write a program to find out the number of even and odd number from given
series of 16 bit numbers .
Solution : The simplest logic to decide whether a binary number iS even or odd, is to
check the least significant bit of the number. If the bit is zero, the number is even
otherwise it is odd. Check the LSB by rotating the numbers through carry flag and
increment even or odd number counter.
ASSUME CS : CODE , DS : DATA
DATA SEGMENT
LIST DW 2357H, 0A57H ,0C32H , 0C91H , 0957H
COUNT EQU 006H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : XOR B X , BX
XOR DX , DX
MOV AX , DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV CL, COUNT

MOV SI , OFFSET LIST
AGAIN : MOV AX , [SI]
ROR AX , 01
JC ODD
INC BX
JMP NE X T
ODD : INC X
NEXT : ADD SI, 02
DEC CL
JNZ AGAIN
MOV AH, 4C H
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
4. Write a program to find out the number of positive and negative numbers form a
given series of signed numbers .
Solution : Take the it numbers is any of the registers. Rotate it left through carry. The
status of carry flag i.e the most significant bit of the number will give the information
about the sign of the number, If F is 1 the number is negative ; otherwise it is positive
DATA SEGMENT
457 DW 2579 H, 0A500 H, 0C009H, 0159H, 0B900 H
COUNT EQU 05 H
DATA ENDTS
CODE SEGMENT
START : XOR B X , B X
XOR AX , D X
MOV AX , DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV CL, COUNT

MOV SI, OFFSET LIST
AGAIN : MOV AX, [SI]
SHL AX , 01
JC NEG
INC BX
JMP NEXT
NEG : INC DX
NEXT : ADD SI, 02
DEC CL
JNZ AGAIN
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
5. Write an assembly language program to arrange a given series of

hexadecimal bytes in ascending order
Solution :
There exist a large number of sorting algorithm. The algorithm used here
is bubble sorting. The method of sorting in explained as follows. To start with, the first
number of the first series is compared with the second one, if the first number in greater
than second one , exchange their positions in the series otherwise leave the position
unchanged. Then compare the second number in the recent form the series with third and
repeat the exchange part that you have carried out for the first and second numbers, and
for all the remaining numbers of the series. Repeat this procedure for the complete series
(n-1) times . After (n -1) iterations ,you will get the largest numbers at the end of the
series. where ‘n’ is the length of the series. Again start from the first address of the
series. Repeat the same procedure right from the first element to the last element. After
(n -2) iterations you will get the second highest number at the last but one place in the
series .Continue this till the complete series is arranges in ascending order let the series
be as given .
53, 25, 19, 02 n=4
25, 53, 19, 02 Ist operation
25, 19, 53, 02 2nd operation
25, 19, 02, 53 3rd operation
Largest no  4 -1 = 3 operations
19 , 25, 02, 53 Ist operation
19, 02, 25, 53 2 nd operation
2 nd largest number  4 -2 = 2 operations
02, 19, 25, 53 Ist operation
3rd largest number  4 -3 = 1 operation
Instead of taking a variable count for the external loop in the program like (n-1), (n- 2) ,
(n- 3) etc It is better to take the count (n-1) all the time for simplicity.The resulting
program in given as shown .
DATA SEGMENT
LIST DW 53 H, 25H, 19 H, 02 H
COUNT EQU 04 H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AX , DATA
MOV DS , AX
MOV DX , COUNT – 1
AGAIN : MOV CX , D X
MOV SI, OFFSET LIST
AGAIN1 : MOV AX, [SI]
JL PRI
XCHG [SI +2] , AX
XCHG [SI], AX
PRI : ADD SI, 02
LOOP AGAIN 1
DEC DX
JNZ AGAIN
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 2, H
CODE ENDS
END START
6. Write a program for the addition of two 3 x 3 matrices :

Solution : In the addition of two matrices the corresponding elements are added to form
the corresponding elements of the result mea trine as shown
a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 a1+b1 a2 +b2 a3 +b3

a4 a5 a6 + b4 b5 b6 = 4 + b4 a5+b5 a6 +a6
a7 a8 a9 b7 b8 b9 7+ b7 a8 + b8 a9 + b9
Program (A) + (B) = (A + B)

DATA SEGMENT
DIM EQV 09 H
MAT 1 DB 01H, 02H, 03H, 04H, 05H, 06H, 07H, 08H, 09H
MAT 2 DB 01H 02H, 03H, 04H, 05H, 06H, 07H, 08H, 09H
RMAT3 DW 09H DUP (?)
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
MOV DS, AX
MOV CX, DIM
MOV SI, OFFSET, MAT 1
MOV DI, OFFSET, MAT 2
MOV BX OFFSET, RMAT 3
NEXT: XOR AX , AX
MOV AL, [SI]
ADD AL, [DI]
MOV WORD PTR [B X] , A X
INC SI
INC DI
ADD BX , 02
LOOP NEXT
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21H
CODE ENDS
END START
7. Write a program to move a string of data words from offset 200H to offset
3000H the length of the string in OFH
DATA SEGMENT
SOURCESTR EQU 2000 H
DESTSTR EQU 3000 H
DE STSTR EQU OFH
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS , A X
MOV ES , A X
MOV SI , SOURCESTR
MOV DI , DESTSTR
MOV C X , COUNT
CLD
REP MOVSW
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
8. String Comparison :
The CMPS instruction can be used to compare two strings of bytes or
words. The length of the string must be stored in the register CX. If the both the byte or
word strings are equal , zero flag is set , the flags are affected in the same way as CMP
instruction. The DS:SI and ES:DI point to the two strings. The REP instruction prefix is
used to repeat the operation till CX becomes zero.
ASSUME CS : CODE, DS : DATA

DATA SEGMENT
STR1 DB “ GOOD” , ‘$’
VAR1 DB “ NOT EQUAL” , ‘$’
VAR2 DB “ EQUAL” , ‘$’
COUNT EQU 03H
DATA ENDS
EXTRA SEGMENT
STR 2 DB “ MORNING” , ‘$’
EXTRA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV A X, DATA
MOV DS, A X
MOV A X, EXTRA
MOV ES, A X
MOV SI, OFFSET STR 1

MOV DI, OFFSET STR 2
MOV CX COUNT
CLD
REPE VMPSW
JZ L1
MOV DX,OFFSET VAR2
JMP L 1
L1: MOV AH, 09 H
INT 21 H
MOV AH, 4C H
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
2.17.1 DOS/ BIOS System calls

A. Reading a character from keyboard
Reads a character from the standard input device and echoes it to the standard output
device . If no character is ready , waits until one is available
Calling Parameter
AH = 01H
CODE SEGMENT
START : MOV AL, 00H
MOV AH, 01 H
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
B. Display string :
Sends a string of characters to the standard output device. End of string is
indicated by character $ (24 H)
Calling Parameter
AH = 09H
DATA SEGMENT
STR 1 DB “ WELCOME” , ‘$’
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
MOV DS, D X
MOV DX, OFFSET STR 1
MOV AL, 00H
MOV AH, 09 H
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
2.17. 2 Disk operations

a) Create file :
Create a new file in the designated or default directory on the designated or
default disk drive . If the specified file already exists, it is truncated to zero length.In
either case, the file in opened and a handle is returned that can be used by the program for
subsequent access to the file .
Calling parameters :
AH = 3CH
DS : DX = segment : offset of ASCII path name
Source :
STR 1 DB “ CREATED” ,“$”
STR 2 DB “ NOT CREATED” , “$”
FNAME DB ‘H : \ IT 228 \ S. ASM ‘ 0
FHANDLE DW P( ? )
DATA SEGMENT
MOV DS, A X
MOV AH, 3CH
XOR CX, CX
MOV D X, SEG FNAME
MOV DS, D X
MOV DX, OFFSET FNAME
INT 21 H
JC ERROR
MOV FHANDIE, AX
MOV DX, OFFSET STR 1
MOV AH, 09H
INT 21 H
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21 H
ERROR : MOV DX, OFFSET STR 2

MOV AH, 09H
IN 7 21 H
MOV AH, 4CH
IN 7 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
b) Delete file
Deletes a file from the specified or default and directory
Calling parameters
AH = 41 H
DS : DX = Segment : offset of ASCII pathname
Returns : if function successful
carry flag = clear
if function successful
carry flag = set
AX = error code
Source :
ASSUME CS CODE , DS DATA
DATA SEGMENT
STR 1 DB “SUCCESSFUL” $”
STR 2 DB “ UNSUCCESSFUL” $”
FNAME DB ‘H : / IT 228/ A. ASM ‘, 0
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
MOV DS, A X
MOV AH, 41 H
MOV DX, SEG FNAME
MOV DS, D X
MOV DX, OFFSET FNAME
INT 21 H
JC ERROR
MOV DX, OFFSET STR1
MOV AH, 09 H
INT 21H
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21 H
ERROR : MOV DX, OFFSET STR2
MOV AH, 09 H
INT 21 H
MOV AH, 4 CH
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
c) Rename file :
renames a file and / OR moves its directory entry to a different directory on the
same disk. In Ms- Dos version 3. 0 and later this function can also be used rename
directors .
calling parameter
AH = 56
DS : segment : offset of current path
ES : D1 segment offset of new path
Returns : if function successful
carry flag = clear
if function successful
carry flag = set
AX = error code
Source :
ASSUME CS : CODE, DS : DATA, ES: EXTRA
DATA SEGMENT
STR 1 DB “ RENAMED ““$”
OLDNAME DB ‘H : / IT228/ S. ASM’, 0

NEWNAME DE’H’: /IT228/ A. ARM ‘, 0
DATA ENDS
EXTRA SEGMENT
STR 2 DB “ NOT RENAMED”, “$”
EXTRA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
MOV AH, 56 H
MOV D X, SEG OLDNAME
MOV DS, DX
MOV DX, OFFSET OLDNAME
MOV DI, SEG NEW NAME
MOV ES, DI
MOV DI, OFFSET NEWNME
INT 21 H
JC ERROR
MOV DX, OFFSET STRI
MOV AH, 09 H
INT 21 H
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21 H
ERROR : MOV DX, OFFSET STR2
MOV AH, 09 H
INT 21 H
MOV AH, 4 CH
INT 21 H
CODE ENDS
END START
Two Marks Questions And Answer

1. What are the modes in which 8086 can operate?
The 8086 can operate in two modes and they are minimum ( or uniprocessor)
mode and maximum ( or multiprocessor) mode.
2 .What are the interrupts of 8086?
The interrupts of 8085 are INTR and NMI. The INTR is general maskable
interruput and NMI is non-maskable interrupt..
3. How clock signal is generated in 8086? What is the maximum internal clock
frequency of 8086?
The 8086 does not have on-chip clock generation circuit. Hence the clock
generator chip, 8284 is connected to the CLK pin of8086. The clock signal supplied by
8284 is divided by three for internal use. The maximum internal clock frequency of8086
is 5MHz.
4. What is pipelined architecture?
In pipelined architecture the processor will have number of functional units and
the execution time of functional units are overlapped. Each functional unit works
independently most of the time.
5. What are the functional units available in 8086 architecture?
The bus interface unit and execution unit are the two functional units available in
8086 architecture.
6. List the segment registers of 8086.
The segment registers of 8086 are Code segment, Data segment, Stack segment
and Extra segment registers.
7. What is the difference between segment register and general purpose register?
The segment registers are used to store 16 bit segment base address of the four
memory segments. The general purpose registers are used as the source or destination
register during data transfer and computation, as pointers to memory and as counters.
8. What is queue? How queue is implemented in 8086?
A data structure which can be accessed on the basis of fIrst in fIrst out is called
queue. The 8086 has six numbers of 8-bit FIFO registers, which is used for instruction
queue.
9. Write the special functions carried by the general purpose registers of 8086.
The special functions carried by the registers of 8086 are the following. Register
Special function
AX 16-bit Accumulator
AL 8-bit Accumulator
BX Base Register
CX Count Register
DX .Data Register
10. Write the flags of 8086.
The 8086 has nine flags and they are
11. What are control bits?

The flags TF, IF and DF of8086 are used to control the processor operation and so
they are called control bits.
12. Describe the difference between the instructions MOV AX,2437H and MOV AX,
[2437H].
Difference between the instructions MOV AX,2437H and MOV AX,[2437H] are
former instruction takes 2437 as 16-bit data and latter instruction takes 2437 as 16-bit
address.
13. State the function of Direction flag in 8086.

Direction flag is used with string instructions. If DF= 0, the string is processed
from its beginning with the first element having the lowest address. Otherwise, the string
is processed from the high address towards the low address.
14. In 8086 processor the code segment contains 4000H and instruction pointer
contains 9F20H. Find the memory location addressed by the processor.
Segment address  4000 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000
Shifted to left by four bits 0100 0000 0000 0000 0000 +
Offset address 1001 1111 0010 0000
----------------------------------------------------
0100 1001 1111 0010 0000
--------------------------------------------------------
Physical address 4 9 F 2 0 H
15. Mention the three operating modes of Intel 80386 processor.
i. Real Mode.
ii. Protected Mode.
iii. Virtual 8086 Mode.
16. What happens in 8086 processor, when a. overflow of sum occurs during
addition of signed numbers. b. overflow of quotient occurs during division
operation.
a. When overflow of sum occurs during addition of signed numbers, overflow flag is set
to one (OVF =1).
b. When overflow of quotient occurs during division operation, type 0 (divide by zero )
interrupt is generated.
17. Discuss the functions of the following prefixes: LOCK, ESCAPE
LOCK :
In a multiprocessor system each microprocessor has its own local buses and
memory. The individual microprocessors are connected together by a system bus so that
each can access system resources such as disk drives or memory. Each microprocessor
only takes control of the system bus when it needs to access some system resources. The
LOCK prefix allows a microprocessor to make sure that another processor does not take
control of the system bus while it is in the middle of a critical instruction which uses the
system bus.
ESCAPE:
This instruction is used to pass instructions to a coprocessor such as the 8087
math coprocessor which shares the address and data bus with an 8086.
18. What are the flag manipulation instructions of 8086.
1. LAHF : Load AH from low byte of flag register.
2. SAHF : Store AH to low byte of flag register
3. PUSHF : Push content of flag to the stack.
3. POPF : Pop content of stack and load it in the flag register.
19.Give the contents of the flag register after execution of following addition.
0110010111010001
+
0010001101011001
1000100100101010
SF = 1, ZF = 0, PF = 1, CF = 0, AF = 0, OF=1.
20. What are the three groups of signals in 8086 ?
The 8086 signals are categorized in three groups. They are :
i. The signals having common function in minimum and maximum mode.
ii. The signals having special functions for minimum mode,
iii. The signals having special functions for maximum mode.
21. What are the uses of AD0 – AD15 lines ?
These are the time multiplexed memory 15 address and data lines. Address
remains on the line during T I state ,while data is available on the data bus during T2, T3,
TW and T4. Here Ti' T2, T3, T4 and Tw are the clock states of a machine , cycle. Tw is a
wait state. These lines are active high and float to a tristate during interrupt acknowledge
and local bus hold acknowledge cycles.
22 What is the operation of RD signal ?
Read signal RD when low, indicates the peripherals that the processor is
performing a memory (or) I/O read operation.
23. What is the function of READY signal?

This is the acknowledgment from the slow devices (or) memory that they have
completed the data transfer. The signal made available by the devices is synchronized by
the 8284A clock generator to provide ready input to the 8086. The signal is active high.
24.What is the function of INTR signal ?
INTR- Interrupt Request: This is a level triggered input. This is sampled during
the last clock cycle of each instruction to determine the availability of the request, If any
interrupt request is pending, the processor enters the interrupt acknowledge cycle. This
can be internally masked by resetting he interrupt enable flag. This signal is active high
and 1ternally synchronized.
25. What is the operation performed when TEST .input in low ?
If the TEST input goes low, execution will continue, else, the processor remains
in an idle state. The input is synchronized internally during each clock cycle on leading
edge of clock.
26. What is the purpose of ALE signal in minimum mode?
ALE -Address Latch Enable: This output signal indicates the availability of the
valid address on the address / data lines, and is connected to latch enable input of latches.
This signal is active high and is never tristated.
27. What is the function of RESET pin ?
RESET input causes the processor to terminate the current activity and start
execution from FFFFOH. This signal is active high and must be active for at least four
clock cycles. It restarts execution when the RESET return low. RESET is also internally
synchronized.
28. What is the function of DEN signal in minimum mode ?
This signal indicates the availability of valid data over the address / data lines. It
is used to enable the Transceivers to separate the data from the multiplexed address / data
signal.It is active from the middle of T2 until the middle of T4 DEN is tristated during
hold acknowledge cycle.
29. What are the differences between maximum mode and minimum mode
Minimum mode
1 A processor is in minimum mode when MN /MX pin is strapped to +5v
2. All control signals are given out by microprocessor chip it self

3. There is a single micro processor
Maximum mode
1. A processor is in maximum mode when MN /MX is grounded
2. The processor derive the status signals S2, Sl and So. Another chip called bus
controller derives control signals using this status information
2. There may be more than one microprocessor
30. What is the fabrication technology used for 8086?
The 8086 is fabricated using the HMOS (High density n-type metal oxide silicon
field effect transistors) technology and contains approximately 29,000 transistors. The
8086 packed in a 40 pin DIP and requires a single 5V supply.
31. What is multimicro-processor architecture ?
The maximum clock frequency at which a system operate may be considered as
one of the measure of the processor capability of the system. An appropriate system
involving several microprocessors connected using a certain topology ma provide high
processing capacity. The study of such a system known as multi micro processor
architecture.
32. What are the functional parts of simple multi micro processor system ?
The simplest type of multimicroprocessor system is one containing a CPU and a
numeric data processor (NDP) and/or an Input / Output processor (IOP).
33. Give the interconnection topology classification oj multiprocessor system.
Some of the interconnection topologies are: (Based on he mode of
communication)
i. Shared bus
ii. Linked Input I Output
iii. Multiport memory
Based on the physical interconnections between the processors:
i. Star configuration
ii. Loop configuration
iii. Complete interconnection
iv. Regular topologies
v. Irregular topologies.
34. What is the fabrication technology used for 8087 (NDP) ?
Numeric processor packed in a 40 pin ceramic DIP package, it is available in
5MHZ, 8MHZ and 10MHZ versions compatible with 8086, 8088, 80186 and 80188
processors.
35. What is meant by numeric processor ?
The numeric processor 8087 is a coprocessor which has been designed to work
under the control of the processor 8086 and offer it additional numeric processing
capabilities.
36. What are the functional parts of coprocessor ?
The 8087 is divided into two sections internally. They are :
i. Control Unit (CU)
ii. Numeric Extension Unit (NEU)
37. What is the purpose of control unit ?
The control unit is mainly responsible for establishing communication between
the CPU and memory and also for co-coordinating the internal coprocessor execution.
38. What is the function of INT pin in 8087 ?
The interrupt output is used by 8087 to indicate that an unmasked exception has
been received during execution. This is usually handled by 8259A.
39. What is the function of busy signal in 8087 ?
This output signal, when high, indicates to the CPU that it is busy with the
execution of an allotted instruction. This is usually connected to the TEST pin of
8086/8088.
40. Give the register classification of 8087.
In 8087 registers are divided into three fields. They are: (i) sign (1 bit) (ii)
exponent ( 15 bits) (iii) significant (64 bit)
41. What is the use of instruction and data pointer (8087)?
The instruction and data pointers are used to enable the programmers to write
their own exception handling subroutines.
42. What is the. use of control word register (8087) ?

The control word register of 8087 allows the programmer to select the required
processing options out of available ones. In other words, the 16-bit control word register
is used to control the operation of the 8087.
43. Give the additional instructions supported by 8087.
The additional instructions supported by 8087 can be categorized into the
following types.
i. Data transfer instruction
ii. Arithmetic instructions
iii. Comparison instructions
iv. Transcendental operations
v. Constant operations
vi. Coprocessor control operation.
44. Give the classification of multimicroprocessor system.
The multimicroprocessor systems are also classified as tightly (closely) coupled
or loosely coupled systems, depending upon whether the microprocessor share a common
memory and common system bus or not
45. Explain the tightly coupled (closely coupled) system.
In a tightly coupled system. the microprocessor (either coprocessor or
independent processors) may share a common clock and bus control logic The two
processors in a closely coupled system may communicate using a common system bus or
common memory The microprocessor in a closely coupled system either uses a status bit
in memory (or) interrupt the host to inform it about the completion of the task allotted to
it
Explain the loosely coupled multiprocessor system In a loosely coupled
multiprocessor system. on the other hand. Each CPU may have its own bus control logic
The bus arbitration is handled by an external circuit. Common to all the processor The
loosely coupled system configurations like LAN and WAN can be spreaded over a large
area
46. Give the advantage of loosely coupled system over the tightly coupled system.
The loosely coupled system have the following advantage over the tightly coupled
system,
i. More number of CPUs can be added in a loosely coupled system to improve the system
performance.
ii. The system structure is modular and hence easy to maintain and troubleshoot.
iii. A fault in a single module does not lead to a complete system breakdown.
iv. Due to the independent processing modules used in the system, it is more fault
-tolerant.
v. More suitable to parallel applications due to its modular organization.

Chapter 3: Intel 8086

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Chapter 3: Intel 8086

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Chapter 3 : Intel 8086

Chapter 3 : Intel 8086

Chapter 3 : Intel 8086

3.2 Internal Architecture of 8086

pointer, Address adder. EU contains Control circuitry, Instruction decoder, ALU,

Figure 1 : Block Diagram of 8086

offsets within 64 KB memory segment. There are four different 64 KB

3.3.13.2 Direction Flag (DF) - if set then string manipulation

Figure 2 : Internal Registers of 8086

Figure 3 : Flag register of 8086

Figure 4 : Pin Diagram of 8086

Figure 5 : Signal Groups of 8086

Figure 6 : General Bus Operation Cycle

3.6 Minimum Mode of 8086 System

Figure 7 : Minimum Mode 8086 Typical Configuration

Figure 8 : Write Cycle Timing Diagram for Minimum Mode

3.7 Maximum Mode of 8086 System

Figure 10 : Maximum Mode 8086 System.

Figure 11 : Memory Read Timing in Maximum Mode

Figure 12 : Memory Write Timing in Maximum mode.

Figure 13 : RQ/GT Timings in Maximum Mode.

3.8 Minimum Mode Interface

3.8.3 Control Signals :

3.9.2 The output of 8289 are bus arbitration signals:

QS1 QS0 Queue Status

Block Diagram Maximum mode of 8086

3.10 Addressing Modes Of 8086

3.10.4 Register Indirect

3.10.6 Register Relative

3.10.7 Based Indexed

3.10.8 Relative Based Indexed

If the location to which the control is to be transferred lies in a different segment

3.10.10 Intra segment Indirect Mode

3.10.12 Inter segment Indirect

Forming the Effective Addresses

(iv) Based indexed

3.11 Memory Organization

64 KB of memory. To access memory outside of 64 KB the CPU uses special segment

Figure 14: Reserved Memory Locations

Figure 15 : I/O Space of the processor

Figure 16 : Interrupt Service

Hardware External Interrupt

Example Program Flow For A Software Interrupt

3.14 Instruction Sets of 8086

 SHR - Shift bits of word or byte right, put zero(s) in MSB(s)

3.14 .6.3 ROTATE INSTRUCTIONS:

3.14 .8.2 CONDITIONAL TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS:

FLAG SET / CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS:

ADD AL,5 ; Add BCD 5 to digit in AL

MUL BL ; Multiply AL by BL , result in AX

ADD DX, BX ; Add contents of BX to contents ;of DX

AND BH, CL ; AND byte in CL with byte in BH result in BH

;DX = 00000000 00000000 AX = 11110000 11000111 = - 3897 decimal

3.15 Procedure and Macros of 8086

3.15.1.2 Using registers of CPU architecture

ASSUME CS : CODE,SS : STACK

3.15.2.1 Defining a MACRO

3.16 Assembler Directives And Operators

The assembly language programming is simpler as compared to the machine

3.16.2 DW: Define Word

3.16.3 DQ : Define Quad word

3.16.9 ENDS : END of Segment