A, MECHANICS 1. Physical Quantities And Units LIEW Sau POH Outline 11 Basic quantities and $1 units 1.2 Dimensions of physical quantities 1.3 Scalars and vectors 1.4 Uncertainties in measurements Objectives a) list base quantities and their SI units: mass (kg), length (mn), time (3), current (A), temperature (K) and quantity of matter (mol); b) deduce units for derived quantities; ©) use dimensional analysis to determine the dimensions of derived quantities 4) check the homogeneity of equations using dimensional analysis: Objectives ©} construct empirical equations using dimensional analysis; #) determine the sum, the scalar product and vector product of coplanar vectors: 2) resolve a vector to two perpendicular components; ‘hy calculate the uncertainty in a derived quantity 1) write a derived quantity to an appropriate number of significant figures. 1.1 Basic quantities and SI units Physical Quantities © Quantities that can be measured A man’s height: 1.70 metre consists of numerical value (1.70) and unit (meter) 6 Basic Physical Quantities > Mass Time Weight Electric current Amount ofsubstanee SI units ©. Sl (Le System Internationale) unit isa standard unit to be used in world wide (trade and communication)Seven base units: iti Length Mass Time Electric current Ampere [A Thermodynamic tomperature|Kehin | Amount of substance Mole |mol Light intensity leandela [ed Prefix #can be attached to $I units, like ecm, mm, km #10 105,103 D ived quantity © isa combination of different base quantities © eg. area, velocity, and force lts unit is called derived unit * ie mlms\kgmstofN Example Derive the unit of (a) Power (b) torque (a) Equation; Power = work / time Unie of power akgmis/s =kgm so b) Equation: Torque = force x distance x sin Unit of torque gmstxm =kgm's 1.2. Dimensions of physical quantities 1.2 Dimensions of physical quantities © Dimension shows relation between the physical quantities and the base physical quantities. * Represented by [physical quantity} Symbols for Dimensions > Mass [Length | f- Time Wi T (Tempcranute Example 1 © Dimension of area Areal = [length x breath xL v © Unit of areaExample 2 Dimension of force = [Porce! [mass « acceleration] = MLI- + Unit of force kgms orN Principal of Homogeneity of mensions and its use # For a correct physical equation, all terms in the equation have the same dimensions © egy sul +2as © (LT) = (LT) +L 1 * Only two physical quantities of thesame dimension can be equated, added or subtracted * An equation that has the same dimension ‘on both sides is said homogeneous or dimensionally consistent. Principal of Homogeneity of Dimensions and its use #An equation whose dimensions are not homogeneous isincorrect. ‘An equation whose dimensions are consistent is not necessary correct, *The equation is not completeor has extra terms. ive. v'= 205 #The value of the constant of proportionally is wrong. ie.v 2u tas Dimensional Analysis /Derivation of Physical Equations. # A physical quantity may be found to be dependent on a number of other physical quantities *E.g. : Establish an expression for the period of a simple pendulum, t which shows how ¢is related to the mass of the pendulum bob, m, the length of the string, and the acceleration due to gravity Dimensional Analysis /Derivation of Physical Equations @Let the expression be | Equating the indices of M t= kmilg ,wherek —o=x is dimensionless ° constant, Equating the indices of L: [d= [kl g } orys2 T ML(LT') ie nel te kunt big? Lquating the indices of . ‘ a2 1.3 Scalars and vectors 1.3 Scalars and vectors # Scalar quantity has only magnitude, while vectors quantity has magnitude and direction. © Scalar quantities: mass, length, time, speed, temperature, density, energy, pressure, work, gravitational potential, electric potential, volume 1.3 Scalars and vectors # Vector quantities: velocity, displacement, acceleration, force, moment, momentum, impulse, electric field intensity, gravitational field stvength. # Vectors are labelled inbold-faced letters or normal letters with overhead arrow eg.For | ‘© Magnitude of a vector Fis labelled as F ot IFPolar Notation © Polar notation defines a vector by designating the vector’s magnitude || and angle 6 relative to the -x axis. Using that notation the vector _ A=|420 #The figure shows a force vector of P=12. 2210 Graphical Representation of Vector © Represented by a straight arrow # The length of the arrow represents its magnitude © The vector points in its direction Addition of vector #Twa vectors can be added to form a resultant vector, #E.g. ina vector equation: C= A +B, Cis the resultant vector of A = B. *Parallelogram law of vector addition: If the two sides of a parallelogram represent ‘ovo vectors, than the resultant of these two vectors is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram, #The resultant can be found also using the triangle of vectors Addition of vector Example: Parallelogram law Addition of vector C= A+B Example: Triangle of vectors Subtraction of vectors: # The subtraction of two vectors can be found by denoting the vector equation in addition form. seg, C= A—B can be treaded as C=A+(B) Subtraction of vectors:C = A-B or =A + (-B) using Parallelogram law Subtraction of vectors:C = A-B orC =A + (-B) using Triangle of vectorsSubtraction of vectors: C = A-B orC =A +(-B) using Alternate method Resolving vectors #A vectar can be ‘Split’ up to two or more components (vectors) “This process is called resolving the vector #E.g.a vector, P can be ‘split’ into components A and B, where P= A= B. Resolving vectors Resolving vectors In general, a vector can be separated into two perpendicular components, along the xeaxis and yaaxis. P. =Pcosé Py =Psind Peo=Po4 Pe P, Pp go tan =P,/P, where P, P,and P P.=Pcos@ represent magnetudes Scalar Produce of Vectors # Multiplying a vector by a scalar will ONLY CHANGE itsmagnitude. Example: if A = 12.2105, Then 2a = 24.2 105 Scalar Produce of Vectors # Multiplying a vector by “1” reverses it's direction (changes i's angle) + Example: if A = 12.2 105, then “A = 12 Z 28501 2£-75 Vector product of coplanar vectors # Multiplying 2.vectors gives one of the two results: #Scalar dat product # Vector cross product Scalar Dot Product #In polar notation consider > vectors: A=|Al <0, & B=[B)<0,, # The dot product between A and B produces a SCALAR | ™! quantity. The magnitude of | {¢ y the sealar product is ix ws defined as: - Where @ is the NET angle between the two vectors. As shown in the figure,Scalar Dot Product Example: # Let = fra] <30, Let B= |5| < 65 What is A "dot" B? Vector Cross Product # In polar notation consider 2 vectors:A=|A] <8, & B= |B <0 *# The cross product between A and B produces a VECTOR quantity. The magnitude ofthe 8 A vector product is d ¥ al * Where @ is the NET angle between the two vectors. As - shown in the figure. Vector Cross Product k Example: Leta =|5| <30, Let B= f12| <180 A What is A “cross” B? B i 1.4 Errors (Uncertainty) | , Uncertainty in measurement #A measured value of physical quantity (mass, length) is anestimation (not the exact value) zi iim) 7 vi inn) finn) Uncertainty in measurement What is the length of the bar? Precision #Frrors can be reduced by using move sensitive instrument, where the measured value is more precise Adding zeros to indicate precision What is the proper way to report the lengths ofthese twobars? #(Ans: red bar, 0.500 m; green, 0.610 m)More about Uncertainty * Absolute uncertainty is the value of random uncertainty reported in ameasurement (the larger of the reading error or the standard deviation of the measurements}. This value carries the same units as the measurement # Fractional uncertainty equals the absolute error divided by the mean value of the measturement {it has na units) + Percentage uncertainty is the fractional uncertainty multiplied by 100 to make it a percentage (it has no units) Determine the uncertainty ina derived quantity (simple way) # For adding or subtracting measurements, the inal uncertainty is thesum of the absolute uncertainty in each measurement taken, Example: ‘The length of a rectangle is measured as26+3 mand the width isio= 3 em, The perimeter of the rectangle =L+L-We+W (26 + 26 +10 +10) (3 +3422 j2x10cm Determine the uncertainty ina derived quantity (simple way) For multiplication, division and powers, percentage uncertainties may be added The absolute uncertainty is the fraction or percentage of the most probable answer Example: ‘The length of a rectangle is measured as26: mand the width isto* 2 cm. The area of the rectangle x10 = 2608 ((3/26 26082 cm* } 200} emt Determine the uncertainty ina derived quantity (simple way) # For other functions (like trigonometric functions), the mean, highest and lowest possible answers may be calculated to obtai the uncertainty range Example: ‘The length of sides of a cube = # The volumeof the cube = 5x 5x 54 (( 25/5) x 3x 125} om £19 em* Significant figures #The number of digits of a numerical physical quantity shows the number of significant figures of the value #F.g.1.42 kg has 3 significant fig #A value with more significant precise (higher degree of precision}. Significant figures Zeros may ar may n [0.235 lo.o21 fo.20 [2034 2000 l2.3 «10 2.00 wich eye 23,084 ate Processing significant figures While performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and other operations. ‘on measured values, the final answer might need to beround off to appropriate significant figures. Addition and subtraction # Round off the answer to the least number of decimal place of any term. F.g, X = 2.345 cm + 1.25 cm = 3.595 cm= 3,60 cm.Multiplication and division Round off to the least number of significant ures. Eg A= 2.345 cM * 1.25 CM = 2.93125 em! = 2.93 cmt + Fora calculation has both addition (or subtraction) and multiplication (or division} round after each operation Processing significant figures #In general, only the inal answer is round aff to the required sf # Round off values too early (in each steps) could result agreater cumulative error Extra (Guide for experiment): Systematic uncertainties (errors) *Constant errors due to instruments, surrounding effects or physical constraints of the observer. #Zer0 or end error of instruments, where the instrument (like vernier callipers micrometer screw gauges) gives a non-zero reading when in fact the actual reading is zero. #Parallax errors (reading from wrong angle) might be made consistently by observer Systematic uncertainties (errors) *Environmental factors, like a light breeze constantly blowing downward on a sensitive scale balance. #The scale of an instrument might have been wrongly calibrated. *Frrars due to wrong assumptions E.g. The acceleration due to gravity has been assumed as 9.81 ms", but the actual value may be 9.80 0 Systematic uncertainties (errors) Systematic errors cannot be reduced by taking repeated reading, using same method, same instrument and same observer sit is.a good practice to note and eliminate the zero readings of instruments. Random errors #Normally cause by the observer while reading or using the instrument. *The readings obtained may be greater or less than the actual value, where the magnitude is not constant, #E.g. reading scale in different angles, different pressures are applied to close the gap of a micrometer gauige, changes of surrounding temperature, recording the wrong reading etc. Physical Quantities And Units (Summary)