The Respiratory System II (Chapter 22) Lecture # 9: Gas Exchange and Transport Objectives 1-Define partial pressure and discuss its relationships to a gas mixture such as air. 2- Discuss how partial pressure affects gas transport by blood. 3- Describe the mechanism of transporting O, and CO, 4- Describe the factors that govern gas exchange in the lungs and systemic capillaries.Partial Pressure and Gas Exchange Air is a mixture of gases. It contains :78.6 % nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide, 0 - 4% water vapor depending on temperature and humidity, and minor gases argon, neon, helium, methane and ozone. These individual gases contribute to the atmospheric pressure, and the sum of all contributions results in the atmospheric pressure = 760 mm Hg (Dalton’s law). Partial Pressureit is the separate contribution of each gas to the total pressure in a mixture. The partial pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the concentra- tion of this gas in the mixture. Example: The higher partial pressure in the air correspond to Nitrogen, which is the most concentrated gas. The partial pressure is symbolized with a P followed by the formula of the gas: Partial pressure of Nitrogen = Py, partial pressure of Oxygen= PooThe partial pressure of a gas in the air is equal to the concentration of this gas (%) X the atmospheric pressure: PN,= 78.6% x 760 mm Hg = 597 mm Hg PO, = 20.9% x 760 mm Hg = 159 mm Hg PH,O= 0.5% x 760 mm Hg = 3.7 mm Hg PCO, = 0.04% x 760 mm Hg = 0.3 mm Hg PN, + PO, +PH,O + PCO, = 760 mmHgThe composition of inspired air and alveolar is different because of three influences: 1- Air is humidifies by contact with mucous membranes. Alveolar PH,O is more than 10 times higher than inhaled air. 2- Freshly inspired air mixes with residual air left from the previous respiratory cycle. Oxygen is diluted and it is enriched with CO, 3- Alveolar air exchanges O, and CO, with the blood. PO, of alveolar air is about 65% that of inspired air; PCO, is more than 130 times higher. oT uno K} Cuil) a Re Nol ae aN] yee Inspired Air* Alveolar Air 786% 597 mmHg 749% 569mm Hg 20.9% 159mm Hg 137% — 104mmHg HO 05% = 3:7mmHg 62% 47 mmHg co, 0.04% —03mmHg 53% 40 mmHg Total 100% 760 mmHg 100% 760mm Hg “Typical values for a cool cloar day; values vary with tomporature and humidity, Other gases present in small amounts are disregarded.Factors that Affect the Efficiency of Alveolar Gas Exchange 1- Partial pressure of gases (O, and CO,) 2- Solubility of gases in blood (Oz and CO,) Henry's law 3- Thickness of the respiratory membrane 4- Surface area of the respi- ratory membrane 5- Ventilation-Perfusion couplingconcentration Asolution consists of particles of mater called solute mixed with amore abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent. Concentration Gradientit is the difference between the high and low concentration areas. The tendency of ions and molecules in a concentration gradients is to move from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. Diffusion: It is the net movement of ions or molecules from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration (down the concentration gradient). Diffusion tends to eliminate the concentration gradient.1- Partial pressure of gases (O, and CO,) In the same way that molecules and ions in solution diffuse from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration (down the concentration gradient), each gas in a mixture diffuses down its own pressure gradient. Gases diffuse down their own concentration gradient until the partial pressure of each gas in the air is equal to its partial pressure in water. Unopened Pressure Atnew equilibrium — Opened soda can (b) soda canGases diffuse down their own concentration gradient until the partial pressure of each gas in the air is equal to its partial pressure in water. The Po, of alveolar air is The Pcoz of the arriving blood is initially higher than the Po, of initially higher than the Pco, of the blood arriving at an alveolar air. alveolus. Equilibrium state Initial stato Equilibrium stato (0) Oxygen O, diffuses into the blood until the two are in equilibrium. (©) Carbon dioxide CO, diffuses into the alveolus until the two are in equilibrium. It takes about 0.25 seconds for both gases to reach the equilibrium.2- Solubility of gases in blood (O, and CO,) In addition to the partial pressure, the solubility of gases also affects the alveolar gas exchange. Henry’s law: At the air-water interface, for a given temperature, the amount of gas that dissolves in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air. CO, is much more soluble than O, therefore diffuses more rapidly.Pressure gradient Alveolar air ' ; O,: 104 - 40 = 64 mm Hg Pop 104mm Hg “C02: 46-40 = 6 mmHg Pco2 40 mm Hg Even though the pressure gradient of O, (64 mm Hg) is much higher than that of CO, (6 mm Hg) , equal amounts of O, and CO, are exchanged across _ the respiratory membrane because CO, is much more soluble and diffuses more rapidly. Equal amounts of O, and CO, are exchanged across the respiratory membrane.In addition to the partial pressure, the solubility of gases also affects the alveolar gas exchange. Henry’s law: At the air-water interface, for a given temperature, the amount of gas that dissolves in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air. CO, is 20 times as soluble in water as O,. Therefore, CO, diffuses more rapidly. Even though the pressure gradient of O, (64 mm Hg) is much higher than that of CO, (6 mm Hg) , equal amounts of O, and CO, are exchanged across the respiratory membrane because CO, is much more soluble and diffuses more rapidly. Deoxygenated Blood Alveolar air Pressure gradient Po. 40 mm Hg Po: 104mmHg 104 - 40 = 64 mm Hg Poon 46 mm Hg Peo 40mmHg = 46- 40= 6 mmHg a so Po, 104 mm Hg = Po,40 mm Hg cOvuntoa Peo. mn Hg Peo, 40 mm Hg3- Thickness of the respiratory membrane It is only 0.5 um thick, Thus, it presents little obstacle to diffusion. Pulmonary edema in left side ventricular failure causes edema and thickening of the respiratory membrane. Pneumonia causes thickening of the respiratory membrane. Under these conditions, the gases have farther to travel between blood and air and cannot equilibrate fast enough to keep up with blood flow. 4- Surface area of the respiratory membrane In good health, each lung has about 70m? of respiratory membrane available for gas exchange. Emphysema, lung cancer, and tuberculosis decrease surface area for gas exchange. {el Emphysema5- Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling It is the ability to match ventilation and perfusion to each other. Gas exchange requires not only good ventilation to alveolus, but also good perfusion of its capillaries. Perfusion is the blood flow per given volume or mass of tissue. 1- Ventilation Controls Perfusion through PO, 2- Perfusion Controls Ventilation through CO,1- Ventilation Controls Perfusion Reduced ventilation causes local constriction of the pulmonary arteries, reducing blood flow to that area and redirecting this blood to better-ventilated alveoli Good ventilation, by contrast, dilates the arteries and increases perfusion so that most blood is directed to regions of the lungs where it can pick up the most oxygen. aaa Reduced Po: in Decreased Increased Elevated Po; in blood vessels airflow airflow blood vessels. Response toincreased ventilation Vasoconstriction of \Vasodilation of pulmonary vessels pulmonary vessels Decreased Increased blood flow blood flow (a) Perfusion adjusted to changes In ventilation2- Perfusion Controls Ventilation Ventilation is also adjustable. Poor ventilation causes local CO, accumulation, which stimulates local bronchodilation and improves air flow. Low PCO, causes local bronchoconstriction. Decreased Increased Reduced Pco, Elevated PCO, inalveott De Boos Gos) inalveoli Constrietion of Dilation of bronchioles bronchioles Decreased Increased airflow airflow (b) Ventilation adjusted to changes in perfusionGas Transport Gas transport is the process of carrying gases from the alveoli to the systemic tissues and vise versa. 1- Oxygen transport About 98.5% of Oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin, and 1.5% dissolved in plasma. Deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) + Oxygen >> Oxyhemogiobin (HbO,) + H* 2- Carbon dioxide transport ‘ Carbon dioxide is transported in three forms: 70% as bicarbonate ion, 23% bound to hemoglobin, 7% dissolved in plasma. co, + #0 [o> H,cO, [=> Hco, + (70%) Hemoglobin (Hb) + Carbon dioxide "> Carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO,) (23%) The remaining 7% of the CO2 is carried in the blood as dissolved gas, like CO2 in carbonated beverages.Alveolar Gas Exchange It is the unloading of CO, and loading of O, at the pulmonary capillaries. a) O, loading b) CO, unloading Systemic Gas Exchange It is the unloading of O, and loading of CO, at the systemic capillaries. a) O, unloading b) CO, loadingAlveolar Gas Exchange It is the unloading of CO, and loading of O, at the pulmonary capillaries. a) O, loading 1- O, from alveolar air diffuses to the plasma and travels as dissolved gas (1.5% of O,) 2- O, from alveolar air diffuses to the plasma and binds to the Deoxy- hemoglobin (98.5% of O,) As Hb loads O, its affinity for H* decreases, H* dissociates from Hb. Those H* will bind to HCO ; to help in CO, unloading Deoxyhemoglobin + O, Oxyhemoglobin (HbO,) + H* (HHb) (from alveolar air) (98.5% of O,)b) CO, unloading 41- Unloading of CO, carried by HCO," (70% of CO.) HCO, +H* » H,CO, co, + 4H,0 (70% of CO,) (to alveolar air) Previous reactions take place within the RBC. As HCO,7is consumed and CO, is released, more HCO, diffuses from the plasma to the interior of the RBC and Ct diffuses outside the RBC. Heo, This exchange of HCO, and Cl‘is called the Plasma chloride shift. 2- Unloading of CO, carried by Carbaminohemoglobin and other carbamino-compounds (23% of CO.) Carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO,) > Hemoglobin (Hb) + CO, (to alveolar air) 3- CO, as dissolved gas (7% of CO,) diffuses from plasma to the alveolar air.Alveolar Gas ExchangeSystemic Gas Exchange Systemic gas exchange is the unloading of O, and loading of CO, at the systemic capillaries. Oxygenated Blood Tissue fluid Pressure gradient Po. 95mm Hg Po, 40 mm Hg 95-40=55 mmHg Peo, 40 mm Hg Poo, 46 mm Hg 46 -40= 6mmHg ‘Systemic circuita) O, unloading 1- O, dissolved in plasma as gas diffuses to the tissues (1.5% of O,) 2- Unloading of O, bind to Oxyhemoglobin (98.5%) Oxyhemoglobin (HbO,) reduces its affinity for O, due the H* released by H,CO, H* + Oxyhemoglobin (HbO,) (98.5% of O,) H,cO, [> HCO, +Ht > Deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) +O, (to the tissues)b) CO, loading 1- Loading of CO, to HCO,(70%) co, + H,0 » H,CO, » HCO; + H* (from tissues) Carbonic (70% of CO.) Anhydrase cr Chloride shift keeps reaction proceeding, Plasma —_ exchanges HCO,; for Cl- 2- Loading of CO, to Hemoglobin (23%) Hemoglobin (Hb) + Carbon dioxide Carbaminohemoglobin _, (HbCO,) (23%of CO,) 3- CO, from tissues diffuses to the plasma and travels as dissolved gas (7% of CO.)Systemic Gas ExchangeCoupling of CO, - O, Exchange 1- In alveolar gas exchange Loading of O, releases H* from Deoxyhemoglobin. Those H* bind to HCO, and help in CO, unloading. Deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) +O, =S> Oxyhemoglobin (HbO,) +Ht Hoo, +H* => co, H==>co, + H,0 (70% of co.) {to alveolar air) 2- In systemic gas exchange Loading of CO, releases H* from H,CO;. Those H* reduces the affinity of Oxyhemoglobin (HbO,) for O2 and help in O, unloading. CO, +H,0 [=> H,co, > HCOy +H (from tissues) carbonic anhydrase coal H* + Oxyhemoglobin (HbO,) = Deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) +0, (98.5% of O;) {to tissues)