Montessori Methods

Training Programme

Montessori
Fundamentals
Learning and Living
Resources Society

MITALI GUPTA

Montessori Method Training Programme

MONTESSORI FUNDAMENTALS

COURSE STUDY MATERIAL FOR MONTESSORI METHOD TRAINING PROGRAMME

Prepared by
Learning & Living Resources Society
Planning and Design
Mitali Gupta and Ranajay Gupta
Text, Diagrams and Illustrations Copyright Mitali Gupta
No part of the text of this book may be copied by electronic or other means without the express
permission of the author.
First Edition September 2012
Learning and Living Resources Society
B-34 Nabapalli, Rajdanga, Kolkata 700107

Preface
th

At the beginning of the 20 Century, Dr Maria Montessori introduced a new method of education that
brought about a revolutionary change in the way children were taught. Many elements of modern
education have been adapted from Dr Montessoris theories. She is credited with the development of
the open classroom, the role of the teacher as guide, multi-age classrooms, and the development of
mentally appropriate and individualised education and the use of manipulative learning materials.
When I applied her methods to our KURI Shishu Bhavan, a free Montessori House for underprivileged
children and provided an environment of freedom, I was witness to the wonder of the Montessori way. I
consider it my privilege to be able to share these experiences in this course.
In the course of our work, we have always sought to apply this wonderful method to educate the
children for whom it was originally designedthe children from economically backward families. We
must thank Dr Shashi Panja, the Honble Member-Mayor-in-Council for Education of Kolkata, for giving
us a rare opportunity to take Montessori to the Kolkata Municipal Corporation Primary Schools. She has
given us complete encouragement and support.
My lifelong partner in all my work, Mr Ranajay Gupta, has always given me encouragement, advice and
cooperation. He has enriched the work with his well-researched information and design inputs.
I would never have been able to publish this book at short notice without the support of Mr Chandan
Chaudhuri. I am grateful to him for putting up with me.
I must thank Ms Sonali Gupta, who is always at hand to support and assist me. I could not have gone far
without the selfless help provided by her and other faculty in our organisation.
I must also thank my students through the years, many of whom have become teachers in turn, and
encouraged and supported us with their faith and loyalty.
Finally, I would like to thank Dr Asok Chaudhuri, President of Learning and Living Resources Society, for
his skilful management of our organisation. This book would never have seen the light of day without his
contribution.

Mitali Gupta SECRETARY

Learning and Living Resources Society

I|P A G E

Dear Student,
Welcome to the Montessori Methods Training Programme of Learning and Living Resources Society.
Before getting down to the business of learning, there are some things you should be aware of.
There is a common belief in our country that you need no special qualifications for teaching young
children. It's enough if you can more or less read and write. It is a completely false idea.
It's true that you don't have to have a lot of degrees and doctorates before you can teach young
children. But nevertheless, not everyone is qualified to teach them. It must be remembered, a preprimary teacher builds foundations on which the rest of the child's life will develop. He or she controls
to a great extent the attitudes the child will ultimately have towards education, even towards life.
Obviously, such a deep responsibility demands some qualifications.
Firstly and this is beyond argument the teacher must love children and be comfortable with them.
That is not all; he or she should be able to understand them.
Secondly, in order to understand children's minds so that you can help in their scientific development,
you have to know about children and their psychology.
Thirdly, you have to be creative.
This course has been created from these perspectives. It is based on the Montessori system of child
education. If you are to gain a comprehensive command over the Montessori system, it is essential to
know its theory; it is equally essential to master the practical applications of methods perfected over
years of observation, experiments and research. This course is not designed merely to increase your
knowledge. Its aim is to create skilled, creative and sensitive teachers.
You will have classes according to the schedule approved for the centre where you have enrolled.
Attendance is compulsory. It is not possible to learn a skill-based course without attending classes,
neither is it possible to gain a clear grasp of the theory without direct interaction with the trainers.
Students are requested to read the instructions carefully so that they clearly know what is expected of
them.

COURSE COORDINATOR
MONTESSORI METHOD TRAINING PROGRAMME

II | P A G E

Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................... i
Dear Student, ........................................................................................................ ii
Syllabus ............................................................................................................... viii
Module 1 |

Early Childhood Education: An Overview ..................................... 1

Topic 1| About this Course .................................................................................... 1

Course Objectives ....................................................................................................... 1
Topic 2| The Rights of the Child ............................................................................ 1
The UN Convention on Child Rights ............................................................................ 1
Pre-Primary Education: A Fundamental Right ............................................................ 2
Education in Municipalities ......................................................................................... 3
Municipal Primary Schools in Kolkata .................................................................................................. 3
Skills and Will .............................................................................................................. 3
Topic 3| Early Childhood Education: A Historical Perspective ............................... 3
Theories of Education: Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism .................................................................. 3
The Inclusion of Early Childhood Learning as Part of Institutionalised Education ............................... 4
Child Education in India ........................................................................................................................ 4
Topic 4| Early Childhood Education: Modern Theories ......................................... 4
Child-centric education ............................................................................................... 4
Constructivism ............................................................................................................ 5
Tagore .................................................................................................................................................. 5
Froebel ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Montessori ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Piaget.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Vygotsky ............................................................................................................................................... 8
Early Childhood Education as an Instrument of Social Change .................................. 9
Module 2 | Evolution of the Montessori Method .................................................10
Topic 1| About this Module .................................................................................10
Module Objectives .................................................................................................... 10
Topic 2| Who was Dr Montessori? .......................................................................10
Birth and Family ........................................................................................................ 10
Early Education ......................................................................................................... 10
University of Rome ................................................................................................... 11
Working with Mentally Disabled Children ................................................................ 11
Topic 3| Early influences ......................................................................................11
Topic 4| How the Montessori Method began.......................................................12
Life-Changing Events ................................................................................................. 12
The Beginning: Casa dei Bambini .............................................................................. 13
Topic 5| The Development and Spread of Montessori Education .........................18
III | P A G E

Principle of Self-education ........................................................................................ 18

Dr Montessori in India ............................................................................................... 19
The Last Years: The Vision of Peace Education ......................................................... 19
Module 3 | Developmental Psychology ............................................................... 21
Topic 1| About this Course .................................................................................. 21
Module Objectives .................................................................................................... 21
Topic 2 | Origins of Developmental Psychology ................................................... 21
The importance of psychology in education .......................................................................................21
What is Developmental Psychology? ........................................................................ 22
Dr Montessoris Work on Developmental Psychology .............................................. 22
The Originality of Montessoris Psychology ........................................................................................22
Topic 4 | Stages of Human Development ............................................................. 23
The Development Milestones ................................................................................... 24
Topic 5 | Development in Infancy: Sensitive Periods ........................................... 25
Weaning .................................................................................................................... 26
Order ......................................................................................................................... 26
Language ................................................................................................................... 26
Movement ................................................................................................................. 27
Refinement of Senses ................................................................................................ 27
Numbers .................................................................................................................... 28
Manners & Courtesies ............................................................................................... 28
Topic 6 | Emotional Development in the Pre-School Years .................................. 28
How to Handle the Emotions of a Child .................................................................... 28
Good habits start young ............................................................................................ 29
Crying......................................................................................................................... 29
Separation Anxiety ..............................................................................................................................29
Temper Tantrums ...............................................................................................................................30
Topic 8 | Social Development in Pre-School Years ............................................... 30
Topic 7 | Observation and Discovery ................................................................... 31
Topic 8 | Children with Special Needs.................................................................. 31
Module 4|

Introduction to Montessori Theory ............................................ 33

Topic 1|About This Module ................................................................................. 33

Module Objectives .................................................................................................... 33
Topic 2| Basic Principles ...................................................................................... 33
Topic 3| The Prepared Environment .................................................................... 34
The Montessori Environment .................................................................................... 35
Topic 4 | The Child ............................................................................................... 35
Freedom and Discipline ............................................................................................. 36
Discipline .............................................................................................................................................37
Normalisation ............................................................................................................ 37

IV | P A G E

Topic 5| Adults in the Environment .....................................................................38

Montessori Adults ..................................................................................................... 39
Parental and Community Involvement ..................................................................... 39
Topic 4| Didactic materials ..................................................................................41
Natures Materials .............................................................................................................................. 41
The Home Environment ..................................................................................................................... 41
Characteristics of Montessori Didactic Materials ..................................................... 41
Qualities of Montessori Didactic Materials .............................................................. 42
Topic 6| Activity in a Montessori Environment ....................................................42
Elements of Montessori Activities ............................................................................ 43
Aims .................................................................................................................................................... 43
Point of Interest ................................................................................................................................. 43
Criteria of Perfection .......................................................................................................................... 43
Presentation: The Technique of Lessons .................................................................. 43
Isolate the Object ............................................................................................................................... 44
Work Exactly....................................................................................................................................... 44
Rouse the Childs Attention................................................................................................................ 44
Prevention of Errors in Using Materials ............................................................................................. 44
A Good Finish ..................................................................................................................................... 45
Name Lesson: a Lesson of Three Stages ................................................................... 45
First Period (stage) ............................................................................................................................. 45
Second Period (stage)......................................................................................................................... 45
Third Period (stage) ............................................................................................................................ 45
Collective Presentation ............................................................................................. 45
Group Presentation .................................................................................................. 46
Individual Presentation ............................................................................................. 46
Points To Keep in Mind ............................................................................................. 46
Module 5 | Exercises of Practical Life ...................................................................47
Topic 1| About This Module .................................................................................47
Module Objectives .................................................................................................... 47
Topic 2 | Basic Principles ......................................................................................47
Exercises of Practical Life .......................................................................................... 47
Creating the Environment and Making the Activity ........................................................................... 48
Direct and Indirect Aim ...................................................................................................................... 48
Topic 3 | Practical Activities .................................................................................48
Module 6 |

Sensorial Activities ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Topic 1| About This Module ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Module Objectives ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 2 | Basic Principles ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Our Senses .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

V|P A G E

The Rle of the Senses ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Sensorial Material ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
The Aims of Sensorial Activity ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 3 | Practical Activities.........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Module 7 |

Language Activities .............................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Topic 1| About This Module ........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Module Objectives ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 2 | Basic Principles .............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
What is Language? ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
How does a child learn language .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
How can we build up a child's language skills .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Grammatical Analysis and Oral Phonetic Analysis ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rhymes ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
How to recite a rhyme ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Stories ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 3 | Practical Activities.........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Module 8 |

Mathematics ......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Topic 1| About This Module ........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Module Objectives ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 2 | Basic Principles .............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introducing mathematics ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The place of mathematics in the House of Children .... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arithmetic of Groups, Arithmetic of Variables ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 3 | Practical Activities.........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Module 9 |

The Montessori Adult in the School EnvironmentError! Bookmark not defined.

Topic 1| About This Module ........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Module Objectives ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 2 | School Organisation ......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Things You'll Need ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Setting up the Classroom ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Tips & Warnings ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 3 | Theme Teaching ............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Teacher Preparation .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Setup ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 4 | Observation, Assessment & Surveys ............Error! Bookmark not defined.
Observation .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Montessori Practice ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assessment ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Montessori Practice ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Surveys ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

VI | P A G E

Topic 5 | Health & Hygiene ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

A Healthy Mother: First Requirement for a Healthy ChildError! Bookmark not defined.
At what age is it safe to become a mother? ..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Feeding habits ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Child Safety ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Preventing accidents ..............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Safety Precautions ..................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Health Checkpoints ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Vaccination .............................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
First Aid ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Some First Aid Tips .................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 6 | Project Work ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
What are the projects you have to do? ........................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
What should be included in each project? ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Points to keep in mind: ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Handwork and Picture-making ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 7 | Exhibition ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic 8 | Documentation ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

VII | P A G E

Syllabus
Module 1| Early Childhood Education: An Overview
An overview of child education and associated theories with special reference to early childhood
education. The module will start with a discussion on the rights of the child.
TOPIC 1| INTRODUCTION
Course Introduction
Course Objectives
TOPIC 2| THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
The rights of the child
The UN Convention on Child Rights
The right to pre-primary education
Constitution of India
Right to Education Act
TOPIC 3 | EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Early theories of education
Child education in India
Municipal School system in Kolkata
TOPIC 4| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: MODERN THEORIES
Child-centric education
Constructivism: Tagore, Montessori, Froebel, Piaget, Vygotsky
TOPIC 5| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Educational foundation for new citizens
Inculcating good civic sense
Childrens influence on parents and other adults
Module 2| Evolution of the Montessori Method
A descriptive module outlining Dr Montessoris life and the influences and events that led to the
development of the method.
TOPIC 1| INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| WHO WAS DR MONTESSORI?
Early life, education and work
TOPIC 3| EARLY INFLUENCES
Seguin and Itard
Beginnings of Developmental Psychology
TOPIC 4| HOW THE MONTESSORI METHOD BEGAN
From childrens shelter to a revolution in education
TOPIC 5| THE DEVELOPMENT AND SPREAD OF MONTESSORI EDUCATION
Training teachers
Montessori spreads in Europe and America
International Training Centre and Research Institute
The Erdkinder Essays
The India Years
Peace Education

VIII | P A G E

Module 3| Developmental Psychology

A discussion on Developmental Psychology (and associated physiological milestones) as the foundation
of the Montessori Method of education.
TOPIC 1|INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
19th Century research
Dr Montessoris contribution
TOPIC 3| NATURAL DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive, Physical and Emotional Development
Development of Instincts and Reflexes
TOPIC 4| STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, Maturity
Characteristics, Goal, Features, Questions, Motto & Needs of each stage
TOPIC 5| DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY: SENSITIVE PERIODS
Milestones
Sensitive periods
TOPIC 6| CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Identifying children with special needs
Awareness of needs
Module 4| Introduction to Montessori Theory
The principles and elements of Montessori educational theory. This module will only outline the
different types of activities, which will be detailed out in the following topics.
TOPIC 1|INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| BASIC PRINCIPLES
TOPIC 3| THE PREPARED ENVIRONMENT
The Montessori Environment
Freedom and Discipline
Normalisation
TOPIC 4| DIDACTIC MATERIALS
Characteristics of Montessori didactic materials
TOPIC 5| ADULTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
TOPIC 6| ACTIVITY IN A MONTESSORI ENVIRONMENT
Aims
Direct
Indirect
Presentation
The Technique of Lessons
Module 5| Exercises of Practical Life
A discussion on Exercises of Practical Life as a foundation for sensorial and language work; with
demonstrations and practice of related activities.
IX | P A G E

TOPIC 1|INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| BASIC PRINCIPLES
EPL as a foundation for sensorial and language work
TOPIC 3| PRACTICALS
Settling Down Activities
Preliminary Motor Activities
Taking Care of Oneself
Taking Care of Ones Environment
Social Behaviour
Module 6| Sensorial Activity
A discussion on sensorial activity as a foundation for language, mathematics and cultural activities; with
demonstrations and practice of related activities.
TOPIC 1|INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| BASIC PRINCIPLES
Sensorial activity as a foundation for language, mathematics and cultural activities
TOPIC 3| PRACTICALS
Activities involving visual and muscular sense
Activities involving Visual Sense
Activities involving Tactile Sense
Activities involving Acoustic Sense
Activities involving Muscular Sense
Activities involving Olfactory Sense (Smell activity)
Activities involving Gustatory Sense (Taste activity)
Name lesson
Module 7| Language Activity
A discussion on learning language through multi-sensorial cognitive methods; with demonstrations and
practice of related activities for Indian languages (Bengali/Hindi/Urdu) and English.
TOPIC 1|INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| BASIC PRINCIPLES
Teaching language through a multi-sensorial approach
Teaching English
Teaching Bangla/Hindi/Urdu
TOPIC 3| PRACTICALS: INDIAN LANGUAGES
Preliminary Activities and Sound Awareness
Sandpaper Letters
Group Activity on Oral Sound Analysis
Moveable Alphabets
Vowel Signs
Vocabulary enrichment
Vowels and Consonants
Three-letter words
First reading cards
X|P A G E

Complementary pairing
Nouns, verbs and adjectives
Spell and read
Who am I?
Show and tell
Antonyms
Homophones
Stories and Rhymes

TOPIC 4| PRACTICALS: ENGLISH

Preliminary Activities and Sound Awareness
Sandpaper Letters
Group Activity on Oral Sound Analysis
Moveable Alphabets
Learning to recognize and match objects, patterns and Sequences for vocabulary and language
skills
Action Cards
Daily living activity cards
Three-letter words
Vocabulary enrichment
Recognition of script letters
Phonetic word matching
Phonograms with pictures
Orthographic complications
Homophones
Open sounds
Opposites
One and many
Prepositions
Vowels and Consonants
Capital letters
Small phrases
Small sentences
First reading cards
Complementary pairing
Naming and doing words
Spell and read
Who am I?
Module 8| Mathematics
A discussion on basic principles of Montessori mathematical learning methods; with demonstrations and
practice of related activities
TOPIC 1|INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| BASIC PRINCIPLES
Teaching of numeration
Variable
Group
Concept of Zero
TOPIC 3| PRACTICALS
Number Rods
Sandpaper figures
Number Rods and Cards
XI | P A G E

Spindle Box
Zero Lesson
Chit Game
Card and Counters
Even and Odd
Static Decimals
Traditional Names
Change Game
Addition Strip Board
Subtraction Strip Board
Multiplication Board
Division Board
Abacus
Large Addition
Large Subtraction
Group Division
Dynamic Multiplication
Worksheets

Module 9| The Montessori Adult in the School Environment

Tips on school organisation and classroom issues; how to observe children and write reports; health and
hygiene for children; with project work and creation of a final exhibition on the learnings from the
course
TOPIC 1|INTRODUCTION
Module Introduction
Module Objectives
TOPIC 2| SCHOOL ORGANISATION
Basic elements of a Montessori environment
How to arrange them
Creating an environment where a child can work with freedom
TOPIC 3| THEME TEACHING
Using themes to teach history, geography, science
TOPIC 4| OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT
Observing the child and making notes
Writing report cards
TOPIC 5| HEALTH & HYGIENE
Healthy mother
Girl child
Feeding habits
Crying, Anxiety and Tantrums
Parental guidance
Immunisation
Child Safety
Emergencies
First aid
Traffic safety
TOPIC 6| PROJECT WORK
Science/History/Geography teaching aids (charts/models)
Creating educational materials for special needs children (visual or hearing challenged)
TOPIC 7| EXHIBITION
Subject: Why and How Shall We Implement Montessori in KMC Schools?
XII | P A G E

Assessment
THEORY (EACH PAPER 50 MARKS)
Paper 1A: Modules 1 & 2
Paper 1B: Modules 3 & 4
Paper 2A: Modules 5 & 6 Theory
Paper 3A: Module 7 Theory
Paper 4A: Module 8 Theory
Paper 5A: Module 9 Theory
PRACTICALS (EACH PAPER 40 MARKS + 10 MARKS VIVA)
Paper 2B: Modules 5 & 6 Practical/Viva
Paper 3B: Module 7 Practical/Viva
Paper 4B: Module 8 Practical/Viva
Paper 5B: Module 9 Presentation/Viva
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT & APPLICATION
File
100 marks
Project 1 50 marks
Project 2 50 marks
Exhibition 50 marks
Observation
50 marks
Report Card
50 marks
Application
50 marks
(Attendance & Regularity,
Participation, Attitude,
Appearance and Tidiness)

XIII | P A G E

Module 1 |

Early Childhood Education: An

Overview

Topic 1| About this Course

A child, just learning to speak. As soon as she learns to walk, she wants to run. A world awaits her. Her
small hands want to grasp everything. A world awaits her touch, waits to touch her in turn, to come
within her grasp. Her tiny ears listen in wonder; a thousand smells reach her tiny nose. All that she feels,
all that she experiences, she stores away in her young brain. It may be young, yet it is a mind with an
extraordinary capacity to receive and retain. Every moment she knows, every moment she learns, every
moment she understands, every day she speaks new words, every day her powers of expression reach
new heights.
Where will this process of development take her? What kind of adult will she grow up into? That
depends on her environment natural and social. And on her nearest humans. Apart from her parents,
her first teacher will be one of those who will play a most important rle in her life. Which is why a preprimary teacher bears an awesome social responsibility. For she is the one who opens the windows of
the child's mind.

Course Objectives
At the end of this course, you should be able to:

Recognise the significance of pre-primary education as the foundation for all education
Recognise the theoretical and philosophical basis of the Montessori Method of Education
Recognise and achieve the attitude, appearance and behaviour required of a Montessori adult
Describe and set up a Montessori prepared environment
Describe and perform correctly the processes and procedures for invitation and presentation of
different activities in the environment, including:

Settling down
Exercises of Practical Life
Sensorial Activities
Language Activities
Mathematical Activities

Observe a child and record information on developmental progress in a report card

Apply behavioural skills in interactions with other adults including colleagues and parents

Topic 2| The Rights of the Child

The right of every child to education and its necessity for society was not recognised till very
recently. And the right of a pre-school child to a proper education is even now not fully appreciated.

The UN Convention on Child Rights

Article 6 of the United Nations Convention on Child Rights requires that every signatory state "shall
ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and development of the child."
Article 28 of the Convention states:
1.

1|P A G E

States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving
this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular:
a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all;

2.

3.

b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, including

general and vocational education, make them available and accessible to every
child, and take appropriate measures such as the introduction of free education
and offering financial assistance in case of need;
c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every
appropriate means;
d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance available and
accessible to all children;
e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of
drop-out rates.
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is
administered in a manner consistent with the childs human dignity and in conformity with
the present Convention.
States Parties shall promote and encourage international cooperation in matters relating
to education, in particular with a view to contributing to the elimination of ignorance and
illiteracy throughout the world and facilitating access to scientific and technical knowledge
and modern teaching methods. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the
needs of developing countries.

The absence of the mention of pre-primary education highlights the low awareness worldwide
about the educational needs of early childhood. However, Article 29 sets out
2.

States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to:
a) The development of the childs personality, talents and mental and physical
abilities to their fullest potential;
b) The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and for
the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations;
c) The development of respect for the childs parents, his or her own cultural
identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in which the
child is living, the country from which he or she may originate, and for civilizations
different from his or her own;
d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of
understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all
peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin;
e) The development of respect for the natural environment.

These are principles that coincide with Dr Montessori's advocacy of Peace Education for all
children.

Pre-Primary Education: A Fundamental Right

Yet, this is a priority area after recent amendments to the Constitution of India. The Constitution (Eightysixth Amendment) Act, 2002 amended the Constitution as follows:
2.

Insertion of new article 21A.- After article 21 of the Constitution, the following article shall
be inserted, namely:

Right to Education
21A. The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to
fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.
3.

Substitution of new article for article 45.- For article 45 of the Constitution, the following
article shall be substituted, namely:- .

Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.
45. The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children
until they complete the age of six years..
4.

2|P A G E

Amendment of article 51A.- In article 51A of the Constitution, after clause (J), the following
clause shall be added, namely:

(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as
the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years..
The Municipal School System in Kolkata
Madras (now Chennai) was the first city in India to have a municipal corporation, as early
as 1688. Calcutta (now Kolkata) got its Municipal Corporation in 1876 and Bombay (now
Mumbai) got it in 1888. Delhi got a Municipal Corporation much later.

Education in Municipalities
The 11th Schedule of the Constitution of India Education, including Primary and secondary schools, as
statutory responsibilities of Panchayats; however the 12th schedule does not include Education as a
primary responsibility for municipalities. There is only a vague mention of Promotion of cultural,
educational and aesthetic aspects (Entry 13, Schedule XII).
Even the Kolkata Municipal Corporation Act 1980 lists education under the discretionary powers of the
Corporation. However, with the initiatives to make education a fundamental right for all children, the
fundamental educational responsibilities of municipal bodies in India are likely to gain stronger statutory
sanction in future years.

MUNICIPAL PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KOLKATA

Municipal corporations throughout the world provide services to their citizens as responsibilities of local
self-government. All over the world, one of the responsibilities of a Municipal Corporation has been to
provide quality education for its children and to transform them into model citizens.
The concept of free primary school education in Kolkata was introduced in 1924 by the Deshbandhu
Chittaranjan Das when he was the Mayor. In 1924, there were just 19 free primary schools catering to
2468 students; now there are more than 250 schools catering to more than 30 thousand students.
Most KMCP Schools are located in slums. They serve the underprivileged.

Skills and Will

Despite the laudable aims of legislation, little can be achieved without

the awareness of the requirement of pre-primary education;

the political will to implement it; and
the infrastructure and trained manpower required to implement it
Unfortunately, even with political will, pre-primary education cannot go far without awareness of its necessity
and the awareness that it requires specially trained personnel to implement it.
Even today, there is a widespread belief that it takes no special training to be a pre-primary or even primary
school teacher.
If you successfully complete this course, you will realise that the pre-primary stage is the most critical stage of
education; and trained pre-primary teachers are critical to this stage of education.

Topic 3| Early Childhood Education: A Historical Perspective

From the informal education within a family and community that marks most primitive societies to the
institutionalised education system of today, education has come a long way. Education is a social
activity. Many educationists and philosophers have tried to interpret it from their own viewpoints; and
the aims and objectives of education have varied with the philosophies prevailing in different ages.

THEORIES OF EDUCATION: IDEALISM, NATURALISM, PRAGMATISM

Idealism: The Idealist philosophies believe that the world is an expression of the Supreme Being. The
world we see is fleeting. Only the Supreme Being is real and eternal. That is God. The Supreme Soul

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resides in our own souls; the awareness of this Being is the aim of Life and its liberation. Religious and
moral instruction forms an important part education according to this school of thought.
Naturalism: Naturalism is a reaction to Spiritualism. This school of thought believes that the natural
qualities and abilities of the child must be given an opportunity to be expressed. The mental level of a
child changes with age. The methods of education must conform to the needs of the child. Education is
the natural development of the child's potential; the needs of the child, his nature, his potential, his will
and interest form the basis of education. The child controls his education, and the child must be allowed
to express himself in his environment through his activities.
Rousseau was the main advocate of this ideology. Later Frbel, Herbert and Dr Montessori gave it a
wider and more well-defined structure, followed by later theorists like Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.
Pragmatism: This theory brought a revolutionary change to the world of education. The basic premise of
Pragmatism is that truth can only be proved through its application in the real world. There is no such
thing as eternal truth. In a changing world, truth also changes. Whatever brings success is true;
whatever is useless is false. Therefore truth changes with changing needs. What is true in our age may
prove to be false in another. Whatever is successful in the light of our experience we shall accept as true
this ideology had its main proponent in John Dewey. Education is the experience of the child through
the interaction of the child with his environment.
Dr Montessori's influence on child education: By education and profession, Dr Maria Montessori was a
paediatrician and psychologist. It was by accident that she came to be involved in child education, and
the result was revolutionary. In order to understand why and how, we must know about her life and
work.

THE INCLUSION OF EARLY CHILDHOOD LEARNING AS PART OF INSTITUTIONALISED EDUCATION

Through most of history, early childhood learning was never part of formal education, which usually
started much later. Early childhood was usually spent in a family environment. The need for institutional
education at this stage arose as the industrial revolution brought more and more mothers into the
workforce and children were left without care.
The early theorists of early childhood education included Froebel in Germany, Dr Montessori in Italy and
Margaret and Rachel Macmillan in the UK.

CHILD EDUCATION IN INDIA

Through most of history, children in India the minority who have had access to education have
started their education in institutions like tols and madrasahs, where learning was by rote and entirely
teacher-centric. It was only in the nineteenth century that reformers like Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar
attempted to make child education more child-friendly. Nevertheless, it was still highly teacher-centric,
with emphasis on moral instruction.
Rabindranath Tagore was one of the pioneers of original thought on child education in India. The
methods followed at the Shishu Bhavan in Shantiniketan brought a new dimension to child education in
India. Dr Maria Montessori said of him, I brought science to child education; Tagore brought poetry.
Dr. Montessori spent an important period of her life in India. Many of her original works were written
while in India. The revolutionary influence of Tagore and Montessori on child-centric education was so
indistinguishable in India and Southeast Asia that it came to be known as the 'Tagore-Montessori
Method'.

Topic 4| Early Childhood Education: Modern Theories

Child-centric education
The first and main element in education is the child or student. The needs of a child were ignored in
earlier systems of education. The purpose of education was to reflect the will and tastes of elders upon
a childs life. The child did not actively educate itself according to its own needs and capacity; education
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was imposed upon its mind. The teacher is the giver of knowledge. The child is the receiver. Therefore
education was teacher-centric, run-of-the-mill and lifeless.
Modern education is child-centric. The child is ancient, the same today as it was when Man first
emerged on this earth. The child in this age of technology is no different from the stone-age child in its
insatiable curiosity, it its instinctive urge to explore and discover. It is because of this that we have to
think so carefully about its problems. The 21st Century is an age of rediscovery. We have to discover the
child afresh.

Constructivism
Learning theories based on the premise that the human learning process ideally requires a student to
experience an environment first-hand, thereby, giving the learner reliable, trust-worthy knowledge, are
called constructivist. The learner acts upon the environment; and the environment acts upon the
learner.
A number of thinkers around the world have created theories and methods of learning based on
constructivism.

TAGORE
We all know about Rabindranath Tagores experimental university at Shantiniketan, where he tried to
provide a natural environment in which students could grow through their interaction with Nature and
with the community.
The childs sense of freedom, a free environment, the childs physical, mental and spiritual development
were the focus of this education. To quote Tagore,
I dont think even the busiest people can deny that an open sky, a free atmosphere and
greenery are extremely important for the correct development of a human child. With age,
pulled by the duties of our office, pushed by the crowds, mind distracted by myriad worries, we
grow up to lose much of our closeness with Nature. Let us at least know the eternal cradle of
water, earth, sky and wind into which we were born, let us draw in its nectar as at a mothers
breast, let us absorb its liberating message, only then shall we grow into complete humans. Let
the boys play while their hearts are yet young, curiosity alive, senses yet keen, under the open
sky, where the sun plays with the clouds; dont deprive them of Natures embrace. Let every
dawn, cool and pure, open each day to them with fingers of light; let sunset-brilliant, serene
evenings silently spread a star-studded curtain of darkness at the end of each day. Let them
witness the six-act musical drama of the seasons, played out on a stage of green. Let them stand
under the trees in June and see the young monsoon approach like a prince newly crowned, the
dark, rain-bearing clouds, thunderous in their joy, blanketing the ever-hopeful forest with the
shadow of imminent rain; and, after the rains depart, let them be blessed with the sight of
endless green riches spreading to the horizons on the breast of the generous earth, revelling in
verdant colours, kissed by dew-laden breezes. O guardian, made wise by your years and your
head for business, you may have numbed your imagination and hardened your heart, but never
even in shame, say their is no need for this; let your children feel the magic touch of Mother
Earth at first hand. Even if you cannot comprehend how much more effective it is than your
Inspectors reports and examiners question papers, do not deign to ignore it...

FROEBEL
The German educationist Friedrich Wilhelm August Frbel (or Froebel) established a school for children
aged 3 to 8 years and called it Kindergarten or the Garden of Children. Today, this name represents
Froebels philosophy worldwide.
According to Froebel, a school is a garden where the students are seedlings and the teacher, an alert
gardener. The teachers duty is to take care and see how his charges grow up she is there solely to
assist the childs development. Froebel has said, the the childs mind is by nature self-active. No external
effort is needed to activate it; this activeness naturally happens in a childs life. The teacher will create
an environment that does not interfere with the childs natural life. Froebel does not detail the
requirements of the environment; he says that the childs self-activeness will express itself through play
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and spontaneous activity. By spontaneous work, he means song and dance, entertainment, movement,
conversation, drawing pictures, telling stories and so on. He also speaks of exercising the senses through
object lessons. The development of the senses is an important psychological foundation. According to
him, not only does the activity exercise the senses, it also expresses and satisfies the creativity inherent
in every child.
Froebels system of education works through gifts and occupation. For instance, a child may be given a
sphere and a cube. These gifts are not simply playthings, they also symbolise definite concepts.
The Kindergarten system also lays importance on the social development of a child.

MONTESSORI
Dr Maria Montessori passionately believed each adult must develop her or his abilities to observe
children deeply so as to witness the unfolding of each new human being.
Montessori discovered a number of secrets aspects of
young children never before observed.
Many elements of modern education have been
adapted from Montessoris theories. She is credited
with the development of the open classroom, the role
of teacher as a guide, multi age classrooms; develop
mentally appropriate and individualised education, and
the use of manipulative learning materials.
It is primarily her philosophy and method that will be
studied in this course.
Piaget and Vygotsky are two other education thinkers
who followed her and had an enormous impact on
theories of modern education. Their theories are also
based on the stages of a childs physical, psychological
and social development, but differ from the Montessori
theory in important details.

PIAGET
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss biologist moved
into the study of the development of children's
understanding through observing them and talking and
listening to them while they worked on exercises he set.
His view of how children's minds work and develop has
been enormously influential, particularly in educational
theory. His particular insight was the role of maturation
(simply growing up) in children's increasing capacity to
understand their world: they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature
enough to do so. His research has spawned a great deal more, much of which has undermined the detail
of his own, but like many other original investigators, his importance comes from his overall vision.
He proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there are certain
points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and capabilities. He saw these
transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has been taken to mean
that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of understanding things in
certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling the school curriculum. Whether or
not should be the case is a different matter.

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Table 1
PIAGET'S KEY IDEAS
ADAPTATION

What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation

ASSIMILATION

The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which
may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.

ACCOMMODATION

The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation.

Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the
other.

CLASSIFICATION

The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.

CLASS INCLUSION

The understanding, more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of
objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is
also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that
of dogs)

CONSERVATION

The realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed
about or made to look different.

DECENTRATION

The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate.

EGOCENTRISM

The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the
corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral
"selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development.

OPERATION

The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and
pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out
(like count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their heads.

SCHEMA (OR
SCHEME)

The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go
together.

STAGE

A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of understanding some things

but not others

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Table 2
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO PIAGET
STAGE

Characterised by

SENSORIMOTOR
(BIRTH-2 YRS)

Differentiates self from objects

Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set
mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise
Achieves object permanence: realises that things continue to exist even when no longer
present to the sense (pace Bishop Berkeley)

PRE-OPERATIONAL
(2-7 YEARS)

Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words

Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others
Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of
shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour

CONCRETE
OPERATIONAL

(7-11 YEARS)

Can think logically about objects and events

Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)
Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single
dimension such as size.

FORMAL

Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically

OPERATIONAL

(11 YEARS AND UP)

Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

VYGOTSKY
Vygotskys Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934),
who lived during Soviet Revolution. Vygotskys work was largely unkown to the West until it was
published in 1962.
Vygotskys theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes:
Major themes:
1.

Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast
to Jean Piagets understanding of child development (in which development necessarily
precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: Every
function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later,
on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological). (Vygotsky, 1978).

2.

The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task,
process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult,
but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.

3.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a students ability
to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the students ability
solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act
and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that
develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially
children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky
believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.

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Applications of Vygotskys Social Development Theory

Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or
lecturer transmits information to students. In contrast, Vygotskys theory promotes learning contexts
in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted,
as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction
in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

Early Childhood Education as an Instrument of Social Change

While most education theories have focussed on the child as an individual, Montessori and Vygotsky
share a focus on the child in society. Both have recognised the role of society in educating the child and
of the child in changing society.
Early on, when Dr Montessori started her first House of Children in a slum area in Rome, she noticed the
change that her method brought not only to the children, but also, through the children, to their
parents. After the Second World War, she postulated her concept of Peace Educationthat peace can
only come if infants are educated to a spirit of cooperation rather than competition, driven by their
inner discipline rather than an imposed one.

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Module 2 | Evolution of the Montessori Method

Topic 1| About this Module
Who was Dr Montessori? How did she become one of the greatest thinkers and innovators in
education? Why do we still use the Montessori Method more than a hundred years after the
first Montessori school started?
We will learn about all this in this module.

Module Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
Describe the life of Dr Maria Montessori with respect to the development of her theory of
education
Recognise the influence of early pioneers in developmental psychology and special needs
educators on Dr Montessoris development as an educator
Recognise the importance of the first Casa dei Bambini in originating the Montessori Method
Describe the evolution of the Montessori system through Dr Montessoris observations,
experiences and experiments
Describe the spread of Montessori education based on training teachers from all over the world
Explain Dr Montessoris approach to education in terms of her philosophy of peace and love
through child education

Topic 2| Who was Dr Montessori?

Maria Tecla Artemesia Montessori (August 31, 1870 May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician
and educator who created a revolution in childrens education with her method.
She pursued a scientific education and was the first woman to become a physician in Italy. As
a practising physician associated with the University of Rome, she was a scientist not a
teacher.

Birth and Family

Montessori was born in Chiaravalle, Italy. Her father was Alessandro Montessori, an official of
the Ministry of Finance who worked in a local state-run tobacco factory. Her mother was
Renilde Stoppani.

Early Education
She was an average student in her early years. When she was 13, she was admitted to Regia
Scuola Tecnica Michelangelo Buonarroti, a secondary technical school in Rome. Here, she
studied where she studied Italian, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, accounting, history,
geography and the sciences.
She passed out from this school 1886 with a good performance and results and joined the
technical institute Regio Instituto Tecnico Leonardo da Vinci , at the age of 16. Here she
studied studying Italian, mathematics, history, geography, geometric and ornate drawing,
physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and two foreign languages.
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She performed well in science and mathematics. At first, she wanted to study engineering after
passing out from this school. This was quite an unusual ambition for a girl in Italy during those
times. However, by the time she passed out of school with a certificate in physics and
mathematics in 1890 at the age of 20, she wanted to study medicine instead. This was even
more unthinkable in Italy at that time. Not a single girl had ever studied medicine till then.

University of Rome
Montessori was strongly discouraged by the professors of medicine at the University of Rome.
Undeterred, she enrolled in the University of Rome in a degree course in natural sciences in
1890. Here she passed examinations in botany, zoology, experimental physics, histology,
anatomy, and general and organic chemistry. She earned her diploma di licenza in 1892a
degree that qualified her for entrance into the medical course at the University in 1893.
Many medical students and professors did not like a girl entering the profession. They met her
with hostility and harassment. Her attendance of classes with men in the presence of a naked
body was considered improper. Therefore she was asked to perform her dissections of
cadavers after hours, alone. Despite the struggle, Montessori did well. She won an academic
prize in her first year; and in 1895, she secured a position as a hospital assistant. This gave her
early clinical experience.
In her last two years she studied paediatrics and psychiatry. She worked in the paediatric
consulting room and emergency service, and became an expert in paediatric medicine.
When Montessori graduated from the University of Rome in 1896, she became the first
woman to become a doctor of medicine. Her thesis was published in 1897 in the journal
Policlinico. She became an assistant at the University hospital and started a private practice.

Working with Mentally Disabled Children

Even after graduation from the University of Rome in 1896, Montessori continued with her
research. She worked at the University's psychiatric clinic, where she was accepted as a
voluntary assistant in 1897. She observed children with mental disabilities and made
observations which would be critical to her future work.
At the beginning of her career, Montessoris work and research involved children with some
form of mental retardation, illness or disability. She also studied, spoke and wrote, gaining
some repute as an advocate for womens rights and education for mentally disabled children.
In 1900 Montessori was appointed co-director of the New Orthophrenic School attached to the
University of Rome. Also in 1897, Montessori audited the University courses in pedagogy and
read "all the major works on educational theory of the past two hundred years".

Topic 3| Early influences

Her study led Montessori to the work of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) who believed
sensory experience was the basis for all knowledge. She also made a close study of some of the
great educators of the 19th Century.
One of them was was Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 1827). Pestalozzi defined observation
as the method of teaching. Teachers must observe their pupils in order to know them, their
interests, and how they learn. Like Rousseau, Pestalozzis curriculum was based on engaging

11 | P A G E

children in direct experiences involving physical activity, making collections, and outing beyond
the confines of the classroom.
Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) the German educator and originator of the Kindergarten,
Froebel believed that education was a process of self-activity and self-discovery, leading to
self-fulfilment. The goal of an educator was to discover the universal principles the guided this
process. Teacher should guide, not coerce, and teacher should never interfere with childrens
spontaneous learning activities. Froebel developed a series of gifts balls, cubes, cylinders
and blocks that heightened childrens awareness of relationships among things.
Montessori also made a thorough study of two almost forgotten French physicians of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: Itard and Seguin.
Jean Marc Gaspard Itard (1774-1838)is most famous for his work with the Wild Boy of
Aveyron, a youth who had been found wandering naked in the forest, having spent 10 years
living alone. The boy could not speak and lacked almost all of the skills of everyday life. Here
apparently was a natural man a human being who had developed without the benefit of
culture and socialisation with his own kind. Itard hoped from this study to shed some light on
the age old debate about what proportion of human intelligence and personality is hereditary
and what proportion stems from learned behaviour.
The experiment had limited success, for Itard found the wild boy uncooperative and unwilling
or unable to learn most things. This led Itard to postulate the existence of developmental
periods in normal human growth. During these sensitive periods a child must experience
stimulation or grow up forever lacking adult skills and intellectual concepts that he missed at
the stage when they can be readily learned! Although Itards efforts to teach the wild boy
were barely successful, he followed a methodical approach in designing the process, arguing
that all education would benefit from the use of careful observation and experimentation.
This idea has tremendous appeal to the scientifically trained Montessori and later became a
cornerstone of her method.
From douard Sguin (18121880), Montessori drew further confirmation of Itards work,
along with a far more specific and organised system for applying it to the everyday education
of the handicapped. Today Seguin is recognised as the father of our modern techniques of
special education. Seguin outlined an active sensory education that included graduated
exercised in motor education, sorting geometric shapes, and explorations of textures, colours
and sizes.
From these predecessors, Montessori refined the idea of a scientific approach to education,
based on observation and experimentation.

Topic 4| How the Montessori Method began

Dr. Montessori specialised in paediatrics and psychiatry. Though its free clinics of the
University of Rome, she came into frequent contact with the children of the working class and
poor. These experiences convinced her that intelligence is not same and that most children
come into the world with the human potential that is barely revealed unless adult creates
environments specifically designed for children to exercise their learning capabilities.

Life-Changing Events
However, there were two events in Dr Montessoris life that would be crucial in her evolution
as an educator.
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During her work at the University of Rome, Dr Montessori fell in love with a handsome
colleague, Dr Montesano. She became pregnant. Though they had planned to marry, Dr
Montesanos family vehemently opposed the match. In those days, it was unthinkable for any
woman to be a single mother. Ultimately, a son was born in 1898. They decided to send the
baby to an orphanage; and both of them swore that they would never marry another.
Already deeply troubled by this trauma, Dr Montessori was devastated when Dr Montesano
married another a year later. She retreated to a convent to meditate. When she emerged she
was a changed woman.
As the first woman to become a doctor in Italy she had won widespread recognition. She also
won accolades with her achievements in educating mentally disabled children; she had
become somewhat egotistical and proud. But after her retreat, she resigned from her
prestigious position in the University and decided to leave the practice of medicine forever.
She enrolled in the university with new areas of study anthropology, educational philosophy,
and experimental psychology. She also made another decision that would change the course
of education and teaching forever. Instead of focussing on children with mental disabilities,
she decided to focus on improving the education methods for normal children. She had started
a revolution in educationsomething that may have never happened if she had not gone
through this emotional trauma.

The Beginning: Casa dei Bambini

The Montessori Method arose out of the first Casa di Bambini what started off as a day-care
centre for working class children. This is the story in Dr. Montessori's own words:
It came about in a strange way; I have pondered much about it and tried to understand the
reason for it. I dont know if it is an indication of destiny, or if it was established by fate itself. All
that I know is that it has something to do with the House itself. It may seem curious that I express
it in this way but I do so to render the ensuing story clear.
Many years ago, Rome was a capital of a state in very rapid development, which manifested itself
in a mania for building. Every small available space was utilised to build houses, every- little open
square. One of the many was delimited on one side by the old Roman-walls which had witnessed
many battles and on the other by the modern cemetery. This area was the last place to be filled,
no doubt because of the superstition that it was not lucky to live near the dead, for fear of ghosts
and also for hygienic reasons.
But probably because of the beautiful and historical situation, one building society decided to
stake its money into building there. It was a tremendous scheme, five houses on the scale of
palaces, 5 or 6 stories high. But the idea had been too vast so that the society went bankrupt
before the building were completed and the scheme failed. The work was interrupted and left to
stand. There were only the walls with open holes for doors and windows, there was no plumbing
and the erections stood as a sort of skeleton.
For many years this enormous skeleton remained abandoned and neglected. It became a shelter
for homeless beggars, a hiding place for evildoers who wished to avoid recognition and who if
discovered, could easily escape in this labyrinth. Criminals of all sorts, thieves and murderers,
took refuge in them. People lived there in the same conditions as the cavemen of old did in their
caves.
All those who were homeless, and those who wished to hide, found shelter within those walls.
Even the police did not go near them, or dared to, as they did not know their way within these
grim walls of crime and horror.

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Slowly, the number grew, until thousands of people crowded in these abandoned buildings.
People were found dead, murdered or succumbed to diseases; the place became a breeding
place of infection for the whole land; a centre of crime and of the lowest prostitution.
The Quartiere di San Lorenzo became known as the shame of Italy. People were too afraid to
do anything about it; no one knew what happened within those dark walls. There were no small
shops for provisions anywhere near, no itinerant vendor would go there to sell. Even the lowest
labourer, or the poorest fisherman would seem as princes in comparison, for however poor, they
would have at least some honest livelihood whereas those who lived inside that gloom had no
work, no means to pay, their only livelihood was derived from crime.
The problem of clearing this pit of inhumanity demanded a solution. Another building society of
very wealthy bankers, considered the problem and decided that as the walls already stood, only a
small expenditure would be necessary to make fruitful whatever capital was invested. The
district, due to its illrepute, would of course never become a fashionable quarter, therefore
only small renovations were necessary to render it habitable for these people already so
unfortunate. Regarding it thus as a business venture, they started with one building which they
discovered would house a thousand people. They used some whitewash, put in some doors and
windows, and laid in a few water pipes and drains.
It was estimated that in this area lived at least 10,000 people, therefore how could they
discriminate which among them would be the best? They chose the married ones who by reason
of their relation with one another would be the -most human. As it happened there were only
very few children. It seems perhaps logical that under such conditions although there were
thousands of men and women there should be only fifty children.
But these children, wild and uncivilised as they were, presented a serious problem of damage to
the houses. Left alone while the parents went to work, they were free to carry out any wild fancy.
So the director of the concern decided that the only obvious thing to keep them out of mischief
was to collect all the children and confine them.
One room was set aside for this purpose, resembling in every way a childrens prison. It was
hoped that a person would be found with enough social courage to tackle the problem.
I, in my capacity of medical officer of hygiene, was approached to take an interest in the work.
Having considered the situation I demanded that at least the commonest aids in hygiene, food
and sanitation be made available.
At the time it had become fashionable among society ladies to interest themselves in social
uplift. They were approached to do something to collect funds, because we were confronted with
the strange problem that while the bankers had agreed to invest money to improve the housing
situation, they were not at all interested in education. One could not expect any returns from
money, put into anything with an educational purpose.
Although society had embraced the ideal of improving the condition of these unfortunate
people, the children had been forgotten. There were no toys, no school, no teacher. There was
nothing for them. I was able to find one woman of 40 years, whose help I asked and who I put in
charge.
On the 6th of January 1907 this room was inaugurated to collect the 50 children. The room had
already been in use for little time but it was inaugurated on that day. Throughout Italy the 6th of
January is looked upon as the day of feast for the children. It was on this day that the three
Kings arrived before the Child Christ and offered him their gifts. It is celebrated as the Feast of
Epiphany.
It was striking at the time this interest of society imbued with the idea that their giving hygienic
houses to the homeless would be the means of purifying the evil core in their midst, consisting of
a group of ten-thousand criminals and pitiful humanity. I also was imbued with this sentiment.
But while everyone had had the idea that by giving houses and sanitation, the people would be
purified, no one had taken in consideration the children; no one had thought to bring toys or
food for them. When the children, ranging between the ages of 2 to 6 entered, they were
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dressed all alike in some thick, heavy, blue, drill. They were frightened and being hindered by the
stiff material, could move neither arms nor legs freely. Apart of their own community they had
never seen any people. To get them to move together, they were made to hold hands. The first
unwilling child was pulled, thus dragging along the whole line of the rest. All of them were crying
miserably. The sympathy of the society ladies was aroused and they expressed the hope that in a
few months they would improve.
I had been asked to make a speech for the occasion. I dont know what came over me but I had a
vision and inspired by it, I was enflamed and said that this work we were undertaking would
prove to be very important and that someday people would come from all parts to see it.
In reporting this new whim of society, the press also mentioned that Dr. Montessori had made a
beautiful speech, but what an exaggeration in what she had said!
It was from then that the real work began.
Remember that all these children were completely illiterate. Their parents were also illiterate and
they were born and grown in the environment, I have described.
What happened more than thirty years ago now will always remain a mystery to me. I have tried
since then to understand what took place in those children. Certainly there was nothing of what
is to be found now in any House of Children. There were only rough large tables.
I brought them some of the materials which had been used for our work in experimental
psychology, the items which we use today as sensorial material and materials for the exercises of
practical life. I merely wanted to study the childrens reactions. I asked the woman in charge not
to interfere with them in any way as otherwise I would not be able to observe them, Someone
brought them paper and coloured pencils but in itself this was not the explanation of the further
events. There was no one who loved them, I myself only visited them once a week and during the
day the children had no communication with their parents.
The children were quiet, they had no interference either from the teacher or from the parents,
but their environment contrasted vividly from that which they had been used to; compared to
that of their previous life; it seemed fantastically beautiful. The walls were white, there was a
green plot of grass outside, though no one had yet thought to plant flowers in it, but most
beautiful of all was the fact that they had interesting occupations in which no one, no one at all,
interfered. They were left alone and little by little the children began to work with concentration
and the transformation they underwent, was noticeable. From timid and wild as they were
before, the children became sociable and communicative. They showed a different relationship
with each other, of which I have written in my books. Their personalities grew and, strange
though it may seem, they showed extraordinary understanding, activity, vivacity and confidence.
They were happy and joyous.
This fact was noticed after a while by the mothers who came to tell us about it. As the children
had had no one to teach them or interfere with their actions, they acted spontaneously, their
manners were natural.
But the most outstanding thing about these strange children of the St. Lawrence Quarter was
their obvious gratitude. I was as much surprised by this as everyone else. When I entered the
room all the children sprang to greet me and cried their welcome. Nobody had taught them any
manner of good behaviour. And the strangest thing of all was that although nobody had cared for
them physically, they flourished in health as if they had been secretly fed on some nourishing
food, And so they had, but in their spirit. These children began to notice things in their homes, a
spot of dirt on their mothers dress. untidiness in the room. They told their mothers not to hang
the washing in the windows but to put flowers there instead. Their influence spread into the
homes, so that after a while also these became transformed.
Six months after the inauguration of the House of Children. some of the mothers came to me and
pleaded that as I had already done so much for their children, and they themselves could do
nothing about it because they were illiterate, would I not teach their children to read and write?

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At first I did not want to, being as prejudiced as everyone else that the Children were far too
young for it. But I gave them the alphabet in the way I have told you. As then it was some -thing
new for me also, I analysed the words for them and showed that each sound of the words bad a
symbol by which it could be materialised. It was then that the explosion into writing occurred.
The news spread and the whole world became interested in this phenomenal activity of writing
of these children who were so young and whom nobody had taught. The people realised that
they were confronted by a phenomenon that could not be explained for besides writing, these
children worked all the time without being forced by any one to do so. This was a great
revelation but it was not the only contribution of the children. It was also they, who created the
lesson of silence. They seemed to be a new type of children. Their fame spread and in
consequence all kinds of people visited the House of Children, including State ministers and their
wives, with whom the children behaved graciously and beautifully, without anyone urging then,
that even the newspapers in Italy and abroad became excited. So the news spread, until finally
also the Queen became interested. She came to that quarter so ill famed that it was considered
hells doors, to see for herself the children about whom she had heard wonders.
What was the wonder due to? No one could state it clearly. But it conquered me forever,
because it penetrated my heart as a new light. One day I looked at them with eyes which saw
them differently and I asked myself: Who are you, are you the same children you were before?
And I said within myself: Perhaps you ore those children of whom it was said that they would
come to save humanity. If so, I shall follow you. Since then, I am she who tries to grasp their
message and to follow them.\
And in order to follow them, I changed my whole life. I was nearly 40. I had in front of me a
doctors career and a professorship at the University. But I left all, because I felt compelled to
follow them, and to find others who could follow them, for I saw that in them lay the secret of
the soul.
You must realise that what happened was something so great and so stirring that its importance
could never be sufficiently recognized. That it will never be sufficiently studied, is certain, for it is
the secret of life itself. We cannot fully know its causes. It is not possible that it came because of
my method, for at the time my method did not yet exist. This is the clearest proof that it was a
revelation that emanated from the children themselves.
My educational method has grown from these as well as from many other revelations, given by
the children, You know from what I have told you, that all the details included in the method,
have come from the efforts to follow the child. The new path has been shown us. No one knows
exactly how it arose, it just came into being and showed us the new way.
It has nothing to do with any educational method of the past, nor with any educational method
of the future. It stands alone as the contribution of the child himself, Perhaps it is the first of its
kind, which has been built by him step by step.
It cannot have come from an adult person; the thought, the very principle that the adult should
stand aside to make room for the child, could never have come from the adult.
Anyone who wants to follow my method must understand that he should not honour me but
follow the child as his leader.
Maria Montessori
Discovering the Secrets of Childhood

So it was that on 6 January 1907 the first school under Dr Montessoris supervision started. It
was named Casa dei Bambini or House of Children.
A crowd of children free from the constricting mould of age-old concepts, beliefs and
superstitions. Dr Montessori and her two inexperienced assistants want to educate them.
Their young minds are free to flow along natural channels. Dr Montessori observes them with
an open mind and discovers new aspects of child psychology.

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House of Children. A large hall with a big armchair and a large cupboard. Thats all the
furniture there is. There are some scientific materials created by Dr Montessori. And there are
two girls. Dr Montessori teaches them the use of the materials.
Each day the materials were put away after use and locked in the cupboard. Each day saw
incidents that opened up new vistas of discovery for Dr Montessori.
One such incident: one day the girls complained to Dr Montessori that the children had been
disobedient. The previous day the cupboard had accidentally been left unlocked. When the
girls came in the morning they found the children had opened the cupboard themselves,
picked up materials of their choice and had started working with them. Dr Montessori told the
girls not to lock the cupboard anymore. Later, she replaced it with a low, open shelf so that the
children could easily reach and pick out the materials of their choice.
Another incident. Dr Montessori had come to visit the House of Children. She observed a little
girl absorbed in working with a material called Cylinder Blocks. She tried to attract her
attention. She asked the other children to clap their hands. So engrossed was the child that
she paid no heed. Dr Montessori picked up the child as she held the cylinder blocks and went
and sat in another place with the child in her lap. Even then the child continued putting the
cylinders into the block and pulling them out again.
It was only after she had done it 42 times that the childs concentration broke. From this
incident Dr Montessori inferred that if a child finds some work interesting, they want to repeat
it over and over again till they reach perfection.
Another observation. The girls reported that many of the children would not let go of the
materials they were working with. Dr Montessori observed that children come to love the
materials they have worked with for a long time.
So it was that each day her observations led to new discoveries. In the light of these
observations, she conducted tests and experiments, learning about the character of children
step by step.
This is how the Montessori Method evolved into a complete philosophy of education.
The children remained at the centre from dawn to dusk, while their parents worked. There
were fed two meals a day, bathed regularly and received medical care. The children
themselves were typical of extreme inner-city poverty conditions.
They entered the children House on the first day crying and pushing, exhibiting generally
aggressive and impatient behaviour. Montessori, not knowing whether her experiment would
work under such conditions, began by teaching the older children how to help with the
everyday task that needed to be done.
She also introduced the manipulative perceptual puzzles that she had used with children with
developmental delays.
They were fascinated with the puzzles and perceptual training devices. But, to Montessoris
amazement three and four year old children took the greatest delight in learning practical
everyday living skills that reinforced their independence and self respect.
As summarised by Dr. Maria Montessoris student and colleague, E. M. Standing, young
children prefer:
Work without compulsion
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 Spontaneous repetition
Work rather than play
Concentration and self-discipline

Montessori called her discoveries the Secrets of Childhood

Montessori also discovered that two other qualities were necessary for this response from
young children: a carefully prepared teacher and an environment specifically prepared for the
learning capabilities found in its children.
Montessori made a practice of paying close attention to their spontaneous behaviour, arguing
that only in this way could a teacher know how to teach.
Montessori believed that the educators job was to serve the child, determining what each one
needed to make the greatest progress. To her, a child who failed in school should not be
blamed, anymore than a doctor should blame a patient who does not get well fast enough.
After all, it is the job of the physician to help us find way to cure ourselves, and the educators
job is to facilitate the natural process of learning.

Topic 5| The Development and Spread of Montessori Education

Montessori duplicated her first school in other settings through out Europe, and then in the United
States. She made three American tours between 1912 and 1918, with the support of the Washington
Montessori Society, whose members included Alexander Graham Bell and US President Woodrow
Wilsons daughter. Montessori gave lectures at the White House, Carnegie Hall, and numerous
universities.

She conducted a teacher education programme and developed a classroom at the Panama
Pacific International Exposition.
The Montessori Method offered a systematic approach that translated very well to new
educational settings, a love for work with learning materials and freedom and spontaneity.

Principle of Self-education
Montessori described this sense of belonging as Valorisation of the personality, a strong
sense of self-respect and personal identity. She opened up to the world around her and found
that mistakes were not something to be feared but rather the endless opportunity to learn
from experience.
Children around the world share common or universal characteristics and tendencies, even
though each child is a unique human being, who deserves the same respect we would give an
adult.
Dr. Montessori arranged to give her first training course for teachers in 1909. Expecting only
Italian Educators, she was amazed to find that her first course, and all of the courses offered
since, attracted teachers from all over the world who had heard of her discoveries and were
moved to make great sacrifices to learn from her personally.
When Montessori returned to America in 1915, she arranged to have an entire class work in a
special school house made of glass at the Panama Pacific International Exposition in San
Francisco. It attention and publicity, as the children went about their tasks under the scrutiny
of thousands of visitors from around the world.
She established an international training centre and research institute in Barcelona in 1916.
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In 1919 Montessori began a series of teacher-training courses in London. That same year, she
was invited to give a series of lectures on the issue of education for the young adult
(secondary). These talks, later published as the Erdkinder Essays, reflected a strong theoretical
basis for her thoughts about the reform of secondary education, however she was not to
develop them herself during her lifetime. Others did pursue this path, and the first secondary
schools following the Montessori approached opened in the Netherlands in the 1930s.
In 1929 Dr. Montessori was invited by Italian Dictator Benito Mussolini to introduce her ideas
throughout the Italian National School System. Having left Italy after her mothers death to
find a more liberal thinking home abroad, Montessori arrived back in Rome with much fanfare
in January of 1930 and re-established her teacher training centre.
She believed that she could quietly do her work without getting involved in politics.
Ultimately, the two clashed publicly when Mussolini demanded that all students in Italy join
the young Fascists and wear a special student uniform. In 1934, she was forced into exile once
again, returning to Barcelona, Spain.
The years leading to the Second World War were tumultuous for Maria Montessori, who was
then sixty-six year old. In 1936, as the Civil War broke out across Spain, she escaped the
fighting on a British cruiser sent to rescue British Nationals. She travelled to the Netherlands,
where she opened a new Montessori Teacher Education Centre and Lab School.

Dr Montessori in India
As war approached, many urged her to leave Europe, and in 1938 she accepted an invitation to
conduct a series of teacher training courses in India. When India entered World War II as part
of the British Empire, Montessori and her son, Mario, were interned as enemy aliens. She
was, however allowed to continue her work and over the next few years trained more than ten
thousand teachers in India and Sri Lanka.
It was during this period that she wrote several of her most important works, including The
Absorbent Mind, Education and Peace and To Educate the Human Potential.

The Last Years: The Vision of Peace Education

Having spent years, educating teachers to grasp the big picture of the interdependency of all
life on earth, Dr Montessori, on her return to Europe after the end of the war, during her final
years became an even more passionate advocate of peace education.
Maria Montessori died in 1952 at her home in the Netherlands. In her last years, she was
honoured with many awards and was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1949, 1950 and
1951.
Supposing I said there was a planet without schools or teachers, study was undertaken, and yet
the inhabitants doing nothing but living and walking about came to know all things, to carry
in their minds the whole of learning: would you not think I was romancing? Well, just this, which
seems so fanciful as to be nothing but the invention of a fertile imagination, is a reality. It is the
childs way of learning. This is the path to follow. He learns everything without knowing he is
learning it, and in doing so passes little from the unconscious to the conscious, treading always in
the paths of Joy and Love.
Dr. Maria Montessori

Dr. Maria Montessori carried a large vision for the purpose of education the establishment
of universal and lasting peace.

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Although she witnessed two world wars and the unleashing of nuclear power, Montessori
evolved a living philosophy of education, child study methods, age-appropriate curricula and
instruction and programme for adult teacher education. In 1940 she wrote:
Man masters almost everything but himself. He knows almost everything but himself. He avails
himself of the most hidden treasures but does not use the immense riches and powers that he
within himself.

This points to the great and urgent task of education. No mobilisation is as complete as that
which can be realised by the school. In the past, military service was limited to men of a
certain age group. Now more and more people are drawn into the service of war even
women and children.
The Montessori way continues almost one hundred years after Montessoris initial discoveries
in her first school in Rome. Montessori schools today seek to help children become
independent and self disciplined by assisting them with a full development of their unique
individual potentials. Montessori teachers do this through child study and by designing
classroom and outdoor environments in which children find engaging activities that help them
develop habits of lifelong learning for example, concentration, investigation, collaboration,
problem solving, and communication.

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Module 3 | Developmental Psychology

Topic 1| About this Course
How does a child grow?
A child is not a miniature adult. Physiologically and mentally, a child is quite a different creature from
the person it will grow into. The childs growth is programmed into the child.
Give her the right environment and right care and she will grow to her potential as surely as young plant
with the right soil, the right water, the right sun and the right nutrients will grow into a mighty tree.
This module explores the process of a childs development and how the Montessori Method follows it.

Module Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
Describe the origins of Developmental Psychology
Explain how Dr Montessori contributed to the development of modern developmental
psychology
Describe the natural process of cognitive, physical and emotional development in a child
Describe the development and role of instincts and reflexes
Identify the different stages of human development from birth to adulthood
Describe the characteristics of each stage
Identify the developmental milestones in infancy
Explain the sensitive periods in a childs development
Explain how to look for patterns that may indicate a child has special needs
Explain the basic needs of a special needs child that must be met by the Montessori adult

Topic 2 | Origins of Developmental Psychology

THE IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION
Psyche is the Greek word for mind. Logos is the Greek for word. Psychology means word of the mind
the science that studies the nature and function of the mind.
Every human being consciously or unconsciously studies minds. We try to understand the mind of other
individuals with whom we interact, and try to mould our own behaviour so that we can stimulate in
them behaviour that we desire of them; or we try to predict their behaviour or reactions and tailor our
own behaviour accordingly. We also try to understand our own minds our emotions and moods and
control them to our own advantage.
Psychology is a science that gives us a more accurate understanding of the minds and behaviour of
individuals and groups with which we interact. We gain insight into the reason why people have
different tastes, likes and dislikes and temperaments, and how to deal with them. It also helps us
achieve better mental health and therefore better efficiency in our work.
Psychology was developed as a science by a few scientists in France and Germany who started studying
non-physical phenomena in human life between 1870 and 1880. Early researchers in psychology
traditionally believed children to be immature adults; no separate study of the child mind was
undertaken. The first stimulus to the study of the minds of children came from the field of medicine,
when it was discovered that diseases in children developed and progressed differently from adults. This
led to medical researchers focusing on the study of children of specific age groups in primary schools.

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Maria Montessori was one of the first to enter a primary school as a medical doctor. This experience
formed an important stage in her study of the child.
Psychiatry the treatment of mental diseases provided the next insight to the study of the child. As this
branch of medicine developed, psychiatrists discovered the unconscious mind of man, and a clue from
childhood memories of patients that childhood mental experiences might have an impact on the
ultimate adult mind. This initially led to the study of animal psychology, because mental activity in most
animals is at an unconscious level. The study of learning processes in animals led to the initial realisation
that there must be something common in the learning processes of children. But the attempt to bring
these findings to bear on the understanding of the child mind was initially unsuccessful.
Many psychologists realised that the mind of the human child was far more complex; they could not
create a natural environment for studying children because they did not know the natural requirements
for a human mind to reveal its true nature. Therefore no definite conclusions could be drawn.

What is Developmental Psychology?

The branch of psychology concerned with the study of progressive behavioural changes in an individual
from birth until death.
However, as studies continued, it became apparent that child psychology involved a dynamic process of
development. Mere study of different age groups could not explain the changing behaviour of growing
children. The focus now shifted to the pattern of development of a child: a new area of the science
called Child Development. Child development or Developmental Psychology focuses on the process of
development of the human mind. Psychology itself concentrates on the product of this development.
The objectives of Developmental Psychology are:
To find out the changes in development from one developmental period to another; e.g.
changes in appearance, behaviour, interests and goals.
To find out under what conditions these changes occur.
To determine how these changes influence a childs behaviour
To find out whether or not these changes can be predicted.

Dr Montessoris Work on Developmental Psychology

As a medical practitioner, Dr Maria Montessoris fields of specialisation were paediatrics and psychology
a combination that created a unique opportunity to study the childs mind. She was, indeed, one of the
pioneers who established Child Psychology as a separate subject of study.
Her original contribution to the field came to be known as Montessori Psychology. It did not come so
much from deliberate research or philosophy as from accidental discoveries during her interaction with
children in the course of her work. These discoveries led to a gradual understanding of the real nature of
a child. Her definition of this field of study was:
The study of Man in the course of his fundamental development as a constructor of his own
individual physical life from birth and as a builder of himself.
Montessori preferred not to call this field of study Child Psychology. She pointed out that
1.
2.
3.

since the study concerns life of human beings from birth to adulthood it is wrong to refer to
this period of human life as childhood;
it is best to avoid the term Child because people have preconceived notions and prejudices
about it;
the most outstanding feature of this period of human life is the development that one
undergoes;

therefore, one should, with all relevance, call it Development Psychology.

THE ORIGINALITY OF MONTESSORIS PSYCHOLOGY

Montessoris Psychology is unique in many ways

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1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

1.
2.

3.
4.

The origin itself is unique. It is not based on theories but on discoveries of the real nature of
child.
The way Dr. Montessori defined the subject is original.
The methodology of her study itself was original in the way she
(a)
observed child in an ideal environment;
(b)
verified her conclusions;
(c)
based her observations both on the individual and the period of his life;
(d)
observed the child totally and whole-heartedly;
(e)
observed children belonging to various backgrounds;
(f)
also tried to understand how to provide for the child in better ways through
experimentation
Her realisation that progress in Psychology and education of a child advances side by side.
The content of her study differs from the contents of other schools of psychology. This is
because she studied only psychically healthy children and not any child, which the other
Psychologists studied. However, her theory was not easy to accept as it overturned many
established ideas and concepts and cannot be verified without keen observation. For instance,
It is hard for us to accept the fact that a child has a psychical life at birth; a newborn baby does
not show any sign of his working psychical life.
Psychical life expresses itself through some means such as movements and speech. As these
abilities develop later in a childs life, his working psychical life has no means of expressions in
his earlier life.
We do not come across children who are normal, i.e. enjoying real psychical health, for our
study.
Our deep-rooted prejudices prevent us in recognising the grandeur of a childs nature.

Table 3: Stages of Development

Topic 4 | Stages of Human Development

Man, amongst all creatures, has the longest period of development from conception to adulthood.
Indeed, certain features of juvenile behaviour are carried over right into adulthood, particularly the
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playfulness, curiosity and the urge to explore and learn. In most other creatures, these features
disappear with the attainment of adulthood.
This process is then obviously the most complex in the case of Man.
This diagram above shows the development of a human from birth to a young adult. The development
of a human being from birth to maturity can be divided into four major stages that alternate between
creative and developmental phases. Each stage has its own

Goals
Features
Questions
Aim of education
Motto
Needs

Infancy
This exhibition only explores the first phase: from birth to the age of 6 years.

This is an intensely creative phase

The mind absorbs everything it experiences
The child develops its senses and explores the world through them
Infancy
The goal of this stage is the formation of the individual.
The features of this stage form the basis of Montessori preschool education.
The aim is to put the child in touch with the environment Help me do it myself!
The child constantly wants to know What is this? What should I do? What and How can I do
it? How?

The Development Milestones

While in the mothers womb, a baby is dependent on its mother for various bodily processes. At birth,
these become completely independent. The senses are among the first organs to function
independently.
A baby is born with a definite personality that shows up in its temperament. He does not have any
conscious powers; he has instincts. He has practically no voluntary control over his movements; he has
reflexes for rooting, sucking, grasping, swallowing and walking (a baby held upright makes walking
movements as soon as her feet touch a firm surface). These reflexes disappear as the baby grows.
Conscious powers like intelligence, will and memory develop over time. He has a limited ability to
express his emotions through crying or smiling. He has no articulate language. His limbs are too weak
and uncoordinated to achieve any work.
A growing child can be measured against definite developmental milestones to find out if its physical
and mental development is proceeding normally.
At three months, the child should turn over by itself. At six months, it should sit up. At about nine
months, it should be able to crawl. At about ten months, it stands and learns to walk at about twelve
months. All these involve not only the physical growth and development of its limbs and body, but also
the coordination of its movements with its senses.
At the same time, the childs mental development is also taking place. Starting with the ability to
recognise and bond with its mother, the baby starts to respond to other individuals in its environment.
The most fascinating development is learning to speak. The child, who starts life with only the ability to
express his needs through body language, absorbs the sounds of speech around him and slowly starts
recognising words. The first syllables he utters in his attempt to speak are the first stones in the complex
structure of language he will build for himself over the years. It represents a great step in acquiring
independence, because he is beginning to express himself with greater meaning and no longer depends
on others to guess what he is trying to express. The acquisition of speech proceeds in parallel with

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learning. He gets into direct touch with humans in his environment, and the power to speak and
understand others speech gives him immense scope for learning.
Almost all mammals must learn to walk. For some, that is a matter of minutes, for others, of days. But
for none is the process as long as for Man. Because Man alone walks on two feet, and this involves a
prolonged and delicate process of development. Standing and walking on two feet means achieving a
keen sense of balance and coordination between our muscles and senses that is unimaginably delicate.
It requires an elaborate nervous organisation involving several parts of the nervous system.
But the rewards of bipedal locomotion to humankind is immense. Walking on two legs frees the hands
for manipulative operations. Indeed, the evolution of Man is the history of the parallel development of
his manual skills and of a brain powerful enough to achieve them. The development of his intellect is, in
a sense, a by-product of this process, made possible by the increase in the capacity of his brain.
The development of the skeleton is vital to the development of a childs motor skills. The bones have to
harden before it can take the stress of walking. The bones of the skull are not joined at birth, because
they have to have to expand and make space for his growing brain. They have to harden grow together
enough to eliminate the risk of injury in case of a fall before the child starts walking.

Topic 5 | Development in Infancy: Sensitive Periods

Within Maria Montessoris framework due to her studies with children, she observed the occurrence of
sensitive periods. Today, they are usually called developmental milestones or windows of opportunity.
During a sensitive period,

A certain ability manifests itself strongly

The child has an especially strong sensitivity towards a particular piece of knowledge or skill.

The sensitivity lasts for a certain period and does not recur.

It is a period of time in which the child concentrates mainly on one aspect of his environment and
excludes everything else. The child repeatedly does an activity with passion and convictionnothing
seems to deter them from accomplishing that task until it is satisfied.
It is a time of intense concentration and mental activity on developing a particular skill at that particular
time, age / phase in growth. It is driven unconsciously by an inner force that the best way an adult can
support this passion is to prepare the environment and encourage this special time of learning.
Sensitive periods can be used as basic guideline to decide when a child is ready to learn and when to
introduce certain items to children. This can also be determined by observing the child for when they
are focused on a certain type of work and follow the childs interest.
The child has a creative aptitude, a potential energy that will enable it to build up a mental
world from the world about it. He makes numerous acquisitions during the sensitive periods,
which put him in relation to the other world in an exceptionally intense manner.
The Secret of Childhood by Maria Montessori
Dr Montessori identified eight sensitive periods. They are:

Sensitive Period for Weaning (5 to 6 months)

Sensitive Period for Order (age 18 months to 2 years)
Sensitive Period for Language (birth to 6 years)
Sensitive Period for Movement (birth to 4 years)
Sensitive Period for Refinement of the Senses (birth to 5 years)
Sensitive Period for Numbers (4 to 5.5 years)
Sensitive Period for Manners and Courtesies (2 to 6 years)

25 | P A G E

Weaning
The Sensitive Period for Weaning | 5 to 6 months
Children are best breastfed until at least a year and supplemented with solids. Solids introduced at this
age capture the childs interest and prevent later problems with feeding.
Toddlers often get picky with their food. The time to act is at this sensitive period. Offer a good variety
and positive experience with food for the child.

Order
Sensitive Period for Order| 18 months to 2 years
The sensitive period for order starts from birth and peaks at 18 months to 2.5 years and prolongs to age
five. It is characterized by a desire for consistency and repetition.
This period features passionate love for established routines a child may seem disturbed by disorder.
The terrible twos are often exaggerated reactions to small disruptions in order that are not perceived
by adults. The environment therefore must be carefully ordered with a place for everything and with
carefully established ground rules
It is important to have external order as order in their environment where there is an appropriate place
for everything as this helps the child also establish their internal order. Tantrums may often be traced to
disturbance of routine that affects their sense of order. One may even see a child put things in back into
place if they are out of order if given the chance.
It is important to be aware of this as one of the childs needs to be fulfilled. Having ordered rules helps a
child in this sensitive period.

Language
Sensitive Period for Language | Birth to 6 years
The sensitive period for language is from the 7th month in the womb up to 5.5 to 6 years of age.
Language is integral to human communication. The child progresses from cooing and babbling to single
words to phrases to two or three word sentences, with a continuously expanding vocabulary and
comprehension.
A second language is also learnt very easily at this time.
There are different aspects to language
Speaking and listening
Writing and reading
Sensitive Period for Language | Learning to Speak
The sensitive period for learning to speak is from is from 7 months to 2.5-3 years of age. Prenatal
influence on language development is important. By age three the child is ideally speaking 2-3 word
sentences.
How do we create an environment that prepares the child for speech?
Speak to them in clear language
Read to them
Allow them to speak their needsdont anticipate their needs to the extent that there is no need
for the child to try to communicate verbally.
Sensitive Period for Language | Learning to Write and Read
The sensitive period for learning how to write is from 3.5 to 4.5 years of age. This is the time for
preparatory work for the child to use the alphabet.

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For reading, a child learns intensely from 4.5 to 5.5. They learn to read on the basis of their writing
experience. It is important then that a child is read to at least once a day if possible for about 20 minutes

Movement
Sensitive Period for Movement | Birth to 4 years
The sensitive period for movement can be divided into different classifications.
Acquisition of gross and fine motor skills (walking and the use of the hands) is from 0-2.5 years
of age.
The environment must have opportunities for the child to crawl, pull herself up
Encourage children to walk with or without assistance and not just leave to sit by themselves
Sensitive Period for Movement | Fine Motor Skills
Provide toys/materials that allow their hands to hook, bat, touch, turn, insert and grasp small items
within their abilities.
Provide toys or materials that improve the movement of the hand, and improve eye/hand coordination.
These opportunities given to them need to be repeated in order for these skills to be refined.
Sensitive Period for Movement | Manipulative Skills
Refinement/coordination of movement is from 2.5 to 4.5 years of age.
FINE MOTOR SKILLS
Using both hands in coordination of fine movements
Being able to hold small items with pincer grip and release voluntarily.
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
Coordination of walking, running, balancing while carrying a jug of water and jumping.
The child acquires this coordination through repetition of purposeful motor activity.
Regular visits to the park or outdoor environment is likely to help this sensitive period.

Refinement of Senses
Sensitive Period for Refinement of the Senses | Birth to 5 years
Sensitive period for refinement of the senses is characterised by the childs fascination with sensorial
experiences taste, smell, sounds, weight, touch. The child learns to observe and make increasingly
refined sensorial discriminations.
All information enters the brain through the senses. Let the child smell different herbs, different foods,
fruits and flowers surrounding them in nature walks or markets.
Sensitive period for small objects | 1 to 3 years
This can be characterized by the childs fixation with small objects and tiny details. This is an indicator
that order and detail are coming together in the childs mind. Children are attracted to the level of
focusing on details.
To properly prepare the environment one may get down to knee level and walk it to see the details
yourself, fix what needs to be fixed so as the child may not be distracted when doing work.
When a child sees something in disorder this may affect their concentration.
Sensitive Period for Sensorial Exploration and Classification | 2.5 to 6 years
Sensorial Exploration: The phase in a childs life from the development of an embryonic nervous system
to 2.5-3 years of age is marked by the acquisition of sensorial impressions or sensory experiences.

27 | P A G E

They encounter a vast range of sensorial experiences. The children must be given opportunities to
explore their environment and experience or stimulate their senses and not always be prevented with
minor hygiene or safety concerns.
Classification happens at 2.5 to 5.5-6 when one needs to provide a system for children to classify these
sensory experiences. If they have a new sensory experience they can fit it in that classification system.

Numbers
Sensitive Period for Numbers| 4 to 5.5 years
This is the time when we introduce the math curriculum in a Montessori classroom. Counting used to be
a part of language and at this period they are interested in numbers as an entity and a separate type of
language.

Manners & Courtesies

Sensitive Period for Manners and Courtesies | 2 to 6 years
For children aged 3-6 there are grace and courtesy lessons in a Montessori classroom. But for children
aged 0-3, grace and courtesy is modelled by the adults. This means, your child will be as graceful and
courteous as you appear!

Topic 6 | Emotional Development in the Pre-School Years

Emotions are basic in very young children. They cry from hunger, tiredness, discomfort or even
boredom. As they grow, they smile and gurgle when something soothes them or gives them pleasure.
They tend to become quiet when picked up. They respond to the voices of adults.
Their emotions and responses become more complex as they grow. It is important that their emotions
are handled with understanding.

How to Handle the Emotions of a Child

The early years are crucial to a childs ultimate emotional development. If emotions are improperly
handled at this stage, it leaves a lifelong scar: the child is likely to grow up poorly adjusted in later life.
The first requirement for healthy emotional development is an environment that is conducive.
Harlock has pointed out some characteristics of childrens emotions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

They are short-lived.

They are more intense than those of adults.
They are transient e.g. child shifts quickly from laughter to tears.
They get emotional more frequently than adults
Children show different emotional responses to the same situation.
Childrens emotions are visible.

Children experience different types of emotions. Some are negative feelings towards the object of
emotion: fear, anger and jealousy. While these emotions do have a rle to play in self-preservation or
competition, any excess is harmful to its emotional development. They can lead to unhappiness and
maladjustment in later life. Therefore they should be avoided as far as possible and the child energies
channelled to more positive feelings. Their attention should be diverted. The causes of such emotions
should be analysed and removed to the extent possible.
Anger and jealousy often are symptoms of insecurity. Therefore the best way to handle them is to make
the child feel wanted and loved by parents and others around them for what they are. They should not
be punished for expressing these emotions unless the cause harm to anyone. Parents should treat such
behaviour with understanding. It is particularly important not to vent our own anger and frustration
upon the child. Nor should they be handled by bribing the child with treats; that only encourages this
kind of behaviour because the child associates it with rewards.
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On the other hand, the child also displays affection and love, hugging, petting and kissing the objects of
his affection. The objects of affection are not only persons but also pets and toys. Love and affection
from parents and others around the child help these emotions develop. If they are neglected, or not
shown enough love and affection, children tend to withdraw into themselves. On the other hand the
show of love and affection should not extend to unnecessary pampering, which can cause the child to
become selfish and demanding.
Thus parents and other adults crucially influence a childs emotional development with their own
behaviour towards them. In fact, adults in close proximity to the child need to be careful even with their
behaviour towards each other, because anger, jealousy and other negative emotions amongst adults in
the environment can also have a negative impact on a childs emotional development.

Good habits start young

Many problems in later life have their inception right at the beginning of infancy. Like many teachers,
parents too assume that children are like putty that can be moulded to their liking; or that a child is too
young to learn good habits.
In fact, the environment for a baby to grow into a healthy individual must be provided right from the
beginning. He must be given the space and opportunity to grow; parents should just guide him.
Nothing should be forced on the child. Forcing a child into an activity only conditions him to dislike it. A
very young child has the natural instincts to know his own needs and tries to demand them through his
actions. Parents must learn to interpret what he tries to express and respond accordingly; they should
not try to impose what they think he needs on him.

Crying
Crying is a means of communication for the baby. As it grows, the reasons for crying become more and
more complex. Just after birth, a baby cries because it is hungry or tired or because of discomfort. But as
it develops, its mind becomes more organised. The world starts opening up for him. He wants to
understand the minds of grown-ups. And he starts having anxieties.
On the one hand, while he becomes self-confident, he also becomes dependent. He wants freedom. Yet
shyness, frustration, anger, jealousy, likes and dislikes are also developing within him. He expresses all
these emotions by crying.
This is the age when he learns to fear. Fear is natural, because it is a self-defence mechanism.
The child is afraid of the unknown. So he may be afraid of the dark, shy of strangers, reluctant to accept
unfamiliar objects. He is also afraid of unpleasant sensory experiences like lightning and thunder.
These fears will be overcome if the unfamiliar becomes familiar. Therefore on no account should we
deliberately scare a child or play upon his fears. We should try to make him comfortable with new
experiences. We can, for instance, spend time in the dark with him, and explain the reason for day and
night as soon as he can understand. A village child is much less likely to fear the dark than a child living
in the midst of city lights.

SEPARATION ANXIETY
Many children fear separation from parents, particularly from the mother. It often becomes a problem
when sending them to pre-school environment for the first time.
The best way to overcome this insecurity is for the mother to play with him for about 15 minutes before
he starts getting ready. Getting ready itself should be an enjoyable experience; the child should never be
forced. He should have a say in what he wears, what tiffin he takes to school.
Within a few days, the child will look forward to getting ready and going to school.

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TEMPER TANTRUMS
A temper tantrum is an assertion of the child's will against the adult. Tantrums come on suddenly, and
the cause might be trivial. Once the child starts, it refuses to stop. It beats its head against the wall,
throws whatever comes to hand, sometimes it holds its breath till it turns blue.
What is the cause?
Part of it lies in the child's personality. Strong, lively children are more prone to temper tantrums than
amiable, peaceloving children.
The child's will versus parental control
The child's tantrum is a display of willpower and strength, and an attempt to capture attention. When
the child's will clashes with that of an adult, it results in a struggle. The tantrum starts as an attempt to
exert its will, and intensifies as it actually makes the child tired.
If the parents express their concern about such tantrums to someone in front of the child, that only
encourages it; the child notices that the tantrum does draw attention.

Topic 8 | Social Development in Pre-School Years

We live in human society, firstly within a family, which is part of larger social units and ethnic, regional,
national and so on.
Any social structure expects certain behaviour from its members. Social development concerns the
acquisition of abilities to act and behave in a manner that is in accordance with these social
expectations. In modern society, it also involves transcending prejudices and attitudes in many existing
societies and conforming to norms that respect the rights and beliefs of all humanity.
There are three processes involved in social development:
1.
2.
3.

Proper performance of behaviour;

Playing approved social roles; and
The development of proper social attitudes.

Social development is a process in which the child learns to behave with others around him and in the
social group in such a way that he will be accepted by this group as a member. A child is not born with
any readymade social behaviour. He learns as he interacts with more and more humans around him,
particularly with individuals from the greater social environment outside his immediate family.
True socialisation takes place as the child tries to adapt or modify his feelings and behaviour in
accordance with the social group. This can be observed in the Nursery class, or school situation where
the child tries to win approval of others through his behaviour. The child should have proper
opportunities by which he can learn how to live socially with others. This is very important in the early
formative years.
The child has such opportunities when he plays with children in the neighbourhood. Pre-school
education in the form of Kindergarten Montessori or Nursery schools also offers this opportunity with
the additional benefit of the guidance and directions from the teacher. In these schools, children not
only have the company of his own age-mates but also adults or different age groups and social
backgrounds.
Early social experiences play an important part in later personality development. The social behaviour of
a person and his attitudes to social situations are largely formed by the home environment. If the overall
family atmosphere is healthy this will contribute to the favourable social attitudes, on the other hand
tensions and conflicts in the family are likely to affect the childs social behaviour adversely.
Early social experiences outside the home also contribute to the social attitudes and social behaviour of
the child when he grows up to be an

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adult. If the child enjoys favourable relationships with his friends and adults outside the home, he will
enjoy his social contacts and will want to repeat them.
Social development is thus influenced by many factors and parents and adults who came in contact with
the child play an important role in the social development of pre-school children.

Topic 7 | Observation and Discovery

Before the age of two and a half years the child is almost completely engrossed in the development of
his own personality. She has very little communion even with other persons of her own age. After two
and a half years of age the child gets interested in other persons; she becomes sociable. This is another
characteristic of the period. The child begins to observe more closely and discuss in greater detail the
objects of the environment. Consequently between two and a half years and three years it is admissible
to take educative action in two directions. First as preparation for further development in the house of
children, the social life of the child may be initiated by helping the child to receive visits from people he
knows and to make calls on other persons of his acquaintance and thus to enlarge and increase his
social contacts as far as he can.
The other preparation for the child of two and half years is to help him in his more detailed observation
and discovery of his environment. This is best done at this stage by providing for long walks for the child.
The consent of the child must be won before the walk. The child must know in his own way that is going
for a walk and where he is going. The child must be given a change to prepare his mind for what is to
follow. It is importance for the development of the child that the child should visualise with as much
clearness as is possible under the circumstances what are going to be his future actions. If for instance
you have an intention to have a picnic during a walk it is good to tell the child that you are going to have
a picnic. You may let him see how you prepare the picnic basket. You may also let the child help you in
all other preparations so that his interest in the coming event may be increased. The important point is
that the plan of the walk or the course of it should not be changed without getting the consent of the
child. It is of creative value that a child sees a plan and sees it carried out. It must be remembered that
at this stage a walk is not intended to make the child walk about. He must be regarded as an observer
and explorer who walk spontaneously for the sake of observation or exploration. It is the childs interest
in the outer environment that must determine the course of his walk. The mind moves towards items of
interest. Thus after miles of such an educative walk the child shows no symptoms of excessive fatigue.
There must be provision for the child to have contact with nature, to understand and appreciate the
order, the harmony and the beauty of nature. And also to master the natural laws which are the basis of
all sciences and arts, so that the child may better understand and participate in the marvellous things
which civilisation creates. It thus becomes a duty of society to satisfy the need of the child at the various
stages of development.
The houses of children are intended to solve the above social problems. Dr. Montessori discovered the
new method of offering education to the children on the basis of her observation. The first House of
Children gave her the stimulation and courage to observe the children and to know their real nature and
needs. She continued to observe in a specially prepared environment, where she wanted to develop a
child. A child reveals his real needs in a specially prepared environment. The child wants to exercise
himself to become master and consolidate what he has achieved. The Montessori Method reveals itself
in its vital manner of observation. The more we observe, the more we can know the needs of the
children; not only in quantity, but also in quality. So we will have to learn to observe each and every
individual childs needs in their own way.

Topic 8 | Children with Special Needs

Who are children with special needs? They are children who, because of a physical or mental disability,
need special help or aids in leading a normal life. In the past, it was thought that children with
disabilities need to be educated in special institutions. Today the world believes in integrated
education, where disabled children study in the same class as children who have no disabilities.
31 | P A G E

While children with more severe disabilities may need special teachers to help them, many of them,
particularly children with learning disabilities, do very well with Montessori methods and materials. This
is not surprising, since many of these materials were originally designed for educating children with
disabilities; Montessori applied them to normal children.
Not all disabilities are obvious or noticeable at a very young age. If you are aware of developmental
milestones, Montessori sensorial and other activities make it relatively easy to identify children with
special needs at an early age and ensure that they get the help they need.

32 | P A G E

Module 4|

Introduction to Montessori Theory

Topic 1|About This Module

What is Montessori education? It is a method of education that emphasises independence, freedom
within limits, and respect for a childs natural psychological development, as well as technological
advancements in society.
This module looks at the Montessori Method from principles to application.

Module Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

Explain the basic principles and philosophy on which the Montessori Method is based
Describe the features of a prepared environment
Explains the principles on which a prepared environment is based.
Explain how a child develops in a prepared environment
Describe the features of Montessori didactic materials
Explain the principles used in creating Montessori didactic materials
Explain the critical role of the teacher in a Montessori environment
Explain the role of parents and family in a childs development
Explain how the Montessori teacher should interact with parents and other adults in a
Montessori environment
Explain how parents and other adults can contribute to a Montessori environment
Describe the basic procedures of a standard Montessori activity
Explain the principles on which the procedures are based

Topic 2| Basic Principles

Most Montessorians regard these as the basic features of Montessori education in a prepared
environment:
Mixed age classrooms, with classrooms for children aged 2 or 3 to 9 years old by far the most
common
Student choice of activity from within a prescribed range of options
Uninterrupted blocks of work time
A Constructivist or "discovery" model, where students learn concepts from working with
materials, rather than by direct instruction
Specialised educational materials developed by Montessori and her collaborators
In addition, many Montessori schools design their programs with reference to Montessoris model of
human development from her published works, and use pedagogy, lessons, and materials introduced in
teacher training derived from courses presented by Montessori during her lifetime.
The table below clearly shows the difference between a traditional classroom and a Montessori
classroom:
Table 5 | Montessori: Creating a Paradigm Shift in Education
Traditional Classroom
Textbooks, pencil and
worksheets and dittos

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Montessori Environment
paper,

Prepared kinaesthetic materials with incorporated control of

error, specially developed reference materials

Traditional Classroom

Montessori Environment

Working and learning without

emphasis on social development

Working and learning matched to the social development of the

child

Narrow, unit-driven curriculum

Unified, internationally developed curriculum

Individual subjects

Integrated subjects and learning based on developmental

psychology

Block time, period lessons

Uninterrupted work cycles

Single-graded classrooms

Multi-age classrooms

Students passive, quiet, in desks

Students active, talking, with periods of spontaneous quiet,

freedom to move

Students fit mould of school

School meets needs of students

Students leave for special help

Special help comes to students

Product-focused report cards

Process-focused
benchmarks

assessment,

skills

checklists,

mastery

My vision of the future is no longer people taking exams and proceeding on the certification
but of individuals passing from one stage of independence to a higher (one), by means of their
own activity through their own effort of will, which constitutes the inner evolution of the
individual.
Maria Montessori
From Childhood to Adolescence
In keeping with the principles of the Montessori way, we imagine children graduate from Montessori
schools demonstrating:

A passion for learning.

The ability to choose and engage for long periods of time in work that is personally fulfilling.
The ability to identify a social problem and contribute to its solution.
The knowledge of how to respect and restore the natural environment.
An understanding of cultural and racial differences as a call for celebration rather than a cause
for fear.
The accomplishment of self-discipline and responsible choice.
This is hardly a completed list. Other characteristics would include initiative, creativity, imagination,
conceptual thinking, curiosity, effort, irony, judgement, commitment, nuance, goodwill, ethical
reflection or a host of other valuable dispositions and attributes.
These qualities are consistent with the Montessori way because learning, finally, is more than a test
performance.

Topic 3| The Prepared Environment

Dr Montessori classified the childs environment into three stages.
The First Environment is prepared by Nature: the mothers womb. This environment is universal
and the same throughout the world in every society.
The Second Environment is prepared by adults: the childs home. This environment may differ
from family to family, society to society.
The Third Environment is prepared by trained adults: the Montessori classroom.
These are important for the second and third environments:

34 | P A G E

 In the home or in the House of Children, the children should be active while the adults should be
passive.
There should be a place for everything and everything in its place.
The environment should be friendly and stimulating
The approach should be assistantial
The environment should be non-violent
The environment should promote

Exploration
Experimentation
Learning through play or activities
All-round development
Inner discipline

Figure 1 | The Elements in a Prepared Environment

The Montessori Environment

The Montessori Prepared Environment facilitates the interaction of a number of elements.

Child
Adult
Development

Trained
Adult
Parental
involvement

Normalisation

Didactic
Materials

Prepared
Environment

Discipline

Activity

Freedom

Presentation

Topic 4 | The Child

At the age of 2 years, a child is almost completely engrossed in the development of her own
personality. She becomes sociable and begins to observe more closely and discuss in detail the objects
in her environment.
In a specially prepared environment, a child reveals his real needs. The adult
Must win the consent of the child before any work
35 | P A G E

 Give the child a chance to prepare his mind for what is to follow.
He must be able to feel a creative value and increased interest for the coming event. What are
we trying to stimulate?

Power of observation
Exploration
Memory power
Will power
Spontaneity
Knowledge
An interest in the outer environment
Contact with Nature

And much more.

Figure 2 | How the child develops in the prepared environment

Freedom and Discipline

In a Montessori environment, discipline is not maintained by force. Discipline here is inner discipline
that the child acquires through freedom.

Figure 3| Effects of Imposed

Discipline (above) and Figure 4 |
Effect of Real Freedom (right)

36 | P A G E

What freedom? The freedom to

Choose
Move
Repeat
Given this freedom, all children evolve to a psychological type common to the whole of mankind. This
evolution is often invisible to us because it is hidden by characteristics not proper to the child.
Children are disorderly because order is arbitrarily imposed upon them.
Children are lazy because they have been previously forced to work
Children are disobedient because their obedience has been enforced.

DISCIPLINE
Psychologists recognise three types of disciplineauthoritarian, permissive and democratic.
Authoritarian Discipline
Authoritarian discipline implies that the child is directed what to do and what not to do with no
explanations given. Complete obedience is expected from the child.
How does this kind of discipline affect the child?

The child is unhappy because it has no freedom to do things it would like to do

Children are checked too often, so they learn to do things quietly, behind the back of the adult
They learn to tell lies
They become dependent. They always look up for instructions and never grow up.

Permissive Discipline
This is exactly the opposite of the authoritarian style of discipline.
The child is allowed to do whatever she pleases and whenever she pleases to do it
There are no rules and no guidance or explanations provided
This is how permissive discipline affects the child:
Children get into the habit of not listening to anybody, not obeying any commands and doing
whatever they please
Children are prone to pick up bad habits
Democratic Discipline
This kind of discipline is apparently lies between the other two kinds. What are its main characteristics?
Rules are explained before they are enforced
Children can question rules, which can be modified with joint consent
Children allowed freedom to do things on their own but they have to ensure that that they dont
hurt themselves or others around them.
Democratic discipline has obvious advantages:
Children learn to obey and respect rules
They develop self-confidence
They learn to take their turn, cooperate and have patience
The discipline in a Montessori Prepared Environment is of the democratic kind.

Normalisation
People think passive children are good children. If a child is noisy and exuberant, with a vivid
imagination, that child must be superior, brilliant. Thats the way society looks at children and groups
them like this:
a)
b)
37 | P A G E

Those whose defects need correction

Those who are good (passive) and should be taken as role models

c)

Those thought to be superior

Normalisation is a process through which children in a Montessori environment achieve inner discipline
through their work. The so-called bad qualities together with the so-called good qualities and superior
qualities all vanish; their place is taken by one kind of child who has none of those qualities.

Figure 5 | The Sociability Circle

Children in Montessori Prepared
Environments demonstrate to us that:
Their real wish is to work. No
one had suspected this before Dr
Montessori, nor had they noticed the
childs power of choosing work
spontaneously. The children follow an
inner guide to busy themselves with
something that gives them serenity
and joy.
Given the opportunity to do the
work they choose, discipline springs
up spontaneously.
The normalised child shows these
qualities:

Spontaneous discipline
Continuous and happy work
Social sentiment of help
Sympathy for others

E. M. Standing (Maria Montessori Her Life and Work, 1957) lists these as the characteristics of
normalisation.

Love of order
Love of work
Spontaneous concentration
Attachment to reality
Love of silence, and
Working alone
Sublimation of the possessive instinct
Power to act from real choice
Obedience
Independence and initiative
Spontaneous self discipline and joy
Montessori believed that these are the truly normal characteristics of childhood, which emerge when
childrens developmental needs are met.

Topic 5| Adults in the Environment

There are two kinds of adults associated with the prepared environmentthe Montessori adult or
adults who prepare it and guide the child; and the parents of the child or its guardians at home.

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Montessori Adults
If you want to be a Montessori teacher, you must prepare yourself.
You must keep your imagination alive.
In a traditional school, you look for the immediate behaviour of your pupils because you know
you have to take care of them. You know what you have to teach.
In a Montessori environment, you are constantly looking for the child who is not yet there.
You must have faith that the child will reveal herself through her work.
You must free yourself from all preconceived ideas concerning the levels at which the children
may be.
You must not worry about different types of children, or think they have deviated from what
should be; you should, in your imagination, see that single normalised type, which lives in the
world of the spirit.
You should believe that the child before you will show his true nature when he finds a piece of
work that attracts him.
So lets look at the qualities a Montessori adult should have:
3 Hs:

HeartWhich stands for the spiritualfaith, hope and charity

Head Which stands for intelligence
Hand Which stands for technical knowledge and skills

Count your words

Your approach should be assistantial. Dont try to overtly command the child.
Your words should be necessary and sufficient.
Your approach should be non-violent

Attractive

You should be pleasing in appearance

You should be tidy and clean

Calm and dignified

Gentle and graceful
Encourager
Experimenter
Programmer

You need to plan out things to be done

Evaluator

You need to determine the quality of the work done in the environment

Observer

You need to observe the child

What the child needs
What the child is doing
You need to observe human tendencies
Is the child able to work?
The childs movements
How the child communicates
How it explores
Does it show a sense of order in its work?

Parental and Community Involvement

It is very important to align a childs parents and family, as well as the community in which it lives, to the
Montessori environment and philosophy if we are to ensure full advantage for the child. This means, we
must make them aware and keep up constant communication.
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Informal Talk
Regular informal talks with parents lead to a mutual relationship that is very important for the childs
development.
Parents Meeting
If held regularly, this becomes a means of learning for parents, both informally and formally, to know
the goals of the Montessori House and its activities. They can understand the method and what it means
top the child.
Home Visits
Visiting the childrens homes allow the teacher to observe their home environments
Parents Education and Skills
Parents and other adults in the childs family or community can help to make learning aids from waste
materials, contribute stories and rhymes for children and provide voluntary help in running and
maintaining the Montessori environment.
Individual Discussion
Some parents express their difficulties individually to the teacher alone. Such parents, if given an
opportunity to discuss with the teacher, can help the teacher to understand the child better.
What Do They Expect?
The Montessori adult must understand the needs, feelings and expectations of each parents
What Do They Want To Know?
Focus your attention on what they parents want to know.
Getting Cooperation
Catering to parents needs regarding their children goes a long way in getting their cooperation.
Respect the Parents
Respect the parents for what they are.
Attitude
Be comfortable, free and friendly with parents.
Learn from Them
Always be willing to learn from parents.
Convey Your Concern for the Child
Convey the fact that you are interested in the welfare of the child and seek the parents cooperation in
doing your duty more efficiently.
Dont Be Defensive
Avoid being defensive and dont put parents on the defensive.
Accept Suggestions
Accept parents suggestions to the extent possible.
Be Positive
Be positive and avoid being critical of children.

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Dont Compare
Be impartial. Dont compare children.
Dont Boss
Avoid a bossy or dominating attitude.

Topic 4| Didactic materials

A child goes through two environments before coming into the Montessori environment.

NATURES MATERIALS
Nature always sees to it that the child is protected. A child is born of love, and love is its natural origin.
Once born, the child has the tender care of its mother and father. This means that she is not born into
discord and that is her first defence from the world. Nature inspires both parents with love for their
little one and this love is not something artificial.

THE HOME ENVIRONMENT

In the home, the wellbeing and development of the child depends on what materials are available to
help. The role of the adults in the environment also has an important impact.
What kinds of toys are given to the child? Do they have learning value or do they merely engage without
giving anything more to the child? We need to ensure that toys do not teach violence or create
undesirable expectations in the child.
Television and computers can have a very negative effect on development at this stage. They mainly
engage the senses of sight and hearing and keep the child away from experiences that engage the other
sensesa vital requirement for its all-round development.
The Needs of a Child

A child needs security in her family

A child needs freedom, physical and mental
A child needs limitsthoughtfully set, constantly maintained
A child needs assistanceguidance, not undue protectionand no interference
A child needs praise and encouragement
A child needs a corner where she can work on her own
A child needs a proper environment where she can grow

Characteristics of Montessori Didactic Materials

In a House of Children, Montessori materials are freely accessible for the children. How?
They are arranged invitingly on low, open shelves. There are bright arrays of solid geometric forms.
There are maps. There are coloured beads. There are various specialised rods and blocks that all share
some characteristics:

Each material in a Montessori classroom isolates one quality.

Materials are self-correcting. There is no need for adult correction.
Montessori didactic materials enable the child to solve problems independently.
Since the child finds that it can work with them without help, the materials build self-confidence.
The materials help develop analytical thinking.
Since the child is able to accomplish an activity with the material, it brings satisfaction.
The materials allow the child to explore.

Apart from the main activity, each Montessori material develops the childs sensorimotor skills in
different ways:

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Cylinder Blocks
Helps develop prehensile coordination
Prepares the hand for holding a writing instrument
Tactile Activities
Helps develop lightness of touch
The child learns how to do regular spacing
Geometrical Figures
Creates visual memory of shapes so that the child can recognise them when reproduced
Creates muscular memory of shapes so that child can recognise them when it handles a similar
shape
Noise Box
Promotes sound consciousness
Develops flexible movements of wrist
Colour Tablets
Promotes appreciation of the symbolic value of colour
Sandpaper Letters

Promote consciousness of the sounds of the spoken languages

Establish the relation between sounds and their symbols
Creates a muscular memory that later translates into writing
Creates a visual memory that is later used for reading

Number Rods
Direct visual and muscular correlation between number and size

Qualities of Montessori Didactic Materials

What is common to all these materials? They all reveal fundamental qualities that must be inherent in
Montessori didactic materials:
They must lend themselves to the activity of the child
They should have the possibility of rousing the interest and attention of the child.
They should not depend so much on their quality as on the opportunities offered to doing an
activity with them. That is, in order to make a thing interesting, it is not enough that a material
should be interesting in itself, but should lend itself to the motor activity of the child.
They should be small objects that can be moved from their places. It is the movements of the
hand which pleases the child as she busily makes or unmakes something, displaces or replaces
things many times in succession, making prolonged occupation possible.
A very beautiful toy, an attractive picture, a wonderful story may doubtless arouse the interest of the
child; but if the child may only look and listen and touch an object which remains in its place, her
interest will pass from one object to another. It may be beautiful, but may only interest the child for a
day.

Topic 6| Activity in a Montessori Environment

Every activity in a Montessori environment is well thought-out and designed to achieve or promote
certain aims:
Development of

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The will

Memory
Perseverance
Retention

Experience
Observation
Discovery
Exploration
Taking care
Social relations

Elements of Montessori Activities

Every Montessori material and activity is meticulously designed to achieve certain aims.

AIMS
Every Montessori material and activity has a direct aim. There are also indirect benefits.
Direct Aim
The direct aim of an activity is a definite skill or knowledge. If we take the example of the Noise Boxes
given earlier, the development of sound consciousness is the direct aim.
Indirect
The indirect aim of an activity is a skill or knowledge, or a preparation for another activity, that the child
picks up while doing an activity with a definite direct aim.
Taking the same example of the Noise Boxes, the activity exercises the wrist and provides skill in wrist
movement when the child shakes it. This is therefore an indirect aim of the activity.

POINT OF INTEREST
Every material or activity has a point of interest mapping to each direct aim of the activity.

CRITERIA OF PERFECTION
How do we evaluate if the child is able to do the activity correctly and benefit from it? Each activity has
its own criteria of perfection that we have to keep in mind.

Presentation: The Technique of Lessons

It is not enough to provide scientifically designed materials. The proper activity with each material must
first be demonstrated to the child through a presentation by the adult. This is a very critical activity on
the part of the Montessori adult, who needs to follow the steps prescribed for each material as closely
and intelligently as possible.
The children sit scattered in the House of Children. They are too young to sit on chairs. They sit on mats
laid on the floor.
They sit as they like, facing any way the like. When they first come to the House, we play some light
music or song. We make them realise that if they sit down as soon as the music or song plays, the adults
will be pleased and show them something new a presentation.
Invitation
How do we call someone if there is an occasion at our home? Every society in the world takes special
care over an invitation. We try to make it as attractive as possible through special behaviour, etiquette
and rituals. When we send an invitation in writing, it is not an ordinary letter. We make an invitation
card, taking care over its design, decoration and language and put it into a special envelope.
We must take the same kind of care to invite a child so that she is motivated to do the activity.

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Presentation
When we give someone a gift, we take care to make it as attractive as possible. We gift-wrap it in
wrapping paper, we tie it up with a ribbon. The receiver should want to see it. Similarly, when we want a
child to do an activity, we should not be casual about giving it to her. We must demonstrate it with care,
so that the child can observe it with fascination. This is called Presentation.
When we make a Presentation, we observe certain rules:
We make one presentation at a time, never a number of presentations together.
For each activity, we clearly demonstrate the movement of the limbs and fingers (analysis of
movement).
We speak very little, only just as much as is essential.
We must draw the child's attention
We must demonstrate the activity repeatedly, so that the child can understand the activity well.
The adults must master and follow the technique of lessons as given below:

ISOLATE THE OBJECT

When you give a lesson or want the child to use a sense material, it is essential that you isolate the
attention of the child from everything except the object of the lesson. You should be careful to clear a
table of all else and place upon it only the material you wish to present.

WORK EXACTLY
The help you have to give consists of presenting the material to the child so that you show him how to
use it. Perform the exercise yourself once or twice.

ROUSE THE CHILDS ATTENTION

When you offer the object to the child, never do it coldly. Display some vivacious interest as you call the
attention of the child to the object.

PREVENTION OF ERRORS IN USING MATERIALS

The most efficient prevention of the misuse of the material lies in its presentation at the right moment
of the childs development. Another guarantee of proper use lies in the exactness of the presentation.
Notwithstanding this, if you see a material being used in a way that renders it valueless for its purpose
that is, it does nothing towards the development of the childs intelligenceyou must put a stop to the
work.
We must distinguish clearly between two kinds of mistake that the child may make.
Errors Controlled by the Material
First, we have the error that is controlled by the material itself and which arises from the fact that the
child, quite willing to carry out exactly an exercise she knows well, yet does not succeed because of her
immature power of execution or because her senses execute definite movements for which his
mechanism is not yet developed. Such errors are controlled by the material.
Abusive Use of Material
The second mistake can be traced to naughtiness or else to careless teaching. Abusive use of material
which corresponds to disorder or to needs different from those which the material can satisfymeans
making no use of it. It results in waste of energy and uproar. All the actions that prevent the child from
concentrating also prevent him from improving and developing.
You cannot let these errors pass by assuming that the child learns by making these mistakes. These
mistakes prevent the possibility of learning.

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Respect for Useful Activity

Sometimes the child uses the material in a way it was not intended to be used or not instructed by you,
a way invented by himself, but it is a way that demonstrates an intelligent modification. What should
you do in such a case? Stop the child?
No. Leave the child to repeat the exercise or make his own attempts and experiments. Let the child have
as much time as he wants without every interrupting his activity for anything at all neither to correct
small errors nor out of fear of tiring out the child.

A GOOD FINISH
When the child has voluntarily given up his workand that means that the impulse that urged him to
make use of the material is exhaustedyou should, if required, intervene to ensure that the child puts
the material back in its place and that everything is returned in perfect order.

Name Lesson: a Lesson of Three Stages

The name lesson was adopted by Dr Montessori from the lesson used by Sguin to obtain the
association between the object and the corresponding word for children with cognitive challenges. It
has three stages.

FIRST PERIOD (STAGE)

Association of Sense Perception with the Name
You must first of all pronounce the necessary names and adjectives
without adding another word
pronouncing the word very distinctly and in a loud voice
so that the various sounds of which the word is composed may be distinctly and clearly apprehended by
the child.
Smooth/rough
Cold/warm/frozen/tepid/burning
Less heat/more heat
Association of the Name with the Object
The object and the name must appeal to the childs understanding at one and the same time.

SECOND PERIOD (STAGE)

Recognition of the Object Corresponding to the Name
You should always test the success of the lesson you have given in the first period.

THIRD PERIOD (STAGE)

Remembering the Name Corresponding to the Object
In the third period, you do a rapid verification of the lesson taken.
First, ask the child, What is this?
If the child is ready to do so, it will answer with the correct word: It is smooth. or It is rough.
The words may be new to her. Insist on having them repeated once or twice, exhorting her to
pronounce them more clearly. If the child shows marked defects in her speech, this is the time to make
them perfectly clear, so that definite corrective exercises in pronunciation may be given afterwards.

Collective Presentation
Certain activities require the presentation to be given to all the children in a class. These are the steps
for such collective presentations:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Prepare for the presentation and check the material is ready

Invite the children
The material is with you
Present the material but dont give a verbal summary
Invite the children for activity
Repeat the presentation, this time with a verbal summary
Wind up the presentation

Group Presentation
Certain activities require the presentation to be given in small groups. These are the steps to be
followed in group presentations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Prepare for the presentation and check the material is ready

Invite the children one by one
The material is with you
Present the activity with some words
Wind up with help from the children

Individual Presentation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Prepare for the presentation and check the material is ready

Invite the child
Come to the shelf where the specific material is kept
Introduce the material to the child
Bring it to the table with the childs help
Make the presentation
Focus on the childs takeover
Observe the childs activity
Wind up, encouraging the child to take active part.

Points To Keep in Mind

It is extremely important to keep these points in mind when you give certain presentations:
Analysis of movement is very important in EPL presentations. It helps children realise the correct
sequence of movements.
When you give a presentation with verbal summary, dont forget to focus on these two points:

Point of Interest
Criteria of Perfection

Always keep in mind indirect presentation or preparation.

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Module 5 | Exercises of Practical Life

Topic 1| About This Module
From morning to night, our lives are full of activity. We brush teeth, wash our faces, have a bath, put on
clothes and shoes. We sweep the floor. We pour water into glasses. When guests come, we serve them.
All these are activities of practical life. Small children love to imitate and do these activities, and they
form the starting point of activities in a Montessori environment.
This module outlines these activities.

Module Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
Explain the importance of Exercises of Practical Life as a foundation for sensorial and language
work
Describe and list the steps for select activities for

Settling Down New Children

Preliminary Motor Work
Taking Care of Oneself
Taking Care of Ones Environment
Social Behaviour

Topic 2 | Basic Principles

Exercises of Practical Life (EPL) are activities that a child sees and observes since birth. She sees them
each day, because they are performed each they, in the same way. Therefore these activities become
extremely familiar. As soon as she gains some control over her limbs, she wants to do them herself, to
participate. At first she wants to do what her mother does, then she wants to emulate her father and
brother and sister. And then she tries to grab the broom and rag from the domestic help.
Adults do these activities because they have to. But children? They want to do them because they want
to grow up. These activities help in their development physical, mental and in building character.
We keep these activities in our Montessori environment as essential components of child development.
We call them Exercises of Practical Life. As pointed out earlier, they are all common activities:
1

The care of one's own person

The care of one's physical environment

The care of one's social environment

These three kinds of activity is an essential and permanent part of human life. As the child grows and
observes her environment, she shows interest in her elders' activities and wants to build a relationship
through them.
These activities are usually quite simple and the child can do them with intelligence and care. That is
why we have these activities in the House of Children. The activities attract children and doing them
enhances their will power, power of movement and intelligence, and they try to do the work to
perfection.

Exercises of Practical Life

We can divide these activities into four classes:
1.
2.

Preliminary motor activities various kinds of games

Personal care keeping oneself clean

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3.
4.

Care of the physical environment various housekeeping activities

Social environment social behaviour and etiquette

We start with motor activities, then we proceed to activities related to the social environment and
behaviour. Then comes activities related to personal care and the care of the physical environment.

CREATING THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAKING THE ACTIVITY

A proper environment must be created. It should be such that the child can do the
activities easily and without inhibitions. The space and opportunity should be conducive to
this.
Appropriate materials must be kept so that the children can do activities according to their
needs and requirements.
The following must be kept in mind while making these materials:

they must help the child's development

they can be easily made or acquired
they can be easily maintained
their size and weight conforms to the child's physical abilities
they will help enhance the child's will power, intelligence and her ability to work
independently
they will be familiar, they are things that the child sees or has seen at home
there should be two to three sets of each material, so that the child can get the
material of her choice

DIRECT AND INDIRECT AIM

Direct Aim:
The direct aim of Exercises of Practical Life is to develop in the child skill in the following activities:

Primary motor skills

Care of the environment
Personal care
Social behaviour

Indirect Aim:
The indirect aim of Exercises of Practical Life is to achieve coordination between intelligence, will and
motor activity and to build an integrated personality.

Topic 3 | Practical Activities

Different EPL activities will be demonstrated for you in class. Observe each of them closely and try to
relate them to the points mentioned in Module 04 and the section above. Practice each activity
repeatedly and make notes for your file.

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