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Water Conservation in Agricultural Practices Using Affordable Greenhouses

There has been an explosion in population growth throughout the past two decades,
resulting in extreme pressure to the natural resource baseincluding water supply. Exacerbating
these resources is changing our climate, resulting in floods, droughts, and wildfires, which
destroy trees, further disrupting the water supply (World Population Prospects, the 2012
Revision 2012). The global water crisis impacts the lives of over 2 billion people worldwide,
including those in countries located in Sub-Saharan Africa where the climate is more susceptible
to water inavailability, causing loss of farming yields due to already high temperatures. Since the
water supply is quickly becoming more limited, there is an urgent need to conserve and more
efficiently use water in order to foster food security. One way to address this issue is by
innovating on the food production front. Studies have shown that greenhouses effectively reduce
evapotranspiration by 30% when compared to open-field conditions, and water use per unit yield
can be lowered by up to 50% by installing a controlled drip irrigation system in the greenhouse
(Ward, 2006, p. 163). Drip irrigation is the most efficient watering technique, depositing water
directly to the root zone and minimizing the use of chemicals as it creates little to no humidity
around the crops, which can be a source of disease and pest build up. In addition, greenhouses
can be constructed in clusters so the expenses and maintenance of a water source may be
communally shared. These seem to be the most efficient methods of reducing water waste by a
large margin, especially since both greenhouses and vegetable production require limited space.
Developed and piloted by World Hope Internationals (WHI) partner The Pennsylvania
State University Humanitarian Engineering and Social Entrepreneurship Program (PSU-HESE),
the Greenhouses Revolutionizing Output (GRO) project will continue to research and advance an
affordable greenhouse project, costing under $500 per unit compared to $5,000 for other

Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor

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conventional small-scale greenhouses promoted by private multi-national companies. Over the
last five years, PSU-HESE has designed, field-tested, and begun commercializing these
affordable greenhouses in Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Cameroon, among several other
African countries.
Success in these countries has propelled PSU-HESE Affordable Greenhouse Venture into
Sierra Leone and Mozambique, an expansion that was funded by a $500,000 Saving Water For
Food grant issued by USAID. This grant stipulates that PSU-HESE Affordable Greenhouse
Venture builds a fixed amount of greenhouses every year and conducts research on water savings
for greenhouse farming as compared to traditional open-air methods. While water savings
research was conducted two years ago on our greenhouses in Kenya and Cameroon, additional
data is required for a more holistic investigation into the effects of greenhouses can have on
water conservation (Czyzk et al 2014). The previous data provides an unprecedented analysis on
the effects of small-scale greenhouses on water conservation. Relevant test parameters such as
air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and water loss inside and outside the greenhouse,
were collected from greenhouses in Kenya and Cameroon. These data were then analyzed using
a simplified pan evaporation measurement along with the Penman-Monteith and Hargreaves
equations to reveal that water savings from small-scale greenhouses were within 50-90%, a
promising figure that presents greenhouses as a solution to food insecurity and natural resource
scarcity (Czyzk et al 2014).
Resource constraints in Kenya and Cameroon mandated simplifications to the data
collection processes. The pan evaporation methodology outlined by the Food and Agricultural
Organization was modified to better suit these settings and the lack of recommended equipment
available to perform the study (Pereira et al 1998). In Cameroon, wind speed and humidity--

Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor

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factors inherent to evaporation rates--were immeasurable due to the lack of a sufficient electronic
weather device. The Hargreaves equation, which measures evapotranspiration rates in the
absence of these two variables was used to analyze the data set from Cameroon and proved less
than accurate. However, a much more holistic data set was collected in Kenya and included air
temperature, humidity, and wind speed, using the Penman-Monteith equation, which describes
evapotranspiration much more accurately (Pereira et al 1998). Since evapotranspiration is so
intrinsically linked to weather conditions, the measured effects of a greenhouse on
evapotranspiration rates depend heavily on outside weather conditions (Czyzk et al 2014). These
data were taken over a 10-day period, and the accuracy of the results could be improved if a
longer data set were to be collected.
In Kenya, specifically, the average decrease in evaporation in the greenhouse compared
to the open-air farm was 51%. The rates were variable, but consistent with the varying weather
conditions. Since wind is a leading contributor to increased evaporation rates, especially in hot
and dry conditions, the change in evaporation inside and outside the greenhouse will be smaller.
In addition, dry weather conditions cause increased evaporation outside. Since the greenhouse
keeps the microclimate warm and humid, the decrease in evaporation on dry days was much
higher. When it is cloudy and cool, less evaporation will occur outside the greenhouse. On
overcast days when there is less sun and more clouds, there was less solar radiation and therefore
less evaporation outside the greenhouse. This accounts for why the evaporation rates outside the
greenhouse were lowest on these days and the percent decrease was 0-1% (Czyzk et al 2014).
It is evident that wind speed is the most controlling parameter on the evaporation rate. As
seen in Figure 1, outside the greenhouse, the evaporation follows the same trend as wind speeds.
Because there was negligible wind speed inside the greenhouse, the relative humidity, air

Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor

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temperature, and other parameters such as the magnitude of solar radiation control evaporation
rates. In general, the evaporation in the greenhouse follows a similar trend as the air temperature
and tends to mirror the trend of relative humidity. As the temperature increases, the evaporation
typically increases. As the relative humidity increases, the evaporation generally decreases. Since
the change in evaporation is small, there is not a very strong relationship with the relative
humidity and air temperature (Czyzk et al 2014).

Fig 1. Evaporation Rates from Pan Evaporation and Wind Speeds in Kenya in
Greenhouse and Outside on Open Air Farm
In Cameroon, data on pan evaporation inside the greenhouse and on open-air farms was
collected. This data showed an average 59% decrease in evaporation rates. The percent decrease
across the 10 days was less variable in Cameroon than in Kenya. There are several spikes in the
graph on the outside open air farm line, and thus higher difference in evaporation rates in the
greenhouse as compared to outside on these days. These spikes are congruent with the weather
conditions being windy. Although the results are variable across weather conditions in Kenya and
Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor

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Cameroon, the results show that the evaporation rates in the greenhouse were never more than
the rates outside on open-air farms (Czyzk et al 2014).

Fig 2. Evaporation Rates from Pan Evaporation in Cameroon in Greenhouse and Outside
on Open-Air Farm
PSU-HESE has outlined an explicit procedure for collecting the necessary data to
perform the pan-evaporation study and will provide the necessary instruments to collect the wind
speed, humidity, and air temperature in order to use the Penman-Monteith equation. This will
allow for a more extensive period of data collection, as the involvement of PSU-HESE is not
required for day-to-day measurements. While the initial data has unequivocally proved that
small-scale greenhouses reduce evapotranspiration rates and reduce water waste, a more accurate
figure will be obtained through a longer testing period with the proper equipment.
Greenhouses are designed to create and maintain a microclimate conducive to
horticultural production that is also water-efficient. This water-efficiency is brought about by
reduced direct solar radiation transmitted to the plants and soil, higher humidity levels, and
elimination of wind. Solar radiation has the ability to change large quantities of water into vapor.
Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor

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The glazing reduces the transmission of this energy, reducing evaporation. In addition to solar
radiation, wind speed is a significant component of changing evapotranspiration rates. Air near
the evaporating surface becomes saturated with water vapor, which results in a higher relative
humidity. In the greenhouse, where conditions are humid and warm, wind speed does not have as
great of an effect on the evapotranspiration rates. Additionally, when the greenhouse is open,
little or no wind passes through even on windy days and when the greenhouse is sealed, no wind
passes over the evaporating surface. Greenhouses reduce the amount of evapotranspiration
within their structure, and thus reduce water wastage. In optimal conditions (hot, dry and windy
days), the greenhouse has the potential to reduce water loss by up to 75%. Even when weather
conditions naturally favor water conservation (mild, humid, non-windy days); the greenhouse
still averages a 35% reduction in water loss. The value of water efficient agricultural
technologies is increasing as water scarcity continues to rise globally. By pivoting the affordable
greenhouse venture on projected water savings, farmers and entrepreneurs will see the immediate
worth of the technology. Growing more food with less water is an important challenge that
engineers and entrepreneurs alike must tackle. Affordable greenhouses have the ability to
increase crop yields while reducing water consumption on a year-round basis in the face of food
and water insecurity (Czyzk et al 2014).
Research in other areas related to PSU-HESE Affordable Greenhouse Venture will be
conducted during trips to Kenya and Zambia during the summer of 2015. As the venture expands
into Zambia, local farmers will be interviewed in order to determine how to combine agricultural
technology and conventional agricultural practices to combat food insecurity and to better
understand local knowledge and perspectives on indigenous foods and agricultural practices
local to the region. Research will also be conducted on the aspirational motivations of

Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor

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consumers and the value propositions that drive individuals to purchase non-essential items, so
that findings may be applied going forward to increase demand for socially beneficial
technologies. A decision making tool will be developed for new greenhouse owners to more
easily establish and run their new revenue producing entity. This includes advice on market
linkages, seed choices, pesticide and herbicide options, and much more. As formerly mentioned
further investigation will be done on the ability of PSU-HESE greenhouses to act as a smallscale solution to counter climate change stressors. A more efficient digging tool to use in
building the greenhouses as well as a highly visual construction manual, a joint padding system,
and a diagram to speed up the construction process are all in the works for testing. Additionally,
a vocational education program of studies will be compiled and decimated to educate future
greenhouse owners and provide jobs to experienced farmers. Overall, these current explorations
and their future findings will further the quality, effectiveness, and accessibility of the
greenhouses so they may improve the livelihoods of more smallholder farmers while making a
positive impact on the environment.

Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor

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References
Czyzk, K., Bement, S., Dawson, W., & Mehta, K. (2014). Quantifying Water Savings with
Greenhouse Farming. 325-332. Retrieved March 30, 2015.

World Population Prospect, the 2012 Revision. (2014). Department of Economic and Social
Affairs.
Pereira, Luis S., Dirk Raes, and Martin Smith. "Chapter 2 - FAO Penman-Monteith Equation."
Crop Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. By Richard G.
Allen. Vol. 56. Rome: FAO, 1998. N. pag. FAO Irrigation and Drainage. FAO Corporate
Document Repository. March 2015.

Pereira, Luis S., Dirk Raes, and Martin Smith. "Chapter 4 - Determination of ETo." Crop
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. By Richard G. Allen.
Vol. 56. Rome: FAO, 1998. N. pag. FAO Irrigation and Drainage. FAO Corporate Document
Repository. March 2015.

Ward, Christopher; Darghouth, Salah; Minasyan, Gayane; Bambarelli, Gretel. 2006. Reengaging
in agricultural water management: challenges and options. Directions in development.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2006/01/6672441/reengaging-agricultural-watermanagement-challenges-options

Contributors: Leah Bader, Sarah Warnquist, and Nolan OConnor