Age10506 PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
New Technology
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process
File Reference: AGE10506
For additional information on this subject, contact

R.A. Al-Husseiri on 874-2792
Process
New Technology
CONTENTS
PAGES
PRODUCING TECHNOLOGIES .................................................................................................1
REFINING TECHNOLOGIES...................................................................................................... 2
Refining Processes ........................................................................................................... 2
Isomerization ................................................................................................................... 2
Continuous Reforming..................................................................................................... 3
Catalytic Cracking ........................................................................................................... 5
Alkylation ........................................................................................................................ 8
Visbreaking...................................................................................................................... 9
Coking ........................................................................................................................... 11
Hydrocracking ............................................................................................................... 13
REFINERY COMPARISONS..................................................................................................... 16
Ras Tanura Upgrade Project .......................................................................................... 16
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES .................................................................................... 21
Sulfur Emissions ............................................................................................................ 21
Gasoline Quality ............................................................................................................ 22
Oxygenates .................................................................................................................... 22
Lead Removal ................................................................................................................ 22
FUTURE REFINERY PFD ......................................................................................................... 23
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................ 24
Process
New Technology
PRODUCING TECHNOLOGIES
The concept of centralized control of related facilities offers a number of competitive advantages, including:
Improved coordination between units

Lower manpower requirements
Opportunities to use more sophisticated control systems
Convenient integration with Management Information Systems (MIS)
This concept can be applied to a refinery, a supply network, or to a national industry. However, nowhere is it
more important than in the control of Saudi Aramcos producing facilities where operations between producing
units must be coordinated with refinery operations, crude oil terminal inventories and liftings, finished product
inventories, and the Master Gas System operation, among others.
Saudi Aramco is moving forward to modernize and centralize control of all aspects of producing, refining, and
supply operations.
Historically, associated gas has been separated from the crude in GOSPs located at or very near the production
fields. In the case of offshore fields, it has been necessary to invest in very expensive offshore GOSPs and to
transport the oil and gas separately to shore facilities for further processing. Saudi Aramco is currently
sponsoring a major research effort to develop the technology for two-phase (liquid and vapor in a common line)
flow from the offshore production platforms to onshore GOSPs. This technology, should it be achieved, would
result in major savings as offshore fields are developed and expanded.
Process
New Technology
REFINING TECHNOLOGIES
Refining Processes
Several additional process units, or combinations of units, may be considered in the future for the Ras Tanura
Refinery. Most, if not all of these process options, would be designed to increase production of premium
products (gasoline, jet fuel, diesel) at the expense of fuel oil, provide higher octane blending components for
production of greater volumes of unleaded gasoline, and increase the Kingdoms degree of self-sufficiency by
providing a secure source for all domestic product requirements.
Isomerization
Isomerization is another of the family of hydroprocessing processes. In this case, a light straight run gasoline
product, comprised primarily of pentanes and hexanes, is passed over a catalyst in the presence of hydrogen to
convert normal (straight chain) paraffins to iso (branched chain) paraffins.
The principal benefit of this process is the increased octane of the isoparaffins for gasoline blending. Normal
pentane (62 RON) is converted to isopentane (92 RON). Normal hexane (25 RON) is converted to isohexane
(75 RON). A typical mixture of pentanes and hexanes is raised in octane from 73 to 91 RON.
A typical isomerization process system is shown in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1. Isomerization Process
Process
New Technology
Continuous Reforming
A moving catalyst bed feeds freshly regenerated catalyst to the reformer reactor system on a continuous basis
as shown in Figure 3. Catalyst removed from the reactor section is regenerated and returned to the reactors.
Advantages of continuous reforming compared to the existing semi-regenerative units at Ras Tanura include
higher octane potential, increased product yields (at comparable octane levels), higher stream efficiency, and
lower utility costs. Several units have been built worldwide for their octane capability. A process flow diagram
for a modern continuous reformer is shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2. UOP Continuous Reformer
Process
New Technology
Details of the stacked reactor design employed in continuous reforming are shown in Figure 3.
FIGURE 3. UOP Continuous Reforming Stacked Reactors
Process
New Technology
A comparison of operating conditions and yields between a typical conventional reformer and a continuous
reformer is shown in Figure 4.
Conventional
Reforming
Pressure, psig
Continuous
Reforming
290
100
1.4
1.5
6 months
6 days
80
80
Octane, R+O
92.5
100
H2 production, SCF/B
900
1500
H2 recycle ratio
LHSV
Cycle length
C5 + yield, vol %
FIGURE 4. Reformer Operation Comparison

In addition to the improved product quality, the lower pressure and lower H 2 recycle requirements result in
decreased capital equipment expenditures.
Catalytic Cracking
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) employs a high activity catalyst at high temperature (550 to 1000 F) and low
pressure (15 to 30 psig) to convert gas oils to light products, principally LPG and gasoline. The fluid catalyst
is made up of finely ground solid particles that will take on the characteristics of a fluid under certain carefully
controlled conditions. The catalyst can be transported between vessels in the FCC unit as a fluid when it has
been fluidized by the addition of oil vapor (in the reactor) or air (in the catalyst regenerator).
The fluid catalyst is alumina base with a proprietary combination of rare-earth elements as the primary active
cracking enhancers.
FCC gasoline, which can be equal to as much as 60% of the unit charge, is of moderately high octane (94
R+O).
Process
New Technology
FCC performance can be improved by hydrotreating the feed stock to remove poisons and impurities (sulfur,
nitrogen, metals) that would otherwise be carried into the unit and deposited on the catalyst. A simplified flow
diagram of a modern FCC unit is shown in Figure 5.
FIGURE 5. Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process

In a fluidized bed, the solid catalyst and vapor mixture take on all the properties of a fluid, including:
Pressure transmission through bed
Head pressure developed by the height of the fluidized bed

Movement or transport using fluid property
Process
New Technology
The various regimes of fluidization of a catalyst bed as a result of increasing gas velocity through the bed are
shown in Figure 6.
FIGURE 6. Regimes of Fluidization

Examples of typical cracking reactions are shown in Figure 7.
FIGURE 7. Cracking Reactions

A side reaction of cracking is the formation of elemental carbon, or coke, deposits on the catalyst. This coke is
consumed in the FCC regenerator, producing the heat required for the cracking reactions.
Process
New Technology
Alkylation
A side reaction of the FCC process is the production of relatively large volumes of olefinic LPG (propylene and
butylene). Alkylation, a process that takes advantage of this material, is the molecular combination of
isobutane with propylene or butylene in the presence of a strong acid catalyst to form C 7 and C8 gasoline
molecules. In practice, both sulfuric and hydrofluoric acids have been used for alkylation.
The alkylate product is a very clear, paraffinic gasoline with an octane of 92 to 93 (R+O). The light alkylate is
an excellent volatility balance for heavy gasolines such as reformate. Typical alkylation reactions are shown in
Figure 8.
FIGURE 8. Typical Alkylation Reactions
Process
New Technology
A flow diagram of a modern HF alkylation process is shown in Figure 9.
FIGURE 9. HF Alkylation
Visbreaking
Visbreaking is a mild thermal cracking process that accomplishes three significant goals for the refinery.
The viscosity of the vacuum bottoms product is reduced so that less light fuel oil is
required to reduce the viscosity to industrial fuel specifications.
The volume of heavy fuel oil, a low-priced product, is reduced.

The volume of light products, gasoline and distillate, are increased as a result of the
cracking process.
Process
New Technology
The most common visbreaking process, using soaker drums to hold the hot vacuum bottoms at cracking
temperature for a longer period of time to increase the yields of light products, is shown in Figure 10.
FIGURE 10. Visbreaking Process
10
Process
New Technology
Coking
Coking is a widely used resid upgrading process. Severe thermal cracking is used to convert residual
materials to coke and lighter liquid products. The coker products require additional processing prior to
blending into finished stocks due to their high aromatics and olefin contents. A process flow diagram for a
delayed coker is shown in Figure 11.
FIGURE 11. Delayed Coker

After the coke is formed and deposited in the coke drum, it must be removed. This is typically done with the
use of a high pressure water stream (up to 3,000 psig), as shown in Figure 12.
11
Process
New Technology
FIGURE 12. Removing Coke

Petroleum coke is valuable for a number of uses, including as a fuel, for electrodes, and specialty chemicals.
12
Process
New Technology
Hydrocracking
Hydrocracking is a severe hydroprocessing operation in which gas oils are subjected to high temperatures and
very high pressures (2500 to 3000 psig) in the presence of hydrogen and a catalyst. Hydrocracking converts
gas oils to lower boiling components, principally gasoline. Straight run (crude), catalytic (FCC), and thermal
(coker) gas oils may be subjected to hydrocracking in complex upgrading refineries. The principal reactions
found in a typical hydrocracking operation are shown in Figure 13.
FIGURE 13. Hydrocracking Reactions
13
Process
New Technology
A flow diagram for a modern two-stage hydrocracker is shown in Figure 14.
FIGURE 14. Hydrocracking Flow Diagram
14
Process
New Technology
Hydrocracking in the modern refinery can compliment fluid catalytic cracking, or can be used in place of it. A
comparison of operating conditions, products and yields from the two processes is shown in Figure 15.
Fluid Catalytic Cracking
Hydrocracking
Process Type
Coke rejection, olefinic gasoline
Hydrogenative, almost no coke, no

olefins in gasoline
Reactor Type
Moving bed
Fixed bed
Type
Cracking
Cracking and hydrogenation
Residence in Reactor
0.2 - 10 minutes
Catalyst:
1/2 - 2 years
Nominal Feed:
450 - 1100 F
None
125 - 1000 F
1000 - 3000 SCF/B
15 - 30
1050 - 1100
1 - 20
1500 - 3000
500 - 800
0.5 - 2
Conversion to gasoline, %
50 - 80
30 - 100
Main products
Gasoline, distillate, and olefinic

LPG
LPG, naphtha, jet fuel, distillates,

and lube oils
Total liquid yield, vol %
95 - 105
115 - 130
Boiling Range
Hydrogen
Operating Conditions:
Pressure, psig
Temperature, F
SV, V/Hr/V
FIGURE 15. Cracking Process Comparisons
15
Process
New Technology
Refinery Comparisons
There are currently seven refineries operating within Saudi Arabia. Ras Tanura, by far the largest in terms of
crude run, and the four Samarac plants, are strictly topping-reforming refineries. That is, they have no cracking
capacity.
The technologies of the Saudi Arabian refineries are summarized in Figure 16.
Refinery
Ownership
Crude
Capacity
Technology
Ras Tanura
Aramco
500
Topping, Reforming
Riyadh
Samarac
120
Topping, Reforming
Jeddah
Samarac
100
Topping, Reforming
Yanbu
Samarac
170
Topping, Reforming
Yanbu
Samarac/Mobil
250
FCC, CCR,
HF Alkylation
Jubail
Samarac/Shell
250
Hydrocracking
Rabigh
Samarac
250
Topping, Reforming
FIGURE 16. Saudi

Arabian Refineries
The two joint venture
refineries
(Petromin/Mobil at
Yanbu and
Petromin/Shell at Jubail)
are advanced-design
cracking refineries, and
are operated to produce
finished products,
principally unleaded
gasoline, for export.
The technology employed in refineries in the United States, where the market is driven to produce large
volumes of gasoline from a variety of crude sources, may be very complex, similar to that found in the
Samarac/Mobil and Samarac/Shell refineries. Cracking processes are employed in most refineries in the United
States and Europe.
As the Kingdom moves further toward refining for the export of finished products and adds facilities to balance
product supply with demand, Ras Tanura will likely be configured more like the complex refineries found in
other areas of the world.
Ras Tanura Upgrade Project

Saudi Aramco has announced plans for major upgrading of the Ras Tanura Refinery. This project, to be carried
out in four phases over approximately 10 years, will cost several billion dollars. Crude throughput will not be
expanded. However, the addition of fluid catalytic cracking, alkylation, hydrocracking, coking, and additional
hydrotreating and sulfur recovery capacity will drastically alter the slate and volumes of products produced
from the refinery.
16
Process
New Technology
The facilities contemplated for each of the four phases of the project are shown in Figures 17, 18, 19, and 20.
FIGURE 17. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase I
17
Process
New Technology
FIGURE 18. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase II
18
Process
New Technology
FIGURE 19. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase III
19
Process
New Technology
FIGURE 20. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase IV
While the Ras Tanura Refinery is already an extremely large industrial operation, it will undoubtedly become a
more complex facility as the Kingdom continues to evaluate and act on opportunities to export finished products
and increase yields and octane levels of gasoline as lead is phased out. Environmental actions will also bring about
changes to the refinery facilities and their operation.
20
Process
New Technology
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES
Sulfur Emissions
Growing concern for the environment is leading to added controls for all facets of refinery operation. The
principal control that may be expected at gas plants and refineries will be the addition of tail gas units to
existing sulfur plants. The sulfur plants recover 94 to 97% of the sulfur present in the feed gas, releasing the
balance to the atmosphere. Addition of a SCOT type tail gas treating unit, using enhanced amine technology,
can increase sulfur recovery to 99.9+%. A process flow diagram for a modern SCOT unit is shown in Figure
21.
FIGURE 21. Shell SCOT Process
21
Process
New Technology
Gasoline Quality
Oxygenates
Various oxygenates are gaining popularity as a means to reduce emissions of unburned hydrocarbons from vehicle
exhausts. The most popular oxygenate is methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) which is produced by the catalytic
addition of methanol to isobutylene (from FCC). MTBE has an extremely high octane (118 R+O), and is therefore
a useful blending component for increasing gasoline pool octane as well as reducing pollution. The MTBE process
is shown in Figure 22.
FIGURE 22. MTBE Process
Lead Removal
The five members of the Gulf Cooperative Countries have announced plans to phase out leaded gasoline by 1994.
The octane requirements placed upon the Ras Tanura Refinery to blend high octane gasoline in increasing volumes
without the use of lead will require additional process technology and facilities for the refinery.
High octane gasoline will be produced by the process units described above, including FCC, CCR, and Alkylation,
each of which will produce a high octane gasoline blending component.
22
Process
New Technology
FUTURE REFINERY PFD

Using your knowledge of the refining industry, the processes available to the industry, and the goals of the
Saudi Arabian Government, develop a simple block Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for the Ras Tanura refinery
that you might expect to be operating ten years in the future.
You may use any combination of process schemes you might choose (no limits on creativity). Consider the
product needs of the Kingdom and the economic incentives and costs to add substantial new processing
capability.
23
Process
New Technology
glossary
alkylation
The combination of isobutane with propylene or butylene in the

presence of a strong acid catalyst to form a gasoline boiling range
product.
carbon on catalyst
In FCC Unit operation, carbon on catalyst is a measure of catalyst

regeneration efficiency.
catalyst circulation
In FCC Unit operation, the rate in tons per minute of catalyst

transferred from the regenerator to the reactor (and returned to the
regenerator).
catalyst to oil
The ratio or comparison catalyst entering the FCC riser to oil

entering the riser.
catalytic cracking
The catalyzed reaction whereby heavier (gas oil) hydrocarbon

molecules are converted to lighter (gas and gasoline) molecules,
generally by the FCC process.
centralized control
The concept of bringing control systems for various related

processes to one location to facilitate management of the entire set
of processes in a coordinated manner.
coking
A resid upgrading process using severe thermal cracking for

conversion of the residual material to coke and lighter products.
continuous reforming
A catalytic reforming process using a continuously moving catalyst

bed to add fresh catalyst to the reactor system.
cracking refinery
A refinery that employs a catalytic cracking process in addition to

crude topping and naphtha reforming.
dense bed
The portion of the catalyst bed in the FCC catalyst regenerator that is
not violently agitated by the addition of air for combustion of coke.
downstream operations
Refining and marketing operations, as opposed to exploration and

producing, which may be referred to as upstream operations.
fluid catalyst
A fine solid particle catalyst that can take on the properties of a fluid
with the addition of air or oil vapors under controlled conditions.
full combustion
An operational option for the FCC regenerator where sufficient air is

supplied to convert all CO to CO 2.
The operational control concept, especially with regard to FCC
Units, of balancing heat input and removal for the process system.
heat balance
hydrocracking
A type of catalytic hydroprocessing process where hydrogen,

accompanied by high temperature and pressure, is used to convert
heavier (gas oil) hydrocarbons to lighter (gasoline) boiling range
products.
24
Process
New Technology
hydrogen refinery
A plant that relies strictly on hydrogen processes (hydrocracking,

hydrodesulfurization, and reforming) for production of premium
products to the exclusion of catalytic and thermal cracking
processes.
joint venture
An enterprise where two or more parties share in the costs,

liabilities, and earnings of a company or process plant.
Management Information
System (MIS)
The computerized data gathering from the various elements of an

enterprise to prepare and present comprehensive operational and
economic reports for the entire enterprise.
oxygenates
Gasoline blending components that contain oxygen within their

molecular structure and that enhance combustion in motor vehicle
engines, resulting in lower emissions of unburned hydrocarbons.
particulates
Emissions to the atmosphere in the form of a solid or minute solid

particles formed in the atmosphere from gaseous emissions.
25
Process
New Technology
partial combustion
The FCC regenerator operation option where there is insufficient

oxygen for full combustion of CO to CO 2.
polynuclear aromatics (PNA)
Multi-ring compounds that are common in residual materials.
premium products
Products that command the highest price and are therefore the most
desirable to produce.
pressure balance
The FCC Unit operation control concept of maintaining pressures in

the reactor and regenerator such that proper catalyst circulation is
maintained.
rare-earth elements
A group of elements from 57 to 71 of the periodic table, which are

used as the active ingredients for cracking catalysts.
The process of restoring any catalyst to a near new condition so that
it may be reused.
regeneration
regenerator
A process vessel used for the regeneration of catalyst.
regenerator dense bed

temperature
The regeneration air flow to the FCC regenerator is controlled by the

temperature of the dense bed.
riser
The standpipe where gas oil is injected into the regenerated FCC
catalyst. The reaction mass is carried upward to the reactor through
the riser.
riser top temperature
The temperature of the FCC reaction mass at the riser top, or

entrance to the reactor, which controls the regenerated catalyst flow
to the riser.
selectivity
An attribute of a catalyst that describes the products preferentially

produced by the catalytic process.
SCOT Unit
A sulfur plant tail gas treating process, developed by Shell Oil

Company, that uses amine absorption technology to recover H 2S.
26
Process
New Technology
sulfur oxides (SOx)
Air emissions from industrial processes due to combustion of sulfur

in various fuels.
tail gas
The gas exiting the final stage of a sulfur recovery unit.
tail gas unit
Any process unit designed and operated to recover additional sulfur

from the sulfur plant tail gas.
thermal cracking
High temperature-induced cracking of residual materials to lighter

products.
thermal decomposition
As a result of high temperatures, cracking occurs and is

accompanied by the formation of coke.
upstream operations
Refers to crude oil exploration and production activities as opposed

to downstream activities such as refining and product marketing.
zeolites
Crystal structures composed of silica, alumina, and oxygen that are

the base materials for most modern catalysts.
27

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

For additional information on this subject, contact

PRODUCING TECHNOLOGIES .................................................................................................1

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Improved coordination between units

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 1. Isomerization Process

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 2. UOP Continuous Reformer

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 3. UOP Continuous Reforming Stacked Reactors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 4. Reformer Operation Comparison

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 5. Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process

Pressure transmission through bed

Head pressure developed by the height of the fluidized bed

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 6. Regimes of Fluidization

FIGURE 7. Cracking Reactions

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 8. Typical Alkylation Reactions

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

A flow diagram of a modern HF alkylation process is shown in Figure 9.

The volume of heavy fuel oil, a low-priced product, is reduced.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 10. Visbreaking Process

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 11. Delayed Coker

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 12. Removing Coke

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 13. Hydrocracking Reactions

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

A flow diagram for a modern two-stage hydrocracker is shown in Figure 14.

FIGURE 14. Hydrocracking Flow Diagram

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Coke rejection, olefinic gasoline

Hydrogenative, almost no coke, no

Cracking and hydrogenation

Gasoline, distillate, and olefinic

LPG, naphtha, jet fuel, distillates,

Total liquid yield, vol %

FIGURE 15. Cracking Process Comparisons

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 16. Saudi

Ras Tanura Upgrade Project

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 17. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase I

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 18. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase II

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 19. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase III

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 20. Ras Tanura Refinery Upgrade - Phase IV

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 21. Shell SCOT Process

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 22. MTBE Process

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FUTURE REFINERY PFD