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26. OPENING-MODE
FRACTURES(JOINTS AND DIKES)
I Main Topics
A Why are opening mode fractures important?
B Geometry
C KinemaPcs
D Mechanics
E Appendix (Full soluPon for displacements)

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Joint Sets

Sierra Nevada, CA
UK

Map of ioints. From Segall and Pollard, 1983.

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hUp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joints_Caithness.JPG
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Radial joints in a stock (from Rogers and Gerla and, 1988)

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Radial Dikes

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Spanish Peaks, CO
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Columnar Joints

Devils Postpile, CA
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Mudcracks

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OPENING-MODE FRACTURES
Shee$ng Joints

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Columnar Joints

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Plumose structure on a joint face

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Stylolites:"anP-cracks" in carbonate rocks

From Rispoli, 1981

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Why are opening-mode fractures important?
A Most common geologic structures on earth ( joints)

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Why are fractures
important? (cont.)
B Exceedingly important in
heat & uid ow (all
sorts of uids)

hUp://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Photoglossary/ssure4_large.JPG

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11

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Why are fractures
important? (cont.)
C Important in
determining
geologic &
engineering rock
strength

Joints at rockfall site, Utah

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Why are fractures
important? (cont.)
D Impact on
landscape and
surcial processes

Half Dome. Photo from Greg Stock

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Joints, Utah

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13

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

A Geometry
1 Thin relaPve to in-plane
dimensions (~1:1000)
2 Bounded in extent
3 RelaPvely planar

Joints in granite. Figures

From Segall and Pollard (1983)

10 m

Joint
thickness

Joints strike ~ north. Dike strikes NNE.

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14

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III KinemaPcs
A Field evidence for
relaPve age
1 Cross-cuing
relaPonships
2 Mineralogy Younger

Older

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15

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III KinemaPcs
A Field evidence for
relaPve age (cont.)
3 T-intersecPons
4 Curved approaches

Older

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Younger

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III KinemaPcs
B RelaPve (not absolute) displacement of originally neighboring points is
perpendicular to the fracture

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17

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III KinemaPcs
C Surface textures

PropagaPon direcPon

(Plumose structure)
1 Features

EssenPally idenPcal to surface textures of opening mode fractures produced in engineering tests
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

C Surface textures (cont.)
2 ImplicaPons for shape
of the front of an
"isolated joint
a Massive rocks:
joint fronts are
probably ellipPcal
Ribs on sheePng joint surface
North side of Tenaya Lake, Yosemite

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19

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

C Surface textures (cont.)

2 ImplicaPons for shape of the front of an "isolated joint
b Layered rocks: front tends to become rectangular
(front is perpendicular to hackles see 3 below)

Joint in siltstone with plumose structure. From McConaughy and Engelder, 2001

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20

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
A Necessary condiPons
for opening:
= 1r 1c > 0,
where
= driving stress
1r = remote most
tensile stress
(normal to crack)
c
1 = tensile stress
acPng on crack wall
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1r

1c

1c

1r

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21

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
= 1r 1c > 0
B Terminology
1 Opening mode is
preferred
2 "Extension fractures" ?
No. Cracks in mudats,
basalts open as the host
contracts.
3 "Tension fractures" ? No.
Dikes can form in
response to uid
pressure. Both 1r and
1c can be negaPve
(compressive).
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22

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
C SystemaPc joints
(straight traces)
InterpretaPon:
1r - 2r >> 1r 1joint

1r

Stress normal to
wall of opened joint
-Stress change normal to
crack wall if crack opens
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23

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
D Non-systemaPc joints
(irregular traces)
InterpretaPon:
1r 1joint > 1r - 2r 1r

Stress normal to
wall of opened joint

1r

2r

-Stress change normal to

crack wall if crack opens
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2r

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Here, 1joint = 0, so 1r 1joint = 1r

If 1r 2r, then 1r - 2r 0
Hence 1r 1joint > 1r - 2r

24

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
E TheorePcal displacements of the
walls of a mode-I crack, 2D elasPc
model (from Pollard and Segall,
1987)
1 Displacements normal to crack

{ (

u ( x a, y = 0 ) =
2 (1 ) (
2G {
u cy ( x a, y = 0 + ) =

c
y

I
2 (1 ) a 2 x 2
2G

)}

a2 x 2

)}

u cy = u cy ( x a, y = 0 + ) u cy ( x a, y = 0 ) =

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y
uyc(y=0+)

uyc
uyc (y=0-)

2 I
2 (1 ) a 2 x 2
2G

)}

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25

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
E TheorePcal
displacements (cont.)
u yc =

I
2 (1 )
2G

u yc
u cy(max)
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a2 x 2

)} u

a2 x 2
a

y
uyc(y=0+)

uyc (y=0-)

c
y(max)

( x = 0) =

) =

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x
1
a

+ I
{2 (1 ) a}
2G
2

EquaPon of
an ellipse

26

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
E TheorePcal
displacements (cont.)

y
uxc(y=0+)

uxc (y=0-)

Now consider the displacements parallel to the crack:

I
+ I
(1 2 ) ( x )} ,andu cy(max) ( x = 0 ) =
{
{2 (1 ) a}
2G
2G
u xc
(1 2 ) ( x )
=
c
u y(max)
2 (1 ) a

u cx ( x a ) =

For = 0.25,

u xc
u

c
y(max)

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(1 2 )( x ) = (1 2 )( x ) = 1 x
2(3 4)a
( 3 2) a 3 a
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
E TheorePcal
displacements (cont.)

Normalized Crack wall displacements

(v = 0.25)

Along the crack (|x/a| 1)

u yc
u

c
y(max)

a2 x 2

For = 0.25,
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a
u xc
u

c
y(max)

) =

x
1
a

(1 2 )( x ) = (1 2 )( x ) = 1 x
2(3 4)a
( 3 2) a 3 a
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
F Observed displacements in an elasPc material

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29

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
F Observed displacements in an elasPc material

Observed displacements
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TheorePcal ellipPcal displacements

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

III Mechanics
F Observed displacements in an elasPc material

Before crack opens

For = 0.25,

|uxc(x=a, y=0)/uyc(x=0)| 1/6

u xc
u

c
y(max)

(1 2 )( x ) = (1 2 )( x ) = 1 x
2(3 4)a
( 3 2) a 3 a

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

E Mechanics (cont.)
4 uy at crack walls

u cy ( x a, y = 0 + ) = C I a 2 x 2

5 Displacement
derivaPve
u
( x a, y = 0 ) = C 12
x
c
y

Normalized Crack wall displacements

(v = 0.25)

( 2x )

(a x )
6 Shear strain and stress
at crack Pp (xa)
xyc( x a ) = , xyc( x a ) =
I

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2 1/2

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Slope of displacement curve is

verPcal (innite) at crack ends, so
strains and stresses tend towards
innite values there also.
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Appendix

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Displacements arising from
opening of a mode-I crack,
2D elasPc model (from
Pollard and Segall, 1987)
ux =

I
r

(1 2 ) ( R cos r cos ) r sin sin ( )

2G
R

Driving Pressure (over-pressure)

uy =

I
2G

2 (1 ) ( Rsin r sin ) r sin cos ( ) 1

R

Shear modulus of host rock

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Displacements arising from
opening of a mode-I crack,
2D elasPc model (from
Pollard and Segall, 1987)
Now specialize to the crack walls.
Rsin = y 0, hence
ux =

I
r
I
{(1 2 )( R cos r cos )}
(1 2 ) ( R cos r cos ) r sin sin ( )
2G
2G
R

uy =

I
I
r

{2 (1 )( Rsin )}
2 (1 ) ( Rsin r sin ) r sin cos ( ) 1
2G
2G
R

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Displacements arising from
opening of a mode-I crack,
2D elasPc model (from
Pollard and Segall, 1987)
r1 is distance from right end
r2 is distance from le| end

So the remaining key

terms are:
R, cos, sin, and rcos.
Along the crack,
these terms are simple:
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R = [(a - x)(a + x)]1/2 = a 2 x 2

= 1 =
,so cos = 0,sin = 1
2
2
r cos = x
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Displacements arising from
opening of a mode-I crack,
2D elasPc model (from
Pollard and Segall, 1987)
Along the crack, R=[(a-x)(a+x)]1/2,rcos = x
u cx ( x a ) =
u cy ( x a ) =

(1 2 )( R cos r cos )} u cx = I {(1 2 )( x )}

{
2G
2G

I
I
2 (1 ) ( Rsin )} u cy =
2 (1 ) a 2 x 2
{
2G
2G

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)}

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37

26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Displacements arising from
opening of a mode-I crack,
2D elasPc model (from
Pollard and Segall, 1987)

y
x

Now consider the displacements normal to the crack:

u yc =

I
2 (1 )
2G

u yc
u cy(max)
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a2 x 2

)} u

a2 x 2
a

c
y(max)

( x = 0) =

) =

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x
1
a

+ I
{2 (1 ) a}
2G
2

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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Displacements arising from
opening of a mode-I crack,
2D elasPc model (from
Pollard and Segall, 1987)

y
x

Now consider the displacements parallel to the crack:

I
+ I
(1 2 ) ( x )} ,andu cy(max) ( x = 0 ) =
{
{2 (1 ) a}
2G
2G
u xc
(1 2 ) ( x )
=
c
u y(max)
2 (1 ) a

u cx ( x a ) =

For = 0.25,

u xc
u

c
y(max)

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(1 2 )( x ) = (1 2 )( x ) = 1 x
2(3 4)a
( 3 2) a 3 a
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26. OPENING-MODE FRACTURES

Displacements arising from
opening of a mode-I crack,
2D elasPc model (from
Pollard and Segall, 1987)

Normalized Crack wall displacements

(v = 0.25)

Along the crack (|x/a| 1)

u yc
u

c
y(max)

a2 x 2

For = 0.25,
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a
u xc
u

c
y(max)

) =

x
1
a

(1 2 )( x ) = (1 2 )( x ) = 1 x
2(3 4)a
( 3 2) a 3 a
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20