Anplied PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING B. C. CRAFT and M. F. HAWKINS Petroleum Engineering Department Louisiana State University PRENTICE-HALL, INC. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.Gas Reservoirs 1, History of Reservoir Engineering. Crude oil, natural gas, and water are the substances which are of chief concern to petroleum engineers, Although these substances sometimes occur as solids or semisolids, usually at lower temperatures and pressures, as paraffin, gas-hydrates, ices, or high pour-point erudes, in the ground and in the wells they occur mainly as fluids, either in the vapor (gaseous) or in the liquid phase, or, quite com- ‘monly both, Even where solid materials are used, as in drilling, cementing, and fracturing, they are handled as fluids or slurries. ‘The division of the well and reservoir fluids between the liquid and vapor phases depends mainly upon the temperature and pressure. ‘The state or phase ofa fluid in the reservoir usually changes with pressure, the temperature remaining substantially constant. In many eases the state or phase in the reservoir is quite unrelated to the state of the fluid when itis produced at the surface. ‘The precise knowledge of the behavior of erude oil, natural gus, and water, singly or in combination, under statie conditions or in motion in the reser- voir rock and in pipes and under changing temperature and pressure, is the main concern of petroleum engineers. As carly as 1928 petroleum engincers were giving serious consideration to gas-energy relationships and recognized the need for more precise infor- mation concerning physical conditions as they exist in wells and under- ground reservoirs. Eurly progress in oil recovery methods made it obvious that computations made from wellhead or surface data were generally mis- leading. Selater and Stephenson’s' described the first recording bottom-hole pressure gauge and thief for sampling fluids under pressure in wells. It is interesting to note that this reference defines bottom-hole data as referring to positive measurements of pressure, temperature, gas-oil ratios, and the “References throuehout the text are eiven nt el of ech2 Gas RESERVOIRS cunt physical and chemical nature of the fluids. ‘The need for accurute bottom hhole pressures was further emphasized when Millikan and Sidwell? de- scribed the fist precision pressure gauge and pointed out the fundamental portance of bottom-hole pressures to petroleum engineers in determining the most efficient methods of recovery and lifting procedures, With this contribution the engineer was able to measure the most important bas information for reservoir performance calculations, reservoir pressure. ‘Tho study of the properties of the rocks and their relationship to the fluids they contain in both the static and flowing states is ealled petro- physics, Porosity, permeability, fluid saturations and distributions, electries! conductivity of both the rock and the fluids, pore structure, and radioactivity are some of the more important petrophysieal properties of rocks. Fancher, Lewis, and Barnes? made one of the earliest petrophysical jes of reservoir rocks in 1933, and in 1984 Wycoff, Botset, Muskat, and Reed* developed! method for measuring the permeability of reservoir rock samples based on the fluid flow equation discovered by Datey in 1856, Wyroff and Botset* made a significant advance in their studies of the simultaneous flow of oil und water, and of gas and water in unconsolidated sands ‘This work was later extended to consolidated sands smd other rocks, and in 1940 Leverett and Lewis# reported research on the three-phase flos of oil, gus, and water. It was early recognized by the pioneers in reservoir engineering that before the volumes of oil und gas in place could be calculated, the change in the physical properties of bottom-hole samples of the reservoir fluids with pressure would be required. Accordingly in 193% Sehilthuis? described 4 bottomehole sumpler and a method of measuring the physieal properties of the samples obtained. These measurements inchided the pressure- volume-temnperature relations, the saturation or bubble-point pressure, the total quantity of gus dissolved in the oil, the quantities of gus liberated tunder various conditions of temperature and pressure, and the shrinkage of the oil resulting from the release of its dissolved gas from solution, ‘This data made the development of certain useful equations feasible, and it also provided an essential correction to the volumetric equation for calculating cil in place. ‘The next signifieant development was the recognition and measurement of connate water saturation,*? which was considered indigenous to the formation and remained to oveupy a part of the pore space after oil oF gas accumulation. ‘This development further explained the poor oil and gas recoveries in low permeability sands with high connate water saturation, and introduced the concept of water, oil, and gas saturations as percentages of the total pore space. ‘The measurement of water saturation provided nother important correction to the volumetrie equation by correcting the pote volume to hydrocarbon pore space. See. 1 GAS RESERVOIRS 3 While temperature and geothermal gradients had been of interest to geologists for many years, engineers eould not make use of this important, data until a precision subsurface recording thermometer was developed. Millikan '* pointed out the significance of temperature data in applications to reservoir and well studies From this basic data Schilthuis' was able to derive a useful equation, commonly called the Schilthuis material-balance equation, It is modifiea- tion of an earlier equation presented by Coleman, Wilde, and Moore," and is one of the most important tools of reservoir engineers. Basieully it is a statement of the conservation of matter, and is a method of aecounting for ‘the volumes and quantities of fluids initially present in, produced from, jected into, snd remaining in a reservoir at any stage of depletion. In reser voirs under water drive the volume of water which encroaches into the reservoir also enters into the material balance on the fluids. Although Schilthuis!" proposed a method of calculating water encroachment. using the material-balance equation, it remained for Hurst’? and, later, van Ever~ ingen and Hurst! to develop methods for calculating water encroachment, independent of the material-balance equation, which applies to aquifers of cither limited or infinite extent, in either steady-stute or unstendy-state flow. lowing these developments for calculating the quantities of oil and ‘28 initially in place or at any stage of depletion, Tamner'® and Buckley and Leverett laid the basis for ealeulating the oil recovery to be expected for particular rock and fluid characteristics, Taner and, later, Muskat!? presented methods for calculating recovery by the internal or solution gas drive mechanism, while Buckley and Leverett presented methods for calculating the displacement of oil by external gas eap drive and water drive. ‘These methods not only provided means for estimating reoveries for economie studies, but they: lso explained the eause for disappointingly low recoveries in many fields, ‘This discovery in turn pointed the way to improved revoveries by taking advantage of the natural forces and energies, and by supplying supplemental energy hy gas and water injection, amd by Lmitizing reservoirs to offset the losses which may be eaused by competitive operations. With the development of these techniques, concepts, and eqnations, reservoir engineering became n powerful and well defined branch of petro- Resorvair engineering may he defined 2s the applieation ples to the drainage problems arising during the develop- ment and proxluetion of wil and gas reservoirs, Tt has also been def he art of developing smd producing, oil sud gas fields in such a. to obtain x high economic recovery.” ‘The working tools of the reservoir ‘exigincer are subsurface geology, applied mathematies, and the basic laws of physics and chemistry governing the behavior of liquid and vapor phases of4 GAS RESERVOIRS nae 1 rude oil, natural gas, and water in reservoir rocks. Since reservoir engi- is the science of producing oil and gas, it includes a study of all the factors affecting their recovery. Clark and Wessely!* urge a joint applica- tion of geological and engincering data to arrive at sound field development programs. Ultimately reservoir engineering is of concern to all petroleum engineers, from the drilling engineer who is planning the mud program to the corrosion engineer who must design the tubing string for the producing life of the well 2. Petroleum Reservoirs. Oil and gas accumulations occur in under ground traps formed by structural and/or stratigraphic features."® For- tunately they usually occur in the more porous and permeable portions of beds, which are mainly sands, sandstones, limestones, and dolomites, in the intergrumulr openings, or in pore spaces due to joints, fractures, and sole tion netivity. A reserroir is that portion of a trap which cou a8 as a single hydraulically-connected system. Many hydrocarbon reser voirs are hydraulically connected to various volumes of water-bearing rock called aquifers. Many reservoirs are located in large sedinientary basins and share a common aquifer. In this ease the production of fluid from one reservoir will cause the pressure to decline in other reservoirs by fluid tion through the aquifer. In some cases the entire trap is filled with oil or gas, and in this ease the trap and the reservoir are the same. Oil and gas are displaced to the wells by (a) fluid expansion, (b) fluid displacement, natural or artificial, (c) gravitational drainage, and/or (d) capillary expulsion, Where there is no aquifer, and no fluid is injected into the reservoir, the hydrocarbon reeovery is brought. about mainly by fluid ‘expansion; however, in the ease of oil it may be materially aided by gravi- tational drainage, When there is water influx from the aquifer or where, in Jiew of this, water is injected into selected wells, recovery is accomplished by the displacement mechanism, which again may be aided by gravitational drainage or capillary expulsion, Gas is also injected as a displacing fluid to help in the recovery of cil, and is also used in gas eycling to recover gas- condensate fluids, In many reservoirs all four recovery mechanisms may be operating simultaneously, but generally one or two predominate. Dur- ing the producing life of a reservoir the predominance may shift from one mechanism to another, either naturally or because of operations planned by engineers, For example, a volumetric reservoir (no aquifer) may produce initially by fluid expansion, When its pressure is largely depleted, it may produce to the wells mainly by gravitational drainage, the fluid being lifted to the surface by pumps. Still later, water may be injected in some wells to drive additional oil to other wells, Such a process is commonly called water flooding or secondary recovery. In this ease the eyele of the mec! ‘anisms is expansion-gravitational drainage-displacement, ‘There are, of See. GAS RESERVOIRS 5 course, many alternatives in these eycles, and it is the object of reservoir engineering to plan these eyeles for time. vaximum recovery, usually in minimum, Under initial reservoir conditions the hydrocarbon fluids are in either a single-phase or a two-phase state. ‘The single phase may be a liquid phase in which all the gas present is dissolved in the oil. ‘There are therefore dis- solved gas reserves as well as oil reserves to be estimated. On the other hhand the single phase may be 1 gas phase. If there are hydrocarbons vaporized in this gas phase which are recoverable as liquids on the surface, the reservoir is called gas-condensate, or gas-distillate (the older name). In this case there are associated liquid (condensate or distillate) reserves as well as the gas reserves to be estimated. Where the accumulation is in a two-phase state, the vapor phase is ealled the gas eap and the underlying liquid phase, the oil zone In this exse there will be four types of reserves to beestimated: the free gas, the dissolved gas, the oil in the oil zone, and the recoverable liquid from the gas cap. Although the hydroearbons in place are fixed quantities, the reserves, that is, the recoverable portion of the in- place gas, condensate, and oil depend upon the method by which the reservoir is produced. 3. Symbols and Conversion Factors. A letter symbol for a physical quantity is a single letter intended for use in mathematical expressions. Special conditions of phase, pressure, time, ete., are indicated by subscripts. Prior to 1053 many publications in the field of reservoir engineering adopted new sets of symbols. This was not only confusing and time consuming to the student, but to all engineers and technical people who were keeping abreast of the many publications. This obstacle was recognized and, after three years of study, in 1956 a standard set of symbols for reservoir engi- peering was adopted by the Society of Petroleum Engineers of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers (ATME).2! ‘These standard symbols are given in Table 1.1 and will be used throughout this text. Although the list may appear formidable at first glance, a closer inspection will show that relatively few letters and subscripts are used, but in many combinations. For example, R stands for gas-liquid ratio, With- out any subscript it stands for the current or producing gas-oil ratio; Ry stands for the solution gas-oil ratio; Ry: stands for the initial solution gas-oil ratio; Rry stands for the solution gas-water ratio; etcGAS RESERVOIRS 1. Sraxnany Lorne Svomous ron Pa sun Reseavork ENGINEERING Anortin ny Tie Sortery or Peewoteus ENarsixes or AIME English Dimensions Lares a B fon By qs formation volume factor By oil formation volume factor B. total (two-phoss) formation volume factor By water formation volume factor © compressibility: formation (rock) compressibility ee ts compressibility ex oil eonspressibility eq wetter comprossiility C concentration various DP dopth. L D diffusion coctficient Lp e ux (encroachment) rate byt foe gat ify fonermachment) rate wy fail infhas (oneroachient) rate yt te inf (encroachment) rate my f jon (such as the fraction of a flow stream consisting of a par- tieular phase) 9 areolonation af gravity Lie G total initial gas in place in reservoir , ive kas influx (encroachment) LB re pas injected LB ive gus prodtuend B zis influx (eneroachment) during an interval Bb jected during. an interval BR fue praduecsd during am interval BD Ah net pay thickness L HE gross pay: thickness L 4 injection rato by ix ens injection rate byt ie water injoetion rate ba T_injeetivity index Lum 1, epowife injctivity indee Dm J productivity index Lym Ye stnvitie productivity index rym absolute permeaii LB ke effective permeability to gas LG ky effective permeability to oil it kee relative permeability to gas % ‘When the mobilities involved are on opposite side bie dined asthe ratio of the displacing phase mobility t the displaced phase mobility. for the ratio of the na GAS RESERVOIRS able relative permeability to oil relative permeability to water effective permeability to water iui ratio (y/2) natural logarithm, hase € ‘common logarithms, base 10 length roles of liquid phase Ll CoxmrsveD) ratio initial reservoir free gus volume to mobility ratio® (0/3) rolevlar weight total moles initial oil in place in reservoir flux (eneroachment) ‘curaulative oil produced «il influs (eneroachment) during an interval «il produeed during. an interval preseure atmespherie pressure bubble-point (s critical pressure casing pressure, flowing casing prosure, static dow-point pressure slimensionless pressure external botandary pressure front or interface pressure initial pressure realuced pressure ion) pressure presente, standard conditions separator prossure tubing pressure, flowing tubing prossure, static bottom-hole pressure, general bottom-hole pressure, flowing, bottom-hole pressure, static average pressure capillary pressure production rate dimensionless proatuction rate gus production rate 1 inability ta the downstream mobi we Lb BD I Bb B i mje m/e mjLe m/e m/Ltt m/Le m/e mje mjLe nih mike mile mL m/be m/l mile mje? mjle male wit wit an interface, the mabilty ratioW aw GAS RESERVOIRS ‘Table 1.1 (Coxnnvzn). oil production rate water produetion rate radial distance dimensionless radial distance external boundary radius well radius producing gas-il ratio ‘universal gas constant (per mole) cumulative gas-il rai solution gas-ol rutio (gas solubility in ol) ‘gus solubility in water saturation ‘gas saturation critical gas saturation residual gas saturation oil saturation residual oil saturation ‘water saturation critical water saturation residual water saturation time dimensionless time temperature critical temperature reduced temperature temperature, standard conc volumetric velocity (Row rate per unit area) spevifie volume velocity moles of vapor phase volume bulk volume ‘volume per mole pore volume solid volume initial water in place in reservoir umulative water influx (encroachment) cumulative water injectet cumulative water produced water influx (eneroachment) during an interval water injected during an interval water produced during an interval mole fraction of a component in liquid phase ‘of a component in vapor phase sole fret var. 1 a my L mLs(eT Lt Dyn iA BD D ab aD B b Bb b BD i See. 3 GAS RESERVOIRS Table 1.1 (Cowrnxvrn) gas deviation factor (compressibility factor, 2 = pV /nRT) ‘mole fraction of a component in mixture Greek 8 beta thermal eubic expansion eoefclent A deltaeny. difference (Az = 2, — x or x1 — 23) 2 eta” hydraulic diffusivity (k/deu oF 0/68) A Iambda mobility (b/s) Ae lambda gas mobility Xs Jamba. oil mobility Ay lambda water mobility Bmw viscosity mu an viscosity emu oil viscosity emu water viseosity ym kinematic viscosity ? density > resistivity (eletrcal) Pe us density oil density water density ‘surface tension (interfacial tension) tortuosity porosity potent mom seeceage atmospheric Dubble-point or saturation (except when used with volume) Dbulk (used with volume only) capillary (used in P, only) critical ceesing, lowing (used with pressure only) casing, static (used with pressure only) dew-point differential separation «dimensionless quantity cumulative influx (encroachment) ‘external boundary conditions flash separation formation (rock) front or interface gas wr td La Lim Lim Litjm im m/l mil mild m/lt ot mit L319 mils m/l mil mit10 GAS RESERVOIRS uae. 4 Table 1.1 (CoxnveeD), 5 cumulative injected i. initial value or conditions L liquid M_—molal (used with volume only) oll py eumulative produced pore (used with volume only) reduced relative p residual fs solution (used in Ry only) solid (ased with volume ony) specie (used with J and 2) standard conditions sp separator conditions sv gasseater soliton (used in Rye only) t total Af tubing, lowing (used with pressure only) ts tubing, stati (used with pressure only) w water w well conditions ‘used with pressure only) ws hottom-hole, statie (used with pressure ony) ‘The American Petroleum Institute recognized a similar obstacle in the symbols used in the preparation of subsurface, isopachous, and other field raps, and after due study recommended a set of standard well symbols to promote uniformity in map symbols, Reeause reservoir engineers fre~ quently use and often prepare or supervise the preparation of oil field ups, the API standard map symbols are given in ‘Table 1.2 for reference. Table 1.2. API Sraxpano Samora ror On. Marnave: Locarion DUAL COMPLETION~O1 a ABANDONED LOCATION DUAL COMPLETION=GAS Fee eos ony HOLE DRILLED WATER-INPUT WELL on WELL ABANDONED O1L WELL DRLLED G&S-INPUT WELL as WELL CONVERTED GASINPUT WELL, © e ie CONVERTED WATER-INPUT WELL & a“ = [ABANDONED GAS WELL BOrTOM-HOLE LocaTiON ox oistucate (x INDICATES BOTTOM ‘OF HOLE) ISTILLATE WELL SALT-WATER DISPOSAL WELL Deno ABANOONED OISTILLATE WELL. Spe. 8 GAS RESERVOIRS u ‘Table 1.3 presents a set of constants and conversion factors as given by Bilerts,*" These are the more commonly used constants and conversion factors in reservoir engineering calculations. Whereas most of the constants are given with many signifieant figures, in many reservoir caleulations, owing to the limited number of significant figures in some of the data, the constants may be abbreviated. For example, the absolute temperature corresponding to zero Fahrenheit is usually rounded off to 460°R instead of 450.688°R. The legal base or standard pressures are not included in Table 1.3. In most states it is 14.65 psia, and in Louisiana and New Mexico it is 15.025 psia. Constants Axo Conversion Factons (After Bieri and others) Table 1 Basie Constants Absolute temperature corresponding to O"F 4150.688°R ‘Maximum density of water (89.16°F) 10,909,978 g per em? Density of water at 60°F. ‘0.909014 g per cm? Average molecular weight of dy air 2807 2.738 10% ‘Avogadro's Number ‘molecule per Th mole Derived Constants Gas constant Lx (ib mole) (deg R) Volume o 1 Thaole of ssa 144 psn and °F... BFR Yolume of {hme of teat 1468 psa sd OF BRD. en Volume of {Ibe of goat 14000 pi and O'F. 370512 eu Yotume of I Ihmole of ane at 147 penn GOP... eBAle ew Yolume of | Ihmule of gue at 1473 pn and OOF STREP Dena af mater oO 2.00 tb pr vf One tnt of eater a OF 048,10 pe Weight of water OOF 8.33.27 per gal ‘a deviation factor. Defined Constante M = 1000 and MM or ME = 1,000,000 MCP = 1000 standard ew ft Standard logal Uemperutane in most states = 60°F Unit of Lenath Unite of Area 1 ne = 43,500 oq ft 40 00 — 1220 fe by F390 Fe Tae = 208.71 £59 aq mi = G10 ae Unite of Mass Lor = 28.849,53 1b = 458.502,43 1b = 16 07 1 mile = 5280 ft in. = 2.540,01 em.2 GAS RESERVOIRS: Omar. 1 ‘Table 1.3 (Cowrixveo). Units of Density 1k per eu em ~ 62.428 Ib per eu fe 1g per eu em = 845,6 Ib per gl Unite of Volume Tact = 43,500 cu ft 1 acft = 7758. bot T bbl = 42. US. gal 4g per eu em ~ 350.51 Ib per bbl 1 bt = 5.614,58 en 1 1 tb per cu ft = 0.016,018,1 g per cu em. Ten ft = 1728 eu Unite of Pressure 1 atm = 760 mm Hy (0°C) 1 atin = 20.921 in. Hig (0°C) 1 atm = 14.696,006 pet 1 atm = 38,800 Ft of water (°C) ft water (4°C) = 0.4335 pai in, He (0°C) = 0.491,2 pei 1 psi = 2.086 in, He (OPC) Jeu ft = 7.480,5 gal ea ft = 0.178.108 bh Tew m = 6.280,8 bhi 1 gal = 231 en in, 1 gal = 8785.43 eu em 1 qt = 946.35 eu em Temperature Seales Degrees Pubrenbeit (F) Degrees Centigrade (C) Dgeces Kelvin (K). Degrees Rankine (18). 1.8 (degrees ©) +32 (1/18) (degrees F = 32) Aegrees C+ 275.18, degiees F + 450.7, 4. Atomic and Molecular Weights, Matter in its various forms is compoced of atoms. Neglecting the creations of the atomie physicists, there aze 92 different kinds of atoms. "These comprise the 92 elements of which everything is composed. Compounds are formed by the combination of two or more of these atoms, either of the same kind or of different kinds. ‘Thus to atoms of oxygen will combine to form a molecule of oxygen in air; and 1 molecule of hydrocblorie acid (HCI) is formed by the combination of one hydrogen atom with one chlorine atom. Now oxygen occurs in three forms: (1) atomie oxygen (0); (2) ordinary oxygen (0,); and ozone (O,). Suppose we take a bottle fitted with a stopeoek and weigh it after complete evacuation, and then weigh it successively filled under the same conditions of temperature and pressure with atomic oxygen (0), ordinary oxygen (O»), and ozone (03). We find that the ordinary oxygen (O,) weighs twice ‘as much as the atomie oxygen, and that the ozone (O,) weighs three times 8 much as the atomic oxygen, One important conclusion of this experi- ‘ment is that equal volumes of different. guses under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. The ozone was three times us heavy as the atomie oxygen, not because there were more molecules in the bottle, but because each molecule was three times as heavy as the atomic oxygen molecules (actually atoms); for each contained the same number of molecules. ‘This may appear to be an ex- tromely odd fact; nevertheless it is a fact of great importance. If we extend the above experiment to weighing the bottle full of hydro- fen gas, again at the same temperature and pressure, a weight very close to Sec. 3 AS RESERVOIRS 13 one eighth (5) that of the atomic oxygen is observed. For reference pure poses the atomie oxygen is assigned an arbitrary relative weight of exactly 16.000, and this relative weight is called its atomie weight, ‘Then the molecular weight of ordinary oxygen is 32.000 and that of ozone 48,000, while hydrogen, whose formula is H,, has a molecular weight of 2.016 and an atomie weight of 1.008. To illustrate the matter a little further, if the bottle is filled with methane gas, whose formula is CH,, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, a weight very close to that of atomic oxygen is observed; for the molecular weight of methane is very. close to 16. Since molecular weights ure the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms forming the molecule, and since the atomie weight of hydrogen is close to 1.00, then it is inferred that the atomic weight of earbon is very close to 12.00. Further, it may be said that the molecular weight of water is approximately 18, having two hydrogen atoms of an atomic weight of one each, and one oxygen atom of weight 16, Actually, precise measurements show that the atomic weights of th elements are not exactly whole numbers except for oxygen which has been selected as the starting point of 16.000. Table 1.4 gives a list of the atomie weights of the more common elements encountered by the petrolouin engineer. Note that the common gases oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, anid chlorine exist in their ordinary forms (at atmospheric temperature Pressure) as molecules composed of tivo atoms, Table 1.4. Aromte ax Mouxcenan Wer Molecular F Bement Spmbot and Weight of (as ‘Argon A a won Carton © © zm Chlorine cl chrom Helis He He“. Hydrogen H W206 Nitrogen N Ne 28016 Oxygen ° 0, 2.000 Sulphur s 8) 2.065 5. The Mole or Pound Mole. From what has heen stid it should be clear that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure 2016 pounds of hydrogen, $2,000 Ib of oxygen, 16.04 Ib of mothane, ete., will all (1) contain the same number of molecules and (2) oceupy the same volume ‘These quantities of gases (or liquids or solids for that matter), equal in Pounds to their molecular weights, are ealled moles, or more specifiealy Pound moles. A mole of any compound is the nunber of weight units equal to its molecular weight. For example, a mole of methane is 104 weight lunits of methane, IF it is expressed in pounds, then 16.01 Ib of methane isnu GAS RESERVOIRS ewan. 1 pound mole of methane; if it is expressed in grams, 16.01 g of methane isa gram mole, Obviously, as there are 453.59 g in a pound, « pound mole of ethane contains 453.59 times as many moleelos as’ a gram mole of methane. ‘The units of molecular weight then are pounds per pound mole, rams per gram mole, oF tons per ton mole Now it is has been found by experiment that one mole of any ideal gas sure of HL7 psia and a temperature of 60°F will occupy a volume of 879.4 eu ft, ‘These conditions of temperature and pressure are called slandand conditions, There is no one set of stand versally recognized, so itis important to find ont what standard condi- tions form the busis for any ealeulation oF contrac ‘Nour with these concepts in mind it is possible to answer the question Howe many pounds of methane are in n 10,000 cubie-foot tank at 14.7 psia sand 60°F? ‘The solution is that for every 870.4 eubie feet there is one mole ‘of methane, and every mole of methane weighs 16.04 Ib or 2 1604 = 422.8 Ib of CH, in the tank The Perfect Gas Law. We were able to calculate above, quite ily, that the 10,000 cubie-foot tank of methane contained 422.8 Ib be- cause the gas happened to be at HT psia and 60°F. If the gas had been at other conditions, the problem would have been more difficult because the volume would first have to be converted to the volume it would occupy under the standard conditions. To make the problem more general it ean be said that there are three quantities which define the stale of a gs, temperature, pressure, and volume. Boyle and Charles in experimenting with these variables found that for any given quantity of gas the following Jaw holds an where p, in state 1; and 7, sre the pressure, volume, and temperature of the gas fi pa, Vp al 1 in sate 2. Tn this equations V, mensatred in any units provided they are the sume; p, meustured in any units provided they are the sme and provided they are absolute pressures: and T's may he measured in any units provided they are the sume and provided the Now ive are in position to answer the following type of question: How many pounds of ethane gas (CzHg, molecular weight. 30.07) are in a 500 ceubie-foot tank wndera gauge pressure of 20 psig.and a temperature of 00°F? Mtinospherie pressure is HA psin See. GAS RESERVOIRS 15 Tonk Contitions Standard Conditions PXVs Pa X Vu (20 + 14.4) x 500 14.7 Voc (90 + 459.7), (60 + 459.7), From which Vic = 1106 eu ft, the volume the gas would occupy at standard conditions of 14.7 psia and 60°F, Sine there are 379.4 standard eubie feet (SCF) in one mole of gas, and there are 30.07 Ib of ethane to the mole, there will be 1106 30.07 _ gy . : = BFE” = 87-7 Ib of ethane in the tank Equation (1.1) is commonly expressed in an alternate form, which ean be obtained by recalling that n moles of gas at 60°F and 14.7 psia oceupy 379.4 Xn cubie feet. Substituting these values in Eq. (1.1), 94 Xn 507) pV = 10.732 nT ‘The constant 10.732 is called the gas constant, symbol , and the alternate form of the perfect gas law may be written pV = nkT (12) where R will have different values depending on the units of p, V, and T. Where R = 10.732, p must be in pounds per square inch absolute, V in ‘cubie feet, and T in degrees Rankine. This form of the perfect gas law is ‘equally suitable for calculating the pounds of ethane in the 500 eubic-foot tank. (20 + 4A) x 500 = nx 10.73 X (90 + 459.7) 1 = 2.916 moles ‘The weight in the tank is m = 2.916 X 30.07 = 87.7 Ib From what has been said it follows that a quantity of a pure gas ean be expressed as the number of standard cubic feet (SCF) ata speeified temper- ature and pressure, the mumber of moles, the number of pounds, or the number of molecules. For praetical measurement the weighing of gases is difficult, so that gases are metered by volume at measured temperatures and pressures, from which the pounds or moles may be calculated, Example 1.1 illustrates the calculations of the contents of a tank of gas in each of four units,16 GAS RESERVOIRS nan. 1 Example 1.1. Calculating the contents of a tank of ethane in moles, pounds, rmoleeules, and SCP, Given: A500 cu ft tank of ethane at 100 peia and 100°R. Souorion: Assuming ideal gas behavior, Moles Pounds = 8324 x 30,07 = 250.3 Molecules = 8824 x 2.783 x 10% = 22.75 x 10 At 14.7 psia and 60°R, = 832% x 970.4 = 3158 Alternate solution using Faq. (1.1) 100 x 500 x 519.7 es TXAGT = 3158 Alternate solution using Bq. (1.2) SCF = = 3158 ART _ 8.324 x 10.78 x 519.7 > wat 7. Specific Gravity of Gases. Since the density of a substance is defined as mass per unit volume, the density of a perfeot gus, p., at a given temperature and pressure can be derived by substituting m/M for n in the perfect gas las, where m isthe pounds of gus and Af is the molecular weight. pv = "Rr RT Because it is more convenient to measure the specific gravity of gases than the gas density, specifi gravity is more commonly used. Specie gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a gas at-a given temperature and pres- sure to the density of air at the same temperature and pressure, usually near 60°F and atmoepherie prossure. Whereas the density of gases varies with temperature and pressure, the specific gravity is independent. of temperature and pressure, where the gas obeys the ideal gas law, By the previous equation, the density of air is Pris Bre. 6 GAS RESERVOIRS 7 ‘Then the specific gravity of a gas is po RT -=f RT Equation (1.3) might also have been obtained from the previous state- ment that 379.4 eu ft of any ideal gas at 14.7 psia and 60°F is one mole, and therefore a weight equal to the molecular weight. ‘Thus, by definition of specific gravity, Weight of 379.4 eu ft of gus at 14.7 and 60° Weight of 379.4 cu ft of air at 14.7 and 60°F (13) 8G ‘Thus if the specific gravity of a gas is 0.75, its molecular weight is 21.7 pounds per mole. 8, Nonideal or Real Gases, Al/ of what has been said in the previous section applies to a perfect gas. Actually there are no perfect gases; how- ever, many guses near atmospheric temperature and pressure approach ideal behavior. ‘The ideal gas may be defined as one whose pressure will be exactly doubled if its volume is reduced one half, and one whose pressure will be exactly doubled if, keeping the volume constant, the absolute temperature is doubled. ‘These are just specific statements of Boyle's and Charles! laws. Now it has been observed in many gases, such as natural uses of interest to petroleum engineers, that if the volume of a gas is eom- pressed to half its former volume, the pressure will be less than twice as reat, ie., the gas appears to be more compressible than the ideal gas. The following explanation is given for this behavior. All molecules of real fe two tendencies: (1) to fly apart from each other because of their constant kinetic motion, and (2) to come together because of electrical a tractive forees, which exist between the molecules, At low pressures, since the molecules are quite far apart, the attractive forces are negligible, and the gas behaves close to ideal. Also at high temperatures the kinetic motion, being greater, makes the attractive forces comparatively negligible and, again, the gas approaches ideal behavior. Since the volume of a gas will be less than half if the pressure is doubled, ‘the gas is suid to be supercompressible. ‘The number, which is a m the amount the gas deviates from perfect behavior, is sometimes ea supercompressibility factor, usually shortened to just the compressibility factor, More commonly it is ealled the gas deviation factor, symbol 2. ‘This dimensionless quantity varies usually between 0.70 and 1.20, a value of 1.00 representing ideal behavior, At very high pressures, above about 5000 psia, natural gases pass from a ‘supercompressible condition to one in whieh compression is more difficult18 GAS RESERVOIRS cman. 1 than in the ideal gas. ‘The explanation given for this is that, in addition to the forces mentioned above, when the gas is highly compressed, the volume ‘occupied by the molecules themselves becomes an appreciable portion of the total volume. Since it is really the space between the molecules which is compressed, and there is less compressible space, the gas appears to be more difficult to compress. In addition, as the molecules get closer to- gether, ie., at high pressure, repulsive forces begin to develop between the molecules. This is indicated by a gas deviation factor greater than unity. ‘The gas deviation factor is by definition the ratio of the volume actually ‘oceupied by a gas at a given pressure and temperature to the volume it would occupy if it behaved ideally, or . 7 _ Actual volum a ‘The theories above qualitatively explain the behavior of nonideal or real ‘eases, Equation (14) may be substituted in the ideal gas kaw, Eqs. (1.1) lume of m moles of gas at 7’ and p Tdeal volume of n mmoles at same T and p and (1.2) to give equations for ase with nonideal gases, (2) = MRT ot pV’, = enBT as) - al, Ty where Vis the actual gas volume, 2; the gas deviation factor at p, and T', and 2, is the gus deviation factor at ps and T',. The gas deviation factor rust be determined for every 4gus and every combination of gases and at the desired temperature and pressure; for it is different for (a) each gas or rixture of gases, (b) each temperature and pressure of that gas or mixture of gases, ‘The omission of the gs deviation factor im gas reservoir caleula- tions may introduce errors as large as 30 per cent.*© Figure 1.1 shows the tee ~a | ft cae lee ee eae [PK iitntste sa} 1000 2000 "3000 ai ‘5000, “6000 Fig. 1.1. Bifect of presure, temperature, and composition on the ga deviation factor, Bee. 8 GAS RESERVOIRS 19 gas deviation factors of two gases, one of 0.90 specific gravity and the other of 0.685 specific gravity. ‘These curves Yhow that the gus deviation factors drop from unity at low pressures, to a minimum value near 2500 psia. ‘They rise again to unity near 5000 psia and to values greater than unity at still higher pressures. In the range of 0 to 5000 psia, the deviation factors at the same temperature will be lower for the heavier gas and for the same gas they will be lower at the lower temperature. ‘The deviation factor of natural gas is commonly measured in the labora tory on samples of surface gases. If there is condensate liquid at the point of sampling, the sample must be taken in such a way as to represent the single-phase reservoir gas. This may be accomplished with a special sampling nozzle or by recombining samples of separator gas, stock tank gas, and stock tank liquid in the proportions in which they are produced. ‘The deviation factor of solution gas is measured on samples evolved from solu- tion in the oil during the liberation process ‘The gas deviation factor is commonly determi volume of a sample at desired pressures and temperatures, and then measuring the volume of the same quantity of gas at atmospheric pressure, ‘and a temperature sufficiently high so that all of the material remains in the vapor phase. For example, a sample of the Bell Field gus has a meas- ured volume of 364.6 eu em at 213°F and 3250 psia. At 14.80 psia and 82°F it has a volume of 70,860 cu em. ‘Then by Eq, (1.5), assuming a gus devia tion factor of unity ut the lower pressure, the deviation factor at 3250 psia and 213°F is + 82) 14.80 X 70,860 ~ oo) If the gas deviation factor is not measured, it may be estimated from its specific gravity. Example 1.2 shows the method for estimating the gas deviation factor from its specific gravity. ‘The correlation charts** of 1.2 are used to estimate the pseudocritical temperature and pressure, Where the earbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulphide content of the 3 is known, as from Orsat. analysis, the eritical values may be eorrected for these impurities.** The pseudoredhced pressure and temperature are calculated using these critical values. ‘The gas deviation factor is found from the reduced pressure and temperature using the correlation chart?? of Fig. 1.3. This method gives good results where there is less than 5 per cent impurities and where the gas contains at least 50 per cent methane by ‘volume. As the curves of Fig. 1.2 indieate, the quantity and composition of the condensate content of a natural gas also aifect the results, separate ‘curves being given for natural gas with low condensate content and those containing appreciable condensate.ERVOIRS, 20 ca 2 besa wars Fa 88 PStUD0 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE Fig. 1.2, Peculocrtieal properties of condensate well fluids and riscellaneous natural goser. (After Brown, Kats, Oberfell, and ‘Alden,2 courtesy Natal Gasoline Association of America.) Corrections for impurities. For cach mole per cent of earbon dioxide subtract O'R; of hydrogen sulfide add 1.3°R; and of nitrogen subtract 2.5°R from the pscudocritical temperature. For ‘each mole per cent of earbon dioxide add 4.4 pai; of hydrogen sul- fide ad! 6.0 psi; and of rbtract 1.7 pst from the pseudo- critical prossire, (Corrections after Carr, Kobayashi, and roves, * Trane, AIME Calculating the gas deviation factor of the Bell Field gas from Example 1 its specific gravi Given: Specific gravity. ~ 0.665 (air = 1.00) CO, content = 0.10 mole per cent Ne content = 207 mole per cent Reservoir temperature = 213°F Roservoir pressure = 3250 psia Souvtion: From Fig, 1.2 the eritical pressure and temperature corrected for id Pe = 000 = 207 x 17 40.10 x 44 1, = 878 ~ 207 X25 — 0.10 X08 For 3250 psin and 213°F, the pseudoreduced pressure and temperature are _ 460 + 213 3 488, 7, = 180 Enter Fig, 1.3 with these values, Find 2 = 091 Src. 8 GAS RESERVOIRS a PSEUDO REDUCED PRESSURE Mn i 2 3 4 5 6 7 | Tatu agouero 7 | ee Lo, | int loo ka COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR, Z ¢ ® 10 W 12 8 ia is? PSEUDO REDUCED PRESSURE Fig, 1.3. Compressbilty factors for natural gases, fetus) (After Standing and Kate,m GAS RE YOURS une, 1 A more accurate estimation of the deviation factor ean be made where the analysis of the gas is available. ‘This calculation assumes that each component contributes to the pseudocritical pressure and temperature in. proportion to its volume per cent in the analysis and to the eritieal pressure and temperature, respectively, of that component. Table 1.5% gives the critical pressures and temperatures of the hydrocarbon compounds and others commonly found in natural gases. It also gives some additional physical properties of these compounds. Example 1.3 shows the method of calculating the gas deviation factor from the composition of the gas. Example 1.3. Calculating the gas deviation factor of the Bell Field gas from its composition, Given: The composition Col, (2), and the physical data Cols. (8)-(6) taken from ‘Table 0 2 @ © 6 6 ® “ Component Comp, Mop. TXB BK Axo Mole Wr Frac. O61? 160 st SRL «TD. 208.89 0591 30.07 35000 17R ILE 2.51 0.0358 14.09 GIT oO 58288 012 812590 706 LON oa a8 0.0050 7215 4 BIG 88 26 4238 6.0010 4401 W070 518 O0t Lor 058 vso2 2 BT 088108 470 8 Gono? FAO Souurtion: The s} which is the gravity may be obtained from the sum of Col. (8), erage molecular weight of the as, 19.15 OF sq = 5 oot ‘The sums of Cols. (7) and (S) are the pscudocrtical pressure and temperature, respectively. ‘Then at 3250 psis and 213°F, tho psoudoreduced pressure and temperature are he “The pas doviation fuetor using Big. 1.2 in z= 0.01 9, Reservoir Gas Volume Factors, Des Gas volume Jactors, symbol B,, relate the volume of gas in the reservoir to the volume on the surface, ie, ut standard conditions, py and T... They. are generally expressed in either cubic feet or barrels of reservoir volume per standard cubic foot of gas, or as the reciprocals of these in standard | Sr ‘Table 1.5. Pavsicat Paovswns oF tx Panarriy Hroocansoxs axo Oren Compovxos (hfter Bites) sia, Gal per M SCF Molecular Weight Compound per Lh-mole as ae Tee keg| g 2 Ee gé gis 5 gh Bu gig aig” GAS RESERVOIRS 146 196. 2746 3264 Blas 38.50 36.14 ‘03 $6.03 51.00 5819 e127 408 4.233 41595 4372 5.200 5.262 538 738 5.802 8017 6.21 “0348 $0485 ‘0.8077 9.5631 0.6248 0312 0.0641 6882 0.7065 07217 o7sa1 was a8 0.9000 {ethane Ethane Propane Tsobutane neButane mPentane Air neHexane n-Heptane mOctane mNonan meDecane Tsopentane Carbon dioxide Helium & 3 cs Hydrogen B "At bubble-pint pressure and 60°F. “Basis partial volume in solution,GAS RESERVOIRS can, 1 ceubie feet per cubie foot or per burrel of reservoir volume, Assuming a gas deviation factor of unity for the standard conditions, the reservoir volume of onestandard eubie foot (Vs. = 1.00) at reservoir pressure p and tempern- ture T by Ba, (1.5) is Pet 2, = Beat (16) Where pc is 14.7 pris and Ty is O°, 2B, = 002829 oy ASCP > = .ons01 ST ib/scr 7) P seven tt = 198.4 7, SCP/bbl The constants in Has, (1.7) are only for 14.7 psin and 60°F, and different constants must be ealeulaied for other standards. Thus for the Bell Field gas at a reservoir pressure of 3260 psia and a temperature of 213°F and for a gas deviation factor of 0.910, the gas volume factors are 0.02829 X 0.910 x 673 i250 By = 0.00538 en f1/SC = 188 SCF /eu ft ~ Q910 x ors ‘These gas volume factors mean that one standard cubie foot (at 14.7 psia and 60°F) will occupy 0.00533 cu ft of space in the reservoir at 3250 peia and 213°F; or expressed reciprocally, one eubie foot of reservoir gas pore space contains 188 SCF. Because oil is usually expressed in barrels and gas in cubie feet, when calculations are made on combination reservoirs con- taining both gas and oil, either the oil volume must be expressed in cubic feet or the gas volume in barrels. ‘The above gas volume factors expressed in barrels are 0.000949 bbI/SCF and 1054 SCF /bbl, respectively. ‘Then 1000 cu ft of reservoir pore volume in the Bell Field gas reservoir at 3250 psia contains @ = 1000 ew ft x 188 SCF/eu ft = 188M SCF Fquation (1.5) may also be used to ealeulate the density of a reservoir xs. ‘The moles of gas in one eubie foot of reservoir gus pore space is p/22T. By Eq. (1.3) the molecular weight of a gus is 28.97 X SG Ib per mole, Seo. 9 GAS RESERVOIRS 25 ‘Therefore the pounds contained in one cubic foot, that is the reservoir gas density, symbol py, is rem BU XBOX as) For example, the density of the Bell Field reservoir gas with a gus gravity of 0.665 is _ 28.97 0.665 x 3250 Pe = O10 x 10.73 x 67 = 9.530 Ib/eu ft ‘The reservoir fluid gradient expressed in pounds per square inch per foot may be obtained by dividing the density in pounds per eubie foot by 144 8q in, /sq ft s0 that Eq. (1.8) becomes 0.01875 x SG x p Gan gradient = 7 sift 9) In the Bell Field gas reservoir 0.01875 x 0.665 x 3250 0910 x 673 ‘The pressure at the bottom of a shut-in gas well will be greater than the pressure at the surface (wellhead) owing to the weight of the gas contained in the well. Let the pressure at any depth x, measured in fect from the surface, be p in psia, If the cross section of the well bore is A square inches, the pressure at a depth (x + de) will be (p + dp) owing to the gas con- tained in the element whose volume is Adz/144 cubic feet. ‘The weight of sas dm contained in this element is the product of the gas density p, in pounds per eubie foot and the volume Adz/144, ‘Then Gas gradient = 0.0662 psi/ft Pade 144 dm dp = Re ‘Substituting p, from Eq. (1.8) (10) Because the pressure and temperature increase with depth, the gas devia- tion factor changes. The temperature and the gas deviation factor are re~ moved from the integral signs by assigning average values to them, To a26 GAS RESERVOIRS Cuan 1 first approximation these values are the arithmetic averages of the top-hole and bottom-hole values, Equation (1.10) may be expressed in exponential form as pein, using an average temperature of 140°F and an average gas deviation factor of 0.831, the static bottom-hole pressure is ealeulated by Eq. (1.11) to be 27506 ae = 8245 psin 0 ‘The substitution of representative values in Eq. (1-11) yields a rule of thumb equation for the inerease in pressure of a statie gas column as Ap = 0.25 X (pan/100) x (D/100) (az In other words, the pressure in a static gas column increases approximately ‘one fourth of a psi for every hundred psi of wellhead pressure and for every hundred feet of depth. For the Bell Field well the approximate pressure at (6500 ft is 2759 + 0.25 x 27.59 X 65 Spencer and Boyd? have prepared a correlation chart for finding bottom-hole pressures in statie gas wells from the surface pressure, Sukkar and Comell*? in their work have also included frictional losses, 90 that owing bottom-hole pressures, as well as statie, may be determined for gas ‘rel Pes 207 psin 10, Calculating Gas in Place by the Volumetric Method. The standard cubic feet of gus in a reservoir which has a gas pore volume of Ve ccubie feet is simply BV’, where B, is expressed in units of standard cubie fect per eubie foot, As the gas volume factor By changes with pressure (seo Eq. 1.7), the gos in place also changes ns the pressure declines. The gas pore volume Vz may also be changing, owing to water influx into the reservoir. ‘The gas pore volume is related to the bulk or total reservoir volume by the average porosity @ and the average connate water Sq. ‘The bulk reservoir volume ¥s is eommonly expressed in were-feet, and Ue stand= ard cubie feet of gas in place, G, is given by G = 43,560 X Vy X 6X (1 Sy) X Be (1.13) ‘The areal extent of the Bell Field gas reservoir was 1500 aeres. ‘The average thickness was 40 ft, so that the initial bulk volume was 60,000 accft. Ske, 9 GAS RESERVOIRS 7 Average porosity was 22 per cent and averge connate water was 23 per cent. Be at the initial reservoir pressure of 3250 psia was previously calculated to be 188 SCF/cu ft. ‘Therefore the initial gas in place was G = 43,560 X 60,000 x 0.22 x (1 = 0.23) x 188. = 83.2MMM SCI Since the gas volume factor was calculated using 14.7 psia and 60°F as standard conditions, the initial gos in place is also expressed at these conditions. The volumetric method makes use of subsurface and isopachous maps ‘based on the data from electric logs, eores, and drill-stem and production tests.*%*! A subsurface contour map is a map showing lines connecting ‘points of equal elevations on the top of a marker bed, and is therefore a map showing geologic structure, A net ésopachous map is a map showing. lin connecting points of equal net formation thickness, and the individual lines conneeting points of equal thickness are ealled isopach lines. ‘The reservoir engineer uses these maps to determine the bulk productive volume of the reservoir. ‘The contour map is used in preparing the isopachous maps where there is an oil-water, gas-water, or gas-oil contact. ‘The contact line is the zero isopach line. ‘The volume is obtained by plinimetering the areas between the isopach lines of the entire reservoir or of the individu units ‘under consideration. ‘The principal problems in preparing : map of this type ate the proper interpretation of net sand thickness from the well logs, and the outlining of the productive area of the field as defined by the fluid contacts, faults, or permeability barriers on the subsurface contour map. ‘Two equations are commonly used to determine the approximate volume of the productive zone from the phinimeter readings. ‘The volume of the frustum of a pyramid iS given by hy AV = Bln + Aug + Vand) ay) where AV, is the bulk volume in acre-feet, A, is the area enclosed by the lower isopach line in acres, A,.,1 is the area enclosed by the upper isopach line in acres, and h is the interval between the isopach lines in feet. “This equation is used to determine the volume between successive and the total volume is the sum of these separate volumes. The trapezoid is Ay + Anes) or for a series of successive trapeaoids Vim BAA 2g Aa Aa) tle (15)28 GAS RESERVOIRS oman. Ap is the area enclosed by the zero isopach line in acres; dy, Ay... Ay are the areas enclosed by successive isopach lines in acres; tye, is the average thickness above the top or maximum thickness isopach line in feet; and his the isopach interval, For best accuracy the pyramidal formula should be used; however, because of its simpler form, the trapezoidal formula is commonly used, which introduces an error of 2 per cent when the ratio of successive areas is 0.50. ‘Therefore, a commonly adopted rule in unitization programs is, wherever the ratio of the areas of any two suecessive isopach lines is smaller than five tentins, the pyramidal formula is applied. Whenever the ratio of the areas of any two successive isopach lines is found to be larger than five tenths, the trapezoidal formula is applied. Example 1.4 shows the method of calculating the volume of a gas reservoir from an isopachous map, Fig. 1.4, ‘The volume between areas A, and Ay by the trapezoidal equation is 570 acct, compared with the more accurate figure of 558 ac-ft by the FT sopacn INTERVAL ‘0/W CONTACT Bo Ay Re As Me As Fig. 1A. Cross section and isopachous map of an idealized reservoir. See, 10 GAS RESERVOIRS 29 Pyrimidal equation. Where the formation is rather uniformly developed and there is good well control, the error in the net bulk reservoir volume should not exceed a fow per cent. Example 1.4, Calculating the net volume of isopachous tap. idealized reservoir from the Given: ‘The planimetered areas in Fig. 1.4 within each isopach line, Ag, yy Aas fete. and the planimeter constant. Souvrion: Planimeter Productive Ana Area Ratio of Tnterval sin Areas hy feet 1961450) nn) 5 1930380 5 10 aaa, 5 669 Bae 3 4 32 1 048 5 Me 0.00 © 040 4 sav = 20201 +150 ~ 961 act 5 Sar = Fun +r y = 558 act sav = Fiz = 99 att ‘The laboratory methods of measuring porosity inelude Boyle's law, waterstturation, and organic-tiquid suturation methods, Dotson, Slubod, MeCreery, aud Spurlock*® have described a porosity-cheek progrim made by five laboratories on ten samples. ‘The average deviation of porosity from the average values was :0.5 porosity per cent, ‘The aceurney of the average porosity ofa reservoir as found from core analysis depends upon the quality and quantity of the data available, and upon the uniformity of the voir. ‘The average porosity is seldom known more precisely thon to one Porosity per cent, i.c., to 5 per cent accuracy at 20 per eent porosity. ‘The orosity is also exleulated from electrie logs and neutron logs, often with the assistance of some core mneasurements. Lopging techniques have the advantage of averaging larger volumes of rock than in core analysis. When calibrated with core data, they should provide average porosity figures in the same range of accuracy as core analysis. Where there are variations in Porosity across the reservoir, the average porosity should be found in the same manner as the average reservoir pressure, ie., on a weighted volume basis(016-25 3640306670 BO™-86 100 eR CENT CONNATE WATER Fig. 1.5. Connate water vermis permeability, (Brace sand Welge, Trans, AME.) 30 GAS RESERVOIRS Char. 1 fre, 10 5 RESERVOIRS a ‘The water thal exists in the oil- and gas-hearing parts of a petroleum rar i reservoir above the trimsition ove is ealled connate or inertial water, L cower | ‘The two terms are used more oF less interchangeably, Connate water is sol 2 0 important primarily heeause it reduces the amount of pore space available # tooiland gasand itako affects their recovery. Tis generally not uniformly 5 distributed throughout the reservoir, but varies with the permeability and z lithology as shown in Fig. 1.5, and with the height above the free water 3” 105 5 ownins x0 z g | 8 sa waren,sarunarion 210) | ¥ Asstt faaet Face : | Se Aye g 2 i | i 210" | "| 2 eet Xt | a 4g 80S 2 wabangTonhe cneoue | WATER SATURATION, PERCENT e Ef i i Fig. 1.6. Typical enpillary pressure curve. Soe | Another problem in any volumetric oF materia-balance calculation is & | that of obtaining the average reservoir pressure at any time after initial | production, Figure 1.7 is static reservoir presure survey of the Jones 10" | 7 table as shown in Fig. 1.6. Schilthuis® described the only method for di- rectly measuring the connate water, whieh eonsists of coring the producing, formation with au oil-base drilling fluid, and he showed that there is a eor- relation between absolute permeability and connate water. Among the indirect techniques for measuring connate water, one of the first was the capillary pressure method described by Leverett and expanded by Bruce and Welge.* McCulloagh, Albaugh, and Jones** developed a. technique known as the eentritugal method and Messer** developed another known as the evaporation method. Archie showed the quantitative relationship be- ‘tween the resistivity of a formation and its water saturation. Although the Aationship depends on lithology and other variables, under favorable conditions the electric log ean be used to find connate water within useful limits of accuracy. Fig. 1.7. Rovervoir pressure survey showing isobar lines drawn from the measured | | bottomtole proses. (After Kavelen3* Trans, AIME,)32 GAS RESERVOIRS sand in the Schuler Field.2® Because ofthe large reservoir pressure gradient from east to west, some averaging technique must be used to obtain an average reservoir presse. This can be ealeulated either av an average well pressure, average areal pressure, or average volumetric pressure as follows: dp Wel average presaure = (1.16) Bpids Areal average pressure = ®— a7) ia Spd Volumetric average pressure (18) fin where n is the number of wells in Eq, (1.16) and the number of reservoir units in Eqs. (1.17) and (1.18). Because we are interested in obtaining the average pressure of the hydrocarbon contents, the volumetric average, Vig. (1.18), should be used in the volumetri¢ and material-balance ealculs- tions. Where the pressure gradients in the reservoir are small, the average pressures obtained with Eqs. (1.16) and (1.17) will be very close to the volumetric average. Where the gradients are large there may be con- siderable differences. For example, the average volumetric pressure of the Jones sand survey in Big, 1.7 ix 1658 pain as compared with 1598 psia on an average well basis, ‘The calculations in ‘Table 1.6 show how the average pressures are obtained. ‘The figures in Col. (3) are the estimated drainage areas of the Table 146. Cauoviantow ov Avenso® Resenvom Press Well Presure Drainage Est. Sd, No, psia Area Acres p XA Thick, pXAXA AX 1 2750 160 40,000 3200 2 280 125 35,000 3125, 3 2310 539,600 +910 4 200 301,500, 4495 10,070 06,100 15700 Well .vorage pressure = sat avr proure = ETL are in situ Vote song prenre = 2220 a pn Src. 10 GAS RESERVOIRS wells, which in some cases vary from the well spacing because of the reservoir limits. Owing to the much smaller gradients, the three averages are much closer together than in the case of the Jones sand. ‘Most engineers prefer to prepare an isobaric map as illustrated in Fig. 1.8 and to planimeter the areas between the isobaric lines and the isopach 'soBaRIC Lines 2900 Pst sorr 20Fr wort o Isopact ‘LINES. Fig. 1.8. Section of an isobaric and isopachos lines as shown in Fig. 18. Tuble 1.7, using data taken from Fig. 1.8, illustrates the method of obtaining the average volumetric pressure from this type of map. ‘Table 1.7. Vouownrnie Cancuiatios oF Restaworn Passi: a ® @ o © © Pressure Area Acres ein Af Axa pxAxh a 5 2750 2 67.5 175,813,000 B 151 20 15 220.5 ° 50.5 2850 % 12025 D 02 2800 15 4580 Bins * Planimotored areas of Fig, 8 Average presure on « volume basis 2817 psa 11, Calculation of Unit Recovery from Volumetric Gas Reser- voirs. In many gas reservoirs, particularly during the development period, ‘the bulk volume is not known. In this case itis better to place the reservoir calculations on a unit basis, usually one acre-foot of bulk reservoir rock.a GAS RESERVOIRS Cuan. 1 ‘Then one unit or one acre-foot of bulk reservoir rock contains Connate water: 43,560 X 6 X S, cubie feet Reservoir gus volume: 43,560 X ¢ (I — Sy) eubie feet Reservoir pore volume: 43,560 X @ cubic feet ‘The initial standard eubie feet of gus in place in the unit is @ = 43,500 X @ X (1 ~ Sy) X By SCB/aeft (1.19) Gis in standard cubic feet where the gas volume factor B,s is in standard cubic feet per eubie foot, SCF/eu ft, Eq. (1.7). ‘The standard conditions are those used in the ealculation of the gus volume factor, and they may be changed to any other standard by mess of the ideal gus law. ‘The porosity ¢ is expressed 1s fraction of the bulk volume, and the connate water Sq 8 a fraction of the pore volume. For a reservoir under volumetric control there is no change in the interstitial water, so the reservoir gas volume re- ‘mains the same. If By is the gas volume factor at the abandonment pres- sure, then the standard enbie feet of gas remaining at abandonment is G, = 43,560 X 6 X (I~ 8.) X By, SCF/acstt (1.20) Unit recovery is the difference between the initial gas in place and that re- maining at abandonment pressure, ie., that produced at abandonment pressure, or Unit recovery = 43,560 @ x (1 — Sx) X (Ba: Be) SCF/ac-ft (1.21) ‘The unit recovery is also ealled the initial unit reserve, which is generally ower than the initial unit in-place gus. ‘The remaining reserve at any stage of depletion is the difference between this initial reserve and the unit production at that stage of depletion. ‘The fractional recovery or recovery actor expressed in per cent of the initial in-place gus is 100(G = G,) _ 100(B i ~ Be B, Recovery fnctor = percent (1.22) Paperience with volumetric gas reservoirs indicates that the recoveries will range from 80 to 0 per cent. Some gas pipeline companies use an abandon- ment pressure of 100 psi per 1000 ft of depth, ‘The gas volume factor in the Bell Gas Field at initial reservoir pressure is 188.0 SCF/cu ft and at 500 psia it is 27.6 SCF/eu ft. The initial unit reserve or unit recovery based on volumetric performance at an abandon- ment, pressure of 500 pia is 3,560 X 0.22 X (I~ 0.23) x (188.0 ~ 27.6) = 1180M SCF/ac-ft Unit recovery See 11 GAS RESERVOIRS Recovery factor = 100 X (188.0 — 27.6) = 85 per cent, ‘These recovery calculations are valid provided the unit neither drains nor is drained by adjacent units. 12, Calculation of Unit Recovery from Gas Reservoirs under Water Drive. Under initial conditions one unit (1 acre-foot) of bull. reservoir rock contains Connate water: 43,560 X ¢ X Se: cubie feet Reservoir gas volume: 43,560 X @ X (1 — Swi) cubie feet Surface units of gas: 43,560 X 6 (I — Su) X Bai standard teubie feet In many reservoirs under water drive the pressure suffers an initial decline, after which water enters the reservoir at a rate to equal the produetion, and the pressure stabilizes, In this ease the stabilized pressure is the abandon- ment pressure, If By, is the gas volume factor at the abandonment pres sure and S,, is the residual gos saturation, expressed ns a fraction of the ore volume, after water invades the unit, then under abandonment. conditions a unit (1 aere-foot) of the reservoir rock contains Water volu 43,500 @ X (1 — Sq) cubie feet Reservoir gas volume: 43,560 X 6 Sy cubic feet Surface units of gus: 43,560 X $ X Sqr X Bay standard cubie feet Unit recovery is the difference between the initial and the residual surface units of gus, or Unit recovery in SCF /ac-i 43,560 X 6 X [(1 = Seas — Bel (128) ‘The recovery factor expressed in per cent of the initial gas in place is (l= Sw0B, Bas) Recovery fuetor = percent. (124) Suppose the Well Gas Field is produced under a water drive such that, the pressure stabilizes at 1500 psia. If the residual gas saturation is 24 per cent and the gas volume fuctor at 1500 psia is 89.1 SCF/eu ft, then the initial unit reserve or unit recovery is Unit recovery = 48,500 x 0.22 x [(1 ~ 0.28)188 — (0.24 x 89.1)] = 182M SCF /ac-ft36 GAS RESERVOIRS cose. 1 ‘The recovery factor under these conditions is Joo{(1 = 0.23)188 ~ (0.24 x 89.1)] = 0.25)188 = 85 per cent Recovery factor = Under these particular conditions the recovery by water drive is the same as the recovery by volumetric depletion, illustrated in Sec. 11, If the water drive is very active so that there is essentially no decline in reservoir pres- sure, unit rerovery and the recovery factor become Unit recovery = 43,500 X $ X (1 = Sqi = Sw) X Bes SCF/ae-ft (1.25) Ta Recovery factor (1.26) For the Bell Gas Vield, assuming a residual gas saturation of 24 per cent, Unit recovery = 43,560 X 0.22 X (1 ~ 0.28 ~ 0.24) x 188, 955M SOF /ac-tt Roose far = 10K = = 69 per cent Since the residual gas saturation is independent of the pressure, the recovery will be greater for the lower stabilization pressure. ‘The residual gas situration can be measured in the laboratory on representative core samples. ‘Table L8 gives the residual gas saturations®* which were measured on core samples from a number of producing horizons and on some synthetic laboratory samples. The values, which range from 16 to 50 per cent, and average near 30 per cent, help to explain the dis- appointing recoveries obtained in some waterdrive reservoirs. For ex- ample, a gas reservoir with an initial water saturation of 30 per cent and a residual gas saturation of 35 per cent has a recovery factor of only 50 per cent if produced under an aetive water drive, ic., where the reservoir pres sure stabilizes near the initial pressure. Where the reservoir permeability is uniform, this recovery factor should be representative, exeept for a. cor- rection to allow for the efficiency of the drainage pattern and water coning. ‘or cusping (see Fig. 5.15 A and B). Where there are well defined continuous beds of higher and lower permeability, the water will advance more rapidly through the more permeable beds so that. when gas well is abandoned owing to excessive water produetion, considerable unrecovered gus remains in the less permeable beds (see Fig. 5.15 C). ‘The reduction in recovery. factor under these conditions is diseussed in Chapter 7, See. 7. Because of these factors it may be concluded that generally gus recoveries by water drive are lower than by volumetric depletion; however, the same conclu Spe. 12 GAS RESERVOIRS 37 Table 18. Resiovat Gas Sarcnarion Avnem Waren Peon ‘As Muasunen ov Cone Pivas (After Geffen, Parish, Haynes, and Morse) Residual Gas Saturation, Porous Material Formation Per Cent of Pore Space Remarks ‘Unconsolidated sand 6 (+ Calamn) Slightly consolidated sand (synthetic) ey 1 Core) Synthetic coneoidated ‘materials Selas Porcelain 17 (1 Core) Norton Alundum 24 (1 Core) Consolidated san stones Witeox 2 8 Cores) Evia 0 ac 36 (12 Cores) (3.Cores) (3 Cones) (14 Cores) (Avorage 31.0) star (6 Cotes) 40-50 (4 Cores) 50 (2 Comes) hot apply to oil recovery, which will be discussed separately. Water-drive gus reservoirs do have the advantage of main flowing wellhead pressures and higher well rates compared gas reservoirs. This is due, of course, to the maintenance of higher reservoir pressure asa result of the water influx. Tn calculating the gas reserve of a particular lease or u ‘ean be recovered by the well(s) on the lease total recoverable gas initially underlying the lea covered by adjacent wells, In volumetric reservoirs where the recoverable gas beneath each lease (well) is the same, the recoveries will he the same only if all wells are produced at the same rite. On the other hand if wells are produced at equal rates where the gas beneath the leases (wells) varies, 8 from variable formation thickness, the initial gus reserve of the lease where the formation is thicker will be less than the initial reeoversble gas underlying the l In waterdrive gas reservoirs, where the pressure stabilizes near the reservoir pressure, the lowest well on structure will divide its initial recoverable gus with all updip wells in line with it. Vor example, if three wells in line along the dip are drilled at the updip edge of their units, which are presumed equal, and if they all produce at the same rate, the lowest well ‘on structure will recover approximately one third of the gs initially under lying it. If the well is drilled further downstructure near the center of the unit, it will recover still less. If the pressure stabil yme pressure it, tHe gas that important rather than the some of which may be re8 GAS Rte RVOIRS oa below the initial reservoir pressure, the recovery factor will be improved for the wells low on structure, Example 1,5 shows the ealeulation of the initial is reserve of a 160-aere unit by volumetric depletion, partial water drive, and complete water drive Example 1.5. Calculating the intial gas reserve of 160-aere unit of the Bell Field by volumetrie depletion and under pattial and complete water drive, Given: Average porosity = 22 per cent Comnate water = 28 per cent Residual gus stluration after water displacement. = 34 per cent 2250 pin By = 150.0 SCP eu ft nt 2500 pia 27.6 SCF en fat 800 pain Area = 160 acres Bay ~ 188.0 SCP fou ft at ps ive thickness Net. pro Souetien Pore Volume = 43,500 x 0.22 % 160 x 40 = 61.88 x 10" ew ft Initial gas in place: Gy = 61.33 10 x (1 ~ 0.28) x 188.0 = S87SMMESCP Gas in plare after volumetric depletion to 2500 psia: 10% x (I= 0.23) x 150 = 7OSEMM SCF Gas in pluee after volumetric depletion to 500 psi Gy = 61.38 x IW (I~ 0.28) 27.6 = 180MM SCF Giesn plare after water invasion at 3250 pp Gy = 01.83 x 10 x O34 X 188.0 = 820MM SCF us in place after water invasion at 2500 psia: Gy = 61.38 x 10" x 0.34 x 150 = 8198MM SCF reserve by depletion Lo 500 psi Gy ~ Gy = (S878 — 1303) x 104 = 75 Initial reserve hy water drive nt 8950 pi (hy — Gy = (SSTR ~ 9920) > 108 = 4958MIM SOF Initial reserve by water drive at 2500 psi (Gr ~ G3) 4 (Ge ~ Gy) = Gy ~ Ga) = (88TB ~ 3128) x 10 = 5750MM SCF If there is one upaip well, the initial reserve by water drive at 3250 psia is HG, ~ Gq) = USSTS — 3920) x 10" = 247MM SCF Ini IM SCF | See 12 GAS RESERVOIRS 39 13. Material Balances in Gas Reservoirs. In the previous sections: the initial gas in plice was calculated on a unit basis of one uerefoot of bulk productive rock from a knowledge of the porosity and connate water, ‘To calculate the initial gasin place on any particular portion of a reservoir it, was necessury to know, in addition, the bulk volume of that portion of the reservoir. In many eases the porosity, connate water, and/or the bulk volumes are not known with any reasonable precision, and the methods deseribed can not be used. In this case the material-balance method may be used to caleulate the initial gas in place; however, this method is applicable only to the reservoir as a whole, hecause of the migration of gas from one portion of the reservoir to another in both volumetric and water-drive reservoirs The conservation of mass may be applied to gas reservoirs to give the following material balance: [rng mm] ~ [Stee icy ny) _ [Weg rnaiig| in the reservoir The balance may also be made on any definable component, e.g., methane, Where the composition of the production is constant, the standard cubie feet both produced and remaining in the reservoir are directly proportional to the masses, and a material balaiee may be made in terms of standard cubic feet, as SC from the reservoir | ~ [in the reservoir | ~ | in the reservoir grand] = [sey nkinty, | [Seu sing] Finally, a material bakinee ay = mm me (27) be made in terms of moles of go ‘The subseripts p, i, und f stand for produced, initial, and final, respectively. ‘The tern: final means at some later stage of production rather than neces sarily at abandonment. If Vj is the initial gas pore volume in eubie feet, and if at the final pressure pe, IY, eubie feet of water has encroached into the reservoir and W,, cubie feet of water has been produced from the reservoir, then the final volume V, after producing @, standard eubie foot of gas is LOW + Balt, (1.28) By 1s the volume factor for the water in units of burrels per surface barrel Vj and V arv gas pore volumes, ie, they do not include connate water, ‘The terms in Hq, (1.27) may he-replaced by their equivalents using the gas law, Hq. (1.5), and Bq. (1.28), as (1.29) ats40 8 RESERVOURS oan, 1 G, is the standard cubie foot of produced gas at standard pressure and temperature, poo nd Ty For volumetric reservoirs there is no water influx and water production generally negligible, snd Ha. (1,29) reduces to Balle = BE. Be (1.30) Tre, Since pi, 21, and V are also fixed for a given, For fixed values of po ans ohumetrie reservoit, Fa. (130) maybe writen as G0 m2) (any where bo Re adm = ation (131) inicates that for a rolametric gas reservoir the graph of n G, in standard eubie feet versus the rutio tive slope m. Figure 1.9 shows a plot of cumula~ the eunulative gus prod p/e isa straight line of ne 4000] | * 000] = & VOLUMETRIC Z z Spy re z geo00) z| e VOLUMETRIC. 2 g US 3 aS a 1000 Z won 5 cxratratrion H ° v 2 3 4 3 7 culate “PRODUCTION, MMMor ig. 1.9. Compr of trial va of pap plotted verse tive gas production in standard eubie feet plotted versus p/2, Within the limits: of error of the v reservoir pressure and cumulative productions, the plot of Gy versus p/2 is linear and may be extrapolated to zero pressure to find the initial gas in place, or to any abandonment, value of fe to find the initial reserve. ‘The slope m of a See. 13 GAS RESERVOIRS 4 = AG, _ 65 X10 "= Apia) ~~ 4700 ‘Then for pac = 14.7 psia, Ty, = 520°R, and T= 200°F, 1.383 X 10°SCF/psi mpucT _ 1.383 X 10° X 14.7 x 600 To 7 = 258MM eu ft 251.9 SCV/eu ft, the initial gas in place is X By = 25.8 X 10" X 251.9 = 6.50MMM SCP Figure 1.9 also contains a plot of cumulative gas production Gp versus pressure. As indicated by Eq. (1.31) this is not linear, and extrapolations from the pressure-production data may be in considerable error. As the minimum value of the ges deviation factor occurs near 2500 psia, the extrae polations will be low for pressures above 2500 psia, and high for pressures below 2500 psia. Equation (1.30) may be used graphically ax shown in Fig. 1.9 to find the initial gas in place or the reserves at any pressure for any selected abandonment pressure. For example nt 1000 psia (or p/z = 1220) abandonment pressure the initial reserve is 4.85MMM SCF, At 2500 psia (or p/2 = 3130) the (remaining) reserve is 4.85 less 2.20, that is 2.05MMM SCP. The equation may be used numerically as ik lustrated using data from the Bell Gas Field in Example 1.6. Note that the base pressure is 15.025 psia in the calculations of Example 1.6. Example 1.6. Calculating the initial gas in place and the initial reserve of a a8 reservoir from pressure-production data for a volumetric reservoir, Given Initial pressure = 8250 pia Reservoir temperature = 213°F Standard pressure = 15.025 psig Standard temperature = 60°F Cumulative production = 1.00 x 10°SCF Average reservoir pressure = 2864 pia Gas deviation fuetor at 3250 psia = 0.910 Gas deviation factor ut 2864 psia = 0.888 Gas deviation fartor nt 500 pia = 0.951, Souotion: Solve Bq. (1.90) for the reservoir gas pore volume Vs 15.025 x 1.00 x 10" 3250 x Vi _ vi 320 910X073 ~ TANS x 678 Vy = 56.17M ca ft2 GAS RESERVOIRS Cur. 1 ‘The ial gas in place by Bag (1.5) is PVs Te _ 3250 X 56.17 108 > 520 BP * pe ODIO x OTS X 15025 = 10.32MMM SCF c. ‘The kus remaining at 500 psia abandonment pressure is ga Pas 300. x 56.17 x 10° x 520 Ooo ET * pu” O951 x O73 x 18025 = Ls2Mnnat SCF “The initial gas reserve based on a 500 psin abendonment pressure is the difference between the initial gas in place and the gas remaining at 500 psin or G, = G = G, = (10.32 ~ 1.52) x 10" SS0MMM SCF Equation (1.29) may be written in terms of gas volume factors Bet and Bx by solving it for Gy as But Then V; may be replaced by its equivalent G/B,; so the equation becomes n,m a) Gs Dividing through by Band expanding 1 =o - 1 - BW, 1.32) ee oF Bt" ( If the gas volume factors are expressed in units of cubic feet per standard ‘cubic foot instead of standard cubie feet per cubic foot, they will be in the ‘numerator, and the equation reduces to the simpler for G,Bar = GU Ber ~ Bai) + We — Bas (1.33) tis recalled that the gas volume factor is commonly expressed in four sets of units as given by Eq, (1.7). Equations containing the gas volume factor ‘ust therefore be checked carefully to see that the proper units are used. Also in Eq. (1.33) G and G, must be expressed at the same base temperature See. 18 GAS RESERVOIRS 43 and pressure as the gas volume factors. G,Ber is the volume of the pro- duced gas at the pressure pr; G(Byr — B,) is the change in volume of the initial gns when expanded from p, to py; and Wand Byl¥, are the volumes of water influx and production respectively. Equation (1.33) may be ex- pressed in conceptual form as [Production] = (Expansion] + [Water influx] — [Water production] For a volumetric reservoir the production volume equals the expansion volume and Bq. (1.83) becomes GpBys = OB ys ~ Bad) (1.34) Equation (1.29) or its equivalent Eq. (1.83) is used in water-drive gus reservoirs to calculate the initial gus in place if the water influx is known, ‘or the water influx when the initial gus in place is known from good log and core data, ‘The problems of water influx will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5 where it will be shown in some cases it is possible to calculate the initial gas in place and the water influx from a set of simultaneous equations, Eqs. (1.29) or (1.33). Example 17 illustrates the use of the equations to Example 1.7, Calculating water influx and residual gas saturation in water drive gas reservoirs Givens Bulk reservoir volume, initial = 415.3MM cu ft Average porosity = 0.172 Average connate water = 025 Initial pressure = 8200 psia Bi ~ 0.005262 eu ft/SCF, 14.7 psia end 60°F Final pressure = 2625 psia Be = 0.005700 cu ft/SCF, 14.7 psia and 60°F Cumulative water produetion = 15,200 bbl (surface) By = 1.08 bbl/surface bbl Gy ~ 935.0MM SCF at 14.7 psia and 60°F Bulk volume invaded by water at 2025 psia = 1204MM eu ft Souvtion: 13x 10K x 0.172 x (I~ 0.25) 0.005262, = 10,180MM SCF at 147 psin and 00°F Substitute in Bq, (1.38) to find W, WW, = 935.4 x 10° 0.005700 ~ 10,180 x 10* (0.005700 ~ 0.005262) + 15,200 x 1.08 x 5.615 = 960,400 ou ft ‘This much water has invaded 13.04MM eu ft of bulk rock, which initially contained Initial gas in place =4 GAS RESERVOIRS Cuan, 1 25 per eent connate water. ‘Then the final water saturation of the flooded portion Of the reservoir is Connate water + By = Cennate water + Wa Pore space (18.0 x 10" x 0.172 x 0.25) + 960,400 TROL x 10" x 0172 = 0.68 or 68 per cont ‘Then the residual gas saturation Sy, is 32 per cent. calculate the water influx when the initial gas in place is known. It also shows the method of estimating the residual gas saturation of the portion of the reservoir which has been invaded by water, where a reliable estimate of the invaded volume ean be made. This is calculated from the isopachous ‘map, the invaded volume being dilineated by those wells which have “gone to water production.” ‘The residual gas saturation calculated in Example 1.7 includes that portion of the lower permeability rock within the invaded area which aetually may not have been invaded ata, the wells having been “drowned” by water production from the more permeable beds of the formation, Nevertheless it is still interpreted as the average residual gas ‘saturation, which may be applied to the uninvaded portion of the reservoir. In water-drive reservoirs the relation between Gand p/2 is, of course, not linear, as ean be seen by an inspection of Eq. (1.29). Because of the water influx, the pressure drops less rapidly with production than under volumetric control, as shown in the upper curve of Fig. 1.9. Consequently, the extrapolation technique described for volumetric reservoirs is not applicable. Also, where there is water influx, the initial gas in place eal- culated at successive stages of depletion, assuming no water inglur, takes ‘on successively higher values; whereas with volumetric reservoirs the eal- culated values of the initial gas should remain substantially constant. 14, The Gas Equivalent of Produced Condensate and Water. In the study of gas reservoirs in the preceding section it was implicitly as sumed that the fluid in the reservoir at all pressures as well as on the surface was in a single (gus) phase. Most gas reservoirs, however, produce some hydrocarbon liquid, commonly ealled condensate, in the range of a few toa hundred ot more barrels per million standard cubic feet. So long as the reserioir uid remains in a single (gs) phase, the calculations of the previous sections may be used, provided the cumulative gns prostuction Gy is modified to include the condensate liquid production, On the other hand, iff a hydrocarbon liquid phase develops in the reservoir, the methods of the previous sections are not applicable, and these retrograde, gas-condensate reservoirs must be treated specially, as described in Chapter 2. Gas RESERVOIRS 45 ‘The reservoir gus production G,, used in the previous section must in= clude the separstor gas production, the stock tank gas production, and the stock tank liquid production converted to its gas equivalent, symbol GE. The stock tank gas production is the gas in solution in the separator liquid, Tt cun be estimated from the bubble-point correlation for ol systems", the separator pressure being the bubble point of the liquid. ‘The volume o solution gas may also be measured. ‘The produced hydrocarbon lig converted to its gas equivalent assuming it behaves as an ideal vaporized in the produced gas. Taking 14.7 psia and 60°F as standard conditions, the gas equivalent of one stock tank barrel of condensate GE = y = “te Po = 133,000 74/M. SCF/STB ‘The gas equivalent of one barrel of condensate of specific gravity 0.780 (water = 1.00) and molecular weight 138 is 752 SCF. ‘The specific gravity may be calculated from the API gravity. If the molecular weight of the condensate is not measured, as by the freezing point depression method, it may be estimated using Eq. (2.3). ‘Table 1.0 gives the gas equivalent of stock tank condensate liquids in the range of 45 to 65° API. If the analy ‘Table 1.9. Gas Bavivauexr of Stock Tawe Conoessate: GE = 133,000 yo/M 5 Gas Equivalent of Oil Gravity Ot Specie “Molecwlar Stock Tank 0 “APL Gravity = yy SCF/STB % 0802 156) ose 50 780 138 752 55 Py su o 0730 13 870 65 0720 103 930 *Pased on Bq, (2.3). of the separator liquid is availuble, a more precise determination ofits gus equivalent ean be made. In this ease the dissolved separator gas is included. Example 1.8 shows the calculation of the gas equivalent of the separator Tiquid and its dissolved gas to Bind the total reservoir prod Example 1.8. Calculating the total daily gps production including the gas equivalents of water and condensate Given: Daily separator gas production = 3.25MM SCF Daily stock tank condensate = 53.2 STBRYSEI 16 RVOIRS Daily stock tank gas = 10M SCF Daily fresh water production = 5.5 bbl Initial reservoir pressure = $000 psa Current reservoir pressure = 1500 psia [Reservoir temperature = 220°F Condensate gravity © 55° APL (0.768 sp. sF) ‘able 19 estimated molecular weight of the condensate fro or by Fy. (2.3) is 124. ‘Then the gas equivalent of the condensate is 0759 7 5 0-759 43,000 SCP = 53.2 x 138,000 x ADP = 4 " 2 ant c data of McCarthy, Hoye, and Reid" give x water content of 1.00 bb1/M SCF at 4000 psia and 220°F and approximately 2,00 bbI/MM SCF at 1500 psia fand 22°F, ‘Then of the 5,5 bbl, only 8.25 bbl, ie, 3.25MM_ x 1,00 bbl/MM, 1M be converted to yas, the remainder considered as produced water, and GEy = 825 x 7300 ~ 24,000 SCF sh "Then the daily sus production AG, is AG, OM + 100M + 43.0M + 240M sz7MM SCF " face as a condensate from the gas Where water is produced on the surface as a condensate phase in the reservoir, it will be fresh water and it should be eonverted to a as equivalent and added to the gas production. Since the specific gravity ff water is 1.00 and its moleeulur weight is 18, its gas equivalent is X 1.00 10.78. is HT 790 SCP surface barrel by McCarthy, Boyd, and Reid! indicate that the water vapor content of reservoir gases at usual reservoir temperatures and usual initial reservoir pressures is in the range of a fraction to one barrel per inillion standard eubie feet of gas, Production data from a Gulf Coast gas reservoir show a production of 0.04 barrel of water per million standard ‘cubic feet compared with a reservoir confent of about 1,00 bbl/MM SC using the data of McCarthy, Boyd, and Reid, The difference is presumably icin the vapor atte at separator temperature and Dre sure, most of which must he removed by dehydration to x level of about six pounds per million standard cubic feet, As reservoir pressure declines the water content will increase to as much as three barrels per million standard cubic feet, Since this additional content has come from vaporization of the ‘connate water, iL would appear that any fresh water produced in excess of the initial content should he treated as produced water and taken care of in Studi at water renal Ske. cas RESERVOIRS av the W, term rather than the G, term. Of course where the water is it definitely is produced water; however, it ineludes the fraction of a barrel per million cubie fect obtained from the gas phase, If the produced gas is based on the dehydrated gas volume, the gas volume should be increased by the gas equivalent of the water content at the initial reservoir pressure and temperature regardless of the subsequont decline in reservoir pressure, and the water production should be diminished by the water content, ‘This amounts to about a one-half per cent increase in the produced gas volutes. rations of Equations and Errors, ‘The precision of the ions hy the volumetric method, Eq. (1.18), depends upon the accuracy of the data which enter the computations. ‘The precision of the initial gas in place depends upon the probable errors in the averages of the porosity, connate water, pressure, and gus deviation factor, and in the ‘error in the determination of the bulk productive volume. With the best of ‘core and log data in rather uniform reservoirs, it appears doubtful that the initial gas in place ean be calculated more areurately than about 5 per cent, and the figure will range upward to 100 per cent or higher depending upon the uniformity of the reservoir and the quantity and quality of the data available ‘The reserve is the product of the gas in place and the recovery factor. For volumetric reservoirs the reserve of the reservoir as a whole, for any’ pressure, shonld be known to about the sume precision as the initial gas in place, Waterdrive reser addition, the estimate of the volume of the reservoir invaded ats ment n. When the reservo permeability stratification, the difficulties are increased, sand th therefore reduced. Tn general, reserve ealeutations will he more for voluinetrie than for water-drive reservoirs, Where the reserves sire placed on a well or lease basis, the accuracy may be reduced further because of lease drainage, which oveurs in both volumetric and water-drive reser= ‘The use of the material-balanee Bq. (1:38) to ealeulate volves the terms of the gas volume faetor as expressed by. The precision of the ealeukations is, of course, a function of the probable error in these terms. ‘The error in gas production Gy arises from error in gas meter- ing, in the estimate of lease nse and leakage, and in the estimate of the low flor or stock tank gases. Sometimes underground leaknge ‘ecu as from the failure in easing cementing, or from casing corrosion; or in the ease of dual completions, leakuge between the two zones, Where gas is commingled from two reservoirs at the surface prior to metering, the division of the total between the two reservoirs depends on periostc well tests, which may introduce additional inaceurneies. Meters are usually ni the average residual gs sat Presse xTAS RESERVOIRS, Cane. 1 accuracy’ of one per cent, and therefore it appears doubtful the gas production under the best of circumstances is known closer than two per cent, and average neruracies are in the range ofa few to several per cent. Pressure errors are due to gauge errors and the difficulties in averaging, particularly where there are large pressure differences throughout. the reservoir, When reservoir pressures are estimated from measured wellhead pressures, the errors of this technique enter the calculations. When the field is not fully developed, the average pressure is, of course, of the de- veloped portion, which is lower than the reservoir as a whole, Water production with gas wells is frequently unreported where the amount is small, and where it is appreciable it is often estimated from periodic well tests. In addition to the errors in the data which appear in the material balance equation, there are some minor factors which have been neglected in the derivation of the equation: the change in volume of the connate ‘water with pressure, the change in porosity with pressure, and the evolution of gas dissolved in the connate water with decrease in pressure. ‘These factors may be included in the material balanee where warranted by the precision ofthe data. ‘The occurrence of small but unaecounted for amounts of water influx and/or retrograde condensation will affect. the results Under the best of circumstances, the materinI-balance estimates of the gas in place are seldom miore accurate than five per cent, and may range much higher. ‘The estimate of reserves is, of course, one step removed. PROBLEMS (a) From the list of elements in Table 14, find the molecular weights of the first six members of the paraffin hydrocarbon series: methane CH,, ethane Cella, propane Calls, butane Call, pentane Osh and hexane Celle. (b) What is the molecular weight of agetylene whose formula is CyHL? 1.2, ‘The following experimental data were taken in determining the gus constant, An evacuated sis flask weighs 60,000 g. Filled with pure nitrogen at 14.40 psn and! 60°, it weighs 51.100 g. Filled with distilled water at 60° F, it ‘weighs 1050000 4. Calculate the gas constant from these dats. Ans: 10.73. volume one pound mole of ideal gas will oreupy at (a) 14.7 (h) 147 prin and 82°F, (0) 147 psin plus 10 07 and 80°P, and (2) 15.025 isin and OPP, Ane: S794, 959.0, 877.9, 371.2 I, A 1000 eubie-foot tank is filed with air to a pressure of 25 psia at 40°F, Calculate and place in tabular form for comparison, the molecular weight, specific gravity, pound moles in the tank, pounds in the tank, molecules in the tank, SCP at 14.7 psia and 60°F, SCF at 14.7 psin and 32°F, SCF at See. 15 GAS RESERVOIRS 49 147 psin + 10 02 and 80°F, and SCF at 15.025 psia and 0°R, for aie, dioxide, methane, and propane. 15. (a) State four ways in which » quantity of a pure gus may be specified. (b) In what three ways may one mole of pure gas be defined? 1.6. A.500 cubie-foot tank contains 10 Ib of methane and 20 Ib of ethane at 90°F. (a) How many moles are in the tank? Ans: 1.202, (b) What is the pressure of the tank in psia? psig? Anes 16.25, 0.55 for 147 psia atmospheric pressure. (©) Whats the molecular weight ofthe mixture? Ane: 23,22. (a) What is the specific gravity of the mixture? ins: 0.793, 1.7. Calculate the molecular weight of air if it contains 78.06 per cent nitrogen, 21.00 per cent oxygen, and 0.04 per cent argon by volume, Suggestion: Calculate on the basis of one mole of air. Note that for gases mmole per cent equals volume per eent. dns: 28,97, 1.8. What are the molecular weight and specific gravity of a gas which contains fone thied each of methane, ethane, and propane by volume? Ans: 30, 1.03, 19. A ten-pound block of Dry Ice (solid COs) is placed in 50 eubie-foot tank Which contains air at atmospheric pressure 14.7 psia and 75°F, What will be the final pressure of the sealed tank when all the Dry Tee has evaporated and cooled the gas to 45°F? Ana: 38.47 pris 1.10, A welding apparatus fora drilling rig uses acetylene (CH) which is purchased in steel cylinders containing 20 Ib of gas, and costing $4.50 exelusive of the cylinder, If a welder is using 200 cu ft per day measured at 16 07 gnuge and 85°P, what is the daily eost for acetylene? What is the cost per M CF at 147 prin and 60°F? Ana: 83.14, $15.40. LAL. (a) A. 55,000 bbI (nominal) pipe Tine tank has a diameter of 110 ft and a height of 35 ft. Tt contains 25 ft of ol at the time suction is taken on the oil with pumps which handle 20,000 bbl per day. ‘The breather and safety valves hhave become clogged so that a vacuum is drawn on the tank, Tf the roof is rated to withstand 2 of per sq in, pressure, how long will it be hefore the roof collapses? Barometsie pressure is 29.1 inches, Neglect the fact that the roof is peaked and that there may be some leaks, Suggestion: Calculate the initial volume of air in the tank and the volume at collapse pressure. ‘The difference between these two volumes is used to caleulate the collapse time, Since they are large numbers andl are very elose to each other, the stide rule figures may give # difference which is greatly in fervor. ns: 8.9) min. . (b) Calculate the total force on the oof at thé tine of eollapse, Ans 64,147 Ib, (©) Hf the tank had contained more ol, would the collapse time have heen greater or less? Expl 1.12. What is the molecular weight of a gas whieh cont cent Cs, and 20 per eent Cy by weight? Suggestion: Calculate on the basis of 100 Ib of mixture, Ans: 21.83 50 per eent Ci, 30 per50 13. 1.16. 1a. 118. 119. 1.20, 12. GAS RESERVOIRS cue, 1 What volume will 100 Ib of a gas of 0.75 specific gravity (air = 1.000) occupy at 100°F and 100 psis? Ane: 276 eu ft A 10 cubie-foot tank eontains ethane at 25 psia surrounding a balloon 2 ft in diameter filled with methane at 35 pein. Neglecting the volume of the rubber in the balloon and assuming isothermal conditions, ealeulate the final pressute when the balloon is burst. Ans: 29.19 psia. (a) What per cent methane by weight does # gas of 0.65 specific gravity contain which is composed only of methane and ethane? What per eent by 678 por cent, 70.6 por cent the per cent by volume is greater than the per eent by are added; 1.80 moles of ethane at 144 psia and 60°F, 25 Ib of butane at 76°F, 4.65 x 108 molecules of propane at 30°F, and 500 SCF (14.7 psia ‘and 60°F) of nitrogen, If the final temperature of the mixture is 60°F, what, is the final pressure of the tank? Ane: 48.43: psia () OF what significance are the temperatures given in part (a), with the moles of ethane, the pounds of butane, and the molecules of propane? Explai |A.50 cubie-foot tank contains gut at 50 psia and 50°F, It is connected to ‘another tank which contains gas at 25 psia and 50°F, When the valve between the two is opened, the pressure equalizes at 35 psia at 50°F, What is the volume of the other tank? Ana 75 eu ft. What is the weight of one molecule of pentane? Ane: 20.8 x 10-*6 Gas was contracted at 5.5 cents per MCF at contract conditions of 1.4 isis and 80°F, What is the equivalent price at a legal temperature of 60°F fand pressure of 15.025 psia? Ans: 5.96 cents What is the approximate weight, in tons, of one MM CF of natural gast Ans: 25 Wns for 0.65 specific gravity A cylinder is fitted with a leak-proof piston and calibrated so that the volume within the eylinder ean be read from a scale for any position of the piston. rhe eylinder is immersed in a constant temperature bath, maintained at 160°F, which is the reservoir temperature of the Sabine Gas Field. Forty- five thousand eu em of the’gas, measured at 14.7 psia and 60°F, is charged into the eylinder. ‘The volume is decreased in the steps indicated below, and the corresponding pressures are read with a dead weight tester after tem- perature equilibrium is reached. go anh 265, 7501500 2500 (a) Caleulate and place in tabular form the ideal volumes for the 45,000 cv cm, at 160°F at each pressure, and the gas deviation factors Hae 000 10 05000 cman, 1 1.22, 1.23. 12h. 1.25. GAS RESERVOIRS al (b) Caleulate the gas volume factors at each pressure, in units of eubie feet of reservoir space per standard cubic foot of gas and also in units of standaed bie feet per cubie foot of reservoir space. (@) Plot the deviation factor and the gas volume factors ealeutated in part (b) versus pressure on the same graph. (@) Express the gas volume factor at 2500 psia and 160°F in units of eu Ft/8CF, SCF /euft, bbl/SCF, and SCF /bbl. Ane: 0.00590, 169.5, 0.00105, 952. (0) If the Sabine Field gos gravity is 0.65, ealeulate the deviation factors from zero to 6000 psia at 160°F, in 1000-pound inerements, using the gas aravity correlation of Fig. 1.2 (b) Using the critical pressures and temperatures in ‘Table 1.5, ealeulate and plot the deviation factors for the Sabine gas at several pressures and 160°F. ‘The gas analysis is as follows: Component Cy zene Hy Mole Fraction 0875 0.083 0.021 0.005, 0008 0.008 0.02 Component Cy Cy Mole Fraction 0.001 0.001 ‘Use the molecular weight and critical temperature and pressure of actane for the heptanes-plus. Plot the data of Prob. 21(a) and Prob. 22(a) on the same graph for comparison, {(€) Below what pressure at 160°F may the ideal gas law be used for the gas of the Sabine Field if errors are to be kept within two por cent? Ana: 180 psia (@) Will» reservoir contain more SCF of a real or of an ideal gate at ‘conditions? Explain, A high-pressure cell has a volume of 0.330 eu ft and ontains gas at 2500 psia and 130°F, at which conditions its deviation factor is 0.75. When 43.6 SCR measured at 14.7 psia and 60°F are bled from the cell through a wet test meter, the pressure dropped to 1000 psia, the temperature remaining at 130°F. What is the gas deviation factor at 1000 psia and 10°F? Ans: 0.885, (a) Caleulate the bulk volume of the gas cap of a reservoir whose areal extent is 940 acres, Le, the area enclosed by the zero thickness contour. ‘The areas enclosed by the 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20-tt isopach lines are 752, 526, 316, 142, and 57 acres, respectively, The greatest thickness within the 20-1 isopach Tine is 28 ft,” Ans: 8950 ac-tt, (b) Show that when the ratio of the areas enclosed by two successive contours 40.50, the error introduced by using the trapezaidal formula is 2 per cent greater than the pyramidal formula. (©) What error is introduced by using the trapezoidal formula instead of the ‘pyramidal formula when the ratio of the areas is 0.383? .Ans: 4.7 per cent. A volumetric gas field as an inital pressure of 4200 per cent, and connate water of 28 percent, ‘The gas volume factor at pia is 202 SCF/eu ft and at 750 psin is 64 SCF eu ft. (@) Caleulate the intial in-place gas in standard cubie feet on & unit basis, Ane: 1.68MM SOF fact porosity of 17.2 200GAS RESERVOIRS cna. 1 (b) Calculate the initial gas resere in standard cubic feet on a unit basis, assuming an abandonment pressure of 750 psia. Ans: 1.87MM SOF/ae-ft (©) Explain why the calculated initial reseree depends upon the abandonment pressure selected. (@) Calculate the initial reserve of 640-acre unit whose average net pro- ductive formation thickness is 34 ft, assurning an abandonment pressure of 750 psia. Ans: 20.8MMM_ SCF. (©) Calculate the recovery factor based on an abandonment pressure of 750 psa. Ane: 81.5 per cent. ‘The discovery well No, 1 and wells No. 2and No.4 produce gus in the 7500-ft reservoir of the Echo Lake Field, Fig. 1.10. Wells Nos. 3 and 7 were dry in the 7500-f reservoir; however, together with their eloctrie logs and the one from well No. 1, the fault which seals the northeast side of the reservoir was established. ‘The logs of wells Nos. 1,2, 4, 5, and 6 were used to construct, the map of Fig. 110, to locate the gas-water contact and to determine the average net sand thickness. ‘The reservoir had been producing for 18 months when well No. 6 was drilled at the gas-water contact. ‘The static wellhead pressures of the producing wells showed virtually no decline during the 18 month period prior to drilling well No. 6, and averaged near 3400 psia. ‘The following data were available from electric logs, core anal Average well depth = 7500 st Average static wellhead pressure ~ 8400 psia Reservoir temperature = 175° Gas specific gravity = 0.700 (air = 1.00) Average porosity’ = 27 per cent Average connate water = 22 per gent Standard conditions = 14.7 psia and 60°F Bulk volume of productive reservoir rock at the time No, 6 was drilled = 22,500 ae-ft % 700 conn, a ‘er y659 — $ Fig. 1.10, Echo Lake Field, sutmurace map, 7500 f Cuar. 1 voIRs: 53 (a) Caleulate the reservoir prescure using Bi. (1.12). na: 4038 psi (b) Estimate the gas deviation factor, and the gas volume factor in standard cubic feet per eubie foot. Ans: 0,00; 249. (o) Calculate the reserve at the time well No, 6 was drilled assuming a residual gas saturation of 30 per cent. .tns: 828MM SCF. (2) Discuss the location of well No. 1 with regard to the over-all gas recovery (6) Discuss the effect of sand uniformity on over-all recovery, et a uniformly permeable sind versus a sand in two beds of equal thickness, one of which has a permeability of 500 millidareys, and the other, 100 millidaress. 2.21, ‘The “AU” Sand is a small gas reservoir with an initial bottomchole pressure .0f 8200 pein and bottom-hole temperature of 220°F. It is lesired to inventor the jas in-place at three produ tervals, The pressuro-preduction history and gas volume factors in eubie feet per standard cubie fool at standan! conditions of 14.7 pia and 60°F are as follows: Cunnulative Gas ‘Gas Volume Presaure Production Factor ‘ia MACCF ew fV8CP 20) 0 o.o0s2022 2025 m ‘.0057004 525 21 o.006s511 2125 452 0.007360 (2) Caleulate the initial gas in place using production data at the end of each of the production intervals, assuming volumetric behavior, ns: 1028, 1138, and 414MM SCP, (b) Explain why the calculations of part (a) indicate a water drive (©) Show that a water drive existe by plotting the cumulative production venus /2. (2) Based on electric log and core data, volumetric ealeulations on the Sand showed that the initial volume of gas in plaee is IDISMM SCF. If the ‘sind is under » partial water drive, what is the volume of water eneruached at the end of each of the periods? ‘There was no appreciable water produetion, Ans: 756, 27,000, and 174,200 bb. 1.28, When the Sabine Gas Ficld was brought in, it had a reservoir pressure of 1700 psi, and a temperature of 160°F, After 5.00MMM SCF (14.7 psn plus 4 o8 and 80°F) was produced, the pressure had fallen to 1850 psia. If the roservoir is assumed to be under volumettie control, using the deviation factors of Prob. 21, ealeulate the following: (a) The hydrocarbon pore volume of the reservoir. Ans: 433. X 10° eu tt. () The pounds of gas initially ix pluee if the gas gravity 1065. Ans. 243MMM Ib, (6) The SCF (147 psia and 60°F) of gus initially in place SCR, (2) The SCF produced when the pressure falls to 1550, 1400, 1100, 500, and 200 pia. ‘Plot cumulative recovery in SCF versus p/z. .tns: 49, 06, 18.7, 480MM SCF. Ans: 48.9MMM.1.29, 1.30, Lal. 1.32. GAS RESERVO uae. 1 (From your graph fn how much gus can be obtained without the use of Comprewors for iliviry into a pipeline operating xt 750° psia. tn 203MM SCF, (9 What isthe approximate pressive dp por MIM SCF of prution? Ana: 82 pi {@ Calculate the mininum value of the intial reserve if the produced gas easurcient is actrate to 2+ 5 por cent anv if the average prestures are accurate tot 12 psi when 5.00MMM SCF (14,7 psia plus 4 oz and 80°F) Have been produced and the reservoir pressre has dropped to 1350 prin Ins: 24SMEMM SCP at 750 pia abandonment peesare 1, however, during the production of SOOMMMC SCF of gas in the ps ceding probiem, 400MM bbl of water had encrosched! into the reservoir tnd sill the pressure had erp to 1540 psi, ealelate the intial in-place fas. Compare with Prob. 28 (¢). Ins: 26..MMM SCF. (a) The gs cap of the St. Joho Oil Field had @ bulk volume of 17,000 acre- foot when the reservoir prossute had declined to 634 psig. Core analysis y of 18 per cent, and an average interstitial water of 24 per vont. Tt is desirod to increase the recovery af ol from the field by ng the gas enp to 1100 psig, Assuming that no additional gas ise solves in the oil during repressuring, caleulate the SCF (147 psia and 60°F) required, ‘The deviation factors for both the reservoir the injected sets 0.86 at 6 psig and (7S at 1100 psig, both at 13°F. Ine: 4.1 MMM. RCE (b) IF the injected! gas bas a deviation factor MM at 634 psig and 0.88 at 1100 pig, and the reservoir gas deviation factors ane the injected gas required. Ane: 3.6MMM SCF. (0) Is the assimption that io additional solution gas enters the roservoir oil 4 valid one? (4) Considering the possibility of some additional solution gis and the production of oil during the time of injection, will the figure of (a) be max inn or minimum? Explain (©) Explain shy: the gas deviation factors are higher (dev the inject gave in part (b) than for the reservoir sas shows an average poros tion ess) for (a) A well drilled into a gas cap for ss reeyelingg purposes is found to be in n isolated fault blork, ARer injecting SOMA SCF (14.7 psia and 60°R), nereaser fron 2508) to 3500 psi, Deviation fartons for the gas nul 0.80 xt 2500 pisia and the bottom-hole temperature is in tho fault block? Ans: the pressure sare 0.0 at 8500 160-1, What is the cubie foot of gas storage spac LABMIM ou ft (b) Ifthe average porusity is 16 per cont, average connate water is 24 per cent, and avernye sand thickness iv 12 fect, what is the areal extent of the fault lock? Ins: 18 acres, in place in the “P" Sand reservoir of the Holden xl core data to be 200MEMAL SCF "The initial voluine of Fiekd is ealeuated from eleetrie log ue. 1 1.33, LM. 1.35. GAS RESERVOIRS 35 (14.7 psia and 60°F) underlying 2250 productive acres, at an intial pressure ‘of 3500 psia and 140°F. ‘The pressure-production history is Production Gas Deviation Pressure, pia MMM SCF Factor at 10°F 350 (initial) 0 085, 2500 750 ox? (a) What is the initial volume of gas in place as ealeulated from Ue pressure production history assuming no water influx? Ans: 280MMM SCP. (b) Assuming uniform sand thickness, porosity, and connate water, if the volume of gas in place from pressure-production data is believed to be correct, how many acres of extension to the present limits of the “P" Sand are predicted? ns: 1000 acres. (©) If, on the other hand, the gas in place ealeulated from the log and vore data is believed to be correct, how much water influx must have oveurred during the 75MMM SCF of production to make the two figures agroe? Ans: 228MM bbl Explain why initial ealeulations of sas error during the early life of deplotion type reservoi make the predictions high or low? Explain, place are fikely to be in greater Will these fuetors A gas reservoir under partial water drive produced 120MMM SCF (147 sia and 60°F) when the average reservoir pressure had dropped from 000 psia to 2200 psia. During the same interval an estimated 5.20MM bbl of water entered the reservoir based on the volume of the invaded area. If the gus deviation factor at 3000 psia and botton-hole temperature of 170°F js 0.88 and at 2200 pxin is 0.78, what is the initial volume of gas in place measured at 117 psia and 60°F? Ina: 42.0MMM SCE. A gas:producing formation has a uniform thickness of 82 ft, a porosity of 19 per cent, and connate water saturation of 26 por cont. ‘The gas deviation factor is 0.83 at the initial reservoir pressure of 4450 psia and reservoir temperature of 175°R. (S.C. 14.7 psia and 60°F) (a) Caleulate the initial in-place gas per acre-foot of bulk reservoir rock Ans: LS3MM SCP. (b) How many years will it take a well to deplete by 50 per cont a 640-nere unit. nt the mte of SMM SCF /day? anes 17.1 year. (©) If the reservoir is under an active water drive so that the decline iv reservoir pressure is negligible, and during the production of 50.4MMM SCF of gas, measured at 14.7 pain and 60°F, water invades 1280 aetes, what is the per cont rreovery by water drive? Ans: 67.24 per cont. (@) What is the gas saturation as per cent of total pore space in the water invaded portion of the reservoir? Ane: 2424 per eent - Calculate the daily gas production including the condensate and water ga ‘equivalents for a reservoir with the following daily produetion,56 GAS RESERVOIRS uae. 1 ‘Separator gus production = 6MM SCF Condensate production = 100 87R. Stock tank gas production = 21M SCF Fresh water production = 10 bbl Initial reservoir pressure = 6000 psia Current reservoir pressure = 2000 psi Reservoir temperature = 225°F Water vapor content at 6000 pia and 225°F = 0.86 DbI/MM SCF Condensate gravity = 50° APT Ana: 6.134MM SCF, REFERENCES: AK. C. Selater, and B. R. Stephenson, “Measurements of Original Pressures “Temperature and Gas-il Ratio in Oil Sands,” Trans, ATME, (1928-29), 82, 119. °C. V. Millikan and Carrol V. Sidwell, “Bottom-hole Pressures in Oil Wels Trans. AIM, (191), 92, 194 °G, H, Fancher, J. A. Lewis, and KB. Barnes, “Some Physical Characteristios of Oi Sands," The Pennsyloania State College, Bull. 12, (1988), p. 65. AR. D, Wyckoff, HG. Botset, M. Muskat and D.W. Reed, “Mes of Pormeahility of Porous Media,” Bull. AAPG (1988), 18, No. 2, p. 161, ‘RD. Wyckoff, and HG. Bots, “The Flow of Gas-Liquid Mixtures Through Unconsolidated Sands,” Physics, (1986), 7, 325. ‘ML C. Leverett, and W. B. Lowis, “Steady Flow of OikGas-Water Mixtures ‘Through Unconsolidated Sands," Trans., AME, (1941), 142, 107. Ralph J. Schilthuis, “Technique of Securing and Examining Sub-Surface Samples of Oil and Gas,” Drilling and Production Practice, API, (1935), pp. 120-126. "Howard C. Pyle and P. H, Jones, “Quantitative Determination of the Connate Water Content of Oil Sands,” Drilling and Production Practice, API, (1936), pp. 171-180. ‘Ralph J. Schilthuis, “Connate Water in Oil and Gas Sands,” Trans. AIME, (1988), 127, 199-214. Trans, SIME, (1941), HC, V. Millikan, “Temperature Surveys in Oil Wells 142, 15. "Ralph J. (1936) 118, 38. Stewart Coleman, H, D. Wilde, Jr, and Thomas W. Moore, “Quantitative Effects of Gas-Oil Ratios on Decline of Average Rock Pressure,” Trans, AIME, (1990), 86, 174, Oil and Reservoir Energy,” Trane, ATME, is, A Guar. 1 GAS RESERVOIRS oT 2W. Hurst, “Water Influx into a Reservoir and Its Application to the Equation of Volumetric Balance,” Trans, AIME, (1943), 151, 87. A. F, Van Bverdingen and W. Hurst, “Application of the LaPlace ‘Trans- formation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs,” Trane, AIME, (1949), 186, 305. 45. Tarner, “How Different Size Gas Caps and Pressure Maintenance Programs Affect Amount of Recoverable Oil,” Oil Weekly, June 12, 1944, 144, No. 2, 32-44 "8, E, Buckley, and M. C. Loverett, “Mechanism of Fluid Displacement in Sands," Tyans. ATME, (1942), 146, 107-117. M. Muskat, “The Production Histories of “T. V. Moore, “Reservoir Engineering Begins Socond 25 Years,” The Oil and Gos Journal, (1955), 54, No. 29, 148, "Norman J. Clark and Arthur J. Wessely, “Coordination of Geology’ and Reservoir Engineering — A Growing Need for Management Decisions,” Presented before API, Division of Production, March, 1957. *Principles of Petroleum Conservation, Engineering Committee, Interstate Oil Compact Commission, (1955), p. 2. “Letter Symbols for Petrotoum Reservoir Engineering, Trans. AIME, (1956), 207, pp. 967-308, API Recommended Practice for Oil-Mapping, Amerizan Petrolewn Institue, APE RP 35, April, (1957). . "C. Kenneth Kilerts and Others, Phase Relations of Gas-Condensate Fluids, U. 8. Bureau of Mines Monograph 10, Vol. T (New York: American Gas Asso ciation, 1957), 427~434, Henry J. Gruy and Jack A. Crichton, “A Critieal Review of Methods Used in the Estimation of Natural Gas Reserves,” Prans. AIME, (1949), 179, 249-263. "George Granger Brown, Donald Laverne Katz, George B. Oberfell, Richard ©. Alden, Natural Gasoline and Volatile Hydrocarbons, (Tulsa: Natural’ Gasoline Association of America, 1048), 44. Norman L, Cart, Riki Kobayashi, and David B, Burrows, “Viscosity. of Hydrocarbon Gases under Pressure,” Tran, AIME, (1954), 201, 270 “Marshall J. Standing and Donald L. Katz, “Density of Natural Gases," Trans. AIMP, (1942), 146, 14. *HJohn R. Spencer and William L. Boyd, “New Method of Direct Determination of Bottom-Hole Pressures,” The Oil and Gos Journal, (1952), 51, No. 27, 122-123. Hole Yusuf K, Sukkar and David Cornell, “Diroct Caleulation of Botton Pressures in Natural Gas Wells,” Trans. AIME, (1955), 204, 43-48.58 GAS RESERVOIRS Cuan, 1 “Harold Vance, Hlements of Petroleum Subsurface Engineering, (Saint Louis: Edueational Publishers Incorporated, 1950). ML, W. LeRoy, Subsurface Geologic Methods, Second Ka., (Golden: Colorado School of Mines, 1950) 8. J. Dotson, R. L. Slobod, P.N. MeCreery, and James W. Spurlock, “Poros: ity- Measurement Comparisons by Five Laboratories,” Trane, AIME, (1051), 192, on PMC. Leverett, “Capillary Behavior in Porous Solids,” Trane, AIME, (1941), 142, 142-168, ‘WA. Bruce and Tf. J. Welge, “The Restored-State Method for Determination ‘of Oil in Place and Connate Water,” Drilling and Production Practice, API, (1947), 166-1 *41, J, MeCullough, FW. Allaugh, and P, H. Jones, “Determination of the Interstitial-Water Content of Oil and Gas Sand by Laboratory ‘Tests of Core Samples,” Drilling and Production Practice, API, (1044), 180, HE, S. Messer, “Interstitial Water Determination by an Evaporation Method,” Trans. AIME, (1951), 192, 260-274, B, Archie, “The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir Charactoristes,” Trans. AIME, (1942), 146, 64-61. MH. H. Kaveler, “Bngincering Features of the Schuler Field and Unit Ope tion,” Trans, AIME, (1944), 155, 73. MP. M. Geffen, D, R, Parrish, G. W. Haynes, and R.A. Morse, “Efficiency from Porous Media by Liquid Flooding,” Trans. AIME, of Gas Digplacem (1952), 195, 87. ©. 1, Standing, Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oi! Field Hylrocarbon Systems, (New York: Reinhold Publishing Comporation, 1952), 119, Pugene L, MeCarthy, William L. Boyd, and Lawrence 8, Reid, “The Water Vapor Content of Eswntially Nitrogen-Free Natural Gas Saturated! at. Various “cautions of Temperature and Pressure,” Trans, AME, (1950), 189, 241-242 Gas-Condensate Reservoirs ntroduction. Gas-condensate produetion may be thought of as a type intermediate between oil and gas. Oil reservoirs have a dissolved gas content in the range of zero (dead oil) to few thousand cubie feet per barrel, whereas in gas reservoirs one barrel of liquid (condensate) is vapor- ized in 100,000 standard eubie feet of gas or more, and from which, there fore, « small or negligible amount of hydrocarbon liquid is obtained in surface separntors, Gas-condensate production is predominately gas from. which more or less liquid is condensed in the surface separators, henee the name gus-condensate. ‘The liquid is sometimes called by an older name distillate, and also sometimes simply oil, since it is an oil, Gas-condensate reservoirs may be approximately defined as those which produce light= colored or colorless stock tank liquids with APT at gus: oil ratios in the range of 5000 to 100,000 SCF/bbl, Allen®:" has pointed out the inadequacy of classifying wells and the reservoirs from which they produce entirely on the basis of surface gas-oil ratios; for the classification of reservoirs properly depends upon (a) the composition of the hydrocarby accumulation and (b) the temperature and pressure of the accumulation in the earth. Reservoirs have been disrovered which contain the various hydrocarbons, and sometimes some other compounds, in almost every conceivable set of proportions, Further, while temperatures and pressures increase with depth, because their rates of increase (gradients) vary con- siderably from area to area, a rather wide variety of pre combinations is found in naturally occurring reservoirs. Because of these facts there are no distinet. dividing lines hetween the types into which reservoirs may be divided. They blend into one another, and even overlap, sometimes causing technical and legal misunderstanding, vities above i “References throughout the text are given at the end of ench chapter