Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza JOSEPH P, SWAIN H.. many of us have ever enjoyed heai concerto of Mozart or Beethoven stunningly and sensitively played, only t have the experience ruined at the end of a movement by the cadenza? Regrettably, this happens all too often. A show of empty virtuosity. perhaps, or wrong for the style of the concerto as. a whole, or—the most common problem—a cadenza that is simply too long. Joachim Quantz, writing over two centuries ago, seems to address the current situation: If none are made it is considered a great defect, even though many performers would conclude their pieces with more credit without them, Meanwhile, all those who occupy themselves with singing or with playing solos want co, or must, make cadenzas. And since their nature and proper way to perform them are not well known, the fash ion generally becomes.a burden." In his last comment, Quantz goes to the heart of the problem. We have very little knowledge or understanding of the structure or purpose of the eadenga in the classical concerto beyond its elementary definition as an improvisation on themes from the movement. Amazingly enough, there is no provision for it in modern theories or descriptions of con- certo form. Even though concert artists may well undertake to compose cadenzas for Mozart and Beethoven concertos, or at the very least. choose among those already composed, conservatory training docs not normally include study of the cadenza problem. Yet it seems obvious that to write satisfactory cadenzas, the performer should understand what relationship one should have with the concerto movement. [n view ‘of both new theories and conceptions of the classical sonata style, to Volume 6 * Number I * Winter 1988 ‘The Journal of Musicology © 1988 by the Regents of the University of California * Johann Joachim Quantz, On Playing the Flute, trans. and eat, Edward R. Reilly (Lon- don, gf}, py 181, =28 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY nd the ui in- istime fora new which the classical concerto isan essential contributor, ished popularity of the classical concerto repertoire, appraisal of the cadenza. There are at least three approaches to the issue. The firstis to inves- tigate the origin of the cadenza and the opinions of eighteenth-century theoristsand critics about it. [In this way we may learn, not infallible rules for cadenza composition, but something about the original purpose of cadenzas, what they were supposed to do for the movements that con- tained them. ‘The second approach is to analyze the numerous authentic caden- zas that Mozart and Becthoven have left for their own concertos. There could hardly be a better source for learning about the general structure and function of cadenzas, and also about the specific relationships be- tween certain cadenzas and their parent concerto movements, Recent scholarship, including large studies by Paul Badura-Skoda* and Paul ics, has emphasized this approach. The third approach is to apply modern theories of concerte form and the classical sonata style to the cadenza problem. Is there anything we can say about the form and function of the cadenza given what we know about the workings of concertos and the classical style of Mozart and Beethoven? The theoretical approach is risky, as always, because its assumptions are more easily challenged, but how else can conclusions from the other two approaches be assimilated and confirmed? Critics and theorists of the eighteenth century are just as fallible in their opin- ions about music of their own time as we are about music in ours; there is no reason to adopt their “rules” without further consideration of the music itself. The solutions of Mozart and Beethoven may be perfect, of course, but they left ne explicit cI elements that they left in their cadenzas only make sense when con- nected with a conception of the concerto as a whole. Origin and Development of the Concerto Cadenza ‘The word itself would indicate a link with the notion of “cadence.” Indeed, of English, German, French, and Italian, only in the English language is there any verbal distinction between the two ideas, and that is made by borrowing the Italian word for “cadence” as a special term. The German theorist Daniel Gotlieb Tark, writing around 1789, also points to the cadence as the source of the cadenza: * Mosart-Enterpretation (Vienna, Stuttgart, > Die Krise der Konterthadenz ber Beethoven (BiCLASSICAL CADENZA In former times, one added small embellishments before cadences (Tenschltissen), which did not require the suspension af meter. . ‘These so-called figured cadenzas (Kadenzen) were evidently pleas- ing, so the passages were expanded, and were no longer tied sostrictly to the meter. Those accompanying were pleased to yield and (o wait, until finally, little by lictle, our embellished cadenzas(Kadenzen) came about, Their origin can be placed between the years 1710 to 1716. ‘Their native land is probably Italy, Ina note, Turk cites the Musiea Moderna Prattica of J. V. Serbst (1658), who describes the cadenza as a vocal embellishment coming from Italy, although usage in instrumental musicis also mentioned. The dates may be from Johann Friedrich Agricola+ In more modern times, Heinrich Knédt waced in great detail the ancestry of the cadenza, in both instrumental and vocal music, back to the sixteenth century. In both types, the occasion for the cadenza is the embellishment and delay of a final cadences By the latter half of the eighteenth century, theorists were careful to distinguish between “cadence” and “cadenza.” The close relationship of the cadenza with the harmonic cadence is reinforced. In his descrip- tion, C. P. E. Bach cites the familiar signal of the six-four chord under afermata: ‘On the entrance of an elaborated cadence, the accompanist, regard- less of whether a fermata appears over the bass, holds the six-four’ chord for a while and then pauses until the principal part, atthe end of its cadenza, plays.a till or some other figure which requires resolu- tion of the chord. At this point the triad is struck at the keyboard, the seventh being taken asa filth part.® milar distinctions occur in Quantz and Turk? nslations of citations + Danie] Gottlob Tiirk, Clavienchule (+789), p. og. English u ssen bins salch kleine from thistextare my own. “Ehedem brachte man vorden Tonsch Verzicrungen an, welch kein Authalien des Taktes u. erfordene. ese SQKENANMLEN figurirten Kadenzen geficien vermutlich, man vergrisserte daher die Zusige. und band sich daher nicht mehr so strengan den Take. Die Boglciter warcn so gefallig, ci wenig nuchnugeben (zu vereilen), bis endlich nach und nach unsre verrierten Kadenzen da- vaus entstanden sind. Ihren Ursprung seat man. in die Jahre 1710 bis 2716." Das Var terland derselben isst wahrseheinlich Italien.” Johann Friedrich Agricola’s work is Andeitung sur Sirgekunst (Berlin, 1757), translation ol Pict Francesco Tosi's Opintoni de’ cantari antichi ¢ maderni (1 523) with some additions of hisown, * Heinrich Kndédlt, "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kadenzen im (nstrumentalkon- zert, Sammelbande der internanonaten Mussk-Crsllochaft XN’ (1919!14), 392 Carl Phillip E ‘| Bach, suey ont the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, 60753) trans. and ed, William J. Mitchell (New York, 194). p. 380: 7 See k, p. 408,30 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY By the time of Tark’s writing Mozart was making a distinction be- tween “cadenzas” and other improvisatory passages called “Eingdnge” (see letter of February 15, 1783). In contrast to cadenzas, which appear atthe end of a movement and are associated with a final cadence, these Eingiinge may appear in any part of the movement, most often just be- fore the beginning of a new section, as in the return of a rondo theme, and have the function of “leading in” to the next section. They contain no references to thematic material, and are usually constructed of passagework based on dominant harmony which the onset of the next section resolves, Because the resolution is elided with a new beginning, the character and function of the Zingang can be clearly distinguished from those of the true cadenza, which, according to the cighteenth- century theorists cited above, has a function of conclusion on a high structural level. ‘The elements of improvisation and thematic reference, associated intimately with the classical cadenza today, seem to have come together slowly during the second and third quarters of the cighteenth century, Knédtshows that cadenzas in Vivaldi concertos have virtuoso technique and a certain motivic relationship with the movement proper, but lite improvisatory character. These cadenzas are written directly imo the movement without any suspension of meter.* On the other hand, the Capricci of Pietro Locatelli, which are supposed to be used in his concer- tos of 1733, L’Arte del violino, are composed entirely of virtuosic scales and arpeggios, typical devices of improvisation, but ones which do not referthematically tothe parent movement C. P. E. Bach's image of the cadenza seems to be that of a “fantasia-like interlude,” which seldom uses any melodic fragments from the concerto." Even Mozart's carly keyboard cadenzas did not use thematic references.'' Quantz, however, while recognizing the possibility of fresh invention in a cadenza, offers the alternative of thematic reference when the player's imagination fails: Cadenzas must stem from the principal sentiment of the piece, and include a short repetition or imitation of the most pleasing phrases contained in is. At times, if your thoughts are distracted, it is not im- mediately possible to invent samething new. The best expedient is then to choose one of the most pleasing of the preceding phrases and fashion the cadenza from it. In this manner you not only can make up for any lack of inventiveness, but can always confirm the prevailing * Knédt. pp. 397-08, * Dimitri Themelis, Bude ow Caprice (Munich, 1967), p ‘© Pippa Drummond, Fhe Gernan Gancerta> Five 1980}. P378, Eva Badura-Skotha, “Cadena,” The New Grove 111, p. gat. 5a weenth-Century Studies (Oxtord,CLASSICAL CADENZA passion of the piece as well. This is an advantage that is not oo well known which [would like to recommend to everyone." Evidently, aside from the basic conception of the cadenza as an ¢labo- rated cadence, there was no consensus about what form that elaboration should take until late in the eighteenth century, when the cadenza had gained the status of a performance tradition. Even then, the practice maintained considerable variety, evident in the cadenzas of Mozart and Beethoven alone. Unfortunately, the various cadenza styles among other eighteenth-century composers cannot be discussed in detail here. Quantz's point about thematic reference having an advantage be- cause it will “always confirm the prevailing passion of the piece” reflects one ideal about cadenzas that theorists agree on. Another is surprise. The cadenza, while remaining faithful to the spirit of the work, should strive for improvised variety and the unexpected. In the wordsof Daniel Tark: Although unity demands a well-ordered whole, just as necessary as variety, so that the listener will be kept attentive. That is why in ca- denzas one does as many unexpected and surprising things as is possible"? Central to this ideal of surprise is the suspension of meter. Quantz and Tiirk, writing about forty years apart, are in remarkably close agreement on this point: Regular meter is seldom observed, and indeed should not be ob- served, in cadenzas. They should consist of detached ideas rather than a sustained melody. as long as they conform to the preceding ex- pression of the passions, “4 Steady motion and meter (Taktart) should not be maintained throughout the cadenza: in addition, broken-aff measures (not com- pletely played through) must be adapted to go with one another. Fe the whole should seem more like a fantasy originating from over- flowing sentiment than a strictly worked-out piece." Quantz, p. 182, Tiirk. pp. $11—12, "So wie die Einheit zu einem wohlgeordncten Gancen erfordert wird, chen so novig ist auch dic Mannigfahigkeit, wenn der Zuhorer asfmerksam ethalten werden soll. Daher bringe man in Kadengen so viel Unerwartetes und Ueber raschendes an. als nur immer moglich ist ~ 4 Quant, p. 185 4 Tork, p.512. *Einerlei Bewegung und Taktart dart man in der Kadenz nicht durch gig beibehalten: auch mitssen blos einzelne abgebrachene (nicht véllig ausgelahrte) ce geschickt mit einander verbunden werden, Dena das Ganze soll mehr einer nut eben aus der Fille der Empfindung entstchenden Fantasie, als einem regelmassig aus- gearbeiteten Tonstiicke gleichen.”32 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY The writers’ opinion that the absence of meter adds to the improvised, surprising effects of cadenzas conforms to modern theoretical views about meter. Meter supplies low-level continuity to musical structure by Virtue of its regular grouping of beats, allowing the human mind to or- ganize easily the incoming rhythmic fragments and to proceed to higher-level perceptions. When ‘that continu is missing, the rhythmi patterns presented tothe listener seem disjointed unexpected, and s prising. ‘Turk is careful to balance his desire for spontane’ with the necessity of main gf some relationship movement, What is more surprising, in view of the cadenza’s reputation as a performer's improvisation, is his recommendation to some players to prepare the cadenza ahead in order to insure this relationship: It follows from the above that a cadens that has been learned by heart with some effort perhaps, or one that has been written down, must be played, rather than having random and unexceptional ideas thrown out, whatever the player happens to think of first." Perhaps Turk's recommendation is a response to abuses of the denza practice already present in his own time. Evidently, the tendency of singers and players to get carried away by their skills of improvisation goes well back into the first half of the century. Tosi’s complaint about cadenzas in operatic arias is quite famous, '7 but the use of aria cadenzas reported by Quantz is even more preposterous: The object of the cadenza is simply to surprise the listener unex: pectedly once more at the end of the piece, and to leave behind a spe- cial impression in his heart. To conform to this object, a single ca- denza would be sufficient in a piece. If, then, a singer makes two cadenaus in the first part of an aria, and yet another in the second part, it must certainly be considered an abuse; for in this fashion, be- cause of the da capo, live cadenzas appear in one aria.’* ‘These complaints are by no means limited to singers, Players of concerto cadenzas also earn the ire of the critics: ‘The abuse of cadenzas is apparent not only if they are of litle value in themselves, as is usually the case, but also ifin instrumental music % Tork. p. 91g. “Aus dem Vorigen falgt, dass eine vielleicht mit noch sa vieler Mike auswendig gelernte oder vorher aufgeschrichene Kaden? doch so ausgefihirie werden muss, als waren es bloss zufallig und oline Auswahl hingeworfene Geeanken, welche dem Spicler chen erst cinficlen,” © Tosi, as translated inte English by J. E, Galliard as Observations on the Blorid Song (London, 1744), pp. 128-29, Quant, pp. 180-81CLASSICAL CADENZA they are introduced in pieces in which they are not at all suitable; for example, in gayand quick pieces in two-four, three-four, three-eight, twelve-eight, and six-cight time. They are permissible only in pathetic and slow pieces, orin serious quick ones,'* I would say nothing new, but only repeat often heard complaints. if 1 spoke against the very great abuse of the embellished cadenzas (verzierten Kadenzen). For itis not seldom thata concerto seems to be played solely for the sake of the cadenzas. The performer struggles not only to achieve pointless length, but also introduces all sorts of ideas that have not the slightest relation with the preceding composi- tion, se that the good impression which the piece has perhaps made upon the listener for the most part has been cadenza-ed away (“weghadenziert"—emphasis Tark’s)."” Polemic was not the only response to these abuses, The eighteenth- century theorists were not short on advice on how tocorrect them. Some advice focuses on length, particularly excessive length, and for good reason. Arnold Schering, in a 1906 study of the eighteenth-century cadenza, writes that most of the written cadenzas he had been able to collect were of great length, comparable to modern ones, thus cor- roborating the complaints cited above.*" Knédt traces a controversy between Agricola and Tosi over singer's cadenzas, whence comes Agr- cola’s rule that a singer’s cadenza should be “no longer than a breath.”** ‘Tairk’s advice begins with that rule (without citation) and then goes on to elaborat With songs or wind instruments, a cadenza should last only as long.as the breath of the singer. With siting instruments, perhaps this rule need not be followed too strictly; however, monstrously long eaden- zas, which often las many minutes, are in no way to be excused *¥ % Quantz, p. 180. Tosi, p.137, makes similar remark © Turk, p. gog. “Ich witrde nichts Newes sagen, sondern schon oft gefahrte klagen wiederholen, wenn ich mich wider den sehr grossen Missbrauch der verzierten Kaden zen erkliric, Denn nicht selten scheint ¢s, cin Konzert werde bless der Kadenzen wegen gespick. Der Austihirer schweist disher nicht nur in Absicitt auf die eweckinassige Lange aus, sondetn bringt noch aberdies allerlei Gedanken darin an, die auf das voherge: gangene Tonstiick nicht dic geringae Bezichung haben, so dass dadurch der gute Ek druck, welchen das Tonstiick vielleicht auf den Zuhirer gemacht hatte, geossten wieder meghedensiert wird.’ " "Die Freie Kad Instrumentalkonzert eles 18. Jabrhunderts,” Intertational Mus rieological Society Congres Report (1.90%) p. 204, Knodt, p. 394 © ‘Turk, p. $4, “In Gesange oder auf Blasinstrumenten soll eine Kadenz eigentlich nur so lange dauern, als der Athem des Sangers turcicht. Auf besaiteten Instrumenten méctite awar dieser Grundssty niciit so sirenge au befolgen sein; aber dessen ungeachtet sind doch die ungeheuer lingen Kadenzen, welche nicht selten mehrere Minuten dauern, keines Weges 2u entschuldigen 333M THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY A second eline is that the cadenza should preserve the overall sense of the prevailing key of the concerto. This idea is put into very practical language by C. P. E. Bach Moreover, the principal key must not be left too quickly at the begin- ning, nor regained too late at the end. At the start the principal key ‘must prevail for some time so that the listener will be unmistakably oriented. And again before the close it must be well prolonged as a means of preparing the listener for the end of the fantasia and im- pressing the tonality upon his memory.*# A third rule is that cadenzas should not modulate inte distant keys. ‘This is obviously a corollary to the second; if the sense of the home tonic is to be maintained, keys which would weaken that sense should be avoided, especially in view of the cadenza’s traditional position at the end of the movement: You must not roam into keys that are too remote, or touch upon keys which have no relationship with the principal one. A short ca- denea must not modulate out of its key at all. A somewhat longer one modulates most naturally to the subdominant,and a still longer one to the dominant of the dominant.” Modulations into other keys, especially very distant ones, should not occur for example, in short cadenaas, or they must be brought about with great insight and likewise only in passing, In no case should one modulate to key that the composer himself has not mod- ulated to in the composition. This rule is founded, [ think, in the laws of unity, which must be consciously followed in all works of the fine arts." Finally, these writers emphasize time and again that the cadenza must match the character of the particular concerto, These comments are most often rather vague generalities about being faithful to the spi it of the work, but occasionally technical matters can affect this question. ‘Tark warns against making too many difficult passages if they subvert the impression (Eindruck) of the piece, citing the use of fancy passages in slow movements as a special offense.*7 % Bach, p43 > Quant, acht werden. Auf einen Fall sollte man in dem Tonstacke selbst nicht ausgewichen ist. Diese Regel eae sich, wie mich danke, auf die Gefess der Finheit, welche bekannter- massea in allen Werken der schanen Kanste hefolgr werden massea.” = Tork, pp. gte-1CLASSICAL CADENZA ‘The guidelines as proposed by the theorists above attempt to return the performance of cadenzas to their original purpose, that is, to embel- lish a final cadence in a concerto or aria. Although the reports of abuses by performers may be exaggerated and cert: cannot indicate the frequency of such abuse, they do tell us that late ightcenth-century per- formers had perhaps lost sight of the original intention behind the ca- denza. ‘The cadenza had attained the status of a performance tradition, or at leasta requirement, but not before great expansions of its impra satory elements had made its original function impossible. By limiting the use of foreign keys, the technical display, and aboveall, the length of a cadenza, Bach, Quantz, and Tark hoped to restore this function. The Cadenzas of Mozart Mozart composed at least sixty-four cadenzas and Eingiinge for his concertos. Why he, the master improviser, composed them at all is unclear. Gobels speculates that he wrote them for friends and students who could not improvise so well" while Badura-Skoda thinks that in the case of the mature cadenzas Mozart did not improvi in performance, but used these written cadenzas himself." Also unclear is the chronology of the cadenzas and their parent concertos; evidently, many cadenzas were written ata later time, except perhaps the cadenza to the Piano Concerto K.488, which is written into the autagraph score of the work. What is clear, however, is that Mozart had a definite idea of what a cadenza should be from the completion of the “Jeunehomme™ Piano Goncerto, K-271 (1775) to the end of his life. The similarity of form and procedure among all the mature cadenzas is striking. He never reached the final, desperate solution of Beethoven, however, that there should be one ideal cadenza fora concerto. Far bath the Piano Concertos K.453 and K.456 Mozart wrote a pair of cadenzas for the opening movements, and these are not mere reworkings, but entirely different cadenzas. Even as his own conception of the cadenza's form and function crystal- red, he did not give up the performer's option to improvise. The first observation we can make about Mozart's cadengzas is that they follow the guidelines of our theorists quite strictly. That they always the spirit of the parent work is difficult to demonstrate, of course, but perhaps in Mozart’s case that can go without saying. They never seem too long, and indeed, by today’s standards they are quite short. They are full of thematic references but these are never organized intoa continuous fantasy, but rather move from one to another quite ibels, "D ue Kadengen 2u alt * Frangpeter a6, © P. Badu: Musien XXXV (1981), Skoda, p.2 3536 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY abruptly. Both Eduard Melkus and Paul Mies use the word “quotes” (Zi- tate) to describe this effect.” Most of all, Mozart strictly observes the pro- hibition against distant modulation, Indeed, as Paul Badura-Skoda points out, he never modulates at all, but remains firmly rooted in the tonic key, and this characteristic is not usually written into modern ca- denzas fur Mozart concertos.’ The harmonic effect of this is by no means stable or tranquil, but one of significant tension on the low as described by Denis Matthews: ‘They appeared to he suspended hetween the six-four chord and its resolution: they may have tacked on other keys but rarely if ever es- tablished them in the Beethoven way." Indeed, the most concise way to describe a Mozart cadenza would be to say that it is an improvisation on a prolonged dominant chord. This is just the sensation that Matthews describes: the listener keeps waiting for the resolution at the orchestral entrance, which is the beginning of the final phrase of the movement. This suggests that Mozart's cadenzas con- form to the original purpose of the cadenza, which is to embellish a final cadence. If the orchestra introduces the cadenza with a | 6-4, and the soloist moves from that to a dominant trill which is resolved by the orchestra with | in root position, what is that but an extended ca- dence formu: What does it mean, in practical or technical terms, to prolong a sin- gle chord for so long and retain its function? Mozart employs several techniques toaccomplish this. The firstisa liberal use of | 6—4 harmony, especially at the beginning, which accords with the advice of C. P.E. Bach that “the six-four chord should be keptas much in mind as possible at the beginning of elaborations." This only makes sense. Theorists have long conceived of the cadential 1 6-4 as a dominant chord with a double appoggiatura, which immediately resolves to V. While the triads may change in Mozart's alternation of 1 6-4 and V, the constant pres- ence of the fifth degree in the bass gives a higher-level impression of V. Using the 1 6-4 at the beginning creates a smooth transition from the through-composed orchestral section into the improvisatory cadenza. Then, as Badura-Skoda points out, the 1 6—4 disappears in the middle of the cadenza, when its transitional function is no longer necessary: » Mies, p. 65. Eduard Melkus, “Die Kadeazen in Morart-Violinkonzerten,” Musica XXXVI (1982), 26. la, pp. 219-20. \irian Boult Lecture: Cadenzas in Pigno Concertos." Recorded Sound LXVILE (1g78). 724, 3 Buch, p. 981CLASSICAL GADENZA EXAMPLE 1, First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, I/1—-7 om, ee = ae It is remarkable in Mozart's cadenzas, quoted themes always appear in the home key, and then, if the cadenza begins with a theme, mostly over th four chord. But when the theme appears first in the middie section of the cadenza, itisin its original arrangement. For instance, consider a cadenza for the Piano Concerto in G, K.453 as seen in Example 1. Here Mozart introduces the main motive, unac- companied. as in the beginning of the movement. When the left hand enters, the chord is not I, but 1 6-4. This alternates with V7 until the harmony changes. The effect is one of instability and tension. Asecond strategy is that Mozart never leaves the home key, which of course would instantly banish any tension associated with the dominant chord, and yet he never has a strong cadence within that key, which would have the same result. The harmony can imply other keys, cer- tainly, but the high-level sense of the home tonic is always present. The cadenza quoted above continues as shown in Example 2. It appears that the key might be moving to D major in measures 8 to 11, but this turns out to bea secondary dominant, Then, after along run which lands ona low F-sharp (implied V 6-5), Mozart begins a series of progressions which imply G, E miner, A minor, D minor, and C minor. Buta tradi- tional chord analysis would certainly describe this as a series of second- ary dominants: 1, VII 6'V1I, V1, ¥ 6—-5/VI, VI, V 6—5/VI, VI, V 2/IL, V 6-y/V, V 2, V 6-5/1V, V a/VII, V og, IV 6-4, V 6-5. A Schenkerian analysis of the passage, as seen in Example , reveals the clear descend- ing scale that moves chromatically downward from G and lands on that * P, Badure-Shods, p25THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY EXAMPLE 2. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, 18-25 => ge ww, Fed l 1 = = r reCLASSICAL CADENZA EXAMPLE 3. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, L/18-25, Schenkerian analysis very same low F-sharp which introduced the passage. Thus Mozart presents the listener with a brief development of an important motive of ‘the concerto in the right hand, supported by quick harmonic changes which allow him to avoid the tonic cadence and mi ‘in the dominant tension throughout. The chromatic changes simply prolong the domi- nant chord, so that it can last twelve measures instead of three or four. Sometimes the chromatic harmony supports the dominant more di- reetly as a series of secondary deminants or diminished chords circum- seribing the fifth degree of the home tonic. This is the case at the end of the very brief first cadenza to the first movement of K.456, as shown in Example 4. The descending minor scale leads right through the domi- nant F toadiminished seventh on E natural, which acts like a large lead- ing tone orappoggiatura to the dominant, which arrives presently after a flourish. EXAMPLE 4. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, I/14-18 3940) THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY The effects of all of these harmonic devices are amplified by Mo- zart’s carefulexploitation of the piano register, principally the bass. This is reserved for the principal tones of the prevailing dominant harmony, so that they seem like a pedal for the entire cadenza. Note thatin Exam- ple 2 from K.454 above, the two F-sharps which frame the chromatic passage are in the same octave, and they are the lowest notes in the ca- denza to that point. Because the listener accords a stronger harmonic function tolow notes, the effect of the dominant harmony is more credi- ble than the variety of implied keys that follow, especially when the same note returns after the passage. While the bass register strengthens the dominant prolongation in Mozart's cadenzas, the high register weakens any authentic cadences that have to be made for purposes of low-level articulation, or because they are intrinsic to the original material (see Example 5). The series of V-I progressions in measures 22 to 27 is included because Mozart is quoting exactly the original setting of the motive (although in the con- certo it immediately precedes rather than follows the half-note idea). But even the rather firm gesture in measure 27 does nothing to resolve the tension of the high-level dominant in the cadenza because it is so high in the piano register. The very next passage resumes the dominant with octaves on F, deep in the bass. In the commentary on Mozart's cadenzas, two writers, Matthews and Paul Badura-Skeda, have noticed a consistent three-part form: Inalmost all of Mozart's great cadenzas can one ascertaita definite three part form: a cadenza beginning (1) which starts a) either with a theme from the concerto movement orb} with virtuoso runs, at times already known, at times newly invented, and flows into a middle part (I), which almost continually develops with sequences an important theme or motive from the concerto movement, mostly over a sus- tained bass note or chord, This leads into a number of virtuoso runs, passages in thirds, ece., untilthe clase of the cadenza (111), which usu- ally ends with a trill." The details of Badura-Skoda’s description support the idea of the cadenza as a prolonged dominant, The rarity of the principal theme at the beginning of the cadenza is due to its close association with tonic sta- bility. After all, its first job is to establish the key clearly at the beginning of the concerto. When it is used, it must be transformed or harmonized anew to maich the dominant function of the cadenva. We have already Theimportance of the base register with respect to harmanic function is discussed in Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendofl, A Generative Pheary of Tonal Music (Cambridge, Macs,, 198g). pp. #8. 162-65 *'P, Badura-Skoda, p. 216.LAL CADENZA EXAMPLE 5, Second cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, 23-31 seen an example of this in the first cadenza for K.45, where the theme is harmonized with the | 6-4. A different sort of case is found in the cadenza for the Piano Concerto K.459. as scen in Example 6. After a series of virtuoso Iriplets aver the dominant C, Mozart transfers the trip- let figure to the bass and introduces the main theme, a martial rane which originally was harmonized with I and V on the firs © measures of it. Now, in order to blend with the preceding harmony and to sustain the dominant function, Mozart uses a slightly different version of the tune which can be harmonized V-I. Mozart's transformation empha- sizes the V, because it is heard first in a metrically stronger position than #1THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY EXAMPLE 6. Cadenza for Piano Concerto K. 459, I/7-12 the I. This corresponds with an especially beautiful moment from the concerto itself, when the piano enters and uses the theme, for the first time, ina series of secondary dominant sequences (see Example 7). Here isan instance of the composer relating events in the cadenza to the con- certo movement proper in a more substantial way, an idea that will be applied expansively by Beethoven. Badura-Skoda also points out that in the second part of the cadenza, the setting of a concerto theme is characterized by “Fortspinnung” rather than the well-rounded original version.%? Again, this is only logical in view of the cadenza’s dominant function. If a single harmony, a single tendency is to be prolonged, the last thing that is wanted is any kind of strong articulation, such as would be created by a closed, well-rounded theme, Indeed, the three-part form itself indicates Mozart's plan. If the in- tent is to sustain @ single chord on the high level, three sections is about oP. BaduraSkoda, p. 228,CLASSICAL CADENZA |. Piano Concerto K, 459, WILI=114 the maximum that can be accommodated in a cadenza.s* The only alter- native is to change the key or to change the fundamental harmony, ¢i- ther of which would undermine the original intent. The consistency of the three-part structure in Mozart's mature cadenzas reveals the con- straint under which he is working. ‘This constraint on the length of the cadenza can be easily noticed in abrief survey of the proportions of some of these cadenzas compared to their parent movements, as seen in Table 1. With two exceptions—the first cadenza to the slow movement of K.453, and the first cadenza to K.456—the proportion of the cadenza to the rest of the parent move- ment is quite consistent, This consistency indicates both the limits of the dominant function of the cadenza and the structural level to whi cadenza would belong, If it occupies one tenth of the movement, © ‘This assertion is hased on recent evidence concerning human musical perceptinn, See Joweph P. Swain, “The Need for Li n Hierarchical Theories of Music,” Muric Pevceptian IV (Fall, 198), 12147. B44 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY TABLE L Work Measures ire Measures in % Lengih of Concerto Cadenza Cadenza fine). cad.) K. 453, 1 372 a7 374 39 K. 453, 11 14 19 136, \4 K, 456, 1 382 18 399 35 K. 456, 11 337 3 K. 459, 1 433 Mu K. 459, 1 349 33 comes an important structural event, as well it should be, but by no means a dominating one, comparable to an exposition or recapitulation. Indeed, Mozart clearly intends that the cadenza elaborate and amplify the next-to-last tonal statement of the recapitulation, one in which the soloist confirms the tonic key and participates thereby in the process of harmonic resolution. All that is left is for the orchestra to concur with the very last cadential event The Cadenzas of Beethoven Our survey of the authentic classical cadenzas en- counters serious difficulties in the contributions of Beethoven, difficul- ties which did not come up in the discussion of the Mozart corpus. First of all there is the bewildering variety of the Beethoven cadenzas. While those of Mozart seem both to. confirm and refine the vision of his con- temporary theorists and present a consistent, functional, and musically logical solution to the cadenza problem, Becthoven’s cadenzas seem to be a series of experiments, at times wildly contradicting most of the aforementioned theoretical guidelines, and at other times adhering to them with puritan restraint. Some are, by eighteenth-century stand- ards, of gargantuan length; others are fewer than twenty measures long. Some seem to be models of Mozart's conception acleardomi- nant function; othersare so highly chromatic that at points no harmonic tendency is discernible. What can Beethoven's idea of the form and ction of the cadenza possibly be in the face of such diversity? Another problem is the matter of chronology. Itis not known with any certainty the order of composition of the cadenzas, nor the time of composition for any one of them, The Kinsky catalogue suggests thatCLASSIGAL GADENZA Beethoven had composed them all by 1809, for various students and ac- quaintances, but there is ne hard evidence for this; 1809 is chosen be- cause it is the year of completion for the last concerto, the “Emperor.” Willy Hess points out that the three cadenzas composed for Op. 15 must date from 180q at the earliest, since they make use of notes above f, a range not used previously. This observation would nat apply to the cadenza for Op. 19, which does not go beyend the &, What Hess makes clear, however, is that at least in the case of Op. 1, and perhaps likely in all the piano concertos except Op. 73, the ca- denzas were composed well after the composition of the parent con- certo. With Mozart, whose style changes during the period of his mature piano concertos are quite subtle, this issue of a time lapse is not so seri- ous. With Beethoven, whose change in style between Op, 19 (1794) and Op. 73 (1809) is far-reaching and continuous, difficult questions arise about the composer's opinions of his earlier work, compositional proc- ess, whether he could really compose in a personal style from which he had since evolved, and whether he would even want to. One aspect of this chronological tangle is sure. When Beethoven wrote his “Emperor” Concerto in 109, he no longer wished to allow the soloist the option of playing his own cadenza. Instead, at the point of the 16-4, Beethoven writes directly in the score: “Do not make a cadenza here, but play immediately the following."#° There follows a brief ca- denza of nineteen measures with a single thematic reference and clear dominant function. Evidently, Beethoven had had a change of heart about the cadenza and its role in a concerto movement, A story told by Ferdinand Ries about his performance of Op. 37 in July 1804. with Beethoven conducting, might reveal some interesting aspects of Beethoven's earlier attitude toward the concerto cadenza: Thad asked Beethaven to write a cadenza for me, but he refused and told me to write one myself and he would correct it, Beethoven was satisfied with my composition and made few changes; but there was an extremely brilliant and very difficult passage in it, which, though he liked it, seemed to him too venturesome, wherefore he told me to write another in its place. A week before the concert he wanted to ‘hear the cadenza again. | played it and floundered in the passage; he again, this time a little ill-naturedly, told me to change it. I did so, but the mew passage did not satisfy me: I therefore studied the other, and zealously, but was not quite sure of it. When the cadenza was reached in the public concert Beethoven quietly sat down. 1 could net per- suade myself to choose the easier one, When I boldly began the more » Willy Hess, “Die Originalkadenzen zu Beethovens Klavierkonzerten,” Schueizeriiche Musibzvitung CRU (1972), 291 © “Non si fa una Gattera, mas’ attaeca suite il seguente.” 4546 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY difficult one, Beethoven violently jerked his chair, but the cadenza went through all right and Beethoven was so delighted that he shouted “Brava” loudly.*" Even if this story exaggerates some details, it can tell us something about cadenzas in Beethoven concertos.” First, they were not always im- provised, even when the soloist was an excellent pianist. This would ac- cord with the advice of Tiirk and the opinion of some scholars that only gifted and experienced composers would have improvised cadenzas at the moment of performance. Second, the suggestion that, if.a cadenza were to be composed, Beethoven would not only agree to one not writ- ten by himself, bucinsist thatit be composed by the soloist, is quite aston- ishing in view of what we know about the composer's meticulousness with regard to his own works. Evidently, he believed, in 1804, in the per- former's right and responsibility to create this improvisatory comment on the master’s piece. Finally, the cadenza in this story was of considera- ble length. Beethoven did not care to stand through it. Evidently, Beethoven, unlike Mozart, did not have a firm concep: tion of what the cadenza should be like, and his changing views about its place and purpose in the concerto would naturally affect the structure and function of each one he composed, So we must regard his collected cadenzas asa series of experiments, whose course cannot really be evalu- ated until their chronology is established. However, if we regard Beethoven's work in the concerto genre as similarly developmental, the wide variety in the cadenzas parallels his experimental treatment of the concerto form itself. Indeed, one characteristic that all his cadenzas share is that their structures respond to the demands and special fea- tures of the movements for which they are composed. ‘The cadenzas fall into three groups: the long cadenzas for first movements, the short cadenzas for first movements, and the cadenzas for third movements. The Piano Concerto in B-flat Op. 19, originally composed in 1794— g5. has.a long cadenza that is like no other that Beethoven wrote. Itbe- gins like a fugue, whose subject is a variantof the principal triadic theme of the first movement. The working out of the fugue is characterized by that unique brand of chromaticism that characterizes Beethoven's later works, especially his large-scale attempts at fugal writing, The purpose « From Ferdinand Ries and Dr. Franz Wegeler, Biographicke Natizen: Gder Ludwig van sana appearsin Thayer's Life of Beethoven, ed. Elliot Forbes «Prince: J. © The general relisuitay of Ries has recently been confirmed. See Alun Tyson, “Fer dinand Ries (1784~1838): The history of his contibution te Beethoven biography.” 14th-Contury Music 11 (1984), 209-21CLASSICAL CADENZA of such chromaticism is to sustain the tonic key as long as possible on the high level, with the chromatic progressions creating low-level events to organize the structure. Indeed, the use of this chromatic device reveals the purpose and nature of this cadenza. Itis no Mozart-like dominant prolongation buta high-level tonic prolongation. There is no predominance of 1 6=4 har- mony, no special reservation of the bass register to sustain the dominant function. Instead, the subject boldly announces the tonic triad, and the- matic material is introduced, after a dominant pedal, in B-flat minor, so 4g harmonic sense is one of tonic stability, not dominant tension. There isa brief foray into E-flat, then more dominant harmony which resolves to a tonic pedal, which lasts eight measures. The cadenza th a firm tonic cadence reiterated over (wo measures, then a hon a B-flat sale to lead back to the orchestra's entrance. That none of the theorists’ guidelines are observed in this cadenza is due toa fundamental change of purpose. The cadenza is not ar embel- lished cadence, nota prolonged dominant, but a larger event with tonic stability, None of the guidelines need be observed, even that one warn- ing against changes of key, because there is no dominant function to be sustained. The tonic pedal and strong cadence within the cadenza at the end are perhaps the most surprising of all, butit must be noted that this seventy-nine-measure cadenza is followed by only six measures of or- chestral coda, Beethoven evidently felt that, in view of the proportions involved, the cadenza should help the orchestra make the last cadential gesture of the movement. There are three long cadenzas for the first movement of the Piano Concerto in € Major, Op. 15 (completed 1795). One has sixty-two mea- sures butis incomplete. It begins by establishing the tonic with the main motive but then moves away with diminished chords until E-flatmajoris established with a large dominant preparation, complete with tills. The secand lyrical theme is heard in this key, which quickly dissipates into C minor before the music cuts off.45 Another cadenza is only thirty-two measures, thus within propor- tions established by Mozart. This may be indeed one of the closest models of Mozart's conception; it does reserve the lowest register for pitches appropriate to dominant harmony. However, the key of E-Hat major is also established in this cadenza, although much less em- phasis, to set the fanfare theme. This quickly moves to dominant har- mony in C which sets up the final till. This emphasis on the key of E-flat in both caden sis an attempt to # This cadenza has been completed by Edward T. Cone, See “A Cadenza tor Op. 15' in Beethoven Ewes: Studies in Honor of Etliot Ferbes, ed, Lewis Lackwoad and Phyllis Ben- jamin (Cambridge, Mass... 1984). 348 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY relate them to the movement proper in a more substantial way than by thematic reference alone. E-flat major is an important structural key of the movement; it sets the first appearance of the lyrical melody in the exposition (m, 49) and is the only important tonal center in the develop- ment section (mm. 266-84). A third cadenza to the first movement is perhaps the most problem- atic of all Beethoven's cadenzas, and also seems to be the one preferred by pianists who play this concerto. It is by far the longest of all Beethoven's cadenzas, 126 measures, a length which far outstrips the development section of the movement (c. eighty measures) and nearly equals the 132 measures of the recapitulation, Like the first one, it be- gins with the main motive in the key of C, which is followed by long ar- peggiated passages of harmonically ambiguous material. The key of E minor is briefly touched upon, followed by more diminished arpeggios. Finally the key of D-flat major is attained, setting the lyrical theme. This changes quickly to C-sharp minor. After more passage work there seems to be dominant harmony tending to C, but which instead moves, incredibly, to a presentation of the fanfare theme in the key of G. The seventh is added to this, and an eighteen-measure dominant pedal en- sues, finally making a cadence in advance of the orchestra. The problems with this cadenza have not only todo with its extreme. length, but also with its function, a related issue, What is its structural purpose in the movement? With dominant function out of the question, we can consider the possibility of a prolonged tonic, but the keys es- tablished within it are so many and so distant that it is difficult to con- ceive of a big tonic with those structural features, let alone hear it that way. The use of D-Hatv‘C-sharp, which is lauded by Matthews* and oth- ers as an exotic or brazen gesture, has nothing to do with the parent movement, as it does in the second cadenza for Op. 58, where it mirrors the harmonic goal af the development section. Surely this cadenza is one of Beethoven's less successful experiments. ‘The long cadenza for Op. 47 in C minor (composed 18007}, by con- trast, can be conceived of and heard as an expansion on the tonic key. After beginning with fugal material based on the main theme, arpeggi- ated passagework leads to the dominant key of G for a presentation of the second theme. This theme is never allowed to reach the cadence, but the tonic chord is turned into a seventh and the harmony returns to GC minor. Significantly, the cadenza is followed by the first long coda that Beethoven wrote for a concerto, a twenty-seven measure series of tonic cadences. From the onset of the cadenza to the end, a single high-level ++ Denis Matthews, “Beethoven and the Cartenza,” Musieal Times Cl (1970). 1207, The eminentecitie Sir Donald Francis Tovey also thinks highly of this cadenza, See Concertos, Vol. Hof Exays in Musiel Anaipis (London, 1936), p65CLASSICAL CADENZA key reigns, the tonic that is appropriate to the cadenza’s position in the structure of the wement. Beethoven tried a new approach to the problem of making the ca- denza connect the recapitulation with the coda in his G Major Piano Concerto, Op. 58 (composed 1805-06). When the orchestra enters after the conclusion of the cadenza, it does so on a dominant seventh, rather than a tonic chord, so that instead of the traditional cadential formula we have the pattern: 1 6-4 — cadenza — V7. In this way the end of the concerto can no longer be thought of as a pair of structural cadences, one embellished in the cadenza and finished by the orchestra and a sec- ond, through-composed one by the full ensemble, but rather as a single structural cadence, whose dominant part is embellished by the soloist, then continued and resolved by the orchestra. The connection is more than a matter of harmonic function. Beethoven introduces the cadenza with a lyrical theme whose phrases always move to the dominant (see Example 8). Then, when the domi- nant will of the cadenza arrives, the same theme is played in the clarinet over a variant in the piano. To understand the special problem that this structural arrangement creates for Beethoven, we must review the ear- her occurrences of this theme. In the orchestral part of the exposition, the theme is heard once (mm. 50-60), in a fortissimo orchestral tutti which then leads into cadential material before the solaust’s entrance. In the second part of the exposition it is heard in the winds, accompanied by virtuoso passagework in the piano (mm. 158-69), but then, rather than leading to the exposition’s cadence, the theme is reiterated in a beautiful, much quieter version nearly identical (o that quoted above (mm, 170-74), then giving way to the vigorous orchestral statement (mm. 175-80), so that the double announcement of the theme seems like an expansion of the original. In the recapitulation, this reiteration is done again, before the cadenza begins. This means that we hear it twice immediately before the cadenza, and once again right afier it. Beethoven needs a cadenza which does not emphasize tonic stability, since he is moving from dominant to dominant, yet presents something substantial in order to break up the triple presentation of this lyrical theme. Beethoven's solution in one cadenza is a tonic prolongation, similar to the others we have seen, but with certain features that weaken its overall function of tonic stability. There is careful use of the bass register for dominant implications, The movement to the key of B-flat major close to the beginning is significant, but the theme heard is the one that modulates to its relative minor; the overall sense of Gis perhaps not lost, butis notin the foreground either. Strong emphasis on E-flat and D-flat corresponds to the structural roles these pitches play in the concerto, but also supports the explicit dominant harmony on D that occupies the last 4950 THE JOURNAL OF MUSTCOLOGY seventeen measures. The idea behind this cadenza seems to be that since a tonic prolongation is the only option for a cadenza of this length, one ‘that has significant lower-level dominant features can function on the high level as a tonic, but yet not resolve the dominant tension which. must continue when the orchestra enters. This connection between the function of the cadenza and the material that surrounds it is made ¢x- plicit in the last cwenty measures of the cadenza, which present the lyri- EXAMPLE 8. Piano Concerto Op. 58, mim. 336-346 goes : —CLASSICAL CADENZA EXAMPLE 8. (continued) cal theme quoted above in the minor mode, so that its resumption by the orchestra in major is even more effective. Because he cannot prolong the dominant explicitly for the length of time required in these long cadenzas, Beethoven, in another solution to. Op. 58. tries to fashion an improvisation on the concept of unresolved harmonic tension. It is titled “Gadenza, ma senza cadere.” Not only is there not the slightest hint of any cadence, not even any dominant prep- aration before the end, but no key is consistent for more than five mea- sures or so. The cadenza is.a succession of wild harmonic, rhythmic, and tempo contrasts. A single thematic quotation and the main motive re- peated at the end are this cadenza’s only link with the parent movement ‘The concluding till, the audible signal of the cadenza on G-sharp, G natural, and A. Evidently, the listener, faced with this jumble, is to con- clude that this improvisation must be supporting the dominant, That is the last clear harmony he has heard and the very next one he will hear, ‘The reason for the extremely unusual thematic context into which the cadenza is placed becomes clear only after the last hearing of that Iyrical theme. Of five renditions, only the final one makes a strong ca- dence (m. 356). which leads directly into the last high-level cadence of the movement. The function of the cadenza as an elaborated cadence depends on such a transformation of the theme. In a sense, the cadenza forces this once transitional material to close, simply because after the cadenza nothing else would suffice. How long are these long cadenzas? Table 2 presents the data. With the exception of the lithe cadenza for Op. 15, they are significantly 51