Mechanical Behavior of

Materials
Marc A. Meyers & Krishan K. Chawla
Cambridge University Press

Chapter 1
Materials, Structure, Properties, and
Performance

Thomass Iterative Tetrahedron

Properties of Main Classes of Materials

Biological Materials: Dental Implants in the Jawbone

Biological Materials: Typical Hip and Knee Prostheses

(a) Total hip replacement prosthesis

(b) Total knee replacement prosthesis.

Composites

(a)
(b)

Schematic representations of different classes of composites.

Different kinds of reinforcement in composite materials. Composite with continuous fibers made laminae
in four different orientations.

Specific Modulus and Strength of Some Materials

Hierarchical Structure

Crystal Structure

Miller Indices

Hexagonal Structure

Some Common Crystal Structures

FCC and HCP Structures

(a) Layer of most closely packed atoms corresponding to (111) in FCC and (00.1) in HCP.
(b) Packing sequence of most densely packed planes in AB and AC sequence.
(c) Ball model showing the ABAB sequence of the HCP structure.
(d) Ball model showing the ABCABC sequence of the FCC structure.

Different Structures of Ceramics

Structure of Glasses

(a)
(b)

Ordered crystalline of silica

Random-network of glassy silica

Structure of Glasses

(c) Specific volume vs. temperature

for glassy and crystalline forms of
material

(c)

(d) (e) Atomic arrangements in

crystalline and glassy metals,
respectively.

(d)

(e)

Trimodal Composite
Composition

B4C (~1-7micron)
Cryomilled Al 5083 (~27-100 nm)
Al 5083 CG (~1 micron)
Density
(g/cc)

Youngs
Modulus
(GPa)

CTE
(1/C)

Al 5083

2.66

70

26 x 10-6

B4C

2.51

460

6.1 x 10-6

Light weight structural composite.

Coarse grain additions increase ductility.
ESK Ceramics Tetrabor Boron Carbide F1200
J. Ye et al. / Scripta Materialia 53 (2005) 481-486.
I.A. Ibrahim, et al., J. Mater. Sci. 26 p1137 (1991).

18

Trimodal Composite
Microstructure

19

J. Ye et al. / Scripta Materialia 53 (2005) 481-486

TEM and HRTEM result of UFG/B4C interfaces

(level 0)
(a)TEM image showing the
B4C/UFG interface, (b)
HRTEM image of
B4C/UFG interface, the
UFG grain is away from
zone axis, (c) HRTEM
image of B4C/UFG
interface, the upper
portion indicating an
amorphous region
between the B4C and UFG
region, (d) HRTEM image
indicates a lattice-level
match between B4C and
UFG Al.
Y. Li et al, Acta Materialia 59 (2011).

Classification of Polymers

Different types of molecular chain configurations.

(a) Homopolymer: one type of repeating unit.

(b) Random copolymer: two monomers, A and B, distributed
randomly.
(c) Block copolymer: a sequence of monomer A, followed
by a sequence of monomer B.
(d) Graft copolymer: Monomer A forms the main chain, while
monomer B forms the branched chains.

Tacticity in Polypropylene

Tacticity : Order of placement of side groups.

Crystallinity of Polymers

A lamellar crystal showing

growth spirals around screw
dislocations. TEM. (Courtesy of H.D. Keith.)

Spherulitic structures:
a.
Spherulitic structure (Courtesy of H.D. Keith)
b.
c.

Each spherulite consists of radially arranged,

narrow crystalline lamellae.
Each lamella has tightly packed polymer chains
folding back and forth

Polymer Chain Configuration

Molecular Weight Distribution

Molecular weight distribution curve (schematic). Various

molecular weight parameters are indicated.

Liquid Crystals

Different types of order in the liquid crystalline state.

Mechanical Behavior of Biological Materials

Stressstrain curves for biological materials. (a) Urether. (After F. C. P. Yin and Y. C. Fung,
Am. J. Physiol. 221 (1971), 1484.) (b) Human femur bone. (After F. G. Evans, Artificial
Limbs, 13 (1969) 37.)

Crack Propagation in an Abalone Shell

(a) Cross section of abalone shell showing how a crack, starting at left, is deflected by viscoplastic layer
between calcium carbonate lamellae (mesoscale).
(b) Schematic drawing showing arrangement of calcium carbonate in nacre, forming a miniature
brick and mortar structure (microscale).

Porous and Cellular Materials

Compressive stressstrain curves for foams.

(a) Polyethylene with different initial densities.
(b) Mullite with relative density = 0.08. (Adapted
from L. J. Gibson and M. F. Ashby, Cellular
Solids: Structure and Properties (Oxford, U.K.:
Pergamon Press, 1988), pp. 124, 125.)
(c) Schematic of a sandwich structure.

Biomaterial: Toucan Beak

(a) Toucan beak; (b) external shell made of keratin scales.

Foams: Synthetic and Natural

Cellular materials: (a) synthetic aluminum foam; (b) foam found in the
inside of toucan beak.(Courtesy of M. S. Schneider and K. S. Vecchio.)

Biomaterials: Atomic Structure

Atomic structure of hydroxyapatite: small white atoms (P), large gray

atoms (O), black atoms (Ca). (b) Atomic structure of aragonite: large
dark atoms (Ca), small gray atoms (C), large white atoms (O).

Amino Acids

DNA Structure

Collagen

Triple helix structure of collagen. (Adapted from Y. C. Fung, Biomechanics:

Mechanical properties of Living Tissues (Berlin: Springer, 1993).)

Collagen: Hierarchical Structure

Hierarchical organization of collagen, starting with triple haelix, and

going to fibrils. (From H. Lodish et al., Molecular Cell Biology, 4th ed.
(New York, W.H. Freeman & Company, 1999).)

Mechanical Properties of a Collagen Fiber

Idealized configuration of a wavy collagen fiber.

Stressstrain curve of collagen with three characteristic stages.

Actin

Molecular structure of actin.

Muscle Structure

Biomaterial: Sponge Spicule

SEM of fractured sponge spicule showing

two-dimensional onion-skin structure of
concentric layers.
(Courtesy of G. Mayer and M. Sarikaya.)
Stress-deflection responses of synthetic silica rod and sponge spicule
in flexuretesting. (Courtesy of M. Sarikaya and G. Mayer.)

Active (smart) Materials

(a) Effect of applied field E on dimension of ferroelectric material. (b)

Linear relationship between strain and electric field. (Courtesy of G.
Ravichandran.)

Electronic Materials

Cross section of a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS).

(Adapted from W. D. Nix, Met. Trans., 20A (1989) 2217.)

Nanomaterials: Carbon Nanotubes

Three configurations for single wall carbon nanotubes:

(a) arm chair; (b) zig-zag; (c) chiral.
(Adapted from M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus and R. Saito,
Carbon, 33 (1995) 883.)

Nanomaterials: Carbon Nanotubes

Array of parallel carbon nanotubes grown as a forest. (From R. H.

Baughman, A. A. Zakhidov and W. A. de Heer, Science, 297 (2002)
787.)

Chapter 2
Elasticity and
Plasticity

Mechanical Testing Machine

Elastic Behavior

Stressstrain curves in an elastic regime. (a) Linear elastic curve , typical for metals, ceramics,
and some polymers. (b) Nonlinear elastic curve, typical for rubber.

Strain Energy
Density

Shear Stress and

Shear Strain

(a) Specimen subjected to shear force.

(b) (b) Strain undergone by small cube in shear region.
(c) (c) Specimen (cylinder) subjected to torsion by a torque T.

Poissons Ratio

(a) Unit cube being extended in direction Ox3. (b) Unit cube
subjected to tridimensional stress; only stresses on the three
exposed faces of the cube are shown. Poissons ratio, , is
the negative ratio of the transverse strain and longitudinal
strain.

Generalized Hooke's Law

Mohr Circle

(a) Biaxial (or bidimensional) state of stress.

(b) Mohr circle construction, general orientation
(c) Mohr circle and construction, principal stresses and
maximum shear stresses (Method I).

Mohr Circle

Pure Shear

Hookes Law for Anisotropic Materials

Relations among Elastic Constants for Isotropic Materials

Elastic Compliance and Stiffness Matrixes

Compliance Matrix for a Cubic System

Relationships Among Elastic Constants

Youngs modulus

1
S11

Shear modulus

1
2( S11 S12 )

Bulk modulus

Poissons ratio

11 22 33
1

1
K
( 11 22 33 )
3

S12
S11

C44

Lame constants

C12

1
1
(C11 C12 )
G
2
S 44

Youngs Modulus of Monocrystalline Cu

Youngs Modulus Monocrystalline Zirconia

Youngs Modulus of Monocrystalline Zirconium

Voigt and Reuss Averages for Polycrystals

Voigt average: isostrain

Reuss average: isostress

1
1

(3F ' 3G ' H ')

E
5
1
F'
( S11 S 22 S32 )
3
1
G'
( S12 S 23 S13 )
3
1
H '
( S 44 S55 S 66 )
3

Effect of Porosity on Youngs Modulus

E E0 (1 f1 f 2 2 )
Watchman and Mackenzie:

f1 1.9, f 2 0.9

Effect of Microcracks on Youngs Modulus

Effect of Microcracks on Youngs Modulus

Salganik model
E
[1 1.63Na 3 ]1
E0

Oconnell & Budiansky model

E
1 1.63 Na 3
E0

Youngs Modulus of Polymers

Youngs Modulus of Polymers as a

Function of Temperature

Viscoelasticity

n = 0: plastic
n = 1: linear viscous (Newtonian)
n 1 : nonlinear

Viscosity and Fluidity

Viscosity

Q
A exp(
)
RT

Fluidity

Viscoelasticity

e e0 exp[i ( t )]

0 exp[i ( t )]
0
0

exp i
(cos i sin )
e

e0

E ' iE "

e0

Viscoelasticity

Tensile storage modulus

Tensile loss modulus

E'

E"

e0

e0

cos
sin

Rubber
Elasticity

nKT [12 11 ]
1

l1
l0

Stress-Strain Behavior of Biological Materials

(a) Stressstrain response of human vena cava: circles-loading;

squares-unloading. (Adapted from Y. C. Fung, Biomechanics (New York:
Springer, 1993),p. 366.)
(b) Representation of mechanical response in terms of tangent modulus (slope
of stressstrain curve) vs. stress. (Adapted from Y. C. Fung. Biomechanics,
New York: Springer,1993), p. 329.)

Residual Stresses in Arteries

Cartilage

Mesostructure of Cartilage

(a) Mesostructure of cartilage (consisting of four zones) showing differences in

structure as a function of distance from surface; the bone attachment is at bottom.
(From G. L. Lucas, F. W. Cooke, and E. A. Friis, A Primer on Biomechanics (New
York: Springer, 1999), p. 273.)
(b) Cross-section of human cartilage showing regions drawn schematically in (a).
(Courtesy of K. D. Jadin and R. I. Sah.)

Mechanical Behavior of Superficial Zone of Cartilage

Stressstrain curve for samples from the superficial zone of articular cartilage. Samples
were cut parallel and perpendicular to collagen fiber orientation. (From G. E. Kempson,
Mechanical Properties of Articular Cartilage. In Adult Articular Cartilage, ed. M. A. R.
Freeman (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., 1973), pp. 171228.)

Mechanical Testing of DNA

Force vs. Extension for DNA Molecule

Stresses in a Thin Film

Effect of stresses in a thin film on bending of

substrate; (a) tensile stresses in thin film; (b)
compressive stresses in thin film.

Elastic Constant and Bonding

Two atoms with an imaginary spring between them; (a)

equilibrium position; (b) stretched configuration under
tensile force; (c) compressed configuration under
compressive force.

Attraction and Repulsion between Two Atoms

(a) Interaction energies (attractive and repulsive terms) as a function of

separation;
(b) Force between two atoms as a function of separation; slope
decreases as separation increases.

Chapter 3
Plasticity
Sections: 3.1-3.6; 3.8-3.9

Tests for Mechanical Strength of Materials

Common tests used to determine the monotonic strength of materials. (a) Uniaxial tensile test. (b) Upsetting
test. (c) Three-point bend test. (d) Plane-strain tensile test. (e) Plane-strain compression (Ford) test. (f) Torsion
test. (g) Biaxial test.

Mechanical Testing: Servohydraulic Machine

A servohydraulic universal testing

machine linked to a computer.
(Courtesy of MTS Systems Corp.)

Stress-Strain Curves of a Steel after Different Heat Treatments

Stressstrain curves for AISI

1040 steel subjected to
different heat treatments;
curves obtained from tensile
tests.

Idealized Uniaxial Stress-Strain Curves

Idealized shapes of uniaxial stressstrain curve. (a) Perfectly plastic. (b) Ideal
elastoplastic. (c) Ideal elastoplastic with linear work-hardening. (d) Parabolic workhardening ( =o + Kn).

Plasticity
Ludwik-Hollomon equation

Voce equation

Johnson-Cook equation

True Stress - True Strain Curve and Poissons ratio

Schematic
representation of the
change in Poissons
ratio as the deformation
regime changes from
elastic to plastic.

Stress-Strain Curves

True- and
engineering-stress
vs. true -and
engineering -strain
curves for AISI 4140
hot-rolled steel. R. A.
is reduction in area.

Engineering Stress - Engineering Strain Curves

Yield Point

Engineering- (or nominal-) stressstrain curves (a)

without the yield point and (b) with a yield point.

Engineering Stress - Engineering Strain Curves

Yield Point
CORRECT DIAGRAM

Work hardening vs. Strain

Log d/d versus log for stainless steel AISI 302. (Adapted with permission
from A. S. de S. e Silva and S. N. Monteiro, Metalurgia-ABM, 33 (1977) 417.)

Correction Factor for Necking

Check with
Fig 3.6 in text

Correction factor for necking as a function of strain in neck, ln (A0/A), minus

strain at necking, u. (Adapted with permission from W. J. McGregor Tegart,
Elements of Mechanical Metallurgy (New York: MacMillan,1964), p. 22.)

Deformation due to Wire Drawing

Stressstrain curves for Fe0.003% C alloy wire, deformed

to increasing strains by drawing; each curve is started at
the strain corresponding to the prior wire-drawing
reduction. (Courtesy of H. J. Rack.)

Strain Rate Effects

(a) Effect of strain

rate on the stress
strain curves for AISI
1040 steel.
(b) Strain-rate
changes during
tensile test. Four
strain rates are
shown.

Plastic Deformation in Compressive Testing

(a) Compression
specimen
between parallel
platens.
(b) Length
inhomogeneity in
specimen.

Stress-Strain Curve for Compression

(a) Stressstrain
(engineering
and true) curves
for 7030 brass
in compression.
(b) Change of
shape of
specimen and
barreling.

Finite Element Method

(a) Distortion of Finite Element

Method (FEM) grid after 50%
reduction in height h of
specimen under stickingfriction conditions. (Reprinted
with permission from H. Kudo
and S. Matsubara, Metal
Forming Plasticity (Berlin:
Springer, 1979),p. 395.)
(b) Variation in pressure on
surface of cylindrical specimen
being compressed.

Bauschinger Effect

Ratio of compressive flow stress (0.2%

plastic strain) and tensile flow stress at
different levels of plastic strain for different
steels. (After B. Scholtes, O. Vhringer, and
E. Macherauch, Proc. ICMA6, Vol. 1 (New
York: Pergamon, 1982), p. 255.)

Plastic Deformation of Polymers

Schematic of the different types

of stressstrain curves in a
polymer.

Effect of strain rate and

temperature on stress
strain curves.

Necking and Drawing in Polymers

Schematic of necking and drawing in a

semicrystalline polymer.

Neck Propagation
in Polyethylene

(a) Neck propagation

in a sheet of linear
polyethylene.

(b) Schematic of neck

formation and
propagation in a
specimen,.

Metallic Glasses

METALLIC GLASSES - resources

http://physics.aps.org/articles/v5/54

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yg0hUqdzXGw
http://www.its.caltech.edu/~vitreloy/development.htm
http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2011-01/new-metallic-glasstoughest-strongest-material-yet
http://scitechdaily.com/yale-engineers-develop-micro-fuel-cells-made-ofbulk-metallic-glasses/

Stress-Strain Curve of a Metallic Glass

Compressive stress
strain curves for
Pd77.5CU6Si16.5.(Ada
pted with permission
from C. A. Pampillo and
H. S. Chen, Mater. Sci.
Eng., 13 (1974) 181.)

Shear Steps in a Metallic Glass

Shear steps terminating

inside material after
annealing at 250C/h,
produced by (a) bending
and decreased by (b)
unbending. Metglas
Ni82.4Cr7Fe3Si4.5B3.1
strip. (Courtesy of X. Cao
and J. C. M. Li.)

Dislocations
(a) Gilman model of dislocations
in crystalline and glassy silica,
represented by two-dimensional
arrays of polyhedra. (Adapted
from J. J. Gilman, J. Appl. Phys.
44 (1973)675 )
(b) Argon model of
displacement fields of atoms
(indicated by magnitude and
direction of lines) when
assemblage of atoms is
subjected to shear strain of 5
102, in molecular dynamics
computation. (Adapted from D.
Deng, A. S. Argon, and S. Yip,
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond.
A329 (1989) 613.)

Viscosity of Glasses

Viscosity of sodalime
silica glass and of
metallic glasses (AuSi
Ge, PdCuSi, PdSi,
C0P) as a function of
normalized temperature.
(Adapted from J. F.
Shackelford, Introduction
to Materials Science for
Engineers, 4th ed.
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1991), p.
331, and F. Spaepen
and D. Turnbull in Metallic
Glasses, ASM.)

Viscosity of Glasses

Viscosity of three
glasses as a function
of temperature. 1
P=0.1 Pa s.

Impressions Produced in Hardness Tests

Comparison of the impression sizes produced by various hardness tests on a material of 750 HV. BHN =
Brinell hardness number, HRC = Rockwell hardness number on C scale, HRN = Rockwell hardness
number on N scale, VPN = Vickers hardness number. (Adapted with permission from E. R. Petty, in
Techniques of Metals Research, Vol. 5, Pt. 2, R. F. Bunshah, ed. (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1971),
p. 174.)

Brinell Impression

Impression caused by spherical indenter on metal plate in a

Brinell hardness test.

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Procedure in using Rockwell hardness tester. (Reprinted with permission from H. E. Davis, G. E. Troxel,
and C. T. Wiscocil, The Testing and Inspection of Engineering Materials, (NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1941),
p. 149.)

Scales for Rockwell Hardness Tester

Vickers Hardness Test

Relationships Between Yield Stress and Hardness

Hardness Profile near a Grain Boundary

(a) Hardnessdistance profiles near a grain boundary in zinc with 100-atom ppm
of Al and zinc with 100-atom ppm of Au (1-gf load). (b) Solute concentration
dependence of percent excess boundary hardening in zinc containing Al, Au, or
Cu (3-gf load). (Adapted with permission from K. T. Aust, R. E. Hanemann, P.
Niessen, and J. H. Westbrook, Acta Met., 16 (1968)).291

Knoop Indenter

Details of the Knoop indenter, together

with its impression.

Nanoindenter apparatus

Topographic Features of the Berkovich Indentation

An impression made by means of Berkovich

indenter in a copper sample. (From X. Deng, M.
Koopman, N. Chawla, and K.K. Chawla, Acta
Mater., 52 (2004) 4291.) (a) An atomic force
micrograph, showing the topographic features of
the indentation on the sample surface. The scale
is the same along the three axes. (b) Berkovich
indentation as seen in an SEM.

Load vs. Indenter Displacement

Simple Formability Tests for Sheets

Simple formability tests for sheets. (a) Simple bending test.

(b) Free-bending test. (c) Olsen cup test. (d) Swift cup test.
(e) Fukui conical cup test.

Earing in Deep Drawing

Ears formed in a deep-drawn cup

due to in-plane anisotropy. (Courtesy
of Alcoa, Inc.)

Fibering

Impurities introduced in the metal as it was made become elongated into stringers when
the metal is rolled into sheet form. During bending, the stringers can cause the sheet to fail
by cracking if they are oriented perpendicular to the direction of bending (top). If they are
oriented in the direction of the bend (bottom), the ductility of the metal remains normal.
(Adapted with permission from S. S. Hecker and A. K. Ghosh, Sci. Am., Nov. (1976), p.
100.)

Punch-Stretch Test

Sheet specimen subjected to punch

stretch test until necking; necking can be
seen by the clear line. (Courtesy of S. S.
Hecker.)

Punch-Stretch Test

Schematic of sheet deformed by punch

stretching. (a) Representation of strain
distribution: 1, meridional strain; 2,
circumferential strain; h, cup height.
b) Geometry of deformed sheet.

Forming-Limit Curve

Construction of a forming-limit curve

(or KeelerGoodwin diagram).
(Courtesy of S. S. Hecker.)

Different Strain Patterns in Stamped Part

Different strain patterns in stamped part. (Adapted from W.

Brazier, Closed Loop, 15, No. 1 (1986) 3.)

ADDITIONAL EXTRA
RESOURCE SLIDES FOLLOW

Rankine, Tresca, and von Mises Criteria

Maximum-Stress Criterion

Maximum-Shear-Stress Criterion

Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion

Comparison of Rankine, von Mises, and Tresca Criteria

(a) Rankine, von Mises, and Tresca

criteria.
(b) Comparison of failure criteria with
experimental results. (Reprinted with
permission from E. P. Popov,
Mechanics of Materials, 2nd ed.
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1976), and G. Murphy, Advanced.
Mechanics of Materials (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1964), p. 83.)

Displacement of the Yield Locus due to

Plastic Deformation

Displacement of the yield locus as the flow

stress of the material due to plastic
deformation. (a) Isotropic hardening. (b)
Kinematic hardening.

Tensile and Compressive Curves for Al2O3

Failure Criteria for Brittle Materials

(a) Simple model for solid with cracks. (b) Elliptical flaw in elastic
solid subjected to compression loading. (c) Biaxial fracture
criterion for brittle materials initiated from flaws without (Griffith)
and with (McClintock and Walsh) crack friction.

Failure Criteria for Brittle Material

Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

Griffith Failure Criterion

McClintock-Walsh Crtierion

von Mises Criterion for a Polymer

Translation of von Mises ellipse for a polymer due to the presence of

hydrostatic stress. (a) No hydrostatic stress, (b) with hydrostatic stress.

Shear Yielding and Crazing for Amorphous Polymer

Shear yielding and crazing for an amorphous polymer under biaxial stress. The
thicker line(delineates the failure envelope when crazing occurs in tension.(After
S. S. Sternstein and L. Ongchin, Am. Chem. Soc., Div. Of Polymer Chem.,
Polymer Preprints, 10 (1969), 1117.)

Failure Envelope for a Fiber Reinforced Composite

Failure envelope for a unidirectional E-glass/epoxy composite under biaxial loading

at different levels of shear stress. (After I. M. Daniel and O. Ishai, Engineering
Mechanics of Composite Materials (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p.
121.)

Plane-Stress Yield Loci for Sheets with Planar Isotropy

Plane-stress yield loci for sheets with

planar isotropy or textures that are
rotationally symmetric about the
thickness direction, x3. (Values of R =
2/1 indicate the degree of anisotropy.)

Stress vs. Strain Rate for Slow-Twitch

and Fast Twitch Muscles

Stress-Strain Cures of Some Biological Materials

Stressstrain response for some

biological materials.

Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials

Stress-Strain Response of Elastin

Stressstrain response for elastin; it is the

ligamentum nuchae of cattle (Adapted from Y.
C. Fung and S. S. Sobin, J. Biomech. Eng., 1103
(1981) 121. Also in Y. C. Fung, Biomechanics:
Mechanica l Properties of Living Tissues
(NewYork: Springer, 1993) p. 244.)

Stress-Strain Response of Cortical Bone

Tensile and compressive stressstrain

curves for cortical bone in longitudinal
and transverse directions. (Adapted from
G. L. Lucas, F. W. Cooke, and E. A. Friis,
A Primer on Biomechanics (New York:
Springer, 1999).)

Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Stress-Strain Curve

of Cortical Bone

Strain-rate dependence of tensile response of

cortical bone. (Adapted from J. H. McElhaney, J.
Appl. Physiology, 21(1966) 1231.)

Chapter 4
Imperfections: Point and Line
Defects

Types of Imperfections:
1. Point Defects 0-Dimensional Imperfections
Localized (foreign atoms, vacancies, extra or missing e)
2. Line Defects 1-Dimensional Imperfections
Extend through crystal on a line (dislocations)
3. Interfacial Defects 2-Dimensional or Planar Imperfections
Boundaries between regions of order (order can be atomic,
magnetic, electronic, or chemical)
4. Bulk Defects 3-Dimensional Imperfections
Macroscopic or large scale defects (voids, cracks and inclusions)

Dimensional Range for Different Classes of Defects

Stress Required to Shear a Crystal

Theoretical Shear Strength of Some Materials

Theoretical Shear Strength of Some Materials

(adapted from Hosford, W. F., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Cambridge University Press
(2008).)

Point Defects

Atomic point defects.

Two most common point defects in compounds:

Schottky and Frenkel defects.

Point Defects
(adapted from Barrett, Nix and Tetelman, The Principles of Engineering Materials, Prentice Hall, Inc. (1973).)

Atomic point defects.

Two most common point

defects in compounds:
Schottky and Frenkel
defects.

Point Defects

Interstices in FCC structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the BCC structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the HCP structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Formation of Point Defects

Formation of point defects by the annihilation of

dislocations. (a) Row of vacancies. (b) Row of
interstitials.

Shear stress-Shear Strain Curves for Aluminum

Single Crystal

Shear stress-versus-strain curves for aluminum

single crystals. The crystallographic orientation is
shown in the stereographic triangle. (Adapted
with permission from A. H. Cottrell, Phil. Mag.,
46 (1955) p. 737.)

Radiation Damage

Seeger model of damage produced by

irradiation. P indicates the position where
the first knock-on terminates.
(Reprinted with permission from
A. Seeger, in Proc. Symp. Radiat.
Damage Solids React., Vol. 1,
(Vienna, IAEA, 1962) pp. 101, 105.)

Voids formed in nickel irradiated using 400

keV 14N2+ ions to a dose of 40 dpa at 500 C;
notice the voids with polyhedral shape; dpa
= displacements per atom. (Courtesy of L. J.
Chen and
A. J. Ardell.)

Radiation Damage

Stressstrain curves for irradiated and

unirradiated Zircaloy. (Adapted with permission
from J. T. A. Roberts, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS22, (1975) 2219.)

Radiation Damage

Stress-free dilation in AISI 316 steel (20% cold

worked). (Adapted with permission from J.
T. A. Roberts, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS-22, (1975)
2219.)

Dependence of fast neutron-induced dilation

in stainless steel (FeCrNi) as a function of
Ni and Cr amounts. (Adapted with permission
from W. B. Hillig, Science, 191 (1976) 733.)

Line Defects

(a) Rug with a fold.

Caterpillar with a hump.

Edge and Screw Dislocations

Arrangement of atoms in an edge dislocation and the Burgers vector b

that produces closure of circuit ABCDE.

Arrangement of atoms in a screw dislocation with parking garage

setup. Notice car entering garage.

Edge and Screw Dislocations

.
(a) Perfect crystal.
(b) Edge dislocation.
(c) Screw dislocation.

Plastic Deformation

Plastic deformation of a crystal by the

movement of a dislocation along a slip plane.

Shear Produced by Dislocation Movement

(adapted from Barrett, Nix and Tetelman, The Principles of Engineering

Materials, Prentice Hall, Inc. (1973).)

Mixed Dislocation

Mixed dislocation obtained from cutand-shear operation; notice the angle

between b and dislocation line.

Dislocations in Metals

(a) Titanium. (Courtesy of B. K. Kad.) (b) Silicon.

Dislocations in Al2O3 and TiC

Dislocations in (a) Al2O3 and (b) TiC. (Courtesy of J. C. LaSalvia.)

Dislocation in Molybdenum

Atomic resolution transmission electron micrograph of dislocation in

molybdenum with a Burgers circuit around it. (Courtesy of R. Gronsky.)

Square Dislocation Loop

Elliptic Dislocation Loop

Elliptic dislocation loop. (a) Intermediate position. (b) Final (sheared) position. (c) TEM of shear
loop in copper. (Courtesy of F. Gregori and M. S. Schneider.)

Prismatic Loop

Prismatic loop produced by the introduction

of a disk into metal.
(a) Perspective view.
(b) Section AAAA.
(c) Section BBBB.

Movement of Dislocation

Slip produced by the movement of dislocation.

(a) Positive and negative edge dislocations.
(b) Positive and negative screw dislocations.

Expansion of a Dislocation Loop

Stresses due to Dislocations

Screw Dislocation

Edge Dislocation

Stress Fields Around a Edge Dislocation

Stress fields around an edge

dislocation. (The dislocation line is
Ox3), (a) 11; (b) 22; (c) 33; (d) 12.
(Adapted with permission from J. C.
M. Li, in Electron Microscopy and
Strength of Crystals, eds. G. Thomas
and J. Washburn (New York:
Interscience Publishers, 1963).)

Energy of a Dislocation

Dislocation Array

Schematic representation of an idealized dislocation array

(a) in two dimensions
(b) in three dimensions; note that dislocations on three
perpendicular atomic planes define a volume V.

Bending of a Dislocation

Dislocations in an FCC Crystal

Peach-Koehler Equation

Decomposition of Dislocation

Decomposition of a dislocation b1 into two partial dislocations b2

and b3, separated by a distance d0.

Stacking Fault Energies of Some Metals

Stacking Fault and Partial Dislocations

Short segment of stacking fault in AISI

304 stainless steel overlapping with
coherent twin boundary. Differences in
the nature of these defects are illustrated
by fringe contrast differences.

Dislocations in AISI 304 stainless steel splitting

into partials bounded by short stacking-fault region.
Partials spacing marked as d.
(Courtesy of L. E. Murr.)

Effects of Stacking-Fault Energy on Dislocation Substructure

Effect of stacking-fault energy on dislocation

substructure.
(a) High-stacking-fault-energy material (pure copper);
(b) Low-stacking-fault-energy material (copper2 wt%
aluminum).

Both materials were laser-shock compressed with an

initial pressure of 40 GPa and pulse duration of 3 ns.
(Courtesy of M. S. Schneider.)

Frank or Sessile Dislocations

Frank or Sessile dislocations.

(a) Intrinsic. (b) Extrinsic.

Cottrell Lomer and Stairway Dislocations

CottrellLomer lock.

Stairway dislocation.

Important Planes in HCP Structure

Basal, pyramidal, and prism plane in HCP structure.

Temperature for Macroscopic Plasticity in

Some Ceramics

Slip Systems and Burgers Vectors in

Some Ceramics

Expressions for Energy of Dislocation

Screw Dislocation

Edge Dislocation

General Form

Basal Plane in Al2O3

Elastic Energy for Dislocations in Ceramics

Dislocations in Sapphire

(a) Dislocations, dipoles, and loops in sapphire.

(b) Interaction between dislocations in
sapphire. (From K. P. D. Lagerdorf, B. J. Pletka,
T. E. Mitchell, and A. H. Heuer, Radiation
Effects, 74 (1983)).87

Dislocations in Titanium Diboride

Hexagonal array of dislocations in

titanium diboride. (Courtesy of D. A.
Hoke and G. T. Gray.)

Stacking faults in GaP.

(Courtesy of P. Pirouz.)

Homogeneous Nucleation of Dislocations

Grain Boundary as a Source of Dislocations

Emission of dislocations from ledges in grain

boundary, as observed in transmission electron
microscopy during heating by electron beam.
(Courtesy of L. E. Murr.)

Effect of Oxide Layer on the Tensile Properties of Niobium

Effect of oxide layer on the tensile

properties of niobium.
(Reprinted with permission from
V. K. Sethi and R. Gibala, Scripta
Met. 9 (1975) 527.)

Frank-Read Mechanism

Formation of dislocation loop by the FrankRead mechanism.

Dislocation Source: Cross Slip

FrankRead source formed by crossslip.

Epitaxial Growth

Epitaxial growth of thin film. (a) Substrate.

(b) Start of epitaxial growth. (c) Formation of
dislocations.

Dislocation Pileups

Pileup of dislocations against a

barrier.

Pileup of dislocations against grain

boundaries (or dislocations being emitted
from grain boundary sources?) in copper
observed by etch pitting.

Dislocation Interactions

)a) Edge dislocation traversing forest

dislocation.
(b) Screw dislocation traversing forest
dislocations.

Kinks and Jogs in Dislocations

(a) Kink and jog in edge dislocation. (b)

Kink and jog in screw dislocation.

Loop being pinched out when jog is left behind

by dislocation motion.

Orowans Equation

k b

Peierls-Nabarro Stress

(a) Movement of dislocation away from its

equilibrium position.
(b) Variation of PeierlsNabarro stress with
distance. (Reprinted with permission from
H. Conrad, J. Metals, 16 (1964), 583.)

Overcoming of Peierls Barrier

Overcoming of Peierls barrier by Seeger kink pair mechanism.

(a) Original straight dislocation.
(b) Dislocation with two kinks.
(c) Kinks moving apart.

Temperature Effect on Youngs Modulus

Effect of temperature on Youngs

modulus. (Adapted from J. B.
Wachtman Jr.,W. E. Tefft, D. G. Lam,
Jr., and C. S. Apstein, J. Res. Natl.
Bur. Stand., 64A (1960) 213; and J.
Lemartre and J. L. Chaboche,
Mechanics of Solid Materials,
Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990, p. 143.)

Flow Stress as a Function of Temperature

Flow stress as a function of temperature for

(a) an idealized material,
(b) BCC metals, and
(c) FCC metals. Notice the greater temperature
dependence for Ta and Fe (BCC).

Dislocations on Film-Substrate Interface

Stresses and dislocations generated at

film-substrate interface;
(a) Film and substrate with different
lattice parameters;
(b) elastic (coherent) accommodation of
strains by film;
(c) elastic + dislocation (semi-coherent)
accommodation of strains at a film
thickness greater than hc.(Adapted from
W. D. Nix, Met. Trans., 20A (1989)
2217.)

Critical Film Thickness vs. Atomic Fraction of Ge

Critical film thickness as a function of misfit strain;

the greater fraction Ge, the greater the misfit stain
and the smaller hc. Predictions from van der Merwe
Matthews theory; measurements from J. C. Bean, L.
C. Feldman, A. T. Fiory, S. Nakahara, and I. K.
Robinson, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 2 (1984) 436.
(Adapted from W. D. Nix., Met. Trans., 20A (1989)
2216.)

Misfit Dislocation Generation

Mechanisms of misfit dislocation generation; (a)

Freund mechanism in which a threading
dislocation preexisting in substrate lays over
interface creating misfit dislocation; (b) Nix
mechanism, in which a surface source creates
half-loops that move toward interface.