N etw o rk s o f P o w e r

Networks
of Pow er
E le c t r ific a t io n
in W e s t e r n Society,

1880-1930

This book has been brought lo publication with the

generous assistance of the Burndy Library and the
National Endowment for the Humanities.
1983 by T h e Jo h n s H opkins University Press
AJI rights reserved. Published 1983
Printed in the U nited States of America on acid-free p ap er
Second printing, 1988
Softshell Books edition, 1993
T h e Joh n s H opkins University Press, 2715 N orth Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218-4319
The Jo h n s H opkins Press Ltd., L ondon

L ibrary o f C ongress C ataloging in P u b licatio n Data

Hughes, T hom as Parke.
Networks o f power.
Includes index.
I. Electric pow er systems U nited States History.
2. Electric pow er system s G reat Britain History.
3. Electric power systems G erm an y History. 1. T itle.
T K 1005.1183 1983
363.6'2
82-14858
ISBN 0-8018-2873-2
ISBN 0-8018-4614-5 (phk.)
A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Title-page illustration: Ralston Crawford's Electrification

(1936). Reproduced by permission of the Hirshhorn Museum and
Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution.

For Agatha

Contents

Preface / ix
I.

Im ro d u c lio n / 1

II.

E d iso n th e H e d g e h o g : I n v e n tio n a n d D e v e lo p m e n t / 18

III.

E d is o n s System A b ro a d : T e c h n o lo g y T r a n s f e r / 47

IV .

R ev e rse S alie n ts a n d C ritica l P ro b le m s / 79

V.

C o n flic t a n d R e so lu tio n / 106

V I.

T e c h n o lo g ic a l M o m e n tu m / 140

V II.

B e rlin : T h e C o o rd in a tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y a n d P olitics / 175

V III.

C h icag o : T h e D o m in a n c e o f T e c h n o lo g y / 201

IX .

L o n d o n : T h e P rim ac y o f Politics / 2 2 7

X.

C a lifo rn ia W h ite C o al / 2 6 2

X I.

W a r a n d A c q u ire d C h a ra c te ristic s / 2 8 5

X II.

P la n n e d S y ste m s / 3 2 4

X III.

T h e C u ltu r e o f R eg io n al S y stem s / 3 63

X IV .

R W E , PP& L, a n d N E S C O : T h e Style o f E volving System s / 404

XV.

E p ilo g u e / 461
Index I 4 67

Tables
111.1.

C ost o f th e H o lb o rn V ia d u c t C e n tra l S ta tio n / 5 8

111.2.

E stim ated A n n u a l C o st o f O n e

V I . 1.

M .l.T .'s E lectrical E n g in e e rin g

C o u rs e o f S tu d y , 1 8 8 4 -1 8 8 5 / 152

V I.2.

M .I.T .s E lectrical E n g in e e rin g

C o u rse o f S tu d y , 1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 0 / 153

V II.

1.

U n it o f th e H o lb o r n V ia d u ct S ta tio n / 59

M o to r L o ad o f B e rlin e r E le k tric ila ts-W e rk e in B erlin C lassified

A c c o rd in g to U se, 1914 / 191
vtl

v ili

I X .I.
X I I . 1.

CONTENTS

L eg islation R e la tin g to E le ctric S erv ice in th e L o n d o n

A re a / 2 4 8

C o n o w in g o in C o m p a ris o n / 331

X I I I . 1.

T ra n sm issio n -S y ste m M ilea g e in th e U n ite d S ta te s, 31

1932 I 3 6 5

X IV . 1.

R egional Style: T e c h n ic a l C h a ra c te ris tic s o f T h r e e P o w e r S ystem s,

c. 1924 / 4 09

D ecem ber

Preface

u t ro o ts o f th is b o o k re a c h back to m y u n d e r g r a d u a te y e ars as .11

e n g in e e r in g s tu d e n t. In th o s e d ay s, e n g in e e rs se e m e d u iiinteicsie<
in c o m p r e h e n d in g th e o r d e r in th e te c h n o lo g ic a l w o rld . A 11 e x c e p tio n wa:
th e c o u rs e o f stu d y in ele c tric a l e n g in e e rin g . T h e so lu tio n o f p ro b le m s ii
th is field d e m a n d e d a n ability to see r e la tio n sh ip s, use m a th e m a tic s im
ag in a tiv ely , a n d d ra w o n g e n e ra liz a tio n s . E specially sa tisfy in g was a conrs
in e le c tric p o w e r p la n t d e s ig n ta u g h t by P ro fe sso r F re d e ric k M orse, win
h a d th e in te lle c tu a l s tr e n g th to u se e le g a n t electric al science in solving
p ro b le m s w ith in a c o n te x t o f e c o n o m ic , political, a n d g e o g ra p h ic a l lac tors
H e so lv e d n o t by e x c lu d in g v a ria b le s b u t by b r in g in g to b e a r p o w e rfu l and
c o m p le x a n aly sis a n d o r d e r .
D e sp ite so m e d is a p p o in tm e n t in th e way e n g in e e r in g was ta u g h t, I nevei
g av e u p th e s e a rc h f o r tra c e s o f o r d e r in m a n - m a d e c o m p le x itie s. In g ra d
u a le sch o o l I tu r n e d to h isto ry a n d c o n tin u e d th e se a rc h fo r e x p re ssio n s
h o w e v e r tre m u lo u s , o f m a n s c o n s tru c tiv e p o w e r in a c h a o tic w orld. I so u g h t
th e p a tte r n s th a t so m e e n g in e e r s h a d im p o se d in th e past 011 th e m aterial
w o rld . T h e s e w e re th e e n g in e e r s w ho, in th e w o rd s o f th e ir n in e te e n th
c e n tu r y b i o g r a p h e r S a m u e l Sm iles, w ere s tro n g -m in d e d , re so lu te , an d
in g e n io u s ," a n d w h o w e re im p e lle d to th e ir special p u rs u its by th e lo rc r
o f th e ir c o n s tru c tiv e in stin c ts."
My h is to r ia n -m e n to rs , O r o n J . H a le a n d Ju lian B ishko. s o u g h t p a tte rn s
in politica l, e c o n o m ic , a n d d ip lo m a tic h isto ry . T h e y d e lig h te d in fin d in g
c o h e re n c e in B ism a rc k 's fo re ig n policy o r in th e sea so n al rh y th m s a n d
g e o g ra p h ic a l m ig ra tio n s o f th e mesta in m e d ie v al S p a in . I so u g h t th e e c o n
o m y , e fficien c y , a n d sy stem im p o se d by in v e n to rs, e n g in e e rs , m a n a g e rs,
a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s o f te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e . Early o n I fo u n d th at th e m ost
im p re ssiv e o f th e p a tte r n s im p o se d o n th e w o rld by m e n im p e lle d by th e
fo rc e o f c o n s tru c tiv e in stin c ts w ere system s, c o h e re n t s tru c tu r e s c o m p rise d
o f in te r a c tin g , in te rc o n n e c te d c o m p o n e n ts th a t ra n g e d fro m re latively sim
ple m a c h in e s to re g io n a l e le c tric s u p p ly n e tw o rk s, C o m p le x system s be ca m e
m y u n it o f stu d y .
T h is s tu d y o f sy stem s has b e e n in p ro g re s s fo r m o re th a n a d ec a d e .
T h e r e f o r e , it ha s b e e n c o n ce iv ed , r e s e a rc h e d , a n d w ritte n w ithin th e c o n
text o f r a p id ly c h a n g in g p e rsp e c tiv e s o n . a n d a ssu m p tio n s a b o u t, th e n a tu re

PREFACE
o f h isto ry , esp ec ia lly th e h isto ry o f te c h n o lo g y . Initially , th e esse n tia l p r o b
lem se e m e d to b e to d e lin e a te a h isto ry o f e v o lv in g id e a s a n d th e a rtifa c ts
th a t gave th e id eas m a te ria l re p r e s e n ta tio n . T h e h isto ry o f a g iv en m a c h in e
o r p ro ce ss was o fte n w ritte n , th e n , w ithouL re f e r e n c e to c o n te x t. I fo u n d
th a t th e r e w as in te r e s t in th e im p a c t o f t e c h n o lo g y o n so ciety, b u t th a t w ith
r a r e e x c e p tio n s th e im p a c t o f so ciety, o r c u ltu r e , o n th e s h a p e o f te c h n o lo g y
h a d b e e n v irtu a lly ig n o re d . D issatisfie d w ith th e in te r n a lis ts a p p ro a c h . I
t u r n e d to an e x p lo ra tio n o f a b r o a d r a n g e o f fa c to rs, e v e n ts, in stitu tio n s,
m e n , a n d w o m e n in v o lv ed in c o m p le x n e tw o rk s o f p o w e r te c h n ic a l, e co
n o m ic , p o litical, a n d social. My e x p lo ra tio n o f th e c u ltu ra l c o n te x t w as
re in f o rc e d w h e n I b e c a m e a m e m b e r o f a h isto ry o f sc ie n ce d e p a r tm e n t
th a t u se d th e c o n te x tu a l a p p r o a c h .
As m y stu d y o f th e h isto ry o f te c h n o lo g y c o n tin u e d , I f o u n d n o t only
th a t te c h n o lo g ic a l sy ste m s in c o n te x t w e re th e u n its fo r s tu d y , b u t also th at
th e h isto ry o f th e se sy ste m s e x te n d e d b e y o n d n a tio n a l b o rd e r s . A stu d y of
U .S. e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r sy stem s a lo n e w o u ld n o t d o . C a u sa l links are
n o re s p e c te rs o f p o litica l b o u n d a rie s . I d is c o v e re d th a t in v e n to rs , e n g in e e rs ,
a n d m a n a g e rs o fte n d re w o n fo re ig n te c h n o lo g ie s e v e n w e n t a b r o a d in
se a rc h o f th e m as th e y p u r s u e d so lu tio n s to th e ir p ro b le m s . I fo u n d th a t
th e n etw o rk s o f evolving tec h n o lo g ies o fte n lin k ed G e rm a n y w ith th e U nited
S ta te s b e c a u se b o th w e re in d u s tr ia liz in g ra p id ly , a n d th a t E n g la n d o fte n
p r o v id e d a c o n tra s t to e v e n ts a n d tr e n d s o b s e rv e d in th e o th e r tw o c o u n
trie s. ( L im ita tio n s o f tim e , r e so u rc e s, a n d la n g u a g e p r e v e n te d e x p lo ra tio n
o f th e s o u rc e s p e r ta in in g to F ra n c e , Ita ly , S w e d e n , th e B e n e lu x c o u n trie s,
R ussia, J a p a n , a n d o th e r in d u s tr ia liz in g re g io n s o f th e w o rld .)
In tim e I fo u n d th a t a c o m p a ra tiv e a p p r o a c h lin k in g t h r e e n a tio n a l a re a s
n e e d e d to b e m o d ifie d . In fact, th e in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n re g io n a n d te c h
n o lo g y was m o r e n o ta b le th a n th a t b e tw e e n n a tio n a n d te c h n o lo g y . I n f lu
e n ce s a t th e n a tio n a l level, su c h as le g isla tio n , a ff e c te d e v o lv in g te c h n o lo g
ical system s, b u t local g e o g ra p h ic a l fa c to rs, b o th n a tu r a l a n d m a n -m a d e ,
w e re m o r e d ire c t a n d d isc e rn ib le d e te r m in a n ts o f th e s h a p e o f th e system s.
S ta le d d if fe re n tly , th e fa c to r e n d o w m e n ts s h a p in g e le c tric p o w e r sy ste m s
w ere m o r e re g io n a l th a n n a tio n a l.
T a k in g th e c o m p a ra tiv e a p p r o a c h w as m a d e m o r e m a n a g e a b le by th e
d e cisio n to fo c u s o n d e c isio n s m a d e by in v e n to rs , e n g in e e rs , m a n a g e r s , a n d
fin a n c ie rs w h o w e re sy stem b u ild e rs . T h is e m p h a s is o n th e i n n e r w o rk in g s
o f e le c tric su p p ly sy ste m s a n d th e d y n a m ic s o f th e ir g ro w th d id n o t, h o w
ev e r, p r o d u c e a s tu d y th a t is o f in te r e s t o n ly to p ro fe s s io n a ls p re s id in g o v e r
te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e . C o n s u m e rs o f te c h n o lo g y ca n m o re e ffe c tiv e ly in flu
e n c e th e o u tp u t o f te c h n o lo g ic a l sy ste m s if th e y , to o , u n d e r s ta n d th e fu n c
tio n in g o f sy stem s a n d th e n a tu r e o f th e critic al d e c isio n s m a d e by th o se
w ho d ire c t th e m .
As a h is to ria n tra d itio n a lly tr a in e d , I a m r e lu c ta n t to s u g g e s t a d e fin itiv e
m o d e l fo r th e ev o lu tio n o f e le c tric p o w e r system s. N e v e rth e le ss, I hav e
p ro p o s e d a loosely s tr u c tu r e d m o d e l b e c a u se th e h isto ry I e x p lo r e d was
m ostly u n to u c h e d , a n d I w a n t to p ro v id e so m e la n d m a rk s by w h ic h o th e r
h isto ria n s c an c h a r t th e ir e x p lo ra tio n s . I e x p e c t m y fin d in g s to b e rev ised ,
m y m a p to b e r e d ra w n , a n d m y th e m e s to b e r e d e f in e d a s th e a rc h iv e s a r e
e x p lo re d fa r m o re th o ro u g h ly in th e f u tu re . I also a n tic ip a te th a t h isto ria n s

xl

PREFACE
w h o re fle c t o n th e s a m e m a te ria l th a t I h a v e u se d will fin d d iff e r e n t p a t
te rn s .
T h o s e to w h o m I w ish to a c k n o w le d g e m y in d e b te d n e s s fo r assistance,
e n c o u r a g e m e n t, a n d s u p p o r t a r e n u m e ro u s . P e rso n s w h o r e a d a n d c o m
m e n te d o n c h a p te r s o r s e c tio n s o f th e b o o k a r e W ay n e A stley, J a m e s B e a rd ,
R o b e rt B elfie ld , R ic h a rd B e ttin g e r, J o h n B r a in e r d , J a m e s B ritta in , H arv e y
B ro o k s, B e r n a r d C a rls o n , A lfre d C h a n d le r , R o b e rt F rie d e l, L eslie H a n n a h ,
J o h n H e ilb ro n , R ic h a rd H o re , S a m u e l I n su ll, J r ., P a u l Isra e l, D an ie l Kevles,
W ilm e r K le in b a c h , F o r re s t M c D o n a ld , J u d i t h M cG aw , J o h n A. M a n ea tis,
M e r rill R oe S m ith , J o h n S ta u d e n m a ie r, R o se m a ry S te v e n s, E d m u n d T o d d ,
G e o rg e V a n d e rslic e , W. C. W a tso n , a n d G e o rg e W ise.
T h o s e w h o h a v e a id e d m e in re s e a rc h in g a n d illu s tra tin g t h e b o o k in c lu d e
A r t h u r A b el, B ria n B o w ers, K a th le e n B ra m le y .J . C h u rc h , W illiam C lo u g h ,
F ield C u r r y , D o r o th y E lliso n , T e d F e d d e r, B e r n a r d F in n , H u g h G ibb, J a n e t
H a id e r , B a rb a r a K elly, R ee se J e n k in s , K u r t M au el, L y n n N y h a rt, C o rw in
O v e rto n , R u th P e n g e l, S a m u e l Sass, F re d S c h o ch , R u th S h o e w a lk e r, Pa
tricia Sikes, H elen S lotkin, C. J . S o m ers, E. S ym ons, D iane T a y lo r, F. T h o m a ,
R u d o lf von M iller, S ig frid v o n W e ih e r, R ic h m o n d W illiam s; s tu d e n ts in
m y s e m in a r s a t th e U n iv e rsity o f P e n n sy lv a n ia ; a n d A g a th a H . a n d L u cian
P. H u g h e s .
F o r ty p in g a n d fo r e d ito r ia l s u g g e stio n s, I a m a p p re c ia tiv e o f th e e x c e lle n t
c ra fts m a n s h ip a n d c a re fu l a tte n tio n to d e ta il o f E le a n o re K u rtz . A lso in
volved in th e ty p in g o f th e m a n u s c rip t w ere m y fr ie n d s in th e offic e o f th e
U n iv e rsity o f P e n n s y lv a n ia s D e p a r tm e n t o f th e H isto ry a n d Sociology o f
S cience, M a rth e n ia P e rrin , Sylvia D re y fu ss, a n d P at J o h n s o n .
F o r th e ir ad v ic e a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t t h r o u g h o u t th e p u b lic a tio n pro c ess,
I a m in d e b te d to J a c k G o e lln e r, J im J o h n s to n , H e n ry T o m , Lisa M irski,
S u san Fillion, a n d esp e cia lly m y e d ito r, P e n n y M o u d ria n a k is , all o f T h e
J o h n s H o p k in s U n iv e rsity P ress. E llen K och o f th e U n iv e rsity o f P e n n sy l
van ia assiste d e x p e rtly in th e p r e p a r a tio n o f th e in d e x .
G ra n ts in s u p p o r t o f m y r e s e a rc h a n d w ritin g w e re a w a rd e d by th e
A m e ric a n C o u n c il o f L e a r n e d S o cieties, th e A m e ric a n P h ilo so p h ica l Soci
ety, th e C e n te r fo r I n te r d is c ip lin a ry R e se a rc h a t th e U n iv ersity o f B ielefeld,
th e F u lb r ig h t C o m m issio n , th e J o h n M. G le n n F u n d o f W a sh in g to n a n d
L ee U n iv e rsity , th e In s titu te o f E le ctrica l a n d E le ctro n ic s E n g in e e rs, th e
M a ssa ch u se tts In s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y , th e N a tio n a l S cience F o u n d a tio n ,
th e R e se a rc h C o u n c il o f th e U n iv e rsity C e n te r in V irg in ia , T h e R o ck e felle r
F o u n d a tio n , th e S m ith so n ia n In s titu tio n , th e S ocial S cien ce R ese arc h C o u n
cil, th e S o u th e r n F e llo w sh ip F u n d , S o u th e r n M e th o d ist U n iv e rsity , a n d th e
U n iv e rsity o f P e n n sy lv an ia.
D r. B e rn D ib n e r, a c o n n o is s e u r o f b o o k s, sc ience, a n d h isto ry , g e n e ro u sly
s u p p o r te d m y e n d e a v o r to m a k e th is b o o k a n a e sth e tic as well as scholarly
s ta te m e n t.

N etw o rk s of P o w e r

CHAPTER

Introduction

F THE greal construction projects o f the last century, none has been
m o r e im p re ssiv e in its te c h n ic a l, e co n o m ic , a n d sc ie n tific a sp e c ts,
n o n e h a s b e e n m o re in flu e n tia l in its social effe c ts, a n d n o n e h as e n g a g e d
m o re th o ro u g h ly o u r c o n s tru c tiv e in stin c ts a n d ca p a b ilitie s th a n th e electric
p o w e r sy stem . A g r e a t n e tw o rk o f p o w e r lin es w hich will fo r e v e r o r d e r th e
w ay in w hich we live is now s u p e r im p o s e d o n th e in d u s tria l w o rld . I n v e n
to rs, e n g in e e rs , m a n a g e rs , a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s h a v e o r d e r e d th e m a n -m a d e
w o rld w ith th is e n e rg y n e tw o rk . T h e h a lf-c e n tu ry fro m 1880 to 1930 c o n
s titu te d th e fo rm a tiv e y e ars o f th e h isto ry o f e le c tric s u p p ly system s, a n d
fro m a stu d y o f th e s e y ea rs o n e c a n p e rc e iv e th e o rd e r in g , in te g ra tin g ,
c o o rd in a tin g , a n d s y ste m a tiz in g n a tu r e o f m o d e r n h u m a n societies. Electric
p o w e r sy ste m s d e m a n d e d o f th e ir d e s ig n e rs , o p e r a to rs , a n d m a n a g e r s a
feel fo r th e p u r p o s e f u l m a n ip u la tio n o f th in g s, in te lle c t fo r th e ra tio n a l
analysis o f t h e ir n a tu r e a n d d y n a m ic s, a n d a n ability to d e a l w ith th e m essy
ec o n o m ic , p o litica l, a n d social vitality o f th e p ro d u c tio n system s th a t e m
bo d y th e c o m p le x ob jectiv e s o f m o d e r n m e n a n d w o m en . R o b e rt V e n tu ri,
th e c o n te m p o ra ry a rc h ite c t, h a s ask e d a rc h ite c ts to e m b ra c e th e co m p le x ity
a n d c o n tra d ic tio n s o f th e m o d e rn w o rld a n d to m a k e o f th a t w o rld a
h a b ita b le e n v ir o n m e n t.1 L e a d in g e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs h av e also re c
o g n iz e d th a t th e ir d r iv e f o r o r d e r m u st be te m p e r e d by to le ra n c e o f m essy
v itality. M o d e rn e le c tric sy stem s h av e th e h e te ro g e n e ity o f fo rm a n d fu n c
tio n th a t m a k e p o ssib le th e e n c o m p a s s in g co m p le x ity .
M a n s m a k in g o f th e c o m p le x m o d e rn w o rld is a n a p p r o p r ia te subject
fo r th e tw e n tie th - c e n tu ry h is to ria n . C re a tio n o f th e m a te ria l e n v iro n m e n t
s h a p e d by a n d s h a p in g m a n k in d is n o t a p e r ip h e r a l su b ject th a t ca n be
le ft to n a r ro w specialists. T o d ire c t a tte n tio n to d a y to te ch n o lo g ic al affa irs
is lo focus o n a c o n c e rn th a t is as c e n tra l now as n a tio n b u ild in g a n d
c o n stitu tio n m a k in g w ere a c e n tu ry a go. T e c h n o lo g ic a l a ffa irs c o n ta in a
rich te x tu r e o f te ch n ica l m a tte rs, sc ientific laws, ec o n o m ic p rin c ip le s, p o
litical fo rc es, a n d social c o n c e rn s. T h e h isto ria n m ust ta k e th e b ro a d p e r
sp ective to get to th e ro o t o f lh i n g s a n d to see th e p a tte rn s. S cien tists a n d

1Robert V enturi. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (New York: T he Museum ol

M odern A rt, I960), pp. 22-23.

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

en g in e e rs analyze th e technical system s they build, b u t histo rian s a re n e e d e d

to c o m p r e h e n d th e c o m p le x , m u ltifa c e te d re la tio n s o f th e se sy ste m s a n d
th e c h a n g e s th a t ta k e p lac e in th e m o v e r lim e .2
F o r h isto ria n s, th e s tu d y o f c o m p le x ity a n d c h a n g e is e n g a g in g . E d w a rd
G ib b o n sal in th e ru in s o f th e C a p ito l in R o m e a n d r e fle c te d o n th e c o n tra s t
b e tw e e n w h at h e saw b e fo re h im a n d th e e a r lie r g lo ry th a t w as R o m e . U p o n
s e e in g d r u m s o f oil b e in g u n lo a d e d fro m a n A m e ric a n s h ip in a n A fric a n
p o rt, th e A m e ric a n s c h o la r P e rry M iller a sk e d h ow a civ iliza tio n as new as
th e A m e ric a n o n e c o u ld a lr e a d y b e e x p o r tin g th e p ro d u c ts o f its te c h n o lo g y
to re m o te a re a s o f th e w o rld th a t h a d b e e n se ttle d c e n tu rie s e a r lie r. O th e r
h isto ria n s, ta k in g b a re b o n e d sta tistics fro m w idely s e p a r a te d tim es, h av e
s o u g h t to e x p la in q u a n tita tiv e c h a n g e by m e a n s o f q u a lita tiv e an a lysis. T h e
d r a m a o f c h a n g e p ro v id e s th e h is to ria n w ith a n e m p h a s is th a t sets h im o r
h e r a p a r t fro m th e social sc ie n tist, w ho o f te n dissec ts s itu a tio n s w ith o u t
in c lu d in g a tim e d im e n s io n .
H o w d id th e sm all, in te rc ity lig h tin g sy stem s o f th e 1880s ev o lv e in to th e
re g io n a l p o w e r sy stem s o f th e 1920s? In th is case, th e c h a n g e is n o t th e
d e c lin e th a t fa sc in a te d G ib b o n ; it is th e e x p a n s io n th a t a ttr a c te d M iller.
T h e fo cu s is n o t o n c o n tra s tin g d a ta ; it is o n c o n tr a s tin g ph y sic al c o n fig
u r a tio n s . T h e p ro b le m o f th is b o o k is to e x p la in th e c h a n g e in c o n fig u ra tio n
o f e le c tric p o w e r sy stem s d u r in g th e h a lf-c e n tu r y b e tw e e n 1880 a n d 1930.
S u c h c h a n g e c a n b e d isp la y e d in n e tw o rk d ia g ra m s (see Fig. 1 .1), b u t th e
e f f o r t to e x p la in th e c h a n g e involves c o n s id e ra tio n o f m a n y field s o f h u m a n
activity, in c lu d in g th e tec h n ic a l, th e scie n tific , th e e c o n o m ic , th e p o litica l,
a n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l. T h is is b e c a u se p o w e r sy ste m s a r e c u ltu ra l a rtifa c ts.
E lec tric p o w e r sy stem s e m b o d y th e p h y sic al, in te lle c tu a l, a n d sy m bolic
re s o u rc e s o f th e society th a t c o n s tru c ts th e m . T h e r e f o r e , in e x p la in in g
c h a n g e s in th e c o n fig u ra tio n o f p o w e r syste m s, th e h is to ria n m u s t e x a m in e
th e c h a n g in g re s o u rc e s a n d a s p ira tio n s o f o rg a n iz a tio n s , g r o u p s , a n d in
d iv id u a ls. E lectric p o w e r sy stem s m a d e in d if f e r e n t soc ie tie s as w ell as in
d if f e r e n t tim es in v o lv e c e rta in basic te c h n ic a l c o m p o n e n ts a n d c o n n e c
tio n s, b u t v a ria tio n s in th e basic esse n tia ls o fte n re v e a l v a ria tio n s in r e
so u rc e s, tra d itio n s , p o litical a rr a n g e m e n ts , a n d e c o n o m ic p ra c tic e s fro m
o n e society to a n o th e r a n d fro m o n e tim e to a n o th e r . I n a se n se , e le c tric
p o w e r sy stem s, like so m u c h o th e r tec h n o lo g y , a r e b o th c a u se s a n d e ffe c ts
o f social c h a n g e .
P o w er sy stem s re fle c t a n d in f lu e n c e th e c o n te x t, b u t th e y also d e v e lo p
a n in te rn a l d y n a m ic . T h e r e f o r e , th e h isto ry o f e v o lv in g p o w e r sy ste m s
r e q u ire s a tte n tio n n o t o n ly to th e fo rce s a t w o rk w ith in a g iv en c o n te x t b u t
to th e in te r n a l d y n a m ic s o f a d e v e lo p in g te c h n o lo g ic a l sy ste m as well. T h is
b o o k is n o t sim p ly a h isto ry o f th e e x te rn a l fa c to rs th a t s h a p e te c h n o lo g y ,
n o r is it o n ly a h isto ry o l th e in te rn a l d y n a m ic s o f te c h n o lo g y ; it is a h isto ry
o f te c h n o lo g y a n d society.
S cien tists h a v e d o n e m u c h to e n lig h te n us a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f d y n a m ic s
o f th e s tru c tu re s o f th e n a tu ra l w o rld , b u t h is to ria n s h av e as yet o n ly b are ly
In his essays. Harvey Brooks, a scientist and engineer, addresses the multifaceted com
plexity or contemporary tcchnosocial systems. See. Tor example. Brooks. "A Framework Tor
J 72): M:i S 8y P

' EEE Tnmaaima

Mnn' nnd Cybernetics. SMC-2.

FIGURE 1.1. TH E CONFIGURATION OF EVOLVING SYSTEM S: IN N E R C ITY (1885): C EN TRALIZED U RBAN (1906); AND
REGIONAL (1930)

FIGURE 1.2.

THE STATISTICS OF EVOLVING SYSTEM S IN TH REE CO U NTRIES

Above. Electricity generated by public utilities in Germany, 188 0 1940. From R udolf von Millers article in Technikgeschichte 25
(1936): 112.
Right; Electricity generated by utilities in the United States, 1 8821921. From Electrical W orld 80 (1922): 546.

1B30 IB?? IBM lwlBn 1030 103? 1934 IBM IBM

The growth of electricity sales in the United Kingdom. 1895-1913 (left) and 1920-1938 (right).
Data from I. C. R. Ryatt, "The British Electrical Industry, 1 8 7 5-1914" (I). Phil, thesis, Oxford
University, 1962). p. 111; and Hannah, Electricity Before N ationalisation, table A .I

IN T R O D U C T IO N
p e n e tr a te d th e s u r fa c e o f th e h ig h ly o rg a n iz e d a n d ev o lv in g sy stem s o f th e
m a n - m a d e w o rld . H is to ria n s in te re s te d in te c h n o lo g y h a v e w ritte n o n ly a
few m o n o g ra p h s th a t c o n c e n tra te o n th e e v o lu tio n o r th e m assive, e x te n
sive, vertically in te g ra te d p ro d u c tio n system s o f th e m o d e rn in d u stria l w orld.
A lth o u g h th e p u b lic se n se s th e s tro n g o r g a n iz in g fo rce s th a t o rig in a te d in
th e se sy stem s a n d th a t to d a y in flu e n c e th e ir lives, th e y o n ly d im ly p e rc e iv e
th e n a tu r e o f th e se fo rce s. T h e te c h n o lo g ic a l, o r m a n -m a d e , w o rld aw aits
a D arw in lo e x p lic a te th e o rig in s a n d d y n a m ic s o f th e fo rc e s th a t p e r v a d e
it. Q u o tin g P a u l V a le ry , h is to r ia n M arc B loch c h id e s tr a d itio n a l h isto ria n s
fo r n o t ta k in g u p th e task o f e x p lic a tin g " th e c o n q u e s t o f th e e a r t h by
e le ctricity , o n e o f th o s e n o ta b le p h e n o m e n a th a t h av e g r e a te r p o ssib ilities
o f s h a p in g o u r im m e d ia te f u tu r e th a n all th e political e v e n ts c o m b in e d ." 3
H o w m ig h t th e te c h n o lo g ic a l sy ste m s th a t in c re a sin g ly s tr u c tu r e o u r m a
te ria l e n v ir o n m e n t sp e cifically, ele ctric p o w e r system s b e d e f in e d ? B e
c a u se th e se sy ste m s h a v e v a rie d o v e r lim e a n d fro m p lac e to plac e, th e
h is to ria n 's d e f in itio n c a n n o t b e as p re c ise as th e s c ie n tists. L u d w ig von
B e rta la n ffy , o n e o f t h e m o st a rtic u la te o f sy stem s th e o rists, n e e d e d a bo o k ,
n o t a p a r a g r a p h , to d e f in e sy ste m ."4 T h u s , a n in a d e q u a te a p p ro x im a tio n
m u s t se rv e h e r e as a n in tro d u c tio n to th e c o n c e p t o f system s. S o m e c h a r
a cteristic s o f sy ste m s a r e so g e n e ra l th a t th e y tra n s c e n d lim e a n d p lace. A
sy stem is c o n s titu te d o f r e la te d p a rts o r c o m p o n e n ts . T h e s e c o m p o n e n ts
a re c o n n e c te d by a n e tw o rk , o r s tr u c tu r e , w hich fo r th e s tu d e n t o f s y stem s
m ay b e o f m o r e in te re s t th a n th e c o m p o n e n ts . T h e in te rc o n n e c te d c o m
p o n e n ts o f te c h n ic a l sy ste m s a re o fte n c e n tra lly c o n tro lle d , a n d u su a lly th e
lim its o f th e sy stem a r e esta b lish e d by th e e x te n t o f th is c o n tro l. C o n tro ls
a re e x e rc ise d in o r d e r to o p tim iz e th e sy ste m s p e r fo r m a n c e a n d to d ire c t
th e sy stem to w a rd th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f goals. T h e g oal o f a n ele c tric p r o
d u c tio n sy stem , f o r e x a m p le , is to tra n s fo rm av ailab le e n e r g y su p p ly , o r
i n p u t, in to d e s ire d o u tp u t, o r d e m a n d . B e ca u se th e c o m p o n e n ts a re re la te d
by th e n e tw o rk o f in te r c o n n e c tio n s , th e sta le , o r activity, o f o n e c o m p o n e n t
in flu e n c e s th e sta te , o r activity, o f o th e r c o m p o n e n ts in th e system . T h e
Marc Bloch, The Historians Craft (New York: K nopf, 1959), p. 66.
* Ludwig von B ertalanffy, GeneraI System Theory: Foundations, Development. Applications (New
York: Braziller, 1968). T h e literatu re on systems in general is extensive, and even a selected
bibliography is beyond the scope o fan d in a p p ro p riate fora history o f a particular kind
o f system. T h e interested rea d er m ight first consult the bibliography in Bcrtalanffys General
System Theory and th e article by Talcott Parsons, Social Systems," in Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences, 1968. 15: 4 5 8-72. More specific as an introduction to technological systems is G unter
Ropohl, EineSystemtheoriederTechnik: Zur Grundlegung der Allgemeinen Technologic (M unich and
Vienna: H anser, 1979), which has an extensive bibliography.
I n 1978, B ertran d Gille, the F rench historian o f technology, published an extensive historical
survey in which he used a systems model o f the developm ent o f technology to place the history
o f technology in th e context o f general history. His model involved technology as structures,
technical ensembles, and technical concatenations. T hese correspond roughly to machines,
processes, and civil-engineering works (structures); production, com m unication, and tran s
portation systems (ensembles); and such systems interrelated vertically and horizontally by
general production o r o u tp u t (concatenations). Gille used the model to range over hum an
history and explain technical progress. I am indebted to Professor Cecil Sm ith for sharing
his unpublished English translation (1981) o f B ertrand Gillc's "A Systems History of T ech
nology" (Hisloire des techniques [Paris: G allimard, 1978]). Gille's model was brought to my
attention a fter I com pleted my m anuscript, but I find no cause to revise my own model, which
interprets a relatively circum scribed case history in fine detail.

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
n e tw o rk p r o v id e s a d istin c tiv e c o n fig u r a tio n fo r th e sy ste m . F o r e x a m p le ,
a sy ste m c a n h a v e its c o m p o n e n ts a r r a n g e d v ertica lly o r h o riz o n ta lly .
A c c o rd in g lo w id e s p re a d u sa g e , a h o riz o n ta lly a r r a n g e d system in te r
c o n n e c ts c o m p o n e n ts o f th e s a m e k in d o r fu n c tio n , th o u g h n o t n e ce ssarily
o f th e sa m e m a g n itu d e , w h ile a vertic al sy stem in te rc o n n e c ts c o m p o n e n ts
jo in e d in a fu n c tio n a l c h a in . F o r e x a m p le , a n e lec trica l sy ste m o f th e h o r
izo n tal k in d c o m b in e s p o w e r p la n ts u n d e r c e n tr a l c o n tro l, w hile a p r o
d u c tio n sy stem o f th e v ertic al k in d m ig h t link a coal m in e lo a n elec tric
p o w e r p la n t th r o u g h a c e n tr a l c o n tr o l facility c o o rd in a tin g th e s u p p ly o f
coal a n d th e o u tp u t o f e le c tric ity . S y stem s a r e also a r r a n g e d h ie ra rc h ic a lly ,
w ith sm all sy stem s y ie ld in g lo th e o v e r r id in g c o n tro l o f a la rg e e n c o m
p a ssin g sy ste m . S y stem s also in te r a c t w ith o n e a n o th e r th r o u g h th e c o o r
d in a tio n o f s e m ia u to n o m o u s c o n tro ls , b u t w ith o u t y ie ld in g to a n o v e r rid in g
c o n tr o l. A lth o u g h it is c u s to m a ry to d e f in e sy stem s as te c h n ic a l, e co n o m ic,
p olitica l, o r social, th e c e n tra liz a tio n o f a t least a lo o se c o n tro l o v e r sy ste m s
o f th e s e d if f e r e n t k in d s m a k e s p o ssib le th e c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f so ciotechnical sy ste m s a n d th e like.
T h o s e p a r ts o f th e w o rld th a t a r e n o t s u b je c t to a sy ste m s c o n tro l, b u t
th a t in flu e n c e th e sy ste m , a r e c a lle d th e e n v ir o n m e n t. A s e c to r o f th e
e n v ir o n m e n t c a n b e in c o r p o r a te d in to a sy stem by b r in g in g it u n d e r system
c o n tr o l. A n o p e n sy ste m is o n e th a t is su b je c t lo in f lu e n c e s fro m th e e n
v ir o n m e n t; a c lo se d sy ste m is its o w n sw e e t b e a st, a n d th e fin a l s ta te can
b e p r e d ic te d fro m th e initial c o n d itio n a n d th e in te r n a l d y n a m ic . S om e
sy ste m s a r e p la n n e d to th e ir fu ll e x te n t, w h ile o th e r s g ro w by in c r e m e n ts
a n d by c o n flu e n c e w ith o th e r sy ste m s o v e r tim e . A ll o f th e k in d s a n d
c o n d itio n s o f sy ste m s n o te d in th is a b s tra c t d e f in itio n will b e illu s tra te d a n d
d e s c r ib e d in d e ta il in th e h isto ry th a t fo llo w s.5
U su ally in th is s tu d y , sy stem " re f e r s to a te c h n ic a l sy stem , s u c h as an
e le c tric tra n s m is s io n sy stem . S o m e tim e s re f e r e n c e is, as n o te d , to a system
w ith in te r a c tin g c o m p o n e n ts , s o m e o f w h ich a r e n o t te c h n ic a l. C e n tra lly
d ire c te d , in te r a c tin g in s titu tio n s a n d te c h n ic a l c o m p o n e n ts c o m p ris e su c h
a sy stem . O n o cc asio n s, h o w e v e r, th e c o n c e p t o f s y stem is u s e d m u c h m o re
loosely. S y ste m th e n m e a n s in te r a c tin g c o m p o n e n ts o f d if f e r e n t k in d s,
su c h as th e te c h n ic a l a n d th e in s titu tio n a l, as w ell as d if f e r e n t va lu e s; su c h
a sy stem is n e ith e r c e n tra lly c o n tro lle d n o r d ir e c te d to w a rd a c le a rly d e fin e d
go a l. T h is u s a g e is s im ila r to th a t o f th e h is to ria n w h o w rite s o f a system
o f n a tio n - s ta te s . S u c h a loosely s tr u c tu r e d sy ste m is sim ila r to th e c o n c e p t
e m b o d ie d in s y n d ro m e ." All o f th e sy ste m s, it is im p o r ta n t to stre ss, sh a re
th e c h a ra c te r is tic o f in te r c o n n e c te d n e s s i.e., a c h a n g e in o n e c o m p o n e n t
im p a c ts o n th e o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e sy stem .

s An interesting discussion o f electrical systems an d th eir m anagem ent is found by Georg

Boll, Entstehung und Entwicklung dts Verbundbetriebs in der deutschen Elektriutatswirtschaf! bis lum
europaischen Verbund (Fran k fo rt on the Main: VWEW, 1969), pp. 13-15, Articles on in ter
connections an d electric systems w ere frequently published in technical periodicals during
th e latter h alf o f th e p eriod covered by the present study, and many a re cited in the various
c h ap ters o f this book. M ore recent helpful discussions o r electrical systems include: H ans
Glavitsch, "C o m p u ter C ontrol o f Elcctric-Powci Systems," Scientific American, N ovem ber 1974,
pp. 3414: Wallace B rand, "N o rth east Electric Bulk Power Supply. Public Utilities Fortnightly,
9 Ju n e 1966, pp. 6 5 -8 8 ; a n d U.S., Federal Power Com mission, The 1970 National Power Survey,
pis. 1-4 (W ashington, D.C.: G PO . 197IV

IN T R O D U C T I O N
E lec tric p o w e r sy stem s o f t h e tec h n ic al k in d consist o f p o w e r g e n e ra tio n ,
tra n s f o r m a tio n , c o n tr o l, a n d u tiliz atio n c o m p o n e n ts a n d p o w e r tra n s m is
sio n a n d d is trib u tio n n e tw o rk s. ( T h e p rim a ry d istin c tio n b e tw e e n tr a n s
m ission a n d d is trib u tio n is th e g r e a te r d ista n c e c o v e re d , a n d th e r e f o r e th e
h ig h e r tra n sm issio n vo ltag e s u se d , in tra n sm issio n .) D u rin g th e h a lf-c e n tu ry
1 8 8 0 -1 9 3 0 , p o w e r g e n e ra tio n c o m p o n e n ts in c lu d e d c o u p le d p rim e m o v e rs
s u c h as r e c ip ro c a tin g s te a m e n g in e s a n d ste a m a n d w a te r tu rb in e s . V a rio u s
ty p es o f g e n e r a to r s w e re c o u p le d to th e p r im e m o v e rs. T r a n s f o r m e r s l>ec a m e th e p rin c ip a l m o d e o f c h a n g in g th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f e le c tric su p p ly
d u r in g tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n . E n e rg y u tiliz atio n c o m p o n e n ts in
c lu d e d la m p s, m o to rs, b o th sta tio n a ry a n d tra c tio n (m o v in g ), a n d h e a tin g
a n d e le c tro c h e m ic a l d evices. T h e system in c o r p o ra te d a m u ltitu d e o f a p
p lic a tio n s (see Fig. 1.3). P o w e r tra n sm issio n in c re a se d in e x te n t fro m a few
city blocks to re g io n s c o m p ris in g te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f s q u a re m iles. P ow er
d is trib u tio n n e tw o rk s c a rr ie d th e ele c tric s u p p ly fro m th e tr a n sm issio n
n e tw o rk to th e p o w e r u tiliz a tio n m a c h in e ry a n d a p p lia n c e s. C o n tro l c o m
p o n e n ts r e g u la te d th e s u p p ly system in a c c o rd a n c e w ith esta b lish e d s ta n d
a rd s su c h as v o ltag e a n d fre q u e n c y a n d d ire c te d th e sy sle m f o r o p tim u m
p e r fo rm a n c e as m e a s u r e d by go als, in c lu d in g efficien c y a n d e c o n o m y . T h e
m o st d iffic u lt c h a lle n g e in d e fin in g a n elec tric s u p p ly system arise s at th e
e x tre m e s u p p ly a n d d e m a n d e n d s o f th e syslem . F o r in sta n c e , s h o u ld th e
m ec h a n ic a l p rim e m o v e r b e in c lu d e d in th e d e fin itio n o f a sy stem ? S h o u ld
th e v a rio u s lo a d s b e in c lu d e d , c o n s id e rin g th a t th e y w e re usu a lly o u ts id e
th e c o n tro l o f th e sy stem ? In th is s tu d y th e p rim e m o v e rs h a v e b e e n in
c lu d e d in th e d e fin itio n o f th e syslem b e c a u se th e in v e n to rs, e n g in e e rs ,
a n d in d u s tria l scien tists tr e a te d th e m as su c h a n d b ec au se th e c h a ra c te ristic s
o f th e p r im e m o v e r w e re c o o rd in a te d w ith th e o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e
elec tric sy stem . F u r th e r m o r e , th e p r im e m o v e rs w ere u n d e r th e sy stem 's
c o n tro l. T h e in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o to rs h a v e b e e n tr e a te d in
th is stu d y b e c a u se in v e n to rs a n d d e s ig n e rs m a tc h e d th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f
m o to rs lo th o se o f th e e le c tric su p p ly system . S u c h c o m p lic a tio n s will be
c la rifie d by h isto ric a l e x a m p le .
T h e ra tio n a le fo r u n d e r ta k in g th is stu d y o f e le ctric p o w e r system s was
th e assu m p tio n th a t th e history o f all large-scale technology n o t only p ow er
sy stem s c an b e s tu d ie d effe ctiv e ly as a h isto ry o f system s. It is h o p e d ,
th e r e f o r e , th a t th is h isto ry o f a p a rtic u la r k in d o f system will be o f so m e
assistan c e to o th e r h isto ria n s w h o w ish to stu d y o th e r system s. T h e a s
s u m p tio n o f sim ila rity is b a se d in p a r t o n a n analysis o f stu d ie s o f la rg e
system s by o th e r h isto ria n s w h o h a v e u se d th e c o n c e p t o f th e system to
o rg a n iz e , a n aly ze , a n d d ra w c o n c lu sio n s fro m d is p a ra te m ate ria ls."
" I n an o th er source. I have discussed al some length the use o r the systems approach hy
Lynn W hite, J r., Medieval Technology and Social Change (New York: O xford University Press,
1962); Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, cd. Friedrich Engels, 3 vols. (Chicago:
Kerr, 1932-33); and A lfred D. C handler, j r . . The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in
American Business (Cam bridge, Mass.: H arvard University Press, 1977). See T hom as P. H ughes,
"T he O rd e r o f the Technological W orld. in History o f Technology, 1980, ed. A. R upert Hall
and N orm an Sm ith (L ondon: Mansell, I960), pp. 1-16.
A mong recent books in which o th er historians discuss technology as systems are H ugh
Ailken, Syntony atul Spark: The Origins o f Radio (New York: Wiley. 1976); Edward W. Constant
II, The Origins of the Turbojet Revolution (Baltimore: T h e Joh n s H opkins Unversity Press, 1980);

n h ttw o rk s o f

p o w e r

Figure 1.3. Universal supply system,

ftrrhn. r. 1910. (mm Matsrhass el al.. 50
Ja h rc. p. 90.

Jo h n Enos. Petroleum Progress aiul Profits: /\ History of Process Innovation (C am bridge, Mass.:
M .l.T . Press. 1952); Louis C. H u n te r, Steamboats on the Western Rivers: An Economic and Tech
nological History (Cam bridge, Mass.; H arvard University Press, 1949); idem . Waterpower: A
History o f Industrial Power in the United Stales, 1780-1930 (Charlottesville: U niversity Press of
Virginia, 1979); A rth u r Jo h n so n , The Development o f American Petroleum Pipelines: A Study in
Private Enterprise and Public Policy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell U niversity Press, 1956); David Landes.
The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from
1730 to the Present (Cam bridge: At the University Press, 1972); O tto M ayr, Feedback Mechanisms
in the Historical Collections of the National Museum o f History and Technology (W ashington, D.C.:

IN T R O D U C T IO N

Key to Figure U . Translation of terms

GERMAN

ENGLISH

Steinkohlen-G tube
Braunkohle-Eeld
Kohlenkahn
Stadtbahn
Fernkraftwerk
G toss raum-G iiterwagen
Fernleilung
BEWAG-Kraftwerk
Abspannwerk
Drehstrom
Gleichstrom
Stiitipunkl
Sons lige Hochsponn u ngs Almeh mer
G ross-l.ichtverbra ucli
Gross-Industrie
U ii tergru ndbah ii
Netistation
Transformatoren-Sdule
Bahn-Umformuierk

Hard-coal mine
Brown-coal open-fare mine
Coal barge
City railway
Distant power station
Long-distance coal tiampott
Long-distance transmission lines
Berlin power station
Step-down transformer station
Polyfha.se current
Direct current
Distribution renter
Special high-voltage consumer
Large-scale light consumer
Heavy industry
Subway
Dispatching center
Distribution transformer
Molor-generator converter
(traction load)
Motor-generator converter
(light and power load)
Streetcar
Electric truck
Kitchen appliances
Household appliance
Hot water
Display window
Street lighting
Commercial consumer
Craftsman

Licht-u. Kraft-Umformwerk
Strassenbahn
Eleklr. Transportmittel
Kiiche
llaushalt
Bad
Schaufenster
Strasse
Kleingewerbe
Handuierk

T h e e m p h a s is o n , a n d d e lin e a tio n o f, te ch n o lo g ica l system s by h isto ria n s

a n d social scien tists; th e d riv e oT in v e n to rs, e n g in e e rs , a p p lie rs o f science,
m a n a g e rs , a n d fin a n c ie rs lo c r e a te sy ste m s;7 a n d (h e ob v io u s sy stem atic
c h a r a c te r o f e le c tric p o w e r sy stem s h av e all stim u la te d th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f
th is stu d y as a h isto ry o f system s. H ie stu d y is co m p le x b e c au se it is a

Sm ithsonian Institution, 1971); B rurc Mazlish, ed.. The Railroad and the Spare Program: An
Exploration in Historical Analogy (C am bridge. Mass.: M l I. Press, 1965); Kiting Morison. Men.
Machines, and Modern Times (C am bridge. Mass.: M .I.T. Press, 1966): Natlian Rosenberg, ed.,
The American System o f Manufacturers (E dinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1969).
T h ere a rc interesting parallels between (bis study ol'electrical systems and the bistory ol
growth and technological change in the chemical industry as pcriodi/ed and organized by I..
F.
I label in The Chemical Industry. 19 00-1930 (O xford: Clarendon Press. 1971).
O ne such inventor and engineer, Elmer Sperry (1860-1930), devoted a lilriim r to in
venting and developing technological systems. I lis systems were mostly electromechanical in
n atu re and involved highly complex Iced back controls. T h e study o f h undreds o f his patents
for these systems has influenced my own concepts o f technological systems. See Thomas P.
H ughes. Elmer Sperry, Inventor and Engineer (llaltim ore: T h e Jo h n s H opkins Press, 1971).

FIGURE 1.4.

G ROW TH OF A.V ELECTRIC U G II I AXD POWER SYSTEM /.V F E X XSY LV A X /A FROM PP&l. HISTORY. I

Transmission systems served by Pennsylvania Power I Light. 1910

N ir i'W O I t K S O K P O W E R
c o m p a r a tiv e o n e in v o lv in g d e v e lo p m e n ts in th r e e d if f e r e n t c o u n tr ie s o v e r
a p e rio d o f filly ye ars. T he p r o b le m o f o r g a n iz a tio n w as f u r th e r c o m p li
c a te d by th e n ecessity o f s e le c tin g r e p re s e n ta tiv e p o w e r sy stem s fro m d if
fe re n t re g io n s fo r d if f e r e n t p h a se s o f th e h isto ry . T h e r e w ere th o u s a n d s
o f in d e p e n d e n t u tility sy ste m s to c h o o se fro m . A n e x p la n a tio n o f e ac h
selectio n will be g iv e n in th e b o d y o f th e te x t: b e r e th e o v e ra ll s tr u c tu r e of
th e h isto ry will be o u tlin e d .
A lth o u g h th e e le c tric p o w e r sy stem s d e s c r ib e d h e re in w e re in tro d u c e d
in d if f e r e n t pla ces a n d r e a c h e d th e ir p la te a u s o f d e v e lo p m e n t at d iff e r e n t
tim e s, th e y a r e r e la te d lo o n e a n o th e r by th e o v e ra ll m o d e l o f sy stem
e v o lu tio n th a t s tr u c tu r e s th is s tu d y a t th e m o st g e n e ra l level. T h e m o d e l
h a s p h a se s, a n d d o m in a n t c h a r a c te r is tic s a r e sh o w n to e m e r g e d u r in g e ach;
in a d d itio n , th e m o d e l id e n tifie s th e p a r tic u la r c a p a b ilitie s a n d in te r e s ts ol
th e p ro fe s s io n a ls w h o p re s id e d o v e r sy ste m g ro w th in e a c h o f th e ph ase s.
In th e first p h a s e , th e in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f a system a re c o n s id
e re d . T he p ro fe s s io n a ls p la y in g a p re d o m in a n t ro le d u r in g th is p h a s e a re
in v e n to r - e n tr e p r e n e u r s , w h o d if f e r fro m o r d in a r y in v e n to rs in lh a l th e
fo rm e r p re sid e o v e r a process w hich e x te n d s fro m th e inventive id ea th ro u g h
d e v e lo p m e n t to th e tim e w h e n th e in v e n te d sy stem is re a d y to b e u sed .
E n g in e e r s , m a n a g e r s , a n d fin a n c ie rs a lso a r e in v o lv e d in th is first stag e,
b u t th e y d o n o t p re s id e o v e r th e sy ste m s g r o w th u n til la te r p h a se s.
T h e se c o n d p h a s e o f th e m o d e l d ire c ts a tte n tio n to th e p ro c e ss o f te c h
n o lo g y tr a n s f e r fro m o n e r e g io n a n d so ciety to a n o th e r . T h e tr a n s f e r of
th e E d iso n e le c tric sy ste m fro m N ew Y o rk C ity to B e rlin a n d L o n d o n is a
case in p o in t. T h e site s a re sp e cific, b u t g e n e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s a b o u t th e
tr a n s f e r p ro c e ss c a n b e m a d e . D u rin g th is p h a s e th e a g e n ts o f c h a n g e a re
n u m e r o u s ; th e y in c lu d e in v e n to rs , e n tr e p r e n e u r s , o r g a n iz e rs o f e n t e r
p rise s, a n d fin a n c ie rs.
T h e e s se n tia l c h a r a c te ris tic o f th e th ir d p h a s e o f th e m o d e l is system
g r o w th . A s n o te d e a rlie r , th e h is to ria n is re s p o n s ib le fo r a n a ly z in g g ro w th ,
a n d a n a ly z in g th e g ro w th o f sy ste m s is a p a r tic u la r ly in te r e s tin g a n d d iffic u lt
c h a lle n g e . T h e m e th o d o f g ro w th an a ly sis u se d in th is s tu d y in v olves re v e rse
sa lie n ts a n d c ritic a l p ro b le m s . B e c a u se th e s tu d y u n it is a sy ste m , th e h is
to ria n fin d s re v e rs e sa lie n ts a ris in g in th e d y n a m ic s o f th e sy ste m d u r in g
th e u n e v e n g ro w th o f its c o m p o n e n ts a n d h e n c e o f th e o v e ra ll n e tw o rk .
In la b e lin g su c h a re a s o f im b a la n c e re v e rs e s a lie n ts," tb e a u th o r h a s b o r
ro w e d fro m m ilita ry h is to ria n s , w h o d e lin e a te th o s e s e c tio n s o f a n a d
va n c in g lin e, o r f r o n t, th a t h a v e fa lle n b ac k as r e v e rs e sa lie n ts." T h e m e t
a p h o r is a p p r o p r ia te b e c a u se a n a d v a n c in g m ilita ry f ro n t e x h ib its m a n y o f
th e irre g u la ritie s a n d u n p r e d ic ta b le q u a litie s o f a n e v o lv in g te c h n o lo g ic a l
sy stem . In th e c ase o f a te c h n o lo g ic a l sy ste m , in v e n to rs , e n g in e e rs , a n d
o th e r p ro fe s s io n a ls d e d ic a te th e ir c re a tiv e a n d c o n s tru c tiv e p o w e rs lo c o r
re c tin g re v e rs e s a lie n ts so th a t th e sy stem ca n fu n c tio n o p tim a lly a n d fulfill
sy stem goals.
H a v in g id e n tif ie d th e re v e rs e s a lie n ts, th e sy ste m te n d e r s c a n th e n a n a
lyze th e m as a se rie s o f critica l p ro b le m s . D e fin in g re v e rs e s a lie n ts as critical
p r o b le m s is th e esse n c e o f th e c re a tiv e p ro ce ss. A n in v e n to r o r a p p lie r o f
scien c e tr a n s f o r m s a n a m o r p h o u s c h a lle n g e th e b a c k w a rd n e s s o f a sys
te m in to a set o f p r o b le m s th a t a r e b elie v ed to b e solvable. E n g in e e r s in
p a r tic u la r a r e k n o w n lo r th e ir ability to d e fin e so lv ab le p ro b le m s . T h e

IN T R O D U C T IO N
in v e n to r 's o r e n g in e e r 's c o n fid e n c e th a t th e re v e rse sa lie n t c a n b e c o rr e c te d
in c re a se s d ra m a tic a lly o n c e th e p ro b le m s a r e d e f in e d , b e c a u se th e a r tic u
la tio n o f a p ro b le m o f te n im p lies its s o lu tio n .
W h e n e n g in e e r s c o rr e c t re v e rs e sa lie n ts by so lv in g critica l p ro b le m s, th e
sy stem u su ally g ro w s if th e r e is a d e q u a te d e m a n d fo r its p r o d u c t. O n
o c casio n , h o w e v e r, a critica l p ro b le m c a n n o t b e so lv ed . F o r in sta n c e , th e
first o f th e m a jo r ty p e s o f e le c tric system s, d ir e c t c u r r e n t, h a d a re v e rse
sa lie n t in th a t it was u n e c o n o m ic a l to tra n s m it. D esp ite p re c ise d e fin itio n s
o f th e p ro b le m , th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e r s co u ld n o t in
th e 1880s fin d a so lu tio n . As a re su lt, o th e r in v e n to rs fo u n d a s o lu tio n
o u ts id e th e d .c. sy ste m , a n d fo r a tim e th e tw o sy stem s w e re in co n flic t.
A f te r a c o m p r o m is e w as w o rk e d o u t, th e tw o sy ste m s ex iste d in a c o m p le
m e n ta ry w ay u n til th e n e w e r sy ste m b e c a m e th e d o m in a n t o n e . T h u s , this
stu d y o ff e r s an e x p la n a tio n n o t o n ly o f th e e v o lu tio n o f s ystem s as re v e rse
sa lie n ts a r e id e n tifie d a n d so lv ed , b u t also o f th e occasio n al e m e r g e n c e o f
n e w sy stem s o u t o f th e fa ilu r e to solve critical p ro b le m s in th e c o n te x t o f
th e o ld .
As a sy ste m g ro w s, it a c q u ire s m o m e n tu m . T h e fo u r th p h a s e o f th e system
m o d e l is c h a r a c te riz e d by su b s ta n tia l m o m e n tu m . A system w ith su b sta n tia l
m o m e n tu m h a s m ass, velocity, a n d d ire c tio n . In th e case o f te c h n o lo g ica l
system s, as d e f in e d in th is stu d y , th e m ass c onsists o f m a c h in e s, devices,
s tru c tu r e s , a n d o th e r p h y sical a rtifa c ts in w h ich c o n s id e ra b le ca p ita l has
b e e n in v e ste d . T h e m o m e n tu m also arise s fro m th e in v o lv e m e n t o f p e rso n s
w h o se p ro fe ssio n a l skills a r e p a r tic u la rly a p p lic a b le to th e system . B usiness
c o n c e rn s, g o v e r n m e n t ag e n c ie s, p ro fe ssio n a l societies, e d u c a tio n a l in sti
tu tio n s , a n d o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s th a t s h a p e a n d a r e s h a p e d by th e te ch n ical
c o re o f th e sy stem also a d d to th e m o m e n tu m . T a k e n to g e th e r , th e o r g a n
iz atio n s in v o lv ed in th e sy stem c a n b e s p o k e n o f as th e sy stem 's c u ltu re . A
system w ith su c h m a ss u su ally has a p e rc e p tib le ra te o f g ro w th o r velocity.
O f te n th e ra te a c c e le ra te s. A sy ste m u su ally h a s a d ire c tio n , o r goals. T h e
d e fin itio n o f g o als is m o r e im p o r ta n t f o r a y o u n g system th a n f o r a n old
o n e , in w hich m o m e n tu m p ro v id e s a n in e r tia o f d ir e c te d m o tio n .
In th e case o f e le c tric p o w e r system s, th e in stitu tio n s th a t p re s id e d o v e r
a n d w e re in flu e n c e d by th e m m o st d ire c tly w ere th e utilities, b o th p ublic
a n d p riv a te . F ro m a b o u t 1890 u n til W o rld W a r I, th e m a jo r e lec tric p o w e r
u tilities in th e U n ite d S la tes, G e rm a n y , a n d E n g la n d c o n c e n tra te d o n s u p
p ly in g th e m o st h eavily p o p u la te d a n d in d u stria liz e d u rb a n c e n te rs. T h e
de c isio n s m a d e by th e u tilitie s' m a n a g e rs d u r in g th is p e rio d sh a p e d th e
c h a r a c te r o f th e sy stem s m o re o bviously th a n d id th e d e cisio n s o f in v e n to rs
a n d e n g in e e rs , w h o se s o lu tio n s to critical p ro b le m s o f a te ch n ic al k in d h a d
cle a re d th e way fo r g ro w th th r o u g h th e c re a tio n o f a u n iv e rsal system o f
su p p ly . W ith in c re a s in g fre q u e n c y d u r in g th e tw o d e c a d e s b e fo re th e G re a t
W ar, th e u tilitie s fo u n d th e m se lv e s c o n fr o n tin g o th e r in stitu tio n a l c o n
te n d e r s f o r a u th o rity o v e r e co n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t a n d social c h a n g e . T h e
te n sio n b e tw e e n th e u tilitie s a n d political in s titu tio n s su ch as local g o v e rn
m e n ts was h ig h d u r in g th is p h a se o f system s d e v e lo p m e n t. In th is in sta n ce ,
h o w e v er, a modus vivendi, if n o t a lastin g a r ra n g e m e n t, was fo u n d by th e
c o n te n d in g po w e rs. T h r e e c h a p te rs in th is stu d y h av e th u s b e e n d e v o te d
to a n e x a m in a tio n o f th e ev o lu tio n o f th e ele ctric p o w e r system s in th re e
m a jo r cities; B e rlin , C h ic ag o , a n d L o n d o n .

10

NETW ORKS o f p o w e r

Ele c tr ic ity

upply

in

reat

itie s .

R eference.

-^CHICAGO

- --- -

Figure 1 J . Central station in London, Berlin. Paris, and Chicago, c. 1920. From the County of London Electric Supply Co., Ltd., Public Inquiry
.Held
. . j by
i -l
-!
r- m issioners in Connecti
r n . n i wjth Application for Consent for the Erection o f a Power Station at Barking.
the- Electricity
Com
Courtesy of NESCO, Newcastle upon Tyne. England.

D esp ite th e m o m e n tu m o f sy ste m s a n d th e in e rtia o f m o tio n , h o w e v er,

c o n tin g e n c ie s p u sh sy stem s in new d ire c tio n s . T o d e m o n s tr a te th is p h e
n o m e n o n , th is stu d y e x p lo re s th e im p a c t o f W o rld W a r I o n e le c tric p o w e r
system s. T h e e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs w h o p r e s id e d o v e r th e s e sy ste m s
w ere p e rs u a d e d by p olitical a n d m ilita ry le a d e rs a n d by p u b lic p r e s s u r e to
a tte n u a te th e ir c u sto m a ry d riv e f o r a u to n o m o u s g ro w th a n d p r o f it a n d to
e m p h a siz e th e c o o p e ra tiv e p ro d u c tio n o f e n e rg y . A ssig n in g e n e rg y p r o
d u c tio n a h ig h e r p rio rity th a n e ith e r p ro f it o r o rg a n iz a tio n a l a u to n o m y led
to new m a n a g e ria l a n d e n g in e e r in g policies f o r th e d u r a tio n , a n d so m e o f
th e se s u rv iv e d th e w ar. T h e e sse n tial p o in t, h o w e v e r, is n o t th e p a rtic u la r

IN T R O D U C T IO N
in sta n c e o f w ar as a c o n tin g e n t a n d s h a p in g fo rc e; ra th e r , it is th e possibility
o f e x te r n a l fo rc es re d ire c tin g h ig h - in o m e n tu m system s.
T h e last p h a s e o f s ystem h isto ry d e lin e a te d by th is stu d y is c h a ra e te ri/.e d
by a q u a lita tiv e c h a n g e in th e n a tu r e o f th e re v e rse sa lien ts an ti by th e rise
o f fin a n c ie rs a n d c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s to p re e m in e n c e as p ro b le m solvers.
M a n a g e rs p la y ed th e le a d in g ro le d u r in g th e p h a se c h a ra t te r i/e d by an
in c re a se in m o m e n tu m . In th e n e w e r p h a se , w hich inv o lv e d p la n n e d a n d
ev o lv in g re g io n a l sy ste m s, m a jo r re v e rse salien ts b ec a m e essentially p r o b
le m s o f f u n d in g e x tre m e ly la rg e r e g io n a l sy stem s a n d c le a rin g political a n d
le g isla tiv e g r o u n d . F in a n c ie rs a n d asso cia te d c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs r e
s p o n d e d effectiv e ly to p ro b le m s o f th is k in d a n d scale. T he p h a se was also
c h a ra c te riz e d by a n in c re a s e d c ap ab ility o n th e p a rt o f e n g in e e rs a n d m a n
a g e rs, esp e cially c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs , to p la n new system s
a n d th e g ro w th o f o ld o n e s. In so m e cases p la n n e d sy stem s w e re f in a n c e d
by g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y e n tr e p r e n e u r s d ra w in g o n p u b lic fu n d s.
T h is loosely s tr u c tu r e d m o d e l ha s b e e n u se d to b rin g o r d e r a n d c o m
p re h e n sib ility to th e m y ria d e v e n ts in th e h isto ry o f ele ctric p o w e r system s.
In fact, u tility sy stem s d id n o t evolve a c c o rd in g to o n e strict p a tte r n . C h a p
te r X IV , w hich d e sc rib e s th e d if f e r e n t styles o f th r e e m a tu r e r e g io n a l sys
tem s, d e m o n s tr a te s v a ria tio n s. All th r e e h a d th e sam e pool o f te ch n o lo g y
to d ra w fro m , b u t b e c a u se th e g e o g ra p h ic a l, c u ltu ra l, m a n a g e ria l, e n g i
n e e rin g , a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l c h a ra c te r o f th e th r e e re g io n s d iffe re d , th e
p o w e r sy stem s w e re a p p r o p r ia te ly v a rie d as well (see Fig. 1.5). T h e c o n c ep t
o f style s u g g e sts th a t th e r e was a n d p ro b a b ly is n o o n e best way o f
s u p p ly in g e le ctric ity . E m b o d ie d in th e d iff e re n t p o w e r s ystem s o f th e w orld
is a c o m p le x v a ria tio n o n m a jo r th e m e s th a t k e e p s th e te c h n o lo g y fro m
b e c o m in g h o m o g e n e o u s a n d d u ll a n d th a t p ro v id e s th e h isto ria n w ith th e
c h a lle n g in g ta sk o f d e s c rip tio n a n d in te r p r e ta tio n .

CHAPTER

II

Edison the Hedgehog:

Invention and
Development

u o t i n g th e G re e k p o e l A rc h ilo c h u s , Isa ia h B e rlin w ro te in The

H edgehog a n d the Fox: T h e fo x k n o w s m a n y th in g s , b u t th e h e d g e h o g
k n o w s o n e b ig th in g . H e d g e h o g s , a c c o rd in g lo B e rlin , a r e th o s e w ho
r e la te e v e ry th in g to a s in g le c e n tra l v ision, o n e sy ste m less o r m o re c o h e re n t
o r a r tic u la te . F oxes, in c o n tr a s t, p u r s u e m a n y e n d s , e n d s th a t a r e o fte n
u n r e la te d a n d e v e n c o n tr a d ic to r y . B e rlin c o u n te d D a n te , P lato , L u c re tiu s,
Pascal, H e g e l, D o stoyevsky, N ie tz sc h e , Ib s e n , a n d P ro u s t a m o n g th e
h e d g e h o g s .1 T h o m a s E d is o n s n a m e s h o u ld b e a d d e d to th e list.2
E d iso n in v e n te d sy ste m s, in c lu d in g a n e le c tric lig h t s y ste m th a t to o k fo rm
as th e P e a rl S tre e t g e n e r a tin g s ta tio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n n e tw o r k o f th e E d iso n
E lec tric Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y o f N ew Y o rk , n ow k n o w n as th e C o n so li
d a te d E d iso n C o m p a n y . E d iso n fo c u se d o n o n e level o f th e p ro c e ss o f
te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e in v e n tio n b u t in o r d e r to r e la te e v e ry th in g to a
sin g le , c e n tra l vision, h e h a d lo re a c h o u t b e y o n d h is sp e c ia l c o m p e te n c e
lo re s e a rc h , d e v e lo p , fin a n c e , a n d m a n a g e h is in v e n tio n s . B e c a u se o f this
o rg a n iz a tio n a l, s y s te m -b u ild in g d riv e , h e is k n o w n as a n in v e n to r-e n tr e p re n e u r.3
E d iso n w as a holistic c o n c e p tu a liz e r a n d d e te r m in e d so lv e r o f th e p r o b
lem s a sso c ia te d w ith th e g ro w th o f sy ste m s. T h e h isto ry o f E d iso n system
b u ild in g , th e r e f o r e , is also a h isto ry o f id e as a n d a stu d y o f p ro b le m so lving.
E d iso n 's c o n c e p ts g re w o u t o f his n e e d to fin d o rg a n iz in g p rin c ip le s th a t
w ere p o w e rfu l e n o u g h to in te g ra te a n d give p u r p o s e f u l d ire c tio n to d iv e rse
fa c to rs a n d c o m p o n e n ts . T h e p ro b le m s e m e rg e d as h e s tr o v e to fu lfill his
u ltim a te vision.
As an in v e n to r - e n tr e p r e n e u r , E d iso n p re s id e d o v e r th e p ro c e ss o f te c h
n o lo g ical c h a n g e Trom p ro b le m id e n tific a tio n to in n o v a tio n a n d te c h n o lo g y
tra n s f e r. C re a tiv e fu lfillm e n t, h o w e v e r, c a in e to h im m o stly fro m th e in
1 Isaiah Merlin, Tht Hedgehog nnd the Fox: An Essay on Toll toy's View of History (New York:
Simon it Schuster, 1953), p. 1.
* Paris o f lliis c h ap ter are draw n from T homas P. H ughes, "T he Electrification o f America:
T h e System Builders," Technology nnd Culture 20 (1970): 124-61
For a discussion o f the concept o f an e n tre p re n e u r as one who presides over invention,
developm ent, and innovation, sec T h o m as P. H ughes. Elmer Sperry. Inventor nnd Engineer
(Baltimore: T h e Jo h n s H opkins Press. 1971). pp. 6 3 -7 0 , 241, 200-95.

18

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
v e n tiv e act, not fro m th e o th e r p h a se s o f tec h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t. 1 le
c o u n te d his p a te n ts m o re th a n his m o n e y , at least u n til his Liter y ears, w hen
h e b e g a n to look to in d u stria lists like H e n ry F o rd as sta tu s m o d els. E dison
flo u ris h e d as an in v e n io r - e n tr e p r e n e u r in th e late 1870s a n d e arly eig h ties,
th e p e rio d w h e n h e was p r e s id in g o v e r th e in v e n tio n a n d in tro d u c tio n ol
his system o f e le c tric lig h tin g . H is h isto rical p e e rs w e re o th e r in v e n io re n tr e p r e n e u r s , su c h m e n as R o b e rt F u lto n , S a m u e l M orse, a n d C y ru s H all
M cC o rm ic k , w ho, like h im se lf, d id n o t rest u n til c o m p a n ie s (u sually th o se
th e y e sta b lish e d ) w e re m a n u f a c tu r in g th e ir in v e n tio n s. E d iso n fo rm e d a
n u m b e r o f c o m p a n ie s to o rg a n iz e his in v e n tio n a n d th e in tr o d u c tio n ol
th e lig h tin g syste m : a c o m p a n y fo r re se a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t, o th e rs lot
m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p o n e n ts , a n d a n o th e r to p re s id e o v e r th e o p e ra tio n ol
th e sy stem . In e a c h case, h e allie d h im se lf w ith m e n w hose in te re sts a n d
c ap a b ilitie s c o m p le m e n te d his ow n . P e rso n s w ith legal a n d fin a n cial e x
p e rie n c e , lo r in sta n c e , c o m p e n s a te d f o r his lack o f e x p e rie n c e a n d special
a p iilu d e fo r th e c o m p le x itie s o f o rg a n iz a tio n a n d fin a n c in g . D esp ite th e ir
p re se n c e , h o w e v e r, it was E d iso n , as in v e n to r - e n lr c p r e n e u r , w ho p u lle d
m o st o f th e strin g s o f th e c o m p le x system . L a te r in th e h isto ry o f ele ctric
lig h tin g a n d p o w e r syste m s, o th e r e n tr e p r e n e u r s m a n a g e r - e n tr e p r e n e iirs
a n d f in a n c ie r - e n ir e p r e n e u r s to o k c e n te r sta g e b eca u se th e m ost d ifficu lt
p ro b le m s b lo c k in g th e g r o w th o f th e system b e c a m e m a n a g e ria l a n d fi
n a n cial. In v e n to r s a n d e n g in e e rs still h a d ro les to play in th e h isto ry o f th e
ev o lv in g lig h t a n d p o w e r syste m s, b u t th e in v e n to r - e n tr e p r e n e u r s m oved
o n to o th e r new ly e m e r g in g fie ld s o f te ch n o lo g y .
E d iso n 's g e n iu s lay in bis ability to d ire c t a p ro c ess in v o lv in g p ro b le m
id e n tific a tio n , so lu tio n as id ea , r e s e a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d in tro d u c tio n
in to use. T h e s e p h a se s o f c h a n g e n e e d to be d e f in e d , b u t be ca u se th e
pro c e ss w as, a n d is, so c o m p le x , a n d b e c a u se th e r e a re so m an y v a ria tio n s
o n th e c e n tra l th e m e , a n e n c o m p a ssin g , g e n e r a l d e fin itio n will su ffice h e re.
In p ro b le m id e n tific a tio n , a n in v e n to r p erc eiv es a situ a tio n th a t can be
d e f in e d as a p ro b le m . T h e a bility to d e fin e th e situ a tio n as a p ro b le m im plies
th a t a so lu tio n is likely to b e fo u n d . E x p e rie n c e d in v e n to rs re c o g n iz e that
m a n y situ a tio n s c a n n o t be d e fin e d as p ro b le m s, b eca u se th e sta te o f th e
te c h n o lo g y , av a ilability o f fu n d in g , o r so m e o th e r fa c to r is n ot fav orable.
Id e a re s p o n s e is th e in v e n to r s e f f o r t active a n d passive (sub c o n scio u s
p e r h a p s ) to f o r m u la te c o n c e p ts th a t will solve in his im a g in a tio n his d e f
in itio n o f th e p ro b le m . A n im a g in a ry d e v ic e is fu n c tio n in g in an im a g in a ry
e n v ir o n m e n t. U sually th e in v e n to r g a th e rs in fo rm a tio n as h e p u rs u e s o r
ev en aw aits id eas. T h e id e a re s p o n s e will b e c o m e an in v e n tio n a fte r th e
id e a has b e e n giv e n fo rm . T h e in v en tiv e c o n c e p ts o f E d iso n a n d o th e r
in v e n to rs a r e o f te n , p e rh a p s u su ally , visual r a th e r th a n verb al o r m a th e
m atical. F o r th is re a s o n , th e first e x p re ssio n o f a n idea o fte n a p p e a rs as a
d r a w in g in a n o te b o o k o r 011 a sc ra p o f p a p e r. S u b se q u e n tly th e id e a is
given fo rm as a m e c h a n ic a l a n d electric al d ev ice o r as a ch em ica l process.
T h is in v e n tio n is th e n b r o u g h t by re se a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t to th e stage
at w hich it c an b e in tr o d u c e d to th e m a rk e t. R esea rch is an in fo rm a tio n g a th e r in g ex e rc ise a n d c a n be d o n e by lite ra tu re se a rc h o r by scientific
e x p e rim e n ta tio n . D e v e lo p m e n t, a n im p o r ta n t p a rt o f th e in n o v a tio n p ro c
ess, o fte n involves th e re d e fin itio n o f l h e p ro b le m , new id eas, a n d re se a rc h
as th e in v e n tio n is trie d in e n v iro n m e n ts th a t a r c in cre asin g ly like th e real-

NETTW ORKS O F P O W E R
u se e n v ir o n m e n t w ith in w h ich th e in n o v a tio n m u s t f u n c tio n . T h e in v e n tio n
is n o lo n g e r a n im a g in a ry d e v ic e fu n c tio n in g in th e in v e n to r s m in d . I t is
im p o r ta n t to a d d th a t th e in n o v a tio n p ro c e ss is n o t s tra ig h tf o rw a rd ; it
in volves b a c k tra c k in g to id e n tify ne w s u b p ro b le m s , elicit a d d itio n a l ideas,
a n d m a k e new s u b in v e n tio n s .4
T h e id e n tific a tio n o f a p ro b le m by e x p e r ie n c e d in v e n to r - e n tr e p r e n e u r s
like E d iso n u su a lly in v o lv e d b r id g in g th e g a p b e tw e e n re s o u rc e s a n d d e
m a n d . T h e p r o fe s s io n a l id e n tif ie d a d e m a n d , e ith e r e x istin g o r p o te n tia l,
a n d th e a v a ila b le r e s o u rc e s th a t m ig h t fill it. T h e r e s o u rc e s in c lu d e d avail
a b le e n d o w m e n ts su c h a s e x is tin g te c h n o lo g y , c a p ita l, la b o r, a n d la n d ( n a t
u r a l re s o u rc e s ). H a v in g id e n tif ie d th e p ro b le m o f u s in g th e re s o u rc e s to
m e e t th e d e m a n d , th e in v e n to r th e n c r e a te d th e te c h n o lo g y , o r th e id e a
fo r th e te c h n o lo g y , th a t w o u ld m a k e th e r e s o u rc e s u sa b le in fillin g th e
d e m a n d . A n e x c e lle n t in v e n tio n u s e d th e a v a ila b le re s o u r c e s e ffic ie n tly a n d
e c o n o m ic a lly to re s p o n d to th e d e m a n d p re c ise ly . T h e le s s -th a n -e x c e lle n t
in v e n tio n n e e d e d to b e re f in e d to m e e t th e d e m a n d . N o t e v e ry in v e n tio n
w as a r e s p o n s e lo a d e m a n d , a c tu a l o r a n tic ip a te d , h o w e v e r; m a n y th a t
w e re n o t d e m a n d o r ie n te d w e re in g e n io u s u tiliz a tio n s o f a v a ila b le r e
so u rc e s , in c lu d in g e x is tin g te c h n o lo g y . T h e r e s p o n s e to a v a ila b le e n d o w
m e n ts , e s p e c ia lly te c h n o lo g ic a l o n e s , is s o m e tim e s id e n tif ie d as te c h n o lo g
ical p u s h in c o n tr a s t to m a r k e t p u ll. E d is o n , like so m a n y p ro fe s s io n a l
in v e n to r s , a c te d in r e s p o n s e to a c o m b in a tio n o f th e tw o .5
E d iso n p r e f e r r e d to in v e n t sy ste m s r a t h e r th a n c o m p o n e n ts o f o th e r
p e r s o n s sy ste m s. D u r in g h is lo n g c a r e e r as a p ro fe s s io n a l in v e n to r - e n tr e p r e n e u r , h e t u r n e d to th e in v e n tio n o f sy ste m s lo s u c h a n e x te n t th a t
p r e f e r e n c e fo r sy ste m s c a n b e id e n tif ie d as a s a lie n t c h a ra c te ris tic o f his
a p p r o a c h . T h e h is to ry o f se v e ra l o f h is m a jo r in v e n tio n s th e q u a d r u p le x
t e le g r a p h , th e te le p h o n e , th e in c a n d e s c e n t e le c tric lig h tin g sy ste m , m ag n e lic - o r e s e p a r a tio n , P o r tla n d c e m e n t, a n d th e s to r a g e b a tte r y illu s tra te s
th e s p e c tr u m o f h is m e th o d s .1 S o m e o f th e s e v e n tu r e s w e re su c c e ssfu l,

* T h ese rlefinitions a re d e v elo p ed fu rth e r with illustrative exam ples in T h o m a s P. H ughes,

" In v e n tors: T h e Problem s T h ey C hoose, th e Ideas T h ey H ave, a n d the Inventions T hey
M ake." in Technological Innovation: A Critical Review o f Current Knowledge, ed. P. Kelly and M.
K ran zb crg (San Francisco, Calif.: San Francisco Press, 1978), pp. 168-82.
'T h e literatu re on th e n a tu re o f invention is volum inous, anti m uch o f it is w ritten by
econom ic historians, sociologists, a n d h istorians o f technology. A m ong the m ost useful books
a rc Ja co b S chm ookler, Invention and Economic Growth (C am b ridge. Mass.: H arv ard U niversity
Press, 1966); S. C. G ilfillan. The Sociology o f Invention (C am bridge. Mass.: M .l.T . Press. 1970);
an d th e revised e d itio n ol A bbott P. U sh er. A History of Mechanical Invention (C am bridge,
Mass.: H arv ard U niversity Press. 19,'i'l). An a n n o tate d listing o f m any articles a n d books on
inn ovation (and inv en tio n ) can be fo u n d in S. II. C u tclilfe. |. A. Mislichelli, and C. M. Roysden.
Technology and Values in American Cwilnation (D etroit, Mich.: C alc R esearch Co., 1980).
"E d iso n s inventive activities a re describ ed in detail in m any b iographies, th e quality of
which varies greatly. The most recent a re R o Ik ti C o n o l. A Streak of Luck (New Y ork: Seuview
Hooks, 1979); Ronald W. C lark, Edison: The M an Who Made the Future (New Y ork: Putnam ,
1977); an d M atthew Jo sc p h so n . Edison (New Y ork: M cGraw-H ill. |9.9). The m ost th o ro u g h
o n technical m atte rs an d ad u lato ry in to n e a re Fran k L. Dyer an d T h o m a s C. M artin. Edison:
His Life and Inventions. 2 veils. (New Y ork: H a rp e r Sc Bros., 1910); a n d th e 1929 edition or
th a t w ork, which was w ritten in c o llaboration with W illiam I I. M cadow crofl a n d also published
by H a rp e r Sc Bros. T h e m ost in tim ate study o f th e in v e n to r is the account by Francis Jehl,
M enlo Park Reminiscences. 3 vols. (D e arb o rn . M id i.: E dison Institute. 1937-111 W vn Wach-

21

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
so m e w ere n o t. K dison's m e lh o tl was nor alw avs I lie- sam e: i( v aried will
tim e a n d a c c o rd in g 10 I h e p ro b le m , as o n e w o u ld e x p e d I m m a p ro le s
sional. The liislo ry o f bis e le c tric lig h tin g sy stem , h o w e v e r, re veals tlu
essen tia l c h a ra c te ristic s o f his sy stem s a p p r o a c h .7
K dison is m ost w idely k n o w n f o r his in v e n tio n ol th e in c a n d e sc e n t la m p
b ut it was o n ly o n e c o m p o n e n t in his ele c iric lig h tin g svstem a n d was n<
m o re c ritical to its effe c tiv e fu n c tio n in g th a n th e K dison J u m b o g e n e r a ln i
th e K dison m a in a n d fe e d e r, o r th e p a ra llc l-d is irib u tin n system . O ih e i
in v e n to rs w ith g e n e r a to r s a n d in c a n d e sc e n t lam p s a n d c o m p a ra b le in g e
n u ity hav e b e e n fo rg o tte n b e c a u se th e y d id n ot c a rry th e p ro ce ss f im h c i
a n d in tro d u c e a sy ste m o f lig h tin g .8
W hy d id K dison so o f te n c h o o se to w ork o n system s? II th e in v e u m i
c re a te d on ly a c o m p o n e n t, h e re m a in e d d e p e n d e n t o n o th e rs to in v e n t 01
su p p ly o th e r c o m p o n e n ts . T h e in v e n to r o f c o m p o n e n ts c o u ld not h av e tlx
c o n tro l o v e r in n o v a tio n th a t K dison w a n te d . A n a p t e x a m p le o f a n in v e n to i
o f c o m p o n e n ts , b u t not sy ste m s, is J o s e p h Sw an ( I 8 2 H - I 9 M ) , th e b titisli
in v e n to r o f th e in c a n d e s c e n t la m p . S w an 's la m p s w ere in c o rp o ra te d with
c o m p o n e n ts in v e n te d by o th e r s in to a system , but in p riv a te c o n v e rsa tio n
S w an a c k n o w le d g e d th e s u p e rio r ity o f K dison's sy ste m .'' Sw an c a n n o t ( milhorsi's Thomas Alva Edison: An American Myth (Cam bridge. Mass.: M l .I . Pi css. I9HII irl.iu Edison the cultural h ero lo A m erican values. See also the exhibit catalogue by Bernard I-.....
and Robert Friedcl. Edison: Lighting a Revolution (W ashington. D C.: Sm ithsonian Institution.
15)79). For a b rief study o f Edison, see T ho m as P. H ughes. Thomas Edison. Pinfrssinnal Inrcnto,
(London. IIMSO. 1976).
'B io g rap h ie s of Edison usually include discourses on the Edison m ethod T he <h.iptei
"Edison's M ethod in Inventing" in Dyer and Martin's Edison (2: "96-628) is inform ed and
considered, if not critical. G. P. L ath ro p ("Talks with Edison." Harper s Sew Monthly Magazine
80 [1 8 89-90|: 425 -3 5 ) rehearses the familiar, but adds occasional helpful items as he tries to
perceive how an inventor invents. M. A. RosanolT ("Edison in Mis L ihoratoi y." Ila ipci\
Magazine 165 (1932): 4 01-17) provides a scientist's appraisal which is not sentimental. Ku li.it d
H. Scballenberg ("T h e Alkaline Storage Battery: A Case History ol the Edison Method."
Synthesis I |I 9 7 2 |: 1-13) generalizes about the Edison m ethod from the case ol the alkaline
battery. II. M. Payntcr o f M .I.T. kindly provided me with a ropv ol Ihs I Illusion L e m u r
"Edison in Retrospect: E xperim ental Physicist and Systems Engineer." which be delivered at
the A merican Society o f Mechanical E ngineers' annual m eeting in Detroit. Mich on 13 N o
vem ber 1973. I have also found helpful a p aper on Edison's m ethod wlurli was presented by
his son T h eo d o re to the M .I.T. Club o f N o rth ern New Jersey on 24 January 1969. See also
Conol. Streak o f Luck, pp. 4 5 5-72: and T hom as IV H ughes. "Edison's M ethod." in Technology
at the Turning Point, ed. William B. Pickett (San Francisco. Calif.: San E iancisio Press. 1977).
pp. 5-22.
8T his analysis o f Edison's m ethod o f inventing systems is taken in part Irom Hughes,
"Edison's M ethod." pp. 5-22.
Sce G. P. Losvrey to Edison. 23 O ctober 1881. and G. Batchelor to Edison. I O itoliei
1881, Edison Archives. Edison N ational Historic Site. West O range, N | (lie iea ltri i tied as
F.A). T h e question o f priority in (h r invention o f the incandesr cut lamp has troubled many
historians. Am ong the leading conten d ers for that priority were T hom as A. Edison and |os( pli
Swan (ol Newcastle upon Tyne). U nfortunately, some o f the controversy has ssvuled arounil
a nebulous concept of what actually was invented In a recent essay. "Swan's Way: Inveniivr
Slyle and the Emergence o f the Incandescent L im p ." George Wise sensible- lo< uses on the
invention o f the carbon filament and discusses the im|M ittancr ol Edison's systems a p pro.uh
to the invention. Wise points out (hat Ellison's estimates ol the cost ol lus system weie gtossly
in e rro r, hut contributed conceptually lo his invention. I am indebted to Wise loi allowing
tnc to see his pre-puhliraiion m anuscript, scheduled to ap p ra i in IEEE Spa Hum in Apiil
1982.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

p a r e w ith E d iso n as a n in v e n to r - e n lr e p r e n e u r , b u t h is claim to h a v e in
v e n te d th e p ra c tic a l c a r b o n - fila m e n l la m p is c o m p a r a b le to E d is o n s.
A n o th e r r e a s o n f o r E d is o n s in c lin a tio n to in v e n t sy stem s was m o re s u b
tle: h e s o u g h t th e s tim u la tio n fo r in v e n tiv e id e a s w h ic h co m e s fro m s e e in g
inad eq u a cies in som e c o m p o n e n ts rev ealed by im p ro v e m e n ts m a d e in o th ers.
Im b a la n c e s a m o n g in te ra c tin g c o m p o n e n ts p o in te d u p th e n e e d fo r a d
d itio n a l in v e n tio n . By th e lim e e a c h sy stem w as re a d y fo r u se, th e r e f o r e ,
it in v o lv e d m a n y p a te n ts . E d iso n , w h o ra re ly a rtic u la te d his m e th o d , said
o f his in v e n tio n o f a n e le c tric lig h tin g sy stem :
It was not only necessary that the lamps should give light and the dynam os gen
erate cu rre n t, but the lamps m ust be adapted to the c u rre n t o f the dynam os, and
the dynam os m ust be constructed to give the character o f c u rre n t required by
the lamps, and likewise all parts o f the system m ust be constructed with re fe r
ence to all o th e r parts, since, in one sense, all the parts form one m achine, and
the connections between the parts being electrical instead o f mechanical. Like
any oth er m achine the failure o f one pa rt to cooperate properly with the o ther
part disorganizes the whole and renders it inoperative for the p u rpose intended.
T h e problem then that I undertook to solve was stated generally, the
production o f the m ultifarious apparatus, m ethods and devices, each ad apted for
use with every other, and all form ing a com prehensive system .10
T h e in te r a c tio n s p r o v id e d s tr u c tu r e , o r g u id e lin e s , f o r in v e n tiv e activity.
O th e r in v e n to rs also u se d th e sy stem s a p p r o a c h , h a v in g , like E d iso n , e x
p e r ie n c e d its s tim u la tin g e f f e c t."
R e fle c tio n o n E d iso n s m e th o d su g g e sts th a t h e u se d th e sy stem s a p
p ro a c h in o r d e r to e m p lo y th e re v e rse s a lie n t- c ritic a l p r o b le m s m e th o d ,
b u t sin c e E d iso n d id n o t an a ly z e a n d a rtic u la te h is a p p r o a c h a n d m e th o d ,
th e h is to ria n m u s t in te r p r e t th e re c o r d c a re fu lly . In fact, th e re c o rd show s
th a t o th e r in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs u se d th e re v e r s e s a lie n t-c ritic a l p r o b
le m s m e th o d d u r in g th e h a lf-c e n tu r y c o v e re d by th is s tu d y ; th u s , a ttr ib u tin g
th a t m e th o d to E d iso n as w ell d o e s n o t s e e m a f a r - f e tc h e d c o n c lu s io n (see
p p . 3 3 - 3 7 below ). As n o te d e a rlie r, re v e rs e sa lie n ts a r e o b v io u s w ea k p o in ts,
o r w eak c o m p o n e n ts , in a te c h n o lo g y w h ich a r e in n e e d o f f u r t h e r d e v e l
o p m e n t. A re v e rs e s a lie n t is o b v io u s, a n d c re a tiv e im a g in a tio n is n o t n e e d e d
to d e f in e it. As will be sh o w n , th e n o n d u ra b ility o f e x p e r im e n ta l la m p
fila m e n ts b e f o re 1878 w as a re v e rs e s a lie n t in in c a n d e s c e n t-la m p system s.
E d iso n a n d m a n y o th e rs w e re a w a re o f th e n e e d fo r in v e n tiv e a c tiv itie s in
th is a re a . In c o n tra s t to a re v e rs e s a lie n t, th e n , th e d e fin itio n o f critica l
p ro b le m s by a n in v e n to r d o e s re q u ir e c re a tiv e im a g in a tio n . C r itic a l p r o b
lem s re s u lt fr o m th e in v e n to r s d e fin in g th e re v e r s e sa lie n t as a p ro b le m ,
o r se t o f p ro b le m s, th a t, w h e n so lv ed , will c o rr e c t th e re v e r s e s a lie n t. (As
will b e se e n , in E d iso n s w o rk th e re v e r s e s a lie n ts w e re o f te n e c o n o m ic in
n a tu r e ; th e critic al p ro b le m s, te c h n ic a l.) A sy ste m s a p p r o a c h fac ilitate s th e
use o f th e re v e rs e s a lie n tcritica l p ro b le m s m e th o d b e c a u se re v e rs e sa lie n ts
.
" i'" u , 't|jn K n ic u u n 01 r.mson s public testim ony, th e
reproduced pages are n um bered 3128-34. T h e i.em is on file at .h e Edison Archives in a
folder labe ed E ^ m c U g h , H.stories W riiien by T hom as A. Edison lo r H enry Ford. 1926."
Edison archivist A. R. Abel unable to identify the original source o f this item,
i I
S|>Cr7 ; also a Prf>r sio n a l. ind ep en d en t inventor, introduced guidance and conIO .Z T *
PS a
,rr ! a T |,rio r to W or,d 1 HI* ppnw cl. is sim ilar to Edison's. See
H ughes. Sperry, csp. pp. 51 -5 3 , 6 3-70. 159-61 9Qn_cir,

IN V R N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

Figure I I .I . Associates in the Edison

system: Francis Upton. John Kreusi, and
Charles Batchelor. Courtesy of the Edison
Archives, Edison National Historic Site,
West Orange, N.J.

a re o b serv a b ly w eak in r e la tio n s h ip to o th e r system c o m p o n e n ts , a n d b e

ca u se , as E d iso n h im se lf w ro te , th e im p ro v e m e n t o f o n e c o m p o n e n t in a
sy stem will r e v e rb e r a te th r o u g h o u t th e system a n d c a u se th e n e e d for
im p ro v e m e n ts in o th e r c o m p o n e n ts , th e re b y e n a b lin g th e e n tir e system to
fulfill its goal m o r e e ffic ie n tly o r eco n o m ica lly . In o th e r w o rd s, th e system s
a p p r o a c h fac ilita te d th e c o n c e p tu a l fo r m u la tio n o f G e stalt p a tte r n s a n d th e
v isu aliza tio n o f th e in c o m p le te p a r ts o f th o se p a tte rn s .
T h e availability o f a ssistan ts w ith a v ariety o f k n o w le d g e a n d skills also
s tim u la te d E d iso n to ch o o se p ro b le m s th a t inv o lv e d a system o f c o m p o
n e n ts. T h e r e w ere s u p e r b m e c h a n ic s, ele c tric ia n s, c h em ists, glass blo w e rs,
a n d o th e r skilled p e rs o n s in th c M en lo P ark c o m m u n ity . A fte r a c q u irin g
f u n d in g fo r his e lectric lig h tin g p ro je c t in th e fall o f 1878, E d iso n e m p lo y e d
a d d itio n a l m e n w h o se ta le n ts w e re p a rtic u la rly well su ite d fo r th e p ro je c t.
O f s p ecial im p o rta n c e a m o n g th e m was F ran c is U p to n , th e m a th e m a tic ia n
a n d p hysicist. O th e rs , h o w e v e r, h a d b e e n a t E d iso n s sid e lo r y ears. C h a rle s
B a tc h e lo r, fo r in sta n c e , w as an in g e n io u s m a ste r c ra fts m a n , d e x te r o u s a n d
sh a rp -e y e d , a n d his w id e -ra n g in g e x p e r im e n ta l te c h n iq u e s a n d m e ch a n ic al
a p titu d e k e p t h im a t E d is o n s rig h t h a n d . B a tc h e lo r was so closely involved
w ith E d iso n in all o f his w o rk th a t his a b se n c e fro m th e la b o ra to ry is
in v ariab ly a sig n a l fo r M r. E d iso n to s u s p e n d la b o r.12 J o h n K reu si, w ho
was in c h a r g e o f th e M en lo P a rk m a c h in e s h o p , also p lay ed a m a jo r role
in b u ild in g th e E d iso n sy ste m . T r a in e d in S w itz e rla n d as a fin e m e ch a n ic ,
h e c o u ld d e ftly c o n s tr u c t E d is o n s v a rio u s d e sig n s fro m n o th in g m o re th a n
ro u g h sk e tc h e s a n d c ry p tic in s tru c tio n s . H e , like B a tc h e lo r, h a d b e e n w ith
E d iso n in N e w a rk , N ew J e rs e y , b e fo re th e e sta b lish m e n t o f th e M e n lo P ark
la b o ra to ry (see Fig. I I . I ) . 13
W h e n th e e le c tric lig h tin g p ro je c t e n te r e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t p h a se , o th e rs
at M en lo P a rk w o rk e d o n v a rio u s c o m p o n e n ts o f th e system . D r. H e r m a n n
C la u d iu s, a f o r m e r o f fic e r in th e A u s tria n T e le g r a p h C o rp s, b u ilt sim u
latio n s o f th e sy stem w ith b a tte rie s fo r g e n e ra to r s , fin e w ires fo r th e d is
tr ib u tio n sy ste m , a n d re sisto rs fo r th e lo ad . F ra n cis J e h l r e p o r te d th at
C la u d iu s h a d a t h is f in g e rtip s K ir c h h o f f s laws o f c o n d u c to r n e tw o rk s .1''
T h e n a m e s o f s o m e o f th e o th e r p io n e e rs w ho m a d e it p ossible fo r E dison
to in v e n t a n d d e v e lo p a n e n tir e sy stem in c lu d e J o h n B asic L aw son, J . F.
O tt, D. A. D oc" H a id , W illiam J . H a m m e r , E d w a rd H . J o h n s o n , S to c k to n
G riffin , G e o rg e a n d W illiam C a r m a n . M a rtin F o rce, a n d L u d w ig B oehm
(see Fig. 11.2).
T h e s e v a rie d ta le n ts w e re s u p p o r te d by a b ro a d a rr a y o f e x p e n siv e m a
c h in e tools, c h e m ic a l a p p a ra tu s , lib ra ry re so u rc e s, sc ientific in s tru m e n ts ,
a n d elec trica l e q u ip m e n t.15 A m a jo r re a so n fo r th e e sta b lish m e n t o f th e
E d iso n E lectric L ig h t C o m p a n y , th e p a te n t-h o ld in g e n te rp ris e , in O c to b e r
1878 was to a c q u ire fu n d s f o r a d d itio n a l la b o ra to ry e q u ip m e n t. T h e story
11 New York Herald, 21 Decem ber 1879. quoted in Jelil. Reminiscences, I: 59S.
11 |ehl, Reminiscences, I: 54.
M Ibid.. 2: 545.
'* For Jelil's description of the scientific instrum ents, sec ibid., csp. 1: 257-71). Kolirrt
Fricdel. director o f the C enter for the History o f Electrical Engineering. Institute- ol Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, has found no evidence in the Edison record of Edison's having
borrow ed the Sprcngcl pum p. T h e surviving record suggests that the pum p was <levelo|>ed
at Menlo Park. Robert Fricdel, personal communication, I March 1982.

24

N I 'T f W O R K S O F P O W E R

Figure 11.2. Creators of the Edison

system. Menlo Park. 1879. Back row.
right to Icrt: A. "Poe" Haul (chemist);
Francis Upton (mathematician); Francis
/chi; and Charles Ilatchelor (master
mechanic). T h ird row. third from right:
Thomas Edison. Courtesy o f the Edison
Archives. Edison National Historic Site.
West Orange. N.J.

(p e rh a p s a p o c ry p h a l) o f E d is o n s b o r ro w in g a S p re n g e l p u m p fr o m P rin c e
to n U n iv e rsity to a ch iev e th e v a c u u m n e e d e d in his in c a n d e s c e n t-b u lb e x
p e r im e n ts is well k n o w n . Il m ay h a v e led to th e e r r o n e o u s co n c lu sio n ,
h o w e v e r, th a t E d iso n a n d U p to n d id n o t su ffic ie n tly a p p r e c ia te th e im
p o rta n c e o f scien tific in s tru m e n ts in e x p e r im e n ta tio n , a t le ast n o t e n o u g h
to invest heavily in th e m . It m ay also hav e led to th e eq u a lly false c o n c lu sio n
th a t E d is o n s la b o ra to ry was n ot as well e q u ip p e d as th e la b o ra to rie s of
m a jo r u n iv e rsitie s. In fact, th e M en lo P a rk la b o ra to r y p ro b a b ly b u ilt a
v a c u u m p u m p o f th e latest d e sig n . F u r th e r m o r e , M e n lo P a rk h a d g alv a
n o m e te rs , sta tic g e n e ra to r s , L e y d e n ja r s , in d u c tio n coils (in c lu d in g a
R iih m k o rf f coil c a p a b le o f a 2 0-cm . s p a rk ), b a tte rie s , a n d c o n d e n s e r s .
W o o d e n -b o x e d c o n d e n s e r s " w e re stre w n e v e ry w h e r e , f o r th e y , a lo n g w ith
v a ria b le -re sista n c e box e s, w e re esse n tia l a p p a r a tu s fo r te le g r a p h y e x p e r i
m e n ts .10 In a d d itio n , th e la b o r a to r y was e q u ip p e d w ith a s ta n d a r d o h m , a
W h e a tsto n e b rid g e , T h o m s o n h ig h - a n d lo w -re sista n c e r e f le c tin g g alv a
n o m e te rs , a n a sta tic g a lv a n o m e te r, a n d a H e lm h o ltz - G a u g a in ta n g e n t g a l
v a n o m e te r. E d iso n s e x p e rim e n ta tio n also led to th e p u r c h a s e o f o th e r
in v e n to rs a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s ' a p p a r a tu s , su ch as g e n e r a to r s , f o r te stin g
p u rp o s e s . T h e E d iso n la b o ra to ry at M en lo P ark was p r o b a b ly o n e o f th e
b e st electrica l la b o ra to rie s in th e w o rld . M o re o v e r, E d iso n a lso e q u ip p e d
il, a t g re a t e x p e n s e , as a c h em ic al re s e a rc h la b o ra to ry . T he e x p e n s e s a n d
w ages f o r e q u ip m e n t a n d p e rs o n n e l w e re su b sta n tia l. E d iso n r e p o r te d in
J a n u a r y 1879, ab o u t six m o n th s a f te r c o m m e n c in g th e e le c tric lig h tin g
p ro je c t, th a t h e h a d e x p e n d e d $ 15,000 o n th e p ro je c t a n d th a t o p e r a tin g

'*Jelil, Reminiscences. 1: 22H-9Q 9<;7_7n

26

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
e x p e n s e s c o n tin u e d a t th e ra te o f a b o u t $ 8 0 0 e ac h w eek. By N o v e m b e r
1879 m o re th a n $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 h a d b e e n s p e n t o n th e p r o je c t.17
T h e r e w as a fe e d b a c k r e la tio n s h ip in all this. E d iso n a sse m b le d a c o m
m u n ity o f c r a fts m e n a n d a p p lie rs o f scien ce a n d th e to o ls a n d scientific
in s tru m e n ts th e y n e e d e d in o r d e r to w o rk o n p ro b le m s o f a sy ste m ic n a tu re ,
a n d th e p re s e n c e o f th e se m e n a n d th e ir a p p a r a tu s f u r th e r stim u la te d him ,
ev e n c o n s tra in e d h im , to ch o o se to in v e n t a n d d e v e lo p system s. T h e e x
iste n c e o f a c o m m u n ity a t M e n lo P a rk a n d la te r a t E d is o n s la r g e r la b o ra to ry
at W est O ra n g e , N ew J e rs e y , d id , h o w e v e r, le ad to c o n tro v e rs y a b o u t th e
sig n ific a n c e o f E d is o n s ro le a n d a b o u t his d e p e n d e n c e o n his sta ff. F ran cis
J e h l in siste d in his Memoirs ( p u b lish e d y ea rs la te r) th a t E d iso n w as th e
N a p o le o n w ith th e m a s te r p la n .1" O th e r h isto ria n s h a v e in te r p r e te d E d i
s o n s c o n trib u tio n a n d m e th o d in lig h t o f J e h l s m e m o irs. As a re su lt, E d iso n
e m e rg e s as th e p r o f o u n d ly im a g in a tiv e f o rm u la to r o f a g r a n d d e sig n th a t
was fu lfille d in d e ta il by k n o w le d g e a b le a n d sk illed assista n ts. E d iso n e v e n
u se d in sig h ts d r a w n fro m scie n tific law fo r e x a m p le , O h m s law to his
o w n a d v a n ta g e . O n th e o th e r h a n d , J e h l, in a c o n fid e n tia l m e m o r a n d u m ,
a s sig n e d th e ro le o f m a s te r c o n c e p tu a liz e r to F ran c is U p to n , th e u s e r o f
scien c e w h o in v e n te d in g e n io u s so lu tio n s to te c h n ic a l p ro b le m s .11'
U p to n , a y o u n g s c h o la r a n d g e n tle m a n w h o w as n ic k n a m e d C u ltu r e "
by E d iso n , jo in e d E d is o n s s ta f f a l M en lo P a rk in D e c e m b e r 1878 o n th e
re c o m m e n d a tio n o f G ro s v e n o r P. L ow rey, E d is o n s c o u n se l a n d b u sin ess
a n d fin a n c ia l a d v ise r. H e b e c a m e E d is o n s m a th e m a tic ia n a n d physicist.
H e h a d b e e n e d u c a te d a t P h illip s A n d o v e r A c a d em y , B o w d o in C ollege,
P rin c e to n U n iv e rsity , a n d B e rlin U n iv e rsity , w h e re h e a tte n d e d le c tu re s by
th e e m in e n t scie n tist H e r m a n n v on H e lm h o ltz . N o te s o n H e lm h o ltz s lec
tu re s o n p h y sics d u r in g th e w in te r s e m e s te r o f 1877 su rv iv e a m o n g U p to n s
p a p e rs a t th e E d iso n A rc h iv e s in W est O r a n g e , N ew J e rs e y .
T h e E d iso n w h o e m e r g e s in J e h l s m e m o ra n d u m is re m a rk a b ly d iffe r e n t
fro m th e E d iso n d e p ic te d in J e h l s Reminiscences.20 In p riv a te , J e h l d e sc rib e d
E d iso n as a p u s h e r w h o g av e his fin a n c ia l b a c k ers c o n fid e n c e th a t h e
w o u ld fin d a w ay to solve th e p ro b le m s. J e h l re lu c ta n tly a c k n o w le d g e d th a t
E d iso n was a g e n iu s, b u t h e r e g a r d e d U p to n as th e th in k e r a n d th e c o n
c e p tu a liz e r o f system s. A s h e p u t it:
W hen an abnorm al man can find such abnorm al ways and means to make his
nam e known all over the world with such rocket-like swiftness, and accum ulate
such wealth with such little real knowledge, a man that cannot solve a simple
equation, I say, such a m an is a geniusor let us use the m ore popular worda
wizard. So was B arnum l Edison is and always was a shrewd, witty business man
17 Edison to T h eo d o re Puskas. 28 Ja n u ary 1879. in L etter Book E-3407, EA; Lowrey to
Edison, 13 N ovem ber 1879, in folder labeled Electric LightG eneral." EA.
'"Je h l. Reminiscences, I: 216. 362-63; 2: 852-54.
'" T h e m e m orandum is in the William H am m er Collection, Museum o f American History.
Sm ithsonian Institution, W ashington, D.C. It was enclosed in a letter from Francis Je hl to F.
R. U pton, 22 April 1913. In a note on the m em orandum . H am m er wrote that years earlier
Je h l had w ritten a similar letter to him from Budapest. I am indebted to Robert Friedel of
the History Institute o f the Institute o f Electrical and Electronic Engineers for railing my
attention lo this item.
,n |e h l wrote his Reminiscences years a lter these events while employed at the Menlo Park
laboratory at D earborn, Michigan, which had been restored by H enry Ford, a friend and
a d m irer o f Edison's.

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
w ithout a soul, an electrical an d m echanical jo b b e r, who well und e rsto o d how to
"w hoop things up," whose only am bition was to make money and pose as a sort
o f fetich for great masses o f people that possess only a p o p ular notion o f an art,
and who are always ready to yap in astonishm ent at som e fire-w ork display that
is blown o ff for the benefit o f m ankind. Yellow jo u rn a ls an d hedge-w riters claim
him for th e ir own, while the work o f U pton is h idden in the lore o f progressive
science and research.21
J e h l in siste d in p riv a te , as h e d id in his m e m o irs , th a t th e w o rk a t M e n lo
P a rk w as n o t h a p h a z a r d e x p e r im e n ta tio n , b u t in c o n fid e n c e h e d e c la r e d
th a t th e g r o u p s th e o r e tic a l in s ig h ts c a m e fro m th e " p ro f ic ie n t a n d e ru d itiv e
m in d " o f U p to n . It w as U p to n w h o c o a c h e d E d iso n a b o u t sc ie n c e a n d its
u se s in so lv in g te c h n ic a l p r o b le m s ; it w as U p to n w h o ta u g h t E d iso n to
c o m p r e h e n d th e o h m , v olt, a n d w e b e r (a m p e re ) a n d th e ir r e la tio n to o n e
a n o th e r . 22 U p to n , f o r in s ta n c e , la id d o w n th e p rin c ip le s th a t g o v e rn e d th e
p r o je c ts c o m m e rc ia l a n d e c o n o m ic d is tr ib u tio n sy ste m a n d so lv e d th e e q u a
tio n s th a t r a tio n a liz e d it. H is ta b le s, his u se o f s c ie n tific u n its a n d in s tr u
m e n ts , m a d e p o ssib le th e d e s ig n o f th e sy ste m .
U p to n s in te r p r e ta tio n o f his re la tio n s h ip w ith E d iso n w as fa r m o r e a p
p re c ia tiv e o f E d is o n s ro le . In a m e m o r a n d u m o n th e E d iso n m e th o d ,
U p to n p o r tr a y e d E d iso n as th e d ir e c to r o f a re s e a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t
la b o ra to ry .23 H e stre sse d E d iso n s p o w e r o f c o n c e n tra tio n a n d sin g le -m in d e d
p u r s u it o f a n o b je ctiv e . W h a te v e r lay a l h a n d w as se iz e d u p o n a n d m o ld e d
to h is p u r p o s e ; o c c asio n ally , q u ite e x p e n s iv e a p p a r a tu s w as r u in e d b e c a u se
it w as a v a ila b le a n d c o u ld b e m a d e to se rv e a n im m e d ia te p u r p o s e . T h e
e x p e n s e m a tte r e d little to E d iso n d u r in g th e h e a t o f th e q u e s t. H is p o w e r
o f c o n c e n tr a tio n a lso sh o w e d its e lf in his ability to follow a sin g le lin e o f
t h o u g h t as h e re a d th r o u g h p a g e s o f d e n s e ly p a c k e d in f o r m a tio n . E d iso n
also im p re s s e d U p to n w ith his ta le n t fo r a s k in g o r ig in a l q u e s tio n s . I c an
a n s w e r q u e s tio n s v ery easily a f te r th e y a r e a s k e d ." U p to n la m e n te d , b u t
f in d g r e a t tr o u b le in f ra m in g a n y lo a n s w e r. E d iso n p o s e d q u e s tio n s th a t
c o u ld b e tr a n s la te d in to h y p o th e s e s , w h ich in tu r n e s ta b lis h e d th e s tra te g y
a n d tac tics o f e x p e r im e n ta tio n . H is q u e s tio n s w e re o f te n d r a w n f ro m his
d o u b ts a b o u t a c c e p te d e x p la n a tio n s a n d p r o c e d u r e s . A c c o r d in g to U p to n ,
E d iso n n e v e r to o k a n y th in g Tor g r a n te d ; h e alw ays d o u b te d w h a t o th e rs
th o u g h t p o ssib le. S o m e tim e s th e re su lt was th a t h e f o u n d a ne w w ay. T h e
q u e s tio n s s o m e tim e s flo w e d f ro m E d iso n as if h e h a d n o c o n tr o l o v e r his
th o u g h ts b u t w as in tu itiv e ly p e n e tr a tin g to th e e sse n c e o f a c o m p le x a n d
c o n fu s in g s itu a tio n . W h ile w a ilin g fo r th e le a d in g q u e s tio n s to f o r m in his
m in d o r th e r ig h t e x p e r im e n t to p re s e n t itself, E d iso n o f te n p a sse d th e
tim e , U p to n o b s e rv e d , by idly d o in g e x p e r im e n ts in th e g e n e r a l a re a o f his
c o n c e r n , w h ic h k e p t his a tte n tio n fo c u se d o n th e g e n e r a l p ro b le m . I f su ch
e ff o r ts p r o v e d fru itle ss, h e w o u ld sh ift to a n o th e r su b je c t a r e a a n d w o rk
o n a n o th e r p ro je c t f o r a tim e .
U p to n w as w ell v e rse d in ca lc u lu s, a n d E d iso n w as n o to rio u s fo r his
w e a k n e ss in m a th e m a tic s , b u t th e w ay in w hich E d iso n g r a s p e d th e e sse n c e
o f q u a n tifia b le r e la tio n s h ip s im p re s s e d U p to n . U p to n 's ta sk w as to r e d u c e
M em o ran d u m in Je h l lo U pton, 22 April 1913. pp. 10 - 1 1. H am m er Collection.
Ibid.. p. 4.
Folder labeled "B iographical U pton. Francis." item E-6285-11. EA.

27

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
E d iso n s n o lio n s to e q u a tio n s . E d iso n 's ability to find m e ta p h o r s th a t a l
low ed him to d ra w o n w hat h e k new a n d im |>ose o r d e r o n w hat h e d id not
k now also was a Kilt. U p to n a d m ire d th e way in w hich E d iso n fo rm u la te d
g e n e r a l ob jectiv e s, o r s o lu tio n s, a n d th e n w o rk e d in g e n io u sly to w a rd the
e n d in view.
F u r th e r re se a rc h will n ot u ltim a te ly reso lv e th e c o m p le x ity a n d c o n tr a
d ic tio n s in th e su rv iv in g te stim o n y o f active, a m b itio u s m e n like E d iso n a n d
his lie u te n a n ts .T h e re la tio n s h ip s w e re as m u ltifa c e te d a n d in v o lu te d as
J e h l's a n a lo g y of N a p o le o n - a n d -s ta f f su g g ests. P io n e e rs like U p to n e n
h a n c e d th e E d iso n le g e n d ; a few o th e rs , like J e h l, in p riv a te , cast d o u b ts.
A m o n g th o se w h o ra ise d q u e s tio n s o p e n ly w ere N ikola T e sla , th e in v e n to i
of a p o ly p h a se p o w e r system ; W. K. L. D ickson, th e in v e n to r ol m o tio n
p ic tu re a p p a r a tu s ; a n d F ra n k J . S p ra g u e , a p io n e e r in e le c tric tra c tio n .-1
T h eir, o r th e ir a d v o c a te s', criticism s g e n e ra lly focus o n th e alle g e d fa ilu re
o f E d iso n , o r h isto ry , to asc rib e c re d it d u e th e m fo r w o rk d o n e , o r in v e n
tio n s m a d e , w hile th e y w e re e m p lo y e d by E d iso n , l a b o r a t o r y n o te b o o k s
a n d o th e r re c o rd s d o su g g e st th a t h e was o fte n stim u la te d by th e ideas a n d
a c h ie v e m e n ts o f o th e r s , in sid e th e la b o ra to ry a n d o u t. H e d re w o n th e ideas
o f o th e r s by m e a n s o f lite r a tu r e a n d p a te n t se a rc h e s. It is also tr u e that
E d iso n se ld o m s in g le d o u t a ssista n ts to a ttr ib u te to th e m p a rtic u la r in v e n tiv e
id eas, b u t h e o fte n a c k n o w le d g e d th e ir g e n e ra l a ssistan c e in n e w sp a p e r
in te rv ie w s a n d h e g av e th e m re sp o n sib le p o sitio n s in his m a n u fa c tu rin g
e n te r p ris e s .
T h e ta n g le d c o n n e c tio n s a n d c o n tr a d ic to r y e v id e n c e can he cla rifie d
so m e w h a t, h o w e v e r, if we view th e E d iso n g r o u p as an organic c o m m u n ity
w h o se m e m b e rs w e re fu n c tio n a lly , o r sy ste m atic ally , re la te d . E d iso n 's roleh a d lo b e p la y e d , as d id K re u s is, B a tc h e lo rs, a n d U p to n 's. J e h l m ig h t have
b e e n c o v e rtly je a lo u s o f th e p u b lic ity giv e n E d iso n , e v en o f his stature- as
a h e ro , b u t th e m y th h e lp e d a ttra c t fin a n c ie rs w h o w o u ld n e v e r h av e s u p
p o r te d J e h l o r e v e n J e h l s h e r o U p to n . N o d o u b t E d iso n s im m e n se p re stig e
also in f lu e n c e d th o se w h o w ere in v olved in p a te n t litig a tio n . A n d it is
d o u b tfu l th a t th e o th e r s co u ld h a v e p r o v id e d th e ve rv e a n d intellec tual
style th a t g av e E d iso n th e p o w e r to in sp ire m ost o f th e M enlo Ia rk c o m
m u n ity to w o rk lo n g h o u rs at fe v e r p itch . It is u n d e r s ta n d a b le , h o w ev e r,
th a t p e rs o n s f u n c tio n in g effe ctiv e ly in a c o m m u n ity w ould at tim es reject
th e e g o -c o n s tra in in g ro le th e c o m m u n ity a sk e d th e m to play.
T h e c o n tro v e rs y o v e r E d iso n 's ro le is c la rifie d so m e w h at w h en a tte n tio n
is d ire c te d to th e sy stem s a p p ro a c h in fo rm a lly u sed in his la b o ra to ry . As
e n tr e p r e n e u r a n d m a n a g e r o f re s e a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. E d ison was r e
s p o n sib le fo r th e o u tp u t o f his r e s e a rc h - a n d -d e v e lo p m e n t c o m m u n ity . E val
u a tin g h im sim p ly as a n in d e p e n d e n t in v e n to r is in a p p ro p ria te . The q u e s
tio n sh o u ld n o t be D id E d iso n in v en t? b u t r a th e r H ow d id h e p re sid e o v e r
in v en tiv e activity? B io g ra p h e r s ha v e b ee n led astra y by fo c u sin g o n E d iso n 's
p a te n ts a n d th e ir p rio rity . In tr u th , a ssig n in g p a te n ts to E dison was p r o b
ably in m a n y in stan c es p a rtia lly a tactical dev ice u se d to tak e a d v a n ta g e ol
his fa m e a n d p re s tig e to im p re ss p o te n tia l fin an c ia l bac kers a n d e v e n ju d g e s
G ordon H endricks, Thr Edison Motion Ficturr Myth (l)crkeley: University <il ( .aliloi 111.1
Press, 1961); lla rric l Sprague, Frank J. Spragur and thr Edison Myth (New York: William
Frederick Press. 19471.

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
Figure 11.3. Eduon's laboratory, Alm /o
Park, the winter of I/i80/ft I . From InsuU.
Public Utilities, faring p. 40.

in p a te n t litig a tio n . B e c a u se m a n y o f h is in v e n tio n s w e re u n d o u b te d ly th e

re s u lt o f c o lle ctiv e e n d e a v o r s , it w o u ld h a v e b e e n f a ir to a ssig n th e p a te n ts
to se v e ra l p e r s o n s in th e la b o ra to ry in c lu d in g E d iso n . T h is , h o w e v e r, is a n
issu e s e p a r a te fr o m th e q u e s tio n o f th e ro le h e p la y e d as a m a n a g e r a n d
e n t r e p r e n e u r o f in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. It is in te r e s tin g to n o te in th is
r e g a r d th a t th e A m e ric a n in v e n to r Eli W h itn e y h a s re c e n tly b e e n d e s c rib e d
as a m a n a g e r a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r . 25
T h e sy ste m s E d is o n c h o s e w e re n o t s im p ly te c h n ic a l o n e s ; th e y in v o lv ed
e c o n o m ic s as w ell. F o r e x a m p le , fr o m th e s ta r t o f h is s u s ta in e d c o n c e n tr a
tio n o n th e e le c tric lig h tin g p r o je c t in th e fall o f 1878, E d iso n a n d his
la b o r a to r y a s s is ta n ts a n a ly z e d th e co sts o f g e n e r a tin g a n d d is tr ib u tin g ele c
tric ity . V a rio u s n o te b o o k e n trie s , t h o u g h th e y d o n o t p ro v id e a c h ro n o lo g y
a n d c o m p le te re c o r d o f E d is o n 's in v e n tiv e id e a s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t activ itie s,
sh o w th e fo c u s o f h is th o u g h ts o n , f o r in s ta n c e , th e c o st o f o p e r a tin g th e
G r a m m e a n d W alla ce a r c -lig h t g e n e r a to r s th a t w e re a c q u ir e d fo r le st p u r
p o s e s .2" F ro m th e a v a ila b le lite r a tu r e , E d iso n a n d his a ssista n ts a lso a s c e r
ta in e d th e c o st o f o p e r a tin g a J a b lo c h k o lT a rc -lig h tin g s y ste m , th e in v e n tio n
th a t h a d c r e a te d so m u c h e x c ite m e n t d u r i n g its d isp la y in P a ris a n d o th e r
E u r o p e a n citie s. O t h e r ite m s in th e n o te b o o k s lo t th e e a rly m o n th s o f th e
p r o je c t a lso r e v e a l E d is o n s c o n c e r n a b o u t th e cost o f c o p p e r n e e d e d fo r

''"Sce M errill R. Sm ith. Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology (llliaca, N.Y.: C ornell
U niversity Press. 1977); anti, especially, idem , "Eli W hitney a n d the A m erican System of
M an u factu rin g ," in Technology in America, ccl. C arro ll W. Pursell, J r . (C am bridge, Mass.: M .I.T.
Press. I9HI), pp. 4 5 -6 1 .
"'Menlo Park N otebook 110. (i (4 D ecem ber 1878-31) Ja n u a ry 1879). pp. 22 -3 0 . Edison's
lab o rato ry n otebooks a rc p art o f th e E dison Archives on file al the E dison N ational Historic
Site. W est O ra n g e, N.J. H erea fter, if only o n e d a te is given Tor a notebook, it is Tor the first
d a ted e n try in th e tinieltook; if tw o d ates a re given, th e second is for the last d a ted entry.

29

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
d is trib u tio n a n d g e n e r a to r w irin g .27 O n 8 S e p te m b e r 1878 E d iso n visited
th e A n so n ia . C o n n e c tic u t, p la n t o f W illiam W allace, th e b ra ss m a n u la rtu r e r , to see his a rc -lig h t d y n a m o . W hile th e re . E d ison m a d e r o u g h c a l
cu la tio n s. in c lu d in g fuel costs a n d tra n sm issio n losses.26 l i e also d e c id e d
in th e ea rly d a y s th a t a su c ce ssfu l lig h tin g system w ould be o n e th a t p r o
d u c e d light a t a p ric e lo w e r th a n th e cost o f g a s.2 S p u r r e d bv his vision
o f a n e le c tric lig h tin g system th a t w o u ld b e a n a lo g o u s to e x istin g gaslight
system s, h e b e g a n in 1878, a c c o rd in g to his o w n re c o lle c tio n s collecting
e v e ry k in d o f d a ta a b o u t g a s; b o u g h t all th e tr a n s a c tio n s o f th e g as e n g in e e r
in g so c ieties, e tc ., all th e b ack v o lu m e s o f gas jo u r n a ls . H a v in g o b ta in e d all th e
d a ta a n d in v e s tig a te d g as-jet d is trib u tio n in N ew Y o rk by a c tu a l o b se rv a tio n s. I
m a d e u p m y m in d th a t th e p r o b le m o f th e su b d iv isio n o f th e e lec tric c u r r e n t
c o u ld b e so lv e d a n d m a d e c o m m e rc ia l.

E d iso n c o u ld n o t re d u c e g e n e ra l s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e c o m p a ra tiv e costs

o f gas lig h tin g a n d e le c tric lig h tin g to q u a n tita tiv e ly m o re p re c ise o n e s u ntil
h e h a d d e v e lo p e d so m e o f his in v e n tio n s a n d m a d e a d e ta ile d analysis o(
th e cost o f gas lig h tin g as s u p p lie d in a p a r tic u la r locality. F ro m th e sta rt,
h e clea rly re a liz e d , h o w e v e r, th a t his system w o u ld ha v e to be e co n o m ic ally
c o m p e titiv e , a n d th u s h e co n c e iv e d o f th e p ro b le m to be solved by in v en tio n
as in se p a ra b ly te c h n ic a l a n d ec o n o m ic . H e d id n ot set o u t to in v en t a lig h tin g
system th e cost o f w hich w o u ld n o t be c o n s id e re d u n til it was built. As an
e c o n o m ic h is to ria n la te r o b s e rv e d , F ro m th e e c o n o m is ts vie w p o in t, th e
m o st s ig n ific a n t a sp e c t o f E d is o n s activities in ele ctric lig h tin g was his
c o n c e rn a t e v e ry s te p w ith e c o n o m ic fa c to rs .31 It w ould p e r h a p s be m o re
c o r re c t to say th a t h e d e fin e d p ro b le m s as e c o n o te c h n ic a l.
B ec au se te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e in v o lv e d e c o n o m ic , legal, a n d legislative
fa cto rs as well as te c h n ic a l a n d scie n tific o n e s, E d iso n n e e d e d a G ro sv e n o r
L o w rey to h e lp him fu lfill his ob jec tiv es as a n in v e n to r - e n ir e p r e n e u r . Lowrey g u id e d E d iso n in m a ile rs in v o lv in g W all S tre e t, N ew Y ork C ity p o li
ticians, a n d p a te n t a p p lic a tio n s. E d iso n , h o w ev e r, d id n ot s te p back, im
m e rse h im self in technological a n d scientific pro b lem s, a n d leave th e politics"
to L ow rey; th e s u rv iv in g c o r re s p o n d e n c e show s th a t E d iso n pla y ed a p r o m
in e n t ro le in th e fin a n c ia l a n d p olitical s c e n a rio s c o n c e rn in g his in v en tio n s.
B o rn in M a ssa c h u se tts, L o w re y to o k u p th e p ra c tic e o f law in N ew Y ork

17 See Menlo Park N otebook no. I (28 N ovem ber 1878-24 July 187!)). section on wire
calculations; and Notebook no. 12 (20 D ecem ber 1878). pp. 174-75. 232-3.3. O n the cost ol
operating Jablo ch k o ff candles, see Notebook no. 6. p. 57.
*" Christo p h er S. D erganc, "T hom as Edison and His Electric Lighting System." IEEE Spec
(rum. February 1979, p. 50.
H arold C. Passer. The Electrical Manufacturers. 1875-1900 (Cambridge. Mass.: H arvard
University Press, 1953), p. 83.
"T estim ony o f Edison quoted in T hom as C. M artin, Forty Years oj Edison Service. 18821922 (New York: New York Edison Co.. 1922), p. 9. Contrary lo Edison's claim that hr
u n dertook investigation o f the gaslight industry in 1878, notelionk records and other original
sources show that no systematic research alroul the industry was done until the end o f 1879
and du rin g 1880, when Edison was planning his first central station in New York City. I am
indebted lo Paul Israel o f the T hom as Edison Papers Project at Rutgers University lor this
inform ation. Israel is investigating Edison's method in the Menlo Park period Paul It. Israel,
personal com m unication, 16 February 1982.
Passer. Electrical Manufacturers, p. 83.

30

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

C ity a n d ro se to p ro m in e n c e th e r e . H e a c te d as c o u n s e l to th e U .S . E x p re ss
C o m p a n y , W ells F a rg o 8c C o m p a n y , a n d th e B a ltim o re 8c O h io R ailro ad .
H e was also legal a d v is e r to th e f in a n c ia l e n t r e p r e n e u r H e n r y V illa rd , w ho
b e c a m e closely asso c ia te d w ith E d iso n . In 1866 L o w rey b e c a m e g e n e ra l
co u n se l Tor th e W e s te rn U n io n T e le g r a p h C o m p a n y , a p o sitio n w hich
b r o u g h t E d iso n a n d L o w rey to g e th e r in c o n n e c tio n w ith te le g r a p h p a te n t
litig atio n . L o w re y w as o n e o f th o s e w h o p e r s u a d e d E d iso n to tu r n to elec tric
lig h tin g .32 H a v in g o b s e rv e d th e se n s a tio n a l p u b lic ity g iv e n to th e in tr o
d u c tio n o f th e J a b lo c h k o f f a rc lig h t in P aris in 1878, L o w re y u r g e d E d iso n
to e n te r th e field a n d o f f e r e d to ra ise th e m o n e y E d iso n n e e d e d to e x p a n d
M en lo P a rk . N o t o n ly d id h e a d v ise E d iso n , h e o fte n e n c o u r a g e d th e in
v e n to r. L o w rey p ro m is e d in 1878 th a t th e in c o m e fr o m elec tric -lig h tin g
p a te n ts w o u ld b e e n o u g h to fu lfill o n e o f E d is o n s d r e a m s : it w o u ld set
[h im ] u p fo re v e r . . . [a n d ] e n a b le [h im ] . . . to b u ild a n d fo rm a lly e n d o w
a w o rk in g la b o ra to ry s u c h as th e w o rld n e e d s a n d h a s n e v e r s e e n .33 (A t
th a t tim e , th e o n ly b u ild in g s in th e M e n lo P a rk c o m p le x w e re th e la b o ra to ry
b u ild in g , th e c a r p e n tr y sh o p , a n d th e c a rb o n s h e d ; still to c o m e w e re a
m a c h in e s h o p , lib ra ry , a n d o ffic e b u ild in g s.) S h o rtly a f te r w a r d , E d iso n gave
L o w re y a f re e h a n d in n e g o tia tin g th e sale o f f o r th c o m in g e le c tric -lig h tin g
p a te n ts a n d e s ta b lis h in g b u sin e ss asso c ia tio n s a n d e n te r p r is e s a t h o m e a n d
a b r o a d : G o a h e a d , I sh all a g re e to n o th in g , p ro m is e n o th in g a n d say
n o th in g to a n y p e rs o n le a v in g th e w h o le m a tte r to y o u . All I w a n t a t p r e s e n t
is to b e p ro v id e d w ith fu n d s to p u s h th e lig h t ra p id ly ." 34
L o w rey h a d close c o n ta c ts w ith th e N ew Y o rk fin a n c ia l a n d political
w o rld . H is law o ffice s w e re o n th e th ir d flo o r o f th e D re x e l B u ild in g
D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y o c c u p ie d th e firs t flo o r. W o r k in g closely
w ith his lo n g -tim e frie n d E g isto P. F a b b ri, a n I ta lia n f in a n c ia l g e n iu s 35
a n d p a r tn e r o f J . P ie r p o n t M o r g a n s, h e o b ta in e d th e f u n d s fo r E d iso n
fro m th e V a n d e rb ilts a n d D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y . H is skill a n d
e ffe c tiv e n e ss in d e a lin g w ith p o litic ia n s a n d p o litical p ro b le m s is c o n v e y e d
by th e fo llo w in g e p is o d e . In D e c e m b e r 1880 L o w re y a r r a n g e d a lo b b y in g
e x tra v a g a n z a . T h e o b jec tiv e w as to o b ta in a fr a n c h is e a llo w in g th e E d iso n
Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y to lay th e d is trib u tio n sy ste m f o r th e first c o m m e r
cial E d iso n lig h tin g sy stem in N ew Y o rk C ity. B e h in d th e o p p o s itio n o f
so m e N ew Y o rk C ity a ld e r m e n lay g a s lig h t in te r e s ts a n d la m p lig h te r s w ho
m ig h t b e th ro w n o u t o f w o rk by th e new in c a n d e s c e n t lig h t. A sp e cial tra in
b r o u g h t th e m a y o r a n d a ld e r m e n to M e n lo P a rk . A rriv in g at d u s k , th e y
saw th e lin y la m p s g lo w in g in sid e a n d o u ts id e th e la b o ra to ry b u ild in g s.
A f te r a lo u r a n d d e m o n s tr a tio n by E d iso n a n d his s ta ff, s o m e o n e p o in te d ly
c o m p la in e d o f b e in g th irs ty , w h ic h w as a sig n a l fo r th e g r o u p to b e led u p
to a d a r k e n e d se c o n d llo o r o l th e la b o ra to ry . L ig h ts s u d d e n ly w e n t o n to
d isclose a lavish s p r e a d (ru m th e fa m o u s D e lm o n ic o 's. A f te r d in n e r , Lowrcy p re s e n te d E d iso n a n d E d iso n 's case, a n d in d u e tim e th e fra n c h is e was

tay so n Jones. A Power History o f the Consaluiatrd Edium System, 1878-1900 (New York:
Consolidated Edison Co.. 1940), p. 27; on Lowrey. sec p. 101
15 Lowrey to Edison. 10 O ctober. 1878, EA.
M Edison lo Lowrey, 2 O rlo b cr, 1878. EA.
Lewis Corey, The House of Morgan (New York. O i l . W all, 1980). p. 23. q uoled in Jones.
History of the (.omolidnted Edison System, p. |fi2.

31

Figure 11.4. System diagrams: Generators

in series, lamps in parallel, and three-wire
distribution. Patent no. 274, 290 <20
March 1882). Three-wire distribution was
not introduced until 188).

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T '
grain ed .-'"1T h e fra n c h is e w as as n ec essary lo r c o m m e rc ia l success as a wellw o rk in g d y n a m o .
T u r n in g lo (lie s im p le c h ro n o lo g ic a l h isto ry o f th e in v e n tio n a n d d e v e l
o p m e n t o f E d iso n 's ele c tric lig h tin g system will serv e as a r e m in d e r th at
ev e n th o u g h E d is o n s c o n c e p ts w e re h olistic a n d his a p p ro a c h was e s s e n
tially sy ste m a tic, his d a y -to -d a y a ctivities w e re a n a lo g o u s to th e h u n tin g a n d
b a c k tra c k in g o f a g o a l-se e k in g o rg a n is m th a t d o e s not know p recisely how
lo p ro c e e d . E d iso n h a d ta k e n tim e o f f fro m so m e o f his o th e r p ro je c ts to
e x p e r im e n t w ith in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s b e fo r e th e fall o f 1878, b u t it was not
u n til 1878 th a t h e en v isa g e d his g oal a n d o r g a n iz e d th e e le c tric -lig h tin g
p ro je c t. T o s u g g e st th a t E d iso n 's a p p ro a c h to th e in v e n tio n o f e le ctric
lig h tin g w as sy stem atic d o e s n ot im ply, h o w e v e r, th a t fro m th e sta rt ol th e
p ro je c t h e c o n c e iv e d o f th e s ystem in all ol its p re c ise tec h n ic a l a n d ei o n o m ii
re la tio n s h ip s a n d q u a n tita tiv e c h a ra c te ristic s. W hat is c le a r is th at h e in
te n d e d fro m th e sta rt o f th e p ro jec t to in v en t not on ly a n in c a n d e sc e n t
la m p b u t also re la te d c o m p o n e n ts , su ch as a d is trib u tio n n e tw o rk .
T h e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e sy stem a b o u t w hich E d iso n first h a d in v en tiv e
id eas in 1878 m ay h a v e b e e n th e d is trib u tio n n e tw o rk a n d th e in c a n d e sc e n t
la m p . T hese id ea s, as is u su a lly th e c ase w ith in v e n tio n s, w e re im p ro v e m e n ts
a n d ne w c o m b in a tio n s . U n til E d iso n 's n u m e r o u s n o te b o o k s w ith th e ir o fte n
in c o m p r e h e n s ib le a n d s c ra m b le d e n trie s a re m o re th o r o u g h ly a n a ly z e d .'7
th e a n sw e r to th e q u e s tio n o f w h a t ex actly h e d isc o v e re d o r in v e n te d in
th e e a rly fall o f 1878 will re m a in in d o u b t, b u t c irc u m sta n c e s su g g est that
th e in v e n tio n s m ay h a v e b e e n a p a ra lle l sy stem o f d is tr ib u tio n a n d a fila
m e n t la m p w ith a c ir c u it- in te r r u p tin g d e v ic e (see Fig. 11.1). T h e d e sig n ol
a c irc u it- in te r r u p tin g d ev ice in e a c h la m p m ay h a v e b e e n su g g e ste d to him
by th e d e sig n o f a ta s im e te r th a t h e h a d re c e n tly in v e n te d to m e a su re th e
h e a t o f th e s u n s c o ro n a d u r in g e c lip se .38 H e b e lie v ed th a t th e se ideas co uld
be d e v e lo p e d in to p ra c tic a l d ev ices. As h e w ro te to an associate. "H ave
s tru c k a b o n a n z a in e le c tric lig h t in d e fin ite su b d iv isio n o f lig h t." 3"
E d iso n s e a rly p ro b le m id e n tific a tio n a n d in v e n tiv e id e as w ere n o t, h o w
e v e r, re m a r k a b ly o rig in a l. T h e su b d iv isio n o f light h a d b e e n c o n s id e re d a
critical p ro b le m e v e r sin c e it b e c a m e o b v io u s th a t a rc la m p s w ere to o in te n se
fo r sm a ll-sp a c e lig h tin g . S u b d iv isio n re fe r s to th e d iv isio n o f lig h t, o r e le c
trical e n e r g y , in to sm a lle r u n its. T h e use o f lo w -intensity, in c a n d e s c e n tfila m e n t la m p s w as s e e n as a likely a n sw e r to th is p ro b le m b ec au se a n u m b e r
o f in v e n to r s b e fo re E d iso n h a d d e s ig n e d in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s o f v aried
c h a ra c te ristic s. T h e s e la m p s, h o w ev e r, w ere n o t d u r a b le . O n e h isto ria n o f
th e in c a n d e s c e n t e le c tric lig h t cites th e in v e n tio n o f tw en ty ty p es ol itu an-

Jch l. Reminiscences, 2: 778-85.

Al the lim e o f lliis w riting the T hom as A. Edison Papers Project, headed l>y Prolessors
Reese Jen k in s and L eonard Reich, is engaged in die editing and analysis ol the hdison
collection at West O range. In cooperation with this project, Dr. H ernard Finn of the Sm ith
sonian Institution and Dr. Robert Friedel ol the Institute of FJeririral and Electronic Engincers" history center are making an in-depth study using the ICdison pa|>ers on the invention
o f the incandescent lamp. Until studies should provide fresh inform ation, understanding, and
insight into Edison's m ethod and activities.
C o n o l, Streak of Luck, pp. I 16. 120.
,g T elegram from FUlison lo Puskas. 22 Sepletnlier 1878, FiA. (Edison had written William
Wallace to this effect on 18 Septem ber.)

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

d e s c e n t la m p s fro m 1809 to 1878 (w h a t h a s b e e n c alled th e p re c o m m e rc ia l
p e rio d ). O n e o f th e in v e n to rs , M oses G . F a r m e r, w as th e f o r m e r p a r tn e r
o f W allace, w h o m E d iso n visited in S e p te m b e r 1878.40 F a r m e r h a d u se d a
p la tin u m - s ir ip in c a n d e s c e n t la m p as e a rly a s J u ly 1859 a n d r e tu r n e d to
e x p e rim e n ta tio n in 1877; in 1878 h e p ro p o s e d c o n n e c tin g th e in c a n d e s c e n t
la m p s in p a ra lle l. H e a lso u se d a c ir c u it-b r e a k in g d ev ice to cool th e fila
m e n t.41 E d iso n m ay h a v e le a r n e d o f th is o n h is A n s o n ia visit; in an y e v e n t,
h e h a d h a d th e o p p o r tu n ity to c o n s id e r p a ra lle l c irc u its, a s c o n tr a s te d to
se rie s c o n n e c tio n s , in th e te le g r a p h a n d in a rc -lig h t a n d e le c tro c h e m ic a l
b a tte ry sy ste m s.42
H is n o te b o o k s f o r th e last th r e e m o n th s o f 1878 a n d h is e a rly e lec triclig h t p a te n ts s u p p o r t th e c o n c lu sio n th a t h is b o n a n z a s w e re th e d u ra b le
f ila m e n t a n d p a ra lle l c irc u itry . H e h a d d e c id e d e v e n e a r lie r to u se a p la t
in u m f ila m e n t.,s E arly in O c to b e r h e w as e x p e r im e n tin g w ith a p la tin u m
fila m e n t a n d a th e rm o s ta tic d e v ic e to cool th e p la tin u m b e f o r e it fu se d . A t
th e s a m e lim e , h e h a d in m in d a p a ra lle l c irc u it.44 H e a p p lie d f o r a p a te n t
o n a p la tin u m fila m e n t w ith a th e r m o s ta tic r e g u la to r o n 5 O c to b e r 1878
a n d w as g r a n te d th e p a te n t (no. 2 1 4 ,6 3 6 ) o n 22 A p ril 18 7 9 .45 E d is o n s
n o te b o o k s a n d p a te n ts s u g g e st th a t th e in v e n tio n o f a th e rm o s ta tic r e g u la to r
a n d th e p a rallel circuit w ere in extricably lin k ed be ca u se th e r e g u la to r briefly
i n te r r u p te d th e flow o f c u r r e n t to cool th e fila m e n t a n d b e c a u se , if th e
la m p s h a d b e e n w ire d in se rie s, all th e la m p s w o u ld h a v e b e e n e x tin g u is h e d
w h e n th e r e g u la to r o f a n y o n e o f th e m o p e r a te d . T h u s th e in te r a c tio n o f
c o m p o n e n ts se rv e d as th e s tim u lu s fo r in v e n tio n .46
W ith th e ir in v e n tiv e id e as, E d iso n a n d his a sso c ia te s e m b a r k e d o n th e
lo n g a n d te d io u s r e s e a rc h a n d e x p e r im e n ta tio n th a t w as n e e d e d to d e v e lo p
th e ir g e n e ra l n o tio n s in to p ra c tic a l dev ic es. N o t all o f E d is o n s e x p e r im e n ts
in v o lv e d p h ysical a p p a r a tu s . M any w e re sim p ly c a lc u la tio n s; by u s in g d a ta
av ailab le in th e tec h n ic a l lite r a tu r e a n d e le m e n ta ry sc ien c e, su c h as O h m s
law, E d iso n a n d his s ta ff c o u ld a n tic ip a te p h e n o m e n a . B e c a u se th e sim p le
circ u it e q u a tio n s a n d e c o n o m ic c a lc u la tio n s u se d w e re q u a n tita tiv e , th e
e x p e rim e n ts , b o th p h ysical a n d sym bolic, w e re e c o n o le c h n ic a l (th o u g h E d i
so n a n d his a ssista n ts w o u ld n e v e r h a v e e m p lo y e d s u c h ja rg o n ).
E d iso n a n n o u n c e d his b ra in c h ild p r e m a tu r e ly , w ith f a n fa r e , in th e New
York S u n o n 20 O c to b e r 1878. H e to ld r e p o r te r s o f his p la n s fo r u n d e r
g r o u n d d is trib u tio n in m a in s fro m c e n tra lly lo c a te d g e n e r a to r s in th e g re a t
cities; p r e d ic te d th a t his e le c tric lig h t w o u ld b e b r o u g h t in to p r iv a te h o u se s
a n d s u b s titu te d lo r gas b u r n e r s at a lo w e r c o st; a n d c o n fid e n tly a s s e rte d
th a t his c e n tra l sta tio n "(w o u ld fu rn is h ] lig h t to all h o u s e s w ith in a circle
A rth u r A. B right, Jr., 7 he Electric-ljimp Industry: Technological Change and Economic De
velopment from 1800 In 1947 (New York: Macmillan, 1949). pp. 39-40.
11 C onol, Streak of Luck. p. 120; Bright, Eleclnc-Lamp Industry, p. 46; G eorge F. B arker to
Edison, 22 N ovem ber 1878, EA.
Frank L. Pope, Modem Practice of the Electric Telegraph (New York: Van N ostrand. 1877).
p. 153; Edwin H ouston, A Dictionary o f Electoral Words. Terms, and Phrases (New York: Johnston.
1888), p- 131: M em orandum in Je h l to U pton. 22 A pril 1913. p. 8. H am m er Collection.
Charles Stowell to Edison. 31 May 1878. EA
Drawing labeled "Caveat no. 4" and dated 8 O ctober 1878, EA
" B r ig h t. Electric-Lamp Industry, pp. 6 1 -6 4 ; and Jeh l. Reminiscences. I: 235-36.
Edison also saw the possibility o f using a shunt circuit for each lam p lo m ake the lamps
in dependent. Robert I riedel, personal com m unication. I M arch 1982.

33

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
o f h a lf a m ile." H e sp o k e n o t o n ly o f his in c a n d e sc e n t la m p b u t o f o th e r
en v isa g e d c o m p o n e n ts o f h is sy ste m , su ch as m e te rs, d y n a m o s, a n d d is tri
b u tio n m a in s. In fact, h e h a d n o g e n e r a to r , n o p ra ctica l in c a n d e sc e n t la m p ,
m u c h less a d e v e lo p e d sy stem o f d is tr ib u tio n th e se w e re at le ast a year
aw ay. H e d id h o w e v e r, h av e th e c o n c e p t. As h e w ro te in p riv a te to an
associate,
I have the right principle and am on the right track, but time, hard work and
some good luck are necessary too. It has been ju st so in all o f my inventions.
T h e first step is an intuition, and comes with a burst, then difficulties arise this
th ing gives out and (it is] then that 'D ugsas such little faults and difficulties
are calledshow themselves and m onths o f intense watching, study and labor
are requisite before com mercial success o r failure is certainly reached.41
O th e r s a lso r e p o r te d in 1878 th a t E d iso n h a d id e as fo r a la m p a n d for
a p a ra lle l w irin g sy stem as well as a g e n e ra l o u tlin e f o r his p ro je c t. F rancis
J e h l, w h o jo in e d E d iso n as a la b o r a to r y a ssista n t e a rly in 1879 a n d w ho
la te r p u b lis h e d re m in isc e n c e s o f th e M e n lo P a rk da y s, b e liev e d th a t in
O c to b e r 1878 tw elve m o n th s b e f o r e th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a p ra c tic a l in c a n
d e s c e n t la m p a n d th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f his basic g e n e r a to r d e s ig n E d i
son h a d h is p la n s fig u re d o u t, as a g re a t g e n e ra l fig u re s o u t his b attle
stra te g y b e fo re th e first c a n n o n is f ire d .48 T h e key to E d is o n s success,
a c c o r d in g to J e h l, lay in his e a rly vision, fa r in a d v a n c e o f re a liz a tio n .43
A ssu m in g th a t E d iso n w as th in k in g sy stem atically h e lp s e x p la in w hy h e
so o n d ire c te d h is a tte n tio n aw ay fro m th e d u ra b ility o f th e f ila m e n t to a
co m b in a tio n o f d u ra b ility a n d h ig h re sista n c e . A nalysis o f s y stem costs led
h im to id e n tify th e n e e d f o r a h ig h -re sista n c e fila m e n t. U ltim ately this
b e c a m e th e critica l p ro b le m a n d th e esse n c e o f his la m p as a p a te n ta b le
in v e n tio n . It is n o t c le a r w h e n th e se a rc h fo r h ig h re sista n c e b e g a n , b u t in
a 1926 essay th a t h a s b e e n a ttr ib u te d lo h im , E d iso n sta te d th a t in th e fall
o f 1878 h e e x p e r im e n te d w ith c a rb o n fila m e n ts, th e m a jo r p ro b le m o f
w hich w as th e ir low re sista n c e . As h e e x p la in e d it, In a lig h tin g system
th e c u r r e n t r e q u ir e d to lig h t th e m in g re a t n u m b e rs w o u ld n e ce ssita te such
la rg e c o p p e r c o n d u c to rs fo r m a in s, etc., th a t th e in v e stm e n t w o u ld be
p ro h ib itiv e a n d a b so lu te ly u n c o m m e rc ia l. In o th e r w o rd s, a n a p p a re n tly
re m o te c o n s id e ra tio n (th e a m o u n t o f c o p p e r u se d fo r c o n d u c to rs), was
re ally th e c o m m e rc ia l c ru x o f th e p ro b le m .50 F u r th e r e v id e n c e f o r th e
d a tin g o f h is h ig h -re sista n c e c o n c e p t is his s ta te m e n t th a t a b o u t D ec e m b e r
1878 I e n g a g e d as m y m a th e m a tic ia n a y o u n g m a n n a m e d F ra n cis R.
U p to n . . . . O u r fig u re s p ro v e d th a t a n e lec tric la m p m u st h av e a t least 100

Edison lo Puskas, 13 N ovem ber 1878, EA.

|ch l, Reminiscences, I: 216.
40Ibid.. p. 217.
"T h o m as A. Edison, Beginnings o f llie Incandescent Lam p and Lighting System"
(typescript), p. 4. EA. T h e typescript is dated 1926 and identified as an item sent lo Henry
Ford at his request; it should be used cautiously, however, because by 1926 Edison and his
patent lawyers had organized history with their own priorities in m ind. Also, it follows in
many ways the account o f the incandescent lam p given in the a uthorized biography o f Edison;
see Dyer and M artin, Edison, I: 234-66. T h e 1926 typescript was written with the help o f W.
I I. Meadowcroft, who later collaborated with Dyer and Martin in the publication o f the 1929
edition o f the Edison biography. I am indebted to Robert G. Koolakian for this information.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

o h m s re sista n c e to c o m p e te c o m m e rc ia lly w ith g a s .51 E d iso n sa id th a t h e
th e n trie d v a rio u s m e ta ls, in c lu d in g p la tin u m , in o r d e r lo o b ta in a fila m e n t
o f h ig h re sista n c e , a n d th a t h e c o n tin u e d a lo n g th e s e lin e s u n til a b o u t A p ril
1879, w h e n h e d e v e lo p e d a p la tin u m f ila m e n t o f g r e a t p r o m is e b e c a u se
th e o c c lu d e d g ases h a d b e e n d riv e n o u t o f it, th e re b y in c re a s in g its in fu sibility. In h is Rem iniscences, J c h l m a in ta in s th a t E d iso n w a n te d a h ig h re sista n c e la m p as e a r ly as O c to b e r 1878, a n d th a t h e h a d re a c h e d th is
c o n c lu sio n by th in k in g t h r o u g h h is e n v is a g e d sy ste m o f e le c tric lig h tin g .52
J e h l also sta le s lh a l by a p p ly in g J o u l e s a n d O h m s law s, E d iso n a r r iv e d at
th e e sse n tia ls o f his sy stem .
E d iso n se e m s to h a v e b e e n r e f in in g h is in v e n tiv e id e a s fo r c o m p o n e n ts
a n d h is m o r e g e n e r a l id e a s fo r a sy stem t h r o u g h o u t th e fall o f 1878 (see
Fig. I I . 5). H is e a rly e m p h a s is o n th e d u r a b le fila m e n t a n d p a ra lle l w irin g
w as sp e cific, b u t h is n o tio n o f a sy stem in v o lv in g g e n e r a to r s , la m p s, a n d
d is tr ib u tio n fr o m a c e n tra l s ta tio n w as v a g u e . H e p r o b a b ly first c o n c e iv e d
o f it a s a n a n a lo g u e o f c e n lra l-s ta tio n , illu m in a tin g g as su p p ly . E x p e ri
m e n tin g w ith fila m e n ts a n d c a lc u la tin g c o sts fro m a v a ila b le d a ta a b o u t
ex is tin g g e n e r a to r a n d a rc -lig h t sy ste m s a llo w e d h im , a n d th e n U p to n , to
in tr o d u c e th e co sts in to th e sy ste m . T h is p e rs p e c tiv e re v e a le d th a t a d u r a b le
f ila m e n t a n d p a ra lle l w irin g m ig h t y ield a te c h n ic a lly w o rk a b le sy stem , b u t
n o t a n e c o n o m ic a lly fe asib le o n e . A s a re s u lt o f a s y ste m a tic an aly sis o f
te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic fa c to rs, th e h ig h - re s is ta n c e fila m e n t th e n e m e r g e d
as th e c ritica l p ro b le m . J o u le 's a n d O h m s law s, e q u a tio n s th a t a r e c o n s id
e r e d sim p le to d a y , w e re o f g re a t v a lu e to th e in v e n to rs , f o r th e y allo w e d
th e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e c o m p o n e n ts to b e in tr o d u c e d as v a ria b le s a n d
re la te d sy ste m a tica lly . T h e e ffe c t o f a n in te n d e d c h a n g e in o n e v a ria b le
(c o m p o n e n t) o n o th e r v a ria b le s ( c o m p o n e n ts ) c o u ld b e a n tic ip a te d , a n d
a c tu a l e x p e r im e n ts w o u ld te st th e a s s u m p tio n s a n d p re d ic tio n s .
J e h l s stre ss o n th e im p o r ta n c e o f O h m s law , a n d ite m s in th e la b o ra to ry
n o te b o o k s a n d se c o n d a ry lite r a tu r e , su g g e st m o r e a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f E d i
s o n s re a s o n in g a n d lh a l o f his a ssista n ts, esp e cia lly F ra n c is U p to n .53 As
M Edison, "B eginnings," p. 5. U pton slated that E dison had high resistance in m ind when
U pton jo in e d Edison's staff; see Francis R. U pton's 1018 speech to E dison Pioneers, item X E G 2 8 5 -I3 , folder labeled "Biographical U pton. Francis," EA.
" C o n tr a r y to his recollection, how ever, J e h l tlid not com e to M enlo Park until the end o f
February 1879, "at the earliest." Paul B. Israel, 16 February 1082, personal com m unication
(see note 30 above). T h e re fo re , Jc h l's statem ent should be taken as secondhand evidence.
Je h l (Reminiscences. 1; 36 2 -6 3 and 2: 852 -5 4 ) stresses Edison's reliance upon O hm 's law.
T h e stress suggested a clue to Edison's reasoning. In a reference o ften used at Menlo Park
(the essay "Electricity" in thc Encyclopaedia Britan men. Olh cd. |1878). p. 41). O hm 's law is
staled as R = E/C (resistance equals e lectrom otive force divided by c urrent). In a misleadingly
tilled article, H aro ld O. Passer argues cogently that E dison's reasoning was as J c h l suggested
("Electrical Science an d the Early D evelopment o f the Electrical M a nufacturing Industry in
the U nited Stales," Annals o f Science 7 |I 9 5 I |: 38292). Passer offers no evidence, however,
from the notebooks o r o th e r original Edison sources. Passer sim ilarly discusses Edison's rea
soning and concepts in Electrical Manufacturers (pp. 82, 84. and 89). Dyer and M artin's Edison
(I: 244-60), parallels the m em o ran d u m a ttrib u ted to Edison in 1926. Jo se p h so n 'sEdison (pp.
193-204, 211-220) stresses Edison's use o f O hnt's law but does not note the im portance of
Edison's having used O h m 's law in conjunction with J o u le's law in o rd e r to conceptualize his
system. Joscphson also dates Edison's ru st high-resistance lam p as Ja n u a ry 1879 (a platinum
filament), but gives no source Tor the statem ent (ibid., p. 199): nor docs he provide a source
for the statem ent that Edison came to the idea for high resistance in a "flash o f inspiration"

35

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

Figure U.S. Creation of the Edison system, Menlo Park. From Leslie's Weekly ( IH80). as reproduced in Forty Years ol
Edison Service. 1882-1922 (New York: Press of the New York Edison Co.. 1922), faring p. 21

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
n o te d , E d iso n a n d U p to n saw th a t th e c ost o f c o p p e r , esp e cially th a t w hich
d e p e n d e d o n th e c ro ss-se c tio n a l a r e a a n d th e le n g th o f th e c o n d u c to r s , was
a m a jo r v a ria b le in th e o v e ra ll co st e q u a tio n . L a rg e a n d lo n g c o n d u c to rs
w o id d ra ise th e p ric e o f e le c tric lig h t ab o v e th a t o f gas. T o k e e p c o n d u c to r
le n g th d o w n , E d iso n s o u g h t a d e n se ly p o p u la te d c o n s u m e r a r e a ; to k e e p
th e c ro ss-se c tio n a l a r e a sm a ll, h e h a d to re a s o n f u r th e r , u sin g th e laws o f
O h m a n d J o u le . T h e n o te b o o k s sh o w th a t E d iso n a n d U p to n u se d J o u le s
law ( h e a t o r e n e rg y = c u r r e n t 2 x re sista n c e = v o lta g e x c u r r e n t) to
ca lc u la te th e a m o u n t o f e n e r g y th a t w o u ld b e e x p e n d e d by th e in c a n d e sc e n t
f ila m e n ts .54 T h e y also u se d a n a d a p ta tio n o f th a t law to show e n e r g y loss
in th e c o n d u c to rs . E n e rg y loss w as ta k e n to b e p r o p o r tio n a l to th e c u r r e n t2
tim e s th e le n g th o f th e c o n d u c to r tim e s a c o n s ta n t d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e
q u a lity o f th e c o p p e r u s e d , all d iv id e d by th e cro ss-se c tio n a l a re a o f th e
c o n d u c to r (e n e rg y loss p r o p o r tio n a l to C 2L a/S).55 T h e fo rm u la p o se d a n
e n ig m a , f o r if E d iso n in c r e a s e d th e c ro ss s e c tio n o f th e c o p p e r c o n d u c to rs
to r e d u c e loss in d is tr ib u tio n , h e w o u ld in c re a s e c o p p e r co sts, w h ic h was
to b e a v o id e d . O b v io u sly , a tra d e - o f f, to u se th e j a r g o n o f th e e n g in e e rin g
p ro fe s s io n , w as in o r d e r .T h e r e w as, h o w e v e r, a n o th e r v a ria b le th e c u r
r e n t to c o n s id e r. I f c u r r e n t c o u ld b e r e d u c e d , th e n th e c ro ss-sec tio n al
a r e a o f th e c o n d u c to r s n e e d n o t b e so la rg e . B u t c u r r e n t w as n e e d e d to
lig h t th e in c a n d e s c e n ts , so h o w w as o n e to r e d u c e it?
T o so lve th e d ile m m a , E d iso n a n d U p to n c o u ld h a v e re a s o n e d as follow s.
W a n tin g to r e d u c e th e c u r r e n t in o r d e r to lo w e r c o n d u c to r losses, th e y
re a liz e d th a t th e y c o u ld c o m p e n s a te a n d m a in ta in th e level o f e n e r g y tr a n s
f e r to th e la m p s by ra is in g th e v o lta g e p r o p o r tio n a te ly (H = C x V). T h e n
th e y b r o u g h t O h m s law in to p la y (re s is ta n c e e q u a ls v o lta g e d iv id e d by
c u r r e n t) . It w as a e u r e k a m o m e n t, f o r th e y re a liz e d th a t by in c re a s in g th e
r e s is ta n c e o f th e in c a n d e s c e n t- la m p f ila m e n t th e y w o u ld ra ise th e vo lta g e
in r e la tio n s h ip to ih e c u r r e n t. (R e sista n c e w as th e v a lu e o f th e ra tio .) T h u s
b e g a n th e tim e - c o n s u m in g s e a rc h fo r m a te ria l su ita b le fo r a h ig h -re s is ta n c e
fila m e n t. T h e n o ta b le in v e n tio n w as th is logical d e d u c tio n ; th e fila m e n t
w as a h u n t- a n d - lr y a ffa ir .
E d is o n s r e a s o n in g c a n b e illu s tra te d w ith a sim p le e x a m p le u s in g a p
p r o x im a te , r o u n d e d - o f f v a lu e s. In 1879 h e o b ta in e d a c a r b o n iz e d - p a p e r
fila m e n t,w h o s e r e s is ta n c e r a n g e d f ro m 130 o h m s c o ld to a b o u t 7 0 - 8 0 o h m s
h e a te d .5p In o r d e r to a r riv e at a la m p w h o se c a n d le p o w e r w as e q u iv a le n t
to th a t o f g a s, h e f o u n d , th is f ila m e n t w o u ld r e q u ir e in p re s e n t- d a y u n its

a fte r 8 S ep tem b er 1878 (ibid., p. 194). Bright's FJectric-Lamp Industry does not o ffer any
a dditional in fo rm atio n on th e way in which E dison conceived o f his system. Je h l's Reminiscences
rem ains th e most suggestive published source, despite th e book's lack o f o rganization; see I:
2 1 4 -1 5 , 2 4 3 -4 5 , 2 5 5 -5 , and 2: 8 2 0 - 2 1. 85 2 -5 4 .
M M enlo Park N otebook no. 3 (21 N ovem lier 1878), p. 107, and N otebook no. 9 (15
D ecem ber 1878-10 M arch 1879), p. 41, contain some o f the many early entries involving
O h m 's law. In N otebook no. 6. pp. I I ff.. Jo u le's law is m en tioned; th e dates in this notebook
(4 D ecem ber 1878-30 Ja n u a ry 1879, indicate that Edison was using Joule 's law early in his
electric lighting project. In N otebook no. 10 (D ecem ber 18 7 8 -January 1879), the w ord Joule"
is jolted dow n w here the e q uation I I = C*R is used.
" 'M e n lo Park N otebook no. 12, pp. 174-76.
M enlo Park N otebook no. 52 (31 Ju ly 1879). p. 229; the
entry
1879.

is d ated 15 Decem ber

37

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
th e e q u iv a le n t o f a b o u t 100 w atts. T h is m e a n t t h a t th e p r o d u c t o f th e v o ltag e
ac ro ss th e la m p a n d th e c u r r e n t m u s t e q u a l 100 w atts. S in c e th e re sista n c e
w as 100 o h m s, th e c u r r e n t h a d to b e 1 a m p , f o r a c c o rd in g lo J o u le s law
th e h e a t e n e rg y w as e q u a l to th e p r o d u c t o f C 2 a n d th e re sista n c e (1 0 0 =
C 2 x 100; C = 1). It th e n fo llo w e d th a t th e v o lta g e m u s t b e 100 in o r d e r
to fu lfill th e e n e rg y n e e d (H = C x V; V = 100/1 = 100). T h e r e f o r e ,
th e a p p r o x im a te sp e c ific a tio n s o f th e la m p s in E d is o n s sy ste m in to d a y s
te rm in o lo g y w e re 100 w atts, 100 volts, 1 a m p , a n d 100 o h m s .57
A n o th e r possib le e x p la n a tio n fo r th e d ec isio n to se ek h ig h re sista n c e ,
a n d a c o m p le m e n ta ry o n e , w as th e s e a rc h fo r a p la tin u m fila m e n t w ith a
sm all su rfa c e o f r a d ia tio n . T h e obje ctiv e was to m a in ta in th e in c a n d e s c e n t
m a te ria l o f th e fila m e n t a t a h ig h te m p e r a tu r e w ith a low e x p e n d itu r e o f
e n e rg y . T o d o th is E d iso n s h a p e d th e fila m e n t in to a sp ira l, th e r e b y r e
d u c in g th e ra d ia tin g s u rfa c e as well as th e size o f th e fila m e n t.58 T h e
e x p e r im e n ta tio n w ith sm all s u rfa c e s o f r a d ia tio n re s u lte d in h ig h e r- re s is t
a n c e fila m e n ts. W ith F ra n c is U p to n s h e lp , E d iso n c o u ld th e n h a v e a s c e r
ta in e d th e e ffe c t o f h ig h e r re sista n c e o n th e e n tir e c ircu it. T h e y c o u ld h a v e
s e re n d ip ito u s ly d is c o v e re d th e a d v a n ta g e s o f h ig h resista n c e .
T h e fu n d s ra ise d in p a r t by L o w re y f o r p e rs o n n e l a n d e q u ip m e n t a llow ed
th e s im u lta n e o u s in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e
system b e sid es th e in c a n d e s c e n t la m p . U p to n , fo r in sta n c e , w as e specially
ac tiv e in th e d e s ig n a n d c o n s tr u c tio n o f a n a p p r o p r ia te g e n e r a to r . T h e
g e n e ra to rs o n th e m a rk e t f o r instance, th e S iem ens, W allace, a n d G ra m m e
w e re d e s ig n e d f o r a rc lig h ts w ire d in se rie s. A n e tw o rk o f f e e d e r w ires a n d
d is trib u tio n m a in s fo r th e d is trib u tio n n e tw o rk also re c e iv e d c o n sid e ra b le
a tte n tio n . T h e in v e n tiv e id e a s e m b o d ie d in th e v a rio u s v e rsio n s o f th e
c o m p o n e n ts o f th e sy stem r e s u lte d in a la rg e fam ily o f p a te n ts c o v e rin g
th e E d iso n sy stem .
In th e fall o f 1879, a b o u t th e s a m e tim e th a t E d iso n a n d his a ssistan ts
o b ta in e d a fila m e n t w ith th e h ig h r e sista n c e a n d d u ra b ility d e s ire d , M enlo
P a rk a n n o u n c e d im p re ssiv e p r o g re s s in th e d e sig n o f a n in c a n d e sc e n t-la m p
g e n e r a to r . O n 18 O c to b e r 1879 Scientific Am erican c a rrie d a n artic le u n
sig n e d , b u t w ritte n by U p to n d e s c rib in g th e g e n e ra to r. In c o n tra s t to th e
e a r lie r, h ig h -re s is ta n c e g e n e r a to r s o f o th e r in v e n to rs, th e E d iso n g e n e r a to r
h a d low in te rn a l re sista n c e . T h e a rtic le c la im e d th a t it w o u ld o b ta in n e a rly
d o u b le th e fo o t-p o u n d s o f e n e rg y fro m th e sa m e in p u t th a t e a r lie r g e n
e ra to r s h a d a c h ie v e d , o r a n e ffic ie n c y o f 9 0 p e rc e n t. A lth o u g h o rig in a l in
te r m s o f th e sp e cifics th a t w e re d e s ig n e d f o r th e in c a n d e s c e n t system , th e
g e n e r a to r w as b a se d o n e x p e r im e n ts d o n e a t M en lo P a rk w ith th e g e n e r-

!'7 In Ja n u ary 1881 Edison conducted an economy test o f the electric lighting system installed
at Menlo Park to dem o n strate its practicability. T his was a p relude to his installation o f a fullsize system at the Pearl Street station in New York City in 1882. In the test he used two lamp
sizes, 16 c.p.and 8 c.p. T h e 16-c.p. lam p d ep en d ed on an electromotive force o f 104.25 volts
and a resistance o f 114 ohm s; therefo re, the c u rren t in the 16-c.p. lam p was .9 amps. See C.
L. Clarke. "An Economy Test o f the Edison Electric Light at Menlo Park, 1881." dated 7
February 1881, and published for the first tim e in Com mittee on St. Louis Exposition of
Association o f Edison Illum inating Com panies, Edisonia: A Brief History of the Early Edison
Electric Lighting System (New York: Association o f Edison Illum inating Com panies, 1904), pp.
166-78.

* D erganc, "Edison and His Electric Lighting System," pp. 55-56.

NETTW ORKS O F P O W E R
a io rs o f G ra m m e , W allace, a n d o th e r s . In fa ct, th e p u b lic ity fo r th e E d iso n
g e n e r a to r e x a g g e ra te d its e x c e lle n c e c o m p a r e d w ith o th e r in v e n to rs g e n
e ra to rs . T he E d iso n g e n e r a to r w as d e s ig n e d fo r a sy stem o f in c a n d e s c e n t
la m p s c o n n e c te d in p a ra lle l a n d , th e r e f o r e , a sy stem w ith low re sistan ce.
It c o rre c tly h a d a low in te r n a l re sista n c e to m a tc h th e low e x te rn a l re sist
an c e. T o c o m p a r e it w ith a h ig h -re s is ta n c e a rc -lig h t g e n e r a to r d e s ig n e d fo r
a system o f a rc -lig h ts c o n n e c te d in se rie s, h o w e v e r, w as n o t a p p r o p r ia te .
T h e E d iso n g e n e r a to r w as n o t d e s ig n e d f o r a rc lig h ts in series. Still, th e
claim s m a d e a b o u t th e g e n e r a to r e x c ite d m u c h p ro fe s s io n a l a n d pu b lic
re a c tio n , as w as u su a lly th e c ase w ith th e w e ll-p u b lic iz e d E d iso n in v e n tio n s,
a n d E d iso n s h o u ld b e g iv e n c r e d it f o r s e e in g th e n e e d to d e s ig n c o m p o n e n ts
sy stem atica lly in re la tio n s h ip to o th e r s in th e sy ste m a t r u t h o th e r in v e n
to rs fa ile d to g r a s p .59
B e lie v in g la te in 1879 th a t th e e sse n tia l d e s ig n o f th e in c a n d e s c e n t la m p
a n d g e n e r a to r w o u ld p ro v e p ra c tic a l, E d iso n a n d h is a sso cia te s s h ifte d th e ir
e m p h a s is to d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c o m p o n e n ts a n d th e sy stem . T h is m e a n t
in c re a s e d stre ss o n e c o n o m ic fa c to rs. A s e a rly as 18 80 th e y w e re c a lc u la tin g
th e cost o f a c e n tr a l sta tio n o f 1 0 ,000 la m p s, po ssib ly in a n tic ip a tio n o f th e
p la n n e d c e n tra l sta tio n f o r N ew Y o rk C ity s P e a rl S tr e e t. T h e y h a d e x p e r
im e n te d e n o u g h to e s tim a te th a t 1 h .p . fro m a s te a m e n g in e a n d g e n e r a to r
co u ld s u p p ly e ig h t 16-c.p. la m p s. T h e r e f o r e th e y n e e d e d a b o u t 1,200 h .p .
fo r th e ir sy ste m . T h e c a lc u la tio n s th a t fo llo w e d th is a s s u m p tio n in v o lv ed
fix e d c a p ita l, o p e r a tin g e x p e n s e s , a n d o th e r co sts (see Fig. 11.6). Finally,
a s s u m in g th a t th e 10,000 la m p s w o u ld b e u s e d five h o u r s o u t o f ev ery
tw e n ty -f o u r, a n d k n o w in g w h a t ga s c o m p a n ie s c h a r g e d f o r five h o u r s o f
e q u iv a le n t lig h t, th e y c a lc u la te d th e s u r p lu s in c o m e o f a n e le c tric u tility
c h a rg in g th e s a m e p ric e fo r lig h t. E d iso n a n d th e p a r e n t E d iso n c o m p a n y
h o ld in g th e p a te n ts w o u ld re c e iv e p a y m e n t f ro m a s u r p lu s in c o m e o f
$ 9 0 ,8 8 6 .60
As d e v e lo p m e n t p r o c e e d e d , E d iso n a d v a n c e d th e level o f e x p e r im e n
ta tio n f ro m c o m p o n e n ts to la b o ra to ry -sc a le m o d e ls o f th e sy ste m a n d th e n
to a sm all, pilo t-sca le sy stem fo r lig h tin g M e n lo P a rk in D e c e m b e r 1879.
B e ca u se th e c o m p o n e n ts w e re new a n d b e c a u se E d iso n w a n te d to c o n tro l
th e ir m a n u f a c tu r e , L o w re y a ssiste d in th e f o r m a tio n o f s e v e ra l c o m p a n ie s.
E d iso n h a d to d ra w he av ily o n his o w n re s o u r c e s to f u n d th e s e m a n u fa c
tu r in g c o m p a n ie s . E d iso n a n d L o w rey also f o u n d e d a n o p e r a tin g c o m p a n y
to b u ild a c e n tra l- s ta tio n sy stem th a t w o u ld b o th f u n c tio n c o m m e rc ia lly
a n d se rv e as a d e m o n s tr a tio n f o r p o te n tia l fra n c h is e p u rc h a s e r s .
1 h e o rg a n iz a tio n a n d m a n a g e m e n t oT th e c o m p a n ie s f o rm e d by L ow rey
a n d E d iso n in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e e le c tric lig h tin g sy stem h a v e b e e n de-

to r (he reaction o f die scientific com m unity to Edison, Edison's inventions, and especially
the claim s m ade Tor th e g en erato r, see David I lounshcll. "Edison and the Pure Science Ideal
in N ineteenth-C entury Am erica." Scientific American, February 1980, p. 614. More general
ar,C,-ln i^ ZCl* - I en,1'-Iaccl*los Salom on, "Public Reactions to Science a nd T echnology:
Tn r
at'f* Soci,ll. M R ," c , - ' n Science. Technology and the Human Prospect, ed. C. Starr
and P. R nterbush (New York: Pergam on Press. 1980). pp. 7 7 - 9 3 .1 am indebted to Dr. T hom as
unpson o t. J o in s College. Sante Fe, New Mexico, for his views in c om paring arc-light
and incandcsccnt-lam p generators.
nr,

*7 r a t*'*cu**'on * 'hi* cos, analysis, sec H ughes, "Electrification o f A m erica." pp. 133-

39
Figure 11.6. Edison's tslimatr fo r a
10.000-lamp central station. From Menlo
Park Notebook no. 120 (1880). Courtesy of
the Edison Archives. Edison National
Historic Site, West Orange. N.J.

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

D epreciation

C apital InvrM incnl:

Pnw rr plant building
P o ile n a n d auxiliary e q u ip m en t
Steam engine* anti d y n a m o '
Auxiliary eleitrica l e q u ip m en t
O in d iic io n
Meter*
T o tal
O p eratin g and O th e r Expenses:
L abor (Dailv);
C h ief e n g in ee r
$ 3.00
Asiixtant e n g in ee r
3.00
W ilier
1.50
Principal firem an
2.25
Ati*tant lirc m an
1.75
C h ief voltage re g u la to r
2.25
A*i*iani 'u lla g e re g u la to r
1.75
T w o lab orers
3.00
T o tal
$20.50
L ab o r (A nnual)
O th e r:
E xecutive wages (an n u al)
R ent, in su ra n ce a n d taxes
D epreciation
C oal (an n u al)
(S2.80>'ton; 3 # /h .p . h o u r:
5 h o u rs daily: 1.200 h.p .)
O il.
w aste, a n d w ater
L am ps (30.000 at 35c e a d i)
T o ta l
E stim ated M in im u m In co m e fro m 10.C

8.500
30.180
48.000
2,000
57.000
5.000

2<Z
I0 T

2%
2%
5%

$15 0 ,6 8 0

170
3.018
1.440
40
1.140
250

$6,058

$ 7.482
$ 4.000
7.000
6 .058
8.212

2.737
10.500

$45,989
Installed Lamps
Expenses

$136,875
45.989
$ 90.886

sc rib e d well e ls e w h e re .61 H e re it is im p o r ta n t to stress th a t th e p ristin e

c h a r a c te r o f th e c o m p a n ie s m a n ife s te d E d iso n s d e te rm in a tio n to c re a te a
c o h e re n t sy stem . T h e first c o m p a n y th e E d iso n E lectric L ig h t C o m p a n y
(E E L C ) w as f o r m e d o n 15 O c to b e r 1878 essen tially to fu n d E d iso n s in
v e n tio n , r e s e a rc h , a n d d e v e lo p m e n t p ro je c ts a n d to b rin g a r e tu r n o n his
in v e stm e n t th r o u g h th e sale o r lic en sin g o f p a te n ts o n th e system th r o u g h
o u t th e w o rld . T h e E d iso n E lec tric I llu m in a tin g C o m p a n y o f N ew Y ork, a
u tility, o r o p e r a tin g , c o m p a n y , w as in c o rp o r a te d in D e c e m b e r 1880 as a
licensee o f th e p a r e n t E d iso n E lec tric L ig h t C o m p a n y . U n d e r E d iso n s
p e rs o n a l s u p e rv is io n , th e E E1C w o u ld b u ild th e c e n tra l g e n e ra tin g sta tio n
o n P e a rl S tr e e t in N ew Y o rk C ity w hich b e g a n co m m e rc ia l o p e ra tio n in
S e p te m b e r 1882. In 1881 E d iso n also e sta b lish e d in N ew Y ork C ity th e
E d iso n M a c h in e W o rk s lo b u ild d y n a m o s a n d th e E d iso n E lectric T u b e
C o m p a n y to m a n u f a c tu r e u n d e r g r o u n d c o n d u c to rs. T h e E d iso n L a m p
W o rk s, o r g a n iz e d in 1880, t u r n e d o u t in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s in q u a n tity (see
Fig. 11.7). E d iso n also e n te r e d in to a p a r tn e r s h ip w ith S ig m u n d B e rg m a n n ,
a f o rm e r E d iso n e m p lo y e e , to set u p a c o m p a n y to p ro d u c e v a rio u s acccsPaJier, Electrical Manufacturers.

40

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure 11.7. The mcandescentlamp factory, Menlo Park. 1880. part of the Edison manufacturing system. Executive staff (front row, I
right); Philip Iher. William Hammer. Francis Upton, and James Hradley Courtesy of the Edison Archives. Edison National Historic site
Orange. N.J.

so rie s. As e n g in e e r a n d m a n a g e r, E d iso n w as th e p iv o ta l fig u re in all o f

th e se c o m p a n ie s d u r in g th e e a rly y e a rs, h u t f o r h im th e fo c u s a n d th e
c o m m itm e n t r e m a in e d in v e n tio n (see Fig. 11.8).
1h e h isto ry o f th e d e s ig n a n d c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e P e a rl S tr e e t S ta tio n o f
th e E d iso n E le ctric Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y h a s b e e n to ld by m a n y .62 O n e
esp ecially se rio u s e n g in e e r in g p ro b le m e n c o u n te r e d in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f
th e sta tio n w as th e la y in g d o w n o f th e d is trib u tio n sy stem u n d e r g r o u n d .
As n o te d e a rlie r, th e cost o f th e d is trib u tio n sy stem w as a critic a l p ro b le m
" O f the secondary works, Matthew Jo sc p h so n s Edison tells th e story with unusual clarity
and interest and includes an extensive bibliography o f articles about the historic station. T he
F.dison Pioneers have recounted th eir experiences and o th e r auth o rs have celebrated the
achievem ent on various anniversaries o f th e station's o pening. F.ssays by Edison's contem
p oraries can be found, lor exam ple, in the Association o f Edison Illum inating Com panies'
Edisonia. Especially valuable because of its extensive rep rin tin g o f early source m aterial and
inform ation on tbc Pearl Street station and the Edison Electric Illum inating Co. is Payson
Jones's History of the Consolidated Edison System. I hc C onsolidated Edison Co. o r New York is
a successor eom nanv to the EEIC.

41

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

THif JDI90K 1LJCTRIC LICHT COMPANT

P.rmnt ot all Bdlaon alaotrlo light antarprlaaa. organlaad bp Oroaranor P. Lowrwy aa a aaanl f fl nano Inf Thoua A. Idlaon'a lnaantton of a soaplata
lnoandaaoaot alaotrlo light ayataa and of promoting Ita adoption throughout tha uorld. Incorporatad Oatobar IS. IS?#; oar gad ulth lta own aubaldlarp
Tho Bdlaan Oaponp For I aola tad Lighting Daoaabar }1, 1886 to fora 'Rdlaon dlaetrlo Light Cp*np.' uhleh waa auaaaadad aa tha paront jdlaon antorprlaa tap tba IDISON GiNgRAl gLSCTRIC COMPANT In 1889 >d tha CMgRAL dLdCTRIC COUPAHY In 1892. Control of aubordlnato oonpanlaa ualntalnad bp Uaanaa
aontraata or ig m ta.___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
trl (Edison rlsctric illuwnatinc coup ant op nun

TOW. licanaao of tha parant Zdlaon llaatrle

Light Capanp and bulldar or Nuu York Cltp'a
planaar Paarl Struat Station. Poindad bp
Thoaaa A. Sdlaon. Croaranor P. Lourap and othara.
Inoorporatad Dooowbor 17. 1880| aantral otatlon
aaralea atartad Saptaabar k. 1882. Pradaoaaaor
af tha (eld) Haw York ddlaon Ccpanr and tha
araaant Conaolldatad gdlaon Coapanp ef Naw Yirk.
THC dDYSON dLdCTRIC ILLUMINATINC COUPANY OP
BROOKLYN, a Uoenaae of tha parent gdlaon dlectrle
Light Coapanp. Poiaidad bp Aduard H. Johnaon,
Slgaind Bargaann and othar ddlaon plonaara.
InaorporaUd Uarot 10. 1887; aantral atatlon aarvloa atartad Saptaabar 2, 1889. Pradaaaaaor of
tha praaant Brooklyn ddlaon Coapanp. Ina.. a
aubaldlarp of tha Coneolldatad gdlaon Caapanp of
Naa York. Ina.______________________ .________
0TH3R dDISON dLSCTRIC ILLUMINATING C0UPANIS8.
In aaap Aaarloan eltloa Sdlaon alaotrlo lllu lnatlng oaapanlae aara organllad aa llaanaaaa
of tha parant ddlaon dlaatrla Light Coapanp.
uhleh ounad tha patent rlghta to gdlaon'a alaa trio light inaantloia. In thla aap tha ddlaon
eleetrlo light epetea apraad throughout tha
United Statea.____________________________

THJ oDTSON MACKINJ UORRS. an lsa d la ta outgrowth

or Thoaaa A. ddleon'a Menlo Park Machine Shop.
In 1881 oatabllehod at 10k coarok Street. Naw
York Cltp and Manufacturer of Paarl Street'a
world faoua idleon 'Jtabo* dpnaaoa - A prwrfosooeor of tha Ceneral dlaotrlc Caapanp.___________
THi ( iDISON) dLKCTHIC TUBA COMPANY. bS NaahIngton Street. Naw York Cltp. aetabllehed bp
Thaaaa A. Idleen In 1881. Bulldar of tha Paarl
Street Spataa'a .iderground oanductora. Uargad
bp Tha ddlaon Machine Work. In 1886.__________
THd dDISON LAMP IORKS, eetabllehad at Manlo Park
Charlaa Batchelor and ddaard H. Johnaon, a ll of
whoa Bare Paarl Street period dtreetore of tha
flr a t Naw York idloon Coapanp In tha following
daeada. Operator of tha world'a flr a t lneandaa.
cant electric leap faotorp at Manlo Park. In
which ware produced tha baaboo rilaaant carbon
laapo lighted bp tha Paarl Street Station in 1882.
Inoorporatad aa tha gdlaon Leap Caapanp In 188k.
A predacaaaer of tha Canaral dloctrlc Coapanp.
BtRCMANN A COMPANY, fotndara of tna electric
light eccoJoorleo manufacturing lnduatrp. databllanad at 108-llk gooatar Street. Naw York Cltp.
aarlp In 1881. Original partnera rero Slgaind
Brrgmann and ddward H. Johnaon. afterward joined

IDISON COMPANY FOR ISOLATED UCKTINC. a atoak

aoatrallod aubaldlarp of tha original idleon
dlaotrla Light Cspanp. organlaad In 1881. and
aargod with tha parant aoapanp to fora 'gdlaon
flaotrio Light Ceapanp' In 188.____________
THd THOUAB A. RDI80N CONSTRUCTION OIPANTUINT.
organliad bp Thaaaa A. ddlaon and aarged bp
rba ddlaoa Caapanp Par Ieolatad Lighting prior
to October 28. 188k.

UNITdD dDISON MANUPACTURINC COMPANT. organllad In

tha lata 1880a aa a aubaldlarp or tha three
gdlaon manufacturing oaapanlea. gdlaon Uaohlna
Norka. gdlaon Lwnp Coapanp and Bergmann a Cowpony.

Figure 11.8. Edison's manufacturing system. From Jones, H istory o f the Consolidated Edison System, p. 13. Courtesy o f the Consolidated
Edison Co. o f New York.

th a t E d iso n r e c o g n iz e d e a rly in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e sy stem , a n d th u s,

in v e n tiv e ta le n t a n d d e v e lo p m e n ta l skills w e re h eavily in v e ste d in th e p r o b
lem . S u b se q u e n tly , o th e r u tilities also fo u n d th a t d is trib u tio n a n d tr a n s
m ission w e re p ro b le m s o f th e first o r d e r , th e p o p u la r a tte n tio n giv en to
la m p s a n d g e n e r a to r s n o tw ith s ta n d in g . T h e elec trica l n e tw o rk is, a f te r all,
th e esse n c e o f th e sy stem .
E d iso n 's u ltim a te o b je ctiv e w as lo in tro d u c e c e n tra l-s ta tio n su p p ly . A
c e n tra l s ta tio n w o u ld d is tr ib u te e le c tric lig h t to th e pu b lic , in c o n tra st to
g e n e r a tin g p la n ts, o r iso la te d sta tio n s, w hich w o u ld b e u se d o n ly by th e ir
o w n e rs. T h e s te a m bo ile rs, s te a m e n g in e s, g e n e ra to r s , a n d a u x ilia ry e q u ip
m e n t w o u ld b e h o u s e d in th e s ta tio n b u ild in g itself; fro m th e c e n tra l staiio n
th e d is tr ib u tio n system w o u ld , in th e case o f N ew Y ork C ity, fan o v e r an
a re a o f o n e s q u a r e m ile. E d iso n c h o se 257 P earl S tre e t, in th e fin an c ial
d istric t, as th e lo ca tio n o f th e N ew Y ork C ity sta tio n . So lo c ated , th e c e n tra l
sta tio n w o u ld su p p ly r e s ta u ra n ts a n d s h o p s th a t c o u ld a ffo rd th e new light
as a way o f a ttra c tin g c u s to m e rs a n d w o u ld illu m in a te w o rk p la ce s a n d
o ffic es th a t c o u ld a ff o r d it as a n u n u su a lly effe ctiv e lig h t w ith o u t h a z a rd o u s

42

Figure 11.9. Thomas Edison, 1882.

Courtesy o f the Edison Archives. Edison
National Historic Site. West Orange, N J .

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

a n d n o x io u s fu m e s. In ih e W all S tre e l d istric t, th e s ta tio n w ould also catch
th e a tte n tio n o f fin a n c ie rs a n d th e in v e stin g pu b lic, p e rso n s w ho w ere
n e e d e d to fu n d E d iso n sta tio n s e lse w h e re .
In 1882 E d iso n w as in N ew Y o rk su p e rv is in g c o n s tru c tio n o f th e P earl
S tre e t sy stem . A s c h ie f e n g in e e r , h e s p e n t lo n g h o u rs , w eek a fte r week,
n o t in a n o ffic e , b u t o u t w ith th e w o rk e rs s w e a tin g in th e h o t s u m m e r sun
as th e y w re stle d w ith th e new a n d d iffic u lt ta sk o f lay in g th e u n d e r g r o u n d
c ab les fo r th e P e a rl S tre e t sta tio n . E d iso n d id n o t sto p a t su p e rv isio n ; he
w o rk e d in th e d u g - o u t tre n c h e s w ith th e la b o re rs , re s p o n d in g to th e m ost
m in u te p r o b le m s , m a n y o f w hich a r o s e fro m th e d iffic u ltie s o f m a in ta in in g
a d e q u a te in s u la tio n . O f te n a f te r a f ra n tic d a y u n re g u la te d by th e clock, he
w o u ld sle e p fo r o n ly a few h o u r s o n p iles o f tu b e s sla c k e d in th e sta tio n
b u ild in g , h is b e d p lac e s o fte n e d o n ly by his o v e rc o a t. In v e n tio n c o n tin u e d
as p ro b le m s a ro s e d u r in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d e n g in e e r in g p h a se s o f c o n
s tru c tio n . E d iso n a p p lie d f o r 6 0 p a te n ts in 1880, 8 9 p a te n ts in 1881, a n d
107 in 1882. M ost c o v e re d in v e n tio n s p e r ta in in g to th e electric lig h tin g
sy stem . O n ly o n c e a g a in in h is life tim e , in 1883, a y e a r in w hich h e a p p lie d
f o r 6 4 p a te n ts , w o u ld th e to ta l n u m b e r o f h is p a te n ts re a c h th e level a p p lie d
f o r d u r i n g th e th r e e y e a rs h e d e d ic a te d to e le c tric lig h tin g .63
O n 4 S e p te m b e r 1882 J o h n W . L ie b , a n E d iso n e le c tric ia n , th re w th e
sw itc h th a t fe d c u r r e n t fro m a J u m b o g e n e r a to r in th e P e a rl S tre e t statio n
to th e first o f th e la m p s in sta lle d in th e d istric t. T h e g e n e r a to r s b o re th e
n a m e o f th e g r e a t e le p h a n t b r o u g h t to A m e ric a by P. T . B a rn u m . E dison
sw itc h e d o n th e la m p s in 23 W all S tre e t, th e o ffic e s o f D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d
C o m p a n y . T h e sin g le g e n e r a to r w as d r iv e n by a d ire c tly c o n n e c te d P o rte rA lien e n g in e s u p p lie d w ith ste a m fro m B ab co c k 8c W ilcox b o ile rs (th e two
c o m p o n e n ts o f th e sy stem w h ich w e re u n u s u a l in th a t th e y h a d n o t b een
b u ilt by E d iso n ). In itia lly , o n ly a b o u t o n e - th ir d o f t h e o n e -s q u a re -m ile d is
tric t to h e s u p p lie d fro m th e sta tio n h a d c u r r e n t a n d o n ly f o u r h u n d r e d
la m p s w e re lit. In p la c e , b u t n o t o p e r a tin g th e first d a y , w ere five o th e r
J u m b o s , ste am e n g in e s, a n d boilers. T h e n o n c o n d e n s in g P o rte r-A lle n steam
e n g in e s w e re r a te d at 125 n o m in a l h .p ., w e ig h e d a b o u t 6 ,5 0 0 p o u n d s , took
s te a m a t 120 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e in c h o f p r e s s u r e , a n d ra n a t 3 5 0 re v o lu tio n s
p e r m in u te . T h e y w e re d e s ig n e d to lig h t tw e lv e h u n d r e d 16-c.p. lam ps.
W h e n c o o le d w ith a n a ir b last, th e m a c h in e s c o u ld s u p p ly 8 5 0 a m p s at
1 1 5 - 1 2 0 volts. T h e g e n e r a to r s w e ig h e d a b o u t sev e n tim e s m o re th a n th e
s te a m e n g in e s d r iv in g th e m .
C o n tr o l a n d re g u la tio n , vital f u n c tio n s in th is a n d s u b s e q u e n t su p p ly
sy ste m s, h a v e b e e n o v e rlo o k e d by m a n y h is to ria n s , b u t th e y w e re n o t o v e r
lo o k e d by E d iso n a n d his asso c ia te s (see Fig. 11.10). V o lta g e re g u la tio n was
o b ta in e d by in s e r tin g a n d re m o v in g re sista n c e fro m th e field c irc u it o f th e
g e n e r a to r s . A n a u to m a tic in d ic a to r u tiliz in g a n e le c tro m a g n e t c o n n e c te d
a c ro ss th e m a in c irc u it in d ic a te d th e v o lta g e level. I f t h e v o lta g e w as w ithin
o n e o r tw o v olts o f th e d e s ir e d a m o u n t, th e in d ic a to r a r m , th e a r m a tu r e
o f th e e le c tr o m a g n e t, re m a in e d in a n e u tr a l p o sitio n in b a la n c e betw een
th e p u ll o f th e e le c tr o m a g n e t a n d th e p u ll o f a d e lic a te ly a d ju s te d sp rin g .
I f th e lin e v o lta g e ro se , th e a r m a tu r e w o u ld sw in g u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f
5 A rth u r E. Kcnnelly, "T h o m as Edison," in N ational A cadem y o f Sciences, Biographical
Memoirs (W ashington, D.C., 1943), p. 301.

43

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
th e s tr o n g e r m a g n e tic field to w a rd th e e le c tro m a g n e t a n d close a c o n ta c t,
th e re b y lig h tin g a r e d la m p ; if th e line vo lta g e d r o p p e d , th e a ttra c tio n o f
th e e le c tro m a g n e t w e a k e n e d a n d th e s p rin g e x e r te d th e g r e a te r p u ll, c a u s
in g th e a r m a tu r e to r e v e rs e its sw in g a n d to close th e low -side c o n ta c ts a n d
lig h t a b lu e la m p . T h e a tte n d a n t a c c o rd in g ly tu r n e d a h a n d w h e e l to c o n tro l
th e a m o u n t o f fie ld r e sista n c e . T o d ev ise su c h a c o n tro l to m a tc h o u tp u t
a n d lo ad w as s im p le fo r E d iso n , fo r e le c tro m a g n e tic de v ic es, like relays,
w e re th e e sse n c e o f th e te le g ra p h h e k n ew so w ell.64
E d iso n 's sta tio n w as n o te d f o r its h a n d lin g o f m a te ria l a n d fo r its e c o
n o m ic a l e n g in e e r in g . A n u n in te r r u p te d flow o f m a te ria l a n d e n e rg y w o u ld
la te r c h a r a c te r iz e p o w e r p la n t e n g in e e r in g . A 2 0 -h .p . e n g in e d ro v e a screw
c o n v e y o r fo r liftin g coal f ro m th e v au lt u n d e r th e b u ild in g to a p o sitio n
ab o v e th e b o ile rs w h e re th e coal d r o p p e d by g ra v ity in to th e sto k e h o le o f
th e b o iler. A n o th e r scre w c o n v e y o r to o k a sh e s f ro m b e n e a th th e g ra te s a n d
d is c h a rg e d th e m in to a c o n ta in e r u n d e r th e sidew alk. T h e e x h a u s t fro m
th e ste a m e n g in e s p a sse d th r o u g h fe e d -w a te r h e a te rs a n d th e n in to th e
a tm o s p h e r e ; a fa n f o rc e d c o m b u s tio n a ir in to th e f u r n a c e a n d c o o lin g a ir
o n to th e g e n e r a to r c o m m u ta to r . U n d e r full h e a d w a y , th e fo u r b o ilers, r a te d
a t 2 4 0 h .p . e a c h , w o u ld c o n s u m e a b o u t five to n s o f coal a n d 11,500 g a llo n s
o f w a te r p e r d a y (see Fig. II. 11).
In itially , th e m o st se rio u s p ro b le m a ro s e w h e n tw o g e n e r a to r sets w e re
c o n n e c te d in p a ra lle l. T h e g o v e r n o rs o f th e tw o stea m e n g in e s b e g a n to
h u n t, first c u ttin g o f f a n d th e n p r o v id in g steam f o r full p o w e r. E d ison
fo u n d a n in g e n io u s m e a n s o f te m p o ra r ily c o rre c tin g th e a n o m a ly by m e
ch a n ic ally c o n n e c tin g th e g o v e rn o rs o f th e ste a m e n g in e s. In N o v e m b e r
1882, h o w e v e r, tw o A rm in g to n & Sim s e n g in e s w ere s u b s titu te d fo r th e
P o rte r-A lle n e n g in e s , a n d w h e n th e se o p e r a te d su cc essfully w ith g e n e ra to r s
c o n n e c te d in p a ra lle l, all o f th e P o rte r-A lie n e n g in e s w e re re p la c e d . It is
in te r e s tin g to n o te th a t th is d iffic u lty in v o lv e d a c o m p o n e n t th a t was n o t
d e s ig n e d a n d b u ilt by E d iso n fo r th e system .
C o u n tle ss o th e r p ro b le m s p la g u e d th e s ta tio n d u r in g th e b re a k in g -in
p e r io d . C u r r e n t le a k e d f ro m c o n d u c to rs a n d ju n c tio n b o xes u n d e r th e
stre e ts. In a d d itio n , th e r e w e re fires fro m fau lty w iring. Slow ly, ho w ev er,
serv ice in c re a s e d . O n 1 O c to b e r 1882, a few w eeks a f te r serv ice b e g a n ,
w irin g w as in p lac e fo r 1,626 la m p s in th e d istric t a n d 1,284 w e re in use;
o n 1 O c to b e r th e fo llo w in g y e a r th e r e was w irin g fo r 11,555 lam p s a n d
8 ,5 7 3 w ere in use. T h e P e a rl S tre e t sta tio n re m a in e d in se rv ice u n til 2
J a n u a r y 1890, w h e n a d is a s tro u s fire s h u t d o w n th e o rig in a l system . T h e n ,
o n 12 J a n u a r y o f th a t y e a r, a r e c o n s tr u c te d s ta tio n b e g a n s u p p ly in g c u r r e n t
fro m P ea rl S tre e t. O n 1 A p ril 1894 th e s ta tio n was r e tire d a n d th e b u ild in g
was so ld . T h e n o n ly a p la q u e m a r k e d th e h isto ric site w h e re E d iso n d e m
o n s tra te d so effectiv e ly his sy ste m fo r g e n e r a tin g , c o n tro llin g , d is trib u tin g ,
m e a s u rin g , a n d u tiliz in g ele ctric ity f o r lig h tin g .
I f th e P e arl S tre e t s ta tio n h a d n o t b e e n p a r t o f a b u sin e ss as well as a
tech n o lo g ic al sy stem , h o w ev e r, it m ig h t n o t h a v e su rv iv e d u n til th e fire o f
1890. A s im ila r s ta tio n in L o n d o n was a b a n d o n e d sev e ral y e ars a f te r its
f o u n d in g , fo r fin a n cial a n d political re a so n s (see p p . 5 5 - 6 2 below ). T h e
4T his account o f the station and its equipm ent is based in part on H ughes. Thomas F.duon,
pp. 29-36.

n e t w o r k s

o f

p o w e r

Figure I I.10. Wiring system fo r the Pearl

Street central station. From Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies,
Edisonia. p. 70.

'r f 1':T i 1
0 $

^ i|ir

Figure 11.11.

Vf-J V. ; 'J

il'i M

Pearl Street station, 1882: Engineering drawings. From Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, Edisonia, p. 64.

45

IN V E N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
P earl S tre e t sta tio n a n ti th e E d iso n E lectric Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y (EEIC.)
w ere su s ta in e d n o t on ly b e c a u se o f th e c ap ita l in v ested in th e p lan t a n d
th e c o m p a n y b u t also b e c a u se d ie o th e r c o m p a n ie s ol (lie E d ison system
d e p e n d e d 011 th e m as sh o w p ie c e s a n d in d u c e m e n ts fo r o th e rs to p u n base
E d iso n fra n c h ise s a n d E d iso n e q u ip m e n t, d 'liis p a rt o f th e e arly E dison
h isto ry is ra re ly m e n tio n e d in (he E d iso n lo re; E d iso n a n d his associates
w ere re lu c ta n t to re le a se an y d e ta ile d o p e r a tin g fig u re s at th e tim e .,,r> 1 lie
a n n u a l re p o r ts o f th e p a re n t E d iso n E lectric E ight C o m p a n y a n d c o r r e
s p o n d e n c e no w av a ilab le , h o w e v e r, p ro v id e e v id e n c e o f th e F.EIC s nea t
co lla p se.
T h e E E IC d id n o t c h a rg e c u s to m e rs fo r elec tricity in 1882 a n d show ed
a loss o f o v e r $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 fo r th e first tw o q u a r te r s o f 1883, follow ed by a net
loss f o r th e y e a r.61 In 1885 th e c o m p a n y r e p o r te d a net in c o m e o f 6 p e rc e n t
011 its c a p ita l in v e stm e n t o f $ 8 2 8 ,8 0 0 a n d d e c la r e d a 4 p e rc e n t d iv id e n d
T h e la tte r m ay have lieen in te n d e d to e n c o u ra g e investors, w ho w ere n ee d ed
fo r th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a new c e n tr a l s ta tio n u p to w n . 1 lie c o m p a n y p r e
d ic te d th a t th e new sta tio n w o u ld be m o r e p ro fita b le b e c a u se th e n e w e r
E d iso n th re e - w ire d is trib u tio n system w o u ld lo w er costs su b sta n tia lly a n d
b e ca u se th e lo a d in th e ne w d istric t w o u ld be m o re e v e n ly d is trib u te d to
a c c o m m o d a te u se a t all h o u rs o f th e d a y o r n ig h t. T h e r e la tio n s h ip be tw ee n
re g u la rity o f lo a d a n d p e r- u n it cost (load fa cto r) h a d b e e n re co g n iz e d as a
critical p ro b le m .
N e v e rth e le ss, E d iso n e n c o u n te r e d d iffic u ltie s in fu n d in g th e e x p a n sio n .
T h e E dison E lectric Light C o m p a n y , th e o w n e r o f o n e -q u a rte r o f th e EF.ICs
o p e r a tin g stock, a p p r o p r ia te d $ 1 71,200 o f th is stock as a tru s t f u n d to assist
in ra isin g fu n d s . D e sp ite th is, th e p ro m ise o f la rg e r p ro fits fro m th e new
sta tio n , a n d th e f u r th e r in d u c e m e n t o f a 20 p e r c e n t b o n u s o n th e new
e x p a n s io n stock to E E IC s to c k h o ld e rs , th e c o m p a n y still e x p e r ie n c e d d if
ficulties. A p r iv a te c a n v a ssin g o f s to c k h o ld e rs re v e a le d th a t n o t o n e -te n th
o f th e m illio n a n d a h a lf d o lla rs a u th o riz e d c o u ld be raised fro m this sou rce.
T h e p ro m in e n t f in a n c ie r H e n ry V illa rd , a n in v e sto r in E d ison stock w ho
was th e n re s id in g in his n a tiv e G e rm a n y a f te r a re v e rse o f his A m erica n
fo rtu n e s , h e a r d fro m his A m e ric a n c o rr e s p o n d e n t th a t in fo rm e d o p in io n
was d is g u s te d w ith th e e n tir e E d iso n b u sin ess a n d b e lie v ed th a t E dison
officials w ere g e ttin g rich at th e e x p e n s e o r E E IC s to c k h o ld e rs. V illard's
c o r r e s p o n d e n t a d v ise d h im to ig n o re th e rosy, v a g u e p ro m ise s o f th e c o m
p a n y s o fficials a n d n o t to p u r c h a s e th e e x p a n s io n stock. Faced by th e
a p a th y o f su c h s to c k h o ld e rs, th e c o m p a n y th e n fo rm e d a g u a r a n te e sy n
d ic a te w ith th e p ro m is e o f p ro fit fo r s y n d ic a te p a rtic ip a n ts in th e fo rm o f
a la rg e b o n u s o f E E IC stock. N ew s o f th is v e n tu re was p assed 011 to V illard
in F e b ru a ry 1886 w ith th e ad v ic e (h at h e n o t " to u c h it w ith a te n -lo o t
p o le .07 Finally, a "D re x e l M o rg a n S y n d ic a te " w ith heavy in v e stm e n ts in
th c E d ison sy stem [sq u e ez ed ] o u t so m e m o n ey so m e w h e re ." 08

Sec p. 71 below.
Edison Electric Light Co.. Annual Report, 188J (New York: EEIC. IH84); and Edison
Electric Illum inating Co., A nnual Report, I88J (New York: EEIC. IH8(i).
, C. A. S poflord to H enry Villard, 12 Jan u ary , 18 January, 25 January, and 2(i February
1886, Box 124. Villard Papers, H arvard University Library. Cam bridge, Mass
""Spofford lo Villard, 26 February 1886, Villard Pa|>ors.

40

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
N o t o n ly su rv iv in g b u t e x p a n d in g , th e E E 1C . a critic a l c o m p o n e n t of
E d is o n s sy ste m , se e m s to h a v e s tim u la te d th e sa le o f E d iso n fra n c h is e s by
th e p a r e n t c o m p a n y a n d o f e q u ip m e n t by th e m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n ie s.
T h e sale o f f ra n c h is e s in m a jo r citie s p r o c e e d e d b risk ly a t th e sa m e tim e
th a t, b e h in d th e sc e n e s, E d is o n s b a c k e r s w e re h a v in g d iffic u lty fin a n c in g
th e ir sh o w p ie c e . By 1888, la rg e E d is o n c o m p a n ie s o r u tilitie s w e re lo c a te d
in D e tro it, M ic h ig a n ; N e w O r le a n s , L o u is ia n a ; St. P a u l, M in n e s o ta ; C h i
cago, Illinois; P h ila d e lp h ia , P en n sy lv a n ia ; a n d B ro o k ly n , N ew Y o rk . A b ro a d ,
c e n tr a l lig h tin g s ta tio n s h a d b e e n e s ta b lis h e d in M ila n a n d B e r lin . I n 1890
th e N ew Y o rk u tility r e p o r t e d d r a m a tic g r o w th s in c e 1 888: th e n u m b e r of
its c u s to m e r s h a d r is e n f r o m 7 1 0 to 1 ,6 9 8 ; th e n u m b e r o f la m p s (1 6 c .p .)
u s e d h a d in c r e a s e d f r o m 16 ,3 7 7 to 6 4 ,1 7 4 ; a n d th e c o m p a n y s n e t e a r n in g s
h a d n e a rly d o u b le d , j u m p i n g f r o m $ 1 1 6 ,2 3 5 to $ 2 2 9 ,0 7 8 .69 In d ic a tiv e of
th e a p p r o a c h o f a n e w e r a o f e le c tr ic p o w e r , in 18 8 9 th e c o m p a n y r e p o r te d
th e first m o to r lo a d (4 7 0 h .p .).

Edison Electric Illuminating Co.. Annual Report, IH90. (New York: EEIC. 1891).

CHAPTER

III

Edisons System
Abroad: Technology
Transfer

D lSO N and his a sso c iates in v e n te d , d e v e lo p e d , a n d in tro d u c e d in to use

at th e P ea rl S tre e t s ta tio n a n elec tric lig h tin g syslem th a t was d e sig n e d
fo r llie N ew Y ork C ity site. T h e te c h n o lo g y o f th e E d iso n ce n tra l-sta tio n
system in c o rp o r a te d b o th th e n a tu ra l g e o g r a p h y (coal a n d w a te r su p p ly )
a n d th e h u m a n g e o g ra p h y (load o r d e m a n d ) o f N ew Y ork City. In a d d itio n ,
E d iso n , L o w re y , a n d o th e r s to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e fin an c ial re so u rc e s an d
o rg a n iz a tio n a l fo rm s th a t w e re av a ilab le in N ew Y ork C ity. T h e legislative,
o r r e g u la to ry , c o n s tra in ts o f N ew Y ork little tro u b le d th e in n o v a to rs o n ce
th ey o b ta in e d a f ra n c h is e fro m city co u n c il. T h e E dison te c h n o lo g y also
m a n ife ste d th e e x p e rie n c e a n d skills o f c ra fts m e n a n d a p p lie rs ol science
w ho h a d b e e n d ra w n m ostly fro m th e n a tiv e a n d im m ig ra n t p o p u la tio n s
o f N ew Y ork C ity a n d th e in d u s tria l N o rth e a s t. T h u s , w ith o u t a rtic u la tin g
th e in te n t to d o so, E d iso n a n d his a ssociates d e sig n e d a site-sp ecilic te c h
nology. U n d o u b te d ly , h o w e v e r, th e y belie v ed th a t a syslem d e sig n e d for
N ew Y ork C ity w o u ld fu n c tio n well in th e o th e r g re a t cities ol th e W este rn
w orld.
In fact, th e E d iso n in te re s ts w ere n o t c o n te n t to in tro d u c e th e te ch n o lo g y
in N ew Y ork C ity o r e v e n to lim it it to th e u rb a n c e n te rs o f th e U n ited
S tates. E d ison a n d his associates also actively e n g a g e d in th e d iffu sio n a n d
tra n s fe r o f th e ir c e n ira l-s ia lio n te c h n o lo g y to o th e r A m e ric a n cities a n d to
th e cities o f E u ro p e . T h e h isto ry o f th e tr a n s fe r o f E d iso n 's system to
L o n d o n a n d B erlin is instructive, fo r it reveals d iffe re n t m odes o f technology
tr a n s f e r a n d th e fa te o f a site-sp ec ific te c h n o lo g y in tw o new e n v iro n m e n ts.
G r o s v e n o r P. L ow rey p ro m o te d th e E d ison e n te rp r is e s n ot only in th e
U n ite d S lates b u t in E n g la n d a n d o n th e C o n tin e n t as well. 11 is activities
p ro v id e a n o u ts ta n d in g e x a m p le o f m o d e s o f te c h n o lo g y tr a n s fe r, l.o w rey 's
associates, m e m b e rs o f th e g re a t b a n k in g a n d in v e stm e n t h o u se o f D rexel.
M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y , h a d th e fin a n cial re so u rc e s, th e fo re ig n co n tac ts,
a n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l w h e re w ith a l to m ove te c h n o lo g y a cross n a tio n a l
b o u n d a rie s . F ro m th e sta rt o f th e E d ison e le ctric lig h tin g p ro je c t, Low rey
a n tic ip a te d th e b u sin ess th a t c o u ld be d e v e lo p e d a b ro a d . In O c to b e r IH7H
h e to ld E d ison th a t th e way to fulfill his d r e a m o l b u ild in g a w o rk in g
la b o ra to ry " such as th e w o rld n e e d e d a n d h a d n e v e r se e n " was to sell

n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

p a tents, inclu d in g fo reig n o n e s .' It was n o t u n u su a l in th e 1870s fo r A m ericans

to look a b ro a d Tor fin a n c in g a n d fo r a m a jo r m a r k e t fo r th e ir tec h n o lo g y .
B e fo re th e in v e n tio n o f his e le c tric lig h tin g sy ste m , fo r in sta n c e , E dison
h a d p ro m o te rs re p re s e n tin g his te le g ra p h a n d te le p h o n e p a te n ts in E n g lan d
a n d o n th e C o n tin e n t.2
F o r th e te le p h o n e p a te n ts , E d is o n s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s w e re C o lo n e l G e o rg e
E. G o u r a u d in E n g la n d a n d T h e o d o r e P u sk a s in P aris. P u sk a s also h a n d le d
E d iso n s p h o n o g r a p h b u sin e ss in P aris. G o u r a u d , a tr a n s p la n te d A m e ric a n
o f th e b o o m e r ty p e , o f te n r e p r e s e n te d A m e ric a n b a n k e r s in L o n d o n a n d
h a d v a lu a b le c o n ta c ts a m o n g B ritish c a p ita lists; P u sk a s, a n a tiv e o f B u d a
p e st, w as k n o w n a m o n g in v e n to r s as th e firs t to su g g e s t a te le p h o n e e x
c h a n g e .3 A f te r L o w rey a n d E d iso n a g re e d th a t D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m
pan y sh o u ld d ispose o f E d iso n s in v e n tio n s in E n g la n d a n d E u ro p e , how ever,
G o u r a u d s a n d P u sk a ss call u p o n E d iso n b e c a u se o f e a r lie r se rv ic es beca m e
aw k w a rd .
W h e n E d iso n first b e liev e d h e h a d s tr u c k a b o n a n z a by so lv in g th e p r o b
lem o f s u b d iv id in g th e e le c tric lig h t, h e c o n f id e d in P u sk a s a n d G o u r a u d .
H e p ro m is e d G o u r a u d th a t h e w o u ld b e c o u n te d in , e v e n th o u g h th e
lig h t was b e in g d e v e lo p e d w ith th e e c o n o m ic s u p p o r t o f fin a n c ie rs w hose
in te re s ts w o u ld h a v e to b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t in m a k in g su c h a n a r r a n g e
m e n t.'' G o u r a u d e n th u sia stic a lly in f o r m e d E d iso n th a t n ew s o f h is d isc o v e ry
h a d s p re a d t h r o u g h o u t th e B ritish p re s s a n d c o n s titu te d th e best, as well
as fre e , p u b lic ity . G o u r a u d saw m o re th a n a m illio n p o u n d s tre m b lin g in
th e b a la n c e , p o u n d s th a t c o u ld c o m e d o w n o n E d is o n s s id e if th e fac ts of
his in v e n tio n w ere m a d e k n o w n in d e ta il; th e r e was n o lim e like th e p re s e n t
to la u n c h a g re a t E d iso n c o m p a n y in E n g la n d . F u r th e r m o r e , h e re p o rte d ,
th e sc ie n tific c o m m u n ity w a iled f o r m o re n ew s as e a g e rly as d id th e fin
a n c ie rs/
A f te r c o m m u n ic a tin g th e new s o f th e su b d iv isio n b o n a n z a to G o u ra u d
a n d P u sk as w ith th e u n m is ta k a b le im p lic a tio n th a t th e y w o u ld be b e n e fi
ciaries, E d iso n g av e G r o s v c n o r L o w rey th e p o w e r o f a tto r n e y to sell his
fin ancial in te re st in th e e le c tric light in G re a t B rita in . H e a u th o r iz e d L ow rey
to se lect a s u ita b le b a n k in g h o u se w ith c o r r e s p o n d e n ts in E n g la n d a n d to
fo rm a p a r tn e r s h ip b e tw e e n E d iso n a n d (h e b a n k e r s f o r th e p u r p o s e o f
ta k in g o u t p a te n ts, o r g a n iz in g e x h ib itio n s o f th e in v e n tio n s , a n d d isp o sin g
o f th e rig h ts. E d iso n was to re ceiv e o n e h a lf o f th e n e t p r o c e e d s : Low rey
a n d th e b a n k in g h o u s e th e o th e r . E d iso n to o k p a in s, h o w e v e r, to a d d th at
h e e x p e c te d L o w rey to satisfy a n y re a s o n a b le claim s m a d e by C olonel
G o u ra u d f o r a n y se rvices w hich h e m ay h a v e r e n d e r e d , d e s ir in g y ou to be

G.
I . I.owrcy to Edison. 10 O ctober 1878, Edison Archives, Edison Nationnl Historic Site,
West O range, N.J. (h ereafter cited as EA).
For a recent account o r the Edison telegraph and telep h o ne in England, sec Robert Conot.
A Streak o f Luck: The Life and Legend of Thomas Alva Edison (New York: Seaview Books. 1979).
" P P,1!;; /
' 1,r>-47- Sec :,lso M atthew jo se p h so n , Edison: A Biography (New York: McGrawlh ll, I9 j9 ). pp^ 102-3. 1*19-35; and Frank L. Dyer and T h om as C. M artin. Edison: His Life
and Inventions, 3rd ed.. 2 vols. (New York: H arp er & Bros.. 1930). 1: 1*18-52.
Josephson. Edison, p. 1*19; Dyer and M arlin. Edison. I: 179.
14 O cto b er|8 7 8 ' e a ^

Seplem l,er an<l 5 <,obe' IH7* and Edison to G. E. G ouraud.

5 G ouraud to Edison, 24 O ctober 1878. EA

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
n o t o n ly just to h im , b u t to save m e fro m an y fa ir c o u rs e o f c o m p la in t by
him : th is is to b e tr e a te d as o n e o f th e e x p e n se s.
E d iso n a lso w ro te to P u sk as, e x p r e s s in g g re a t d elic ac y " in in fo rm in g
h im a b o u t th e a r r a n g e m e n ts th a t w o u ld b e m a d e f o r th e E u r o p e a n bu sin ess.
E x p la in in g th a t h e h a d tu r n e d to " fr ie n d s " in A m e ric a f o r a la rg e su m to
d e v e lo p th e in v e n tio n , E d iso n re v e a le d th a t th e y h a d im m e d ia te ly ra ised
th e q u e s tio n o f his E u r o p e a n p a te n ts . H e h a d to ld th e m a b o u t his a g r e e
m e n ts w ith P u sk a s f o r te le p h o n e a n d p h o n o g r a p h b u sin e ss. T h e y w a n te d
th e rig h ts to d is p o s e o f th e e le c tric lig h tin g p a te n ts in E u ro p e , b ut w ere
w illing to d isc u ss w ith P u sk a s his a c tin g as th e ir a g e n t in all E u ro p e a n
c o u n trie s e x c e p t Italy; th e r e , a c c o r d in g to E g isto F ab b ri, th e M o rg a n p a r t
n e r , F a b b r is b r o t h e r s firm , M essrs. F a b b ri 8c C h a u n c c y o f N ew Y ork,
w o u ld b e th e m o s t e ffe c tiv e a g e n t. E d iso n a tte m p te d to c o n so le P u sk as by
p re d ic tin g th a t w h ile D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y w o u ld h a v e g e n e ra l
c o n tro l o v e r p ro m o tio n a l m a ile rs a n d n eg o tia tio n s, Puskas's in co m e as a g en t,
th o u g h a re d u c e d s h a re , w o u ld ac tu a lly b e la r g e r .7
L o w re y h a d p e r s u a d e d E d iso n th a t th e A m e ric a n b a n k in g h o u se a n d its
o v e rse a s p a r tn e r s co u ld tr a n s f e r E d is o n s te c h n o lo g y m o r e effe ctiv e ly th a n
C o n tin e n ta l p e o p le ," esp e cially th o s e in P aris. F ro m his a n d his a sso c iates
e x p e rie n c e , L o w rey h a d c o n c lu d e d th a t A m e ric a n s a r e th e h o n e ste st a n d
m ost s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d , as well as th e b e st h e a r te d p e o p le in th e w o rld ." T h e
E n g lish , h e b e lie v e d , a r e n e x t. In P aris, L o w rey r e p o r te d , " [th e re ] was
n o c h ic a n e ry o r tric k c o n s id e r e d to b e b e n e a th a g r e a t b a n k e r . T h e r e f o r e ,
h e u r g e d , E d iso n s h o u ld b e r e p r e s e n te d by a s tr o n g A m e ric a n b a n k in g
h o u se th a t w as c a p a b le o f d e a lin g w ith c h ic a n e ry a n d tricks. F u r th e r m o r e ,
since th e o ffic e s o f D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y w ere o n ly tw en ty m iles
fro m M e n lo P a rk , E d iso n c o u ld r e m o n s tr a te q u ic k ly if his a ffa irs w ere n ot
h a n d le d to his lik in g . In a d d itio n , D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y s B ritish
a n d E u r o p e a n n e tw o rk c o u ld e ffe c tiv e ly e x h ib it th e E d iso n system in L o n
d o n , P aris, V ie n n a , B e rlin , a n d e ls e w h e re in E u ro p e in o r d e r to d ra w
a tte n tio n to th e te c h n o lo g y a n d to d isp o se o f th e p a te n t rig h ts. T h e b a n k e rs,
w ith th e ir h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d n e g o tia tin g skills, c o u ld d e fin e th e best a r
r a n g e m e n ts , so m e tim e s se llin g p a te n ts o u tr ig h t, o th e r lim es re s e rv in g p a r
tial in te re s t in th e m . L o w rey a d d e d th a t h e w a n te d P u sk as to settle fo r,
p e r h a p s , 10 p e r c e n t as a n a g e n t, u n le ss P u sk a s w as ab le lo raise $ 5 0 ,0 0 0
o r m o r e in c ash to invest in E d is o n s d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e e le c tric lig h t. The
A m e ric a n b a n k e rs , w h o m L o w rey c h a ra c te riz e d as a new class o f m e n " in
E d iso n s e x p e rie n c e , w ere n o t, it seem s, p r e p a r e d to invest m o r e m o n ey
fo r d e v e lo p m e n t u n til m o r e p r o g re s s h a d b e e n m a d e at M e n lo P a rk , d e sp ite
th e h ig h e s t c o n fid e n c e in y o u r [E d iso n 's] ability a n d re sp e c t fo r y o u r
c h a r a c te r .8 T h e r e f o r e , P u sk a ss cash c o u ld a lte r th e a rra n g e m e n ts .
T h e k in d o f tec h n o lo g y tr a n s f e r a g re e m e n t th a t th e b a n k e rs w e re re a d y
to n e g o tia te w ith th e in v e n to r is re v e a le d in a d o c u m e n t o f 31 D e c e m b e r
1878 sig n e d by E d iso n ; D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y ; E gisto F ab b ri; a n d
L ow rcy. F ab b ri a n d L o w rey sig n e d as tr u s te e s . T h e h a n k in g h o u se a g r e e d

Edison to Lowrcy. 29 O ctober, 1878, EA.

7 Edison to Puskits, 13 N ovem ber 1878, EA.
"Lowrcy to Edison, 10 D ecem ber 1878, EA.
A greem ent o f 31 Dcccmlicr 1878, EA.

50

N E T l" W O R K S O F P O W E R
to a id E d iso n in o b ta in in g e le c tric lig h tin g , p o w e r, a n d h e a lin g p a te n ts in
G r e a t B rita in , I r e la n d , a n d p o r tio n s o f th e d o m in io n s a n d to m a n a g e a n d
e x h ib it th e in v e n tio n s d e s c rib e d in th e p a te n ts . D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m
p a n y w as to re im b u r s e E d iso n fo r p r io r e x p e n s e s in ta k in g o u t B ritish
p a te n ts a n d to d e f e n d th e s e a n d p a te n ts fo r in v e n tio n s in th e su b je c t a re a
o v e r th e n e x t five y e a rs (1 8 7 9 83). E d iso n a g r e e d to tu r n o v e r to th e
tru s te e s title to all o f th e s e p a te n ts so th a t th e tru s te e s c o u ld assig n th e m
as d ir e c te d by D re x e l, M o r g a n a n d C o m p a n y . I f a f te r th r e e y e a rs D re x el,
M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y h a d n o t d is p o s e d o f th e p rin c ip a l p a te n ts , E dison
c o u ld se rv e n o tic e d e m a n d in g th e ir r e t u r n to h im a t th e e n d o f six m o n th s.
E x p e n se s a ris in g fro m o b ta in in g a n d d isp o s in g o f th e p a te n ts , as w ell as
th e c ost o f e x h ib itin g th e in v e n tio n s , w o u ld b e d e d u c te d fro m th e in co m e
o f th e j o in t e n te r p r is e b e f o r e th e p r o fits w e re d iv id e d b e tw e e n E d iso n a n d
th e b a n k in g h o u se . P a y m e n ts to L o w rey , G o u r a u d , P u sk as, o r o th e r fin a n
cial a g e n ts a n d a sso c iates w o u ld b e m a d e by D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y ,
p r e s u m a b ly b e c a u se th e a g e n ts w o u ld re lie v e th e c o m p a n y o f s o m e o f th e
re sp o n sib ilitie s a ssig n e d to it by th e a g r e e m e n t.
D re x e l. M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y d id use th e in te r n a tio n a l e x h ib itio n s e f
fectively. In so d o in g , th e y u p h e ld a tr a d itio n e s ta b lis h e d in 1851, w hen
C y ru s M c C o rm ic k s h o w e d his r e a p e r a n d S a m u e l C o ll e x h ib ite d his re
vo lv e r to g re a t a d v a n ta g e a t th e G r e a t E x h ib itio n in th e C ry sta l Palace, the
first in a se rie s o f m a jo r in te rn a tio n a l te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d in d u s tria l e x h i
b itio n s .10 A lth o u g h it w as p r e s e n te d o n a s m a lle r scale th a n th e o th e r
in te r n a tio n a l in d u s tria l e x h ib itio n s , th e I n te r n a tio n a l E lec tric al E x h ib itio n
o f 1881 in P a ris d re w th e a tte n tio n o f E u r o p e a n sc ien tists, e n g in e e rs , in
v e n to r s , fin a n c ie rs , a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s to e le c tric a l te c h n o lo g y , especially
e le c tric lig h tin g , a n d E d iso n a n d h is a sso c ia te s u s e d th is o p p o r tu n ity to
g re a t a d v a n ta g e (see Fig. II1.1).
A. P. T r o t t e r , a le a d in g B ritish e le c tric a l e n g in e e r , w ro te th a t electrical
e n g in e e r in g w as b o r n at th e . . . (P a ris] E x h ib itio n . . . , a lusty ch ild o f
sc ie n c e a n d m a c h in e ry . 11 T h e B ritish jo u r n a l E n g m m in g - ju d g e d th e fou rm o n th e x h ib itio n as lite ra lly b rillia n t" a n d a s a p o w e rfu l a ttra c tio n n ot
o n ly f o r te c h n ic a l a n d sc ie n tific visito rs b u t f o r th e p u b lic as w ell. P ro fe s
sio n a ls w e re d r a w n to g e th e r f o r th e first lim e by th e in te rn a tio n a l c o n gress
fo r e le c tric ia n s th a t w as h e ld d u r in g th e e x h ib itio n . A lto g e th e r, th e r e w ere
a t le ast fifty d if f e r e n t d isp la y s o f a rc a n d in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g , in clu d in g
th e in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s o f S w a n , L a n e -F o x , M ax im , a n d E d is o n .12

10 O n in ternatio n al exhibitions o f technology and industry, sec K enneth W. L uckhurst, The

Story o f Exhibitions (L ondon: Studio Publications, 1951). O n the Crystal Palace exhibition of
18 5 1 as a microcosm o f technology and social reaction at m id-century, see T hom as P. Hughes,
"In d u stry th ro u g h th e Crystal Palace" (Ph.D. diss., University o f Virginia. 1953). Following
th e Paris exhibition o f 1881, th e re w ere electrical exhibitions in M unich (1882), Vienna (1883).
and Philadelphia (1884). O n th e Philadelphia exhibition, see J a n e Mork Gibson. T h e Inter
national Electrical Exhibition o f 1884," IEEE Transactions on Education E-23 (1980): 169-76.
11 A. P. T ro tte r, "Early Days o f the Electrical Industry and O th e r Reminiscences" (typescript
at the library o f the Institution o f Electrical E ngineers. L ondon), pp. iii-xiii.
Engineering 32 (1881): 534. For a listing o f publiclions about the International Electrical
Congress, Paris. 1881, see Catalogue o f the Wheeler Gift o f Books, Pamphlets, aiui Periodicals in the
Library o f the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, ed. William W eaver (New York: AIEE.
1909), vol. 2. items 5 4 2 2 -3 0

51

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SFK R

Figure lit . I . Edison exhibit al the I'tins

Exhibition o f 1881. From Kilison:
Lighting a Revolution (Washington.
D C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1179), p.
56.

E d is o n s in c a n d e s c e n i- la m p system was re ce iv e d e n th u sia stic a lly al th e

P aris e x h ib itio n . T h e d isp la y p e r s u a d e d E u ro p e a n s th a t E d iso n 's system
w as p r e e m in e n t in th e field a n d th is led e n tr e p r e n e u r s to seek ex clusive
rig h ts lo m a n u f a c tu r e a n d m a rk e t th e system . The o u ts ta n d in g in sta n c e ol
te c h n o lo g y tr a n s f e r in v o lv e d Em il R a th e n a u . th e f o u n d e r o f th e G e rm a n
E d iso n C o m p a n y , la te r k n o w n as G e rm a n G e n e ra l E lectric (A llg e m e in c
E le k triz ita ts-G e se llsc h a ft). A m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r, R a th e n a u r e tu r n e d to
G e rm a n y fro m th e e x h ib itio n d e te r m in e d to o b ta in a n E d iso n fra n c h ise .
Y o u n g O s k a r v on M iller v isited th e P aris e x h ib itio n a n d r e tu r n e d to his
n a tiv e M u n ic h to h e lp o rg a n iz e a n in te r n a tio n a l elec trical e x h ib itio n th e re .
H e d e s c rib e d th e e x h ib itio n as o v e rw h e lm in g . a n d th e E d iso n in ca n d esc e n ts as m o st im p re s s iv e .IS F ra n k S p r a g u e , w h o was to b e co m e th e o u t
s ta n d in g p io n e e r o f e le c tric tr a c tio n in th e U n ite d S tates, visited th e Paris
e x h ib itio n as a y o u n g n aval e n sig n . H e was p e r s u a d e d th a t a new e ra o f
lig h tin g h a d b e g u n , a n d h e b eliev ed th a t th e p u b lic a n d in v e sto rs h a d b een
g re a tly in f lu e n c e d .14 T h e c o m b in e d e ffe c t o f m o tiv a te d y o u n g e n g in e e rs
a n d s tim u la te d in v e sto rs s tre a m in g aw ay fro m Paris w ith a fa v o ra b le
im p re ssio n o f E d iso n a n d his w o rk s is an in fo rm a l b ut im p o rta n t e x a m p le
o f te c h n o lo g y tr a n s fe r.
E d iso n s e n t C h a rle s B a tc h e lo r, o n e oT his p rin c ip a l tec h n ic al assista n ts
a t M e n lo P a rk , to install a n d s u p e r in te n d th e d isp la y at th e fa ir g ro u n d s
o n th e C h a m p s-E ly se e s. A n E d iso n 2 0 0 -h .p . g e n e r a to r c a p a b le o f lig h tin g
tw elve h u n d r e d 16-c.p. lam p s d o m in a te d th e ex h ib it (see Fig. 111.2). S o m e
o f th e success o f th e la m p e x h ib it was a ttr ib u te d to th e use o f c o p p e r w iring
' W allhcr von Miller. Oskar von Miller Nach Eigrnen Ati/irirhnungen, Ilrdrn und llitr/ru
(M unich: B rutk m n n n , 1932), p. I.r>; T h eo d o re I Ictm , Oskar non Miller unddet Weg der leehnik
(M unich: Deutsches M useum, 1950), p. 7.
Frank J. Sprague, Heport on the Exhibits al the Crystal I'alare Elertnral Exhibition, 1882
(W ashington. D C ., IHH3). p. 33.

52

Figure III. 2. Edison generator at the

Pans exhibition o f 1881. From
T eleg rap h ic Jo u r n a l an d Electric
Review 9 (1881): 437.

F igure I II .4. Edward II. Johnson,

Edison's representative in London. Courtesy
o f the Edison Archives, Edison National
Historic Site, West Orange, N.J.

NETW O RK S OF PO W ER

Figure III. 3. Incandescent lamps illuminating paintings al the P

L u m iere eleciriq u e 4 (1881): 227.

exhibition o) lo o t, h

o f u n u s u a lly low re s is ta n c e , w irin g th a t w as s p e c ia lly m a d e by W illiam

W a lla ce o f t h e A n s o n ia C o p p e r C o m p a n y . P la n s f o r N e w Y o rk s P e a rl S tre e t
s ta tio n a lso w e re o n e x h ib it a n d s tim u la te d m a n y te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic
q u e s tio n s . T h e F r e n c h a rc h ite c t C. G a r n ie r a s k e d s o m e o f th e e x h ib ito rs
to lig h t th e P a ris O p e r a M o u se , a n d to ih e E d iso n g r o u p h e a s s ig n e d th e
re s p o n s ib ility fo r lig h tin g th e b u ild in g 's g r e a t fo y e r. T h is , lo o , a ttra c te d
a tte n tio n to E d is o n 's s y s te m .1"
A fte r th e P a ris e x h ib itio n , D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y s u p p o r te d th e
o rg a n iz a tio n o f a n E d iso n d is p la y at a n e le c tric a l e x h ib itio n in L o n d o n .
D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y a n d E d iso n h a d p la c e d E d w a rd H . J o h n s o n
(1 8 4 6 - 1 9 1 9 ) in c h a r g e o f p r o m o tin g th e E d is o n sy ste m in E n g la n d . J o h n
s o n , o n c e a te le g r a p h o p e r a to r , h a d a ssiste d E d iso n in h is te le g r a p h e n
te r p r is e s a n d s u b s e q u e n tly b e c a m e a c lo se a sso c ia te in th e e le c tric lig h tin g
b u sin e ss. H e w as a n o r ig in a l p a r t n e r in th e E d iso n la m p w o r k s , a n d in 1886
h e w o u ld b e c o m e p r e s id e n t o f th e E d iso n E le c tric L ig h t C o m p a n y . In 1882.
h e p r e s id e d o v e r th e E d iso n e x h ib it a t th e I n te r n a tio n a l E le c tric E x h ib itio n
h e ld in th e C ry s ta l P ala c e in S y d e n h a m , n e a r L o n d o n . A ssistin g h im was
th e e le c tric ia n W illiam H a m m e r , a n o t h e r o f E d is o n 's c lo se a sso ciates.
J o h n s o n a s s u r e d E d iso n th a t h is d is p la y a l th e C ry sta l P a la c e h a d elicited
" th e a d m ir a tio n o f e v e r y E n g in e e r . A s h e d e s c rib e d it, "A ll th e o t h e r w ork
in th e P ala c e is o f th e m o st te m p o r a r y c h a r a c te r . . . . S w a n s lig h ts, for
in s ta n c e , a r e j u s t as likely to g o o u t as th e y a r e to b u r n ." J o h n s o n stressed
th a t th e c ro w d s le ft th e e x h ib itio n p e r s u a d e d o f th e s u p e r io r ity n o t only
o f th e E d iso n sy ste m b u t o f J o h n s o n s e x p la n a tio n o f e le c tric lig h tin g as
' E tienne d c Fodor. " T h e E dison System in E u ro p e Forty Y ears A go," Electrical World HO
(1920): 54718. Fo d o r was one o f th e installers o f th e E dison exhibit.

53

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R

Figure H U . The Edison isolated plant at

the Crystal Palace exhibition o f 1882.
Courtesy o f the National Museum of
American History. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.

w e ll.16 (See Fig. 111.5.) T h e London Daily N ews j u d g e d E d is o n s system m o re

a d v a n c e d th a n all its rivals: [It] is th e w o n d e r o f th e sh o w , a n d his r e p
re s e n ta tiv e is c e rta in ly th e p rin c e o f all sh o w m e n . T h e r e is b u t o n e E d iso n ,
a n d J o h n s o n is h is p r o p h e t. 17
J u d g in g by h is le tte r s to E d iso n , J o h n s o n w as esp e cially e ffe c tiv e in in
fo rm in g a n d im p re s s in g B ritish a ris to c ra ts a n d sc ien tists. T h e e m p h a sis h e
p la c e d o n in flu e n c in g th e m in d ic a te s th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e ro le th e a ris
to c ra ts h a d in fin a n c in g e n tr e p r e n e u r s , a n d th a t scien tists h a d in a u th e n
tic a tin g th e new te c h n o lo g y . By c o n tra s t, scien tists in A m e ric a re m a in e d in
th e b a c k g ro u n d as E d iso n in v e n te d , d e v e lo p e d , a n d in n o v a te d . Even b e fo re
J o h n s o n to o k c h a r g e in L o n d o n , C o lo n e l G o u r a u d h a d a p p r o a c h e d Sir
W illiam T h o m s o n , o n e o f G r e a t B rita in s m o st d is tin g u is h e d physicists, to
ask h im to ac t as a c o n s u lta n t f o r th e E d iso n in te re s ts in B rita in . T h o m s o n
in tu r n w a n te d to m a k e a n u n p r o fe s s io n a l," c o m p a ra tiv e test o f E d iso n
a n d Sw an la m p s, b e tw e e n w h ich h e fo u n d little d if fe re n c e , esp e cially as to
e c o n o m y .18
O n e o f J o h n s o n 's e ff o r ts in v o lv e d g u id in g m e m b e rs o f th e S ociety o f
A rts th r o u g h th e E d iso n e x h ib it a n d a fte rw a r d s d in in g w ith th e m in th e
C ry stal Palace. L o rd A lfre d C h u rc h ill a n d S ir F re d e ric k J . B ra m w e ll, th c
18 E. H. Jo h n so n (o Edison, 19 March 1882, William H am m er Collection. Museum of
A merican History, Sm ithsonian Institution, W ashington, D.C. I am indebted to Dr. Kolierl
Friedcl Tor guidance in using the H am m er Collection.
17 London Daily News, 8 April 1882, quoted in Payson Jones, A Power History of the Consolidated
Edison System, 1878-1900 (New York: Consolidated Edison Co.. 1940), p. 49.
G ouraud to W. T hom son, 15 March 1881, and T hom son to G ouraud, 18 March and 80
April 1881, in folder labeled "Electric Light 1880, Foreign. EA.

54

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
le a d e rs o f th e d e le g a tio n , a d m ir e d th e d isp la y a n d Jo h n so n o p e n ly , a n d
t h e ir p ra is e was su c h as to elicit fr o m L o rd A lfre d a t th e d in n e r th e o n e
to a st o f th e liv e n in g ." 19 J o h n s o n e n v isa g e d th a t th e scie n tists a n d a risto c ra ts
w o u ld b o th in v e st in a n d testify to th e e x c e lle n c e o f th e E d iso n system .
T h e i r s u p p o r t w as n e e d e d b o th fo r th e c e n tra l-s ta tio n v e n tu re s a n d for
th e sm a ll, is o la te d p la n ts J o h n s o n a n tic ip a te d w o u ld b e p u rc h a s e d fo r the
g r e a t h o m e s a n d c o u n tr y e sta te s. T h e d u k e o f S u th e r la n d saw th e C rystal
P ala ce d isp la y a n d w as so d e lig h te d th a t h e c o u ld n o t stay aw ay. A f te r his
f o u r th visit h e in v ite d J o h n s o n to d in n e r at his L o n d o n re s id e n c e , S ta ffo rd
H o u s e , to d isc u ss in sta lla tio n o f th e sy ste m th e re . O n ly b e c a u se o f a p rio r
in v e s tm e n t m a d e in th e B ru s h E lec tric L ig h t C o m p a n y b e f o re h e le a rn e d
o f th e E d iso n sy ste m d id th e d u k e r e f r a in fro m a s so c ia tin g w ith th e E dison
c o m p a n y in E n g la n d .29 T h e d u k e o f W e s tm in s te r a n d th e d u k e o f E d in
b u r g h a lso lik ed th e d isp la y a n d e x p re s s e d th e ir in te n tio n to install the
E d iso n sy ste m .
T h e C ry sta l P alac e d isp la y w as o n ly p a r t o f D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y
a n d E d iso n 's m a s te r sc h e m e , h o w e v e r. A lth o u g h th e b a n k in g h o u se d id
n o t w a n t its n a m e p u b lic ly a s so c ia te d w ith th e u n d e r ta k in g , th e C rystal
P ala c e e x h ib itio n w as to b e fo llo w e d by th e o p e n in g o f a c e n tra l s ta tio n at
57 H o lb o rn V ia d u c t in th e h e a r t o f L o n d o n .21 H o lb o rn V ia d u c t w ould
se rv e as a n e x e m p lific a tio n fo r th e c e n tra l sta tio n s th a t th e E n g lish E dison
c o m p a n y e x p e c te d to license. H o lb o rn V ia d u c t w as to th e E n g lish c o m p a n y
w h a t th e P e a rl S tr e e t sta tio n was to th e E d iso n E lec tric L ig h t C o m p a n y of
N ew Y o rk , w ith th e e x c e p tio n th a t th e E n g lish c o m p a n y o b ta in e d its rig h ts
to th e E n g lish p a te n ts fro m A m e ric a .
O n 15 M a rc h 1882 th e E n g lish E lec tric L ig h t C o m p a n y , L td ., re g iste re d
a n d h e ld its first b o a rd m e e tin g . T h e m a jo r s to c k h o ld e r s a n d d ire c to rs
in c lu d e d m e n o f scie n tific r e p u ta tio n , a ris to c ra tic c o n n e c tio n s , a n d fin an cia l
m e a n s. (In N ew Y o rk , th e d ir e c to r s o f th e E d iso n E lec tric Illu m in a tin g
C o m p a n y w e re m e n o f b u sin e ss a n d fin a n c e .) A m o n g th e b o a r d m e m b e rs
c h a ra c te riz e d by J o h n s o n as " sc ie n tific r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s w e re S ir F re d e ric k
J . B ra m w e ll ( 1 8 1 8 -1 9 0 3 ) , a n e x p e r t o n m u n ic ip a l e n g in e e r in g a n d a wellq u a lifie d te c h n ic a l w itn e ss o n le g al m a tte rs ; W illiam P re e c e (1 8 3 4 -1 9 1 3 ),
c h ie f e le c tric a l e n g in e e r fo r th e Post O ffic e D e p a r tm e n t; S ir J o h n L u bbock
(1 8 3 4 - 1 9 1 3 ), a b a n k e r, s o m e tim e m e m b e r o f P a r lia m e n t, a n d c h a irm a n o f
th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il: a n d S h e e f o r d B id w e ll, w h o a d v ise d J o h n s o n
o n E d iso n p a te n ts in B rita in . T h e b o a r d initially in c lu d e d L u b b o c k , B idw ell,
V isc o u n t A n s o n , R ic h a rd B. W a d e , a n d E. P ly d e ll B o u rv e rie .22 W ith
1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 in a u th o r iz e d c a p ita l, th e c o m p a n y s p u r p o s e w as th re e f o ld : to
a c q u ir e all o f E d iso n 's B ritish p a te n ts in e le c tric lig h tin g , h e a l, a n d p ow er;
to p u r c h a s e th e la m p s, d y n a m o s , a n d o th e r E d iso n e q u ip m e n t th e n on
disp la y in E n g la n d ; a n d to lea se th e p r o p e r ty a t 57 H o lb o rn V ia d u c t. T h e
c o m p a n y a g r e e d to p a y 2 0 ,0 0 0 fo r th e p a te n t r ig h ts a n d e q u ip m e n t a n d
to allo t o n e fully p a id s h a r e o f B" c la ssific a tio n sto ck fo r e v e ry 1 0 o f A
s h a r e sto c k p a id u p . T h e r e w e re 5 0 ,0 0 0 5 A s h a re s a n d 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 "B"
s h a re s .
'" Jo h n so n to F.dison, 19 M arch 1882. H am m er Collection.
" Ib id .
sl Ibid.
m Ibid.

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
T h u s E d iso n s h ip p e d tw o J u m b o g e n e r a to r s fro m N ew Y o rk to th e new ly
fo rm e d E n g lish c o m p a n y , a n d e a rly in 1882 th e se w e re in sta lle d in th e
H o lb o rn V ia d u c t s ta tio n . H o lb o r n V ia d u c t th u s h a d g e n e r a to r s o f th e sam e
k in d as th o s e at N ew Y o rk s P e a rl S tre e t sta tio n , a n d its c o m p o n e n ts
E d iso n la m p s, so m e u n d e r g r o u n d cab le, a n d o th e r ele c tric a l e q u ip m e n t
w e re s im ila r to th o s e f o u n d in th e N ew Y o rk s ta tio n . M o re o v e r, E d isontr a in e d e le c tric ia n s ( in c lu d in g H a m m e r ) a n d m a n a g e r s p r e s id e d o v e r b o th
th e L o n d o n a n d th e N ew Y o rk sta tio n . Y et th e N ew Y o rk sta tio n su rv iv e d
a n d th e H o lb o rn sta tio n d id n o t. T h is f a ilu re o f E d iso n te c h n o lo g y to a d a p t
a n d p u t d o w n ro o ts in L o n d o n calls fo r o th e r th a n stric tly te c h n ic a l e x
p la n a tio n s .
T h e sta tio n fo rm a lly o p e n e d fo r in sp e c tio n o n 11 A p ril 1882. E q u ip p e d
w ith 1,000 in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s (b u t w ith a c ap a c ity f o r 2 ,2 0 0 ), th e s ta tio n
lit s tr e e tlig h ts f ro m H o lb o rn C irc u s a lo n g th e V ia d u c t a n d N e w g a le S tre e t
to th e vicinity o f th e G e n e ra l P o st O ffic e . In c a n d e s c e n t la m p s in h o tels,
sto re s, r e s ta u r a n ts , a n d o th e r p r iv a te b u ild in g s f r o n tin g a lo n g th e way
e n h a n c e d th e e ffe c t. T h e f o u r h u n d r e d la m p s th a t lit th e G e n e ra l Post
O ffic e a n d th e la m p s in D r. J o s e p h P a r k e r s C ity T e m p le e x c ite d c o m m e n t
a m o n g th e p a sse rs-b y a n d th e d is tin g u is h e d a n d fin an c ia lly a fflu e n t visitors
w h o w e re g iv e n a to u r o f th e s ta tio n (see Fig. 111.6). J o h n s o n , w h o re m a in e d
in L o n d o n fo r a tim e a f te r th e o p e n in g a n d w h o w as a m a jo r s h a r e h o ld e r
in th e E n g lish c o m p a n y , la te r re c a lle d th a t th e sta tio n e licited e x tre m e ly
fa v o ra b le c o m m e n t.23 T h e p u b lic ity re le a se o f th e E d iso n E lec tric L ig h t
C o m p a n y in A m e ric a d e s c rib e d th e H o lb o rn s ta tio n as a su cc essfu l e x
h ib itio n o n a la rg e scale o f th e p ra c tic a l w o rk in g o f th e E d iso n sy stem o f
in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g .24 (S ee Fig. I I I . 7.)
T h e H o lb o rn V ia d u c t sta tio n w as m u c h m o re th a n a try o u t . . . in th e
p ro v in c e s 25 f o r th e A m e ric a n c o m p a n y a n d m o re th a n a pilo t p la n t fo r
th e E n g lish c o m p a n y .26 T h e sta tio n w as b o th a c o m m e rc ia l-te c h n o lo g ic a l
v e n tu re a n d a n a d v e r tis e m e n t fo r th e E n g lish c o m p a n y .27 W ith rig h ts to
th e E d iso n p a te n ts w ith in th e U n ite d K in g d o m , E n g lish E d iso n h a d re a so n
to e x p e c t a su b s ta n tia l p ro fit fro m th e sale o f c o n c essio n s o r licenses to
p ro sp e c tiv e c e n lr a l-s ta tio n c o m p a n ie s th r o u g h o u t th e U n ite d K in g d o m . As
e a rly as 20 M ay, th e L o n d o n Economist r e p o r te d th e sale o f local licenses
by E n g lish E d is o n .28
T h e E n g lish p a te n t-o w n in g c o m p a n y esta b lish e d ra te s fo r H o lb o r n c o n
s u m e r s w hich w e re c a lc u la te d to c re a te g o o d will a n d fa v o ra b le p ublicity.
T h o m as C. M arlin. Forty Years o f Edison Service. 1882-1922 (New York: New York Edison
Co., 1922), p. 29. Som e o f (lie account o r the H olborn Viaduct station and the following
analysis o f the effect o f the Electric Lighting Act of 1882 is taken from T hom as I. H ughes.
"British Electrical In dustry Lag: 1882-1888," Technology and Culture 3 (1962): 27-44.
M Edison Electric Light Co.. Bulletin (New York) 10 (1882): 6.
a Com m ittee on St. Louis Exposition o f Association o f Edison Illum inating Com panies,
Edisonia: A Brief History o f the Early Edison Electric Lighting System (New York: Association of
Edison Illum inating C om panies. 1904), p. 159.
Dyer and M arlin, Edison. I: 336. Edison did. however, use inform ation from llollxirn
at Pearl Street: see ibid.. I: 417.
?7Al a m eeting o f the shareh o ld ers o f the Edison & Swan U nited Electric Light Co.. Ltd.,
successor to English Edison, the d irectors offered this in terpretation o f the intent ol I lolborn's
founders.
Economist (L ondon) 40 (1882): 604.

56
Figure III.6. Plan of illumination o f the
Holborn Viaduct. 1881-82. Courtesy of
the National Museum o f American History,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Figure 111.7. On the left, the Edison

central station at 57 Holbom Viaduct,
London. Courtesy of the National Museum
of American History. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington. D.C.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

57

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
F ro m A p ril u n til J u ly 1882, th e sta tio n s u p p lie d s tr e e t lig h tin g w ith o u t
c h a rg e to th e city a u th o r itie s ; f o r th e n e x t six m o n th s th e ra te s w e re th e
sa m e as th o se f o r gas. In d iv id u a l a r r a n g e m e n ts w e re m a d e w ith p riv a te
c o n s u m e rs , b u t th e p la n fo r H o lb o rn k e p t th e p ric e o f ele ctric ity n e a r th a t
o f gas, e v e n if it m e a n t n o p r o f it.20 T h e s u p p ly o f ele c tric ity to c u s to m e rs
at ra te s c o m p a ra b le to g a s ra te s u n d o u b te d ly cost th e sta tio n at least twice
th e se llin g p ric e in 18 8 2 .30 C o m p a n y p la n n e rs p re d ic te d th a t in c re a se d a n d
m o re re g u la r lo a d s, a lo n g w ith f u r th e r tec h n ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts , w o u ld r e
d u c e o p e r a tin g costs. T im e w o u ld te st th e w isd o m o f E n g lish E d is o n s
in v e stm e n t in th e H o lb o rn V ia d u c t sta tio n , b u t in th e s p r in g o f 1882 th e
sta tio n se e m e d to b e p r o o f o f th e te c h n ic a l w o rk ab ility o f th e E d iso n system .
H o lb o rn s e rv e d as a re m in d e r o f t h e in te r n a tio n a l c h a r a c te r o f te c h n o lo g y .
H o lb o r n was a te c h n ic a l, b u sin e ss, a n d e c o n o m ic v e n tu re . E n g in e e rs
aw a ite d th e te c h n ic a l r e su lts; b u sin e ssm e n a n d fin a n c ie rs w a n te d th e b a l
a n c e s h e e t. T h u s E n g lish E d iso n c o m m issio n e d tw o o f th e c o u n tr y s risin g
e le ctrica l e n g in e e rs , D r. J o h n H o p k in s o n a n d D r. J . A. F le m in g , to an aly ze
th e costs o f th e H o lb o r n sta tio n . A fte r c a r e fu l r e c o rd k e e p in g o v e r se v era l
m o n th s a n d a f te r m a k in g a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t lo n g - te rm o p e r a tio n s a n d
lo ad , th e tw o e n g in e e r s c o n c lu d e d : It will b e possib le w ith c a re fu l m a n
a g e m e n t at p re s e n t p ric e s o f p la n t lo su p p ly elec tricity to th e p u b lic at th e
cost o f e q u iv a le n t g as, a n d to m a k e a sm all p ro fit if a fairly full c o n s u m p tio n
is m a in ta in e d f o r 7 o r 8 h o u r s p e r d a y .31 (See T a b le s I I I . I a n d I I I . 2.)
T h e y w e re c e rta in , h o w e v e r, th a t u se o f th e la m p s fo r less th a n th e w hole
n ig h t w o u ld b e u n p r o f ita b le if c u s to m e r s w e re c h a rg e d a r a te eq u iv a le n t
to th e p ric e o f gas.
T h e in te r e s t c re a te d by th e P a ris a n d L o n d o n e x h ib itio n s a n d th e o p ti
m ism g e n e r a te d by th e H o lb o rn V ia d u c t sta tio n c o n tr ib u te d to he av y sp e c
u la tio n in th e s p r in g o f 1882 in s h a re s in v a rio u s e lec trical m a n u fa c tu rin g
a n d s u p p ly (u tility ) c o m p a n ie s . D u rin g tw o w eeks in M ay, s ix te e n new
c o m p a n ie s a p p e a r e d , a n d th e L o n d o n Economist re c a lle d e a r lie r b u b b le s in
railw ay s h a re s (1 8 4 5 - 4 6 ) a n d th e s u b m a rin e te le g r a p h .32 T h e n , in m idM ay, th e sto ck s flu c tu a te d w ildly. T h e s h a re s o f th e A n g lo -A m e ric a n B ru sh
E lectric L ig h t C o r p o r a tio n , m a k e rs o f th e B ru s h a r c la m p a n d th e L aneFox in c a n d e s c e n t la m p , d r o p p e d 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 in to ta l v a lu e in th r e e da y s o f
tr a d in g b u t r e m a in e d f a r a b o v e th e ir fa ce v alu e. T h e p re ss g e n e ra lly a d v ise d
c a u tio n .33 T h e Economist o f f e r e d s o b e r c o u n se l: " H o w e v e r g re a t a re v o lu
tio n [in e le c tric lig h t] m ay possibly b e in s to re fo r us, th e in ev ita b le c o m
p e titio n a m o n g s t th e rea l e lec trica l sy ste m s will e ffe c tu a lly p re v e n t th e
s h a re h o ld e rs fro m b e c o m in g m illio n a ire s.34 A t y e a rs e n d , h o w ev e r, th e
sp e c u la tio n in e lec trica l s h a re s w o u ld sta n d as B rita in 's c h ie f se c u rity m a n ia
o f th e y e a r.39
" T e stim o n y o f Sir Jo h n Lubbock, M.P. and m ajor shareholder and director o f English
Edison, before a select com m ittee o f the H ouse of Lords in 1886; see p. 63 below.
50 See p. 64 below.
Jo h n H opkinson and J . A. Fleming, "Report on thc Central Station, H olborn Viaduct,
to the D irectors o f the Edison Electric Light Com pany. Limited" (typescript. H am m er Col
lection), pp. 22-23.
Economist (London) 40 (1882); 604.
Electrical Review 10 (1882): 343.
MEconomist (London) 40 (1882): 605.
51 "Commercial History and Review o f 1882." ibid. 41 (1883).

58

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Tablk I I I . I. Cost of tiif. Holborn Viaduct C e n tra l Statio n
Cost Breakdown

s.

d.

Messrs. Hayward, Tyler id Co.

T anks, sicam pum ps. w aterh cater,
inspector, traveler pipes, and o th er
fittings
Builder
Erecting shaft
Drexel, Morgan id Co.
E ngine and boiler
Tw o 1,200 light dynam os at 11.830
Installations Cost o f matenals
1. N cgrctti & Zamha
2. S h a rp Jb Co.
3. Vaseline 8c Co.
4. H odge & Essex
5. H olland Jfc McConnell
6. Steel 8c G arland
7 W. D. & H. O Wills
8. T errev & Co.
9. Birch

737
3.660

3
0

3
0

16
8
7
II
8
12
10
14
14

7
1
4
9
14
16
4
0
9

5
0
7
1
6
8
7
3
1

103

s.

d.

660

II

1.301

4,397

6,358

12

Source: H opkinson an d Fleming. R eport on the C en tral Station. H olborn Viaduct."

In an e p o c h c h a ra c te r iz e d as th e e n d o f la isse z -fa ire a n d in a n a tio n

w h o se g o v e r n m e n t sh o w e d in c re a s in g c o n c e rn fo r th e w e lfa re o f th e g ro w
in g b o d y o f th e e le c to ra te , it is n o t s u r p r is in g th a t P a rlia m e n t, th e c e n tra l
b u re a u c ra c y , a n d th e local a u th o ritie s re a c te d to th e in te n s e activity a n d
o p tim ism in th e e le c tric lig h tin g in d u s try . W ith in tw o w eeks o f th e form al
o p e n in g o f th e H o lb o r n sta tio n a select c o m m itte e o f th e H o u se o f C o m
m o n s w as e s ta b lis h e d , a n d fro m 25 A p ril to 12 J u n e 1882 it h e a r d testim o n y
o n p ro p o s e d c e n tra l- s ta tio n leg islatio n .
N ew ly f o r m e d c e n tra l- s ta tio n c o m p a n ie s n e e d e d p e rm issio n to b reak
o p e n th e s tre e ts in o r d e r to lay th e e le c tric a l lin es o f th e u n d e r g r o u n d
d is trib u tio n sy stem s. In th e U n ite d S ta te s th is a u th o r iz a tio n c a m e fro m the
local g o v e r n m e n t o r a u th o rity , b u t in B rita in th e p ro b le m m o v e d quickly
to th e n a tio n a l level, w h e re P a rlia m e n t a n d th e B o a rd o f T r a d e so u g h t a
g e n e ra l s o lu tio n in le g isla tio n . T h o m a s E d iso n h a d w in e d a n d d in e d New
Y ork C ity a ld e r m e n p r io r to th e e re c tio n o f th e P e a rl S tre e t s ta tio n ; but
in B rita in , Jo se p h S w an , J. E. H . G o rd o n , a n d R. E. B. C r o m p to n , all p io n e e r
e n tr e p r e n e u r s in e le c tric lig h tin g , gav e a d in n e r f o r th e S p e a k e r o f the
H o u s e o f C o m m o n s a n d o th e r le a d in g M .P .'s in a b id to win p a ssa g e o f
th e E lec tric L ig h tin g A ct o f 18 8 2 .s,i
T h e g o v e r n m e n ts e le c tric lig h tin g bill c a m e fro m th e B o a rd o f T ra d e .
F o u n d e d in 1786, th is g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r tm e n t g re w like T o p s y d u r in g
th e in d u s tr ia l e ra . It h e ld f a r -re a c h in g re g u la to ry p o w e rs n o t o n ly over
tr a n s p o r ta tio n , c o m m u n ic a tio n s , a n d v a rio u s in d u s tr ie s b u t a lso o v e r the

v' Rookes E. B. C ro m p lo n . Reminiscences (L ondon: Constable 8c Co., 1928), pp. 111-12.

T E C H NOLOG Y T R A N S F E R
Table 111.2. Estimated Annual C o sro r One U n it of th e Holborn Viaduci Station
O ne steam d ynam o and boiler, m ainiained al an average
o r six h u n d red IG-c.p. lights per night
Coal at 32 p er m onth
Oil at 1 1 pe r m onth
Waste
Wages at 50 p er m onth
Lam ps at 2s. Id. (say. 1,500)
Share o f ren t for one dynam o
D epreciation (10%) on engines, boilers, a n d o th er m ate
rials. excluding the value o f co p p er in the mains
Share o f m anagem ent for one d ynam o per an n u m

384.0.0
132.0.0
4.0.0
600.0.0
156.0.0
100.0.0
500.0.0
200.0.0
2.076.0.0

Source: H opkinsun an d Fleming, "R ep o rt on the C entral Station, H olborn Viaduci."

s u rg in g e le c tric lig h t in d u s tr y .37 H e a d in g th e B o a rd o f T r a d e in th e L ib era l

G la d s to n e s g o v e rn m e n t w as J o s e p h C h a m b e rla in , a m a n w h o h a d e ff e c
tively so cia lized th e p u b lic u tilities as m a y o r o f B ir m in g h a m a n d w h o w o u ld
lo n g b e re m e m b e r e d fo r his r e p u b lic a n is m in th e V ic to ria n e ra .
C h a m b e rla in s a c tiv ities as p r e s id e n t o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e fro m 1880
to 1885 a m o u n te d to a fie rc e o n s la u g h t o n th e a b u se s o f p r o p e r ty a g a in st
h u m a n r ig h ts .38 C h a m b e rla in a n d th e B o a rd o f T r a d e d r e w u p o n p re c e
d e n t as th e y m o v e d to re g u la te a p u b lic u tility. T h e T ra m w a y s A ct of" 1870
h a d lim ite d th e te n u r e o f p r iv a te o w n e rs h ip ; th e P ublic H e a lth A ct o f 1875
h a d a u th o r iz e d m u n ic ip a l o w n e rs h ip o f w a te rw o rk s;39 a n d a n ex te n siv e
b o d y o f leg isla tio n h a d r e g u la te d p riv a te gas c o m p a n ie s. T h is le g islation
h a d c o m e to b e t h o u g h t o f as p r o te c tio n fo r th e p u b lic a g a in st th e te n d e n c y
o f p u b lic utilities to a b u s e th e ir m o n o p o listic p o w ers. O n th e o th e r h a n d ,
th e g o v e rn m e n t h a d b e e n to le r a n t o f r e g u la te d , o r n a tu ra l, m o n o p o lie s if
a d u p lic a tio n o f s e rv ic es ra ise d co sts e x o r b ita n tly .40 T h e e x p e n s e o f b r e a k
in g o p e n th e s tre e ts to lay e lec trica l d is trib u tio n lines w o u ld b e heavy.
G o v e rn m e n t o w n e rs h ip , as well as g o v e rn m e n t r e g u la tio n , was view ed
s y m p a th e tic a lly in th e tw ilig h t o f th e V ic to ria n e ra . H o w ev e r, g o v e rn m e n t
o w n e rs h ip m e a n t o w n e rs h ip by th e local g o v e rn in g a u th o rity .41 As m a y o r
o f B irm in g h a m , J o s e p h C h a m b e r la in h a d s tr e n g th e n e d th e m o v e m e n t fo r
m u n ic ip a l socialism c o n sid e ra b ly . H e h a d re d u c e d th e o p e r a tin g costs a n d
th e p ric e to c o n s u m e rs w hile im p ro v in g th e se rv ic e o f th e p u b lic u tilitie s
57 G eorge S. Bower and W alter W ebb. The Law Relating to Electric Lighting, Being the Electric
Lighting Act, 1882 (London: S. Low, M arston, Searle 8c Rivington. 1882). p. 100.
5"J. L. Garvin, The Life o f Joseph Chamberlain. 4 vols. (L ondon: Macmillan 8c Co.. I032-).
I: 413.
,u Sir H enry Self and Elizabeth W atson, Electricity Supply in Great Britain . . . (London, 1052),
p. 14 If.
'"Gas com panies had not begun as monopolies, but had assum ed that character when
com peting distribution systems involved ruinous expense. T h e M etropolitan Gas Com pany
Act o f I860 confirm ed the monopolistic districting o f Ixnulon that the com panies had taken
u p on th eir own initiative. II. I I. Ballin, The Organisation of Electricity Supply in Great Britain
(London: Electrical Press, 1946), pp. 1-3.
71 ijocai authorities were those bodies to whom the public health ol the U nited Kingdom
was e n tru stede.g.. m etropolitan district boards and vestries and urban and rural sanitation
authorities. Engineering 35 (1883): 374.

0O

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
in c lu d in g llie g asw o rk s h e h a d b o u g h t fo r B irm in g h a m .42 P e rm a n e n t
S e c re ta ry o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e F a r r e r to ld a p a r lia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e
h o ld in g h e a rin g s o n th e p ro p o s e d leg isla tio n th a t it w as " m u c h to o late"
to a r g u e th a t p u b lic e n te r p r is e c o u ld n o t c o m p e te w ith p riv a te e n te rp ris e
o r to q u e s tio n b r in g in g th e p u b lic p u r s e to b e a r in th e p u b lic -u tility a r e a .43
T h e p ro p o s e d le g isla tio n fo r g o v e r n in g c e n tra l s ta tio n s cle arly m a n i
fe ste d its s p o n s o r's s y m p a th y w ith g o v e r n m e n t re g u la tio n a n d le n d e r feel
in g to w a rd m u n ic ip a l o w n e rs h ip . Y et th e claim s o f p r iv a te e n te r p r is e u p o n
th e e c o n o m y a lso w e re re c o g n iz e d . T h e bill p ro v id e d a r e g u la te d m o n o p o ly
w ith lim ite d te n u r e f o r p riv a te e n te r p r is e (o r a r e g u la te d m o n o p o ly fo r a
local g o v e r n in g a u th o rity ) . P riv a te e n te r p r is e h a d th e o p p o r tu n ity to risk
c a p ita l in a n a r e a o f th e e c o n o m y th a t w as a te c h n o lo g ic a l f r o n tie r . A ftei
t h e tim e a llo tte d u n d e r th e t e n u r e h a d e la p s e d , th e local a u th o r ity w ould
h a v e th e p o w e r to p u r c h a s e th e c e n tr a l sta tio n a n d d is trib u tio n sy stem (now
h a v in g s to o d th e le st o f tim e ) w ith r a te p a y e r s ( ta x p a y e rs ) m o n e y . In the
a tm o s p h e r e o f e n th u s ia s m a n d s a n g u in e s p e c u la tio n o f th e s p r in g o f 1882,
C h a m b e r la in , P a r lia m e n t, a n d th e B o a r d o f T r a d e h a d e v e ry re a so n to
e x p e c t p riv a te e n te r p r is e to v e n tu r e c a p ita l u n d e r re s tric te d c o n d itio n s.
A s a m a tte r o f fa ct, th e c o u n s e lo r f o r six p riv a te lig h t c o m p a n ie s gave
h is g e n e r a l a p p r o v a l to th e B o a rd o f T r a d e bill, e x c e p tin g se v e ra l p ro v i
sio n s. A t r a d e p u b lic a tio n 44 c h a r a c te riz e d th e bill as e q u ita b le a n d in the
p u b lic in te re s t, a n d th e L o n d o n Economist p r e d ic te d th a t th e m o n o p o ly
g iv e n th e p riv a te c e n tr a l s ta tio n w o u ld allo w ra te s to rise h ig h e n o u g h to
b r in g a r e t u r n o n th e in v e s tm e n t w ith in th e lim e o f t e n u r e . 45 S p o k e sm e n
fo r p riv a te e n te r p r is e s in g le d o u t f o r c ritic ism th e b ills p ro v is io n o f a seveny e a r te n u r e . S ir F r e d e ric k J . B ra m w e ll, o f E n g lis h E d is o n , to ld th e p a rlia
m e n ta ry c o m m itte e th e c o m p a n ie s n e e d e d a m in im u m o f tw en ty -o n e years.44
E d w a rd H . J o h n s o n p r o b a b ly s u m m e d u p th e a ttitu d e o f A m e r ic a n inves
to rs w h e n h e to ld th e c o m m itte e h e w o u ld p r e f e r se v e n ty y e a rs, o r b e tter
still, n o lim it, b u t E n g lish b u s in e s s m e n a c c e p te d th e bill w ith e q u a n im ity
u p o n its e n a c tm e n t o n 18 A u g u s t 1882. C la u s e 27 o f th e bill p ro v id e d for
a tw e n ty -o n e -y e a r te n u r e .
A n o th e r o f th e c o m p a n ie s c ritic ism s w as d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e so-called
s c r a p i r o n p r o v is io n o f c la u se 27 . T h e B o a rd o f T r a d e in te n d e d th a t if
th e local a u th o r ity m a d e a c o m p u ls o ry p u r c h a s e a f t e r th e p e r io d o f te n u r e
h a d e la p s e d , th e sa le p ric e w o u ld b e b a s e d u p o n th e v a lu e , as isolated
e le m e n ts , o f d y n a m o s , w ire , b ric k s, m o r ta r , a n d o t h e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e
o p e r a tin g c e n lr a l- s ta tio n sy ste m b ric k s a s b ric k s a n d m o r ta r as m o r ta r,
B o a r d o f T r a d e S e c re ta ry F a i r e r e x p la in e d .47 Y et th e la r g e n u m b e r o f
a p p lic a tio n s by c o m p a n ie s fo r a u th o r iz a tio n 48 u n d e r (h e E le ctric L ig h tin g

*''G arvin, Joseph Chamberlain. I: 190 ff.

1 ,G rea( B ritain. Parliam ent. H ouse o f C om m ons, The Electric Lighting Act 1882: Minutes of
Evidence Given before the Select Committee o f the Home of Commons (L o ndon. 1882). p. 13 (hereafter
tile d as Home o f Commons Hearing, 1882).
Electrical Review 10 (1882): 283.
Economist (L o n d o n ) <10 (1882): 907.
** L etter to th e Times (L ondon). 21 Ju ly 1882.
17 Home of Commons Hearing. 1882, |). 28.
See p. 62 below.

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
A ct o f 18 8 2 49 in d ic a te d th a t in th e y e a r o f o p tim ism th e c o m p a n ie s e x p e c te d
to m a k e a p ro fit, c la u se 27 n o tw ith s ta n d in g .
O th e r se c tio n s o f th e a c t w o u ld su b s e q u e n tly p ro v e sig n ific a n t, especially
th e c lau ses d e s ig n e d to p r e v e n t w h a t w ere e n v isa g e d as m o n o p o listic ab u ses.
U n d e r ta k e rs (utilities) w e re n o t to ty ra n n iz e c u s to m e rs by im p o s in g th e
system c o m p o n e n ts o f o n ly o n e m a n u f a c tu r e r . T h e c e n tr a l s ta tio n , for
e x a m p le , co u ld n o t p re s c rib e a n y spec ial fo rm o f la m p (c la u se 18). P o te n tia l
c u s to m e rs c o u ld d e m a n d th a t s u p p ly m a in s b e laid to th e ir p re m is e s u n d e r
c o n d itio n s th a t c o u ld p ro v e cosily to th e c e n tr a l sta tio n (clau se 19), for
re s tric tio n s all b u t o u tla w e d th e c h e a p e r , o v e rh e a d d is trib u tio n sy stem . In
sh o rt, n o B ritish e n g in e e r co u ld d e sig n a c e n tra l- s ta tio n sy ste m solely in
te r m s o f e c o n o m ic a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l c o n s id e ra tio n s ; in s te a d , h e h a d to
d e sig n f o r a n e n v ir o n m e n t p e r m e a te d by le g isla tio n .50 E d iso n h a d d e s ig n e d
his tec h n o lo g y a n d h is A m e ric a n b u sin e ss v e n tu r e u n d e r leg islativ e c o n
d itio n s th a t w e re vastly d if f e r e n t fro m th ese.
A f te r p assa g e o f th e E lec tric L ig h tin g A ct, in A p ril, a n d a f te r th e leg
isla te d c o n d itio n s h a d b e e n d e f in e d , G re a t B rita in still c o n s id e re d th e
w o rld s g re a te s t in d u s tria l n a tio n a n d o n e d is tin g u is h e d by h e r sc ie n tists
a n d e n g in e e rs s e e m e d r e a d y to m o v e a h e a d w ith h e r c e n tr a l-s ta tio n in
d u s try . E c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s w e re f a v o ra b le : 1882 fell w ith in a lim ited
p e rio d o f re c o v e ry d u r in g th e " g re a t d e p re s s io n in B rita in , 1 8 7 3 -1 8 9 6 .51
By 1 J u ly , h o w e v e r, it w as a p p a r e n t th a t th e e le c tric lig h tin g c o m p a n ie s
a n d th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f ele c tric a l c o m p o n e n ts w e re n o t m a k in g p r e p a
ra tio n s f o r th e a n tic ip a te d w in te r d e m a n d .52 In S e p te m b e r 1882 d is g r u n
tle d B ru sh s h a r e h o ld e r s q u e s tio n e d c o m p a n y p o licy .53 By th e e n d o f D e
c e m b e r th e v a lu e o f e le c tric -lig h t c o m p a n y s h a re s h a d d r o p p e d d ra m a tic a lly
fro m th e ir s p r in g h ig h s .54
45 & 46 Vici., ch. 56.
50 U n d er the act. th ree m eans w ere provided for bestowing pow ers on the electrical u n
dertakings: a special act o f Parliam ent, a Board o f T ra d e license, and a provisional order.
T h e last-nam ed proved to be used most frequently. T h e pow ers bestowed pertained chiefly
to the breaking u p o f public streets, for if a com pany could m anage to supply electricity
without doing this, th e re w ere no legal fetters. T h e Board o f T rad e bestowed provisional
ord ers subject to subsequent approval by Parliament. Private com panies and individuals anil
local authorities could obtain powers. A provisional o rd er defined the area o f supply; the
responsibility o f the utility (u n d ertak er) to supply would-be consum ers in the area (who might
not always be in th e im m ediate area o f supply lines); the m axim um rates and the m ethod o f
assessing rates (satisfactory m eters were not available); m axim um voltages, in the interest of
public safety; and inspection procedures to d e term in e if u n d ertak ers had fulfilled th eir ob
ligations. T h e act is sum m arized, and the provisional o rders explained, in Engineering .35
(1883): 374.
51 Sec H. L. Beales, "T he G reat D epression' in In dustry and T rad c ," Economic History Review
5 (1934): 6 5 -7 5 ; and A. E. M usson. T h e G reat D epression in Britain, 1873-1896: A Reap
praisal," Journal of Economic History 19(1959): 199-228.
Electrical Review 10 (1882): 473.
Ibid. 11 (1883): 209-10. At a stockholders' m eeting o f the Devon and Cornwall (Brush)
Electric Light Sc Power Co. in Septem ber 1882, a small stockholder challenged the directors'
purchase o f the Lanc-Fox rights from the p aren t com pany. T h e exchange that followed was
in te rru p te d by an o th er small stockholder, who offered to bring a mine lam p to the company
to make good on any losses that might result from the Lanc-Fox b lunderhe a dded that he
saw no reason to wind u p the company. T h e chairm an characterized these rem arks as a little
beside the m ark, as lie had heard no hint about w inding u p the company.
MSlock m arket quotations in Economist (London) 40 (Decem ber 1882).

02

N 13T W O R K S O F P O W E R
T h e p a r e n t p a te n t- h o ld in g a n d fr a n c h is e - g r a n tin g B ru s h E le ctric L ight
C o m p a n y h a d to face n o t o n ly a d e c lin e in th e v a lu e o f its s h a re s b u t a
legal lest o f its claim to a n in c a n d e s c c n t- la m p p a te n t. A p p a re n tly St. G e o rg e
L a n c -F o x , in v e n to r o f B r u s h s la m p , h a d a ssig n e d th e e x clu siv e rig h t o f
u sin g a n d g r a n tin g lic en ses fo r his p a te n ts to th e B ritish E le ctric L ight
C o m p a n y o n 20 July 1881, a n d o n ly n in e d a y s la te r h a d m a d e th e sam e
a r r a n g e m e n t w ith B r u s h .55 P ro b le m s fo r A n g lo -A m e ric a n B ru s h in c re a se d
in 1883 w h e n s u b sid ia ry c o m p a n ie s , " w h o [ h a d b e e n ] all e a g e rn e s s to o b tain
a h ig h -p r ic e d co n c e ssio n , . . . [w e re ] o n ly to o g la d to resell it to th e o rig in a l
g r a n to r o n a lm o st n o m in a l te r m s .55 A y e a r a f te r th e b r ig h t p ro m is e o f
th e s p r in g o f 82 , th e A n g lo -A m e ric a n B r u s h C o r p o r a tio n sto o d rev e aled
as a p a te n t- h o ld in g a n d m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n y w h ich h a d b e e n fo u n d e d
o n a n a r c - lig h tin g sy ste m th a t w as n o lo n g e r o u ts ta n d in g in th e field a n d
o n a n in c a n d e s c e n i-ia m p p a te n t o f d o u b tf u l v a lu e .57
C a u g h t in th e sw e e p in g re a c tio n , th e p a r e n t E n g lish E d iso n C o m p a n y
s o u g h t to e a se its d iffic u ltie s. In O c to b e r 1883 th e c o m p a n y m e rg e d with
its p rin c ip a l c o m p e tito r in th e m a n u f a c tu r e a n d sale o f in c a n d e s c e n t lam ps,
Sw an E le ctric L ig h t C o m p a n y , w h ic h h a d b e e n f o u n d e d o n th e basis o f th e
p a te n ts o f J o s e p h S w a n o f N ew c astle u p o n T y n e , th e in v e n to r o f a n in
c a n d e s c e n t la m p th a t was said to b e c o m p a r a b le to E d is o n 's .58 T h u s th e
H o lb o r n V ia d u c t sta tio n b e c a m e th e p r o p e r ty o f E d iso n a n d S w an U n ite d
E lec tric L ig h t C o m p a n y , L td . J a m e s S ta a t F o rb e s, d ir e c to r o f th e new e n
te rp r is e . to ld s to c k h o ld e rs in N o v e m b e r 1884 th a t H o lb o r n h a d b e e n a
costly a f f a ir a n d h a d c a u s e d th e d ir e c to r s a g r e a t d e a l o f a n x ie ty , hav in g
b e e n o p e r a te d a t a se rio u s a n n u a l lo ss.5,1 T h e sta tio n th e n p a sse d from
p u b lic view a n d w as a b a n d o n e d by th e c o m p a n y in 1886.
O n 2 0 O c to b e r 1884 E d iso n 8c S w an also in f o r m e d th e B o a rd o f T r a d e
th a t n o n e o f th e p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s g ra n te d th e c o m p a n y u n d e r th e E lectric
L ig h tin g A ct o r 1882, o r d e r s th a t e n a b le d th e c o m p a n y to e re c t c e n tra lsta tio n sy ste m s in L o n d o n , w o u ld b e c a r r ie d o u t. In th e o p in io n o f th e
c o m p a n y s d ire c to r s , th e v e x a tio u s a n d h a r a s s in g le g isla tio n o f 1882
esp e cia lly th e lim ite d te n u r e a n d sc ra p ir o n c la u se c o n d e m n e d to failu re
su c h v e n tu re s o n th e p a r t o f p riv a te b u sin e ss. T h is a c tio n in d ic a te d a tre n d :
in 1883 th e B o a rd o f T r a d e g r a n te d six ty -n in e p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s f o r cenira l-s ta tio n sy stem s a n d six ty -tw o w e re s u b s e q u e n tly r e v o k e d ; in 1884 only
f o u r w ere g r a n te d a n d all w e re re v o k e d ; a n d in 1885 n o n e w as issu e d .60
By th e e n d o f 1884, th e d o ld r u m s h a d set in. B a d tim e s h a d n o t c om e
u p o n th e B ritish e le c tric a l in d u s try a lo n e , h o w e v e r. I n n o v a to r s in th e elec
tric lig h t a n d c e n tra l-s ta tio n in d u s tr y fo u n d th e ir m e la n c h o lia e c h o e d by
The FAeclncian 10 (1882) (2 iiiul 9 Decem ber). In :i subsequent settlem ent. Lane-Fox
rep u rch ased his patents from A nglo-A m erican Brush and then gran te d , as part o f the set
tlem ent, a lull and Irce license to the co rp o ratio n to sell and use all o r his inventions that
were connected with electricity. Electrical Review 14 (1884): 95-96.
" Economist (L ondon) 42 (1884): 1480.
!1 Electrical Review II (1883): 452-53.
" K en n eth R. and Mary F.. Swan. J . VV. Swan: A Memoir (London: Benn. 1929); Brian
Bowers. "Joseph Swan and the Invention o f the Incandescent Filam ent L am p." Papers Presented
at the Fourth Weekend Meeting on the History of Elecltical Engineering, Durham, England, 2 -4 July
1976 (L ondon: Institution o f Electrical E ngineers. 1976). p p 68-70.
"R ep o rt o f sh areh o ld ers' m eeting. Electrical Review 15 (1884): 397.
'"'E m ile C'>arcke. M anual of Electrical Undertakings (L ondon, 1896). p. 393.

PEC'M N O LX X IY T R A N S F E R
fim uicic-is a n d m a n a g e rs fro m (lie o ld e r in d n s ir ie s o f s h ip b u ild in g a n d iro n
a n d steel.'1,1 K ig ln een e ig h ty -tw o h a d m a r k e d (lie e n d ol (lie re eo v erv <m le
w ith in th e " g re a t d e p r e s s io n " ; 1888 a n d IHH-I m a r k e d th e b e g in n in g ol a
s lu m p ." ' Vet sp o k e s m e n fo r th e p r iv a te -e n te rp ris e se c to r ol th e elee trica l
in d u s try w e re re lu c ta n t to view th e p ro b le m s ol th e in d u s try in th e b ro a d e r
p e rsp e c tiv e ol th e o v e rall e c o n o m y ; th e y p r e f e r r e d to lim it th e ir analysis
lo g o v e rn m e n t activity. B ec au se in v e stm e n t in ele ctric lig h tin g h a d b ee n
hea v y a n d b e c a u se in llu e n tia l p e rs o n s w e re in te re s te d in th e ele ctric al in
d u s try , in 188fi P a rlia m e n t c o n s id e re d a m e n d m e n ts to th e 1882 Electric
L ig h tin g A c t.'
A c o m m itte e o f th e M ouse o l L o rd s h e a r d r e p re s e n ta tiv e s ol p riv a te
e n te r p r is e sp e a k as o n e in a ttr ib u tin g th e d o ld r u m s to g o v e rn m e n t le g is
lation. Sir F red e ric k J. B ram w ell suited unequivocally that th e Electric Lighting
Act o f 1882 h a d set th e B ritish e lec trical in d u s tr y hack fo u r y c;trs." ' L ionel
L. C o h e n , f in a n c ie r a n d stock e x c h a n g e official, te stifie d th a t c a p ita l co u ld
not he fo u n d f o r th e in d u s tr y u n d e r th e c o n d itio n s o f th e ac t." ' A d ir e c to r
o f th e B an k o f E n g la n d a n d le a d in g e n g in e e rs a n d sc ien tists sw elled th e
c h o ru s o f c o m p la in ts th a t fo c u se d u p o n th e te n u r e a n d sc ra p iro n " clau se
o f th e a c t.00
T h e c o m m itte e a lso le a rn e d o f o th e r p ro v isio n s w ith in th e act. a n d p r o
visional o r d e r s g r a n te d u n d e r th e act w hich w o rk e d te c h n ic a l a n d econom ic
h a r d s h ip s o n th e e n g in e e r s a n d sta tio n m a n a g e r s .'7 C o m m itte e m e m b e rs
h e a rd as well th a t fo r e ig n sta te s h a d n o t e n a c te d legisla tio n const ra in in g
th e ele c tric lig h tin g in d u s tr y .r>H S p o k e s m e n f o r p riv a te ca p ita l c o m p la in e d
not o n ly o f g o v e rn m e n t r e g u la tio n b u t a lso o f th e stim u li th e act h a d given
m u n ic ip a l socialism . J a m e s S taa ls F o rb es, h e a d o f E d iso n & Sw an, a rg u e d
th a t th e local a u th o r itie s w o u ld n o t in n o v a te in th e e lec trica l lig h tin g Held
n o r w o u ld th e y allow p r iv a te ca p ita l to in n o v a te . Me a sk e d rh e to ric a lly . "Is
th a t in th e in te re s ts o f th e p u b lic? " a n d re p lie d ca teg o ric ally . "1 am s tu p id
e n o u g h to b elie v e th a t it is n o t." 69
S p o k e s m e n fo r th e c e n tr a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e local a u th o ritie s , h o w
ev e r, ca lle d th e a tte n tio n o f th e C o m m itte e o f L o rd s to th e a d v e rse effec ts
o f th e s p e c u la tio n m a n ia o f 1882 a n d to th e c o m p e titio n o f fe r e d by c h e a p
n ,T h c real d epression o f the eighties began in 1883 in shipbuilding, engineering, .mil the
iron and steel industry. See J. II. Clapham . An Economic History of Modern Hntmn, .1
(Cam bridge: At the University Press, 1981-38). 3: 3(i.
8 ,Scc p. 61, n. 51. above: and Walt Roslow, British Economy of the Nineteenth Century (O xlnrd.
1949), pp. 49. 50.
05 G reat Britain. Parliam ent. Mouse o f Lords, Hr/iorl from the Select Committee of the House of
Lords on the Electric Lighting Act (1886) . . . (L ondon, I88(i) (hereafter d ie d as l.oids Committee
Hearing. 1886).
01 Ibid., pp. 46-47.
** Ibid.. p. 4.
m Ibid.. pp. 3 -4 . 15. 33.
n7 Regulations reg ard in g service for would-be custom ers enabled the <ustomc i to i boose
the type ol lam p and lo limit the nuiulrcr ol overhead wires.
*" W here local (not national) legislation existed, it was in the n ature ol safely regulations
and was intended to prevent interference with telegraph and telephone installations; see Lords
Committer Hearing, 1886, p. 218. In the opinion ol one British engineer, the A m eiitans were
indifferent to accidents and lircs; ibid., p. 634.
* Ibid.. p. 106.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

g a s.70 G o v e rn m e n t e le c tric a l e n g in e e r W illiam H . P re e c e sp o k e o f a m o n ey
m a k in g w o rld " th a t was e a g e r lo r e a p th e b e n e fit o f th e p a tie n t s tu d e n t,
th e in g e n io u s in v e n to r , a n d th e d e s e r v in g e n g in e e r .71 T h e to w n c le rk of
C h a m b e rla in s B irm in g h a m te stifie d lh a l th e ra tio o f th e p ric e o f gas to
th a t o f e le c tric ity was 1 :2 in B rita in , b u t o n ly 2 :3 in th e U n ite d States.
T h is , h e c o n te n d e d , h a d m o re to d o w ith th e p ro g re s s o f e le c tric lig h tin g
th a n w ith g o v e rn m e n t le g isla tio n .72 E le ctric lig h t in B rita in w as a lu x u ry ,
h e a r g u e d , a n d th u s was n o t s u ita b le fo r th e in v e s tm e n t o f th e ra te p a y e r's
tax es. R e cen t an aly sis o f th e re la tiv e cost o f gas a n d e le c tric lig h tin g a t th a t
lim e s u p p o r ts th e to w n c le r k s e x p la n a tio n .73
O th e r e x p la n a tio n s fo r th e d e c lin e o f th e B ritish c e n tra l-s ta tio n in d u stry
w ere h e a r d d u r in g th e lim e o f its d o ld r u m s , b u t in th e e n d th e c ase m a d e
by p riv a te e n te r p r is e w as m ost e ffe c tiv e : th e E le ctric L ig h iin g A ct o f 1 8 8 2 g o v e rn m e n t le g isla tio n h a d p a ra ly z e d th e c e n tra l- s ta lio n in d u s try . T h e
sp o k e s m e n fo r th e e le c tric a l in d u s try c h o se to ig n o r e th e m o re c o m p le x
q u e s tio n s o f n a tio n a l in e rtia , te c h n o lo g y a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l e d u c a tio n , an d
b u sin e ss cycles. T h e y c o n c e n tr a te d o n a m o r e im m e d ia te p ro b le m , the
a m e n d m e n t o f th e E lec tric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1882. C h a n g e s in g o v e r n m e n t,
th e Irish H o m e R u le bill, a n d c h a n g e s a t th e B o a rd o f T r a d e all c o n trib u te d
to th e d e la y in a m e n d in g th e act. T h e ac t h a d p a sse d d u r i n g G la d sto n e 's
ru le ; th e a m e n d in g bill p a sse d in 1888 u n d e r L o r d S a lis b u ry .74 In 1887
p riv a te in v e sto rs h a d a n tic ip a te d p a ssa g e w h e n c a p ita l o n c e a g a in b e g an
to flow in to th e e le c tric a l in d u s try . T h e L o n d o n E le c tric S u p p ly C o r p o
ra tio n re g is te re d in A u g u s t 1887 w ith a n a u th o r iz e d c a p ita l o f 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
a n d b o ld p la n s to e re c t th e w o rld s g r e a te s t c e n tr a l s ta tio n in L o n d o n (see
p p . 2 3 8 - 4 7 b elo w ).75
O n 28 J u n e 1888 th e a m e n d in g bill b e c a m e law . M ost s ig n ific a n t a m o n g
its p ro v isio n s w e re th e e x te n s io n o f t e n u r e f o r p riv a te c o m p a n ie s fro m
tw e n ty -o n e to fo rty -tw o y e a rs a n d a r e d e f in itio n o f th e c o m p u ls o ry -p u rc h a se te rm s to th e a d v a n ta g e o f th c p r iv a te e n te r p r is e . T h e m u n ic ip a litie s
o r local a u th o r itie s , o n th e o th e r h a n d , r e c e iv e d a lim ite d v e to o n th e
g r a n tin g o f a p ro v isio n a l o r d e r by th e B o a r d o f T r a d e .
J u s t as p r iv a te e n te r p r is e h a d b e e n r e lu c ta n t to in t e r p r e t th e d o ld r u m s
in th e in d u s try w ith in th e g e n e r a l c o n te x t o f th e e c o n o m ic s lu m p , now ,
w ith th e a m e n d m e n t o f th e in iq u ito u s E le c tric L ig h tin g A c t," th e c o r r e
la tio n b e tw e e n th e p a ssa g e o f th e a m e n d m e n ts a n d th e g e n e r a l e c o n o m ic
re c o v e ry w e n t u n n o tic e d . T h c J u b ile e Y e ar, 1 887, m a r k e d th e b e g in n in g
o l a b risk re v iv a l.70 A n a tm o s p h e r e o f o p tim is m a n d e n th u s ia s m now
p re v a ile d a m o n g p riv a te e n t r e p r e n e u r s . In th e H o u s e o f L o rd s th e e a r l o f
C ra w f o rd p re d ic te d a n o u tp o u r in g o f c a p ita l a n d fo rty th o u s a n d n ew jo b s

" In I88.r> the rn m pctiiive position o f gaslight had l>een even f u rth e r stre n g th en e d
intro d u ctio n of the W clsbach m antle, which gave a m o re efficient and agreeable light.
C h an tler, The British Has Industry (M anchester: M anchester U niversity Press, 19.38), p.
71Journal o f the Society o f Arts .32 (188.3-84): 347.
77 Lords Committee Hearing. 1886. p. 562.
771. C. R. Byatl, The British Electrical Industry, I 8 7 5 - I 9 H (O xford: C larendon Press.
pp. 2 1-28.
71 5 1 & 52 Viet., ch. 12.
75Sec Engineering 94 (I9 I2 ): 163-64. lo r an account t>r thc D ep tfo rd station.
7"C lap h atn , Economic History o f Modern Britain. 3: 5 -6

by the
Philip
9.

1979),

05

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
in th e new ly s u rg in g s e c to r o f th e e c o n o m y .77 E n g in e e rs b e liev e d th a t th e
te c h n o lo g ic a l fo u n d a tio n s h a d b e e n la id .7" T h e e d ito r s o f B ritish te ch n ica l
jo u r n a ls w e re c a u tio u s b u t s a n g u in e . As o n e o f th e m w ro te , "A t last . . .
th e a ir c le ars, a n d activity b e g in s to show itse lf all r o u n d . 79 B rita in w ould
m o v e a h e a d su re -f o o te d ly , n o t p lu n g e a h e a d w ith th e rec k le ss a b a n d o n ol
th e A m e ric a n c e n tra l-s ta tio n m a n a g e rs w h o h u n g w ire in fe sto o n s a n d the
m a n u f a c tu r e r s w h o c o u n te n a n c e d im m in e n t o b so lesce n ce . T h e B ritish
b u s in e s s m a n w o u ld n o t d r u m u p d e m a n d fre n e tic a lly , as d id his A m e ric a n
co u s in .80 C o ld sta tistics s u p p o r te d w a rm s e n tim e n ts as th e valu e o f ele ctrical
sh a re s tu r n e d u p w a rd la te in 1888, a n d th e tr e n d c o n tin u e d in 18 8 9 .81 The
b est in d ic a tio n o f re n e w e d o p tim ism w as a d ra m a tic u p sw in g in th e n u m b e r
o f p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s g r a n te d : a f te r 1884 th e r e h a d b e e n o n ly o n e : in 1889
th e r e w e re tw elve; a n d in 1890 th e r e w o u ld b e se v e n ty - fo u r.82
E d is o n s c e n tra l-s ta tio n te c h n o lo g y , th e k in d th a t h a d b e e n tr a n s f e r r e d
to H o lb o rn V ia d u c t, w as n o t re v iv e d , h o w e v e r. D u r in g th e six y e ars th a t
s e p a r a te d th e o rig in a l a n d a m e n d e d ele c tric lig h tin g acts, new te c h n o lo g y
lo o k ro o t in E n g la n d . T h e a tte n tio n o f th e p ro fe ssio n a ls a n d th e p ublic
s h ifte d to S e b a stia n Z. d e F e rra n ti, a y o u n g B ritish e n g in e e r (see p p . 9 7 9 8 below ). H is p la n s fo r e le c tric lig h tin g w ere as b o ld as E d iso n 's, a n d h e
so o n b e c a m e k n o w n as th e B ritish E d iso n . E n g lish E d iso n 's H o lb o r n s ta tio n
w as re m e m b e r e d by o n ly a few a n d as a h isto ry o f th e f a ilu re o f te c h n o lo g y
t r a n s fe r. B u t in fa c t it was n o t th e te c h n o lo g y th a t h a d fa iled . T h e d isil
lu s io n m e n t o f p r iv a te in v e sto rs in 1882 a f te r th e c o lla p se o f stock m a r k e t
sp e c u la tio n to g e th e r w ith th e p assag e o f th e E le ctric L ig h tin g A ct d is c o u r
a g e d risk ta k in g . T h e a d v e rs e effe c ts o f th e lig h tin g act m ay h a v e b e e n
e x a g g e ra te d by o p p o n e n ts o f r e g u la tio n a n d m u n ic ip a l socialism , b u t p r u
d e n t in v e sto rs re a liz e d th a t a P a r lia m e n t th a t co u ld p ass a c o n s tr a in in g act
in 1882 h a d th e a u th o r ity a n d possibly th e will to f r u s tr a te d e v e lo p m e n t.
F u r th e r m o r e , in th e 1880s, a lth o u g h local g o v e rn m e n ts h a d th e a u th o rity
to d e v e lo p u tilitie s a n d w e re o f te n c o m m itte d to m u n ic ip a l socialism , th e y
d id n o t b e liev e th a t r a te p a y e r s , o r ta x p a y e rs , m o n e y sh o u ld b e in v e sted
in a te c h n o lo g y w h ich h a d n o t yet b e e n p ro v e n . A lso, m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn
m e n ts h a d in v e ste d h eavily in gas lig h tin g . T h e relativ e ly low p ric e o f
g a slig h t d is c o u ra g e d in v e s tm e n t in a n e le ctric al system . It s h o u ld b e n o te d ,
h o w e v e r, th a t in th e U n ite d S la te s th e E d iso n c o m p a n y (a n d la te r its c o m
p e tito rs ) w as a b le to sell c e n tra l-s ta tio n lig h t as a lu x u ry .
T h e rela tiv ely slow d e v e lo p m e n t o f E n g lish e le c tric s u p p ly system s, e s
pecially in L o n d o n , is e a s ie r to p ro b e w ith h in d s ig h t th a n it was f o r an aly sts
in th e 1880s. T h e m id -d e c a d e d o ld r u m s w e re th o u g h t by m o st to b e a
tra n s ito ry p h a s e , b u t h isto ric a l p e rsp e c tiv e re v ea ls th a t fa ilu re o f th e H o l
b o rn V ia d u c t s ta tio n a n d o th e r p ro je c ts w as sy m p to m a tic o f a tr e n d . As
th is stu d y will sh o w , th e H o lb o r n f a ilu re was so o n fo llow ed by th e D e p t
fo rd fa ilu re (see p p . 2 3 8 - 4 7 below ). M o re o v e r, as la te as 1920 L o n d o n s

77 Electrical Engineer (L ondon) 1 (1888): 380.

Electrical Engineer (New York) 8 (1889): 478.
7UElectrical Engineer (London) 2 (1883): 245.
Electrical Review 23 (1888): 329-30.
*' Economist (London) 47 (1889): I2G9.
"7 Garcke. M anual of Electrical Undertakings, p. 394.

06

Figure 111.8. Emil Rathrnau. Courtesy of

Rrrhnrr Kraft-und Licht AG (formerly
BEW).

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

e lec tric lig h tin g a n d p o w e r facilities w ere j u d g e d b a c k w a rd w h e n c o m p a r e d

to th e sy stem s e m p lo y e d in o th e r m e tro p o lita n c e n te r s o f th e W e s te rn w orld
(see p. 2 6 0 below ). W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f a p o w e r sy stem o n th e n o rth e a s t
co ast, th e g e n e r a l situ a tio n in E n g la n d w as also j u d g e d to b e n e g a tiv e w h e n
e v a lu a te d in te rm s o f th e p re v a ilin g c r ite ria o f e le c tric a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
B elie v in g th a t th e e c o n o m ic s ta g n a tio n o f th e m id -1 8 8 0 s w as a n a b n o rm a l
c o n d itio n , a d v o c a te s o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e le c tric lig h tin g id e n tifie d only
its im m e d ia te cau se s, su ch as th e 1882 leg isla tio n a n d th e c o m p e titiv e price
o f gas lig h tin g . I f th e y co u ld h a v e f o re s e e n th e e v e n ts o f th e n e x t th re e
d e c a d e s, th e y w o u ld h av e k n o w n th a t a f te r re v isin g th e o f f e n d in g legis
latio n , lo w e rin g th e p ric e o f e le c tric lig h tin g , a n d in tr o d u c in g fo rm s of
ele c tric p o w e r w ith w hich gas c o u ld n o t c o m p e te , L o n d o n a n d m u c h of
E n g la n d w o u ld c o n tin u e to b e la b e le d b a c k w a rd by e le c tric a l e n g in e e r s an d
m a n a g e rs w h e n c o m p a re d to B e rlin a n d C h ic a g o , G e rm a n y a n d th e U n ited
S ta les. K n o w in g this, th ey to o w o u ld h a v e p ro b e d m o r e d e e p ly fo r longru n , o r u n d e rly in g , ca uses. W ith h in d s ig h t, th e f r u s tr a tin g in flu e n c e o f a
series o f legislative acts, e sp ecially th o se th a t w e re p a r lia m e n ta r y in o rig in ,
loom s la rg e as a n u n d e r ly in g ca u se . T h e s e acts, h o w e v e r, re fle c te d th e
p e rv asively c o n se rv a tiv e a ttitu d e s o f e c o n o m ic , p o litica l, a n d te c h n o lo g ica l
in te re s t g ro u p s th a t w e re q u ite c o n te n t w ith th e ir s ta tu s a n d f u tu r e in a
w orld w ith o u t ele c tric p o w e r system s. F o r e x a m p le , e le c tric p o w e r su p p ly
th r e a te n e d to o v e r r u n a n d w ea k e n th e a u th o r ity o f local g o v e r n m e n ts , to
d isp la ce th e e s ta b lish e d g a slig h t te c h n o lo g y , a n d to d e v a lu e in v e s tm e n ts in
th a t o ld e r te c h n o lo g y a n d its in stitu tio n s. T h e p o w e r o f th e se a n d o th e r
c o n se rv a tiv e in te re s ts was re v e a le d c lea rly d u r in g th e D e p tf o r d e p is o d e a n d
d u r in g th e e ffo rts to b rin g a u n ifie d e le c tric s u p p ly sy ste m to L o n d o n (see
p p . 247 a n d 2 6 0 below ).
T h e h isto ry o f th e tr a n s f e r o f E d iso n te c h n o lo g y to B e rlin is no tab ly
d if f e r e n t, d e s p ite th e lact th a t th e system e x p o r te d to G e r m a n y w as sim ilar
to th a t in stalle d a l H o lb o rn V ia d u c t. A g a in , h o w e v e r, th e e x p la n a tio n o f
how th e sy stem fa re d is n o t sim p ly te c h n ic a l.
T h e h isto ry o f th e tr a n s f e r b eg in s a l th e P aris I n te r n a tio n a l E lectrical
E x h ib itio n o f 1881. A m o n g th e h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f visito rs to th e
P aris e x h ib itio n w e re th r e e m e n w h o a r e n ow re c o g n iz e d as o u ts ta n d in g
fig u re s in th e h isto ry o f elec trica l tec h n o lo g y , a n d all th r e e w e re in flu e n tia l
in b rin g in g E d iso n te c h n o lo g y to G e rm a n y . W e r n e r v on S ie m e n s (1 8 1 6 1892) a lre a d y h a d th e re p u ta tio n o f a le a d in g G e rm a n ele c tric a l in v e n to r
a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r o f te le g ra p h a p p a r a tu s , a n d his c o m p a n y , S ie m e n s 8c
H alsk e, was m o v in g in to a rc lig h tin g . Em il R a ih e n a u ( 1 8 3 8 -1 9 1 5 ), a rel
atively u n k n o w n m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r, visited th e e x h ib itio n h o p in g lo find
new o p p o r tu n itie s f o r te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n . H a v in g s tu d ie d in H a n
n o v e r a n d Z u ric h , lie was a m e m b e r o f th e new g e n e r a tio n o f e n g in e e rin g sc h o o l-ira in e d e n g in e e rs . B e fo re b u y in g a n d o p e r a tin g a sm a ll m a ch in e
fac to ry in B erlin , h e h a d w o rk e d as a n e n g in e e r w ith th e B o rsig L o com otive
it OI|. S i ' i ^ u q o ' l *1 c -lol l n Berm e n g in e e r in g s h o p s in G re en w ich ,
m g ant . n
R a ih e n a u so ld his fa cto ry a n d tra v e le d e x te n siv e ly a b ro a d
se e k in g e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l o p p o rtu n itie s . T he th ir d G e rm a n v isito r o f n ote
^ n Z ^ ri8
B a v arian

,a r
( l8 5 5 - | 9 34). w h o a lso h a d b e e n tra in e d at an
^ i *
m c,l). a iu l w o u ld la te r b e c o m e th e h e a d o f a le a d in g
c rica e n g in e e r in g c o n s u ltin g firm a n d a p io n e e r in th e d e

07

Figure III.9. Decorative incandescent

lamps surrounding statue o f Virgin and
child, Munich exhibition, 1882. From
Offizieller Bericht . . . M iinchen
1882, p. 65.

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
v e lo p m e n t o f w a te r p o w e r a n d re g io n a l p o w e r sy ste m s (see p p . 3 3 4 - 5 0
below ).
A fte r v iew ing th e E d iso n d isp la y in P aris, R a th e n a u d e c id e d to b u y (lie
rig h ts lo th e E d iso n p a te n ts in G e rm a n y . H e n e g o tia te d w ith th e C o m p a g n ie
c o n tin e n ta le E d iso n , w h ic h h a d b e e n e sta b lish e d to d isp o se o f E d iso n p a te n t
rig h ts in E u ro p e . In a d d itio n to th is c o m p a n y , th e E d iso n in te re s ts h a d
e sta b lish e d th e S o ciete e le c tr iq u e E d iso n to m a rk e t sm all, iso la ted p la n ts
a n d th e S o c ie te in d u s tr ie lle e t c o m m e rc ia le E d iso n , lo c a te d in Iv ry , n e a r
P aris, to m a n u f a c tu r e E d iso n in v e n tio n s .83 R a th e n a u tu r n e d lo se v e ra l G e r
m a n b a n k in g h o u se s fo r fin a n c in g a n d in J u ly 1882 a c q u ire d th e p a te n t
rig h ts fro m th e F r e n c h c o m p a n ie s . T h e p a rtie s to th e a g r e e m e n t w e re, o n
th e o n e h a n d , th e b a n k in g h o u s e o f G e b r iid e r S u lz b ac h o f F r a n k f o r t o n
th e M ain, J a c o b L a n d a u o f B e rlin , a n d th e N a tio n a l-B a n k f u r D e u ts c h la n d ;
a n d , o n th e o th e r h a n d , C o m p a g n ie c o n tin e n ta le E d iso n a n d S o ciete e le c
triq u e E d iso n o f P a ris. By a g r e e m e n t th e b a n k in g h o u se s (a n d R a th e n a u )
e s ta b lish e d a S o c ie te d e tu d e (an e x p lo ra to ry v e n tu r e to a s c e rta in th e te c h
nical a n d c o m m e rc ia l fe asib ility o f th e E d iso n sy stem in G e rm a n y ) w ith th e
in te n t o f e s ta b lis h in g a p e r m a n e n t e n te r p r is e a f te r a s tip u la te d p e r io d o f
m o n th s .84 T h e S o c ie te d e tu d e p r o c e e d e d to try th e te c h n o lo g y a n d e x p lo re
th e m a rk e t in B e rlin , M u n ic h , a n d S tu ttg a r t by m a k in g se v eral sm all in
s ta lla tio n s in p riv a te c lu b s a n d th e a te r s a n d by d isp la y in g th e system a t an
e le ctrica l e x h ib itio n o rg a n iz e d in 1882 in M u n ic h by O s k a r von M iller
(1 8 5 5 -1 9 3 4 ). R a th e n a u a n d v on M ille r c a m e to kn o w e ac h o th e r th r o u g h
th e e x h ib itio n a n d v o n M ille r jo in e d R a th e n a u in th e new e n te r p r is e .
P e rs u a d e d o f fa v o ra b le d e v e lo p m e n ts , o n 13 M arc h 1883 th e th r e e G e r
m a n b a n k in g h o u s e s f o u n d e d a p e r m a n e n t c o m p a n y h e a d e d by R a th e n a u .
T h e D e u tsc h e E d iso n G e se llsc h a fl fiir a n g e w a n d te E lec tricita i (G e rm a n
E d iso n C o m p a n y fo r A p p lie d E lectricity) w as esta b lish e d to e x p lo it in
d u s tr ia lly all p a te n ts g ra n te d to E d iso n in G e r m a n y re la te d to m e a s u re
m e n t, d is trib u tio n , a n d a p p lic a tio n o f E lectric ity fo r lig h tin g a n d th e tr a n s
m ission o f e n e r g y . T o e x p lo it th e p a te n ts a n d th e lic en se a c q u ire d fro m
C o m p a g n ie c o n tin e n ta le , G e rm a n E d iso n h a d th e rig h t to m a n u f a c tu r e o r
h a v e m a n u f a c tu r e d in th e fa c to rie s o f th e fo re ig n E d iso n c o m p a n ie s th e
a p p a r a tu s o f th e E d iso n sy ste m a n d th e rig h t to e re c t lig h tin g in sta lla tio n s
o r c e d e th is rig h t to o th e rs . C a sh p a y m e n t to th e P aris c o m p a n y fo r th e
rig h ts a n d lic e n se 1w as 3 5 0 ,0 0 0 m a rk s. T h e r e w o u ld also be ro y altie s o n
in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s so ld a n d u s e d in G e rm a n y a n d o n th e in sta lla tio n s
a c c o r d in g to h o rs e p o w e r . G e rm a n E d iso n was to d e a l e x clusively in th e
E d iso n sy stem o f in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g , b u t c o u ld e m p lo y an y system o f its
ch o ic e fo r a rc lig h tin g . T h e c o m p a n y also h a d th e a u th o r ity lo estab lish
su b sid ia ry e n te rp ris e s . Its ca p ita l o f five m illion m a rk s was d iv id e d in to ten
* C onrad Malschoss, Die gcscbichllicbc Entw icklung d e r Allgcmcincn Elcklricilals-Gcsellschafl in den crslcn 25 Jn lircn ihres Bcslchcns." Beitrage m r C.eschichtr drr Techmk tnut
Industrie I (1909): 55-56.
" T h e 1882 agreem ent is sum m arized in an u ndated (1883?) ''C ontract. M em orandum of
A greem ent" e n tered into by the G erm an banks nam ed above and by tbc Edison com panies
in Paris. T his docum ent in tbc Edison Archives is nut dated, but is an am endm ent to the
1882 agreem ent. O n G erm an banks and the electrical industry, see H ugh N ctthurgei, "T he
Industrial Politics ol the Kreditbanken, 1880-191 *1." Business History lleinrw 51 (Sum m er 1977):
192.

08

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
th o u s a n d sh a re s. By re s o lu tio n o f th e b o a r d a n d a g e n e r a l s h a r e h o ld e rs
m e e tin g , c o m m o n sto c k co u ld be in c re a s e d a n d p r e f e r r e d sto c k issued.
B esides slock, th e r e w e re fo u n d e r s ' c e rtific a te s th a t e n title d th e h o ld e rs as
a g r o u p to ta k e 35 p e rc e n t o f th e n e t p r o f its a f te r a 6 p e rc e n t d iv id e n d
h a d b e e n d e c la re d o n th e p a id -u p stock. T h e c o m p a n y issu e d 2 ,5 0 0 fo u n
d e r s ce rtific a te s. T h e s e , h o w e v e r, d id n o t c o n v e y a s h a re , o r e q u ity , in th e
c o m p a n y . O n e th o u s a n d c e rtific a te s w e re issu e d to th e first s u b sc rib e rs to
stock o n th e basis o f o n e c e rtific a te f o r te n s h a re s p a id u p . T h e C o m p a g n ie
c o n tin e n la le a n d th e S o c ie te e le c triq u e in P aris re c e iv e d th e re m a in in g
fifte e n h u n d r e d . T h e C o m p a g n ie c o n tin e n ta le a lso h a d th e p o w e r to a p
p o in t tw o p e r m a n e n t c o m m issio n e rs" lo g u a r d its rig h ts a n d in te re s ts in
th e c o m p a n y . T h e c o m m issio n e rs a n d d ir e c to r s o f th e c o m p a n y w o u ld get
10 p e rc e n t o f th e c o m p a n y s u r p lu s re m a in in g a f te r th e 6 p e r c e n t d iv id e n d
to s to c k h o ld e rs, th e 35 p e rc e n t s h a r e o f th e n e t p r o fits to th e h o ld e rs of
f o u n d e rs ' c e rtific a te s, a n d th e 5 p e rc e n t o f th e s u r p lu s to a re s e r v e fu n d
h a d b e e n p a id .8-'
T h e C o m p a g n ie c o n tin e n la le , w ith th e s a n c tio n o f T h o m a s E d iso n a n d
th e E d iso n E lectric L ig h t C o m p a n y o f E u r o p e , L td ., o f N ew Y o rk , n o t only
tr a n s f e r r e d p a te n t rig h ts a n d licenses fo r th e m a n u f a c tu r e a n d e re c tio n of
lig h tin g in s ta lla tio n s b u t also a g r e e d to k e e p G e r m a n E d iso n a p p r is e d of
all E d iso n in v e n tio n s u n til 15 N o v e m b e r 1886. In a d d itio n , th e P a ris co m
p a n y w o u ld aid a n d assist G e rm a n E d iso n in th e te c h n ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f
m a n u f a c tu r in g facilities a n d w o u ld fu rn is h to G e r m a n E d iso n su ita b le in
s tru c to rs ." 86
In G e rm a n y , p ru d e n c e d ic ta te d th a t th e G e r m a n E d iso n C o m p a n y rea ch
an u n d e r s ta n d in g w ith th e d o m in a n t c o m p a n y in e le c tric a l te c h n o lo g y a n d
m a n u fa c tu rin g . In M arch 1883, th e r e f o r e . G e r m a n E d iso n n e g o tia te d a
m e m o r a n d u m o f a g re e m e n t" w ith th e firm o f S ie m e n s Sc H a lsk e . T h e
p a rtie s to th e a g r e e m e n t besid es S ie m e n s Sc H a lsk e w e re T h o m a s E d ison;
th e E d iso n E lectric L ig h t C o m p a n y o f E u ro p e , L td .; C o m p a g n ie co n lin e n tale; a n d th e b a n k in g h o u se s G e b r iid e r S u lz b a c h , J a c o b L a n d a u , a n d th e
N a tio n a l-b a n k f u r D e u tsc h la n d . A c c o rd in g to th is a g r e e m e n t, S ie m e n s Sc
H alsk e. w h ic h h a d te n ta tiv e ly b e g u n m a n u f a c tu r in g in c a n d e s c e n t lam ps
w ith a license fro m th e Sw an C o m p a n y , E d is o n s c o m p e tito r , a g r e e d not
to o p p o s e E d iso n in c a n d e s c e n t- la m p p a te n ts th r o u g h litig a tio n a n d to m a n
u f a c tu re E d iso n la m p s u n d e r license a n d w ith ro y a lty p a y m e n t. B o th G e r
m a n E d iso n a n d S ie m e n s Sc H alsk e, as a re s u lt, h a d E d iso n m a n u fa c tu rin g
rig h ts fo r in c a n d e sc e n t lam p s. I h e la tte r firm , h o w e v e r, a g r e e d n o t to
install E d iso n lig h tin g in G e rm a n y , b u t to leave th is w o rk lo G e r m a n E dison.
In tu r n , G e rm a n E d iso n w o u ld p u rc h a s e a n E d iso n ty p e o f g e n e r a to r a n d
o th e r e q u ip m e n t fo r th e se in s ta lla tio n s (w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e lam ps)
fro m S ie m e n s Sc H alsk e. T h e license to S ie m e n s Sc H a lsk e to m a n u fa c tu re
E d ison e q u ip m e n t w as to r u n fo r te n y e a rs.87
"Articles o r Association ol the Herman Edison C om pany lor Applied Electricity (1883):
a copy is in the Edison Archives.
' '
'
'""Articles or Association." EA.
vons ie m T n T H ^ I f
& Halske 16 Ma" h >883. EA. See Ceorg
Albcr, 1957) |- 92-93 ant\ c
i
' ranS A' F' Rod8er> 2 vo,s- (Freiburg/Munich:
1934 (Berlin': VDI Ver'lag. n.dT p. IO.alSCl' SS "
WJahre B" liner E^rizitabwtrke. 1884-

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
Figurr III.10. "Edison" in /lashing
lamps. Exhibit drsigned by VV. J. Hammer
for the health exhibition in Berlin. 188.1.
Courtesy of the National Museum of
\mrncan History. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.

W illiam H a m m e r , (h e e x p e rie n c e d E d iso n e le c tric ia n , le ft E n g lish E d ison

to jo in R a th e n a u s new c o m p a n y fo r e ig h te e n m o n th s as c h ie f e n g in e e r
a n d e x p e r t fo r th e tr a n s f e r o f th e E d iso n te c h n o lo g y . H a m m e r left th e
E d iso n c o m p a n y b e c a u se o f his d if fe re n c e s w ith A rn o ld W hite. T h o m a s
E d ison w ro te to H a m m e r , say in g , 1 a m p e rfe c tly well satisfied th a t e v e ry
th in g fa b o u l y o u r d e p a r tu r e ] is e x p la in e d by th e n a m e A rn o ld W h ite . "HH
Y ears la te r, a c c o rd in g to H a m m e r , E d iso n c o n fid e d th a t H a m m e r m u st
h a v e b e e n u p a g a in st " th e tw o m e a n e st m en I e v e r m et . . . A rn o ld W hile
'"F.ilison lo W. H am m er, 4 A ngus' 1883. H am m er Collection.

70

>

I . I I . Thomas Edison and Emil

i. Courtesy of Berliner Kraft-und
Licht AG (formerly BEW).

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
in E n g la n d & E m il R a lh e n a u in G e rm a n y ." " 9 (S ee Fig. 111.11.) B u i in th e
s u m m e r o f 1883, H a m m e r was a c tin g as liaison Tor R a th e n a u w ith E d iso n .
H a m m e r in fo rm e d E d iso n th a t th e G e r m a n c o m p a n y was lo o k in g b e y o n d
th e iso lated in s ta lla tio n s o f th e e x p lo r a to r y e n te r p r is e to tw o c e n tr a l sta tio n s
in B e rlin : o n e to s u p p ly a blo ck o f b u ild in g s , in c lu d in g th e C a fe B a u e r, a
w ell-k n o w n B erlin e s ta b lis h m e n t, th e lig h tin g o f w h ich w o u ld a ttr a c t c o n
s id e ra b le a tte n tio n ; a n d a n o th e r to lig h t c e n tr a l B e rlin w ith Fifty th o u s a n d
in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s. T h e la tte r w o u ld f u n c tio n as a m o d e l f o r c e n tr a l sta
tio n s th r o u g h o u t G e rm a n y , ju s t as P e a rl S tr e e t h a d d o n e f o r th e U n ite d
S ta te s a n d H o lb o rn V ia d u c t h a d b e e n e x p e c te d to d o fo r B rita in . H a m m e r
m a d e it c le a r th a t R a th e n a u p r e f e r r e d to o b ta in h is te c h n ic a l in f o r m a tio n
d ire c tly fro m E d iso n r a t h e r th a n fr o m P aris. R a lh e n a u w a n te d p la n s, b lu e
p r in ts , a n d d e ta ile d sp e c ific a tio n s fo r c e n tra l s ta tio n s b a se d o n E d iso n s
e x p e r ie n c e . T h e lay o u t o f a c e n tr a l-s ta tio n d is tr ib u tio n sy stem especially
c o n c e r n e d R a lh e n a u , so H a m m e r w a n te d to k n o w if a sm all-sca le a n a lo g
m o d e l o f d is trib u tio n s h o u ld be b u ilt, su c h as th e o n e d o n e a t M e n lo Park
in p r e p a r a tio n fo r P e arl S tre e t, o r w h e th e r E d iso n c o u ld m e e t th e r e q u ir e
m e n ts se n t by th e G e r m a n c o m p a n y by s u p p ly in g a d e ta ile d p la n . A s a g re e d ,
R a th e n a u a lso w a n te d w o rd o f th e n e w e st E d iso n in v e n tio n s d isc lo se d to
G e r m a n E d iso n im m e d ia te ly . S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e , a n tic ip a tin g f u tu r e o r d e rs
fro m G e r m a n E d iso n , w as a lr e a d y d is a s s e m b lin g E d iso n g e n e r a to r s to a n a
lyze c o n s tru c tio n d e ta ils. In a d d itio n , R a lh e n a u w a n te d a w e ll-in fo rm e d
E d iso n m a n to c o m e to G e r m a n y to assist in th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a n inc a n d e s c e n t- la m p fa c to ry . In 1883, R a th e n a u , th o u g h o b v io u sly d e p e n d e n t
o n E d iso n in e le c tric a l m a tte r s , w as a lr e a d y p la n n in g m o d ific a tio n s a n d
a d a p ta tio n s in s te a m -e n g in e d e s ig n , a n a r e a in w h ic h h e h a d e x p e rtis e a n d
in w hich E d iso n h a d re lie d o n o th e r s .90
By th e fall o f 1883 th e b lo o m was o f f th e ro se . R a th e n a u h im s e lf w ro te
to E d iso n tellin g him th a t h e a n d h is P a ris fr ie n d s h a d g o tte n G e rm a n
E d iso n in to a v ery sa d d ile m m a . T h e G e r m a n c o m p a n y h a d c u ltiv a te d
th e soil w ell f o r th e g r a in we m e a n t to so w , b u t th e le a d in th e E u ro p e a n
lig h tin g b u sin e ss h a d p a sse d to o th e r s . A m o n g th e p r o b le m s w e re th ese.
B e ca u se T h o m a s E d iso n h a d to ld R a lh e n a u th a t th e E d iso n ty p e -H g e n
e r a to r w o u ld r u n five h u n d r e d la m p s, h e h a d p r o c e e d e d lo o r d e r fifte e n
g e n e r a to r s fro m S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e a n d to ta k e o r d e r s f r o m c u sto m e rs.
T h e e n g in e e rs a t S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e h a d o p in e d th a t th e g e n e r a to r w ould
su p p ly o n ly f o u r h u n d r e d la m p s, b u t, re ly in g o n E d is o n , R a th e n a u h a d
g o n e a h e a d s e llin g th e m a c h in e fo r five h u n d r e d . W h e n so tr ie d , th e a r
m a tu r e s o f th e m a c h in e s b u r n e d th r o u g h th e firs t d a y . A t c o n s id e ra b le
e x p e n s e R a th e n a u h a d to c o m p e n s a te fo r th e s e losses. A lso, E d iso n h ad
n o t s e n t th e d e ta ile d p la n s f o r g e n e r a to r s th a t w o u ld s u p p ly a h u n d r e d
la m p s, a n d th e s e w e re th e m a c h in e s Tor w h ic h c o m p e tito r s w e re fin d in g a
lively m a r k e t in G e rm a n y . S carcely a n y re lia b le h e lp fo r th e s e a n d o th e r
p ro b le m s w as fo rth c o m in g fro m P a ris, a n d th e s ta te o f a ffa irs w as b e c o m in g
u n b e a ra b le as th e b u sin e ss w en t to o th e r s , d e s p ite th e e ffe c tiv e p r e p a r a tio n s
a n d a d v e rtis in g o f G e rm a n E d is o n .91
" N o t e by H am m er about his conversation will, Edison in I HR!). H am m er Collection
'" 'H a m m e r to Edison. 16 Ju ly 1883. EA.
K allicnaii to Edison, 13 O rlolx-r 1883. FA

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
A n o th e r p ro b le m was th e sta tu s ol th e E d ison in c a n d e sc e n t-lu m p p a te n ts
in G e rm a n y . T h e s e w e re n ot s e c u re , in p a il b e c a u se ol th e Sw an p a te n ts.
E d iso n was a d v ise d by J o s h u a Bailey, a r e p re s e n ta tiv e lot th e E d ison Elec
tric L ig h t C o m p a n y o f E u ro p e a n d th e C o m p a g n ie c o n lin e n ia le , to c o m e
to a n u n d e r s ta n d in g w ith S w an in G e rm a n y . Bailey also a d v ised E d ison to
s e n d , as r e q u e s te d , a th o ro u g h ly c o m p e te n t p e r s o n , like F ran c is U p to n , to
G e rm a n y to h e lp R a th e n a u p lace a n in c a n d e s c e n l- la m p fa cto ry in o p e r a
tio n . G e r m a n E d iso n was p r e p a r e d to pay him u p to $ 3 0 0 . T h e a lte rn a tiv e ,
p e r s u a d in g G e r m a n E d iso n to p u rc h a s e la m p s fro m th e U n ite d S tates, was
not a viable o p tio n b e c a u se G e rm a n n a tio n a lism w o u ld b rin g G e rm a n s to
b uy la m p s m a d e in G e rm a n y : "Y o u m ay th in k ," E d iso n was to ld , " th a t
n a tio n a l fe e lin g d o e s n o t w eigh a g a in st e c o n o m y , b ut th at is a c o m p le te
e r r o r . A ny G e rm a n in te r lo p e r w o u ld h av e all th e n a tio n a l sy m p a th ie s, a n d
w o u ld h o ld th e G e r m a n m a rk e t ag a in st a fo re ig n la m p th a t s h o u ld be b o th
c h e a p e r a n d b e tte r ." F u r th e r m o r e , G e rm a n p a te n t law re q u ire d th at w ithin
th r e e y e ars fro m its g ra n tin g , th e p a te n t sh o u ld be w o rk e d to an e x te n t
a d e q u a te to su p p ly th e m a rk e t. S in c e S ie m e n s was m a n u f a c tu r in g on ly o n e
h u n d r e d la m p s a d a y , G e rm a n E d iso n n e e d e d to p lace a fa cto ry in to p r o
d u c tio n . T h e p u rc h a s e o f la m p s fro m th e P aris fac to ry was im p ra ctic al
b e c a u se th e q u a lity o f th e la m p s was u n e v e n . A lso, J a m e s H ip p ie , w ho
a d v ised th e P a ris c o m p a n y o n la m p m a n u fa c tu re , was b eliev ed to be out
o f to u c h w ith new ly d e v e lo p e d te c h n iq u e s in th e U n ite d S tates. T h o m a s
E d iso n was also u r g e d to p ro v id e an e c o n o m ic an a ly sis o f th e costs o f th e
P ea rl S tre e t sta tio n sin ce it b e g a n o p e r a tin g in th e fall o f 1882. D espite
pub licity fro m th e U n ite d S ta te s to th e e ffe c t th a t la rg e p ro fits w ere a c
c u m u la tin g , B ailey h a d b e e n u n a b le to c o n firm this. In v e sto rs w e re re lu c
ta n t to invest in c e n tr a l s ta tio n s in E u r o p e u n til c re d ib le fig u re s w ere a v ail
a ble. T h e y h a d h e a r d ru m o r s th a t th e N ew Y ork u tility was o p e ra tin g at
a loss, b u t e v e n a s ta te m e n t o f loss m ig h t h a v e b e e n p r e f e r a b le to th e
r u m o rs .92 In fact, as in te rn a l c o rre s p o n d e n c e r e v e a le d , th e E d iso n Illu
m in a tin g C o m p a n y w as lo sin g m o n ey , b u t a p p a r e n tly E d iso n a n d his a d
v isers w e re n o t in c lin e d to s h a re th e in fo rm a tio n (see p. 45 above).
N e v e rth e le ss, G e r m a n E d iso n w ent a h e a d w ith its p lan s to b u ild two
c e n tra l sta tio n s. B e fo re th e te c h n ic a l p ro b le m s co u ld b e c o m e th e c e n te r o f
a tte n tio n , h o w e v e r, p olitical obsta cles h a d to be o v e rc o m e . R a th e n a u . O sk a r
von M iller, a n d th e o th e r m an a g e rs o f G e rm a n E dison had probably le arn e d
o f th e fru s tr a tin g p o litical situ a tio n in B ritain a n d a n tic ip a te d g o v e rn m e n t
re a c tio n w ith tre p id a tio n . T h e B e rlin g o v e rn m e n t h a d a m o n g its leg islato rs
a n d officials p e r s o n s w 'hose views p a ra lle le d th e views e x p re sse d in B rita in .
B e rlin o w n e d its gas u tility, a n d th e r e w ere th o se w ho w an ted th e city to
ow n a n d o p e r a te a n e lec tric utility as well. The c e n tra l, o r n a tio n a l, g o v
e r n m e n t d e f e r r e d to th e city g o v e rn m e n t b ec au se , as in th e U n ite d States,
c o n stitu tio n a l a r r a n g e m e n ts p ro v id e d local a u th o r itie s in d e p e n d e n c e in th e
re g u la tio n o f u tilitie s.93 T h e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e s ta te o f P ru ssia e x p re sse d
so m e in te re st in fra m in g sp ecial p ro v isio n s to g o v e rn th e in c o rp o ra tio n
a n d o p e ra tio n o f elec trica l e n te rp ris e s , b ut se rio u s m oves in this d ire c tio n

U7 |. Dailey to Edison. 21 O ctober 1883, EA.

,n G. Siegel. Die Elektniilalsgebung (Berlin: VDI. 1930), pp. I. 39 -10.

72

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

d id n o t c o m e u n til a f te r th e t u r n o f th e c e n tu r y .94 In th e B e rlin m u n ic ip a l

c o u n c il th e p r e v a ilin g a r g u m e n t also a d v a n c e d in L o n d o n w as th a t p r i
v a te e n te r p r is e s h o u ld ta k e th e risk s o f in n o v a tio n , p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e the
g r a n tin g o f a c h a r ie r to th e G e r m a n E d iso n c o m p a n y p r o v id e d fo r d e ta ile d
r e g u la tio n o f s u p p ly a n d a s h a r e o f p ro fits fo r th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t.
As B u rg o m a s te r D u n c k e r s u m m e d it u p , All risk s fall o n th e p riv a te
c o m p a n y ; all f in a n c ia l a d v a n ta g e to th e city ." 99
T h e city o f B e rlin a n d G e rm a n E d iso n r e a c h e d a g r e e m e n t in F e b ru a ry
1884 (see p. 185 be lo w ).96 T h e c o m p a n y o b ta in e d a u th o r ity to s u p p ly elec
tric ity to a d e f in e d a re a in th e h e a r t o f B e rlin u s in g th e c ity s s tr e e ts for
th e d is trib u tio n sy ste m . G e r m a n E d iso n th e n p r o c e e d e d to e sta b lish an
o p e r a tin g u tility m u c h in th e m a n n e r th a t th e E d iso n E le c tric L ig h t C o m
p a n y h a d e s ta b lis h e d th e E d iso n E lec tric I llu m in a tin g C o m p a n y o f New
Y o rk . O n 8 M ay 1884 th e B e rlin utility , S la d tis c h e E le k triz ita ts-W e rk e
(StE W ), w as f o u n d e d w ith a n a u th o r iz e d c a p ita l o f t h r e e m illio n m ark s.
In S e p te m b e r th e c o m p a n y b e g a n o p e r a tin g a sm a ll (1 0 0 -k w .) lig h tin g
p la n t a t F r ie d ric h s tr a s s e 85 to s u p p ly th e G a le B a u e r a n d th e b lock of
b u ild in g s in w h ic h it w as lo c a te d (see Fig. 111.12). T h e r e w e re n u m e ro u s
p ro b le m s, th e c h a r a c te r o l w hich is s u g g e s te d by su c h sto rie s as th a t of
G eorg D cllm ar, Dir lintwicklung ,lrr Stnrhstramtrchnik in Deutschland (Berlin: ET7. Vcrlaa
1940). pp. I3. 293-94.
91 C o n rad Maisclioss, "Gcschiilnlichc E ntw icklung iter B erliner Elektriciiais-YVerke von
ih rer B eg riin d u n g bis zur U bernalim c du rcli die Siadl." Beit rage tur Geschichte der Technih und
hulustrie 7 (1916): 9.
V ertrag aiwisclicn d c r S tadlgcm eindc Berlin u n d d e r D em schen Edison-Cesellschall
Berlin." 6 and 19 February 1884: a ropy is in the library o f the D riusrhe s M useum . Munich.

73

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SFE R
O s k a r von M iller in th e b a s e m e n t te n d in g th e g e n e ra to r s w hile K a th c n a u
so o th e d c a fe c u s to m e rs w h e n th e lig h ts su d d e n ly w ent o u t. 1'he M a rk g ra fe n stra sse c e n tra l sta tio n , th e first c o n s tru c te d by StF.W , o p e n e d in A u g u st
1885. T h is , lo o , h a d p ro b le m s , b u t n ot as m a n y as th e Iea rl S tre e t sta tio n ,
w h e re , th e G e r m a n s to o k p a in s to p o in t o u t, "in th e e a rly d ay s it h a d b e e n
im p o ssib le to o p e r a te o n e o f th e g e n e ra to r s a n e n tir e d a y w ith o u t r e p a ir s ." 17
T h is o p in io n c o n tra s ts re m a rk a b ly w ith th e m e m o irs o f th e E d iso n p io n e e rs
w ho o p e r a te d th e N ew Y ork s ta tio n a n d w h o r e p o r te d th a t, w ith th e e x
c e p tio n o f o n e t h r e e - h o u r in te r r u p tio n , th e e ig h t J u m b o g e n e r a to r s p r o
d u c e d c u r r e n t w ith o u t a b re a k fro m S e p te m b e r 188*2 u n til fire d e s tro y e d
th e sta tio n in 1890.98
T h e g e n e r a to r s in M a rk g ra fe n s tra s s e w ere th e E d iso n ty p e built by S ie
m e n s & H a lsk e, a n d th e cap acity o f th e s ta tio n was 754 kw., o f w hich 19*2
kw. w ere fo r in c a n d e s c e n t lam p s. P e arl S tre e t h a d u se d 5 4 0 kw. fo r incand e sc e n ts in 1882. In th e case o f M a rk g ra fen stras.se, h o w e v e r, th e r e w ere
tw elve 41-kw . in c a n d e s c e n i-la m p g e n e ra to rs in ste a d o f six 90-kw . J u m b o s
as in sta lle d at P e a rl S tre e t. T h e G e r m a n c o m p a n y also u sed sin g le ste am
e n g in e s lo b e lt-d riv e tw o in c a n d e s c e n l-la m p g e n e r a to r s a n d o n e 27-kw . a n la m p g e n e r a to r in ste a d o f o n e e n g in e fo r o n e g e n e r a to r as at P e arl S tre e t.
C u r r e n t was d is trib u te d at 100 volts by a tw o -w ire n e tw o rk .'19 (See Figs.
I I I .1 4 - I I I .1 6 .) B e c a u se o f th e use o f th e basic E d iso n d e sig n a n d bec au se
o f th e rela tiv ely sm all size o f th e m a c h in e s, th e G e rm a n s ta tio n was not a
b old te c h n ic a l v e n tu r e . In 1886 th e c o m p a n y o p e n e d a n o th e r s ta tio n at 80
M a u e rstra sse , b u t its ca p a c ity o f 285 kw. was sm a lle r th a n th a t o f its p r e d
ecesso r.
T h e in c a n d e s c e n t-lig h tin g lo a d c a r rie d by th e tw o c e n tra l sta tio n s in th e
h e a r t o f B e rlin c o n s titu te d lu x u ry lig h tin g . In 1886 th e larg e st p e rc e n ta g e
o f t h e lo a d w as f o r th e a te r s " (24 p e rc e n t), follow ed by b an k s (20 p e rc e n t),
e a tin g a n d d r in k in g e s ta b lis h m e n ts (20 p e rc e n t), sh o p s (17 p e rc e n t), h otels
a n d g u e s th o u s e s (8 p e rc e n t), s tre e t lig h tin g fo r th e city (7.5 p e rc e n t), in
d u s try a n d tr a d e (2 p e rc e n t) , re sid e n c e s (1 p e rc e n t), a n d m isc ella n eo u s (.5
p e r c e n t) .100 As in N ew Y ork a n d L o n d o n , e lectric lig h tin g in B erlin was
n o t fo r th e p o o r.
G e rm a n E d iso n a n d StE W b e g a n tra in in g te ch n ica l s ta f f a n d re ly in g less
th a n at th e s ta r t o n fo re ig n E d iso n m e n a n d in fo rm a tio n fro m a b ro a d . In
1884, b e f o r e e ith e r o f t h e G e rm a n c e n tra l s ta tio n s was c o m p le te d , W illiam
H a m m e r le ft B e rlin . H e h a d h a d se rio u s d is a g re e m e n ts w ith R a lh e n a u
a b o u t c e rta in E n g lis h m e n , b u t th e a n tip a th y see m s to h av e b e e n d e e p
a n d n o t localized lo a p a rtic u la r e p iso d e . In e x p la in in g his d e p a r tu r e to
T h o m a s E d iso n , in w h o se g o o d g ra c e s h e w ished to re m a in a n d to w hom
h e h a d e x p la in e d e a r lie r m is u n d e r s ta n d in g s w ith th e E nglish c o m p a n y .
H a m m e r b e s m irc h e d th e re p u ta tio n o f K a th e n a u . R e fe rrin g to him as th a t
Je w Em il R a th e n a u , a m a n u tte rly u n lit to be at th e h e a d o f an y o r g a n i
z a tio n ," H a m m e r r e p o r te d th a t b ec au se o f n u m e r o u s past tra n sa c tio n s
R a lh e n a u b o re a n y th in g b u t a g o o d n a m e in B erlin. I la m m c r belie v ed th a t,
07 Malsclioss cl al.. 50 Jahre, p. 100.
"Jones. History o f the Consolidated Edison System, p. 203.
w Matsclioss ct al., 50 Jahre, pp. 101, 104, 138, 140. 172, 192. 209.
10,1 A rth u r Wilke. Die Berliner Elektriiiliits-Wrrke (Berlin, IH90).

74

N E T W O R K S O F R O W 15It

'
K

Figure H I.15. The Markgrafenstrasse central

station: Stages o f expansion, 1885 and 1888. From
Matschoss et al., 50 Ja h re , p. 101.

Figure III.14. Interior of the Markgrafenstrasse central station. 1887.

From Matschoss et al., 50 J a h re , p. 104.

FHur,Out

1. 1.

cmny

75

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SF E R
a m o n g o th e r u n f o r tu n a te c h a ra c te ristic s, R a th e n a u h a r b o r e d p re ju d ic e
a g a in st f o re ig n e r s (a c h a ra c te ristic ob v io u sly s h a r e d by H a m m e r). T o f u r
t h e r ju s tify his o w n d iffic u ltie s, H a m m e r listed fo r E d iso n o th e r e m p lo y e e s
w h o h a d re c e n tly le ft G e r m a n E d iso n b e c a u se o f R a th e n a u .101
As th e g ro w in g p a in s o f R a th e n a u 's e n te r p r is e a tte n u a te d , th e G e rm a n s
b e c a m e in c re a sin g ly restless w ith th e lies th a t b o u n d th e m to th e E d iso n
c o m p a n y in P aris a n d w ith th e S ie m e n s c o m p a n y in B e rlin . T h e tec h n o lo g y
h a d b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d a n d a d a p te d a n d th e G e rm a n s w e re re a d y to d e v e lo p
th e ir o w n style. A le tte r sig n e d by b o th R a th e n a u a n d O s k a r v on M iller,
b u t p ro b a b ly w ritte n by v on M iller, w h o se g o o d n a tu r e a n d d ip lo m a tic skills
w e re le g e n d a ry , in f o r m e d E d iso n o f th e success o f G e r m a n E d iso n d u r in g
its first tw o y e ars o f o p e r a tio n . H a v in g in sta lle d 4 2 ,0 0 0 in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s,
n o t in c lu d in g th o s e o f its lice n see s, th e G e r m a n c o m p a n y h a d d o n e m o re
b u sin e ss in E u r o p e th a n an y o th e r E u ro p e a n E d iso n c o m p a n y a n d m o re
th a n th e E d iso n c o m p a n ie s in th e U n ite d S ta tes, c o n s id e r in g th e s h o r te r
tim e it h a d b e e n in e x iste n c e . E d iso n w as to ld h e s h o u ld d r o p his p re ju d ic e s
a g a in st h is E u r o p e a n asso c iates, fo r th e G e rm a n s w o u ld g lo rify " his n a m e
a n d h o n o r his in v e n tio n s .102 T h e g lo ry m ig h t b e sh o rt-liv e d , h o w ev er.
E d is o n s ow n so u rc e s w a r n e d o f a n im p e n d in g sta le m a te a n d possib le r u p
tu r e b e tw e e n th e G e rm a n c o m p a n y a n d th e E d iso n c o m p a n y in Paris. T h e
Paris C o m p a n y w as in p o o r c o n d itio n , a n d its c o n tr a c tu a l links w ith G e r m a n
E d iso n f r u s tr a te d th e in n o v a tio n s o f th e la tte r c o m p a n y . U n le ss s tr o n g a n d
re s o u rc e fu l m e a s u re s w e re so o n ta k e n , E d iso n w o u ld lose n o t o n ly in c o m e
fro m th e P aris c o m p a n y b u t h is in c o m e fro m G e r m a n y as w ell. A s tr o n g
e n tr e p r e n e u r w as n e e d e d to c larify a n d r e o r g a n iz e th e E d iso n e n te rp ris e s
in E u r o p e .103
H e n r y V illard (1 8 3 5 -1 9 0 0 ) p ro m is e d to d o this a n d m u c h m o r e fo r
E d iso n . V illa rd , w h o w as b o r n in R h e n ish B av a ria o f a n u p p e r-m id d le -c la ss
fam ily ( H ilg a rd ), e m ig ra te d to A m e ric a in 1853. T h e r e h e a c h ie v e d re c
o g n itio n as a c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r th e New York Tribune d u r in g th e Civil W a r
a n d m a r r ie d F a n n y G a rris o n , d a u g h te r o f W illiam L loyd G a rris o n , th e
ab o litio n ist. D ra w in g o n his e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l skills, his frie n d s h ip w ith J .
P ie rp o n t M o rg a n , a n d his g o o d fin a n cial c o n n e c tio n s in G e rm a n y , V illard
o r g a n iz e d a ra ilw ay e m p ir e in th e U .S. N o rth w e st, se rv in g as p re s id e n t o f
th e N o r th e r n Pacific R a ilro a d (w ith M o rg a n 's b ac k in g ) fro m 1881 to 1884.
D u rin g th e se e v e n tfu l y e ars, h e also p u rc h a s e d c o n tr o llin g in te r e s t in (lie
N ew York E v en in g Post (1881) a n d to o k a n active ro le in th e a ffa irs o f th e
E d iso n E lec tric I llu m in a tin g C o m p a n y o f N ew Y ork w hile th e P earl S tre e t
s ta tio n w as b e in g b u ilt. H e w as a d ir e c to r o f th e E E IC f o r alm o st a d e c a d e ,
a n d h e also se rv e d o n th e b o a rd o f th e E d iso n E lectric L ig h t C o m p a n y
d u r in g its e a rly yea rs. D u rin g th e d e p re s s io n o f 1 8 8 3 -8 8 , h o w ev e r, th e
fin an c ia l e x ig e n c ie s o f th e N o r th e r n Pacific R a ilro a d fo rc e d h im to re sig n
fro m th a t c o m p a n y a n d h e r e tu r n e d to G e rm a n y , w h e re h e re n e w e d his
asso ciatio n w ith G e rm a n b a n k in g h o uses.
V illard first d isc u sse d his p lan s fo r re o rg a n iz in g th e E d iso n e n te rp ris e s
101 H am m er lo Edison, 16 Ju n e 1884, EA.
,u,', E. R athenau and O. von Miller lo Edison, 29 Ju n e 1885, EA.
Il Francis R. U plon (in Berlin) lo Edison, 3 Ju n e 1886, and Upton to Samuel Insull, 7
Ju n e 1886, EA.

70

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

Figure 111.17. Deutsche Eduon

GeselLschaft administration building,
Markgraferulrasse 44 (middle building).
Note stack fo r central station in the rear.
From Matschoss et at., 50 Ja lire, p. 14.

in E u r o p e w ith F ra n c is U p to n , E d is o n s a s sista n t a t M e n lo P a rk , w h o h a d
b e c o m e h e a d o f la m p m a n u f a c tu r e in th e U n ite d S ta le s. U p to n , w h o was
lo u r in g E u r o p e in 1886, w as p e r s u a d e d th a t V illa rd h a d th e re s o u rc e s , th e
in te llig e n c e , a n d th e e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l ab ility to a c h ie v e h is o b jec tiv es. T h e s e
o b jec tiv es w e re to ra ise m o n e y in G e rm a n y to s tim u la te c e n tra l-s ta iio n
c o n s tr u c tio n in E u r o p e a n d in th e U n ite d S la te s, to re so lv e th e d iffe re n c e s
b e tw e e n G e r m a n E d iso n a n d th e P a ris c o m p a n y , a n d to n e g o tia te a new
re la tio n sh ip be tw ee n G e rm a n E d iso n a n d S ie m e n s & H alsk e. H e also w anted
to s tim u la te th e c e n tra l-s la lio n b u sin e ss o f G e r m a n E d is o n , p o ssibly by
r e o r g a n iz in g th a t c o m p a n y .'" '1 A m o n g o th e r r e s u lts p ro m is e d w as a su b
sta n tia l in c re a s e in th e r e tu r n s to T h o m a s E d iso n a n d th e E d iso n E lectric
L ig h t C o m p a n y o f E u ro p e .
V illa rd r e tu r n e d to th e U n ite d S ta le s in 1886, b u t th e p la n h e h a d p ut
in to m o tio n b o r e fr u it. In M ay 1887 th e G e r m a n E d iso n C o m p a n y was
re o rg a n iz e d a n d to o k th e new n a m e A llg e m e in c E le k triz iia is-G e se llsc h a fl
(G e n e ra l E le ctric C o m p a n y ) ; th c c o n tr a c t o f G e r m a n E d iso n w ith C om p a g n ie c o n tin c n ta le E d iso n w as a b r o g a te d a f te r s u b s ta n tia l p a y m e n t was
m a d e to th e P aris c o m p a n y ; th c c o n tra c tu a l a r r a n g e m e n t w ith S ie m e n s Sc
H a lsk e w as re v is e d ; a n d th e c a p ita l o f A llg e m e in e E le k triz ita ts-G e se llsc h a fl
(A E G ) w as ra is e d fro m liv e m illio n to tw elve m illio n m a rk s to p ro v id e for
e x p a n s io n o f th e tw o B e rlin c e n tr a l s ta tio n s a n d th e b u ild in g o f tw o a d
d itio n a l s ta tio n s in th e city. T h e A E G to o k o v e r m a n a g e m e n t o f th e Stadtisch e E le k lriz ita ts -W e rk c B e rlin a n d c h a n g e d its n a m e to B e r lin e r E lektric ita ts -W e rk c (B E W ) (see p p . 183 IT. b elow fo r th e c o m p a n y s s u b s e q u e n t
h isto ry ). T h o m a s E d iso n w as n o t e n tire ly p le a se d w ith th e s e c h a n g e s , how -

TECHNOLOGY T R A N SFE R
ev er. A E G was n o lo n g e r a n " E d iso n " co m p a n y , a n d th e new c o m p a n ie s
d id n o t e v en c a rry his n a m e .105
F ro m th e p e rsp e c tiv e o f te c h n o lo g y tra n s fe r, th e in itiativ e ta k e n by AFC.
a n d B E W to d e v e lo p th e ir o w n d istin c tiv e style o f c c n tra l-s ta tio n tech n o lo g y
is o f p a r tic u la r in te re s t. In d ic a tiv e o f th is e m e rg in g tr e n d was th e d e sig n
o f th e e x te n s io n o f th e M a rk g ra fe n s tra s s e s ta tio n in 1888 a n d th e o p e n in g
o f th e first o f th e new c e n tr a l s ta tio n s at S p a n d a u e rstra s.se 49 in th e fall ol
1889. T h e M a rk g r a f e n s tr a s s e e x te n s io n h a d d ire ctly c o u p le d ste a m e n g in e s
a n d g e n e ra to r s , a n d th e S p a n d a u c rs tra s s e sta tio n h a d u n p re c e d e n ie d lv
la rg e g e n e r a to r s d r iv e n by 1 ,0 0 0 -h .p ., slo w -ru n n in g ste am e n g in e s d ire c ily
co u p le d to specially d e sig n ed m u ltip o la r g e n e ra to rs built by S iem ens. T h o m a s
E d iso n d is a p p r o v e d o f su c h la rg e u n its, p re f e r r in g , in th e face o f e rra tic
loads, th e flex ib ility o f f e r e d by sm a lle r o n e s. E d ison also u se d h ig h -sp e e d
ste a m e n g in e s th a t w e re b e lt-c o u p le d to g e n e ra to rs . T h e ste a m e n g in e s for
S p a n d a u e rs tra s s e a n d fo r th e s ta tio n th a t w o u ld o p e n a t S c h if fb a u e r d a m m
in 1890 w e re o r d e r e d fro m th e B e lg ian fa cto ry van d e r K e rk h o v e n .100 Jo h n
B eggs, v ic e -p re sid e n t o f th e E d iso n Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y in N ew Y ork,
d e s c rib e d th e G e rm a n e n g in e s as a n a d v a n c e u n m a tc h e d in th e U n ite d
S tates. E d iso n view ed th e m w ith ske p ticism d u r in g his visit to B e rlin in
1 8 8 9 .107
V illa rd 's in v o lv e m e n t w ith e le ctric al a ffa irs was by n o m e a n s at a n e n d .
H e r e tu r n e d to th e U n ite d S tates in 1886 w ith a c o m m issio n fro m th e
D e u tsc h e B a n k to n e g o tia te w ith D re x e l, M o rg a n a n d C o m p a n y a b o u t th e
in v e stm e n t o f G e rm a n m o n e y in A m e ric a n e n te r p ris e s , in c lu d in g ele ctrical
c o m p a n ie s. In 1889 V illa rd to o k th e le ad in re o rg a n iz in g th e E d ison e n
te r p r is e s in th e U n ite d S tates in to a new c o m p a n y n a m e d d ie E d ison G e n
e ra l E le ctric C o m p a n y . It in c lu d e d th e o ld E d iso n E lectric L ight C o m p a n y .
E d iso n L a m p C o m p a n y , E d iso n M a ch in e C o m p a n y , B e rg m a n n a n d C o m
p a n y , a n d th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f o th e r c o m p o n e n ts . M o re th a n h a lf o f th e
ca p ita l o f E d iso n G e n e r a l E lectric was f u rn is h e d by G e rm a n b a n k s a n d
o th e r G e rm a n s o u r c e s .108 V illard th e n p ro c e e d e d to la k e a n active p a rt in
p ro m o tin g th e m e r g e r o f E d iso n G e n e ra l E le ctric a n d th e T h o m s o n -H o u s
to n E le ctrical M a n u fa c tu rin g C o m p a n y to fo rm th e G e n e ra l E lectric C o m
p a n y , a m e r g e r th a t w as s p o n s o re d in p a r t by D re x el, M o rg a n a n d C o m
p a n y . A g a in , E d iso n w as n o t p le a se d to see his n a m e e lim in a te d .
T h e E d iso n style w as ind elib ly im p re sse d u p o n th e h isto ry o f e lectrical
m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d s u p p ly in G e rm a n y a n d th e U n ite d S tates, how ev e r.
O n ly in E n g la n d d id th e te c h n o lo g y tr a n s f e r fail. T h e m ost p e n e tra tin g
e x p la n a tio n f o r th e fa ilu re in L o n d o n a n d th e success in B e rlin is n e ith e r
tech n o lo g ic al n o r e co n o m ic; it is political. T h e c o m p a ra tiv e p ric e o f illu
m in a tin g gas a n d elec tric lig h tin g se em s lo h av e b e e n a b o u t th e sa m e in
nl*A llgcmcinc Elcktrm iais-Gcsellschafl lo Edison, 19 February 1889. EA.
I0n Felix Pinner. Emil Ruthenau und das elektrische Zeitalter (I.eip/ig: Akadeniisrlie Verlag.
1918). p. M l.
W. von Miller. Oskar von Millrr. p. 52: comments o t Jo h n Heggs quoted in Jones, History
of the Consolidated Edison System, pp. 330-33.
" " H enry Villard, Memoirs of Henry Villard: Journalist and Financier, 2 vols. (boston H ough
ton MilTlin. 1904), 2: 320-26. See also Villard lo Charles CoFTin, 11 March 1889 (129-60-61)
and 3 April 1889 (130-62-3). H oughton Library. H arvard University, Cam bridge. Mass ; the
n um bers in parentheses refer lo box. folder, and letter num ber, respectively.

78

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

b o th cities, a n d f in a n c in g w as av ailab le in L o n d o n u n til a c o m b in a tio n o f
sp e c u la tio n a n d re stric tiv e laws d a m p e n e d in v e sto rs' e n th u s ia s m . O n th e
o th e r h a n d , in th e re a lm o f politica l p o w e r, th e s itu a tio n s in th e tw o cities
w e re d if f e r e n t. R a th e n a u a n d v on M iller, in a llia n c e w ith th e in v e stm e n t
ba n k s a n d in d u s tria l in te re s ts (S ie m e n s), h a d s u ffic ie n t p o w e r to p e rs u a d e
th e local g o v e rn m e n t to c le a r th e w ay f o r th e ir e le c tric a l v e n tu r e s . In L o n
d o n , th e a llian c e o f a r is to c ra tic m o n e y a n d in flu e n c e , sc ie n tific e m in e n c e ,
a n d te c h n ic a l c o m p e te n c e c o n te n d e d w ith a h o st o f c o n flic tin g in te re s ts in
P a rlia m e n t. T h e re s u lt w as c o n f u s io n , c o n tra d ic tio n , a n d p a rlia m e n ta ry
c o n s tra in t. T h e n e x t d e c a d e re v e a le d ev e n m o r e c le a rly th e p rim a c y o f
politics in B rita in a n d a c o h e r e n t p o litic al e c o n o m y in in d u s tr ia l G e rm a n y .

CHAPTER

IV

Reverse Salients and

Critical Problems

a v i n g e x p lo r e d th e n a tu r e o f th e in v e n tio n , d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d tr a n s
f e r o f E d iso n 's d ir e c t- c u r r e n t system , we now tu r n to th e e n d e a v o r
o f in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e r s to m a in ta in th e m o m e n tu m by so lv in g th e critical
p ro b le m s th a t f r u s tr a te d g ro w th o f th e system . " E v o lu tio n " is a n a p t m e ta
p h o r fo r a n ele c tric s u p p ly sy stem like E d iso n 's b eca u se in te rn a l forces
a lo n e d id n o t d ire c t its g ro w th ; th e system g rew w ith in a co n te x t o f g e o
g ra p h ic a l, e c o n o m ic , p o litical, a n d o rg a n iz a tio n a l fac to rs. T h is c h a p te r will
focus o n th e in v e n tio n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n ts th a t allo w ed a n d p ro m o te d th e
e v o lu tio n o f th e E d iso n sy stem w ith in th is c o n te x t. G ro w th w as n ot fo r e
o r d a in e d ; it was u su a lly p r o m o te d . S p ecial n o te will be ta k e n o f th e process
by w hich a new sy stem e m e r g e d as a re su lt o f th e fa ilu re to solve a m ajo r
p ro b le m in th e o ld sy stem . A t th e e n d o f th is pro ce ss, th e old a n d new
sy ste m s e x iste d fo r a tim e in a r e la tio n s h ip o f d iale ctica l te n sio n , a stru g g le
c alled th e b a ttle o f th e sy stem s."
S ev e ral te r m s th a t will be u se d in d isc u ssin g evolving system s n e e d f u r th e r
d e fin itio n . T h e first is re v e rse s a lie n t." T h e te rm is c u sto m a rily u se d to
id e n tify th a t se ctio n o f an a d v a n c in g b a ttle line, o r m ilita ry f ro n t, w hich is
c o n tin u o u s w ith o th e r sectio n s o f th e f ro n t, b ut w hich has fallen b e h in d
o r b e e n b o w ed b ack. R ev e rse sa lie n t" b e ca m e a h o u se h o ld ex p re ssio n
d u r in g W o rld W a r I b ec au se o f th e p ro tra c te d s tru g g le o f th e G e rm a n s to
e lim in a te th e re v e rse salie n t alo n g th e w estern fro n t at V e rd u n . This c o n
c e p t is p re fe ra b le to d ise q u ilib riu m " o r b o ttle n e c k ," w hich so m e e c o n o
m ists a n d e c o n o m ic h isto ria n s use. b e ca u se th e c o n c e p t o f a re v e rse salient
r e f e r s to a n e x tre m e ly c o m p le x situ a tio n in w hich in d iv id u a ls, g ro u p s ,
m a te ria l fo rc es, histo ric al in flu e n c e s, a n d o th e r fac to rs hav e id io sy n c ratic,
ca u sal ro les, a n d in w hich acc id e n ts as well as tre n d s play a p a rt. "D ise
q u ilib riu m " su g g e sts a rela tiv ely s tra ig h t fo rw a rd a b stra c tio n o f physic al
science, a n d b o ttle n e c k " is g e o m e trically loo sy m m etric al.
T h e id ea o f a re v e rse salie n t su g g ests th e n e e d for co n ce n t ra te d ac tion
(in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t) if e x p a n sio n is to p ro c e e d . A re v e rse salient
a p p e a rs in an e x p a n d in g system w hen a c o m p o n e n t o f th e system d o es not
m a rc h a lo n g h a rm o n io u sly w ith o th e r c o m p o n e n ts. As th e system evolves
to w a rd a goal, so m e c o m p o n e n ts Tall b e h in d o r o ut o f line. As a re su lt o f
th e re verse salient, g row th o f th e e n tire e n te rp rise is h a m |x r c d , o r th w a rte d ,

70

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

a n d t h u s r e m e d ia l a c tio n is r e q u i r e d . T h e r e v e r s e s a lie n t u s u a lly a p p e a r s
as a r e s u lt o f a c c id e n ts a n d c o n f lu e n c e s t h a t p e r s o n s p r e s i d i n g o v e r o r
m a n a g in g th e s y s te m d o n o t f o r e s e e , o r , if t h e y d o fo r e s e e t h e m , a r e u n a b le
t o c o u n t e r e x p e d itio u s ly . T h e c a u s e s o f th e la g c a n a r is e f r o m w ith in th e
s y s te m ; f r o m its e n v i r o n m e n t , o r c o n te x t; o r f r o m s o m e c o m p le x c o m b i
n a tio n th e r e o f . T h e r e v e r s e s a lie n t w ill n o t b e s e e n , h o w e v e r , u n le s s in
v e n to r s , e n g in e e r s , a n d o t h e r s view th e te c h n o lo g y a s a g o a l- s e e k in g sy ste m .
A n e v o lv in g s y s te m m o v e s in a n y g iv e n d ir e c tio n f o r c o m p le x re a s o n s .
T h e f a c to r s t h a t c a u s e s o m e c o m p o n e n ts to fall b e h in d o r o u t o f lin e v a ry
a c c o r d in g to tim e a n d p la c e , as th e e p is o d e s in th is s tu d y s h o w . M o v e m e n t
o f te n r e s u lts w h e n th o s e w h o a r e p r e s id in g o v e r th e s y s te m w a n t g r o w th
to e x te n d th e ir a u th o r ity . O n o t h e r o c c a s io n s g r o w th im p r o v e s th e e c o n o m y
o f th e sy ste m . E c o n o m y a n d e ff ic ie n c y th e firs t c h e r is h e d by m a n a g e r s ;
th e s e c o n d , e sp e c ia lly by e n g in e e r s a lso g iv e d ir e c tio n to th e m o v e m e n t
o f a sy ste m . A s n o te d , a n a ly s is o f a g r o w in g s y s te m o f te n r e v e a ls th e in
e ffic ie n t a n d u n e c o n o m ic a l c o m p o n e n ts , o r re v e r s e s a lie n ts .
I n n u m e r a b l e ( p r o b a b ly m o st) in v e n tio n s a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts
r e s u lt f r o m e f f o r ts to c o r r e c t r e v e r s e s a lie n ts . O u t s t a n d i n g in v e n tio n s a n d
d e v e lo p m e n ts in e le c tr ic lig h tin g a n d p o w e r d u r i n g th e tw o d e c a d e s a f te r
1880 w e re re s p o n s e s to r e v e r s e sa lie n ts. I n d e p e n d e n t in v e n to r s a n d la te r,
in v e n to r s a n d in d u s tr ia l sc ie n tists h ir e d by b u s in e s s e n t e r p r i s e s a p p lie d
th e m s e lv e s to s o lv in g th e p r o b le m s i n h e r e n t in r e v e r s e s a lie n ts . T h e y a p
p r o a c h e d th e c h a lle n g e as in v e n to r s a n d e n g in e e r s u s u a lly d o by d e f in in g
th e r e v e r s e s a lie n t as a se t o f " c ritic a l p r o b le m s , p r o b le m s w h o s e s o lu tio n
w o u ld b r in g th e sy ste m b a c k in to lin e i.e ., c o r r e c t th e r e v e r s e sa lie n t.
O u ts ta n d in g in v e n to rs , e n g in e e r s , a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r s u s u a lly h a v e a re c o rd
o f d e f in in g a n d so lv in g su c h p r o b le m s .'
H o w d id th e sy ste m b u ild e r s o f th e 18 8 0 s id e n tif y c ritic a l p ro b le m s ? As
o b s e rv e d in th e ca se o f E d is o n , a p e r s o n c o n c e p tu a liz in g a te c h n o lo g y
s y s te m a tic a lly o r h o listic a lly o f te n r e c o g n iz e d in a d e q u a c ie s in th e p a tte r n s
fo r m e d by th e s y ste m 's c o m p o n e n ts a n d n e tw o rk s . T h o s e w h o d id n o t
o b s e rv e sy ste m g r o w th f ir s th a n d s u rv e y e d th e p u b lic a tio n s o f o th e r s w ho
d id . P r o fe s s io n a ls k n e w th a t th e c o m p e titio n c o n g r e g a te d a t r e v e rs e salien ts
a n d c ritic a l-p ro b le m sites. A m a jo r re a s o n f o r th e s im u lta n e ity o f in v e n tio n ,
o r th e s im u lta n e o u s s o lu tio n o f c ritic a l p r o b le m s , w as th a t in v e n to r s in
fe r r e d f ro m th e ir fa m ilia rity w ith th e s la te o f t h e a r t th e site s, fig u ra tiv e
a n d lite r a l, o f c r itic a l-p r o b le m -s o lv in g activ ity a n d th e n a t u r e o f th e p r o b
le m s. T h e r e p e a te d c lu s te r in g o f p a te n ts f r o m d i f f e r e n t in v e n to r s w ith in
c o m m o n su b je c t c a te g o r ie s w as o n e in d ic a tio n o f th e c o lle c tiv e fo cu s. O th e r
in v e n to rs ' p a te n t a p p lic a tio n s , as r e c o r d e d r e g u la r ly in te c h n ic a l j o u r n a ls ,
w e re esp e c ia lly r e v e a lin g .2

1 F.lmer A m brose Sperry (1860-1930) was a rem arkably ad ep t solver o r critical problem s.
Mis record includes almost 250 patents, and tbesc, w h eth er actually used o r not, w ere solutions
to critical problem s, some relatively trivial, some o f m ajor im portance. See T h o m a s P. H ughes.
Elmer Sperry, Inventor and Engineer (Baltimore'. T h e )ohns H opkins Press. 1971) esn pp 6470.
* Scholars in various Helds have attacked the problem ol sim ultaneity o f invention Sec
for instance, a recent essay by A rth u r P. H arriso n . Jr.. "Single-Control T uning- An Analysb
o f an Innovation." Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 31 4 -1 5: a nd an earlier and often-cited

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R I T IC A L P R O B L E M S
I n v e n to rs like E d iso n also set o u t to in v e n t a n d d e v e lo p new system s.
S o m e tim e s a n d in th is c h a p te r su c h c irc u m sta n c e s will b e e n c o u n te r e d
th e y in v e n te d th e n u c le u s o f a new system w hile re s p o n d in g to a re v e rse
s a lie n t in a n e x istin g o n e . T h e s o lu tio n to th e critical p r o b le m , in o th e r
w o rd s, w o u ld n o t h a r m o n iz e w ith th e e x istin g sy ste m s c o m p o n e n ts , so th e
in v e n to r w e n t o n to in v e n t o r u se o th e r c o m p o n e n ts th a t d id h a r m o n iz e
w ith his new ly in v e n te d c o m p o n e n t.
T h e e le c tric sy stem in tr o d u c e d by E d iso n a n d his asso cia te s at th e P earl
S tre e t sta tio n in 1882 was a d ire c t-c u rre n t, lim ile d -a re a -o f-d is trib u iio n sys
te m . It s u ite d h eavily p o p u la te d u r b a n a re a s, b u t th r o u g h a d a p ta tio n s it
c o n tin u e d lo evolve in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . B ec au se it w as a lo se r in
h isto ry , h o w e v e r, giv in g way o v e r a p e rio d o f d e c a d e s to th e p o ly p h a se ,
u n iv e rsa l sy ste m , m o st re m in isc in g e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e r s a n d m o st h is
to ria n s h av e te n d e d to ig n o re th e ste a d y im p ro v e m e n ts th a t w ere m a d e in
it a n d to fo cu s in s te a d u p o n th e d r a m a tic rise o f th e v icto rio u s c u r r e n t in
" th e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s. S u c h bias o b sc u re s th e fact th a t as la te as th e
first d e c a d e o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , so m e le a d in g e n g in e e r s still a rg u e d
th a t d ire c t c u r r e n t w as b e tte r f o r th e city th a n th e p o ly p h a se system w h e n
m e a s u re d a g a in s t c o n v e n tio n a l y ard stic k s o f p ro fita b ility , re liability, a n d
efficien c y .
T h e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t s ystem is a n e x c e lle n t e x a m p le o f a s y stem th a t e v o lved
su ccessfu lly , u p to a p o in t. R e v erse sa lie n ts w e re d e fin e d as c ritical p r o b
lem s, a n d w ith a n e x c e p tio n o f su rp a s s in g im p o rta n c e th e h ig h cost o f
tra n s m is s io n th e y w e re so lved. T h e r e w e re m an y c a te g o rie s o f im p ro v e
m e n ts. E d iso n a n d U p to n in c re a se d th e efficien c y o f th e d .c. g e n e ra to r,
a n d h u n d r e d s o f in v e n to rs su b se q u e n tly im p ro v e d o n th e ir w o rk . M ag n etic
fields w e re w o u n d fo r h ig h e r efficien c y , th e te n d e n c y o f a r m a tu r e s to h ea t
u p w as r e d u c e d , s p a rk in g b r u s h e s w ere d a m p e n e d , flu c tu a tio n s in o u tp u t
u n d e r c h a n g in g lo a d w e re re g u la r iz e d , a n d th e tr a n s f e r o f e n e r g y o f th e
m a g n e tic field to th e a r m a tu r e was im p ro v e d . C o u n tle ss p a te n ts in th e
in d u s tr ia l c o u n trie s a r e e v id e n c e o f th e e ffo rts th a t w ere m a d e to solve
th e se critical p ro b le m s.
In G e rm a n y , F rie d ric h v on H e fn e r-A lte n e c k (1 8 4 5 -1 9 0 4 ), a n associate
o f W e r n e r v o n S ie m e n s s a n d a p io n e e r in th e d e sig n o f a rc -lig h t system s,
le a rn e d th a t c e n tra l-s ta tio n o p e ra to r s like Em il R a lh e n a u w e re d issatisfied
w ith th e b e lt-d riv e n , s m a ll-o u tp u t, h ig h -sp e e d g e n e r a to r s b u ilt by S iem e n s
Be H a lsk e , a n E d iso n licensee. I n 1886, w o rk in g w ith K arl H o ff m a n n , H efn e r-A lte n e c k th e n d e v e lo p e d a la rg e , slo w -sp ee d , in te rn a l-p o le g e n e ra to r
s u ite d fo r d ire c t c o u p lin g to a n e ffic ie n t slo w -speed ste am e n g in e .3 R ookes
E. B. C r o m p to n (18451940), a n E n g lish elec tric al in v e n to r a n d e n g in e e r,
in tro d u c e d in E n g la n d a d ire c tly c o u p le d g e n e r a to r th a t was m a tc h e d to

article by Robert K. M erlon, "Singletons and Multiples in Science," in M erton's The Sociology
of Science, ed. N orm an W. Storer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1973), pp. 843-82.
For an analysis o f the phenom enon in science, see Thom as S. Kuhn, "Energy Conservation
as an Exam ple o r Sim ultaneous Discovery," in Critical Problems in the History of Science, ed.
Marshall Clagcll (Madison. Wis.: University o f Wisconsin Press. 1959), pp. 321-56.
G eorg von Siemens, History of the House of Siemens, trans. A. F. Rodger. 2 vols. (Freiburg/
Munich: Albcr. 1957). I: 96-98.

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

th e B ritish h ig h - s p e e d W illan s e n g in e .4 T o in c re a se g e n e r a to r capacity,

in v e n to rs a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s , su c h as th e G e r m a n firm s H e lio s a n d C. &
E. F e in , in c re a se d th e n u m b e r o f fie ld po les. In th e eig h tie s, W ilhelm
L a h m e y e r, a G e rm a n in v e n to r a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r , in tr o d u c e d g e n e ra to rs
th a t w ere d e s ig n e d lo r e d u c e m a g n e tic a n d e le c tric a l losses. T h e firm o f
P o g e in G e r m a n y in tr o d u c e d c a r b o n b r u s h e s to la k e th e c u r r e n t fro m th e
c o m m u ta to r .5 C a rb o n b r u s h e s , like m a n y o f th e o th e r im p ro v e m e n ts m a d e
in th e sy stem , w e re in tr o d u c e d at a b o u t th e s a m e lim e in th e U n ite d States,
th e U n ite d K in g d o m , a n d o th e r in d u s tria l c o u n trie s .
W h e n im p ro v e m e n ts re d u c e d th e costs o f g e n e r a tin g ele c tric ity , e n g i
n e e rs a n d m a n a g e r s th e n s o u g h t to a c h ie v e a m o to r lo a d th a t w o u ld c o m
p e te w ith s te a m a n d gas e n g in e s . Im p ro v e m e n ts in d .c. e le c tric - m o to r d e
sign th e n beca m e a crilica l-p ro b lem s category. In v e n to rs m a d e im p ro v em en ts
in m o to rs th a t w e re s u ite d f o r a p a rtic u la r ty p e o f m e c h a n ic a l lo a d . M o to rs
fo r stre e tc a rs h a d lo slo p a n d a c c e le ra te o f te n a n d h a d to ta k e th e ab u se
o f p o o rly laid rails a n d th e s tra in o f f r e q u e n t tu r n s . M o to rs fo r ele v a to rs
h a d to r e s p o n d to e v e n m o r e f r e q u e n t a c c e le ra tio n s a n d n e e d e d to be
u n u s u a lly re lia b le to av o id s ta llin g a n d t r a p p in g p a s s e n g e rs . M o to rs for
sm all h o m e a p p lia n c e s su c h as fa n s a n d sew in g m a c h in e s h a d to b e d e sig n e d
to o p e r a te w ith o u t skilled m a in te n a n c e . E a rly m o d e ls o f th e s e a p p lia n c e s
w ere b a tte r y p o w e re d ; la te r th e y w ere d e s ig n e d f o r c o n n e c tio n to c e n tra ls ta tio n system s.
In th e U n ite d S tate s, th e y o u n g in v e n to r F r a n k J . S p r a g u e ( 1 8 5 7 -1 9 3 4 )
w on a r e p u ta tio n f o r th e ex c e lle n c e o f h is in v e n tio n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n ts
re la te d to th e p ro b le m s o f d .c. m o to rs. In 1884 h e e x h ib ite d his first m o to r;
tw o y e a rs la te r h e lo o k a 15-h .p . c e n tra l-s ta tio n m o to r o p e r a tin g a t 220
volts a n d in sta lle d il in a fre ig h t e le v a to r in B o sto n , M a s sa c h u se tts; in 1887
88, u s in g his m o to rs , h e c o n s tru c te d a p ra c tic a l s tr e e tc a r sy stem in R ich
m o n d , V irg in ia .6 H e a lso r e s p o n d e d to th e c o m p le x p ro b le m o f c o n tro ls
fo r th e e le v a to rs a n d c o u p le d e le c tric c a rs u se d in su b w a y s a n d elev ate d
tra n s p o r ta tio n sy tem s. H is c o n tro ls fo r th e la tte r w e re k n o w n a s th e m ultip le -u n it sy ste m . S p r a g u e is a s u p e r b e x a m p le o f a c r ilic a l-p ro b le m -so lv in g
in v e n to r a n d e n g in e e r w h o w as ob v io u sly in f o r m e d a b o u t re s e rv e salients.
S p ra g u e is re m e m b e r e d p rim a rily fo r his w o rk w ith la rg e m o to rs . O th e r
in v e n to r s fo u n d ways o f so lv in g th e p r o b le m s o f th e sm all m o to rs u se d in
h o m e a p p lia n c e s. In 1884, in th e U n ite d S la te s, P h ilip D iehl (1 8 4 7 -1 9 1 3 )
in v e n te d a v a ria b le -sp e e d d .c. m o to r f o r d e n ta l m a c h in e s, a n d la te r it was
a d a p te d fo r use o n sew in g m a c h in e s. In 1887 S c h u y le r S k a a ts W h e e le r
(1 8 6 0 1923), w h o is c r e d ite d w ith in v e n tin g th e e le c tric fa n , was, w ith
C h a rle s C u rtis a n d F ra n c is C ro c k e r, m a n u f a c tu r in g m o to r s d e s ig n e d to

Brian Bowers. II. E. B. Crompton (L ondon: Science M useum, 1969). p. 12; Percy Dui
shcalh, A History o f Electrical Power Engineering (Cam bridge, Mass.: M .I.T . Press. 1962). |
F" f im Prov^ i c m s in d.c. generators, see Georg D ellm ar. Die Entwicklung der Stcirkstron
technik in Deutschland (Berlin: KTZ Verlag 1940). pp. 3 6-60. D eltm ar is exceptional in h
attention lo the im provem ents m ade in the d r. system.
"
f prn.g ' ' C a,,d ,h c deVf|o pm eni o f in dustrial and traction m otors, see H arold C. Passei
n e Electrical Manufacturers. IH75 - / 900 (C am bridge. Mass.: H arvard U niversity Press. 1953
p p 2 3 7-40; on Ins construct,on o f the fam ous Richm ond streetcar system, see ibid.. pp. 242

83

R E V E R S E S A L IE N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
o p e r a te o n in c a n d e s c e n t- lig h t c irc u itr y .7 O th e r in v e n to rs a d d r e s s e d sim ila r
p r o b le m s in E u ro p e a n d th e U n ite d K in g d o m .8 F o llow ing E d iso n s a n d
S w a n s n e a rly s im u lta n e o u s in tro d u c tio n o f th e h ig h -re sista n c e fila m e n t,
c o u n tle ss in v e n to rs im p r o v e d u p o n its p e r fo rm a n c e , th u s lo w e rin g th e
initial a n d o p e r a tin g costs o f th e se lam p s. T h e lo n g a n d im p o r ta n t h isto ry
o f im p ro v e m e n ts in th e in c a n d e s c e n t la m p c a n n o t be c h ro n ic le d h e re , b u t
it s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e so lu tio n o f p ro b le m s re la te d to th is la m p was
esp e cially im p o r ta n t f o r th e g ro w th o f c e n ira l-s ia iio n sy stem s d u r in g th e
first d e c a d e a n d a h a lf o f th e ir h isto ry , w h en in c a n d e s c e n t-la m p lo a d was
m u c h g r e a te r th a n th e in d u s tria l p o w e r a n d tra c tio n lo a d o f m o st sy ste m s.*
In th e 1880s in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e r s stea d ily im p ro v e d th e g e n e ra to rs ,
m o to rs , a n d o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t sy stem . W ith o n e o u t
s ta n d in g e x c e p tio n , th e p r o b le m s o f th e system w e re b e in g so lv ed r e a s o n
ably well; th e e x c e p tio n w as th e h ig h cost o f d is tr ib u tio n , e sp e cially lo n g
d is ta n c e tra n sm issio n . E d iso n h a d id e n tifie d th e cost o f d is trib u tin g ele c
tricity by w ire o r c ab le as a m a jo r re v e rse sa lie n t in th e sy stem h e was
d e s ig n in g . D is trib u tio n costs c o n tin u e d to be a b o u t th e s a m e as g e n e ra tio n
costs a n d ro se p ro h ib itiv e ly h ig h e r in th e 1880s w h en th e ra d iu s o f d is tri
b u tio n f ro m a d .c. sta tio n was e x te n d e d m o re th a n a m ile. T h e m a jo rity
o f e n g in e e rs a n d sta tio n m a n a g e r s d id n o t believe th a t lo n g -d ista n c e tr a n s
m issio n " (as o p p o s e d to sh o rt-d is ta n c e d is trib u tio n ) o f d ire c t c u r r e n t was
fea sib le w ith o u t s to ra g e b a tte rie s.
In 1883 E d iso n re s p o n d e d , if n o t e n tire ly su ccessfully, by in tr o d u c in g
his th re e -w ire sy stem . T h e re v e rs e saliency o f d is tr ib u tio n costs fo r e le ctric
sy stem s is re fle c te d in th e n e a rly s im u lta n e o u s in v e n tio n o f th re e -w ire d is
trib u tio n by a t least th r e e in v e n to rs. T h e P e arl S tr e e t d is tr ib u tio n n e tw o rk
o f 1882 in c o r p o r a te d E d is o n s f e e d e r -a n d -m a in a r r a n g e m e n t, w hich re
d u c e d costs below w h a t was re q u ire d to ru n a sim p le tw o -w ire la y o u t. Yet
E d iso n a n d his asso cia te s re a liz e d th a t c e n tra l sta tio n s w o u ld n o t fin d a
m a rk e t u n le ss th e cost o f d is trib u tio n was f u r th e r re d u c e d . T h is w as e s
p ecially tr u e in less d e n se ly p o p u la te d d istric ts. E d iso n s official b io g ra p h e r
w rites th a t E d iso n , b e in g firm ly c o n v in c e d th a t th e r e w as a way o u t . . .
p u s h e d a sid e a m ass o f o th e r w o rk , a n d se ttle d d o w n to his p ro b le m . 10
S u re ly th is was a re v e rse sa lien t. O n 20 N o v e m b e r 1882, o n ly tw o m o n th s
a f te r th e P e arl S tre e t s ta tio n b e g a n o p e r a tin g o n a re g u la r basis, E d iso n
e x e c u te d a p a te n t ap p lic a tio n e n title d System o f E lectrical D is tr ib u tio n
(U .S . P a te n t no . 2 7 4 ,2 9 0 ) (see Fig. IV . 1). In th e tr a d e it c a m e to b e k n o w n
7 O n the m an u factu rers o f d.c. m otors in the 1880s. see Malcolm MacLaren, Tht Rise of the
Electrical Industry during the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943).
pp. 92-95.
"See D ctlm ar, Slarkstromtechnih, pp. 36-61; Dimslieath, History of Electrical Power Engineermg, pp. 182-87; anti E. J. H olm yard, A. R. Mall, anti T. I. Williams, etls., History o f Technology
(O xford: C larendon Press. 1958).
For developm ents in France, sec Robert Moi'sc and Maurice Daumas l.'Electricii ititlusiriclle." in llistoire genfrale des techniques, etl. M. Daumas cl al. (Paris: Presses Univcrsiiaircs.
1978), pp. 337-66.
T h e history o f incandescent lamps is given in detail in A rth u r A. Bright, Jr., The ElectricLamp Industry: Technological Change and Economic Development from 1800 lo 1947 (New York:
Macmillan. 1949). Bright includes the history o r British and E uropean developm ents.
lo Frank L. Dyer and T hom as C. M artin. Edison: His Life and Inventions, 3rd etl.. 2 vols.
(New York: H arp er Sc Bros.. 1930). I: 424.

H4

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

Figure IV .I. Drawingi from llopkinson's

patent for n llnee-whe distribution system

II. -P

\ ' i i

V ) .

as th e th re e - w ire sy stem , a n d it c o n tin u e s to b e u s e d f o r d is trib u tio n today.

T h e th re e -w ire a r r a n g e m e n t sav e d 6 0 p e r c e n t o f th e c o p p e r n e e d e d to
o p e r a te E d is o n s tw o-w ire, f e e d e r a n d m a in , n e tw o rk .
J o h n H o p k in s o n (1 8 4 9 -1 8 9 8 ), B ritish in v e n to r, e n g in e e r , a n d scientist,
p a te n te d a th re e - w ire system a few m o n th s e a r lie r ( B ritish P a te n t no . 3,576
d a te d 27 J u ly 1882). T h e p a te n t a p p lic a tio n p ro v id e s a lu c id d e s c rip tio n
o f th e in v e n tio n :
For the purpose o f econom ising die cost o f main conductors I place two dynam o
m achines in series and place two systems o f lamps o r o th er appliances
consum ing electricity o f approxim ately equal capacity also in a series. A main
conductor is taken from each extrem e pole o f the two dynam os to points
between the two systems o f lamps, the interm ediate c o nductor serving to bring
back to the central station any electricity required Tor one system o f lam ps in
excess o f that required by the oth er system o f lam ps."

Figure I V .2. John llopkmson. Courtesy

of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.

E d iso n s re p re s e n ta tiv e in L o n d o n , E. H . J o h n s o n , a sk e d th e y o u n g A m e r
ican na v al o ffic e r, F ra n k J . S p r a g u e , w h o w as th e n re v ie w in g th e C rystal
Palace e x h ib itio n o f 1882, to m a k e a r e p o r t o n th e H o p k in s o n system .
W h e n S p r a g u e r e tu r n e d to A m e ric a in 1883, h e w e n t to w o rk f o r E dison,
w ho assig n e d h im to th e in s ta lla tio n o f th e p io n e e r in g th re e - w ire system
in th e sm all to w n o f S u n b u ry , P e n n sy lv a n ia (see p p . 4 3 2 - 3 3 below ).
In G e rm a n y , m e a n w h ile , W ilh e lm von S ie m e n s, o n b e h a lf o f S ie m e n s 8c
H alsk e, a lso a p p lie d f o r a th r e e - w ire -d is irib u iio n p a te n t, b u t his ap p lic a tio n
w as re je c te d b e c a u se of th e p rio rity o f H o p k in s o n s p a t e n t . 12 N ev e rth eless,
th e th re e -w ire system is an ex c e lle n t e x a m p le oT th e n e a r sim u lta n e ity of
p e r c e p tio n o f a re v e rse salien t.
I!)70)^UOI33 m ^ lm r* l Te,R 'J ol,n

'* Deiinuir, Starkslromterlmik. n. 117

Electrical Engineer (London: Science Museum.

85

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
A n o th e r in g e n io u s a tte m p t to solve th e d is ir ih u tio n - tia n s m is s io n p r o b
lem in v olved s to ra g e b a tte rie s. S to ra g e b a tte rie s w ere use d to im p ro v e th e
lo ad fa c to r; in a d d itio n , b a tte rie s w ere u tilized fo r d.c. tr a n sm issio n . D irect
c u r r e n t ta k e n fro m g e n e r a to r s at o v e r a th o u s a n d volts was tra n s m itte d
o v e r su b sta n tia l d ista n c e s (at r e a so n a b le cost b ec a u se o f th e h ig h voltage)
a n d w as th e n fed in to b a tte rie s c o n n e c te d in serie s; e ach b a tte ry took an
a p p r o p r ia te in c re m e n t o f th e h ig h vo ltag e in a m a n n e r sim ila r to th e c o n
n e c tin g o f a rc la m p s in series in a h ig h -v o ltag e circu it. A lte r c h a rg in g , th e
b a tte rie s w e re d is c o n n e c te d fro m th e g e n e ra to r s a n d c o n n e c te d in pa ralle l
lo o b ta in a low v o lta g e a p p r o p r ia te fo r th e d is tr ib u tio n n e tw o rk .
B e ca u se a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t tra n sm issio n u ltim ately d isp la c e d d ir e c t- c u r
re n t a n d sio ra g e -b a lle r y s u b sta tio n s, h isto ria n s h av e te n d e d to ig n o r e th e
b a tte ry in sta lla tio n s. R. H . P arso n s, h o w e v er, h isto ria n o f th e first g e n e t
a tio n o f c e n tr a l p o w e r s ta tio n s, h as su ccinctly re c o u n te d th e h isto ry o f the
use o f s to ra g e b a tte r ie s by th e C o lc h e ste r, E n g la n d , u n d e rta k in g a n d by
th e C h e lse a E le ctric ity S u p p ly C o m p a n y in L o n d o n . T h e S o u th E aste rn
B ru sh E lectric L ig h t C o m p a n y , L td ., b uilt th e C o lc h e ste r sy ste m , w hich
b e g a n o p e r a tin g in 1884. T h e B ru sh C o m p a n y , B ritish c o u n te r p a r t ol
A m e ric a n E d iso n , p io n e e r e d in th e in tr o d u c tio n o f arc -lig h t system s, a n d
th e C o lc h e s te r p la n was d ra w n u p to a c c o m m o d a te E d iso n s in c a n d e sc e n t
ele c tric lig h tin g sy ste m . H ig h -v o lta g e B ru sh a rc -lig h t g e n e r a to rs , w hich
en jo y e d a g o o d r e p u ta tio n , w ere in sta lle d in th e c e n tra l sta tio n at C o lc h e ste r
a n d tra n s m itte d c u r r e n t to five b a tte ry s u b sta tio n s lo c ated in cella rs b e n e a th
th e to w n s sh o p s. B a tte rie s th a t w ere c h a r g e d in series d is c h a rg e d in pa ralle l
a t 6 0 volts. T h e o r g a n iz e r s o f th e p la n in te n d e d to s u p p ly p o w e r to tw o
th o u s a n d in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s, b u t th e y failed to d o so b ec au se th e b a tte rie s
ca u se d u n e n d in g a n d in s u rm o u n ta b le p ro b le m s .13
O n th e o th e r h a n d , fo r a b o u t fo rty years th e C h e lse a Electricity S u p p ly
C o m p a n y succ essfu lly u sed b a tte rie s as p a rt o f its tra n sm issio n -d istrib u iio n
system . It u se d B ru s h -V ic to ria n g e n e ra to r s to s e n d o u t d ire c t c u r r e n t at
m o re th a n 1,000 volts. W h e n th e lo ad o n th e system was relativ ely low, th e
g e n e r a to r s c h a rg e d th e b a tte rie s, w hich w e re c o n n e c te d in series, as at
C o lc h e ste r; w h e n th e load was relatively h ig h , th e b a tte rie s, w hich a u to
m atically r e c o n n e c te d in p a ra lle l, d is c h a rg e d to th e load at a b o u t 100 volts.
T h e c o m p a n y also u se d m o to r g e n e ra to rs in th e su b sta tio n s to act as c o n
tin u o u s - c u r r e n t tr a n s f o r m e r s . A fte r 1893 th e c o m p a n y su p p lie d v irtually
all o f C h e lsea . O n ly in 1928 w h e n s ta n d a rd iz a tio n was in tro d u c e d t h r o u g h
o u t E n g la n d , d id it c o n v e rt its system to a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t . 1'1
T h e sim u lta n e o u s in v e n tio n o f th re e -w ire d is trib u tio n system s (la te r, as
m a n y as five w ires w ere trie d ), use o f th e c o m p lex c o m b in a tio n o f g e n e r
ato rs a n d im p e rfe c t s to ra g e b a tte rie s, a n d e x p e r im e n ts w ith h ig h -v o ltag e ,
d ire c t- c u r r e n t tra n sm issio n (see p p . 131 a n d 234 below ) testify to th e re c
o g n itio n th a t th e h ig h cost o f low -vollage d is trib u tio n a n d tra n sm issio n
15 R. I I. Parsons, The Early Days o f the Power Station Industry (Cambridge: At the University
Press, 1940). pp. 52-5!). For exhaustive accounts o f the neglected history of the storage battery,
see Richard I I. Schallcnbcrg. Bottled Energy: Electrical Engineering and the Evolution of Chemical
Energy (Philadelphia: A merican Philosophical Society, 1982); and idem. The Anomalous
Storage Battery: An A merican Lag in F.arly Electrical E ngineering." Technology and Culture
22 (1981): 725-52.
Parsons, Early Days of the Power Station Industry, pp. 58-65.

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

c o n s titu te d a re v e rse sa lie n t. E d iso n , it s h o u ld b e re c a lle d , id e n tifie d th e

cost o f d is trib u tio n as a critic al p ro b le m w h e n in v e n tin g his sy stem . In th e
ea rly 1880s v a rio u s in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs d e fin e d th e critic al p ro b le m
d iff e r e n tly in a n a tte m p t to im p r o v e th e s itu a tio n . T h e d e f in itio n th a t
u ltim a te ly re s u lte d in a p ra c tic a l so lu tio n c a m e fro m a F r e n c h m a n w o rking
w ith a n E n g lish m a n in L o n d o n . H o w e v e r, n e ith e r th e ir c o n te m p o ra rie s
n o r h isto ria n s h av e g iven L u cie n G a u la rd a n d J o h n G ib b s th e re c o g n itio n
th e y d e se rv e . T h e ir h isto ry is o n e o f litig a tio n , c o u n te rc la im s fo r p rio rity ,
fr u s tr a tin g tec h n ic a l p ro b le m s , a n d p e r s o n a l tr a g e d y .
M o re th a n an y o th e r in v e n to rs , th e F re n c h m a n L u c ie n G a u la r d a n d his
B ritish b u sin e ss p a r tn e r , J o h n D. G ib b s, a r e re s p o n s ib le f o r th e se rie s o f
in v e n tio n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n ts th a t c u lm in a te d in th e s o lu tio n o f th e tr a n s
m ission a n d d is trib u tio n p ro b le m . G a u la r d a n d G ib b s d e m o n s tr a te d th a t
by u sin g a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t a n d tr a n s f o r m e r s , h ig h v o lta g e s c o u ld b e e m
p lo y e d fo r th e e co n o m ic tra n s m is s io n o f e le c tric ity a n d low v o lta g e fo r
d is trib u tio n a t th e p o in t o f c o n s u m p tio n .
T h e h isto ry o f G a u la rd a n d G ib b s a n d th e ir tr a n s f o r m e r sy stem is e x
tre m e ly c o m p lic a te d . It p ro v id e s in s ig h t in to , a n d ra ise s q u e s tio n s a b o u t,
th e n a tu r e o f th e in v e n tio n - a n d - d e v e lo p m e n t p ro c e ss, re v e r s e sa lie n ts a n d
critical p ro b le m s , th e e m e rg e n c e o f new sy ste m s, a n d p rio rity cla im s a n d
p a te n t c o n tro v e rsy . B e fo re tu r n in g lo th e p a r tic u la r c ritic al p r o b le m s th a t
G a u la rd a tta c k e d in re s p o n s e lo p e rc e iv e d re v e rs e s a lie n ts, w e will c o n sid e r
brie fly th e o v e rall sta le o f th e te c h n o lo g y .
In 1831, a lm o st h a lf a c e n tu r y b e fo re G a u la r d a n d G ib b s o b ta in e d th e ir
first p a te n t o n th e ir t r a n s f o r m e r sy stem o f d is tr ib u tio n , M ichael F a ra d a y
(1 7 9 1 -1 8 6 7 ) d isc o v e re d th e p r in c ip le o f in d u c tio n . In th e in te r v e n in g d e c
ad e s, m a n y in v e n to rs a p p lie d th e p rin c ip le o f in d u c tio n , w h ich s la te d th a t
fro m a p ra c tic a l in v e n to r s p o in t o f view , a v a ria tio n in th e e le c tric c u r r e n t
in a coil o f c o n d u c tin g w ire will in d u c e a c u r r e n t in a coil th a t is in close
p ro x im ity . M a n y o f th e a p p lic a tio n s th a t p r e c e d e d G a u la r d s w e re vario u s
fo rm s o f th e s p a rk in d u c e r , o r in d u c tio n coil, d e v e lo p e d by th e G e rm a n
physicist H e in ric h D aniel R u h m k o r f f ( 1 8 0 3 - 1877) in 1848, a n d in tr o d u c e d
in a m o re p rim itiv e d e sig n by C h a rle s G r a llo n P age (1 8 1 2 - 1 8 6 8 ) in th e
U n ite d S late s in 1836 o n th e basis o f J o s e p h H e n r y 's in d e p e n d e n t d iscovery
of in d u c tio n . T h e ob jec t o f ih e s e dev ice s, w hich c a m e lo b e k n o w n as
R u h m k o r f f coils, was to in d u c e a h ig h e le c tro m o tiv e fo rc e (v o ltag e ) in th e
se c o n d a ry fro m a low e le c tro m o tiv e fo rc e in th e p rim a ry . T h e re su ltin g
v o ltag e, o r te n sio n as it w as th e n c alle d , was tr a n s f o r m e d , b u t it w as ste p p e d
u p , n o t d o w n .15
As th e use ol a r c la m p s in c re a se d in th e la te 1870s, se v e ra l in v e n to rs
a d d re s s e d th e p ro b le m of p r e v e n tin g th e e x tin g u is h in g o f o n e la m p , e ith e r
in te n tio n a lly o r by a c c id e n t, fro m b re a k in g th e e n tir e c irc u it a n d e x tin
g u is h in g th e re m a in d e r of th e lam p s. T o d o th is, th e p r im a rie s o f a n u m b e r
of in d u c tio n coils w e re c o n n e c te d in se rie s in a c irc u it s u p p lie d by a g e n
e r a to r . a n d in d iv id u a l a rc la m p s w e re c o n n e c te d to th e in d u c tio n coils
se c o n d a rie s. B e ca u se th e s e c o n d a r ie s w e re n o t in th e p rim a ry e le c tric circuit
r Z ^ ! , |T n|l)0rn' l l " " 'n n f ,h' r ' an-'former (L ondon: Spon, I8B9), pp. 6 -10. For a biography

la!,,*a

I'?r yrlt,uricalinvcn,ionss-Watson.
***"c *

A Orography of Charles Graf,on / y

,N ew York:

19761

pai^ and

87

Figure IV .3. Gaulard and Gibbs's patei

for a transformer distribution system, ! 8 8 .

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R I T IC A L l R O R L E M S
b u t w e re re la te d lo th e p r im a rie s th r o u g h an e le c tro m a g n e iir field, in d i
v id u al lam p s c o u ld be e x tin g u is h e d . T h e e lec trical circ uit re m a in e d u n
b r o k e n ; o n ly a m a g n e tic -fic ld re la tio n s h ip was i n te r r u p te d . A m o n g ilie
s ev era l in v e n to rs w h o e m p lo y e d th is p la n was th e R u ssia n -h o rn in v e n tn i
P aul J a b lo c h k o lf (1 8 4 9 -1 8 9 4 ). w h o d isp la y e d his lam p s (JablochkolT c a n
dle s) at th e P aris I n te rn a tio n a l E x h ib itio n o f 1878. T o s u p p ly his la m p s
w hich h a d v e rtic al sid e -b y -sid e c a rb o n ro d s se p a r a te d by the- in s u la to r ka
olin , h e u se d th e th e n - fa m o u s a lte r n a tin g - c u r re n t g e n e r a to r d e v e lo p e d l>\
th e B e lg ian in v e n to r a n d e n g in e e r , Z e n o b e T h e o p h ile ( d a m m e (I82<>
1901). A m o n g J a b lo c h k o lf s d e m o n s tra tio n s in 1878 w ere th o se at th e ex
h ih itio n hall a l th e C h a m p d e M ars, M agazins d u L o u v re , o n I'A v e n u e tic
I'O p e ra . Ja b lo c h k o ff e x p e r im e n te d w ith v a ry in g th e in te n sity o f th e lam |
by v a ry in g th e tu r n s a n d d ia m e te r (re sista n ce ) o f th e w ire o f th e in d u c tio n
coils. T h u s h e e m p lo y e d th e tr a n s f o r m e r p r in c ip le ." Like sim ila r p la n s
h o w e v e r, e m p lo y in g a t r a n s f o r m e r w ith a se c o n d a ry o f h ig h e r resistance
th a n th e p rim a r y ra ise d th e vo lta g e ra th e r th a n lo w e re d it. In essence,
Ja b lo c h k o ff u se d th e t r a n s f o r m e r as a m o d e o f c o n n e c tin g lam p s to a circuit,
n o t as a m e a n s o f tr a n s m ittin g elec tricity eco n o m ically at h ig h vo ltag e an d
d is trib u tin g it a t low v o lta g e in a sa fe a n d usab le lo rn t.
U p u n til 1880, th e h isto ry o f th e t r a n s f o r m e r as d is tin g u is h e d fro m th e
R iih m k o rff coil in v o lv ed th e c o n n e c tio n o f p rim a rie s in series, th e raisin g
o f th e s e c o n d a ry v o lta g e in re la tio n to th e p rim a ry , a n d th e s u p p lv o f arc
la m p s. P rio r to th a t tim e, n o in v e n to r h a d a n tic ip a te d by d e m o n s tra tio n
th e p a rtic u la r c o m b in a tio n m a d e by G a u la r d : th e c o n n e c tio n o f p rim a rie s
in se rie s in a h ig h -v o lta g e , a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t, e x te n d e d circu it; th e low
e rin g o f th e se c o n d a ry v o lta g e: th e s u p p ly o f in c a n d e sc e n t a n d a rc lam p s;
a n d th e su p p ly o f lo ad s o f d if f e r e n t m a g n itu d e fro m d if fe re n t tr a n s
f o r m e r s .17
A ssisted by his b u sin e ss p a r tn e r G ibbs, G a u la rd u sed ex istin g tec h n o lo g y
a n d k n o w le d g e to solve th e critical p ro b le m s o f tr a n s f o r m e r d e v e lo p m e n t.
H e b elie v ed th a t a p ra c tic a l tr a n s f o r m e r system w o u ld c o rre c t th e rev e rse
sa lie n t o f h ig h -c o st tra n sm issio n . F u r th e r m o r e , in d e f in in g th e p ro b le m s
o f t r a n s f o r m e r d e v e lo p m e n t, h e lo o k in to a c c o u n t th e se ctio n s in th e E lec
tric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1882 th a t g o v e rn e d th e tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n
o f elec tricity . In r e s p o n d in g to th e p ro v isio n s o f th e leg islation, h e also
m a d e p o ssible th e use o f a sin g le tr a n s f o r m e r to s u p p ly v a rio u s e le ctric
la m p s r e q u ir in g d if f e r e n t v o ltages a n d c u r re n t. T h e available re c o rd d o es
n o t m a k e c le a r, h o w e v e r, w h e th e r his p rim a ry objective was to fulfill th e
le gislative re q u ire m e n ts , as h e in te r p r e te d th e m , o r to d e sig n a tr a n s f o r m e r
s u ita b le fo r v a rio u s loads.
S ec tio n 18 o f th e law s ta le d th a t th e u n d e rta k e r s [su p p lie rs o f elect rici(y|
shall n o t be e n title d to p re sc rib e an y special Torm o f la m p o r b u r n e r to be
u sed by a n y c o m p a n y o r p e rs o n . 1" A p a rlia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e h a d publicly
d e lib e r a te d th e p ro v isio n s o f th e legislation in th e sp rin g o f 1882 a n d th e
act was d a te d 18 A u g u st 1882, so G a u la rd a n d G ibbs h a d h a d an o p p o r'* Engineering 23 (1877): 366; 26 (1878): 63 IT.. 125-27. 321-22; and ( t|>|>c-iiIm>i n. Hntoiy
o f the Transformer, pp. 13-16.
17 U p p rn b o m . History of the Transformer, pp. 23-29.
'"K lcrlric LifthliiiK Act o f 1882, 45 8c 46 Virl.. rh. 56. JI8 .

88

Figure IV.4. The Gaulard and Gibbs

transformer. From Fleming, T h e
A lternating C u rren t
T ran sfo rm er, 2: 74.

Figure IV. 5. Figures from Gaulard and

Gibbs's patent no. 4,362 (13 September
1882). Figure 1 shows transformer

Figure IV .6. Gaulard and Gibbs's first

hi, 1882. From Fleming, T h e
A lternating C u rren t
T ran sfo rm er, 2: 72.

n e t w o r k s o p

po w e r

m n ity to c o n s id e r its p ro v isio n s b e f o re lea v in g th e ir p a te n t sp e cific atio n s

at th e O ffic e o f th e C o m m is s io n e rs o f P a te n ts o n 13 S e p te m b e r 1882.
E v id e n ce th a t G a u la rd a n d G ib b s d e s ig n e d th e ir system w ith se ctio n 18
in m in d is fo u n d in c o n te m p o r a r y d e s c rip tio n s . S h o rtly b e fo re th e system
w en t o n d isp la y at th e W e s tm in s te r A q u a r iu m in L o n d o n , Engineering,
B rita in s le a d in g te c h n ic a l p e rio d ic a l, p u b lis h e d a n a rtic le w ritte n by th e
in v e n to r s a b o u t th e ir sy ste m . T h e a rtic le b e g a n w ith a re m in d e r th a t th e
E lectric L ig h tin g A ct e x p re ssly p r o s c rib e d th e u se o f an y p a rtic u la r la m p
a n d th a t av a ila b le in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s v a rie d in s p e c ific a tio n fro m 4 8 to 91
volts. T h e r e a d e r w as also r e m in d e d th a t a d iv e r g e n c e o f te n p e rc e n t
a b o v e o r below th is s ta n d a r d is in ju rio u s to th e lile o f th e la m p , o r g rea tly
re d u c e s its lig h tin g p o w e r ." 1 As th e a rtic le c o n tin u e d , G a u la rd a n d G ibbs's
system allo w ed th e s u p p lie r to u se c u r r e n t at h ig h te n s io n to th e p o in t o f
c o n s u m p tio n a n d th e n m a d e th e u s e r in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p r o d u c e r,"
e n a b lin g " h im to a p p ly th e c u r r e n t h e rec eiv es to a n y p u r p o s e h e m ay
p lease , s u c h as a rc lig h tin g , in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g , th e g e n e r a tio n o f p ow er,
o r o f h e a t.20 A c o n s u m e r w h o was in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p r o d u c e r , th e r e
fo re , c o u ld n o t b e fo rc e d to use th e lig h ts o r v o lta g e s o r o th e r specific
c o m p o n e n ts th a t a s u p p lie r , o r u n d e r ta k e r , m a n u f a c tu r e d , so ld , o r ha d
o th e r in te re s ts in.
G a u la rd a n d G ib b ss d e sig n c a n n o t b e fully a p p r e c ia te d w ith o u t tak in g
in to a c c o u n t th is re s p o n s e to le g islatio n a n d th e d e s ig n e rs ' a n tic ip a tio n of
v a ria tio n s in lo a d . T h e fa ilu re o f so m e c ritic s o f th e G a u la r d a n d G ibbs
system to ta k e in to c o n s id e r a tio n its r e s p o n s e to th e 1882 a ct e x p la in s why
th e sy ste m was rece iv ed w ith very c o n s id e ra b le d o u b t, n o t to say co n
te m p t.21 T o a n ev e n g r e a te r e x te n t it e x p la in s th e in a b ility o f so m e h is
to ria n s to a p p r e c ia te G a u la r d a n d G ib b ss in v e n tio n .22 T h e se v e ra l m e th o d s
th a t G a u la r d a n d G ibbs p ro v id e d to allow c o n s u m e r s to va ry th e c h a ra c
teristics o f su p p ly in v o lv ed a n u m b e r o f c o m p lic a tio n s in d e s ig n th a t a p p e a r
irra tio n a l u n le ss th e d e s ig n e rs in te n t is k n o w n .
A d e s c rip tio n o f th e system th a t G a u la r d a n d G ib b s d is p la y e d at th e
W e stm in ste r A q u a r iu m e x h ib itio n in 1883 illu stra te s th e r e la tio n s h ip b e
tw e en le g islatio n a n d d e sig n . T h e t r a n s f o r m e r in tr o d u c e d in 1883 co n siste d
ol fo u r sets o f f o u r v ertically sla c k e d b o b b in s. T h e b o b b in s, w o u n d w ith
w ire, c o n s titu te d th e s e c o n d a ry o l th e tr a n s f o r m e r . T he p rim a ry co n siste d
ol a n in s u la te d c o p p e r c o n d u c to r w o u n d o n a ho llo w p a p e r tu b e . T h e o p e n
c o re ( ) o l th e t r a n s f o r m e r w as a soft iro n b a r fitte d in sid e th e tu b e on
w hich th e p r im a r y w as w o u n d . (See fig s. I V .4 -IV .6 .)
T h e a d a p ta b ility ol th e t r a n s f o r m e r re s u lte d fro m th e fact th a t th e bo b
b in s c o u ld b e c o n n e c te d to o n e a n o th e r in d if f e r e n t w ays, th e sla ck s o r fo u r
c o u ld b e c o m b in e d vario u sly , a n d th e iro n c o re o f th e p r im a ry c o u ld be
c ra n k e d in a n d o u t o l th e stack of b o b b in s. Each o f th e six te e n b obbins
h a d tw o s p rin g te rm in a ls r e s tin g o n a v e rtica l c o m m u ta to r th a t c o u ld be
' "G aulard anti Gibbs' System <>l F.lrcirical D istribution." Engineering 35 (1883): 205.
Ibid.
Ibid.. p. <158.
A . A. I lalacsy an,I G. II. von Kurils ("T ransfo rm er In vent! ScventyTtve Years Ago."
eanacMons of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers: Tower Apparatus and Systems 80 110 6 11:
121) make only b n e t reference to (lan iard and Gibbs, rem arking upon the anom alies o f their

R E V E R S E S A L IE N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
tu r n e d by a c r a n k m o u n te d in th e c e n te r o n to p o f th e tr a n s fo rm e r . By
t u r n in g th e c o m m u ta to r , th e p o sitiv e e n d o f e ac h b o b b in co u ld b e c o n
n e c te d lo th e n e g a tiv e e n d o f th e a d ja c e n t o n e in th e slack o f f o u r; in
a n o th e r p o sitio n o f th e c r a n k , all p ositive e n d s w e re jo in e d , as w ere all
n e g a tiv e e n d s ; a n d in a th ir d p o sitio n , th e b o b b in s w ere g r o u p e d in tw o
se rie s o f tw o ea c h . N o t lim ited to th e se p e rm u ta tio n s , th e t r a n s f o r m e r also
p ro v id e d te rm in a ls o n th e u p p e r b o a rd fo r th e low er a n d u p p e r e n d s o f
e a c h slack o f b o b b in s a n d , by m e a n s o f sh o rt p ieces o f w ire, th e te rm in a ls
co u ld be c o n n e c te d in su ch a way as to g r o u p th e stacks in series, in p a ra lle l,
o r "in sets o f tw o e a c h .
G a u la rd a n d G ib b s d e s ig n e d th is tr a n s f o r m e r to be c o n n e c te d in th e
c irc u it o f an a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t g e n e ra to r . T h e n u m b e r o f tra n s fo r m e rs
in a c irc u it v a rie d : th e y h a d o n ly tw o tr a n s f o r m e r s a t th e a q u a r iu m in
s ta lla tio n , b u t th e ir d e s c rip tiv e lite r a tu r e m e n tio n e d as m a n y as e le v e n .28
T h e y a lso d e c id e d a n d th is tu r n e d o u t to b e critic al to c o n n e c t th e p r i
m a rie s o f th e tr a n s f o r m e r s in series, as was c u sto m a ry a t th a t tim e . C ritics
o f G a u la r d a n d G ib b s w ere o f th e o p in io n th a t th e w irin g o f tra n s fo r m e rs
in se rie s was an e x a m p le o f th e ir ig n o r a n c e o f tr a n s f o r m e r p rin c ip le s.
W ith in a few y e a rs, o th e r s w o u ld c o n n e c t tr a n s f o r m e r p rim a rie s in p ara lle l,
a n a r r a n g e m e n t th a t w o u ld p ro v e a d v a n ta g e o u s a n d b e c o m e s ta n d a r d .
A t least o n e c o n te m p o r a r y a u th o rity m is u n d e rs to o d th e G a u la rd a n d
G ibbs tr a n s f o r m e r , ta k in g it to h a v e a 1:1 ra tio o f tra n s fo r m a tio n (th e
re d u c tio n o f v o lta g e w as b elie v ed lo re su lt solely f ro m th e su b d iv isio n th a t
o c c u rr e d w ith m u ltip le tr a n s f o r m e r s in se rie s).24 In c o n tr a s t, th e d e s c r ip
tio n s, u n d o u b te d ly s u p p lie d to te c h n ic a l jo u r n a ls by G a u la rd a n d G ibbs
th e m se lv e s, ex p licitly s ta te th a t e a ch c o n s u m e r u sin g a tr a n s f o r m e r "w ould
h a v e it in his p o w e r to g e n e r a te c u r r e n ts a t a p o te n tia l o f 45 , 60, 91, o r
o th e r n u m b e r o f volts as h e c h o s e .25
A n o th e r d e s ig n f e a tu r e o f th e G a u la r d a n d G ibbs tr a n s f o r m e r th a t was
s in g le d o u t fo r criticism w as th e o p e n c o r e .26 B u t G a u la rd a n d G ibbs h ad
g o o d r e a s o n to u se a n o p e n r a th e r th a n a clo se d m a g n e tic c o re. T h e closed
c o re , o r clo sed m a g n e tic c irc u it, w o u ld h a v e p re v e n te d loss o f m a g n e tism
(in d e e d , G a u la rd a n d G ibbs's su cce sso rs in tr a n s f o r m e r d e sig n re s o rte d to
it), b u t G a u la rd a n d G ib b s ch o se th e o p e n c o re b e c au se it c o u ld b e c ra n k e d
in a n d o u t o f th e coils. In th is w ay th e y in te n d e d to p ro v id e th e m e a n s fo r
v a ry in g th e s e c o n d a ry o u tp u t, p re su m a b ly in re sp o n se to an y m in o r v ari
a tio n s r e s u ltin g fro m lo ad c h a n g e s; in fact, in 1885 G a u la rd w ro te th a t h e
w o u ld d is p e n s e w ith th e m o v ab le c o re a n d use a closed c o re if th e c u s to m e r
load w as in v a ria b le .27

'iS Engineering 35 (1883): 205.

M U pp cn b o rn, History o f the Transformer, pp. 35. 41.
n Engineering 35 (1883): 205. " If the secondary coil be m ade in several parts, each with
in d epend en t term inals, these parts may be variously combined cither in parallel arc. or com
p ound parallel arc, o r scries, according lo the conditions u n d er which the second, or locally
g enerated c u rren t, is lo be em ployed, and thus it is possible to generate by means of one
secondary g en erato r, c u rren ts o f high or low potential" (ibid., p. 206).
U ppen b o rn .. History of the Transformer, pp. 34-35, 4649: Telegraphic Journal and Electrical
Revieui 17 (1885): 114-16 and 465-66.
I.etter from G aulard to the jo u rn al, Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review 17 (1885):

90

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

W h e n th e s ta te o f th e te c h n o lo g y a n d c irc u m s ta n tia l fa c to rs a re c o n sid
e r e d , G a u la rd a n d G ib b ss c o n n e c tin g o f th e tr a n s f o r m e r p rim a rie s in series
also se e m s re a s o n a b le . U n lik e E d iso n , w h o d e s ig n e d a n e n tir e system o f
in c a n d e s c e n t e le c tric lig h tin g , G a u la r d a n d G ib b s d e s ig n e d a tra n s fo rm e r
f o r c o m b in a tio n w ith a v a ila b le c o m p o n e n ts to fo r m a sy stem . F o r e x a m p le ,
th e y u se d a S ie m e n s a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t g e n e r a to r in th e W e stm in ste r
A q u a riu m in sta lla tio n . O rig in a lly d e s ig n e d f o r a rc lig h ts c o n n e c te d in se
ries, th e S ie m e n s m a c h in e w as a c o n s ta n t- c u r r e n t m a c h in e . T h is ty p e o f
g e n e r a to r m a in ta in e d a c o n sta n t c u r re n t th r o u g h th e e n tire c irc u it by m eans
o f a n a u to m a tic r e g u la to r th a t v a rie d th e g e n e r a to r o u tp u t a n d e le c tro
m o tiv e f o rc e a c c o r d in g to th e lo a d . By v a ry in g th e c irc u it, o r te rm in a l,
v o lta g e , th e c irc u it c u r r e n t c o u ld b e h e ld c o n s ta n t d e s p ite v a ria tio n s in
o u tp u t. T h e r e f o r e , it se e m s p r o b a b le th a t G a u la r d a n d G ib b s d e c id e d to
ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e c o n s ta n t- c u r r e n t c h a ra c te r is tic o f th e S ie m e n s m a
c h in e by w irin g th e p r im a r ie s o f th e ir tr a n s f o r m e r s in se rie s, as a rc lights
w e re w ire d . T h e y e x p e c te d th a t th e c o n s ta n t- c u r r e n t flow t h r o u g h th e
c irc u it w o u ld r e s u lt in th e a p p r o p r i a t e e le c tr o m o tiv e f o rc e a c ro ss th e sec
o n d a r ie s . T h e y also b e lie v e d th a t it w o u ld b e p o ssib le to o b ta in a va ria b le
s e c o n d a ry c u r r e n t , w h ich w as n e c e s s a ry f o r a n in c a n d e s c e n t- la m p load
w ire d in p a r a lle l.28 T h e y w o u ld h a v e b e e n w ise r to d e s ig n a n d d e v e lo p a
g e n e r a t o r e sp e c ia lly f o r th e ir sy ste m , as E d is o n h a d , b u t th e y p r o b a b ly w ere
n o t a b le to o b ta in fin a n c in g a s re a d ily as h a d th e W iz a rd o f M e n lo P ark .
B e fo re 1885, h o w e v e r, a m a jo r flaw in th e sy ste m h a d b e e n d isc o v e re d :
th e ir e x p e c ta tio n th a t a c o n s ta n t p r im a r y c u r r e n t w o u ld re s u lt in a c o n s ta n t
s e c o n d a r y v o lta g e h a d p ro v e d e r r o n e o u s . I f th e lo a d in th e se c o n d a ry
v a r ie d , as. fo r e x a m p le , w h e n in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s w e r e s w itc h e d o u t, th e
re m a in in g la m p s b e c a m e b r ig h te r . T o r e m e d y th is, G a u la r d a n d G ibbs
in tr o d u c e d in th e s e c o n d a ry c irc u it a n a u to m a tic r e g u la to r d e s ig n e d to vary
th e s e c o n d a ry c u r r e n t in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e lo a d a n d to m a in ta in a c o n
s ta n t s e c o n d a r y v o lta g e . W h a te v e r th e su c ce ss o f th e d e v ic e , it a d d e d a n
o t h e r c o m p lic a tio n to a n a lr e a d y e x tr e m e ly c o m p lic a te d tr a n s f o r m e r d e
s ig n .20
G a u la r d a n d G ib b s s e f f o r ts to r e c tify th e in a d e q u a c ie s o f th e ir system
in c lu d e d s w itc h in g fr o m a n o p e n to a c lo se d m a g n e tic c o re , c o n n e c tin g th e
p r im a r ie s in p a ra lle l r a t h e r th a n in s e r ie s , a n d v a ry in g th e w in d in g o f th e
p r im a r ie s . N e v e rth e le s s , th e y e n c o u n te r e d s e r io u s p ro b le m s . U se o f th e
c lo se d m a g n e tic c o re r a is e d th e e ffic ie n c y o f th e tr a n s f o r m e r b u t e lim in a te d
th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e m o v a b le , ro d - s h a p e d , o p e n - e n d e d c o re . In la te 1885
o r e a rly 1886 G a u la r d a n d G ib b s a lso tr ie d a c o m b in a tio n o f p r im a rie s
c o n n e c te d in p a ra lle l a n d a c lo se d c o re . T h e y h a d b e e n to ld th a t th is c o m
b in a tio n w o u ld p r o v id e g o o d v o lta g e r e g u la tio n , b u t th e r e s u ltin g system
d id n o t f u n c tio n s a tis fa c to rily .80 Its c o m p o n e n ts p r o b a b ly r e q u ir e d m o re
r e d e s ig n in g th a n th e y c o u ld a f f o r d o r w e r e c a p a b le o f d o in g . In th e e n d ,
it se e m s, v o lta g e r e g u la tio n w as th e m a jo r r e v e r s e s a lie n t in th e ir system .

'JI>The Engineer (L o n d o n ) 00 (1885): 430.

Ibid.
" P . Siriingc, "Som e T ests on a G au lard an d G ibbs T ra n sfo rm e r," Papers Presented at the
Third Weekend Meeting on the History o f Electrical Engineering, Manchester, England, 11-13 July
1975 (L o n d o n : In stitu tio n o f F.lccniral E n g in eers, n.d.), p. 4/5.

91

REV ER SE s a l ie n t s a n d c r it ic a l p r o b l e m s
T h e y re s o r te d to e x tre m e ly c o m p le x d evices to re g u la te th e s e c o n d a ry
v o lta g e u n d e r c h a n g in g lo a d c o n d itio n s, h u t th e y w e re u n a b le to solve the
p r o b le m , a n d it was o th e r in v e n to rs a n d o th e r e n g in e e rs w ho fo u n d the
a n sw e r. O u ts ta n d in g a m o n g th o se w ho s u c c e e d e d w e re th r e e m e n assoc i
a te d w ith o n e o f E u ro p e 's le a d in g elec trica l m a n u f a c tu r e r s . C a n / Sc C o m
p a n y o f B u d a p e s t. H u n g a r y (th e n a k in g d o m in th e A u s tro -H u n g a ria n
E m p ire ).
B e fo re c o n s id e rin g th e c ritica l rev isio n s m a d e by th e H u n g a r ia n s , h o w
e v e r, it is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t G a u la rd a n d G ibbs laid tb e fo u n d a tio n s
fo r a new sy stem o f lig h tin g d u r in g th e ir s e a rc h fo r a so lu tio n to th e p ro b le m
o f tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n in th e d .c. sy stem . In e ffe c t, th e y re s p o n d e d
to a re v e rs e salien t in in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g in g e n e ra l a n d w ere not in te n t
o n sa v in g th e e x istin g d .c. sy stem , as w ere E d iso n a n d o th e r in v e n to rs a n d
e n g in e e r s . T he g e n e ra l re v e rs e salie n t th a t G a u la rd a n d G ibbs o b se rv e d in
e v o lv in g e le c tric lig h tin g was clea rly a n d su ccinctly d e sc rib e d by th e m . In
M arch 1883, in a n a rtic le in Engineering, th e y d e sc rib e d th e ir system as a
so lu tio n lo th e p r o b le m o f th e f u r th e r in d u s tr ia l d e v e lo p m e n t ol a b so lu te
d is trib u tio n , th a t is to say, a system o f d is trib u tio n lim ite d n e ith e r by the
d is ta n c e o f th e c e n tra l fa c to ry fro m th e p o in t o f c o n s u m p tio n , n o r by th e
n u m b e r o f c o n s u m e r s to be s u p p lie d ." 31 T h e y te r m e d th e p ro b le m " d is
tr ib u tio n ; to d a y , b e c a u se o f th e d ista n c e e n v isa g e d , we w o u ld te rm th e
p ro b le m tr a n s m is s io n . (O n e o f th e first p ro p o sa ls m a d e by G a u la rd a n d
G ibbs w as to illu m in a te th e S u e z C a n a l u sin g 4 0 ,0 0 0 volts fo r tra n sm issio n .)
T o d e s c rib e G a u la rd a n d G ib b s's w o rk as th e in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t
o f a n e w sy stem is valid fo r se v e ra l re a so n s. First o f all, c o n te m p o ra rie s
r e f e r r e d to a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t w ith tr a n s f o r m e r s as a new system , calling
th e c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n d .c. lig h tin g a n d a.c. lig h tin g th e b a ttle o f th e
c u r r e n ts , o r th e b a ttle o f th e sy stem s." In a d d itio n , G a u la rd a n d G ibbs
a n d th e ir su cc esso rs in th e a.c. field h a d to in tro d u c e d iff e re n t c o m p o n e n ts
fro m th o se u se d in th e d .c. sy stem , w ith th e m a jo r e x c e p tio n o f th e in c a n
d e sc e n t la m p . O th e r re a so n s fo r c a te g o riz in g d .c. a n d a.c. as d istin c t system s
in c lu d e th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d if f e r e n t th e o re tic a l s tr u c tu r e s to an a ly z e a n d
e x p la in th e m a n d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s e p a ra te e n g in e e rin g -sc h o o l c o u rses
to teach th e m . M o re im p o rta n t fo r an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f technological c h an g e
is th e fact (h a t th e h isto ry o f th e in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f G a u la rd
a n d G ib b ss system is a case o f th e d y n a m ic m o v e m e n t fro m o n e system to
a n o th e r as a r e s u lt o f a flaw in th e first b e in g c o r re c te d by p ro b le m id e n
tific a tio n a n d a n in v e n tio n th a t b e c a m e th e essen tia l c o re o f a new system .
B e ca u se m a n y in v e n to rs p e rc e iv e d th e re v e rse sa lie n t in th e d ire c t- c u r
r e n t sy ste m a n d b e c a u se so m e saw w eak n esses in th e G a u la rd a n d G ibbs
system a n d in tr o d u c e d im p ro v e m e n ts , th e r e was in te n se litig atio n over th e
p rio rity o f in v e n tio n a n d p a te n ts .32 T h e basic p a te n t was a p ro v isio n al
sp e c ific a tio n e n title d "A N ew System o f D istrib u tin g E lectricity lo r th e
P r o d u c tio n o f L ig h t a n d P o w e r" a n d d a te d 13 S e p te m b e r 1882. C a u la r d
a n d G ibbs to o k o u t re la te d p a te n ts in 1884 a n d 1885. O n II D e ce m b e r
51 "G aulard and Gibbs System ol Electrical Distribution." Engineering 35 (1883): 205.
1*. Strange. " T ran sfo rm er Patent Litigation. I: 1880-1890," Papers Presented at the First
Weekend Meeting on the History of Electrical Engineering. Birmingham, England, 11 - 1 1 July 1971
(London: Institution o f Electrical Engineers, n.d ). pp. 8 /I-8 /8 .

92

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

1886 S e b a siia n Z iani d e F e r ra n ti, a c tin g fo r S ir C o u tts L in d sa y a n d C o m

p a n y o r L o n d o n (see p p . 9 7 - 9 8 below ) p e titio n e d fo r th e re v o c a tio n o f th e
o rig in a l G a u la rd a n d G ib b s p a te n t, a lle g in g t h a t it la c k e d n o v e lty a n d utility.
In M a rc h 1887 G a u la rd a n d G ib b s c o u n te r e d w ith a n a c tio n c la im in g in
fr in g e m e n t o f th e ir p a te n t by F e r r a n ti a n d S ir C o u tts L in d sa y a n d C o m
p a n y .33 T h e p e titio n e rs a lso c la im e d th a t G a u la r d a n d G ib b ss c o m p le te
sp e c ific a tio n s d id n o t c o n fo rm to th e p ro v isio n a l s p e c ific a tio n . In A p ril
1888 th e c o u r t a llo w ed G a u la r d a n d G ib b s to a m e n d th e ir sp e cifica tio n s.
T h e n , h e a r in g th e p e titio n , th e j u d g e d e c la re d th e p a te n t void b e c a u se o f
th e in su ffic ie n c y o f th e c o m p le te a n d a m e n d e d s p e c ific a tio n s. G a u la rd a n d
G ib b s a p p e a le d th e case to B rita in 's C o u r t o f A p p e a l, w h ich h e ld th a t th e
in v e n tio n w as u se fu l a n d n o t a n tic ip a te d , b u t th a t th e p a te n t w as void
be c a u se a d is c re p a n c y r e m a in e d b e tw e e n th e p ro v isio n a l a n d c o m p le te
sp e c ific a tio n s a n d b e c a u se th e a m e n d m e n t e x te n d e d th e s c o p e o f th e in
v e n tio n . G a u la r d a n d G ibbs th e n p r e s e n te d a n a p p e a l to th e H o u se o f
L o rd s, w h e r e th r e e m e m b e r s h e a r d th e ir case. T h e L o r d C h a n c e llo r d id
n o t see th e n o v elty th e C o u r t o f A p p e a l h a d p e rc e iv e d in th e c o m b in a tio n
p ro p o s e d by G a u la rd a n d G ib b s; L o rd F a r r e r H e rs c h e ll ru le d th a t th e state
o f p u b lic k n o w le d g e w as su c h th a t th e a lle g e d in v e n tio n w as a m e re a d
a p ta tio n r e q u ir in g n o in v e n tio n a n d p o sse sse d o f n o n o v e l f e a tu r e s ; a n d
L o r d M o rris d e c id e d th a t by w ith d ra w in g th r o u g h a m e n d m e n t th e ir claim
to a sp ec ially c o n s tr u c te d a n d n o v el s e c o n d a r y g e n e r a to r ( tr a n s fo rm e r) ,
G a u la r d a n d G ib b s h a d left H a m le t o u t o f th e p la y . In J u ly 1890 th e a p p e a l
w as d ism isse d w ith co sts.34
I n th e ir p e titio n fo r re v o c a tio n , F e r r a n ti a n d h is a sso c ia te s c ite d as p rio r
p u b lic a tio n th irte e n B ritish p a te n ts , F a ra d a y s E xperim ental Research in Elec
tricity, p o rtio n s o f th r e e w o rk s by N o a d , tw o a rtic le s in th e Telegraphic
J o u rn a l a n d Electrical Review o f 15 A p ril 1879, a n d C o u n t d u M o n ce ls
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e J a b lo c h k o f f sy stem in Expose des applications d electricite
(1878). In c itin g p r io r u se, th e y w ere less sp ecific , c la im in g th a t th e alleg e d
in v e n tio n w as c o m m o n ly u se d in te le g ra p h y ; th a t e le c tric ia n s u se d th e
alle g e d in v e n tio n (in d u c tio n coils c a rr y in g a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t) to su p p ly
lig h t w h e n th e y fo u n d it c o n v e n ie n t a n d a p p r o p r ia te ; a n d th a t J a m e s E d
w a rd H e n ry G o r d o n , in M ay 1880 a n d s u b s e q u e n tly , u s e d th e in v e n tio n
to s u p p ly lig h t a t his h o m e in D o rk in g a n d at v a rio u s p la ces in L o n d o n .33
T h e r e f e re n c e to use o f th e t r a n s f o r m e r sy ste m by th e w ell-k n o w n in v e n to r
a n d e n g in e e r G o rd o n was th e m o st sp e cific claim , b u t h is in sta lla tio n s w ere
n o t d isc u sse d in th e lo rd s ru lin g .
1 h e tw o p r io r p a te n ts th a t w e re c o n s id e r e d m o st im p o r ta n t by th e lo rd s
w ere J a b lo c h k o f f s (B ritish P a te n t no . 1,996 o f 1887) a n d E d w a rd s a n d
N o rm a n d y s (B ritish P a te n t no . 4,611 o f 1878). T h e lo rd s f o u n d , ho w ev er,
th a t J a b lo c h k o f f s p a te n t d id n o t sp e cify th a t his tr a n s f o r m e r s w o u ld low er,
o r s te p d o w n , th e e le c tro m o tiv e fo rc e (voltag e ); h e sim p ly d id n o t ex c lu d e
th a t possibility. E d w a rd s a n d N o r m a n d y s p a te n t g re a tly im p re s s e d L o rd
H e rsc h e ll b e c a u se it d e s c rib e d a t r a n s f o r m e r th a t w o u ld lo w e r th e ten sio n
G rcal Britain, Reports o f Patent, Design, and Trade Mark Cases, vol. 4. no. 7 (30 A pril 1887).
pp. 189-91.
Ibid., vol. 7. no. 40 (5 Novem ber 1890). pp. 3 8 2-87 and 388.
,s Ibid.. p. 371.

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
(v o ltag e) a n d ra ise th e q u a n tity (a m p e ra g e ) o f elec tric ity . L o rd H e rsc h e ll
re c o g n iz e d , h o w e v er, th a t E d w a rd s a n d N o r m a n d y c o n te m p la te d u sin g n o t
a h ig h -te n s io n circ u it fo r e x te n d e d tra n sm issio n b u t a rela tiv ely low o n e
fo r d is trib u tio n in a sin g le b u ild in g fro m a s o u rc e o f e n e rg y in th a t b u ild in g .
M o re o v e r, th e se in v e n to rs d id n o t h av e access to p ra c tic a l in c a n d e sc e n t
la m p s.
T h is re v ie w o f th e legal p ro c e ss se rv es as a r e m in d e r th a t p a te n ts a n d
legal d e c isio n s c o n c e rn in g th e m a r e n o t th e sam e as in v e n tio n s a n d in
f o rm e d ju d g m e n ts a b o u t th e m . T h e lo rd s to o k a n a m b iv a le n t p o sitio n , fo r
e x a m p le , o n th e n o v e lty o f c o m b in a tio n s. A s L o rd H e rsc h e ll said n o n e too
clea rly ,
T h e tru th is that the Patentee was simply applying to a g reater distance and
working through a g reater length o f wire that which had been conceived by
oth er people before him, and if he used an alternating cu rren t o f high tension,
which they did not, it was simply that he applied to the purpose which he
wanted to accomplish the o rdinary well-known means o f producing that result,
namely, using for long distances an alternating cu rren t o f high tension.5*
F u r th e r m o r e , L o r d H e rsc h e ll m in im iz e d th e sig n ific a n c e o f th e use o f
in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s by G a u la rd a n d G ibbs a n d n o t by o th e r s by c o m
m e n tin g , It was o n ly ju s t p re v io u sly to th e tim e o f th e A p p e lla n ts a lleg e d
in v e n tio n th a t th e se in c a n d e s c e n t lig h ts h a d co m e in to u se, a n d it was o n ly
ju s t a b o u t th a t tim e th e r e f o r e th a t p e o p le h a d b e e n c o n c e rn e d to fin d a
m e a n s o f c o m b in in g th e c a rr y in g o f a c u r r e n t to a c o n s id e ra b le d ista n c e
w hich c o u ld o n ly b e d o n e a t h ig h te n sio n , w ith a t th e sa m e tim e u tilizin g
it w h e re v e r it w as w a n te d a t low te n s io n ." 37 B ec au se L o rd H e rs c h e lls p h i
lo so p h y o f in v e n tio n e x c lu d e d th e d e fin itio n o f p ro b le m s a n d th e co m b i
n a tio n o f av ailab le te c h n o lo g y to e ffe c t th e ir so lu tio n , o n e w o n d e rs w h at
h e d id c o n s id e r to b e a n in v e n tio n .
In m a k in g th e ir d e c isio n , th e lo rd s d id n o t w eigh heavily th e d e m o n
s tra tio n s o f tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n m a d e by G a u la rd a n d G ibbs in
1883 a n d 1884, d e m o n s tr a tio n s th a t w ere n o t m a tc h e d in co m p le x ity , ex
te n t, a n d su ccess by a n y o th e r in v e n to rs o f a lte rn a tin g - c u rr e n t tra n sm issio n
sy stem s b e f o r e 1885. T h e first o f G a u la rd a n d G ib b ss p u b lic d e m o n s tr a
tio n s to o k p la ce a t th e W e stm in ste r A q u a riu m e x h ib itio n in A p ril 1883. In
N o v e m b e r 1883 a sy stem w as p la ced in to o p e ra tio n f o r th e M e tro p o lita n
R ailw ay C o m p a n y u sin g g e n e ra to rs a t th e C h a p e l S tre e t w orks a n d a m ix
o f a rc a n d in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s a t u n d e r g r o u n d sta tio n s at N o ttin g H ill
G a le , G o w e r S tre e t, K in g s C ro ss, A ld g a te , a n d E d g e w a re R o a d . T h e system
e x te n d e d fo r fifte e n m iles a n d seem s to h av e w o rk e d well a c c o rd in g to
re p o r ts in th e te c h n ic a l p re s s .38
L ack in g m o n e y to p u rc h a s e new e q u ip m e n t, G a u la rd a n d G ibbs m oved
e q u ip m e n t fro m th e M e tro p o lita n Railw ay C o m p a n y to T u r in , Italy, fo r
an in te rn a tio n a l e x h ib itio n a n d c o m p e titio n fo r th e best system o f lo n g
d ista n c e elec trical tra n sm issio n . W ith g re a t w a te r-p o w e r sites in th e A lps,
th e Ita lia n s w e re sen sitiv e to th e in a d e q u a c ie s o f th e E d iso n a n d o th e r

Ibid., p. 386.
17 Ibid.. p. 387.
5* Stranac. "Some Tests on a G aulard and Gibbs T ransfo rm er," p. 4/1.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

d ir e c t- c u r r e n t, low -v o ltag e sy ste m s in tra n s m ittin g e n e rg y f ro m site to u r
b a n lo ad c e n te rs . In S e p te m b e r 1884 G a u la r d a n d G ib b s p la c e d th e ir tra n s
fo rm e rs o n a fifty -m ile c irc u it th a t lig h te d th e e x h ib itio n b u ild in g s, th e
T u r i n railw ay sta tio n , a n d s ta tio n s a l V e n e ria R ea le a n d a t L an z o , a sm all
v illage in th e S avoy A lps. F o r th e T u r i n in sta lla tio n , G a u la rd a n d G ibbs
w e re a w a rd e d th e g r a n d p r iz e o f 10,000 fr a n c s .39 P e r m a n e n t in stallatio n s
fo llo w ed in 1885 a n d 1886 a t T o u r s , F ra n c e ; R o m e , Ita ly ; a n d A schersleb e n , G e rm a n y . G a u la rd a n d G ib b ss b est-k n o w n in s ta lla tio n w as b e g u n at
G r o s v e n o r G a lle ry , L o n d o n , in M a rc h 1885.'
T h e a d ju d ic a tin g lo rd s n o t o n ly d id n o t c o n s id e r su c c e ssfu l d e m o n s tr a
tio n s a n d in sta lla tio n s to b e e v id e n c e o f a n E ntw icklungsfahig (d e v e lo p m e n tfe a sib le ) in v e n tio n b u t th e y faile d to p o n d e r th e p a r tic u la r p ro b le m s th a t
G a u la r d a n d G ib b s a tte m p te d to solve w ith th e ir sy slem . A m o n g th e c o n
d itio n s G a u la r d a n d G ib b s to o k in to a c c o u n t, a n d th e lo rd s ig n o r e d , w ere
th e E le ctric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1882 a n d th e v a rie d c h a ra c te ris tic s o f e x istin g
lam p s. T h e y in te n d e d lo u se th e p u b lic s tre e ts fo r tra n s m is s io n a n d d is
trib u tio n fro m c e n tr a l sta tio n s, a n d th e r e f o r e th e y c o rre c tly a n tic ip a te d
th a t th e ir sy stem w o u ld h a v e to c o n fo rm to th e p ro v isio n s o f th e 1882
le g isla tio n . N o n e o f th e in v e n to r s w h o se p a te n ts w e re c ite d as a n tic ip a tin g
G a u la r d a n d G ib b ss h a d so lv e d th a t p a r tic u la r c o n te x tu a l p ro b le m .
T h e litig a tio n w as e x te n siv e , th e c o n tr o v e r s y in te c h n ic a l j o u r n a ls h e a te d ,
a n d th e n e g a tiv e c o u rt d e c isio n s w e re like tria l v e rd ic ts f o r G a u la rd a n d
G ibbs. B ro k e n by th e s e e x p e rie n c e s , G a u la rd d ie d in s a n e o n 2 6 N o v e m b e r
1888 a t th e S a in te -A n n e H o sp ita l in P a ris. By th e n o th e r in v e n to r s an d
e n g in e e r s , w h o a c k n o w le d g e d th e p r io rity o f G a u la r d a n d G ib b ss d e m
o n s tra tio n s b u t stre sse d th e ir o w n im p ro v e m e n ts , w e re ra p id ly in tro d u c in g
th e tr a n s f o r m e r s y stem . T h e e d ito r o f th e B ritish jo u r n a l Telegraphic J o u rnal
a nd Electrical R eview w ro te th a t th e c a re s a n d d is a p p o in tm e n ts o f th e long
a n d b itte rly c o n te s te d p a te n t litig a tio n h a d a g g ra v a te d a n te r io r te n d e n
cies a n d h a s te n e d G a u la r d s Final b r e a k d o w n .41 S e v e ra l m o n th s b e fo re his
u n tim e ly d e a th , G a u la rd h a d a p p e a r e d a t th e Elysee a s k in g th e co n cierg e
to c o n d u c t h im to th e p r e s id e n t o f F ra n c e , fo r w h o m , h e sa id , h e h a d an
u r g e n t m essag e . T h e m e ssag e w as, I a m G o d a n d G o d d o e s n o t w a it.42
O n e F re n c h h is to ria n o f te c h n o lo g y d e sc rib e s G a u la rd as a s u f f e r in g in
v e n to r w hose in g e n u ity c ost h im n o t o n ly his m o n e y b u t re a s o n a n d life as
w ell.43
G a u la r d s la te was tra g ic . H is e x p e r ie n c e a lso s u g g e s ts th a t it is fu tile for
an in v e n to r , a h is to ria n o f in v e n tio n , o r e v e n th e c o u r ts to a tte m p t to pro v e
w h o in v e n te d a m a c h in e , d e v ic e, o r p ro c e ss su c h as th e ste a m e n g in e , the
te le p h o n e , o r th e tr a n s f o r m e r . Ja m e s W a ll, fo r in sta n c e , d id n o t in v e n t the

,0 Tele.graphic Journal and Electrical Review l.r> (188-1): 3 63-64. For descriptions of installa
tions, s e e j. A. Fleming, The Alternating Current Transformer in Theory and Practice. 2 vols. (New
York: Van N ostrand. 1892), 2: 7 5-77; and Engineering 38 (1884): 529-30.
"Strange. T ransform er Patent Litigation," p. 8/2.
Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review. 23 (1888): 620.
**Electrical Engineer (London) I (1888): 147.
Pierre Rousseau. L'Histoire des techniques el des inventiones (Paris: Fayard, J958). p. 477.
Rousseau describes G aulard as "ruin* ab an d o n n e. m alade et sans Tamille. ii lut i tr e e ndem i*
a hospice dc aliens. et r esl de jusiesse quc I on sauva ses restes de la fosse com m une" (ibid.).

95

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
ste a m e n g in e ; h e in v e n te d a s e p a ra te ly c o n d e n s in g s te a m e n g in e . A lex
a n d e r G ra h a m Bell d id n o t in v e n t th e te le p h o n e ; h e p u t to g e th e r a te le
p h o n e system th a t e m b o d ie d a p a r tic u la r a p p lic a tio n o f th e p rin c ip le s o f
v a ria b le re sista n c e a n d in d u c tio n . A n d E d iso n d id n o t in v e n t th e in c a n
d e s c e n t la m p ; his a c h ie v e m e n t was a n in c a n d e s c e n t la m p w ith a h ig h re sista n c e fila m e n t. S im ilarly , L u c ie n G a u la rd d id n o t in v e n t th e tr a n s
fo rm e r; h e b u ilt a tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n system th a t in c o r p o ra te d
tr a n s f o r m e r s w ith p rim a rie s c o n n e c te d in se rie s in a h ig h -v o lta g e , a lte r
n a tin g - c u r r e n t c irc u it, a n d s e c o n d a rie s c a p a b le o f su p p ly in g v a rio u s c o m
b in a tio n s o f re lativ e ly low v o ltag e a n d h ig h c u r r e n t to in c a n d e s c e n t a n d
a rc lam p s. E ven su ch q u a lific a tio n s sim p lify th e n a tu r e o f th e se in v e n tio n s,
ho w e v e r. In fact, th e in v e n tio n s w ere p a rtic u la r s o lu tio n s to p a r tic u la r
critica l p r o b le m s d e f in e d w ith in th e c o n te x t o f pla ce , tim e , a n d o th e r c ir
c u m sta n c e s. T h e in v e n to rs im p ro v e d o n th e ir ea rly in v e n tio n s, a n d o th e r
in v e n to r s also a d a p ie d a n d m o d ifie d th e m to su it o th e r p laces, tim e s, a n d
c irc u m sta n c e s.
G a u la rd a n d G ibbs m e r it a p r o m in e n t place in h isto ry b e c a u se th e y in
v e n te d , d e v e lo p e d , a n d d e m o n s tr a te d a system th a t was, to use th e a p t
G e rm a n e x p re s s io n , E ntw icklungsfahig. O n c e d e m o n s tr a te d , th e ir in v e n tio n
stim u la te d a s tr e a m o f im p ro v e m e n ts . T h e ir sy stem was a c o m b in a tio n o f
k n o w n p rin c ip le s a n d dev ices, b u t it was a u n iq u e c o m b in a tio n th a t fu n c
tio n e d to solve a p r o b le m a n d c o rr e c t a re v e rse sa lie n t. N e v e rth e le ss, w h e n
th is Entw icklungsfahig in v e n tio n w as in tr o d u c e d , its p o te n tia l w as quickly
se n se d ; in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs w e re a w a re o f th e flaw in th e d.c. system
a n d e a g e rly se t a b o u t so lv in g th e p ro b le m . T h u s it p ro v e d to b e diffic u lt
to give G a u la rd a n d G ib b s c r e d it f o r th e ir c o n tr ib u tio n in a c o u rt o f law.
As n o te d , th r e e in v e n to r- e n g in e e r s asso ciated w ith G an z 8c C o m p a n y ,
th e p r o m in e n t H u n g a r ia n e lec trica l m a n u f a c tu r in g firm , su b sta n tia lly im
p r o v e d th e d e s ig n o f th e G a u la rd a n d G ibbs tr a n s fo rm e r. A c c o rd in g to
G a u la rd , th e H u n g a r ia n e n g in e e r O tto T itu s B lath y ( 1 8 6 0 -1 9 3 9 ) a p
p ro a c h e d h im a b o u t his t r a n s f o r m e r system a t th e T u r in e x h ib itio n . B lathy
is sa id to h a v e a p p e a le d to h im n o t to license th e system in A u stria u n til
B lath y c o u ld c o n v in c e his firm , G an z 8c C o m p a n y o f B u d a p e st, o f its value.'1-1
B lalh y a c k n o w le d g e d th a t h e a n d a n o th e r G an z e n g in e e r, C h a rle s Z ip ernow ski (1 8 5 3 -1 9 4 2 ), d id see G a u la rd at T u r in , b u t th a t all th e y le a rn e d
fro m h im was h ow a tr a n s f o r m e r s h o u ld n o t be c o n s tru c te d .45 G a n z &
C o m p a n y e n g in e e rs th e n b o u g h t a G a u la rd a n d G ibbs tr a n s f o r m e r a n d in
th e w in te r o f 1884/85 m a d e tw o m a jo r im p ro v e m e n ts in it. B lathy d e c id e d
th a t a clo sed c o re c o u ld b e u se d to p ro v id e a m o re effectiv e m a g n e tic field
th a n th e o p e n co re . M ax D eri (1 8 5 4 -1 9 3 8 ), also o f G a n z 8c C o m p a n y , a n d
Z ip e rn o w sk i re c o g n iz e d in e ffec tiv e vo lta g e re g u la tio n in th e se c o n d a ry c ir
cu its as a re v e rse sa lie n t in th e G a u la rd a n d G ibbs system a n d c o n n e c te d
th e p rim a r ie s in p a ra lle l. By M ay 1885 D eri, B lath y , a n d Z ip e rn o w sk i h a d
d e v e lo p e d th e ir system a n d d e m o n s tra te d it at th e H u n g a ria n N atio n a l
E x h ib itio n in B u d a p e st. T h e ir tr a n s f o r m e r is c o n sid e re d by so m e to hav e

L cllcr from G aulard lo the jo u rn al. Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Uevirw 17 (1R85):
508.

L ciier from Dlitlliy to llie journal, ibid.. pp. 465-66.

90

Figure IV .7. The Den. Blathy, and

Zipernowski transformer, 1885. From
Fleming. T h e A lternating C u rren t
T ran sfo rm er, 2: 87.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

b e e n th e first c o m m e rc ia l, p ra c tic a l tr a n s f o r m e r ." '" 5 F le m in g d e sc rib e s it
as a m a jo r im p r o v e m e n t u p o n th a t o f G a u la r d a n d G ib b s.47 (S ee Fig. I V .7.)
T h e in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c lo s e d -c o re , p a ra lle l-c o n n e c te d
tr a n s f o r m e r by B ld lh y , D e ri, a n d Z ip e rn o w sk i w as n o t f o r tu ito u s th e y a n d
G a n z 8c C o m p a n y h a d b u ilt u p a m o m e n tu m in th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t
field th a t c a r r ie d th e m in to t r a n s f o r m e r d e v e lo p m e n t g e n e ra lly , a n d p a r
alle l c o n n e c tio n s sp ec ifically . I n 1878 G a n z 8c C o m p a n y a s s ig n e d p a r t o f
its e x te n s iv e e n g in e e r in g w o rk s to th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f e le c tric lig h tin g
a p p a r a tu s in A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y a n d by 1883 h a d m a d e o v e r fifty in sta lla
tio n s. It o f f e r e d a n e n tir e sy ste m c o n s is tin g o f b o th a rc a n d in c a n d e s c e n t
la m p s, g e n e r a to r s , a n d o t h e r a c c e s s o rie s .T h e fact th a t it a d o p te d a lte r n a t
in g c u r r e n t e x clu siv e ly w as n o ta b le in th e e r a o f th e E d is o n d ir e c t- c u r r e n t
sy ste m .48 T w o o f th e e n g in e e r s w h o w o r k e d o n tr a n s f o r m e r d e s ig n h ad
p r io r e x p e r ie n c e w ith a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t. Z ip e rn o w s k i, f o u n d e r o f th e
e le c tric a l d iv isio n a t th e G a n z fa c to ry , d e s ig n e d th e c o m p a n y s p a te n te d
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy ste m . B ld th y , te c h n ic a l d ir e c to r o f th e e le c tric a l d i
v isio n a f te r 1883, also h e ld m a n y a.c. p a te n ts . A lth o u g h D e ri w as m ost
a c tiv e in th e sales d iv isio n , h e to o , c o n tr ib u te d to th e te c h n ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t
o f th e tr a n s f o r m e r .
In d e s ig n in g v a rio u s a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t in s ta lla tio n s , G a n z e n g in e e r s
u se d p a ra lle l circ u its a n d c o n s ta n t-v o lta g e g e n e r a to r s .49 T h is e x p e rie n c e
u n d o u b te d ly in flu e n c e d Z ip e rn o w sk i, D e ri, a n d B la th y to try w o rk in g th e
tr a n s f o r m e r in p a ra lle l, fo r su c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t c a lle d f o r a c o n sta n tv o lta g e g e n e r a to r . S in ce tr a n s f o r m e r s w ith p r im a r ie s w ire d in p a ra lle l a n d
s u p p lie d f ro m a c o n s ta n t- v o lta g e g e n e r a to r w e re s e lf-r e g u la tin g , G a n z e n
g in e e r s c o u ld d is p e n s e w ith th e c o m p le x r e g u la to r G a u la r d a n d G ib b s h a d
p la c e d in th e s e c o n d a r y c irc u it.
T o u n d e r s ta n d w h y G a n z 8c C o m p a n y s u c c e e d e d w h e r e G a u la r d a n d
G ib b s fa ile d it is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t G a n z 8c C o m p a n y h a d c u sto m a rily
d e s ig n e d a n d m a n u f a c tu r e d a n e n tir e sy ste m . B e c a u se o f th is, it w as not
in c lin e d to d e v e lo p a c o m p lic a te d tr a n s f o r m e r th a t p e r m itte d a d a p ta tio n
to o th e r in v e n to r s a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s c o m p o n e n ts . T h u s , Z ip e rn o w sk i
a n d h is c o lle a g u e s d id n o t r e s o r t to su c h in g e n io u s e x p e d ie n ts as th e o p e n ,
re m o v a b le c o re a n d sets o f b o b b in s w ith c o n n e c tio n p e r m u ta tio n s . T h e
G a n z a p p r o a c h w as m o r e a n a lo g o u s to th e sy ste m s a p p r o a c h o f E dison.
B u t a n o th e r m a jo r e x p la n a tio n fo r th e in g e n io u s a n d c o m p lic a te d G a u la rd
a n d G ib b s d e s ig n a n d th e in g e n io u s a n d re la tiv e ly s im p le G a n z & C o m p a n y
d e s ig n is th a t th e E lec tric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1882 d id n o t a p p ly in th e A u stro H u n g a r ia n E m p ire . It s h o u ld also b e n o te d th a t by 1 885, in th e U n ite d
K in g d o m a n d e ls e w h e re in th e in d u s tria l W e st, la m p v o lta g e s w e re b ein g
s ta n d a r d iz e d , a n d it w as n o lo n g e r likely th a t a fix e d v o lta g e fro m th e
s u p p lie r w o u ld d ic ta te th e c a p a c ity o f a p a r tic u la r m a n u f a c tu r e r s lam ps.
T h e G a n z 8c C o m p a n y s y stem w as w idely a d o p te d . By 1890 n e a rly s eventy
"* Malacsy and von Fuchs. " T ra n sfo rm e r Invented Seventy-five Y ears Ago," p. 121.
' THt Al,,l nm !in Cu,r'" ' Transformer. p. 86. A balanced view attribute d to C aulard
and Gibbs th e intro d u ctio n o f a tran sfo rm e r system th at could be developed in a practical
fo n r>{Detnebsf6h,g) and to the H ung arian s the actual in tro d u ction o f that form . L. Schuler
Geschtclile des Transformatori, quo ted in D ellm ar. Starkslromlechnik p 84
Engineering, 35 (1883): 80-81 and 550.
,g Ibid.. pp. 550-51.

R E V E R S E S A L IE N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
c e n tr a l s ta tio n s o f v a rio u s sizes h a d b e e n p la ce d in o p e ra tio n u sin g th e
c o m p a n y s a lte rn a tin g -c u rre n t g e n e ra to rs, tra n sfo rm e rs, a n d controls. T h e se
sta tio n s s u p p lie d 100 ,0 0 0 in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s a n d 1,000 a rc la m p s .'0 B o th
C a n z & C o m p a n y a n d G a u la r d a n d G ibbs d isp la y e d th e ir sy stem s at th e
I n v e n tio n s E x h ib itio n in th e s p rin g o f 1885 a t S o u th K e n sin g to n in L o n d o n .
T h e d isp lay s d re w th e a tte n tio n o f m an y ele c tric ia n s a n d e n g in e e r s (a m o n g
th e m , th e A m e ric a n G e o rg e W e stin g h o u sc ) to a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t d is tr i
b u tio n .
O th e r s so o n jo in e d th e G a n z & C o m p a n y e n g in e e r s in th e ra n k s o f th e
im p ro v e rs o f G a u la rd a n d G ibbs's system . In L o n d o n a tra in o f e v e n ts was
set in to m o tio n th a t re s u lte d in a m o d ific a tio n to th e sy stem G a u la rd a n d
G ibbs in sta lled in L o n d o n s G r o s v e n o r G allery . T h e o w n e rs o f th e g a llery
h a d sid e -s te p p e d th e re s tric tio n s o f th e E lectric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1882 by
s trin g in g th e ir w ires a lo n g ro o fto p s , th e r e b y av o id in g th e o p e n in g o f th e
s tre e ts. T h e y th e n w a n te d a n e co n o m ica l m e a n s o f tra n s m ittin g ac ro ss th e
ro o fto p s.
T h e G ro s v e n o r c e n tra l s ta tio n h a d u n o r th o d o x o rig in s. W h e n th e tw entysix th e a rl o f C r a w fo rd , J a m e s L u d o v ic L in d say , s e rv e d as B ritish c o m m is
s io n e r a t th e P a ris E le ctric al E x h ib itio n o f 1882, h e fo u n d th e d isp la y s o f
th e new in c a n d e s c e n t lig h t esp ecially th a t o f T h o m a s A. E d iso n im
p re ssiv e. H e th e n p e r s u a d e d his u n c le , S ir C o u tts L in d say , p r o p r ie to r o f
th e G ro s v e n o r A rt G a lle ry o n N ew B o n d S tre e t, to in sta ll a p o rta b le g e n
e r a to r , th e b e tte r to lig h t th e w o rk s o f B u rn e -J o n e s , W h istle r, a n d o th e r
c o n te m p o ra r y artists. E le ctric lig h t w o u ld n o t sm o k e th e p a in tin g s as d id
gas a n d b u r n in g oils a n d w axes.
N ew a r t a n d te c h n o lo g y so o n c o n v e rg e d . S ir C o u tts L in d say a n d C o m
p a n y w as fo u n d e d to su p p ly lig h tin g n o t o n ly to th e g a lle ry b u t to n e ig h
b o rin g b u sin e sse s w h o se c u s to m e rs w e re im p re sse d by th e lig h tin g o f th e
a r t g a lle ry a n d its g r e e n e r y y a lle ry w orks o f a r t.5' T o m e e t th e g ro w in g
d e m a n d , th e c o m p a n y tu r n e d to G a u la rd a n d G ibbs, w h o in stalled th e ir
tr a n s f o r m e r s in se rie s in a 2 ,5 0 0 -v o lt c irc u it w ith S iem e n s sin g le -p h a se
a lte rn a to rs . As th e lo a d in c re a se d , h o w e v er, th e system p ro v e d v irtu ally
u n w o rk a b le .52
T h u s , in 1886 S ir C o u tts L in d sa y a n d C o m p a n y c alled in th e y o u n g a n d
b rig h t e n g in e e r S e b a stia n Z iani d e F e rr a n ti (18641930), th e m a n u f a c tu r e r
o f m e te r s u se d by th e co m p a n y . B o r n in L iv erp o o l to a n Ita lia n fa th e r w ho
h a d o n c e b e e n g u ita ris t to L e o p o ld 1 o f B elg iu m a n d a m o th e r w ho was
th e d a u g h te r o f a p o r tr a it p a in te r , F e r ra n ti was a s trik in g p e rs o n b o th
p hysically a n d in te lle c tu a lly .53 C o m p a re d in his y o u th to E d iso n , h e su b
se q u e n tly h a d a lo n g a n d active c a re e r as a n in v e n to r, e n g in e e r , a n d le a d in g
B ritish e lec trical m a n u f a c tu r e r . H e h a d n o ad v a n c e d scien tific o r e n g i
n e e r in g tr a in in g b e fo re b e g in n in g w o rk in 1881 f o r S iem en s B ro th e rs , th e
* Fleming, The Alternating Current Transformer, p. 121.
A. P. T ro tter, "Early Days o f the Electrical Industry and O th er Reminiscences (typescript
at the library o f the Institution o f Electrical Engineers. London), p. 586.
* Parsons, Early Days of the Power Station Industry, p. 22.
O n Ferranti's life see W. L. Randcll, 5. Z. de Ferrantt and His Influence upon Electrical
Development (London: Longmans, G reen, 1948): A rth u r Ridding, S. Z. de Ferranti, Pioneer of
Electrical Power (L ondon: Science Museum. 1964); and G ertru d e Ziani de Ferranti and Richard
Ince. The Life and Letters of Sebastian Z. de Ferranti (London: Williams Sc Norgate, 1934).

98

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
B rilish b ra n c h o f th e G e r m a n e n te r p r is e , b u t a t th e S ie m e n s w o rk s at
C h a rlto n , n e a r W o olw ich, his e n th u s ia s m fo r th e n ew fie ld o f electrical
e n g in e e r in g g re w w h e n h e f o u n d h im s e lf s u r r o u n d e d by d y n a m o s, arc
lig h ts, a n d o th e r a p p a r a tu s . H e so o n im p re s s e d h is asso ciate s w ith h is m e
c h a n ic a l g e n iu s.
N o tin g his g e n iu s a n d s tr ik in g p e rs o n a lity , F e r r a n tis la w y e r a d v ise d him
in 1883 to e sta b lish h im s e lf as a p riv a te m a n u f a c tu r e r o f his a lte rn a to rs
a n d o th e r e q u ip m e n t. F e r r a n ti r e s p o n d e d by m a rry in g th e la w y e rs d a u g h
t e r a n d g a in in g his fa th e r-in -la w as h is fin a n c ia l b a c k e r. As a b rig h t y o u n g
e n g in e e r a n d th e re s p e c te d in v e n to r o f a n a lte r n a to r , F e r ra n ti th u s d re w
th e a tte n tio n o f S ir C o u tls L in d sa y w h e n n u m e r o u s te c h n ic a l diffic u ltie s
a ro s e a t th e G r o s v e n o r G a lle ry sta tio n .
A p p o in te d c h ie f e n g in e e r of S ir C o u lls L in d sa y a n d C o m p a n y in 1886,
F e r ra n ti fo llo w e d th e p r e c e d e n t o f G a n z 8c C o m p a n y a n d c h a n g e d o v e r to
th e p a ra lle l c o n n e c tio n o f th e G a u la r d a n d G ib b s tr a n s f o r m e r p rim a rie s.
In 1886, o n b e h a lf o f h is ne w e m p lo y e r , h e also p e titio n e d fo r rev o ca tio n
o f th e G a u la rd a n d G ib b s p a te n ts . G a u la r d a n d G ib b s h a d c h a r g e d fees
f o r th e u se o f th e ir p a te n te d tr a n s f o r m e r a n d in tu r n th r e a te n e d F e rra n ti
a n d S ir C o u tts L in d sa y a n d C o m p a n y w ith in f r in g e m e n t p r o c e e d in g s for
th e r e d e s ig n e d tr a n s f o r m e r . F e r r a n ti a lso p r u d e n tly r e p la c e d th e S iem ens
a lte r n a to r s w ith m a c h in e s o f his o w n d e s ig n . In s h o rt, h e re d e s ig n e d the
sta tio n 's c o m p o n e n ts syste m a tically (see Fig. IV .8 ). T h e G ro s v e n o r G allery
sta tio n th e n e x p a n d e d im p re ssiv e ly u n til in 1888 th e r e w e re five m ac h in e s,
five c irc u its, a n d 3 4 ,0 0 0 la m p s lig h tin g a la rg e d is tric t o f L o n d o n . Its peak
lo ad in 1888 w as 6 0 0 kw .54 G ro s v e n o r G a lle ry w as c a lle d th e o n ly c e n tra l
s ta tio n in E n g la n d w o rth y o f th e n a m e a n d th e o n e e v e r g r e e n oasis
s ta n d in g b o ld ly o u t in th e m id st o f a d ism a l w a ste .55 (S ee Fig. IV .9 .)
In th e U n ite d S tates, still a n o th e r in v e n to r a n d a n o th e r c o m p a n y im
p r o v e d o n th e G a u la rd a n d G ib b s sy ste m a t a b o u t th e sa m e tim e as th e
D eri, B lath y , a n d Z ip e rn o w sk i m o d ific a tio n s w e re b e in g d e v e lo p e d in H u n
g a ry a n d th e F e rr a n ti sy ste m was b e in g b u ilt in E n g la n d . T h e A m e ric a n ,
W illiam S ta n le y (1 8 5 8 -1 9 1 6 ), th e H u n g a r ia n s , a n d F e r r a n ti all k n e w a b o u t
th e w o rk o f G a u la r d a n d G ib b s; in d e e d , th e y h a d h a d in tim a te c o n ta c t with
it, d e s p ite th e ir in siste n c e th a t th e y h a d le a r n e d little fro m it. P a te n t tactics
s u g g e ste d th a t th e y m a k e th is d isc la im e r. D eri, B lath y , a n d Z ip e rn o w sk i
w en t so fa r as to say th a t th e y le a r n e d o n ly h ow n o t lo b u ild a tra n s f o r m e r;
F e rr a n ti c la im e d th a t th e G a u la rd a n d G ib b s in v e n tio n w as n o t p a te n ta b le ;
a n d W illiam S ta n le y o b se rv e d y e a rs la te r th a t a lth o u g h th e w o rk o f G a u la rd
was r e m a r k a b le in sh o w in g a c o m p r e h e n s iv e k n o w le d g e o f th e laws o f the
in d u c tio n coil a n d re a c tiv e e lfe c ts , it was h o p e le ssly ill-fitte d to th e co n
d itio n s im p o s e d by a g e n e ra l lig h tin g sy ste m .5'1 A s n o te d e a r lie r, BMthy
M Clipping from Engineering, 2 A ugust 1912; and London Electric Supply C orp.. Lid..
A nnual Itefiort, 1888.
See Electrical Engineer ( I^ n d o n ) I (I88H): 348; q uotation from ibid. 2 (1888): 386.
T h o m as C M artin's unpublished m anuscript " b io g raphy o f William Stanley was kindly
loaned to me by Mr. Samuel Sass. librarian o f the William Stanley L ibrary. G eneral Electric
Co.. Pitislicld. Mass. (h ereafter cited as M artin. "Stanley Biography"), la b o ra to ry and personal
notebooks spanning Stanley's c areer as a professional inventor (c. 1882-1910). as well as
com pany records and personal m aterials, arc p a n o r th e William Stanley Papers on file at
the William Stanley Library. K aren Belm ore o r the University of Pennsylvania is currently
w riting a biography o f William Stanley the inventor

R E V E R S E S A L IE N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
Figure IV.8. Ferranti's 1885 notebook
sketches fo r transformers installed at the
Grasvenor Gallery central station, London.
Courtesy o f the Ferranti Ltd. Archives,
Hollinwood, England.

Figure IV. 9. Overhead distribution system

(1887) from the Grosvenor Gallery central
station.

j t iv r m n a

"
S
sw

lOO

Figure IV .10. William Stanley. From

Creating the Electrical Age, ed. Nilo
Lindgren. a special issue of EPR1
Jo u rn a l 4 (1979): 37.

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

d isc u sse d llie G a u la rd a n d G ib b s sy stem w ith G a u la rd a t th e T u r i n e x h i

b itio n , a n d F e r r a n ti w o r k e d w ith th e sy ste m a t G ro s v e n o r G a llery . S tan ley ,
to o , h a d a G a u la r d a n d G ib b s tr a n s f o r m e r a t his d isp o sa l as h e d e v e lo p e d
his o w n d e s ig n . T h e in f o r m a tio n in G a u la rd a n d G ib b ss p a te n ts a n d in
th e te c h n ic a l p e rio d ic a ls w as av a ila b le to all.
T h e G a u la rd a n d G ib b s d e v ic e c a m e in to S ta n le y s h a n d s th r o u g h G e o rg e
W e s iin g h o u s e , w h o by 1884 o w n e d tw o p r o s p e r o u s m a n u f a c tu r in g firm s,
th e W e s iin g h o u s e A ir B r a k e C o m p a n y a n d th e U n io n S w itch 8c S ignal
C o m p a n y ( m a n u f a c tu r e r o f ra ilw a y e q u ip m e n t). W e s lin g h o u s e s c e n te r of
o p e r a tio n s w as s te e l- p r o d u c in g P itts b u rg h . H is b r o th e r , H . H . W e stin g
h o u s e , w h o m a d e ste a m e n g in e s to d riv e e le c tric g e n e r a to r s , in tro d u c e d
W illiam S ta n le y to G e o rg e , w h o , a f te r d e c id in g to e n t e r th e field , c o n tra c te d
w ith S ta n le y to d e v o te his tim e to f u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n e le c tric lig h tin g
sy stem . W e s tin g h o u s e a lso p u r c h a s e d th e in c a n d e s c e n t-la m p a n d g e n e ra to r
p a te n ts th a t S ta n le y h a d a ssig n e d e a r lie r to th e S w a n In c a n d e s c e n t E lectric
L ig h t C o m p a n y o f B o sto n , M a ssa c h u se tts. S e v e ra l o f th e U n io n Sw itch &
S ig n a l C o m p a n y e n g in e e r s w e re a ssig n e d to e le c tric lig h tin g d e v e lo p m e n t
as w ell.57
S ta n le y , a n a tiv e o f B ro o k ly n , N ew Y o rk , w as th e so n o f a p r o m in e n t
la w y er. T h e fa m ily la te r m o v e d to E n g le w o o d , N ew J e r s e y , w h e re Stanley
g re w u p . E n c o u r a g e d by his f a th e r to s tu d y law , S ta n le y e n te r e d Yale
U n iv e rsity , b u t left a f te r se v e ra l m o n th s . In a n o te to h is f a th e r h e e x
p la in e d , H a v e [h a d ] e n o u g h o f th is a m g o in g to N e w Y o rk .58 B eing
in c lin e d to w a rd m e c h a n ic a l a n d sc ie n tific a c tiv itie s, S ta n le y first fo u n d e m
p lo y m e n t w ith a N ew Y o rk m a n u f a c tu r e r o f te le g r a p h ic a p p a r a tu s . His
f a th e r so o n b e c a m e r e s ig n e d to his p r e d ile c tio n s , h o w e v e r, a n d f u n d e d his
e n te r in g a p a r tn e r s h ip in th e e le c tr o p la tin g b u sin e ss. A b o u t 1881 Stanley
a b a n d o n e d e le c tro p la tin g to jo in th e w e ll-k n o w n in v e n to r o f th e m ach in e
g u n , H ira m M a x im ( 1 8 4 0 - 1 9 1 6 ), w h o at th e tim e w as e n g a g e d in the
in v e n tio n , d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d m a n u f a c tu r e o f e le c tric a r c a n d in c a n d e sc e n t
la m p s fo r th e U .S. E le ctric L ig h tin g C o m p a n y in N ew Y o rk C ity. T h is
c o m p a n y w as E d is o n s m a jo r c o m p e tito r fo r th e in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g m a r
k e t u n til 1885, b u t it h a d o n ly a b o u t o n e -f if th as m a n y c u s to m e rs as the
E d iso n e n te r p r is e . O n e o f th e U .S. E lec tric L ig h tin g C o m p a n y s p ro b le m s
was its f a ilu r e to d e v e lo p a c o h e r e n t sy ste m . M ax im c o n c e n tr a te d o n the
in ca n d e sc e n t la m p , leaving th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e d.c. g e n e r a to r to o th e rs.59
A f te r M ax im le ft th e c o m p a n y a n d r e tu r n e d to E u r o p e in 1881 o r 1882,
E d w a rd W e sto n (1 8 5 0 -1 9 3 6 ) b e c a m e c h ie f e n g in e e r fo r th e c o m p a n y , a n d
S ta n le y w o rk e d f o r a few m o n th s u n d e r a n o th e r o f th e p io n e e r in v e n to rs
a n d e n g in e e r s o f th e in d u s tr y ,<>n In 1882 S ta n le y w e n t to w o rk fo r a n o th e r
m a n u f a c tu r e r o f in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s, th e S w a n E lec tric C o m p a n y in Bos
to n , a n d se v e ra l o l his in v e n tio n s w e re p a te n te d by th e c o m p a n y . A fte r a
y e ar, h o w e v e r, h e r e tu r n e d to E n g le w o o d , N ew J e rs e y , a n d e s ta b lis h e d his
r
Dol,Klav Willi("" S " ' b ^ Short Biography (New York: II. S. Robinson. 1903). pp.
j9 . fi'l-Gti; and Passer, Electrical Manufacturers, p. 131. Sec also the biographical booklcl by
Laurence A. Hawkms, Will,am Stanley. 1X38-1916 (New York: New com en Socie.y. 1951).
s" Douglas, Stanley, p. 33.
Passer. Electrical Manufacturers, p. 148.
M cGrawiliM "iM r'i"7 ,

^
^ f Grf,,ne":A

Short Biography of Edward Weston (New York:

lO l
F ig u r tI V .il. Entry from William
Stanley's notebook, 18 September 1883,
showing work with alternating-current
generator (G) and translating devices (T)
for transmitting induced currents to
secondary circuits. Courtesy o f J. Church
and the Stanley Library,
Pittsfield, Mass.

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R I T IC A L P R O B L E M S

G =
-------(5 -

yj",

s 6 e t

/y v -

ow n la b o r a to r y to e x p e r im e n t w ith e le c tro c h e m istry , in c a n d e sc e n t lam ps,

a n d s to ra g e b a tte rie s (see Fig. IV . 1 1). F ro m th e re , in 1884, h e was e n tic e d
to G e o rg e W e s tin g h o u s e s co m p a n y . S ta n le y s h a v in g w o rk e d w ith m o st of
th e le a d e rs in th e fie ld b e f o r e h e was th irty in d ic a te s how sm all a n d in tim a te
th e p io n e e r c o m m u n ity was.
S ta n le y d id n o t lose his sta tu s as a p r o fe ssio n a l in v e n to r by asso ciatin g
w ith W e stin g h o u se , b u t W e slin g h o u se s s u p p o r t o f his w ork was c o n tr a c
tu al. T h e a g r e e m e n t th e tw o m e n sig n e d o n 5 M arch 1884 sp e cified th a t
S ta n le y w o u ld assign all f u tu r e in v e n tio n s fu n d e d by W e stin g h o u se to W e sl
in g h o u se o n con d itio n th a t W e slinghouse w ould m a n u fa c tu re a n d sell them .
S ta n le y was to rec eiv e o n e - te n th o f th e p ro fits a n d a n a n n u a l salary o f
$ 5 ,0 0 0 . R esp o n sib ility fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f W e stin g h o u se s e lec tric lig h t
in g p ro je c t th u s fell to S tan ley . In 1885 h e esta b lish ed a fa cto ry fo r m a n
u fa c tu rin g in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s o f his d e sig n , a n d h e d e sig n e d d ire c t-c u r
r e n t g e n e ra to rs to fu n c tio n system atically w ith his lam ps. H e also to o k o u t
te n p a te n ts o n th e in c a n d e sc e n t-la m p system , p lu s o n e th a t was ta k e n o u t
jo in tly .
In th e s u m m e r o f 1885 G e o rg e W estin g h o u se o r d e r e d sev e ral G a u la rd

102

NETTW ORKS O F P O W E R
a n d G ib b s tr a n s f o r m e r s a n d s e c u r e d a n o p tio n o n th e A m e ric a n p a te n t
rig h ts, w h ic h h e la te r e x e rc is e d , b u t th e r e a r e c o n flic tin g a c c o u n ts as to
w h o at W e s tin g h o u s e p r o m o te d th e tr a n s f o r m e r sy ste m . R ely in g o n th e
re m in isc e n c e s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f o n e o f W e s lin g h o u s e s em p lo y e es
a n d p ro te g e s , G u id o P a n ta le o n i, H a r o ld P a sse r, th e h is to ria n o f A m e ric a n
electrical m a n u fa c tu re rs, co n c lu d e s th a t G e o rg e W eslin g h o u se a lo n e p u sh ed
t h r o u g h th e p ro je c t: O p p o s itio n by A L L th e e le c tric p a r t o f th e W e stin g
h o u s e o r g a n iz a tio n w as su c h th a t it w as o n ly M r. G e o r g e W e s lin g h o u s e s
p e r s o n a l will th a t p u t it t h r o u g h ." 61 A t W e s lin g h o u s e s r e q u e s t, P a n ta le o n i
h a d se c u r e d th e o p tio n o n th e G a u la r d a n d G ib b s p a te n t rig h ts a f te r d is
c u ssin g th e sy ste m w ith G a u la rd a t T u r i n , h a d c o n s u lte d W e r n e r S ie m e n s
a b o u t it, a n d h a d a lso s o u g h t th e ad v ice o f G a n z & C o m p a n y .
S ta n le y h im s e lf m in im iz e s th e ro le p la y e d by G e o rg e W e s lin g h o u s e in
p ro m o tin g th e sy ste m , m a in ta in in g th a t W e s lin g h o u s e w as a d v ise d a g ain st
th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem by a " tr u s te d e x p e r t. A c c o rd in g to S tanley,
W e s lin g h o u s e s c o n trib u tio n w as to m a k e c a p ita l a v a ila b le fo r e x p e r im e n
ta tio n . b u t h e d id so o n te r m s th a t w e re n o t fa v o ra b le to S tan le y . O nly
w h e n W e s tin g h o u s e saw S ta n le y s sy stem in o p e r a tio n d id h e d e c id e to
e n te r th e a.c. field ac tiv ely .02 A c c o rd in g to T h o m a s C o m m e r f o r d M a rtin ,
b io g r a p h e r o f S ta n le y a n d E d iso n , S ta n le y h a d th e g r e a te s t d iffic u lty b r in g
in g W e s tin g h o u s e to a c le a r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e tr a n s f o r m e r sy stem .63
F u r th e r m o r e , M a rlin c o n c lu d e s , F o r so m e r e a s o n , W e s lin g h o u s e , w ho
se e m s to h a v e r e g a r d e d S ta n le y as r a t h e r u n s ta b le a n d v isio n a ry , full of
c h im e ric a l p ro je c ts, a n d w h o was p ro b a b ly g u id e d by in s id e in flu e n c e s n ot
to o frie n d ly to w a rd th e im p e tu o u s , s e lf- c e n te re d y o u n g g e n iu s , d e c lin e d
flatly to f u r n is h S ta n le y w ith a n y m o n e y to b u ild a n d try o u t his new
a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t sy ste m .0l
T h e " tr u s te d e x p e r t" a n d " in sid e in f lu e n c e m e n tio n e d by S ta n le y a n d
M a rtin w as p ro b a b ly P a n la le o n i. A c c o rd in g to H e n r y M. B yllesby, a p r o m
in e n t p io n e e r in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r w h o assisted
E d iso n in th e d e s ig n o f th e P ea rl S tr e e t sta tio n a n d w h o j o in e d W estin g
h o u s e a t a b o u t th e sa m e tim e as S ta n le y , P a n la le o n i h im s e lf w h e n I first
j o in e d th e W e s tin g h o u s e in te r e s ts w as s c o rn fu lly p e ssim istic r e g a r d in g S ta n
ley a n d all his w o rk , a n d th e possib ilitie s o f a n y th in g w o rth w h ile re su ltin g
fro m th e a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t. T h e y w e re w h o lly a n tith e tic a l c h a r a c te rs , an d
th e m o m e n t th e y c a m e in c o n ta c t tr o u b le a ro s e , w h ic h w as d e s tr u c tiv e o f
a n y re su lt. 03 In su m , W e s tin g h o u s e p ro b a b ly d id p u s h th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f a tr a n s f o r m e r sy ste m , b u t n o t S ta n le y 's a p p r o a c h to it.
W h e n B yllesby b e c a m e g e n e ra l m a n a g e r o f th e W e s lin g h o u s e electrical
e n te r p r is e , h e trie d to h e lp his f rie n d S ta n le y , w h o m h e saw as a te m p e r
a m e n ta l in v e n to r w h o d id his best w o rk aw ay f ro m th e r o u tin e a n d disci
p lin e of in d u s tr y . H e s u p p o r te d th e d e c isio n o f S ta n le y a n d W e stin g h o u se

---- ... x. .iniiuKum,

>(. lllllMaCCIlC(:S Ol V
^ |^II
Mfirinr
I1M;#,
a nd quo ted in Passer, Electrical Manufacturers, p. |S 2.
William Stanley. "A lternating C u rren t Developm ent in A m erica" (P aper read belon

..
2
'
Ibid.. p. 5.

M a n i"-

Biogrnphy," c fe p . 7. p. 2

103

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R I T IC A L P R O R L E M S
to s e p a r a te at least physically. O n 24 D e c e m b e r 1885 W c siiitg h o u sc a n d
S ta n le y s ig n e d a new c o n tra c t. A c c o rd in g to its te rm s. S ta n le y w ould leave
P itts b u rg h to re sid e in G re a t H a rrin g to n , M a ssa ch u se tts, in th e lte i ksh ires
h e h a d k n o w n d u r in g v ac atio n s as a c h ild . F u r th e r m o r e . W e siin g h o iise
w o u ld p u r c h a s e back fo r $ 1 2 ,5 0 0 . $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 w o rth o f s e c u ritie s in a new
W e stin g h o u se c o m p a n y in w hich S tan ley h e ld o n e -te n th o f th e sh a re s, th e
to tal v a lu e o f w hich w as $ 10 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e r e m a in in g s h a re s (v alu ed at $ 7 5 ,0 0 0 )
w ere to h e d e liv e re d fully p a id to S tan ley . S tan ley was to use th e $12,50(1
to o p e r a te a la b o ra to ry at ( .re a l B a rrin g to n , l i e w o u ld rece iv e a sala ry ol
$4 ,0 0 0 a n n u a lly , o r $ 1 ,0 0 0 less th a n h e was th e n re ce iv in g . W e siin g h o u sc
also a g r e e d to c o n tr ib u te $ 2 0 0 a m o n th to w a rd g e n e ra l la b o ra to ry ex p e n se s.
In r e tu r n , S tan ley w as to su b m it his in v e n tio n s to th e c o m p a n y fo r p a te n tin g
a n d a c c e p ta n c e . I f th e y w e re not ta k e n u p , S tan ley c o td d d isp o se o f th e m
as h e p le a s e d .Wi
S ta n le y 's m o v e lo his o w n la b o ra to ry in G re a t B a rr in g to n , M assac h u setts,
m ir r o r e d T h o m a s E d is o n s q u e st fo r g r e a te r a u to n o m y . T h e fre e d o m to
c o n c e p tu a liz e a sy ste m m a d e u p o f o n e s ow n in v e n te d c o m p o n e n ts won
o u t o v e r th e re s tr ic tio n s o f fittin g o n e 's in v e n tio n s in to th e c o n c e p tu a l
fr a m e w o rk o f a n o th e r . M o re o v e r, this h a r m o n io u s c o o r d in a tio n o f c o m
p o n e n ts e lim in a te d r e v e r s e sa lien ts. It is in te r e s tin g to n o te th a t S tan ley ,
w h o h a d b e e n d e p r e s s e d a n d in p o o r h e a lth in P itts b u rg h , was r e ju v e n a te d
so o n a f te r his a rriv a l in G re a t B a rrin g to n . E arly in 1886 h e a c q u ire d an
a b a n d o n e d m ill, re s to r e d a n o ld ste a m e n g in e , set u p a S ie m e n s a lte rn a to r
lo a n e d to h im by th e W e stin g h o u se c o m p a n y , h ire d o n e a ssista n t, a n d
p a in sta k in g ly b e g a n d e s ig n in g a n d d e v e lo p in g new tra n s f o r m e r s . 11 is tr a n s
f o rm e rs a n d la m p s w e re so o n in sta lle d in h o u se s a n d b u sin e sse s in ( h e a t
B a r rin g to n , a n d o n 6 M arch 1886 th e system b e g a n to o p e r a te o n a re g u la r
basis. H is a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t tr a n s f o r m e r , e e n lra l-s ta tio n system fo r p ublic
serv ice, th e v ery first in A m e ric a b ey o n d all d is p u te ," u sed a 2 5 -h .p . stea m
en g in e , tra n s fo rm e rs su p p ly in g e ith e r tw enty-five o r fifty incandescent lam ps,
a n d w ires s tr u n g o n in s u la to rs a tta c h e d to th e " g ra n d o ld e lm s" th a t lined
th e village s tre e ts .67 T h e le n g th o f th e tra n sm issio n circu it fro m c en trals la tio n la b o ra to ry to village c e n te r was a b o u t 4 .0 0 0 feet. C o n n e c te d to it
w e re th ir te e n sto re s, tw o d o c to r s ' o ffic es, o n e b a rb e rs h o p , th e te le p h o n e
ex c h a n g e , a n d th e p o st offic e. In itially . S tan ley s te p p e d u p th e g e n e ra to r
o u tp u t f ro m 5 0 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 volts, tr a n s m itte d th e c u rre n t to th e ( e n te r o f
th e village, a n d th e n d is trib u te d it th r o u g h th e stre e ts a fte r s te p p in g it
d o w n to 5 0 0 volts.
O n e q u e s tio n re m a in s to be a n sw e re d : W hat d id S tan ley in v en t a n d
d e v e lo p ? H e h a d access to th e p a te n ts a n d tec h n ic al lite r a tu r e c o n c e rn in g
th e G a u la rd a n d G ib b s a n d G an/. 8c C o m p a n y system s. Follow ing th e wcll Ibid.. p. 7. Passer lisls laboratory siip|>orl as $60(1 a m onth and implies that the <<imp.niy
in which Stanley held o ne-tenth o f the shares was the W cstinghouso t.leclrii Com pany h irinrd
on 8 Ja n u ary 1886. T his, however, contradicts Passer's statem ent on the same pan- that
W cstinghousc received all the stock in the W cslinghouse Kleru ii Com pany except 2,lllll) sliates
(onc-tcnlh). which were sold to seven business associates Iassei. Iterlnral M nnu/a,linen. p
136.
M arlin, "Stanley Biography.; quotation in chap. 7, p. 8. A decade latet franklin I.. Pope,
a pioneer in the field ol electrical engineering, was electrocuted when he accidentally made
contact with wires leading lo the Stanley system transform er in his basement. W oodbury.
Measure of Greatness, p. 143.

104

Figure IV .12.

The Westinghotisr
transformer.

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
p u b lic iz ed G a n z d isp la y a l th e H u n g a r ia n N a tio n a l E x h ib itio n in B u d a p e st
in M ay 1885, D e ri, B lath y a n d Z ip e rn o w sk i d isp la y e d th e ir system a t th e
I n v e n tio n s E x h ib itio n in L o n d o n in J u ly 1 885.B8 T h e n , in th e fall o f 1885,
R e g in a ld B elfield , an E n g lish e le c tric ia n w h o h a d b e e n in c h a rg e o f a
d e m o n s tra tio n o f th e G a u la r d a n d G ib b s sy ste m a t th e In v e n tio n s E x h i
b itio n in L o n d o n , was b ro u g h t to P itts b u rg h by W e s tin g h o u s e a n d e n te r e d
his e m p lo y a t a b o u t th e lim e th a t th e G a u la r d a n d G ib b s tra n s f o r m e rs
a rr iv e d . B e lfield b ro u g h t w ith h im su b s ta n tia l k n o w le d g e o f tr a n s f o r m e r
d e s ig n a n d o p e r a tio n . D e sp ite th e p r io r lite r a tu r e a n d e x h ib itio n s , h o w ev e r,
S ta n le y fa c e d th e e x tre m e ly d e m a n d in g c h a lle n g e o f a c tu a lly b u ild in g tr a n s
fo rm e rs a n d a sy stem w ith in w h ich th e y w o u ld fu n c tio n . O n th e th e o re tic a l
level, S ta n le y b e lie v e d th a t o n e o f his p a rtic u la rly im p o r ta n t c o n trib u tio n s
w as re c o g n iz in g th e e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f u s in g c o u n te r e le c tro m o tiv e fo rc e in
t h e t r a n s f o r m e r to o b ta in a h ig h d e g r e e o f se lf -re g u la tio n .
A g a in , it w as B yllesby w h o se n s e d S ta n le y s w o rth a n d re c o g n iz e d his
a c h ie v e m e n ts. In F e b r u a ry o r M a rc h 1886 h e v isite d th e in s ta lla tio n at
G r e a t B a rr in g to n ; o th e r s in P itts b u r g h w o u ld p a y S ta n le y n o h e e d . Byllesby
r e p o r te d to V V estinghouse a n d o th e r s th a t th e tr a n s f o r m e r s w e re p ro p e rly
p r o p o r tio n e d , well r e g u la te d , a n d th a t h e w as p r o f o u n d ly im p re s s e d .
T h e n , a f te r m a k in g a th o r o u g h e x a m in a tio n h im se lf, W e s tin g h o u s e a g re e d
t h a t th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem h a d a r r iv e d .69 P e rs u a d e d th a t th e
sy stem w as m a r k e ta b le , W e stin g h o u s e te s te d th e S ta n le y sy stem m o re th o r
o u g h ly in P itts b u r g h in th e s u m m e r o f 1886 u s in g a n a l te r n a to r d e sig n e d
by S ta n le y to r e p la c e th e S ie m e n s m o d e l, w h ic h r e g u la te d v o lta g e p o orly.
T r a n s m is s io n r a n fro m th e p la n t o f th e U n io n S w itch Sc S ig n a l C o m p a n y
to E ast L ib e rty , a d is ta n c e o f th r e e m iles. S a tisfie d by th e p e r f o r m a n c e of
th is p ilo t sy stem , W e s tin g h o u s e b e g a n c o m m e rc ia l p r o d u c tio n a n d sh ip p e d
his c o m p a n y s first c o m m e rc ia l p la n t to B u ffa lo , N ew Y o rk , w h e re a local
u tility p la c e d it in se rv ic e. O r d e r s fo r tw e n ty -fiv e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t p lan ts
fo llo w ed w ith in a few m o n th s .7"
G e o rg e W e s tin g h o u s e a n d his e n g in e e r s c o n tr ib u te d su b sta n tia lly to the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a t r a n s f o r m e r sy ste m by d e s ig n in g c o m p o n e n ts fo r eco
no m ica l a n d q u a n tity p ro d u c tio n . T o fa c ilita te m a n u f a c tu r e , W e slin g h o u se
p a te n te d th e d e sig n g iv e n th e tr a n s f o r m e r by S ta n le y (see Fig. IV .1 2 ).7' A
n o te d W e s tin g h o u s e e le c tric a l e n g in e e r a n d p a te n t law y e r, F ra n k lin L.
P o p e , p e rc e iv e d th e e sse n c e o f th e W e s tin g h o u s e c o n tr ib u tio n w h e n he
w ro te in 1887, "I saw th a t th e r e w e re g r e a t po ssib ilitie s in th e system
[G a u la rd a n d G ibbs sj a lth o u g h it w as n o t w o rk e d o u t p ra c tic a lly a l all
n o t w o rk e d o u t as we w o u ld w o rk it o u t in th is c o u n tr y by a n y m e a n s
a n d I w as so well sa tisfie d . . . o f th e p o ssib le re s u lts w h ic h we c o u ld get

""H alacsy and von Fuchs, T ra n s f o rm e r Invented Seventy-five Y ears Ago"; the authors
cue the extensive contem p o rary literatu re describing the G anz system.
'M artin , Stanley Biography." chap. 7, p. 13.
Passer. Electrical Manufacturers, p. 138. In his account o r G aulard and Gibbs. Stanley, and
w eslinghouse, Passer mistakenly presents the G aulard and Gibbs system as one without
voltage-trans form ation characteristics. He may have assum ed this because the G aulard and
S id

pra in35rmCr

352 ^ ' a r *CS

"

WeS,i" RhOUSf was wircd for " e l "* Pr ' m al7 IO secondary.

^ Cnl1, * e ,*l s f 'o n ,r >hution to Electric Power." Electrical Engineering 62 (1943):

105

R E V E R S E S A L I E N T S A N D C R IT IC A L P R O B L E M S
w h e n wc p u t o u r y o u n g m e n o n it in this c o u n tr y ." 7* At a b o u t th e sam e
tim e, a w rite r in a n E n glish tec h n ical jo u rn a l la m e n te d . "It is not a very
c o m p lim e n ta r y re fle c tio n fo r E u ro p e a n ele c tric ia n s a n d capita lists th at a l
th o u g h all id e as a n d e x p e r im e n ta l w ork n e e d e d h av e c o m e fro m E u r o p e
. . . it sh o u ld b e r e s e rv e d fo r a n A m e ric a n firm lo ta k e u p th e system a n d
m a k e it th e c o m m e rc ia l a n d p rac tica l success w hich (h e W e stin g h o u se C o m
p a n y is now d o in g .73 W c slin g h o iise 's m a n u f a c tu r e a n d m a rk e tin g o f th e
tr a n s f o r m e r system w as im p re ssiv e : by S e p te m b e r 1887 th e c o m p a n y h a d
in se rv ic e o r u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n c e n tra l sta tio n s w ith a to tal cap a city o f o n e
h u n d r e d th ir ty - f o u r th o u s a n d 16-c.p. in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s; by 18K) th e r e
w e re th r e e h u n d r e d W e stin g h o u se c e n tra l sta tio n s w ith a to tal ca p ac ity ol
h a lf a m illion 16-c.p. la m p s .7,1

Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review 20 (I8H7): S49

Ibid., 21 (1887): 44G.
71 Passer. Electrical Manufacturers, p. 149; Firm ing. The Alternating Current Transformer, 2:
167.

CHAPTER

Conflict and
Resolution

y t h e e n d o f th e 1880s, E d iso n 's d ir e c i- c u r r e n t sy stem fa ce d su b

s ta n tia l c o m p e titio n fro m th e m o re re c e n tly d e v e lo p e d a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t system . T h e W e stin g h o u se E le c tric C o m p a n y h a d in tr o d u c e d the
tr a n s f o r m e r in A m e ric a ; G a n z & C o m p a n y h a d m a n y in sta lla tio n s in Eu
ro p e ; a n d th e r e w ere sm all m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f a.c. e q u ip m e n t w ith a few
in sta lla tio n s in B rita in . D u r in g th e c lo sin g y e a rs o f th e e ig h tie s, technical
jo u r n a ls a n d e v en th e p o p u la r p re ss k e p t re a d e r s in f o r m e d o f th e battle
o f th e c u r r e n ts ," o r " th e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s." P ro fe ssio n a l so cie tie s held
d e b a te s c o n c e r n in g th e m e rits o f e a c h sy ste m , a n d e n g in e e r s a n d station
m a n a g e rs filled th e te c h n ic a l jo u r n a ls w ith a rtic le s p r o c la im in g th e technical
a n d e c o n o m ic a d v a n ta g e s o f o n e system as c o m p a r e d to th e o t h e r .' T h e
d e b a te c o n tin u e d u n til th e 1890s, w ith lo w -v o lta g e d ire c t c u r r e n t c o m p e t
in g a g a in st s in g le -p h a s e a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t fo r th e in c a n d e sc e n t-lig h tin g
m a rk e t.
T h e sin g le -p h a se a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy ste m o r ig in a te d as a so lu tio n to
a critical (tra n sm issio n ) p r o b le m in th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t sy ste m . E n g in e ers
a n d m a n a g e rs h a d g re a tly im p ro v e d th e d .c. sy ste m , b u t th e y rem a in e d
stym ied by th e cost o f tra n sm issio n b e y o n d a r a d iu s o f se v e ra l m iles. Al
te r n a tin g c u r r e n t p ro v id e d relativ e ly low -cost tra n s m is s io n , b u t th e singlep h a se a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem a lso h a d a se rio u s d ra w b a c k ; it lacked a
prac tica l m o to r. So h a n d ic a p p e d , th e tw o sy ste m s c o m p e te d in te n sely , es
p ecially d u r in g th e y e ars 1 8 8 7 -9 2 . T h e b a ttle " e n d e d in th e 1890s, but
n ot w ith th e d e s tru c tio n o f o n e sid e by th e o th e r . I n s te a d , th e r e was a
n o ta b le re so lu tio n o f th e c o n tro v e rs y o n b o th th e te c h n ic a l a n d th e o rg a n
izational level. R e so u rc e fu l in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t w e re necessary to
b rin g it a b o u t. B e fo re a n a ly z in g th e re s o lu tio n , h o w e v e r, we will follow the
c o u rse o f th e d e b a te , fo r it r e p re s e n ts th e k in d o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n o r am ong
te ch n o lo g ica l sy stem s th a t h a s o c c u rr e d th r o u g h o u t th e h isto ry o f tech
nological c h a n g e .

1 For an extended discussion ol die various advantages an d disadvantages o f the two cur
rents, see the scries of papers printed in Electrical Engineer 7 (1888): 166-68, 220-24. See also
Frank L. Pope, "'Fite W cslinghouse A lternating System o f Electric Lighting." Electrician and
Electrical Engineer 6 (1887): 332-42. for the well-stated opinions o f an advocate for alternating
cu rren t who died accidentally in |H9!ia victim o f that c u rrent.

ion

107

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
In so m e a r e a s th e c o n flic t w as b a se d p rim a rily o n te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic
fa cto rs. B e c a u se th e n e e d s o f he av ily p o p u la te d cities d if f e r e d f ro m th o se
o f lig h tly p o p u la te d to w n s a n d city s u b u rb s , th e a d v o c a te s o f th e c o m p e tin g
sy ste m s c o u ld p o in t to c le a r te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic a d v a n ta g e s fo r ea ch .
In city c e n te rs , h ea v y p o p u la tio n c o n c e n tra tio n d im in is h e d th e n e e d fo r
la rg e s u p p ly a re a s to o b ta in a d iv e rs e a n d re a so n a b ly w ell-b a la n c e d lo a d .
In th e lig h tly p o p u la te d a re a s , e c o n o m ie s o f tra n sm issio n g a v e th e a lte r
n a tin g - c u r r e n t sa le sm a n th e a d v a n ta g e . I t w as in in te r m e d ia te situ a tio n s
lh a l th e te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic a d v a n ta g e s o f th e tw o sy ste m s w e re not
c le a r-c u t a n d th a t c o m p e titio n w as m o st in te n s e .2
In th e a r e a s w h e r e te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic c o n s id e ra tio n s d id n o t le ad
lo s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d , r a tio n a l d e c isio n s, p e r s o n s skilled in o th e r m o d e s o f
a r g u m e n t e n te r e d th e fra y . T h e i r p a rtic ip a tio n a n d th e ir in flu e n c e u p o n
decisions a b o u t tec h n o lo g y a re sig n ificant re m in d e rs th a t technological c h a n g e
c a n n o t b e u n d e r s to o d if v iew ed o n ly fro m th e p e rsp e c tiv e o f th e d e s ig n in g
e n g in e e r a n d th e c a lc u la tin g co st a c c o u n ta n t. S p ecial n o te s h o u ld be ta k e n
o f th e w ay in w h ic h politic al p o w e r, p a rtic u la rly th a t e x e rc ise d th r o u g h
law , was b r o u g h t lo b e a r d u r in g th e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s. T h e d e b a te
ra g e d m o st fu rio u s ly in th e U n ite d S tales, w h e re th e use o f e le c tric lig h tin g
was m o st w id e s p re a d . T h e le a d in g p r o ta g o n is ts w ere th e W e s tin g h o u s e a n d
E d iso n E lec tric L ig h t c o m p a n ie s , b u t o th e r m a n u f a c tu r e r s , in c lu d in g th e
firm o f T h o m s o n - H o u s to n w e re in v o lv ed . N e ith e r G e o rg e W e stin g h o u se
n o r T h o m a s E d iso n w as a b o v e e n te r in g th e frac as, e v en th o u g h by th e late
1880s E d iso n w as s p e n d in g m u c h o f h is tim e a tte n d in g to m a tte rs o th e r
th a n th e e le c tric a l c o m p a n ie s h e h a d f o u n d e d . R e v e rb e ra tio n s o f th e s tr u g
gle w e re h e a r d a b r o a d , b u t we will c o n c e n tra te h e re o n th e A m e ric a n
sc e n e .3
T h e E d iso n in te re s ts firs t re s o r te d to u n o r th o d o x p o litica l tactics. F o r
this, th e y h a d a b r o a d e r r a n g e o f p o litical c o n ta c ts o n w h ich to call th a n
d id th e c o m p e titio n . T h e y a n d o th e r d ir e c t- c u r r e n t a d v o c a te s re a liz e d th a t
th e ir f a ilu re to so lv e th e tra n s m is s io n p ro b le m ca lled f o r a n o n te c h n ic a l
c o m p e n s a to ry r e s p o n s e . B e fo r e th e fin a l e x c h a n g e in th e b a ttle o f th e
c u r r e n ts , a n a tte m p t w as m a d e to c re a te p u b lic in d ig n a tio n a g a in st a n
elec trica l sy ste m th a t s u p p o s e d ly e n d a n g e r e d life. E ssentially th e e p iso d e
co n c e rn e d o n e p riv a te e n te r p r is e s e n d e a v o r , th r o u g h p olitical p o w e r a n d
le g islatio n , to o u tla w th e te c h n o lo g ic a l a d v a n ta g e o f a n o th e r . It was n e ith e r
th e first n o r th e last in s ta n c e o f su c h m a n e u v e r in g in th e h isto ry o f te c h
nolo g y .
In 1888 th e E d iso n in te r e s ts w e re n o t u n h a p p y to see a n u n k n o w n , sclf7T h e technical periodicals have carried historical essays on the struggle; sec especially the
one hy L. B. Stillwell in the fiftieth anniversary issue o f Electrical Engineering 53 (1934),
"A lternating C u rren t versus Direct C u rren t." l-larold C. Passer. The Electrical Manufacturers.
1875-1900 (C am bridge, Mass.; H arvard U niversity Press, 1953), is inform ative on the m an
ufactu rers' role.
T h e re is secondary literature a bout the struggle in England and Europe. See, for instance,
R. A. S. Hennessey, The Electric Revolution (Newcastle upon T yne: Oriel, 1971), which has a
ch ap ter on the battle o f the systems" in Britain; R. I I. Parsons, The Early Days of the Power
Station Industry (Cam bridge; At the University Press, 1940), which also has a c h apter so tilled;
and G eorg von Siemens, History o f the House of Siemens, trans. A. F. Rodger, 2 vols. (Fricburg/
Munich: Alber, 1957), which treats the conflict and its resolution in a c hapter entitled "T he
A lternating C u rren t Revolution."

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

styled e lec tricia n w h o h a d o n c e so ld E d iso n ele c tric p e n s a p p e a r w ith a
sc h em e. H a ro ld B ro w n first a c h ie v e d p u b lic a tte n tio n p e r h a p s n o to riety
w o u ld be a b e tte r w o rd w h e n in July 1888 a t C o lu m b ia C o lle g e s School
o f M ines h e e le c tro c u te d a d o g d e s c rib e d by h im as vicious. T h e anim al
w as n o t sim p ly e le c tr o c u te d , h o w e v e r; it w as first su b je c te d to d ire c t c u r
re n ts o f v a ry in g vo lta g es a n d th e n d is p a tc h e d by a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t. It is
ob v io u s th a t B ro w n was try in g to p e r s u a d e his a u d ie n c e th a t d ire c t c u rre n t
was relativ e ly safe, w hile a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t w as th e d e a d ly c u r r e n t. In
d e e d , B ro w n sh o w e d his h a n d n o t lo n g a f te r th is d e m o n s tr a tio n w h en he
to ld a n a u d ie n c e th a t in c lu d e d N ew Y o rk la w m a k e rs, " It is c e r ta in that
y e s te rd a y s w o rk (th e e le c tro c u tio n o f a se c o n d d o g ] will g e t a law passed
by th e le g isla tu re in th e fall, lim itin g th e v o lta g e o f a lte r n a tin g c u rre n ts to
3 0 0 v o lts.4
A c o n flu e n c e o f c irc u m sta n c e s c o m p lic a te d th e g risly a ffa ir. B ec au se the
N ew Y o rk S ta te le g isla tu re w as s e e k in g a m o r e h u m a n e m o d e o f ex ecu tio n
th a n h a n g in g . B ro w n seize d th e o p p o r tu n ity to c o m b in e th e e f f o r t to outlaw
h ig h vo ltag e s in th e stre e ts w ith th e m o v e to u se a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t for
e le c tro c u tio n s in th e p riso n s. H e e x p e c te d th e a sso c ia tio n o f d e a th with
a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t to facilitate leg islatio n . W ith th e a p p ro v a l o f T h o m a s
E d iso n a n d th e h e lp o f his la b o ra to ry sta ff, in c lu d in g A r th u r K ennelly,
la te r p ro f e s s o r o f e le ctrica l e n g in e e rin g a t th e M a ssa c h u se tts In s titu te of
T e c h n o lo g y a n d at H a rv a r d U n iv ersity , B ro w n e x e c u te d calves a n d horses,
a n im a ls th a t w e re la rg e r th a n h u m a n s , h e p o in te d o u t. A fte r th e N ew York
S ta te le g isla tu re h e a r d te stim o n y a b o u t e le c tr o c u tio n fro m w itnesses, in
c lu d in g T h o m a s E d iso n , it v o te d in fa v o r o f th e m e th o d . D e sp ite th e d e
te r m in e d o p p o s itio n o f W e slin g h o u se , B ro w n m a n a g e d to a c q u ire a Wesiin g h o u s e g e n e r a to r a n d p lac ed it in N ew Y o r k s A u b u r n S ta te P rison. In
A u g u st 1890, w ith B ro w n p re s e n t, th e first p e r s o n w as legally e le c tro c u te d .
T h e n a pub licity c a m p a ig n was la u n c h e d ask in g . D o y ou w an t th e ex e cu
tio n e r s c u r r e n t in y o u r h o m e a n d r u n n in g th r o u g h y o u r stre e ts?
B ro w n a n d E d iso n p r o c e e d e d w ith th e s c h e m e to o u tla w th e c u rre n t,
b u t m e t w ith fa ilu re in N ew Y ork S la te a n d e lse w h e re . In o n e case before
th e V irg in ia le g isla tu re , th e y b o th u rg e d th a t a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t b e lim ited
to 2 0 0 volts. T h e legisla tio n d id n o t pass, h o w e v e r, b e c a u se a m e m b e r ol
th a t b o d y le a rn e d th a t th e V irg in ia n s w ere b e in g u se d in a co m petitive
s tru g g le b etw e e n tw o " Y a n k e e " c o r p o r a tio n s .
D esp ite c o n flic tin g o p in io n s as to th e effica cy o f e le c tric ity (in its first
lest) as a m e a n s o f e x e c u tio n , N ew Y ork S la te re ta in e d th e system . Ex
p re ssin g th e b e lie f t h a t th e u se ol a c o m m e rc ia l g e n e r a to r m ig h t hav e been
u n f a ir to a p a r tic u la r elec trica l firm " (W e stin g h o u se ), th e o fficial re p o rt
1 H arold P. Hrown lo A rth u r E. Kcnnelly, <1 A ugust 1888, E dison Archives. Edison National
Historic Sue. Wesi O range. N.J. For a de.ailed account based on original sources, see Thomas
P. H ughes, H arold P. Drown and the E xecutioner s C u rren t: An Incident in the AC-DC
Controversy, //n r a rr f
History Review 32 (1958): M 3-65. Som e inventors and engi
neers. such as Eliliu Thomson, were seeking m eans o f ensuring the safely o f alternating
,hCm' SCC Elihu T ho m so n 10 T hom son-H o usion Electric Co..
Phi!rwm!hi I
m '7 J0 " 0 " P a|,er* (,H 4/M - l '9 0 867-878), Library o f the American
S t ^ n P . S 7 ly^ r h,la,,elp h " Pa- am i,K leb,ed
^ r n a r d Carlson o f the University
T hom son ' '
a ,,c n ,'on
this letter: Carlson is w riting a biography of Elihu

109

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
o f th e e x e c u tio n d id r e c o m m e n d th a t a g e n e r a to r be sp e cia lly c o n s tru c te d
fo r fu tu re use in such cases. A n unofficial re c o m m e n d a tio n was that B row n's
n a m e b e a sso c ia te d w ith e le ctric al e x e c u tio n in th e sa m e w ay th a t D r. R a m o n
G u illo lin 's h a d b e c o m e asso c ia te d w ith his d evice. B ro w n 's n a m e so o n d is
a p p e a r e d fro m th e n a tio n s n e w s p a p e rs a n d p e rio d ic a ls, h o w e v e r, a n d th e r e
is g o o d re a s o n to d o u b t th a t his a tte m p t to a sso c ia te a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t
w ith d e a th h a d a n o tic e a b le e ffe c t u p o n th e o u tc o m e o f " th e b a ttle o f th e
c u r r e n ts . S tatistics sh o w a ste a d y a n d ra p id in c re a se in th e n u m b e r o f
c e n tr a l s ta tio n s u sin g th e W e s tin g h o u s e sy ste m o f a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t d u r
in g th e p e rio d w h e n B ro w n w as m o st a ctive, 1 8 8 8 -9 0 .
F re e o f legal s n a re s , th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem g a th e r e d m o m e n tu m
as m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d in s ta lla tio n in c re a s e d , b u t a r o u n d 1890 it, to o , e x
p e r ie n c e d re v e rs e sa lie n ts, a n d a ne w g e n e r a tio n o f in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs
re s p o n d e d by d e f in in g th e m as critic al p ro b le m s. C o m p a ra b le to th e tr a n s
m ission p ro b le m th a t h a d f r u s tr a te d th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t in v e n to rs , th e m ost
s e rio u s p r o b le m f o r th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem w as th e n e e d fo r a
p ra c tic a l m o to r. A n o th e r p ro b le m s te m m e d fro m th e use o f h ig h e r v o ltages
in a.c. p ra c tic e th a n in d .c. a n d th e re s u ltin g n e e d to in s u la te a n d g ro u n d
c irc u its to g u a r d a g a in s t in ju ry a n d d e a th fro m e le c tric sho c k s. W hile th e
b a ttle o f th e c u r r e n t s w as b e in g fo u g h t in th e n o n te c h n ic a l a r e n a , th e new
g e n e ra tio n o f e n g in e e r s a n d in v e n to rs w o rk e d to solve th e m o to r a n d sa fety
p ro b le m s.
T h e r e w as c o n tro v e rs y o v e r p rio r ity o f in v e n tio n in th e case o f th e a l
te r n a tin g - c u r r e n t m o to r as t h e r e h a d b e e n a b o u t p r io rity o f in v e n tio n o f
th e a.c. t r a n s f o r m e r . B e c a u se th e m o to r c o n tro v e rs y , like th e tr a n s f o r m e r
d e b a te , is a n im p o r ta n t in s ta n c e o f n e a r sim u lta n e ity o f in v e n tio n , we n e e d
to e x a m in e th e c irc u m s ta n c e s th a t s tim u la te d a n u m b e r o f in v e n to rs to
id e n tify th e m o to r as a re v e r s e s a lie n t a n d d e fin e it as a set o f critical
p ro b le m s f o r w h ich th e y p r o p o s e d s o lu tio n s.
In v e n tiv e a ctiv ity c e n te r e d o n th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t m o to r in p a r t b e
ca u se a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t w as w ell p u b lic iz e d a n d av a ila b le f o r e x p e r im e n
ta tio n . Its c h a ra c te ris tic s c o u ld b e o b s e rv e d first h a n d . G a u la rd a n d G ib b ss
sy stem b e g a n to a ttr a c t a tte n tio n in 1883, a n d w ith e a ch successive yea r,
a lte r n a to r s a n d tr a n s f o r m e r s b e c a m e m o re w idely k n o w n , te ste d , a n d use d .
G alileo F e rra ris , o n e o f th e in v e n to rs a sso c ia te d w ith th e a .c. m o to r, bec am e
in te re s te d in a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t p h e n o m e n a , f o r in sta n c e , w h en h e a cte d
as a te c h n ic a l e v a lu a to r o f th e G a u la r d a n d G ibbs a n d G a n z & C o m p a n y
tr a n s f o r m e r s .3 D isplays a t o th e r in te rn a tio n a l e x p o sitio n s, su ch as th o se
u se d by G a u la rd a n d G ib b s in L o n d o n , w h ich a ttr a c te d G e o rg e W estingh o u se 's a tte n tio n , also s tim u la te d c o g ita tio n a n d e x p e rim e n ta tio n re la te d
to a.c. n e e d s a n d o p p o r tu n itie s . In a d d itio n , m a n u f a c tu re rs lo a n e d o r gave
a lte r n a tin g e q u ip m e n t to e n g in e e r in g sc h o o ls so th a t fa culty a n d s tu d e n ts
m ig h t use it in re s e a rc h a n d th u s d isc o v e r its p ossible a p p lic a tio n s. F.ngin e e rs a n d m a n a g e r s o f u tilities u sin g th e new c u r r e n t b ec a m e fa m ilia r w ith
its s tr e n g th s a n d w e ak n esses first h a n d . T h is is a r e m in d e r th a t new te c h
1 Ludwig G u n m an , "On the Rotary Magnetic Field and M ultiphase A lternating C urrent
Distribution," Electrical World 21 (1893): 276, quoted on page 4 o f G. Silva. Galileo Eerrans:
The Rotating Magnetic Field and the Asynchronous Motor, a translated excerpt from the original
Italian text published in L'Elettrolecnica 3*1 (1947) (hereafter cited as Silva, Eerrans).

1 IO

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

n o lo g y m u si b e u se d in o r d e r to b e im p ro v e d , o r to p u t it d iffe re n tly ,
p o s tin n o v a tio n in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t a r e c o m m o n . T h e o rig in a to rs
c a n n o t e n v isa g e all o f th e o p p o r tu n itie s a n d n e e d s o f d iv e rse -u se e n v iro n
m e n ts.
W ith in c re a s e d c o m p e titio n f ro m a.c. sy ste m s, th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t utilities
a p p r e c ia te d th e a d v a n ta g e th e y h e ld w ith th e ir p ra c tic a l m o to r a n d d ecided
to p u b licize it e v e n m o r e . In r e s p o n s e , th e c o m p e tin g a.c. fo rc e s sensed
m o re s h a rp ly th a n e v e r th e d e s ira b ility o f c o r r e c tin g th e sa lie n t w eakness
o f th e ir sy stem . N o tio n s o f lo a d m a n a g e m e n t a n d a t te n d a n t econom ies
b e c a m e less v a g u e as th e 1880s e n d e d , a n d ih is c la rific a tio n o f o p e ra tin g
e c o n o m ie s c le a rly d e f in e d th e n e e d fo r a m o to r lo fill o u t th e lo a d cu rv e.'
U tilitie s m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e r s b e g a n lo o k in g b e y o n d e a rly p ro b le m s ol
relia b ility a n d th e m a rk e t fo r lu x u ry lig h tin g to a m o re e v e n ly d istrib u te d
a n d tw e n ty - f o u r - h o u r lo ad .
N o t o n ly d id th e u tilitie s d e f in e th e n e e d fo r a n a.c. m o to r, b u t the
m a n u f a c tu r e r s w ith in v e s tm e n ts in a .c. lig h tin g sy ste m s fo r in sta n c e, W est
in g h o u s e also e n c o u r a g e d in v e n to r s . In th e 1880s th e i n d e p e n d e n t in
v e n to r w as still a n im p o r ta n t fig u r e ; h e h a d n o t y et b e e n d isp la c e d by the
r e s e a r c h - p r o n e a c a d e m ic s, in d u s tria l sc ie n tists, a n d d e v e lo p m e n t en g in ee rs
th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s w o u ld e v e n tu a lly h ire . So th e s e in d e p e n d e n ts re
s p o n d e d , se n s in g c o rre c tly th a t su c c e ssfu l in v e n tio n w o u ld b e rew a rd ed
b e c a u se a n e c o n o m ic n e e d h a d b e e n p e rc e iv e d . In th e la te e ig h tie s, the
r e g u la r a n n o u n c e m e n t o f p a te n ts in n u m e r o u s te c h n ic a l a n d e n g in e e rin g
p e rio d ic a ls su c h as th e Scientific Am erican k e p t th e a c u te ly s e n sitiv e in ventors
aw a re o f o p p o r tu n itie s .
A n u m b e r o f m a k e rs a n d u se rs re s p o n d e d to th e n e e d w ith n ew in ven
tio n s, b u t m a n y in v e n to rs a n d sc ie n tists s im p ly a n a ly z e d th e ir o ld discoveries
a n d in v e n tio n s fro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e new ly p e rc e iv e d n e e d . T h e
re c o r d s o f p a te n t litig a tio n in th e c ase o f a.c. m o to rs in c lu d e n u m e ro u s
r e f e re n c e s to id e a s a n d a p p a r a tu s th a t h a d o b v io u sly b e e n re h a b ilita te d
a f te r a re v e r s e s a lie n t g a v e th e m te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic v a lu e . T h e o riginal
id e a s a n d a p p a r a tu s h a d o fte n r e s u lte d fr o m s o m e th in g s b e in g possible
r a t h e r th a n n e e d e d . T he p e r c e p tio n o f a re v e rs e sa lie n t tr a n s f o r m e d the
p la y in g a n d c u rio sity in to c ritic a l-p ro b le m so lv in g . A lo n g list o f an te c e d e n t
id e a s p e r ta in in g to th e a.c. m o to r a p p e a r e d as in v e n to rs , p a te n t lawyers,
a n d in d iv id u a ls a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s w ith e c o n o m ic in te re s ts in th e a.c. system
b e g a n th e ir p u r p o s e f u l a tte m p ts to e sta b lish p r io r ity .
B e c a u se th e fa c to rs th a t s tim u la te d in te re s t in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f an a.c.
m o to r w e re n u m e r o u s , th e n u m b e r o f in v e n to rs w h o c la im e d p rio rity and
th e v a ria tio n s in h isto ric a l a ttr ib u tio n w e re n u m e r o u s as well. P a te n ts and
p a te n t litig a tio n s h a p e m e m o rie s so stro n g ly th a t d is in te re s te d accounts
b a se d o n th e m c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d . F o r in s ta n c e , p a te n t h o ld e rs m ay recall
th e s tim u la tin g in f lu e n c e s o f sc ie n tists b u t n o t th o s e o f o th e r , co m p etin g
p a te n t h o ld e rs . T h e r e is a lso a n a tio n a lis tic b ias to a c c o u n ts o f th e invention
a n d in tr o d u c tio n o r th e a.c. m o to r sy ste m . Ita lia n h is to rie s stre ss (he dis
co v e rie s o f G alileo F c rr a r is ( 1 8 4 7 - 18 9 7 ); A m e ric a n a c c o u n ts o f te n focus
" T h e term "load factor. which precisely identified load-m anagem ent problem s, was in
trod uced by R. E. B. C rom pton, in 1891; sec Parsons, Early Days o f the Power Station Industry.
p. 208. For a discussion o f this influential concept, see p. 218 below.

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o n N ik o la T e s la (1 8 5 6 -1 9 4 3 ) a n d th e W e s tin g h o u s e e n g in e e r s w ith w h o m
h e w o rk e d ; Y u g o slav ian h is to ria n s re call W e s tin g h o u s e s activ itie s, b u t as
a b a c k d ro p to T e s la s h e ro ic c o n tr ib u tio n s ; a n d th e G e rm a n s q u ie tly b u t
co n f id e n tly n o te th a t M ichael O sip o w itc h v on D o liv o -D o b ro w o lsk y (1 8 6 2
1919) a n d th e G e rm a n G e n e ra l E lectric C o m p a n y (A E G ) in tr o d u c e d th e
m o to r in th e f o rm th a t w as u se d m o st w idely by 1900. S w e d ish h is to ria n s
r e m e m b e r J o n a s W e n s tro m (1 8 5 5 -1 8 9 3 ), a n d th e Swiss stre ss th e w o rk o f
C h a rle s E u g e n e L a n c e lo t B ro w n ( 1 8 6 3 - 1 9 2 4 ) o f B ro w n , B o v e ri 8c C o m
p a n y . T h e F re n c h call a tte n tio n to M a rce l D e p r e z (1 8 4 3 -1 9 1 8 ), w h o c o n
tr ib u te d c o n c e p ts to th e a.c. field , as h e d id to so m a n y o th e r e a rly e le ctrica l
d e v e lo p m e n ts . O b v io u sly th e c irc u m s ta n c e s th a t fo c u se d a tte n tio n o n th e
n e e d fo r a n a.c. m o to r w e re tr a n s n a tio n a l.
T o u n ra v e l th e ta n g le d sk e in o f p r io rity cla im s, let us e sta b lish a fr a m e
w o rk o f a n alysis. T h e c a te g o rie s to b e a n a ly z e d will b e d e f in e d by q u e stio n s.
F o r e x a m p le : W h o w e re th e scien tists o r in v e n to r s w h o first a rtic u la te d th e
g e n e r a l id e a s u n d e r ly in g t h e in v e n tio n a n d p u b lic iz e d th e m t h r o u g h le c tu re
o r p u b lic a tio n ? W h o w e re th e in v e n to r s w h o first c o n s tru c te d w o rk in g
m o d els? W h o firs t a p p lie d su c cessfu lly f o r a p a te n t? W h a t p e r s o n s o r c o m
p a n ie s in itia lly in tr o d u c e d th e in v e n tio n o n th e m a rk e t? A n d w h a t is th e
p re c ise n a tu r e o f th e in v e n tio n th e p r io r ity o f w hich is in q u e s tio n ? T h e
a n sw e rs lo th e s e q u e s tio n s m u s t b e o f f e r e d w ith q u a lific a tio n s a n d r e s e r
vatio n s.
T a k in g th e last q u e s tio n first, th e in v e n tio n o f i n te re s t is th e a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t, p o ly p h a s e m o to r. T o e sta b lish a ro ta tin g m a g n e tic field in its s ta to r
w in d in g s, th e p o ly p h a s e m o to r u ses se v e ra l o u t-o f-p h a s e , o r p o ly p h a se ,
c u r re n ts . By 1900 th e th r e e - p h a s e sy ste m w as c o m m o n , b u t th e tw o -p h a se
system also h a d b e e n u s e d . P o ly p h a se m o to r s w e re o f sev e ral d e sig n s; th e
m o st c o m m o n d is tin c tio n w as b e tw e e n th e in d u c tio n , o r a s y n c h ro n o u s ,
m o to r a n d th e s y n c h r o n o u s m o to r. T h e in d u c tio n m o to r fo u n d w id e use,
v a ry in g in size fro m th e m o to r in a d e n tis t's d rill to th e p r o p u ls io n u n it o f
a b a ttle s h ip , a n d to d a y is u se d th r o u g h o u t th e w o rld . T o g e th e r w ith th e
p e tro l e n g in e , it h a s b e c o m e th e m o st in d is p e n s a b le m a c h in e th a t m a n has
m a d e .7
T h e r o to r o f th e in d u c tio n m o to r h a s c u r r e n t in d u c e d in its w in d in g s,
o r c o n d u c to r s , by th e r o ta tin g m a g n e tic field o f th e sta to r. T h e re a c tio n
b e tw e e n th e in d u c e d r o to r c u r r e n t a n d th e s ta to r's m a g n e tic field d e v e lo p s
th e to r q u e o f th e m o to r. T h e s y n c h r o n o u s m o to r ha s a s e p a ra te so u rc e o f
d ire c t c u r r e n t fo r th e r o to r ; a s in th e case o f th e in d u c tio n m o to r, th e
ro ta tin g m a g n e tic field o f th e s ta to r o f th e sy n c h ro n o u s m o to r is e sta b lish e d
by p o ly p h a s e c u r r e n ts . T h e s y n c h ro n o u s sp e e d o f a p o ly p h a se m o to r is th e
s p e e d o f th e r o ta tin g m a g n e tic field in th e s ta to r. T h is sp e e d v aries d ire c tly
w ith th e fre q u e n c y o f th e a p p lie d v o ltag e a n d , in v e rse ly , w ith th e n u m b e r
o f poles. T h e m a g n e tic re v o lv in g field ru n s at th e sa m e s p e e d , p o le fo r
po le, as th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t g e n e r a to r su p p ly in g it. As o b se rv e d , th e
in d u c tio n m o to r 's r o to r r u n s slightly b e h in d sy n c h ro n o u s s p e e d ; th e sy n
c h r o n o u s m o to r s r o to r r u n s a t sy n c h ro n o u s sp e e d ."
7 Von Siemens. House o f Siemens, 1: 140.
For a d e a r and expertly sim plified description o f the a lternating-current m otor, see U.S..
B ureau o f Naval Personnel, Basic Electricity (New York: Dover, 1970). pp. 317-37.

112

i f i

' **,
.jk

Figure V .l. Nikola Tesla. Courtesy o f the

National Museum of American History,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

T h e m o st w idely a c c la im e d o f th e in v e n to rs o f th e a lte rn a tin g -c u rre n t
m o to r was N ik o la T e sla . T e sla is b e lte r k n o w n th a n th e o th e rs n o t only
b e c a u se o f th e su ccess o f his in v e n tio n b u t also b e c a u se his n a tiv e co untry,
Y u goslavia, h as r ig o ro u sly c u ltiv a te d his m e m o ry ; b ec a u se h e was associated
w ith a le a d in g A m e ric a n m a n u f a c tu r e r ; b e c a u se h e was g re a tly h o n o re d
by his c o n te m p o ra rie s ; a n d b e c a u se h e w as a c o lo rfu l, d r a m a tic personality
w h o a ttr a c te d c o n s id e ra b le a tte n tio n in n e w s p a p e rs a n d p e rio d ic a ls and
ab o u t w hom a n u m b e r o f b ooks fo r th e g e n e ra l a u d ie n c e have been w ritten.9
N ik o la T e sla w as b o rn o n th e n o r th e r n m o s t co a st o f D a lm atia in the
village o f S m ilja n , L ika, th e n a p a r t o f th e A u s tr o - H u n g a r ia n E m p ire and
now a village in Y u g o slav ia. H is f a th e r, a S e rb ia n , w as a G re e k O rth o
d o x p rie s t; his m o th e r was o f a d is tin g u is h e d S e r b ia n fa m ily .10 Because
his m o th e r is r e m e m b e r e d as b e in g d e s c e n d e d fro m a lo n g lin e o f in v en to rs,
T e sla w as p ro b a b ly b r o u g h t u p in th a t tr a d itio n . H e s tu d ie d e n g in e e rin g
a t th e G ra z P o ly te c h n ic in A u s tria a n d c o m p le te d h is e d u c a tio n a t Prague
U n iv e rsity a t th e a g e o f 23 , a t th e tim e w h e n a rc lig h tin g was attra ctin g
m u c h a tte n tio n a n d E d iso n h a d e m b a r k e d o n his w e ll-p u b lic iz e d q u e st for
in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g . T e sla , w h o w as n o t re tic e n t in a u to b io g ra p h ic a l m a t
te rs, re c a lle d o n th e occa sio n o f re c e iv in g th e E d iso n M e d a l in 1917 that
a t th e p o ly te c h n ic sc h o o l, o n e o f th e fin e st in E u r o p e , h e ro se e a c h m o rn in g
a t th r e e o clock a n d w o rk e d u n til e le v e n in th e e v e n in g f o r a n e n tire year
w ith o u t a d a y 's e x c e p tio n . H is p r o f e s s o rs a w a rd e d his w o rk th e highest
d istin c tio n s. L a te r, h e d e m o n s tr a te d h is r e m a r k a b le s ta m in a by o u tlasting
his e m p lo y e r , E d iso n , d u r in g a n in e - m o n th p e r io d w h e n T e sla w orked
fro m h a lf- p a s t te n e a c h m o r n in g u n til five th e n e x t. T e s la re c a lle d that
E d iso n sa id , I n e v e r saw s u c h a th in g , y ou la k e th e c a k e ."

9 BokJan Slavko. Nikola Tesla und sein IVerA (LeipzigA /ienna/N ew York: D eutscher Verlag
fu r Ju g e n d u n d Volk. 1934); T h o m as C. M artin, The Inventions, Researches, and Writings oj
Nikola Tesla (New York: Electrical E ngineer, 1894): J o h n J. O 'N eill, Prodigal Genius: The Lift
of Nikola Tesla (New York: W ashburn, 1944); A. J . Beckhard, Nikola Tesla, Electrical Genius
(London: D obson, 1961); Inez H unt an d W anetta D rap er, Lightning in His Hand: The Life
Story o f Nikola Tesla (Denver: Sage Books, 1964); H. B. W alters, Nikola Tesla, Giant of Electricity
(New York: Crowell, 1961); C. J. Bethenod, Tesla (Belgrade: S ociett . . . de I'lnstitut Nikola
T esla, 1938); and M argaret C heney. Testa: M an Out o f Time (Englew ood Cliffs. N .J.: PrenticeHall, 1981). In 1956. the centenary o f Tesla's birth , an in tern ational m eeting in Belgrade was
the occasion for publication o f Tesla's works, as well as essays about him , by the Nikola Tesla
M useum o r B elgrade. I am indebted to Professor Carl C h am bers o f the University of Penn
sylvania. an invited p articipant in the m eeting, for calling my a ttention to the meeting and
its publications. A m ong these are V. Popovil, R. H orvat. an d N. N ikolil. comps., Nikola Tesla:
Lectures, Patents, and Articles (Belgrade: Nikola Tesla M useum . 1956): V. Popovit, com p.. Tribute
to Nikola Tesla: Presented in Articles, Letters, Documents (B elgrade: Nikola Tesla M useum. 1956),
a volum e th at includes an extensive bibliography o f books and articles; and Nikola Tesla
Cen,enary f th' Birth o f Nikola Tesla. I 8 5 6 -I 9 S 6 (Belgrade: Nikola Tesla Museum,
j i ? hC, ' r , a,Ure ^ ,ech n ical.journals is extensive. Much o r this is noted in Jo h n R a t * *
a n 1o 4 r M nl CrSOn COmp5 Dr m la T' ila: Bibliography (Palo Alto. Calif.: Ragusan. 1979
lo Tesla p
Nik 'a TeSl "
9 . (1944). rep rin te d in Popovit. Tribute

zsijirfis:^int^r;:;1

(hereafter cited as "Personal RecollecdnnO

al antl N,k<llit' N,kola T,sl' PP

1 13

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
T e s la la ie r in siste d it w as in 1877 th a t h e first d e f in e d th e critical p ro b le m
w hich re s u lte d in h is in v e n tio n o f th e p o ly p h a se system . A s tu d e n t at G raz
a t th a t lim e , h e w itn essed a p ro f e s s o r o p e r a tin g a G ra m m e g e n e r a to r as a
d .c. m o to r. T h e s p a r k in g f ro m th e g e n e r a to r s b ru s h e s a n d c o m m u ta to r
w as in te n s e , a n d it w as a p p a r e n t to all th a t th e s e c o m p o n e n ts w o u ld so o n
b u r n o u t. T h is d e m o n s tr a tio n m o tiv a te d T e sla to se a rc h f o r a d e sig n th a t
w o u ld e lim in a te th e b ru s h e s a n d c o m m u ta to r . ( O th e r in v e n to r s w h o r e
m e m b e re d b e in g s tim u la te d by c la ssro o m le c tu re s o r d e m o n s tr a tio n s to
m a k e th e ir m a jo r in v e n tiv e c o n trib u tio n s w e re C h a rle s H all, w h o iso la te d
a lu m in u m , a n d R u d o lf D iesel, f a th e r o f th e d iese l e n g in e .) It is n o t cle ar
w h e th e r T e s la th e n w a n te d to d e v e lo p a g e n e r a to r o r a m o to r w ith o u t a
c o m m u ta to r, o r b o th . Five y e a rs la te r , in 1882, a f te r p ic tu r in g th e p ro b le m
a n d p o ssib le s o lu tio n s in his m in d m a n y tim es, th e flash o f in sig h t c am e,
T e s la re c a lle d , as h e re c ite d G o e th e w hile w a lk in g in th e B u d a p e s t City
P a rk w ith a f r ie n d .
T e sla , w h o m e m o riz e d e n tir e b o o k s" a n d co u ld sele ct f ro m m e m o ry
w o rd by w o rd ," w as r e m in d e d o f th e fo llo w in g p a s s a g e :12
Sie riickt und weicht, d e r T a g ist uberlebt,
D o n eilt sie hin u nd fo rd ert neues Leben
O dass kein Fliigel mich vom Boden hebt,
Ih r nach und im m er nach zu streben!
Ach! zu des Geistes Fliigeln wird so leicht
Kein korperlicher Flugel sich gesellen.
A t th a t m o m e n t in th e p a rk , T e s la s im a g in a tio n in d e e d s o a re d : In an
in s ta n t I saw it all, a n d I d r e w w ith a stick o n th e sa n d th e d ia g r a m s w hich
w e re illu s tr a te d in m y f u n d a m e n ta l p a te n ts o f M ay, 1 888.13 In a s m u c h as
five f u n d a m e n ta l, r e la te d p a te n ts w ere issu e d to T e sla in M ay 1888. th e
d e ta il o f his in s ig h t m u s t h a v e b e e n re m a rk a b le .
Five y e a rs p a sse d f ro m th e m o m e n t o f T e s la s b ra in s to rm a n d his a p
p lica tio n fo r th e p a te n ts . T e s la m a in ta in s th a t th e vision o f th e m a c h in e s
w ith o u t c o m m u ta to rs r e m a in e d vivid a n d c o m p e llin g in his m in d d u r in g
th a t tim e . In esse n c e , h e w as s e a rc h in g fo r a n e n tire ly new sy stem , f o r his
m o to r w o u ld re q u ir e a sp e cial p o ly p h a se g e n e ra to r. In B u d a p e s t, w h e re
h e w o rk e d as a n e le c tric ia n fo r th e A u s tro - H u n g a ria n sla te te le p h o n e sys
te m , his d e te r m in a tio n to c o n s tru c t th e m o to r p e rsiste d ; it also su rv iv e d a
m o v e in 1882 to P aris, w h e re h e w o rk e d fo r th e F re n c h E d iso n E lectric
L ig h t C o m p a n y , a m a n u f a c tu r e r o f d ir e c t- c u r r e n t a p p a ra tu s . W hile in th e
e m p lo y o f F re n c h E d iso n , h e h e lp e d install c e n tra l sta tio n s, o n e o f th e m
in S tra s b o u rg , w h e re h e w o rk e d fo r tw o years. In S tr a s b o u rg , a c c o rd in g
to his re m in isc e n c e s, h e c o n s tru c te d a m o d e l o f his m o to r, b u t was u n a b le
to f in d a n y o n e to fu n d its f u r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e n , in 1884, h e sailed
f o r A m e ric a a n d in N ew Y o rk fo u n d e m p lo y m e n t in E d iso n s M a ch in e
"Personal Recollections," p. A I98. T h e passage is Trom G oethe's Faust, pt. I, in Goethes
sSmlliche Werke, 36 vols., introduction by Karl G oedeke (Stuttgart: Gotta, 1867-82), 10:44-45
(lines 71 9 -2 2 and 737-38). Loosely translated it reads: "T he sun sinks: the day is donc./T he
heavenly o rb hastens to n u rtu re life cIsewhcrc./Alas, no wings lift me from e arth/T o strive
always to followl/. . . O h. that spiritual wings soaring so easily/Had com panions to lift me
bodily from e arth ." I am indebted to Dr. H orst Daemmrich for locating this passage.
"Personal Recollections," p. A 198.

1 14

n e ttw o r k s o f p o w e r
W o rk s; th e r e h e w o rk e d tirelessly, b u t fo r less th a n a y e a r. T e sla re p o rts
th a t h e was d is c o u ra g e d by E d iso n 's o p p o s itio n to a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t, but
E d iso n 's o p p o sitio n m ay h a v e b e e n in d if fe re n c e , fo r in 1884 th e r e was little
c o m p e titio n fro m a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t. F ra n c is J e h l re c a lle d y ea rs la te r that
T e sla d id tell o th e r s a t th e E d iso n M a c h in e W o rk s o f his e n th u s ia s m for
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t m o to rs w ith o u t c o m m u ta to r s .M T e s la th e n left Edison
a n d w ith se v era l fin a n c ia l b a c k e rs esta b lish e d th e T e s la E lec tric L ight &
M a n u f a c tu rin g C o m p a n y o f R a hw ay, N ew J e rs e y . A m o n g th e p a te n t a p
p lica tio n s h e filed fo r his c o m p a n y in 1885 w as his d e sig n f o r a c o m m u ta to r
th a t w o u ld p r e v e n t s p a rk in g ; h e also p a te n te d a n a rc -lig h t g e n e r a to r , a
re g u la to r fo r a g e n e r a to r , a n d a n a rc la m p . T h is e v id e n c e th a t T e sla s
c o m m itm e n t to his c o n c e p t was s u s ta in e d is o f p a rtic u la r in te re s t because
so m e o f his c o m p e tito rs d o u b te d th a t h e h a d th e id e a fo r an a.c. system
w ith a n in d u c tio n m o to r five yea rs b e f o r e filin g his p a te n t a p p lic a tio n s .14
T e sla 's activities a f te r 1884 fit th e g e n e r a l p a tte r n e sta b lish e d by o th er
p ro fe ssio n a l in v e n to rs. H e se t u p a c o m p a n y b e a r in g his n a m e , o n e that
was b a se d o n his e x istin g p a te n ts a n d his id e a s f o r f u tu r e in v e n tio n s. He
c o n c e n tr a te d o n in v e n tio n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n ts fo r w h ich th e r e w as ready
f u n d in g a n d a likely m a rk e t. T h is m ay e x p la in w hy h e p o s tp o n e d w ork on
th e p ro b le m th a t w as o f g re a te s t in te re s t to h im . T h e fin a n c ia l bac k ers ol
th e T e s la E lectric L ig h t & M a n u fa c tu rin g C o m p a n y h a d little re a so n to
in vest in a n a lte rn a tin g -c u rre n t system in 1885, fo r a t th a t tim e its use was
e x p e r im e n ta l a n d its p io n e e rs esp ec ia lly G a u la rd a n d G ibbs w ere yet
e x p e rie n c in g n u m e r o u s d ifficu lties. In his c o n c e n tra tio n o n th e invention
a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a jo r im p ro v e m e n ts in e x is tin g sy stem s a n d o n the
s o lu tio n o f critical p ro b le m s in e v o lv in g sy stem s, T e s la fo llo w e d th e road
ta k e n by c o n te m p o ra ry p ro fe ssio n a ls like C h a rle s B ru s h , E lm e r Sperry,
W illiam S tan ley , E lih u T h o m s o n , F ra n k S p ra g u e , a n d S. Z. d e Ferranti,
H e , as d id th e y , lo o k th e risk o f in v e stin g in a b r e a k th r o u g h invention.
M any re la tiv e ly u n k n o w n p ro fe ssio n a ls h a v e b e e n m o r e c o n se rv a tiv e , con
c e n tra tin g in ste a d o n in c re m e n ta l im p r o v e m e n ts .
T e s la s o p p o r tu n ity c a m e in 1887, a lth o u g h d e ta ile d in f o rm a tio n lo a u
th o r ita tiv e ly d o c u m e n t th is c ritical y e a r is la m e n ta b ly la ck in g . B eca u se T esla
w as a n e x p e r ie n c e d in v e n to r, d aily d ia rie s, la b o ra to ry n o te b o o k s, a n d rec
o r d s o f p a te n t a p p lic a tio n s m u st h a v e b e e n m a d e , b u t lo d a te , th e scholarly
m o n o g r a p h th a t w o u ld a u th e n tic a te his c re a tiv e ac tivities h a s not been
w r itte n .10 T h e r e f o r e , T e s la s o w n s p a rs e re c o lle c tio n s, his p a te n ts, an d a
m a jo r te ch n ica l p a p e r co v e rin g th e critical p e rio d fro m th e fall o f 1887 to
th e s p rin g o f 1888 c o n s titu te th e in f o rm a tio n av a ilab le to th e h isto ria n .
Tesla p u ts it succinctly: E arly in 1885 p e o p le a p p r o a c h e d m e w ith a

G ordon l-rtedlandcr, "Tesla. Krccmric G enius." IEEE Spretnim. Ju n e 1972. p. 26. FriedIniidcr relicsi cm Francis Jclil, Menlo Park Reminucences. 3 vols. (D earborn. Mich.. Edison
Institute, 1937^11).
1,1 Silva. Ferrarii. pp. 19-20.
For an exam ple o t the help that diaries, notebooks, and o th e r contem porary records
give in establishing the history or inventive activity, see T hom as P. H ughes. Elmer SprnynT " , 7
T r ' (Ul,l,im rC; T h c J ol,ns H opkins Press. 1971). T h e Tesla Museum in
the 1 ihrarl"! r *** ,,a,>C,S'i son,c ol wl,irh have been m icronim ed and placetl on deposit in
interest on the IHHfu"* "
,) t : . I exam ined the microfilm and found littlr or

115

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
p r o p o s itio n to d e v e lo p a n a rc lig h t system a n d to fo rm a c o m p a n y u n d e r
m y n a m e . I sig n e d th e c o n tra c t, a n d a y e a r a n d a h a lf la te r I w as fre e a n d
in a p o sitio n to d e v o te m y se lf to th e p ra c tic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f m y m a jo r
d isco v e ry . I f o u n d fin a n c ia l s u p p o r te r s , a n d in A p ril, 1887, a c o m p a n y was
o rg a n iz e d f o r th e p u rp o s e , a n d w h a t ha s fo llo w e d sin ce is well k n o w n ." 17
In a n o th e r a c c o u n t, h e d a ie d th e fo rm a tio n o f th e s e c o n d c o m p a n y as A p ril
1886 a n d r e f e r r e d to th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a la b o r a to r y .18 H is first tw o p a te n ts
o n th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t m o to r w e re filed o n 12 O c to b e r 1887. P a rt
in te r e s t w as a ssig n e d to C h a r le s F. Peck o f E n g le w o o d , N ew J e r s e y , w h o
p r o b a b ly w as o n e o f th e fin a n c ia l b a c k e rs o f w h o m T e s la w r o te .19 T h r e e
m o re p a te n ts p e r ta in in g to th e sy ste m w e re filed in N o v e m b e r a n d issu ed
o n 1 M ay 1888, a n d tw o w e re filed in D e c e m b e r a n d a lso issu e d o n 1 M ay.20
T h e p a te n ts issu e d o n 1 M ay 1888 d e s c rib e d a sy ste m fo r th e c o n v e rs io n ,
tra n s m is s io n , a n d u tiliz a tio n o f e n e rg y . E sse n tially th e sy ste m in v o lv ed a
g e n e r a to r f o r c o n v e rtin g m e c h a n ic a l to e le ctric al e n e rg y a n d a m o to r to
c o n v e rt th e e le c tric a l e n e r g y o n c e a g a in to m e c h a n ic a l p o w e r. A c c o rd in g
to T e s la s p a te n ts , th e sy stem w o u ld use h ig h v o ltag e , o r te n s io n , f o r tr a n s
m issio n , a n d a m o to r w o u ld p r o v id e u n ifo rm ity o f sp e e d r e g a rd le s s o f lo ad .
T e s la d e p ic te d th e r o ta tin g m a g n e tic fie ld as a p ro g re s s iv e s h iftin g o f th e
m a g n e tism o r o f th e lin e s o f fo rc e . 2 A c c o rd in g to e x p e r t an aly sis o f th e
p a te n ts , th e y c o v e r e d b o th th e p o ly p h a s e s y n c h r o n o u s a n d th e a s y n c h ro
n o u s, o r in d u c tio n , m o to r s .22
L ike th e id e a s o f m a n y o th e r in v e n to r s , T e s la s c o n c e p ts w e re g e o m e t
rically sy m m e tric a l a n d logically o r d e r e d . H is id e a liz e d im a g e s stim u la te d
his c re a tiv e e n d e a v o rs . I f th e im a g e s d id n o t c o in c id e w ith re ality , h e e n
d e a v o re d to re o rg a n iz e th e re a l so th a t it w o u ld a p p r o x im a te h is id ea l. T h is
a p p r o a c h r e q u ir e d in v e n tio n . F o r e x a m p le , in th e p a p e r h e p re s e n te d o n
16 M ay 1888 to th e A m e ric a n I n s titu te o f E le ctric al E n g in e e rs , h e d e sc rib e d
how g e n e r a to r s a n d m o to rs w e re a n d h ow th e y o u g h t to be. T h e p o ly p h a se
sy stem e m b o d ie d in th e p a te n ts issu e d to h im o n ly tw o w eeks e a r lie r was
th e o u g h t to b e . A s h e w ro te in his p a p e r , in d ir e c t- c u r r e n t system s,
a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n ts w e re in d u c e d in th e g e n e r a to r o n ly to b e c h a n g e d in to
17 "Personal Recollections, p. A 199.
10 "A ddress o f A cceptance," p. A 106.
10 "Electro M agnetic M otor": filed 12 O ctober 1887; issued I May 1888 (Patent no. 381,968).
Electrical Transm ission o f Power": filed 12 O ctober 1887; issued 1 May 1888 (Patent no.
382.280).
80 "Electro Magnetic M otor" (Patent no. 381,969). Electro Magnetic M otor" (Patent no.
382,279),and "Electrical Transm ission o f Power (Patent no. 382,281) all were filed 30 N o
vem ber 1887 and issued 1 May 1888. "M ethod o f C onverting and Distributing Electric C u r
rents" (Patent no. 382.282) and "System o f Electrical D istribution" (Patent no. 381,970) were
filed 23 D ecem ber 1887 and issued I May 1888. T h e O ctober and Novem ber applications
have been ju d g e d the essential ones. See Silva, Ferraris. p. 14. T h e Decem ber patents refer
to a ro tating field in d e p en d e n t o f m otors and to tran sfo rm ers o f a kind no one adopted.
Rem arks o f G. Revcssi, ibid., p. 15. T h e seven applications m ade by Tesla (those listed in n.
19 and those listed here) w ere derived by him from four applications, three o f which were
divided into two applications each. I am indebted to David Rhecs o f the University of Penn
sylvania for this inform ation.
81 Patent no. 382,280.
98G. Rcvessi, "Galileo Ferraris e Nicola Tesla: L 'Invenzionc del m otore asincrono,"Memone
delta R. Accademia di Science Letlere ad Arli in Padova 53 (1936-37), quoted in Silva. Frrmris.
pp. 14-15.

110

NETW ORKS o f p o w e r

Figure V.2. Tala's patent (no. 381,968)

on the electnc transmission of power,
I May 1888.

d ire c t c u r r e n ts by th e tro u b le s o m e c o m m u ta to r. A f te r d is trib u tio n to m o

to rs, th e se d ir e c t c u r r e n ts w e re a g a in c h a n g e d by a c o m m u ta to r in to re
v e rsin g c u r r e n ts in th e m o to r. T h is , lo T e s la , was illogical. W hy n o t use
a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n ts t h r o u g h o u t th e sy slem , a n d th e r e b y d is p e n s e w ith the
c o m m u ta to r a c o m p lic a te d d ev ice a n d , it m ay b e ju s tly sa id , th e source
o f m o st o f th e tro u b le s e x p e rie n c e d in th e o p e r a tio n o f th e m a ch in es" ? 23
H a v in g d is p e n s e d w ith th e c o m m u ta to r, T e s la th e n face d th e pro b le m
o f p ro d u c in g a ro ta tio n o f th e m a g n e tic po le s, an e ffe c t p r o d u c e d in d.c.
m o to rs by th e c o m m u ta to r . H e p r o c e e d e d in h is p a p e r a n d in his p a t
e n ts to d e sc rib e th e ro ta tin g m a g n e tic field p r o d u c e d by o u t-o f-p h a se ,
a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n ts (see Fig. V .2). U sin g a se rie s o f d ia g ra m s to illustrate
his p o in ts, h e sh o w e d th a t a g e n e r a to r a r m a tu r e re v o lv in g w ith in a m agnetic
field in d u c e d w ith in its se g m e n ts a m a g n e tic field th e p o la rity o f which
r o ta te d a r o u n d th e s e g m e n ts. T h e n , T e s la to ld h is a u d ie n c e a n d th e p a t
e n t e x a m in e r th e ro ta tin g field c a u se d th e sa m e e ffe c ts as a ro ta tin g , or
w h irlin g , m a g n e t. O n e su c h e ffe c t, lo n g o b se rv e d by e le c tric ia n s, was that
a n iro n o r steel d isc p la ced in th e vicinity o f a ro ta tin g p e r m a n e n t m agnet
w h irle d sy m p a th e tic a lly ; th e sa m e th in g h a p p e n e d w h e n a m e tallic disc was
b r o u g h t in to th e Held o f a c tio n o r th e ro ta tin g e le c tr o m a g n e t. In th e latter
case a m a g n e tic field was in d u c e d in th e disc by th e ro ta tin g e le c tro m a g n e t
Nikola Tesla, A new System o f A lternate C u rren t Motors and T ransfo rm ers." a paper
read before the A1EK on If. May IHRH and published in A I EE Transactions. 5 (1888): 08-

1 17

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t re a c tio n b e tw e e n th e sw irlin g m a g n e tism ol th e e le c
tro m a g n e t a n d th e m a g n e tiz e d d isc r o ta te d th e disc.
T o tra n s m it e n e rg y , T e s la r a n c o n d u c to rs fro m slip rin g s c o n n e c te d to
th e s e g m e n ts o f th e g e n e r a to r 's a r m a tu r e (ro ta tin g m e m b e r) to (n o n s p a r k
ing) slip rin g s c o n n e c te d to th e se g m e n ts o f th e s ta to r (sta tio n a ry m e m b e r)
o f a m o to r. T h e s ta to r o f th e m o to r, th e n , h a d w ith in its se g m e n ts th e sam e
re v o lv in g field as th e g e n e r a to r a r m a tu r e . T h e m o to r a r m a tu r e ( ro to r)
th e n e x p e rie n c e d th e in d u c e d c u r r e n t a n d m a g n e tism . B ec au se o f th e slight
la g in p h a se , a to r q u e w as d e v e lo p e d . T he lag o r s lip p a g e g av e th e m o to r
a n a s y n c h ro n o u s c h a r a c te r; th e r o to r s sp e e d w as less th a n th a t o f th e
r e v o lv in g m a g n e tic fie ld o f th e sta to r. T e sla also d e s c rib e d a sy n c h ro n o u s
m o to r th a t u se d d ire c t c u r r e n t to p ro d u c e th e m a g n e tism in th e fie ld .21
T w o fu n d a m e n ta l id e a s w e re stre sse d by T e sla in his d e s c rip tio n o f a
p o ly p h a se m o to r sy ste m th e e lim in a tio n o f th e c o m m u ta to r a n d th e use
o f a r o ta tin g m a g n e tic fie ld . H o w e v e r, G alile o F e rra ris m a y h a v e c o n c eiv ed
o f th e r o ta tin g m a g n e tic field b e f o re T e sla d id . T h e c o n tro v e rs y a m o n g
s u p p o r te r s o f th e S e rb ia n T e s la a n d th e Ita lia n F e rra ris h a s n o t e n d e d a n d
is n o t likely to b e re s o lv e d .25 T e s la 's te stim o n y th a t h e h a d th e id e a o f th e
re v o lv in g field in 1882 is n o t s u p p o r te d by d is in te r e s te d w itn esses o r by
c o n te m p o ra ry p u b lic a tio n s, a n d F e r r a r is s claim th a t h e d isc o v e re d th e
r o ta tin g m a g n e tic field (in 1885) was n o t s u b s ta n tia te d by le c tu re o r p u b
licatio n u n til M a rc h 18 8 8 ,26 m o n th s a f te r T e s la filed fo r his p a te n ts.
T h e c irc u m s ta n c e s s u r r o u n d in g F e r r a r is s d isco v e ry a re in te r e s tin g as a
case o f c o n v e r g in g scien tific a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s. As is th e case
w ith so m a n y in v e n tio n s, F e rra ris , a p ro fe s s o r o f physics at th e U n iv e rsity
o f T u r in , d is c o v e re d th e r o ta tin g m a g n e tic field by an a lo g y . F u r th e r m o r e ,
his d isc o v e ry c a m e fro m a c o n v e rg e n c e in his m in d o f tec h n o lo g ic a l a n d
scie n tific in fo rm a tio n . E x tra p o la tin g fro m his e x p e rim e n ts w ith a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t tr a n s f o r m e r s , h e r e a s o n e d th a t if tw o sim p le, h a rm o n ic , e q u a l
o p tic al m o tio n s w ith a p h a s e d if fe re n c e o f o n e - q u a r te r p ro d u c e d c irc u la r
m o tio n , th e n tw o sim ilarly o u l-o f-p h a s e ele c tric c u r r e n ts a n d th e ir a c c o m
p a n y in g m a g n e tic fie ld s w o u ld p r o d u c e a ro ta tin g m a g n e tic field. These
th o u g h ts w e re p ro b a b ly s tim u la te d as well by his a w a re n e ss o f M axw ells
e le c tr o m a g n e tic th e o ry .27
F e rr a r is d id b u ild a n o p e r a tin g m o to r, b u t h e d id n o t b e c o m e in te re s te d
in p a te n tin g his in v e n tio n u n til th e W e stin g h o u se C o m p a n y p e rs u a d e d him
to allow it to ta k e o u t a n A m e ric a n p a te n t so th a t th e d isc o v ery c o u ld be
m a d e u se fu l. F e r r a r is s c o m p e n s a tio n fro m W e stin g h o u se was a gift o f
$ 1 ,0 0 0 . E s ta b lish in g p a te n t p r io rity h e re is c o m p lic a te d b ec a u se o th e r in

14 Patent no. 382,281 describes one m otor elem ent magnetized by a.c. c urrent, the other
element" draw n by d.c. current.
9*See Silva. Ferraris, p. 4; and the extensive publications about Tesla cited in n. 9 above.
9* T h e 1885 models (dated by Ferraris) are in the Istituto Eleltrotecnico Naiionale in T urin.
Silva, Ferraris, p. 3. T h e March lecture was published: sec Galileo Ferraris, "Kotazinui elriirodinam icbe pro d otic p e r mezzo di co rrcn ti alternate," Atti delTAccadrmta delie Snenie di Torino
23 (1887-88): 360 ff.
97 See the rem arks m ade by R. A rn6, a pupil o f Fcrraris's, in "Com m em orazione solennc
di Galileo Ferraris . . . ." L'Elettrotecnica 9 (1922): 517, quoted in Silva, Ferraris, p. 2; and
Sylvanus P. T h o m p so n , "Galileo Ferraris," The Electrician 38 (1897): 497, also q uoted in Silva.
Ferraris, p. 2.

1 18

kVA

jMM^ j w w a / j m wmf

V
/V

Figure V.3. Three-phase (polyphase)

transmission system of Friedrich
llasetwander: C = generator; M =
motor. From Offizicllc Zcimng . . .
F rankfurt am Main 1891. p. I I.

n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

v e n to rs c o n s tru c te d m o to rs a n d to o k o u t p a te n ts a b o u t th e sa m e lim e that

T e sla a p p lie d lo r his p a te n ts a n d F e r ra ris p u b lis h e d his disco v e ry . As sug
g e ste d e a rlie r, th e sim u lta n e ity re s u lte d in p a rt fro m th e fact th a t in v en to rs
at th a t tim e w e re e x p e r im e n tin g w ith, o r w ere in f o r m e d a b o u t, th e advances
b e in g m a d e in th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem . T h e y w ere fa m ilia r w ith the
m ost re c e n t im p r o v e m e n ts in tr a n s f o r m e r s a n d a.c. g e n e ra to rs , a n d they
saw f u r th e r im p lic a tio n s in th e new p h e n o m e n a o b se rv e d . T h e y w ere like
e x p lo re rs in a new la n d w h o w itn e ss p re v io u sly u n o b s e rv e d e v e n ts and
d isco v e r u n ta p p e d re so u rc e s. In th e case o f in v e n to rs , th e new e v e n ts and
r e so u rc e s a ro se fro m th e in v e n tio n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n ts o f o th e r pio n ee rs
on th e le a d in g e d g e o f te c h n o lo g y a n d scien c e. T h e s e p io n e e r s in electrical
te c h n o lo g y w e re n o t lo n ely in v e n to rs la b o rin g in in te lle c tu a l isolation.
In J a n u a r y 1887 F rie d ric h A u g u st H a s e lw a n d e r, a n e n g in e e r in O ffenb u rg , B a d e n , saw th e possibility o f s u b s titu tin g slip rin g s fo r th e threesec tio n c o m m u ta to r o f a d .c. T h o m s o n - H o u s to n a r m a tu r e h e w as re p a irin g .
H e re a liz e d th a t o n b o th m o to r a n d g e n e r a to r , slip rin g s w o u ld allow the
use o f a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t r a th e r th a n d ir e c t c u r r e n t. S u b s e q u e n tly h e a p
p lie d fo r a p a te n t o n b o th tw o -p h a se a n d th r e e - p h a s e sy ste m s w ith tra n s
fo rm e rs c a p a b le o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n . (S ee Fig. V .3.) In A ugust
1887 h e s ta rte d c o n s tru c tin g a g e n e r a to r w ith th r e e - p h a s e w in d in g s, and
in O c to b e r 1887 h e p u l it to w o rk s u p p ly in g lig h ts. T h e m a n u fa c tu rin g
c o m p a n y o f W . L a h m e y e r & C o. o f F r a n k f o r t o n th e M ain to o k o u t a
licen se o n H a s e lw a n d e rs p a te n t, b u t it w as s u b s e q u e n tly d e c la r e d invalid
w h e n c h a lle n g e d by a n o th e r m a n u f a c tu r e r , A E G (G e rm a n G e n e ra l Elec
tric). A n o th e r p io n e e r in e lec trica l te ch n o lo g y ' in 1887 w as th e A m erican
C.
S. B rad ley , w h o a p p lie d f o r a p a te n t o n a p o ly p h a s e g e n e r a to r an d a
s y n c h ro n o u s m o to r o n 8 M a rch 1887. S u b s e q u e n tly , h o w e v e r, th e courts
ru le d th a t T e sla h a d p rio r ity o v e r th e se tw o in v e n to rs b e c a u se o f th e com
p le te n e ss a n d fu lln e ss o f his p a te n t.ZB
T h e n a m e s o f T e sla , F e rra ris , H a s e lw a n d e r, a n d B ra d le y d o n o t e xhaust
th e list o f in v e n to rs a n d scien tists w h o m a d e p rio r ity claim s o r c o n trib u tio n s
to th e in v e n tio n o f th e p o ly p h a se m o to r a n d th e re la te d g e n e r a to r and
tra n sm issio n sy ste m .251 In r e tro s p e c t, h o w e v e r, it a p p e a r s th a t F e rra ris sub
s ta n tia te d his claim fo r p rio rity in d e m o n s tr a tin g th e id e a u n d e rly in g the
in v e n tio n o f a ro ia tin g -m a g n e iic -fie ld system ; th a t T e s la m a d e th e First
su ccessful p a te n t a p p lic a tio n ; th a t F e r ra ris first pub licly a n n o u n c e d (by
le c tu re ) th e in v e n tio n o r d isco v e ry ; a n d th a t H a s e lw a n d e r a n d Bradley
b u ilt th e first full-scale p o ly p h a se g e n e ra to rs . N e v e rth e le ss, th e d ev e lo p
m e n t o f a n ec o n o m ic a l p o ly p h a se sy stem c o m p r is e d o f b o th m o to r and
g e n e r a to r was n o t c a r rie d o u t a lo n e by a n y o f th e s e in v e n to rs. Electrical
m a n u f a c tu r e r s w o u ld tak e th e le ad in th a t e n d e a v o r .
By 1900 th e la r g e r m a n u f a c tu r e r s h a d se ttle d o n a th re e -p h a s e system
w ith an in d u c tio n m o to r. I h e m a n u f a c tu r e r m o st re sp o n sib le fo r th e dcn ,r En,wicMuR <i'T Starkstromtechmk in Deutschland (Berlin: ETZ Vcrlag.
I >10). ||). <>7-69; Siemens, Home of Siemens, t: 122; and A nion Schwaiger. "Geschichle des
Drch.siroms, / echmkgrsrhichtr 28 ( 1039): 5 3-54
See Silva, Ferratis pp. 10 and 26. and Schwaiger. "Geschichle des D rehsirom s." for the
' I"1* !.
" cludl"K Flil,u T im n so n . W. Baity, and M. Dcprez. Sylvanus P. Thompson.
Polyfihase F.lectnc Currents and Alternating Current Motors (London: E. Sc F.N. Spon. 1895) also
is helpful. Silva s Fena, is ,m im ics a bibliography related to the priority question.

119

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
v e lo p m e n l o f th is sy stem in E u r o p e ( a n d p ro b a b ly in th e rest o f th e w o rld )
was th e G e rm a n c o m p a n y A llg e m e in e E le k iriz iia ts-G e se llsc h a fi. o f B e rlin ,
a n d th e e n g in e e r o f th is c o m p a n y w h o lo o k th e le a d in d e v e lo p in g th e
sy stem 's m o to r w as M ich a el D o liv o -D o b ro w o lsk y (1 8 6 2 1919). L e a r n in g o f
th e d isc o v e rie s a n d in v e n tio n s o f T e s la a n d F e r ra ris th r o u g h p u b lic a tio n s.
D o liv o -D o b ro w o lsk y b e g a n e x p e r im e n tin g w ith p o ly p h a se m a c h in e s. H e
d o u b te d F e r r a r is s s ta te m e n t th a t th e p o ly p h a se m o to r co u ld o b ta in at best
o n ly 5 0 p e rc e n t e fficien c y , a n d his e x p e rim e n ts p ro v e d th a t h e w as rig h t.
H e also q u e s tio n e d T e s la a n d W e s tin g h o u s e s c h o ic e o f a tw o -p h a se system ;
th o r o u g h ly in v e s tig a tin g d if f e r e n t p h a s e sy ste m s w ith a n e x p e rim e n ta l m o
to r, h e d e c id e d o n th e th r e e - p h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t, w hich h e ga v e th e n a m e
now u se d in G e rm a n y , Drehslrom ( tu r n in g , o r r o ta tin g , c u r r e n t" ) . In a d
d itio n , h e p a te n te d th e s im p le st a n d m o st p ra c tic a l in d u c tio n , o r a s y n
c h ro n o u s , m o to r w ith a s h o rt-c ir c u ite d ro to r, a m o to r th a t h as b e e n w idely
u se d a n d c o p ie d . It is in te re s tin g to n o te , h o w e v e r, th a t in his la te r y e ars
h e d e v e lo p e d a d ir e c t- c u r r e n t h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n sy ste m .30
In th e U n ite d S ta te s, th e W e s tin g h o u s e C o m p a n y in v e ste d in th e d e v e l
o p m e n t o f t h e T e s la p o ly p h a s e m o to r a n d tra n sm issio n sy stem . T h is is n ot
s u r p r is in g , c o n s id e r in g th a t th e W e stin g h o u se C o m p a n y - T e s la r e la tio n
sh ip w as m u c h like th a t b e tw e e n W e stin g h o u se a n d W illiam S tan le y . B o th
sh o w h ow m a n u f a c tu r e r s re la te d to in d e p e n d e n t in v e n to rs b e fo re c n g in e e r in g - a n d - d e v e lo p m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s a n d r e s e a r c h - a n d - d e v e lo p m e n t
la b o ra to rie s w e re o rg a n iz e d .
W e stin g h o u se first s e n t H . M. B yllesby to e x a m in e T e s la s m o to r a n d
p a te n ts a f te r T e s la re a d his p a p e r to th e A IE E in M ay 1888. A d v ised by
his s ta f f th a t th e F e rr a r is p a te n t w o u ld h a v e little value, G e o rg e W estingh o u s e o b ta in e d a n o p tio n to p u rc h a s e th e p a te n ts by p a y m e n t o f $ 2 0 ,0 0 0
in cash , $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 in n o te s, a n d a ro y a lty o f $ 2 .5 0 fo r ea ch m o to r h o rs e p o w e r
m a n u fa c tu re d . M in im u m royalties w ere to be $5,000 in th e first year, $10,000
th e se c o n d , th e n $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 e a c h s u c c e e d in g y e ar. W e stin g h o u se p u rc h a s e d
th e p a te n ts in J u ly 1888. W h e n W e stin g h o u se w as in d ir e fin a n c ial stra its
in th e 1890s, h o w e v e r, T e s la a g r e e d to a c c e p t a cash s e ttle m e n t o f $ 2 1 6 ,0 0 0
in lieu o f ro y a ltie s. B a n k e rs b e liev e d th a t th is w o u ld plac e less s tra in o n
th e c o m p a n y .31 Y e ars la te r, T e s la d id n o t c o n s id e r his c o m p e n s a tio n g e n
e ro u s e n o u g h . T r y in g in 1920 to in te re s t E. M. H e rr, p re s id e n t o f W e st
in g h o u s e , in his w ire less p o w e r-lra n sm issio n sy stem , T e sla w ro te th a t h e
was re a d y to sell th e sy stem , p r o v id e d y o u r c o m p a n y is w illing to c o m e to
30"Dolivo-Dobrowolsky," in M anner der Teehnik, ctl. C onrad Malschoss (Berlin: VDI. 1925):
and D cllm ar, Starkslromtechnik, pp. 70 -7 1 . It is not surprising lhal in 1957 a G erm an profes
sional association, ihc V erband D eulscher Elcktrotechniker (VDE) categorized Dolivo-Do
browolsky with Ferraris, Tesla, Bradley, and H asclw andcr as an inventor o f the three-phase
system. T h e VDE com m ittee, which was especially commissioned to investigate and establish
priority in the invention o f the system, also included the Swede Jonas W cnstrom and the
Swiss C harles E. L. Brown am ong its inventors. W enstrom 's work is discussed in Ake V rethem,
Jonas Wenstrom and the Three-Phase System, Stockholm Papers in History and Philosophy of
T echnology (Stockholm: Royal Institute o f T echnology, 1980).
51 L etter o f G. W cstinghouse, quoted in Passer, Electrical Manufacturers, p. 278. T his account
of W estinghousc's relationship with Tesla is based 011 Passer (ibid., pp. 278 II.). who had
access to W estinghousc Co. files; and 011 Cheney, Tesla, pp. 40 and 48-19. Cheney gives the
original purchase price as about $60,000, o f which $5,000 was to l>c paid in cash and 150
shares o f stock plus the $2.50 royalty.

n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

a n u n d e r s ta n d in g w ith m e o n te rm s d e c id e d ly m o r e g e n e ro u s th a n those
u n d e r w hich th e y a c q u ire d m y sy stem o f p o w e r tra n sm issio n th irty years
ago.*"*2 T e s la b elie v ed th a t th e su ccess o f W e stin g h o u se E le ctric was du e
to his in v e n tio n o f th e p o ly p h a s e system .
As p a r t o f th e a g r e e m e n t in 1888, T e s la w o rk e d in P itts b u rg h f o r a year
w ith W e stin g h o u se e n g in e e r s to d e v e lo p a m a r k e ta b le m o to r a n d system .
H is re la tio n s w ith th e W e slin g h o u se s ta f f w e re n o t e n tire ly h a rm o n io u s,
h o w e v e r, a n d like S ta n ley , h e so o n r e tu r n e d to his in d e p e n d e n t inventive
e n d e a v o rs . T e sla la te r re c a lle d th a t h e e n c o u n te r e d m u c h o p p o sitio n in
P itts b u r g h ; o n ly A lb e rt S c h m id t a n d C h a rle s F. S c o tt h a d fa ith in th e new
system a n d assiste d h im . T e s la b e lie v e d , h o w e v e r, th a t G e o rg e W estingh o u s e s c o n fid e n c e in h im n e v e r w a v e re d .33
O th e r c o m p a n ie s in th e U n ite d S ta le s a n d G e r m a n y , in c lu d in g th e S tan
ley E lectric M a n u fa c tu rin g C o m p a n y a n d th e T h o m s o n - H o u s to n C om
p a n y , c o n tr ib u te d lo th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p o ly p h a s e sy ste m .34 It is no
ta b le th a t th e B ritish sto o d asid e . As o n e B ritish h is to r ia n w rite s, T h e
p o ly p h a se sy stem a n d th e in d u c tio n m o to r w e re d e v e lo p e d in th e U nited
S lates a n d o n th e C o n tin e n t. E n g lish e n g in e e rs a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s look
n o p a r t in th is .35
T h e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e p o ly p h a se m o to r a n d sy stem in th e e a rly 1890s
a n d th e e a r lie r in tro d u c tio n o f th e tr a n s f o r m e r , w h ich w as so o n a d a p te d
to p o ly p h a se fu n c tio n , p e rm itte d th e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem to m atch
th e ca p ac ity o f th e o ld e r , d ir e c t- c u r r e n t sy stem in s u p p ly in g b o th power
a n d lig h t. F u r th e r m o r e , th e p o ly p h a se sy ste m c o rre c te d th e fu n d a m e n ta l
flaw , o r re v e rs e sa lie n t, o f d ir e c t c u r r e n t its u n e c o n o m ic a l tra nsm ission.
T h e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s was n o t y et o v e r, h o w e v e r. E x istin g directc u r r e n t u tilities in d e n se ly p o p u la te d a re a s c o n tin u e d to e x p a n d to meei
lo a d in cre ases. T h e ir u n a m o r tiz e d in v e s tm e n t in d ire c t c u r r e n t w as so large
th a t it d is c o u ra g e d re p la c e m e n t w ith a p o ly p h a s e sy stem . I f th e utilities
s u p p le m e n te d th e e x istin g d ir e c t- c u r r e n t syslem w ith a n a d d itio n a l and
u n c o n n e c te d p o ly p h a se sy slem , th e y w o u ld lose th e a d v a n ta g e s o f scale of
a sin g le system . F u r th e r m o r e , G e n e ra l E lectric , S ie m e n s, A E G . a n d the
sm a lle r B ritish e q u ip m e n t m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n ie s r e m a in e d partially
c o m m itte d to d ire c t c u r r e n t th r o u g h c ap ita l in v e s tm e n ts in p a te n ts , eq u ip
m e n t, a n d o p e r a tin g facilities as well as in e x p e rie n c e a n d e x p e rtis e . Because
o f th e ir e x p e r ie n c e a n d e x p e rtis e , E d iso n , o th e r e n g in e e rs a n d m a n ag e rs,
a n d skilled la b o re rs w ere bia se d to w a rd th e o ld e r sy ste m . T e c h n ic a l change
was f r u s tr a te d by th e in stitu tio n a liz a tio n o f d ire c t c u r r e n t d u r in g th e p re
vious d e c a d e . M a n u fa c tu r e rs , u tilities, a n d c o n s u m e rs w a ile d ca u tio u sly for
th e lines o r f u tu r e d e v e lo p m e n t to be clearly d e lin e a te d .
B e cause th e b a ttle o f th e syste m s" h a d b e c o m e fa r m o re co m plicated
th a n a te ch n ic al p ro b le m a w a itin g a sim p le te c h n ic a l so lu tio n , it e n d ed
" T e s la to E. M. H err. 19 O ctober 1920. Tesla Collection, Microfilm. T itle 7229, Keel 6.
Library o f Congress. W ashington. D.C.
15 April 1922. ibid.

a ,a ir m :' n r be W estinghouse Electrical Sc M anufacturing Co.,

" P h ilip L. Alger and Robert E. A rnold. "T h e History o f Induction Motors in America."

121

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
w ith o u t th e d r a m a tic v a n q u is h in g o f o n e sy stem by th e o th e r , o r a re v o
lu tio n a ry tr a n s itio n fro m o n e p a ra d ig m to a n o th e r . T h e con flict w as r e
so lv ed by sy n th e sis, by a c o m b in a tio n o f c o u p lin g a n d m e rg in g . T he c o u
p lin g lo o k p lac e o n th e te c h n ic a l level; th e m e rg in g , o n th e in s titu tio n a l
level. T h e b a ttle e n d e d w ith a relativ e ly g e n tle tr a n s itio n w h e re b y th e o ld e r
sy stem slow ly g a v e way o v e r d e c a d e s, first as th e new system s u p p le m e n te d
it, th e n as th e ne w re p la c e d th e w o rn -o u t a n d o b so le te . O n th e in s titu tio n a l
level, v este d in te re s ts w e re g ra d u a lly tr a n s f e r r e d in to a s ta k e in th e new
sy stem . T h e h isto ry o f th e re s o lu tio n o f " th e b a ttle o f th e c u r r e n ts " h e lp s
e x p la in why e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs a rg u e th a t th e ir a d ju stm e n ts to c h a n g e
a r e m o re r e a s o n a b le th a n th o se m a d e in th e re a lm o f p o litical a n d in te r
n a tio n a l r e la tio n s.
T e c h n ic a l re s o lu tio n o f th e c o n tro v e rs y was g re a tly fac ilitate d by c o u
p le rs, o r tra n s d u c e r s . T h e m o st ob v io u sly c o n trib u to ry o f th e s e w as th e
ro ta ry c o n v e rte r. H is to rie s o f e le c tric a l te c h n o lo g y ra re ly g ive th e d ev ice
th e pla ce o f p r o m in e n c e it d e se rv e s. B ec au se th e ro ta r y c o n v e r te r w as th e
so lu tio n to a critica l p ro b le m d e f in e d by a n u m b e r o f in v e n to r s a n d e n
g in e e rs w h o id e n tifie d a r e v e r s e sa lie n t, it, to o , is a case o f sim u lta n e ity o f
in v ention. T h e re v e rse sa lient was e co n otechnical th e n e ed to sustain vested
in te re s ts in th e o ld sy stem w hile m a k in g th e tra n s itio n to th e new .
In th e U n ite d S ta te s, in v e n tio n o f th e ro ta ry c o n v e rte r is a ttr ib u te d to
C h a rle s S. B ra d le y . B ra d le y h a d w o rk e d fo r E d iso n a n d in v e n te d a p o ly
p h a se g e n e r a to r b e f o r e e s ta b lis h in g a fa c to ry at Y o n k e rs, N ew Y o rk , ea rly
in th e 1890s to m a n u f a c tu r e th e c o n v e r te r h e in v e n te d in 1888. G e n e ra l
E lec tric so o n a c q u ire d th e B ra d le y p a te n t a n d fa cilities.30 T h e W e stin g
h o u se E lectric C o m p a n y d e v e lo p e d r o ta r y c o n v e r te rs as w ell.37 In 1891
W ilh e lm L a h m e y e r ( 1 8 5 9 -1 9 0 7 ), in v e n to r o f v a rio u s d ire c t- c u r r e n t m a
ch in e s, in tr o d u c e d a ro ta r y c o n v e r te r w ith a sin g le a r m a tu r e f o r c h a n g in g
d ire c t c u r r e n t first in to p o ly p h a s e a n d th e n th e re v e rse . H a se lw a n d e r,
w h o se p o ly p h a s e sy stem L a h m e y e rs c o m p a n y a c q u ire d , also p a te n te d a
ro ta ry c o n v e rte r. Z ip e rn o w sk i a n d D eri o f G an z & C o m p a n y to o k o u t a
G e rm a n p a te n t. O th e r n a m e s also a re re c o rd e d in th e h isto ry o f th e ro ta ry
c o n v e r te r .38
S in g le - a r m a tu re r o ta r y c o n v e rte rs w ere u se d fo r o th e r a n d v a rie d tr a n s
fo rm a tio n s , in c lu d in g f re q u e n c y a n d p h a se c o n v e rsio n . M o to r- g e n e ra to rs
also w e re u se d fo r c o n v e rsio n ; th e m o to r, d riv e n by o n e k in d o f c u r r e n t,
d ro v e a g e n e r a to r th a t p r o d u c e d a n o th e r k in d . T h e h ig h ly im p o r ta n t a d
v a n ta g e o f th is ca p a c ity fo r c o n v e rsio n w as th a t v a rio u s o ld system s, not
o n ly a.c. a n d d .c., c o u ld b e c o u p le d , o r sy n th e siz e d , w ith new o n e s. F o r
e x a m p le , in a n e f f o r t to save th e in v e stm e n t o f u tilitie s in s in g le -p h a se
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t e q u ip m e n t, W e slin g h o u se first in tro d u c e d a tw o -p h a se
m o to r, b e lie v in g th a t it c o u ld b e a c c o m m o d a te d to th e s in g le -p h a se system
m ost easily. S u b s e q u e n tly th e tw o -p h a se m o to r was a b a n d o n e d in fa v o r o f

"* Passer, Electrical Manufacturers, pp. 3 0 0 -3 0 1.

17 Benjamin G. Lam mc, an o u tstanding W eslinghousc inventor and engineer, has recalled
the early decades of the com pany and his contributions to it in ttenjamtn Carver l.amme, Electrical
Engineer: An Autobiography (New York: Putnam , 1926); chap. 6 is al>oul induction motors,
rotary converters, and a.c. g enerators tl8H.r>-l900).
D eltm ar. Starkstromtechnih, pp. 74-76.

12 2

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure V.4. Westinghouse exhibit,

Chicago, 189). From Edward D. Adonis,
Niagara Power: History of the Niagara
Falls Power Com pany. 2 i/oh. (Niagara
Falls, N.Y.: Niagara Falls Power Co.,
1927), 2: 192.

th e th re e -p h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t, b u t, a g a in , a c o u p le r (in th is case a phasec o n v e rte r ) sa v ed th e o ld sy stem d u r in g th e p e r io d o f tr a n s itio n .

T h e v a rie ty o f c o u p le rs o n th e m a rk e t by th e e a rly 1890s su g g e ste d the
n e e d fo r a u n iv e rsa l e le ctric s u p p ly sy stem , a n d ev e n th o u g h it is rarely
a c k n o w le d g e d , th e d e fin itio n a n d in tro d u c tio n o f th a t sy stem p r o v e d to be
o n e o f th e m o st in flu e n tia l in n o v a tio n s in th e h isto ry o f ele c tric lig h t and
p o w e r. T h e c o n c e p t oT a u n iv e rsa l sy stem c o m p le te d th e tr a n s itio n from
th e e ra o f ele c tric light to th e e r a o f e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r. W estin g h o u se
d isp la y e d th e system at th e C h ic a g o e x p o s itio n o f 1893, a n d th e d esign
(see n in Fig. V .4) c an be a ttr ib u te d to th e e n g in e e r in g s ta f f o f th a t com
p a n y .39 T h e esse n c e o f th e c o n c e p t was a u n ifie d sy ste m e m b ra c in g , o r
c o u p lin g , g e n e ra to rs (su p p ly ) a n d lo a d s o f v a ry in g c h a ra c te ris tic s (d e m a n d ).
T h e system w as c a p a b le o f su p p ly in g in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s, a rc lig h ts, directc u r r e n t m o to r s f o r b o th s ta tio n a ry a n d tra c tio n p u rp o s e s , sin g le -p h ase
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t m o to rs, p o ly p h a se m o to rs , a n d e n e rg y fo r th erm o elec trical a n d e le c tro c h e m ic a l u se s fro m a c o m m o n tra n sm issio n line or
rin g fed by c e n tra liz e d , larg e -sca le g e n e ra to r s . (See Figs. V .5 -V .8 .) Its a t
tra c tiv e n e ss to th e o r d e r in g a n d s y ste m a tiz in g m in d o f th e e n g in e e r and
m a n a g e r c a n b est be c o n v e y e d by d e s c rib in g th e u n sy ste m a tiz e d a n d dis'" T liis account o f the universal system is based on the "Scott Essays," a collection o f short
essays written by C harles F. Scott in 1938. T h e collection consists of eight items, each of which
is about ten pages long. Scott, who was a W cstinghouse en g ineer from 1888 to 1911. Tocuses
on the introduction o f the universal system at Niagara Falls, but he also makes some general
o bservations on the history of electric light and pow er p rio r to 1895. 1 am grateful to Robert
Bel field for providing me with a copy o f these pap ers, which he located in the archives ol
the Niagara Mohawk Power Co. of New York; these archives are now being processed at thr
G eorge A rcnts Research Library at Syracuse University (h ereafter cited as Niagara Archives).

123

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N

Figure V.5. The Westinghouse concept of

a universal supply system. From Cassicrs
M agazine 8 (1895): 338.

si

- -fff

rfab-- Jr
bP "

fc S f t i T
Figure V.6. Comparison o f electric power
systems. From typewritten memorandum by
Charles F. Scott, 'W hat Was the Niagara
Central Station P la n t" (5 April 1938).
Courtesy o f the Niagara Archives, George
A rents Research Library, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, N.Y.

124

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

Figure V.7. Nonuiiiversal electric supply

system o f 1890. From typewritten
memorandum by Charles /'. Scott, "Wliat
Was the Niagara Central Station Flan?"
(5 April 19)8). Courtesy of the Niagara
Archives, George Arcnts Research Library,
Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.

Figure V.8. The Niagara (universal)

power plan. From typewritten memorandum
by Charles F. Scott, "What Was the
Niagara Central Station Plan?" (5 April
1938). Courtesy o f the Niagara Archives,
George Arents Research Library, Syracuse
University, Syracuse. N.Y.

SUBSTATION
TRANSFORMING
CURRENT

rPH' - I

SERVICE

125

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
o rd e rly sta te o f e le c tric su p p ly ai th e tim e o f th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e u n i
v ersal system (a b o u t 1893). T h e B u ffa lo G e n e ra l E le ctric C o m p a n y , a utility
s u p p ly in g p a r t o f th e city f ro m a c e n tra l s ta tio n at 4 0 C o u r t S tre e t, h a d in
th a t sta tio n se v en ste a m e n g in e s o f se v e ra l m a k e s a n d fifte e n g e n e ra to r s
o f sev en d if f e r e n t ty p e s s u p p ly in g five d if f e r e n t k in d s o f c u s to m e rs , o r
lo ad s, o n s e p a r a te c irc u its. F ra g m e n te d s u p p ly m e a n t th a t w h en th e e c o
n o m ica lly c ritic al lo a d f a c to r w as low, e c o n o m ie s o f scale co u ld n o t be
re a liz e d .40
T h e u n iv e rsa l sy ste m sh o w n at th e C h ic a g o e x p o sitio n u se d th e new
p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t f o r tra n s m is s io n a n d c o u p le rs , in c lu d in g tr a n s fo rm e r s ,
to c o n n e c t e s ta b lis h e d m o d e s o f d is trib u tio n se rv in g d if f e r e n t lo ad s. In this
way a u tility w o u ld n o t h a v e to sc r a p its e x istin g d is trib u tio n c ircu its. At
th e e x h ib itio n a 1 ,0 0 0 -h .p . g e n e r a to r d ro v e a tw o -p h a se T e sla in d u c tio n
m o to r. T h e m o to r in th e d isp la y was in te n d e d to r e p r e s e n t th e p r im e m o v e r
o f th e u n iv e rsa l sy stem . T h e m o to r p o w e re d a tw o -p h a se g e n e r a to r , w hich
in tu r n s e n t c u r r e n t to s te p - u p tr a n s f o r m e r s f o r tra n sm issio n a n d to step d o w n tr a n s f o r m e r s a t d is tr ib u tio n p o in ts. A t th e se p o in ts a m o to r d ro v e
an a rc -lig h t g e n e r a to r , a ro ta r y c o n v e r te r s u p p lie d d ire c t c u r r e n t f o r s tr e e t
c a r m o to rs , in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s w e re s u p p lie d , a n d v a rio u s m o to rs w e re
d riv e n . I n v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e r s w h o saw o r r e a d a b o u t th e d isp la y qu ick ly
g r a s p e d th e s ig n ific a n c e o f th e u n iv e rsa l system .
O n e o f th e c re a to r s o f t h e u n iv e rsa l e le c tric su p p ly system d re w a n a n a l
o gy b e tw e e n it a n d w a te r-s u p p ly sy stem s, w hich c o m b in e d sp rin g s , p riv a te
wells, a n d c iste rn s to su p p ly v a rio u s ty p e s o f c o n s u m e rs ; te le p h o n e system s,
w hich u n ifie d th e f o r m e r ly iso la te d sy stem s o f in d e p e n d e n t c o m p a n ie s;
a n d la rg e railw ay sy stem s, w h ich in te g ra te d sm a lle r o n e s th a t h a d u sed
s h o r t r o a d s w ith d if f e r e n t tra c k g a u g e s. (In m o re re c e n t tim es, c o m p u te r
n e tw o rk s w o u ld b e c o n s id e re d a n a lo g o u s.) U tilities s o o n e m b ra c e d th e c o m
p e llin g e c o n o m ic a n d te c h n ic a l logic o f th e u n iv e rsa l system (see Fig. V .9).
By 1900, te c h n ic a l p e rio d ic a ls w e re p u b lis h in g a c c o u n ts o f u tility system s
th r o u g h o u t th e w o rld th a t h a d u se d th e u n iv e rsa l system to m a k e th e
tr a n s itio n to th e e r a o f e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r.41 E ven e a rlie r, le a d in g
m a n u f a c tu r e r s h a d c o m m itte d th e m se lv e s as well to th e new re so lu tio n o f
th e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s.
It is im p o r ta n t to o b se rv e , h o w e v e r, th a t th e s tru g g le b e tw e e n th e tw o
sy stem s d id n o t c o m e to a n e n d w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a te ch n ica l so
lu tio n c o u p le rs jo in in g th e o ld a n d n ew ; it c a m e w ith th e in tro d u c tio n o f
in s titu tio n a l in v e n tio n s th a t in tu r n reso lv ed th e con flict o n th e o rg a n iz a
tio n a l level (a c o n flic t so c le arly re v e a le d in th e e p is o d e in v o lv in g H a ro ld
B ro w n a n d th e e le c tr o c u tio n e rs c u rre n t) . In th e U n ite d S late s th e sw ing
o f E d iso n G e n e ra l E lectric to th e new w ay sig n a le d th e re so lu tio n o f th e
sy stem s c o n flict o n th e in stitu tio n a l level. T h e re a so n s fo r th e sh ift w ere
c o m p le x . F o r o n e th in g , T h o m a s E d iso n , a b itte r foe o f th e new c u r r e n t
w h o h a d s u p p o r te d e ffo rts to d isc re d it a n d o u tlaw it, re lin q u is h e d c o n tro l
o f th e E d iso n e n te rp ris e s in th e late 1880s. In th e ab se n c e o f his m o n u
40C harles F. Scon, "VVIiat Was the Niagara C entral Station Plan?" (5 April 1938). Niagara
Archives.
41 W. L. R. Emmet, Results Accomplished in D istribution o f Light and Power by A lternating
Cu rrents." Electrical World 27 (1896): 570-72. 593-96.

120
Figure V.9. Resolution and transition in
the halite o f the systems": I'ercentage of
dnret current (Gleiclislrom). mixed
(Gcmiscluc), single-phase alternating
current (W cchsclslroin), and polyphase
current (Drehsirom ) used in Germany,
I.ISO-1915. From Rudolf von Millers
article in Technikgeschicllte 25 (1936):
112 Courtesy of thc Division of Electricity,
National Museum of American History,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.,
and Rudolf von Miller.

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

Auflwkng d v Abgobt ron Qcfdiffrom , WethftJfbom cn d Dreh/trom

m e n ta l p re s tig e a n d c o n se rv a tiv e in flu e n c e , E d iso n G e n e ra l E lec trics d o g

m atic o p p o s itio n to a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t w a n e d . E d iso n 's w ith d ra w a l also
c le a re d th e way fo r a m e r g e r w ith th e T h o m s o n - H o u s to n C o m p a n y , a rising
m a n u f a c tu r e r o r ele ctrica l m a c h in e ry th a t c a r rie d a lin e o f b o th d ire c t- and
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t e q u ip m e n t. A fte r th e m e r g e r in 1892, th e new c om
p a n y . G e n e ra l E lectric, in tr o d u c e d e q u ip m e n t f o r p o ly p h a s e system s. A n
o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n a l re s p o n s e a m o n g m a n u f a c tu r e r s c a m e in 1896 in the
fo rm o f a p a te n t- e x c h a n g e a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n G e n e ra l E le ctric a n d W est
in g h o u se . T h e e n g in e e rs in e a ch c o m p a n y , a n d esp e cially th e e n g in e e rs in
th e utilities w h o b o u g h t g e n e r a to rs , m o to rs , a n d tr a n s f o r m e r s fro m them ,
h a d fo u n d th e p r o s c rip tio n o f o b v io u s im p ro v e m e n ts a g g r a v a tin g a n d they
w elco m ed th is fa cilitatio n o f ra tio n a l te c h n ic a l e x c h a n g e .
T h e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d in tro d u c tio n o f p o ly p h a s e p o w e r also affec ted
re la tio n s a m o n g G e rm a n m a n u fa c tu re rs , b u t in a d if f e r e n t fa sh io n . In 1887
S ie m e n s Sc H alsk e a n d th e G e rm a n E d iso n C o m p a n y (la te r A E G ) m a d e an
a g r e e m e n t b a sed o n th e a ss u m p tio n th a t A E G w o u ld e n g a g e p rim a rily in
th e F inancing a n d c o n s tr u c tio n o f la rg e g e n e r a tin g sta tio n s a n d related
sy stem s a n d th a t S ie m e n s Sc H alsk e w o u ld m a n u f a c tu r e th e e q u ip m e n t for
th o se sta tio n s. T h e a g re e m e n t n o lo n g e r s u ite d A E G , h o w e v e r, a fte r it
f o u n d th a t G e r m a n cities a n d to w n s o f te n p r e f e r r e d to e sta b lish th e ir own
m u n ic ip a lly o w n e d utilitie s a n d a l t e r it d e v e lo p e d a p o ly p h a s e p o w e r system
d e sig n e d p rim a rily by D o liv o -D o b ro w o lsk y . F o re se e in g a s u b sta n tia l busi
ness in th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f p o w c r-tra n s m is s io n e q u ip m e n t, A E G w anted
lo b e fre e o f th e a g re e m e n t in o r d e r to e sta b lish its o w n facilities. In 1894,
tw o y ears a f te r E d iso n G e n e ra l E lectric jo in e d w ith T lio m s o n -H o u s lo n , a
m e r g e r th a t facilita ted th e m ove in to th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f a lte rn a tin g -c u r
re n t e q u ip m e n t, A E G a n d S ie m e n s c a n c e le d th e ir a g r e e m e n t a n d AEG
g a in e d full f re e d o m (w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f cab les, w h ic h w e re left to Sie
m e n s Sc H alske) to d e v e lo p its m a n u f a c tu r in g p r o g r a m .-l2
In b o th th e U n ite d S ta tes a n d G e rm a n y th c sto ck o f a n u m b e r o f electric
u tilitie s was o w n e d by th e la rg e m a n u f a c tu r e r s , a n d th e utilities d e p e n d e d
u p o n th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s fo r th e d e sig n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f e q u ip m e n t.
1 bu s, th e u tilities also s o u g h t in stitu tio n a l a r r a n g e m e n ts th a t w o u ld facil
ita te th e a d o p tio n o f th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s te c h n ic a l so lu tio n to th e system s
co nflict. F o r in sta n c e , th e h isto ry o f u tilities in C h ic a g o re v ea ls th a t the
Von Siemens, House of Siemens, I: 148; and C onrad Maischoss, Die geschichlliche Emwicklung d c r A llgcinrinen Elekiricitais-G ejcllschafi in den ersien 25 Ja h re n ihres Bestehens."
neitrdgr m r Cesrhichte der 1 echnik und Industrie I ( 19 0 9 f0.

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C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
o rg a n iz a tio n a l r e s p o n s e , o r in v e n tio n , th e r e was m e rg e r. E arly d ir e c t- c u r
r e n t sta tio n s w ith fra n c h ise s c o v e rin g sm all c e n tra l-c ity d istric ts m e r g e d .
P o ly p h a se tra n s m is s io n a llo w e d fo r la r g e -a re a su p p ly , so th e a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t utilitie s s u p p ly in g th e s u b u rb s m e rg e d in to new o rg a n iz a tio n s w ith
th e in te n tio n o f g a in in g th e e n tir e u rb a n m a rk e t. T h e se rie s o f m e rg e rs
th a t o c c u rr e d in A m e ric a a n d G e rm a n y , a n d to a le sse r e x te n t in B rita in ,
a r e d o c u m e n te d in n u m e r o u s u tility h isto rie s.43
A g re e m e n t a b o u t te c h n ic a l s ta n d a r d s also c o n trib u te d to th e re s o lu tio n
o f th e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s a n d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e p o ly p h a se , o r
u n iv e rsa l, sy ste m . D u r in g th e p e rio d fro m 1887 to 1892, w h e n th e s tru g g le
w as in te n se , u tilitie s a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s ch o se d if f e r e n t fre q u e n c ie s . D e
p e n d in g u p o n th e p a r tic u la r c h a r a c te r o f su p p ly a n d lo a d , d if f e r e n t f r e
q u e n c ie s h a d d is tin c t a d v a n ta g e s . T h e r e f o r e , a g e n e ra l a g r e e m e n t ab o u t
f r e q u e n c y d id n o t c o m e th r o u g h th e e sta b lis h m e n t o f o n e fre q u e n c y s o b
v ious te c h n ic a l s u p e r io r ity o v e r th e o th e rs ; r a th e r , a s p irit o f flexibility a n d
c o m p ro m is e a m o n g th e v a rio u s utility in te re s ts , a n d esp ec ia lly a m o n g th e
m a n u f a c tu r e r s , w as p rim a r ily re sp o n sib le fo r th e a g re e m e n t. O th e r im
p o r ta n t fa c to rs w e re p r e c e d e n t a n d su c ce ssfu l p ra c tic e e.g ., E d is o n s in
tro d u c tio n o f 1 10 a n d 2 2 0 volts f o r p o w e r d is trib u tio n in th e U n ite d States.
45 Utility histories vary greatly in quality. O u tstan d in g am ong them a re Forrest M cDonald.
Let There Be Light: The Utility Industry in Wisconsin, 1881-1955 (M adison. Wis.: T h e A merican
History Research C en ter, 1957), a study by a leading A merican historian which treats Wis
consin utilities an d provides an overview o f utility history that is applicable to the entire
country; Raym ond C. Miller. Kilowatts at Work: A History o f the Detroit Edison Company (Detroit.
Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1957) and The Force o f Energy: A Business History o f the Detroit
Edison Company (East Lansing: M ichigan State University Press, 1971), two scholarly volumes
about two utility m agnates who greatly influenced the industry, Alex Dow and W alker L.
Cisler; and Nicholas B. W ainw righl, History of the Philadelphia Electric Company, 1881-1961
(Philadelphia: Philadelphia Electric Co.. 1961), an account o f one o f America's largest and
oldest utilities. An overview o f utility developm ent is given in Creating the Electric Age. ed. Nilo
L indgrcn, a special issue o f EPR1 Journal 4 (1979). H istories o f oth e r utilities include Charles
M. C olem an, P.C. and E. o f California: The Centennial Story o f Pacific Gas and Electric Company,
1852-1952 (New York: M cGraw-Hill. 1952); Glenn W eaver. The Hartford Electric Light Company
(H artfo rd , C onn., 1969); T h o m so n King. Consolidated of Baltimore, 1816-1950: A History of
Consolidated Gas Electric Light and Power Company o f Baltimore (Baltim ore, 1950); Jack Riley,
Carolina Power Id Light Company, 1908-1958 (Raleigh. N.C.. 1958), W ade H. W right. History
o f the Georgia Power Company, 1855-1956 (Atlanta, 1957); G eorge Bush, Future Builders: The
Story o f Michigan's Consumers Power Company (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973); Edward G.
Nelson, KPL in Kansas: A History o f the Kansas Power and Light Company (Lawrence, Kans.:
C enter for Research in Business. University o f Kansas. 1964); Jo h n D ierdorff, How Edison's
Lamp Helped Light the West (Portland. O reg., 1971); T h o m as C. W right, Otter Tail Power Company
from Its Origin through 1954 (Fergus Falls, Minn., 1955): How ard R. Fussell, A History of Gulf
States Utilities Company, 1912-1947 (Houston: T exas G u lf Coast Historical Assoc., 1967); H er
b ert W. Meyer. Builders o f Northern Slates Power Company (M inneapolis, Minn.: N orthern Slates
Power Co., 1972); Indianapolis Power 8c Light Co., Electrifying Indianapolis (lndiana|>olis, Ind.,
I960).
G eorg Boll. Entsteliung und Entwichlung des Verbundbetriebs in tier deutschen Elehtriiilatswirtschaft
bis turn europaischen Verbund (Frankfort on the Main: VWEW, 1969), includes in his list of
sources many histories o f G erm an utilities. T h e history o f electric supply in the state o f Bavaria
is given in V erband Bayerischcr Elektrizitiitswerke E. V.. Elehlriiildt in Bayern, 1919-1969
(Munich: VBE, 1969). For British utilities, sec Leslie H annah. Electricity Before Nationalisation
(Baltimore: T h e Jo h n s H opkins University Press. 1979), with its citation of num erous utility
histories; a nd Parson, Early Days o f the Power Station Industry, which provides accounts of British
utilities u p to about 1900. O th er references to utilities discussed thro ughout the book in hand
are provided in the footnotes; see, especially. C hapters V II, V III. and IX.

128

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

T h e s e histo rica l c irc u m sta n c e s a n d e v e n ts o u g h t lo b e r e m e m b e re d because
la te r g e n e ra tio n s o fte n a ssu m e th a t s ta n d a r d s nec essarily re p r e s e n t the
c le a r te c h n ic a l s u p e r io rity o r o n e sy slem o v e r a n o th e r .
D u rin g th e ea rly y ears o f a lte r n a tin g a n d p o ly p h a se c u r r e n ts , 1 3 3 '/i, 125,
8 3 % , 6 6 % . 60, 50, 40, 30 , a n d 25 cycles w ere u s e d .44 D e sig n e rs a n d e n
g in e e rs c h o se th e fre q u e n c y th a t was o p tim u m fo r th e p a rtic u la r set of
c h a ra c te ristic s c r e a te d by th e c o u p lin g o f in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s, tr a n s fo rm e rs ,
a rc lig h tin g , in d u c tio n m o to rs , s y n c h ro n o u s c o n v e r te rs , o r o th e r a p p a ra tu s .
B e cau se d e sig n o f th is e q u ip m e n t w as c h a n g in g ra p id ly , h o w e v e r, an al
re a d y c o m p le x situ a tio n b e c a m e m o re c o m p lic a te d . In A m e ric a , th e e n
g in e e rin g s ta f f o f th e W e s tin g h o u s e C o m p a n y p la y ed a le a d in g ro le in
d isp e llin g th e d is o r d e r ; th e y a tte m p te d to ra tio n a liz e p ro d u c tio n by sta n d
a rd iz in g fre q u e n c y . F re e d o m to d e c id e o n a s ta n d a r d f re q u e n c y w as co n
s tra in e d by th e fact th a t a la rg e n u m b e r o f W e s tin g h o u s e -d e s ig n e d ce n tral
s ta tio n s w e re su p p ly in g in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s w ith 6 0 cycles, b u t th e d ie was
n o t cast. T h e W e slin g h o u se d e s ig n e rs a lso to o k in to a c c o u n t th e s p re a d of
th e slo w e r-rp m , d ire c tly c o u p le d ( r a th e r th a n b e lt-d riv e n ) g e n e r a to r s that
h a d first b e e n in tro d u c e d in E u ro p e . T h e slo w e r g e n e r a to r , o r a lte rn a to r,
was less c o m p le x w h e n d e s ig n e d fo r lo w er fre q u e n c ie s su c h as 6 0 cycles
b e c a u se fe w e r field p o les w e re n e e d e d f o r th e m th a n f o r h ig h e r fre q u e n cies
su ch as 133% cycles. Yet o th e r d e s ig n e r s a d v o c a te d a h ig h fr e q u e n c y b e
ca u se it r e d u c e d in c a n d e s c e n l-la m p flic k e rin g . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a syn
c h ro n o u s c o n v e rte r th a t o p e ra te d w ell at 6 0 cycles e n c o u r a g e d s u p p o rte rs
o f th is fr e q u e n c y b ec a u se u tilities co u ld c o u p le e x istin g sin g le -p h a se sys
te m s, d ir e c t- c u r r e n t system s, a n d th e p o ly p h a s e e x te n s io n s a n d tra n sm is
sion n e tw o rk s. T h is ability to c o u p le th e o ld w ith th e new le sse n e d su p p o rt
fo r 4 0 cycles, a fre q u e n c y th a t h a d b e e n a d v o c a te d by so m e b e c a u se o f its
s u itab ility fo r m o to rs a n d tra n sm issio n . D esig n o f u n p re c e d e n te d ly large
e q u ip m e n t fo r a N ia g a ra Falls in sta lla tio n also s h a p e d th e u ltim a te d ecision.
G e o rg e F o rb es, c h ie f c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r fo r th e N ia g a ra site, p ro p o se d
16% cycles, b u t W e stin g h o u se e n g in e e rs th e n w a n te d 3 3 % cycles. T h e
relativ ely low fre q u e n c ie s w ere well s u ite d lo r p o w e r tra n sm issio n . T h e
m id p o in t o f th is p a rtic u la r d iff e r e n c e w as 25 cycles. By a b o u t 1900, W est
in g h o u se , th e o th e r m a n u f a c tu r e rs , a n d th e u tilitie s w e re se ttlin g fo r two
s ta n d a r d s : 25 cycles fo r tra n sm issio n a n d fo r la rg e m o to rs , a n d 6 0 cycles
fo r th e m o r e g e n e ra l-p u rp o s e system s. I n tr o d u c tio n o f t h e h ig h -sp e e d tu r
b in e as p rim e m o v e r a c c e le ra te d th e tr e n d to w a rd 6 0 cycles b e c a u se g e n
e ra to rs w ith fe w er p o les c o u ld be u se d th a n w ith th e slo w -m o v in g , re cip
ro c a tin g ste a m e n g in e s. A W e stin g h o u sc e n g in e e r w h o to o k p a r t in the
te ch n ica l activity s u r r o u n d in g th e fre q u e n c y q u e s tio n to o k p a in s to point
o u t th a t th e s tru g g le to set s ta n d a r d s was n o t a c o m p e titio n b etw e e n m a n
u fa c tu rin g in te re sts, as was th e case w ith m a n y issues d u r in g th e b a ttle of
th e system s ; r a th e r , it was a n e f f o r t by te c h n ic a l p e rs o n s lo Find a m eans
lo re in fo rc e a n a ll-e m b ra c in g , g e n e ra l system o f su p p ly . T h e b attle was
in d e e d o v e r.45
In G e rm a n y th e d ec isio n o n a s ta n d a r d fre q u e n c y m a y h a v e b e e n less

191860 82

im oBCcAmm t ; '
(
): .
Ibid.. d. .

, he Technical Story ol ihc Frequencies." IEEE Transactions 37

129

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
d iffic u lt to re a c h b e c a u se A E G , s p u r r e d by E m il R a th e n a u , e n c o u r a g e d
th e u se o f th e slo w e r-sp e e d , d ire c tly c o u p le d g e n e r a to r s fro m w hich h ig h
fre q u e n c ie s , s u c h as 133'/s cycles, w ere d iffic u lt to o b ta in a n d be cau se
s y n c h r o n o u s c o n v e rte r s , f o r w hich low fre q u e n c ie s, su c h as 25 cycles, w ere
m o st su ita b le , h a d n o t b e e n w idely a d o p te d . T h e o u tc o m e in G e r m a n y was
a s ta n d a r d o f 50 cycles.
T h e s itu a tio n in B rita in re m a in e d d is o rd e rly . T h e t e n d e n c y b e fo re W o rld
W a r I w as to w a rd v a ria tio n , n o t s ta n d a rd iz a tio n . L o n d o n led th e tr e n d ; by
1914, a t lea st te n d if f e r e n t f re q u e n c ie s a n d a b e w ild e rin g a s s o rtm e n t ol
v o lta g es w e re in u se in th a t city. R ea so n s fo r t h e v ariety in c lu d e d th e ab se n ce
o f o lig o p o ly in th e e le ctric al m a n u f a c tu r in g in d u s try a n d th e p re s tig e a n d
in flu e n c e o f th e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s .46 O n e B ritish m a n u f a c tu r e r c o m
p la in e d th a t his c o m p e tito rs , c o n fid e n t th a t in d iv id u a lism , n o t b usiness
o p p o r tu n is m , c h a ra c te r iz e d p ro fe ssio n a l c o m p e te n c e , c a rr ie d in d iv id u a l
ism in th e d e sig n o f e q u ip m e n t to a n e x tre m e . H a v in g a h ig h ly p artic u
la riz e d d e s ig n s e e m e d to show th a t th e m a n u f a c tu r e r a n d his d e sig n e rs
w ere e n g a g e d in a s u p e r io r b r a n c h o f a p p lie d science, n o t in a n in d u stry ,
still less in a t r a d e . 47 R. E. B. C r o m p to n , a sm all m a n u f a c tu r e r a n d le a d in g
c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r , la m e n te d th a t th e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs w ith th e ir d e
sig n fa d s; th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n ts th a t e m p lo y e d th e m a n d to o k p rid e
in h a v in g th e ir o w n id e a s a b o u t h ow sw itc h b o a rd s a n d o th e r p la n t . . .
s h o u ld b e d o n e ; a n d th e sm all m a n u fa c tu r e rs , w h o w e re c o n te n t to h av e
a sm all o r d e r fo r in d iv id u a l c o m p o n e n ts , r e ta r d e d n o t o n ly th e m ove fo r
s ta n d a r d iz a tio n b u t th e o v e ra ll g ro w th o f th e B ritish e lec trica l su p p ly in
d u s tr y .48 A n e x c e p tio n to th is r u le w as th e sy stem o f ele c tric su p p ly o n th e
n o r th e a s te r n c o ast o f E n g la n d , w h e re C h a rle s H . M erz, c o n s u ltin g e n g i
n e e r, w as th e p r im a r y in flu e n c e o n th e d e sig n o f a re g io n a l sy stem (see
p p . 4 4 3 - 6 0 below ). M erz s ta n d a r d iz e d 4 0 cycles in th e re g io n c e n te r e d
a r o u n d N ew ca stle u p o n T y n e . H is re a s o n in g w as logical a n d sy stem atic,
fo r h e lo o k in to a c c o u n t th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e re g io n . H is ra tio n a lity
p r o v e d e x p e n siv e , h o w e v e r, w h e n a f te r W o rld W a r 1 his sy stem h a d to be
in te g r a te d at g r e a t cost in to a n a ll-B ritish o n e in w hich 50 cycles was th e
s ta n d a r d f r e q u e n c y .49
A b o u t th e s a m e tim e th a t U .S. a n d G e rm a n u tilities a n d m a n u fa c tu r e rs
w e re re o rg a n iz in g to fa cilitate th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e u n iv e rsa l e le ctric
p o w e r sy ste m a n d th e a d o p tio n o f s ta n d a r d s , a n o th e r m a jo r a d v a n ta g e o f
th e p o ly p h a se sy stem w as d e m o n s tr a te d . A d isp la y o f p o w e r tra n sm issio n
a t th e I n te r n a tio n a l E le ctrica l E x h ib itio n in F ra n k fo rt o n th e M ain in 1891
sh o w e d n o t o n ly th e p o te n tia l o f u sin g d is ta n t w a te r-p o w e r sites to su p p ly
elec tricity to heav ily p o p u la te d in d u s tria l a re a s b u t also th e su itab ility o f
p o ly p h a se sy ste m s fo r lo n g -d ista n c e p o w e r tra n sm issio n . T h e F ra n k fo r t
e x h ib itio n h ig h lig h te d th e p o ssib ilities o f w h a t c a m e to b e k n o w n as p o in l4*Sec C h a p te r IX Tor a full discussion o f British parochialism.
" A d a m G. W hyte, Forty Years o f Electrical Progress: The Story o f G.E.C. (L ondon: Bonn,
1930), p. 20.
" C rom pton's testim ony, in Official Report: Committee on Electrical Legislation 1901, IEEE
Reports and Resolutions, pp. 36, 43, 47: sec also A lderm an Pearson's testim ony before the
com m ittee, ibid., pp. 83 -8 4 , 89.
49Charles II. Mcrz, "A utobiography," c h ap ter entitled "Cork," pp. 7-9, Merz ic McLellan
Co. Archives, A mhcrlcy, Killingworlh, near Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

130

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

Figure V.IO. Honorary (hainnrn of llir

Frankfort exhibition of 1891: Adalbert von
Waltenhofrn and Thomas Edison (lop):
Marcel Drl>rrz (ccnlcr); Silvanus P.
Thompson (boliom left), and Werner win
Siemens (Ix)iloni right). Von Waltrnhofrn
was professoi of electrical technology at llu
Tcchnische Hochschule hi Vienna.
From OffizicMe Zeiiung . . . Frankfurt
am Main 1891, p. 828.

to -p o in t" tra n s m is s io n , as d is tin g u is h e d f ro m tra n s m is s io n by way o f n e t

w o rk s o r rin g s. T h e L a u ff e n -to - F ra n k f o rt tra n s m is s io n lin e, 175 km . in
le n g th , is a n e x c e lle n t e x a m p le o f p o in t- to -p o in t tr a n s m is s io n ; th e regional
p o w e r sy ste m s o f th e 1920s a r e e x a m p le s o f n e tw o rk o r rin g tra n sm issio n
(see C h a p te r X II b e lo w ).'0
T h e F ra n k fo r t e x h ib itio n was a s k irm ish in " th e b a ttle o f th e system s.
In 1890 th e city o f F ra n k fo rt h a d to d e c id e o n a c u r r e n t fo r its m u nicipal
electrical w orks. C o logne's choice o f a lte rn a tin g c u rre n t sho rtly b e fo re m ade
th e selec tio n m o re d iffic u lt, f o r, u n til th e n , n o la rg e G e r m a n city h a d o p ted
fo r a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t. T h e e lec trical e n g in e e r s w h o w e re b ro u g h t in as
c o n s u lta n ts c o u ld n o t sa v e th e m u n ic ip a l a u th o r itie s o f F ra n k fo rt from a
d e cisio n by m a k in g a c le a r-c u t re c o m m e n d a tio n in th e face o f viable alter
nativ e s. T h e issu e a ssu m e d th e p r o p o r tio n s o f a b a ttle fo r th e city o f FrankIn a lecture given at the Frankfort exhibition, Sylvanus P. T hom pson ju d g e d the power
transmission display a major scientific event o r the century. Das neue Cebiet der Wechselsi t ome," Offizielle Zritung der Inlernntionalen Ausstcllung Frankfurt am Main 1891. p. 788

131

Figure V .1I. Charles E. L. Brown.

Courtesy of Brown, Boven id Co., Baden,
Switzerland.

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
fo ri as it e n g u lfe d e n g in e e r s , m a n u f a c tu r e r s , a n d w e ll-in fo rm e d b u r g h
e rs.51 L eo p o ld S o n n e m a n n , a b a n k e r, politician, a n d f o u n d e r o f th e Frankfurter
Z eitung, th e n s u g g e s te d th a t th e c o n tro v e rs y b e re so lv e d by h o ld in g an
e le c tro te c h n ic a l e x h ib itio n in w h ic h th e a d v o c a te s o f a lte r n a tin g c u rr e n t
c o u ld d e m o n s tr a te th e m o st r e c e n t a d v a n c e s in th e ir system s.
A y o u n g e r g e n e r a tio n o f e n g in e e rs a n d d e s ig n e r s c o n tr ib u te d s u b s ta n
tially to th is e x h ib itio n . P ro m in e n t a m o n g th e m w e re O s k a r von M iller,
C h a rle s E u g e n e L a n c e lo t B ro w n , a n d M ichael D oliv o -D o b ro w o lsk y . A p e r
siste n t vision o f h a rn e s s in g th e w a te r p o w e r o f th e A lp in e re g io n o f his
B a v a ria n h o m e la n d s tim u la te d von M iller; B ro w n b r o u g h t to th e e x h ib itio n
th e m e c h a n ic a l g e n iu s o f th e Sw iss, w ith w h o m his f a th e r , a n E n g lish e n
g in e e r, h a d s e ttle d a n d w ith w h o m h e h im s e lf w o rk e d ; a n d D olivo-D obrow olsky was in te n se ly in v o lv e d in d e v e lo p in g p o ly p h a se m a c h in e ry . B e
h in d B ro w n was th e Swiss m e c h a n ic a l-e n g in e e rin g m a n u f a c tu r in g firm of
M a s c h in e n fa b rik O e rlik o n , a n d s u p p o r tin g D o liv o -D o b ro w o lsk y w as th e
B e rlin e le c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r e r A E G .
In 1882 v on M iller h a d h e lp e d o r g a n iz e a n elec trica l e x h ib itio n in his
b irth p la c e , M u n ic h . O n th a t o c ca sio n , h e sh o w e d his d e te r m in a tio n to m ak e
p o w e r tra n s m is s io n a re a lity by a r r a n g in g f o r th e le a d in g F re n c h e n g in e e r,
M arcel D e p re z ( 1 8 4 3 - 1 9 1 8 ), to d e sig n a p o w e r tra n s m is s io n system e x
te n d in g 57 k ilo m e te rs fro m th e village o f M iesbach, a t th e fo o t o f th e
B a v a ria n A lp s, to th e e x h ib itio n in M u n ic h 's G lass Palace. In th e pa la ce
itse lf a n e le c tric m o to r p u m p e d a w a te rfa ll to sy m b o liz e th e tr a n sm issio n
o f w a te r p o w e r. D e p r e z u se d d ire c t c u r r e n t fo r tra n sm issio n , as h e h a d in
o th e r d e m o n s tr a tio n s , a n d o r d in a r y te le g r a p h y w ire fo r th e h ig h -v o lta g e
tra n sm issio n lin e .52 (S ee Figs. V .1 2 a n d V .13.)
V o n M iller lo o k e d u p o n in te r n a tio n a l te c h n ic a l e x h ib itio n s as a n effec tiv e
m e a n s o f in tr o d u c in g ne w te c h n o lo g y to a w ide e n g in e e rin g a n d bu sin ess
a u d ie n c e . H e w a n te d a d ra m a tic n ew te c h n o lo g y to be th e c e n te rp ie c e o f
e a c h e x h ib itio n . A t M u n ic h a n d F r a n k f o r t h e ch o se p o w e r tr a n sm issio n ;
w h e n c o n s u lte d a b o u t th e p la n n in g o f th e C h ic a g o E x h ib itio n o f 1893, h e
r e c o m m e n d e d as th e h ig h lig h t o f th e e x h ib itio n th e e le c trific a tio n o f a
lo n g -d ista n c e ra ilr o a d r u n n in g o u t o f C h ic ag o .
In 1890 v on M iller, w h o h e a d e d his o w n c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm in
M u n ic h a n d h a d b e e n n a m e d te c h n ic a l d ir e c to r o f th e p ro p o s e d F ra n k fo rt
e x h ib itio n , c alle d a p la n n in g se ssio n to disc u ss th e lo n g -d ista n c e tra n s m is
sion. P re s e n t a t th e m e e tin g w e re re p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f M a sc h in e n fa b rik O e r
lik o n , w h o se d ire c to r , P. E. H u b e r -W e rd m iille r, was a n e n th u sia stic s u p
p o r te r o f th e p ro je c t; A E G , w h o se d ire c to r , Em il R a th e n a u , w as a g ra d u a te
o f th e Z u ric h Eidgendssischen Polytechnikum (tec h n ic al h ig h e r sc hool), as was
H u b e r- W e rd m iille r; a n d a c e m e n t w o rk s a t L a u ffe n , o n th e N e c k a r R iver,
w h e re v on M iller h a d re c e n tly c o m p le te d a h y d ro e le c tric in sta lla tio n . T h e
tw o m a n u f a c tu r e r s a g re e d to d e v e lo p a n d su p p ly p o ly p h a se e q u ip m e n t,

11 Von Siemens, House of Siemens, I: 120.

**On the Munich electrical exhibition o f 1882 and Dcprez and von Miller's pow er trans
mission display, see Offizieller Bericht uber die im KonigHchrn Glaspalaste zu Miinchen 1882 . . .
Internationale ElektriziUits-Ausstellung, ed. W. von Beetz. O. von Miller, and F.. PIciffer (Munich:
A utoiypie Vcrlag, 1882).

13 2
Figure V .I2. Artificial Munich waterfall
driven by power from Miesbach, 57
kilometers away. From Offiziellcr Berichl
. . . Miinchcn 1882. p. 105.

Figure V .I3 . Direct-current motor

driving the pump for waterfall at the
Munich exhibition of 1882 (Miesbach-toMunich power transmission syslem designed
by M. Deprez). From Offizieller Bcrichi
. . . M unchcn 1882. p. 104.

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

133

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
a n d th e c e m e n t w o rk s a g re e d to allow its s u rp lu s p o w e r to b e tra n s m itte d
o v e r th e 1 7 5 -k ilo m e te r lin e to F ra n k f o r t.53
In J a n u a r y 1891 C h a rle s E. L. B ro w n , w h o was te c h n ic a l d ir e c to r o f th e
e le ctrica l m a c h in e ry sec tio n o f M a sc h in e n fa b rik O e rlik o n , p ro v id e d th e
te c h n ic a l c o m m issio n o f th e F ra n k fo rt e x h ib itio n w ith e v id e n c e th a t a h ig h vo lta g e p o w e r tra n sm issio n w o u ld p ro v e succe ssfu l. A t th e O e rlik o n p la n t
h e se t u p a la b o r a to ry lest u n it to p ro v e th a t th e use o f o il-in su la te d tr a n s
f o rm e r s s te p p e d u p v o lta g e to 4 0 ,0 0 0 volts, th a t his tra n sm issio n line in
s u la to rs c o u ld fu n c tio n w ith v o lta g e o f su c h e x tr a o r d in a r y in te n sity , a n d
th a t s te p p e d - d o w n tr a n s f o r m e r s r e d u c e d th e v o lta g e to d is tr ib u tio n level
(see Fig. V . l 5). T h e p ossibility o f in s u la tin g th e tr a n s f o r m e r s a n d tr a n s
m ission lin e h a d b e e n in s e rio u s d o u b t. T h e e x p e r im e n t w as u n u s u a l in
th a t it in c o r p o r a te d b o th a s te p -u p tr a n s f o r m e r w ith a lo w -v o lta g e g e n e r a to r
a n d o il-b a th in s u la tio n , a n id e a th a t h a d b e e n trie d e a r lie r w ith tra n sm issio n
cable. D e sp ite th e success o f th e la b o ra to ry te st, h o w e v e r, th e r e w as still
d o u b t a b o u t th e e ffic ie n c y o f a lo n g -d ista n c e tra n s m is s io n .54
T h e full-scale L a u f f e n - to - F r a n k f o r t tra n sm issio n sy ste m f o r th e e x h ib i
tio n in c o r p o r a te d a n in te r n a tio n a l a rr a y o f m a c h in e r y (see Figs. V .1 4 V .17). A l L a u f fe n , th e c e m e n t fa c to ry tu r n e d o v e r to th e p la n n e rs a 300h .p . w a te r tu r b in e ; A E G s u p p lie d a sw itc h b o a rd a n d tw o s te p - u p tra n s
fo rm e rs ; a n d M a s c h in e n fa b rik O e rlik o n fu r n is h e d th e th ir d tra n s fo rm e r,
in su la te d in a n oil b a th , a n d a th r e e - p h a s e g e n e r a to r . F in an c ial s u p p o r t
fo r th e e re c tio n o f th e 1 7 5 -k ilo m e te r tra n sm issio n lin e a n d rig h t o f way
fo r th e lin e w as p ro v id e d by th e im p e ria l a n d local g o v e rn m e n ts . A t F r a n k
fo rt, M a s c h in e n fa b rik O e r lik o n s u p p lie d o n e tr a n s f o r m e r a n d A E G p r o
v id e d tw o. A E G a lso b u ilt a la rg e a d v e rtis in g sig n w ith 1,000 in c a n d e sc e n t
la m p s a n d a w a te rfa ll p o w e re d by a p u m p w ith a new A E G p o ly p h a se
m o to r. P o w e r fro m L a u ffe n lit th e la m p s a n d d r o v e th e w a te rfa ll.55 (See
Figs. V .18, V .24, a n d V .25.)
T h e tra n s m is s io n sy ste m w as n o t o p e ra tiv e u n til 24 A u g u st 1891, sh o rtly
b e fo re th e e x h ib itio n e n d e d . O n th a t d a te th e b rillia n t lig h tin g d isp la y was
illu m in a te d a n d th e w a te rfa ll b e g a n to flow . L e a d in g ele c tric ia n s view ed
th e in sta lla tio n a n d m a d e critica l an aly se s o f its p e r fo rm a n c e . T h e tra n s
m ission effic ie n c y s u r p r is e d c ritic s, fo r th e y h a d e x p e c te d 50 p e rc e n t losses.
T r a n s m ittin g 190 h .p . a t a b o u t 2 5 ,0 0 0 volts, th e efficie n cy m e a s u r e d fro m
15 Beschreibung und Darslellung Elektrischer Werke welchf nach den Projekten und Unter Leitung
des Technischen Bureaus Oskar von Miller (M unich. 1898-99). T his publication by von Miller's
consulting engin eerin g Firm was kindly loaned to me by O skar von Miller's son and successor
as head o f the firm , R udolf von Miller. I have draw n on the ch ap ter on the F rankfort exhibition
o f 1891. Also inform ative on the exhibition is W allher von Miller. Oskar von Miller Naeh
Eigenen Aufzrichnungen, Reden und Briefrn (Munich: B ruckm ann, 1932), pp. 55 ff.
54 B. A. B chrend's "T h e Debt o f Electrical E ngineering to C. E. L. Brown" (reprint front
Electrical World and Engineer, 16 Novem ber 1901-1 March 1902) was kindly supplied by F.
T hom as o f Brown. Boveri Sc Co.. Ltd. (BBC), Baden, Switzerland.
55 "Die L auffcncr K raftiibertragung," Offizielte Zeitung . . . Frankfurt am Main 1891, p. 825;
Karl E. Milllcr, "5 0 Ja h rc D rchstrom -K raftubertragung," Oerlikon Bulletin, no. 231 (May-Junc
1941), pp. 1437-43, and no. 232 (July-August 1941), pp. 1445-52; William Boveri, " 7 5 Jah re
W echsclsLrom-K rafliibcriragung: L auffcn/N cckar-Frankfurl/M ain," BBC-Nachrichten, Scple m ber-O ctober 1966, pp. 5 2 3-25; Mans H appoldl and Karl Merz. "Die Entwicklung der
G eneratorcn scil d c r E nerg ieu b ertrag u n g L auffen-Frankfurt," ibid.. pp. 5 2 6 -3 1; Karl Schlosser, "M arksteinc dcs T ran sfo rm ato ren b au es," ibid.. pp. 534-39; and Heinz Mors, Karlheinz
Mcrzig, and Joachim U ferm ann, "Hochspannungs-Freileitungen," ibid., pp. 563-64.

134

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

ALLGEM EINE
ELEKTRICITATS-

1 1

MITFEN-FRANKrURT

Figure V.15. Model designed by Charles E. L Brown for testing alternating-current transmission
system (January 1891): Generator (center); two oil-msulated transformers (left); and motor (nght)
which drove the generator. Courtesy of Brown, Boveri 6f Co., Baden, Switzerland.

Figure V .I4. Oil-filled, three-phase

transformer used in the Lauffen-toFrankfort transmission system. From
OfFtzielle Z eitung . . . F ra n k fu rt am
M ain 1891, p. 1045.

Allgemeine Eleklricitals-Gesellschaft,

B E R U fi

Z-h i"

DREHSTROM- MOTOR

Figure V .I6 . Three-phase motor designed

by Dohva-Dohrownlshy Ithe type used in the
Ijsuffen-to-Frankfort transmission system).
From Offizielle Zeitung . . . Frankfurt
am Main 1891. p. 971.

Figure V .l 7. Three-phase generator (designed by Charles E. L. Brown of the Maschtnenfabrih

Oerlihon) driven by water turbines at Lauffen. From Offiziclle Zeitung . . . F rankfurt am Main
1891, p. 599

th e L a u ff e n tu r b in e to th e lo w -v o ltag e sid e o f th e tr a n s f o r m e r s in F ra n k fo rt
was 7 4 .5 p e r c e n t. At 78 h .p . th e efficien cy w as 6 8 .5 p e r c e n t. N o t only did
th is d isp la y p ro m ise p ra c tic a l a p p lic a tio n fo r lo n g -d ista n c e o r p o in t-to -p o in t
tra n sm issio n (fro m a m o u n ta in w a te rfa ll, f o r e x a m p le , to a n in d u stria l city
o n th e lo w lan d p la in ), b u t th e tra n sm issio n sy stem , w o rk in g w ith three-

135

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
p h a se c u r r e n t, also c o n tr ib u te d g re a tly to th e e sta b lish m e n t o f th is system
as s ta n d a r d in ste a d o f th e tw o -p h a se system th a t was b e in g tr ie d by W estin g h o u s e in th e U n ite d S lates a n d by o th e r m a n u f a c tu r e r s a b r o a d . O il
e m e rg e d as a p ra c tic a l in s u la to r. O n ly th e w o rk in g fre q u e n c y o f 4 0 cycles
w as n o t a d o p te d . E n g in e e r s a n d d e s ig n e rs th r o u g h o u t th e w o rld lo o k ed
u p o n th e F ra n k fo rt e x h ib itio n as ju s tific a tio n fo r f u r th e r tra n sm issio n v e n
tu re s , in c lu d in g a N ia g a ra Falls p ro je c t.
B e g in n in g in 1889, d e c isio n m a k in g o v e r a fo u r- y e a r p e r io d in c o n n e c
tio n w ith a N ia g a ra p r o je c t re fle c te d th e c o m p le x ity , th e c o n fr o n ta tio n s ,
a n d th e u ltim a te re s o lu tio n o f ih e b a ttle o f th e sy stem s." T h e c e n tra l

Figure V .I8. Power transmission,

Lauffen to Frankfort: Waterfall and
incandescent lamps at Frankfort powered by
natural waterfall 175 kilometers away.
From Offizielle Z eiiung . . . Frankfurt
am Main 1891, p. 828.

Figure V.19. Logo of the official

periodical o f the Frankfort exhibition of
1891. From O ffizidle Z eiiung . . .
F rankfurt am Main 1891, p. I.

130

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Jr'c'

Figure V .2I.
von Miller.

Electrical engineers and managers at the exhibition. Courtesy of Rudolf

Figure V.20. Celebrating the opening o f the exhibition: "Out of darkness into light."
From Offizielle Z eitung . . . F ran k fu rt am M ain 1891,/). 101.

Elektrotechnische Fabrik
J. Einstein & Cie.
MUnchen.

rM'r,Kh,f
- t *..

.i

i
5 I !>

Figure V.22. Advertisement fo r electrical

manufacturing company owned by Albert
Einstein's uncle. From Offizielle Zcitung
Frankfurt am Main 1891, p. 166.

electricity m n s iin ^ d
69fi

<lcr' ctn,er)

wnln! a"
PoweT,d by
L-aujjen. trom O m zielle Z eitung . . . F ra nkfurt am Main 1891, p.

137

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N

Figure V.24. Scents along the route of the Lauffen-loFrankfort transmission line, 1891. From Offizielle Zritung
. . . Fran k fu rt am Main 1891, p. 30.

Figure V.25. Route o f the Lauffen-to-Frankfurt

transmission line. From Offizielle Z eitung . . . Frankfurt
am Main 1891. p. 32.

c h a ra c te rs r e m a in e d th e s a m e in sev e ral in stan c es, fo r T h o m a s E d ison a n d

G e o rg e W e slin g h o u se w ere in v o lv ed , th e first as a c o n su lta n t a n d th e se co n d
as a m a n u f a c tu r e r , a n d C h a rle s B ro w n o f S w itzerlan d w as c o n su lte d fo r
his e x p e rtis e . T h e p la n to h a rn e s s th e p o w e r o f N ia g a ra Falls h a d a lo n g
h isto ry , b u t it lo o k w ell-d e fin e d o rg a n iz a tio n a l fo rm a n d a c q u ire d m o
m e n tu m w h en fin a n c ie rs, in c lu d in g J . P. M o rg an , f o rm e d th e C a ta ra c t
C o n s tru c tio n C o m p a n y in 1889 to d e v e lo p a c o h e re n t sc h e m e fo r la rgescale u tiliza tio n in ste a d o f n u m e r o u s sm all w ate r-w h ee l m ills. At th e sta rt,
th e c o m p a n y c o n s id e re d u sin g w a te r tu rb in e s to d isc h a rg e th e w a te r in to
a c e n tra l tu n n e l th a t w ould e m p ty in to th e N ia g a ra R iver below th e falls,
th e re b y p ro v id in g a d r o p , o r h e a d , below th e level o f th e s u rfa c e ca n als
th a t d iv e r te d w a te r to th e tu r b in e s fro m th e N ia g a ra R iver abo v e th e falls.
T h e c o m p a n y w as also in te re s te d in tr a n s m ittin g p o w e r to B u ffalo , a m a n
u f a c tu r in g city tw en ty m iles d ista n t, a n d c o n sid e re d m e ch a n ic al as well as

138

04

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Ml:

of

INTERM
EDIATEO
ISTA
N
C.ETRA
N
SM
ISSIO
N

&D
ISTA
N
CETRA
N
SM
ISSIO
N

a4r
Figure V.26. Universal system o f power distribution and transmission, Niagara Falls Powi
Electrical H andbook (1904), p. 78.
Figure V.27. The Niagara (universal)
system: Diagram o f circuits. From Adams,
Niagara Power, 2: 250.

^
Nia g ara f a l l s
l'OWEB co

3. From AIEE, T h e N iagara Falls

130

C O N F L IC T A N D R E S O L U T IO N
p n e u m a tic lin k a g es to a c c o m p lish this. W ith in a y ea r, th e c o m p a n y was
le a n in g to w a rd th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o n e o r tw o elec tric p o w e r sta tio n s th a t
w o u ld use th e d is c h a rg e tu n n e l, b u t th a t, in c o n tra s t to th e n u m e ro u s in ta k e
ca n a ls a n d tu r b in e s e n v isa g e d e a rlie r , w o u ld n e e d o n ly o n e s u rfa c e canal.
T h e success o f th e F ra n k fo rt tra n sm issio n in 1891 h e lp e d p e rs u a d e th e
e n g in e e rs to s u p p o r t e le c tric tra n sm issio n to B u ffa lo . P lans fro m th e W est
in g h o u s e C o m p a n y lo r a tw o -p h a se sy ste m , to g e th e r w ith th e advo ca cy o f
a p o ly p h a se sy stem by P ro fe s s o r G e o rg e F o rb es o f E n g la n d , c h ie f electric al
c o n s u lta n t, c a r rie d th e d a y fo r p o ly p h a se g e n e ra tio n a n d tra n sm issio n .
T h e W e siin g h o u se p la n was a re fin e m e n t o f th e C h ic a g o id ea (see Figs.
V .26 a n d V .27). It in v o lv ed lo n g -d ista n c e , h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n to
B u ffa lo . T h e W e s iin g h o u s e e n g in e e r s w h o e n g a g e d in th e in v e n tio n a n d
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e u n iv e rsa l system a t N ia g a ra in c lu d e d C h a rle s F. Scott,
w h o by in v e n tin g a c o u p le r in th e fo rm o f a tr a n s f o r m e r c o n n e c tio n m a d e
po ssible th e tw o -p h a se to th r e e - p h a s e c o n v e rsio n ; O liv e r B. S h a lle n b e rg e r,
w h o d e v e lo p e d a n im p ro v e d in d u c tio n m e te r; B e n ja m in L a m m e , w ho im
p ro v e d th e m a g n e tic c ir c u itry o f th e sy ste m s g e n e r a to r s a n d m o to rs; A lb ert
S c h m id , w h o c o n tr ib u te d m e c h a n ic a l im p ro v e m e n ts ; a n d a g r o u p o f e n
g in e e rs h e a d e d by Lew is B. S tillw ell, c h ie f electric al e n g in e e r at W e stin g
h o u s e .56 I n d ic a tiv e o f th e c h a n g e th a t was ta k in g p lace in th e m o d e o f
in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t is th e n e e d to id e n tify g ro u p s r a th e r th a n
in d iv id u a ls as th e s o u rc e s o f in v e n tio n .
T h e N ia g a ra p o w e r sta tio n w e n t in to se rv ic e in A u g u st 1895. W e stin g
h o u se bu ilt th e first tw o g e n e r a to r s (tw o -p h ase), th e s w itc h g e a r, a n d a u x
iliary p o w e r- h o u s e e q u ip m e n t; G e n e ra l E lectric c o n s tr u c te d th e tr a n s
fo rm e rs , th e tra n s m is s io n lin e to B u ffa lo ( th re e -p h a s e ), a n d th e s u b sta tio n
th e re . T h e tr a n s f o r m e r c o n n e c tio n in v e n te d by C h a rle s Scott p e rm itte d
th e c o u p lin g o f th e tw o- a n d th re e -p h a s e c u rr e n ts . T ra n s m is s io n b e g a n in
1896, b u t c o n s u m p tio n at th e ra p id ly e x p a n d in g in d u stria l c o m p le x u sin g
th e u n iv e rsa l sy stem at N ia g a ra e x c e e d e d th e p o w e r tra n sm issio n to B u f
fa lo .57

Robert Uclfield, "T h e Ningara System: T h e Evolution of an Electric Power Com plex at
Niagara Falls. I8 83-I89G . IEEE Proceedings 64 (I97G): 1349. Hclficld's Ph.D. dissertation.
"T he Niagara Frontier: T h e Evolution of Electric Power Systems in New York and O ntario,
1880-1933" (University o f Pennsylvania, 1980), is an in-depth study o f the Niagara system.
See Bclfteld. "T he Niagara System" a nd "T he Niagara Frontier." See also H arold Sharlin,
"T he First Niagara Falls Power Project." Business History Heview 33 (1961): 59-74; and Passer.
Electrical Manufacturers, pp. 282-95.

CHAPTER

VI

Technological
Momentum

ra n k fo rt in 1891, C h ic a g o in 1893, a n d N ia g a ra in 1895 w ere su b

sta n c e a n d sy m b o l. D e m o n s tr a tin g th e te c h n ic a l p ra c tic a lity o f the
p o ly p h a se u n iv e rsa l elec tric su p p ly sy stem , th e y s tim u la te d e n th u s ia s m fo r
th e new te c h n o lo g y . M o re o v e r, it w as n o t by c h a n c e th a t e n tr e p r e n e u r s
ch o se to d isp la y th e new te c h n o lo g y d ra m a tic a lly a t su c h w o rld e x h ib itio n s.
N o r is it s u r p ris in g th a t th e in sta lla tio n at th e a w e -in s p irin g site o f N ia g ara
Falls a ttra c te d u n u s u a l a tte n tio n .
D u rin g th e 1890s th e p o ly p h a se sy stem g a th e r e d m o m e n tu m . B ecause
it e n c o m p a s s e d th e o ld c o n te n d e rs in th e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s (d irect
c u r r e n t v e rsu s sin g le -p h a se a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t) , th e new sy stem g ain ed
w id e s p re a d s u p p o r t fro m m e n a n d in s titu tio n s in th e ra p id ly g ro w in g field
o f e lec trica l e n g in e e rin g , science, a n d in d u s try . A s u p p o r tiv e c o n te x t, o r
c u ltu re , fo rm e d ra p id ly . M en a n d in s titu tio n s d e v e lo p e d c h a ra c te ristic s th at
s u ite d th e m to th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e te c h n o lo g y . A n d th e system atic
in te ra c tio n o f m e n , id ea s, a n d in stitu tio n s, b o th te c h n ic a l a n d n o n te c h n ic a l,
led to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s u p e r s y s te m a so c io te c h n ic a l o n e w ith m ass
m o v e m e n t a n d d ire c tio n . A n a p t m e ta p h o r fo r th is m o v e m e n t is " m o m e n
tu m . So re in f o r c e d by a c u ltu ra l c o n te x t, a n d in te r a c tin g in a system atic
way w ith th e e le m e n ts o f th a t c o n te x t, th e u n iv e rsa l sy ste m , like highm o m e n tu m m a ile r, te n d e d in tim e to resist c h a n g e s in th e d ire c tio n of
d e v e lo p m e n t. D e v e lo p m e n t p ro c e e d e d alo n g lin es th a t co u ld b e e x tra p o
la te d . T h e u n iv e rsa l system g a th e re d a c o n se rv a tiv e m o m e n tu m . Its g ro w th
g e n e ra lly w as ste a d y , a n d c h a n g e b e c a m e a d iv e rsific a tio n o f fu n c tio n .
1 h e m o m e n tu m initially c a m e m ostly fro m a n a g g re g a te o f m a n u fa c
tu r e r s w h o in v e ste d heavily in re so u rc e s, la b o r, a n d m a n u fa c tu rin g p lants
in o r d e r to p ro d u c e th e m a c h in e ry , d evices, a n d a p p a r a tu s re q u ire d by the
new syste m ; la te r, e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n s ta u g h t th e scien c e a n d p ractice
o f th e new te c h n o lo g y ; th e n re s e a rc h in s titu tio n s w e re fo u n d e d lo solve its
critical p ro b le m s; a n d all th e w hile a g ro w in g n u m b e r o f e n g in e e r s , skilled
la b o re rs, a p p lie rs o f science, m a n a g e rs , a n d o th e r p e rs o n s in v ested th e ir
e x p e r ie n c e a n d c o m p e te n c e in th e new p o ly p h a se u n iv e rsa l system .
I h e p o ly p h a se u n iv e rsal system g a in e d m o m e n tu m in p a r t b ec a u se ol
th e c o m m itm e n t m a d e by a new g e n e r a tio n o f in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs.
T h e first tw o d e c a d e s o f e le ctric lig h t a n d p o w e r su p p ly w itn e sse d several

140

141

Figure v i. l. Etihu Thomson, c. 1885.

Courtrsy of the Elihu Thomson Papers,
Amencan Philosophical Society,
Philadelphia, Pa.

T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M
w aves o f p io n e e rs : first th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t m e n led by E d iso n ; th e n th e
sin g le -p h a se a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t g r o u p , in c lu d in g L u c ien G a u la rd a n d S.
Z. d e F e rra n ti; a n d finally th e d e v e lo p e rs o f p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t, a m o n g
th e m N ik o la T e s la a n d M ichael D oliv o -D o b ro w o lsk y . E d iso n d id n o t m a k e
th e tra n s itio n f ro m d ire c t c u r r e n t to o th e r fo rm s. In fact, his s tu b b o rn
r e sista n c e in te n s ifie d th e b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s." M o re o v e r, E d iso n d e c id e d
n o t to e x e rc ise his o p tio n o n th e a.c. system o f G an z 8c C o m p a n y , a system
his c o m p a n y c o u ld h a v e u se d to c o m p e te effectiv e ly a g a in st W e stin g h o u se .
A f te r 1890 h e e n te r e d in to in v e n tiv e e n te r p r is e s th a t w ere on ly r e m o te ly
re la te d to e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r. G a u la rd w as u n a b le to m o d ify his sta n ce
succ essfu lly , a n d h e saw o th e r s g re a tly im p ro v e u p o n his sy stem b e f o r e his
u n tim e ly d e a th . T e s la , a f te r h is b r e a k th r o u g h in to p o ly p h a se p o w e r, e m
b a r k e d o n d isc o v e rie s in e v e n m o re e so te ric field s, su c h as w ireless p o w e r
tra n sm issio n a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n . A n o ta b le e x c e p tio n to th e se p io n e e rs '
in flex ib ility w as th e d o g g e d d e te r m in a tio n o f E lih u T h o m s o n to m a in ta in
a p o sitio n o f le a d e rs h ip t h r o u g h o u t th e r a p id flu c tu a tio n s th a t h it ele ctric
lig h t a n d p o w e r. T h o m s o n (1 8 5 3 -1 9 3 7 ), w h o was b o r n in E n g la n d b u t
g re w u p in P h ila d e lp h ia , P e n n sy lv a n ia , s p a n n e d th e e le c tric p o w e r spectru m fr o m his e a rly c o n c e n tra tio n o n a rc lights, th r o u g h d ire c t- c u r r e n t
in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g , in to a lte r n a tin g a n d p o ly p h a se system s. T h o m s o n
nQt Qnjy m a(j e
n e c e s s a ry tra n s itio n s b u t h e m o v ed fro m th e sta tu s o f
i n d e p e n d e n t in v e n to r to th a t o f scien tific c o n s u lta n t. A fte r his c o m p a n y ,
T h o m s o n - H o u s to n , m e rg e d w ith E d iso n G e n e ra l E lectric lo fo rm G e n e ra l
E lectric in 1892, h e a s s u m e d th e p o sitio n o f s e n io r in d u s tria l scie n tist a n d
a d v ise r in r e s e a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t fo r th e new firm .
T h o m s o n w as o n e o f a sm all g r o u p o f m ostly y o u n g m e n o f v a rio u s
nationalities w ho h e lp e d b rin g a b o u t th e shift to p o lyphase, th e ev en t which
u s h e r e d in a new e c o n o m ic e p o c h . ' T h e s e y o u n g in v e n to rs a n d ele ctric al
e n g in e e r s d if f e r e d fro m m o st o f th e ir p re d e c e s s o rs in lh a l th e ir scientific
o r e n g in e e r in g tr a in in g in c lu d e d m a th e m a tic s, a n e x tre m e ly im p o rta n t
c o m p e te n c e fo r th o s e w ish in g to a n aly ze p o ly p h a se system s. P h ila d e lp h ia 's
C e n tra l H ig h S ch o o l, w h e re T h o m s o n ta u g h t, o ff e re d a d v a n c e d te ch n ica l
a n d sc ie n tific c o u rse s th a t w e re n o t a lto g e th e r d if f e r e n t fro m th e co u rse s
g iv en in th e Technischen Hochschulen (tec h n ic al h ig h e r sc h o o ls) in C e n tra l
E u ro p e . T e s la tr a in e d a t th e Technischen Hochschule in G ra z a n d at th e
U n iv ersity o f Z u ric h . M ichael D o liv o -D o b ro w o lsk y a tte n d e d a Technische
Hochschule in G e r m a n y (D a rm s ta d t), as w as c o m m o n fo r R u ssia n -b o rn a s
p ira n ts to c a re e rs in sc ie n ce a n d e n g in e e r in g .
F o llo w in g close b e h in d T e s la a n d D o livo-D obrow olsky w as a g r o u p o f
electric al in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e r s w h o n o t o n ly a tte n d e d in stitu tio n s o f
h ig h e r le a r n in g b u t a lso h a d th e o p p o r tu n ity to la k e c o u rse s in ele ctrica l
e n g in e e r in g . So tra in e d , th e s e m e n lo o k p a rt in th e ra p id p ro fe ssio n a li
z atio n o f th e field o f electric al e n g in e e r in g , a n d e x p a n d in g e lec tric al e n
g in e e r in g e d u c a tio n a n d p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n g re a tly re in f o rc e d th e com 1G eorg von Siemens. History of the House of Siemens, trans. A. F. Rodger. 2 vols. (Freiburg/
M unich: Alber, 1957), I: 114. Biographies o f the leading electrical engineers o f the early
generations a rc identified in T hom as j. Higgins, "A Biographical Bibliography o f Electrical
Engineers and Elcctrophysicists, Technology and Culture 2 (1961): 28-32, l46-6.r>. See also
idem, "A Classified Bibliography o f Publications on the History and Development o f Electrical
E ngineering and F.lecirophysirs." Bulletin o f Bibliography 20, nos. 3-7 (1950-52).

142

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
m itm e n l lo, a n d m o m e n tu m o f, th e sy stem o f p o w e r a n d lig h t th a t h a d
b e e n u s h e r e d in by th e p io n e e rs d u r in g th e 1890s. C o u rs e s in th e Technuchen H ochschulen a n d in c o lle g es o f e n g in e e r in g w e re o rg a n iz e d o n th e
basis o f th e k n o w le d g e a n d e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e p io n e e rs , a n d tec h n ic al
j o u r n a ls a n d m e e tin g s s p r e a d in fo r m a tio n a n d a ttitu d e s , th e r e b y co n so li
d a tin g th e p r e d o m in a n t tr e n d s in p ra c tic e .
T h e tr a in in g a n d e d u c a tio n o f th e e le c tric a l te c h n ic ia n s, e n g in e e r s , a n d
scien tists w h o filled th e in c re a s in g n u m b e r o f p o sitio n s o f f e r e d by elec tric al
utilitie s a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s o c c u r r e d o n m a n y levels a n d in m a n y ways
d u r in g th e first tw o d e c a d e s o f e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r. In G e rm a n y ,
E n g la n d , a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s, th e s o u rc e s o f th is tr a in in g in c lu d e d a p
p r e n tic e s h ip p r o g ra m s , te c h n ic a l a n d tr a d e sc h o o ls, a n d s e c o n d a ry schools
w ith te c h n ic a l p ro g ra m s . G e r m a n y s ra p id in d u s tr ia liz a tio n in th e late n in e
te e n th c e n tu ry , in c lu d in g th e im p re ssiv e rise o f its e le c tric a l in d u s tr y , has
b e e n a ttr ib u te d in p a r t lo th e G e rm a n sy stem o f s e c o n d a ry , tr a d e , a n d
te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n o u ts id e o f in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r le a r n in g .2 Especially
in G e rm a n y , e le ctric al m a n u f a c tu r e r s e s ta b lis h e d sizable a p p re n tic e s h ip
p r o g r a m s to tra in sk ille d w o rk m e n , s o m e o f w h o m b e c a m e fo re m e n a n d
p la n t s u p e r in te n d e n ts . A fte r th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s b e g a n d e s ig n in g a n d p r o
d u c in g h ig h ly c o m p le x p o ly p h a se g e n e r a to r s , m o to rs , a n d tr a n s fo rm e rs ,
th e y also o f f e r e d p ra c tic a l tr a in in g fo r g r a d u a te s o f e n g in e e r in g schools,
m a n y o f w h o m w e re th o u g h t by m a n u f a c tu r e r s to b e o v e re x p o s e d to ir
re le v a n t th e o r y . C o o p e r a tiv e p ro g ra m s r e q u ir in g p a rtic ip a tio n in th e class
ro o m a n d in th e w o rk p la c e s p re a d t h r o u g h o u t th e U n ite d S ta te s a f te r 1900.
S u c h v a rie d m o d e s o f tr a in in g n o tw ith s ta n d in g , a tte n tio n h e r e will be
lim ite d to se v e ra l le a d in g d e g re e - o r d ip lo m a - g r a n tin g th re e - o r fo u r-y e a r
e n g in e e r in g co lle g es in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d E n g la n d a n d to th e le a d in g
Technischen Hochschulen in G e rm a n y . T h o s e s e le c te d w e re a m o n g th e first
to o f f e r c o u rse s in e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g , to o r g a n iz e sets o f c o u rse s c o n
s titu tin g p r o g r a m s in ele c tric a l e n g in e e r in g , o r to e sta b lish d e p a r tm e n ts of
e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g . S p ecial a tte n tio n will b e p a id to th e way e n g in e e rin g
in s titu tio n s fo rm e d a b rid g e b e tw e e n p h ysics a n d th e p ra c tic e o f e n g i
n e e rin g . C o n c e n tra tio n , th e r e f o r e , will b e o n th e e a rly e n g in e e r in g p r o
fesso rs as c o n tr ib u to r s lo th e scien c e o f e le c tric a l e n g in e e rin g . T h e te rm
" a p p lie d sc ie n c e will b e a v o id e d b e c a u se it su g g e sts a o n e -w a y re la tio n s h ip
fro m fu n d a m e n ta l sc ie n ce to p ra c tic a l a p p lic a tio n ; in s te a d , scien c e o f elec
trica l e n g in e e r in g will h e u se d as a b r o a d e r r e fe re n c e to o r g a n iz e d , q u a n
tifie d , a n d g e n e r a liz e d in fo r m a tio n , o r e x p e r ie n c e d e r iv e d fro m pra ctice .
D u rin g th e tr a n s itio n fro m d ire c t to p o ly p h a s e c u r r e n t, th e n u m b e r o f
in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g g r a n tin g e n g in e e r in g d e g re e s o r d ip lo m a s
c o n tin u e d lo g ro w . T h e n u m b e r o f c o u rse s, p ro g ra m s , a n d d e p a r tm e n ts
in ele ctric al e n g in e e r in g in c re a se d e v e n m o re im p re ssiv ely . D u rin g th e
fo rm a tiv e y e a rs o f th e e lec trica l in d u s tr y , th e e x iste n c e o f a su b sta n tia l
n u m b e r o f e n g in e e r in g in s titu tio n s in flu e n c e d th e g ro w th o f th e in d u stry ,
a n d th e rise o f t h e in d u s tr y s h a p e d e le c tr ic a l- e n g in e e rin g in stitu tio n s. O n e
re su lt o f th is in te r a c tio n was th e scien tific c h a r a c te r o f ele c tric a l e n g in e e r
in g . In c o n tra s t, civil a n d m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g d e v e lo p e d b e f o r e engi' William H. Dawson. The Evolution of Modem Germany (New York: Scribner's, 1914). See
especially his discussion o f die icrh n iral schools in Saxony (pp. 99. 135).

143

T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M
n e e r in g e d u c a tio n was c o n s id e re d a siue qua non fo r th e p ro fe ssio n a l, a n d
t h e ir cast was less scientific.
W h e n th e P earl S tre e t sta tio n o p e n e d in N ew Y ork in 1882, a b o u t sev e n ty
U .S. in s titu tio n s o ff e r e d a p ro fe ssio n a l e d u c a tio n in e n g in e e r in g .* M any
o f th e se h a d b e e n f o u n d e d w ith fu n d s p ro v id e d by la n d g ra n ts m a d e u n d e r
th e M o rrill A ct o f 1862, a c c o rd in g to w hich e ac h sta te th a t e n d o w e d a g
r ic u ltu ra l a n d m e c h a n ic a l co lle g es w o u ld b e given 3 0 ,0 0 0 a c re s o f p u b lic
la n d fo r e a ch co n g re ssio n a l d istric t. N o n e h a d c o u rse s in ele ctric al e n g i
n e e r in g , b u t a n u m b e r in c lu d e d le c tu re s o n e lec tric ity in th e ir physics
c o u rse s. By 1899, th e n u m b e r o f th e se in stitu tio n s was e ig h ty -n in e , a n d 98
p e r c e n t o f th e m o f f e r e d a fo u r -y e a r c o u rs e in e n g in e e rin g . F o rty -n in e h a d
c o u rse s in elec trical e n g in e e rin g ; sixty-seven ta u g h t civil e n g in e e rin g ; a n d
six ty -o n e o f f e r e d m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g . It s h o u ld b e n o te d , h o w e v e r,
th a t s tu d e n ts co u ld also p r e p a r e fo r w ork in th e elec trica l in d u s tr y by
s tu d y in g m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g . In th e U n ite d S tales in 1899 th e r e w e re
2,3 9 7 s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in ele ctrica l e n g in e e rin g p ro g ra m s a n d th e r e w ere
3 7 0 g ra d u a te s o f th e se p ro g ra m s . F o r m e ch a n ic al e n g in e e r in g th e fig u re s
w e re 3 ,2 9 3 s tu d e n ts a n d 4 8 0 g ra d u a te s ; f o r civil e n g in e e rin g , 2 ,6 6 7 s tu
d e n ts a n d 4 1 9 g r a d u a te s .4
In G e r m a n y a f te r 1860 sev era l tec h n ic al schools w ere g iv en th e sta tu s o f
in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g . T h e y w ere c h a ra c te riz e d as u n iv e rsitie s th a t
w o u ld p r e p a r e s tu d e n ts f o r in d u s tria l c a re e rs. T h e s e in stitu tio n s o ffe re d
s tu d e n ts a c o u rs e o f s tu d y th a t w as m o re a d v a n c e d th a n th e c u rric u la o f
U .S. e n g in e e rin g schools. T h e in stitu tio n s th a t rec eiv ed th e Technische
H ochschule(TH) co n stitu tio n w ere K a rlsru h e (in 1865), M unich (1868), A achen
(1 8 7 0 ), D re s d e n (1 8 7 1 ), B ru n sw ick (1877), B e r lin -C h a rlo tte n b u r g (1879),
a n d H a n n o v e r (1 8 8 0 ).5 T h e ir o rg a n iz a tio n a n d c u rric u la w e re su b stan tia lly
in flu e n c e d by F ra n z G r a s h o f (1 8 2 6 -1 8 9 3 ), a le a d in g e n g in e e rin g p ro fe s s o r
w h o c alle d fo r a g ro u n d in g o f th e e n g in e e r in th e f u n d a m e n ta ls o f scien c e.6
F ra n z R e u le a u x (1 8 2 9 -1 9 0 5 ), a n o th e r o f G e rm a n y s p io n e e rin g e n g in e e r
in g e d u c a to rs , a lso s tim u la te d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h ig h e r tec h n ic al e d u
c a tio n w ith a n e m p h a s is o n th e sciences by p o in tin g o u t th e su p e rio rity o f
A m e ric a s in d u s tria l d isp lay s a t th e P h ila d e lp h ia e x h ib itio n o f 1876.7 T h e
G e rm a n s lo o k e d u p o n e d u c a tio n as a m e a n s o f b o rro w in g te c h n o lo g y fro m
o t h e r n a tio n s a n d a d v a n c in g b e y o n d it; th ey also re c o g n iz e d th a t elec tric al
e n g in e e rin g w as p a rtic u la rly w ell-su ite d to a sc ientific em p h a sis.
In E n g la n d , c o n c e rn a m o n g m a n u f a c tu re r s a n d e n g in e e rs a b o u t th e state
T h is n u m b er was derived from statistics giving the num ber as eighty-nine in 1899 and
identifying it as an increase o f 21 percent over that for 1878. I am indebted to Robert Belfield
for calling my attention to statistics on engineering education. His sources were I. O. Baker,
"E ngineering Education in the U nited Slates at the End o f the C entury," Science, 2 Novem ber
1900, pp. 666 -7 4 ; and C harles R. M ann. A Study of Engineering Education (New York: Joint
Com m ittee on E ngineering Education o f the National Engineering Societies, 1918). csp. pp.
18-24.
4 Baker, "E ngineering Education," p. 668.
Wilhelm T rcu c , "Die Gcschichlc dcs Tcchnisehcn U ntrrrichls," in Festschrift m r 12JJahrfeier der Technischen / lochschule Hannover, 18)1-1956 (Hannover, I9.ri6), p. 60.
* E. G rashof, "U bcr die O rganisation an polylechnischcn Srhulcn z ugrunde legende Irinzipien." Zeitschrift Verein Deulscher Ingenieure, 1864, p. 591.
Friedrich Klemm, A History o f Western Technology, trans. D. W. Singer (Cambridge. Mass.:
M .I.T . Press. 1959). pp. 326. 339.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

o f te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n w as w id e s p r e a d d u r in g th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e n in e
te e n th c e n tu ry , esp e cially a f te r 1880. T h e c o n v e n in g o f se v e ra l p a rlia m e n
ta ry c o m m itte e s to c o n s id e r th e sta le o f te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n in B rita in re
vea le d th is c o n c e r n .8 T h e im p re ssiv e in d u s tr ia l c o m p e titio n a m o n g fo re ig n
e x h ib ito rs a t L o n d o n s G re a t E x h ib itio n in 1851 w as a m a jo r stim u lu s o f
activity a im e d a t im p ro v in g B r ita in s situ a tio n .
G e n e r a l c o n c e rn a b o u t th e e ro s io n o f B rita in s in d u s tr ia l le a d e r s h ip in
th e la te n in e te e n th c e n tu ry led to a n u m b e r o f e ff o r ts to im p ro v e th e
c o u n tr y s sy ste m o f te c h n ic a l a n d e n g in e e r in g e d u c a tio n . In 1878 th e his
to ric livery c o m p a n ie s , o r g u ild s, e s ta b lis h e d th e C ity a n d G u ild s o f L o n d o n
I n s titu te fo r th e A d v a n c e m e n t o f T e c h n ic a l E d u c a tio n . T h e in s titu te u sed
su b sid ie s a n d its c o n s id e r a b le in f lu e n c e lo p r o m o te te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n
t h r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y . In L o n d o n th e in s titu te - s u p p o r te d F in sb u ry T e c h
n ical C o lle g e o p e n e d in 1883, a n d in 1884 th e in s titu te c o n tr ib u te d to th e
o p e n in g o f th e C e n tra l I n s titu tio n in S o u th K e n s in g to n .9 F in s b u ry C o llege
w o u ld tra in th o se d e s irin g a n in te r m e d ia te p o st, in c lu d in g th a t o f f o re m a n ,
in in d u s try a n d th o se p r e p a r in g f o r th e a d v a n c e d c o u rs e s o f f e r e d a t e n
g in e e r in g co lle g es su c h as U n iv e rsity C o lle g e a n d K in g s C o lle g e o f th e
U n iv e rsity o f L o n d o n . In 1907, a f te r s e v e ra l r e o r g a n iz a tio n s , th e C e n tra l
In s titu tio n a c h ie v e d u n iv e rsity sta tu s as p a rt o f th e I m p e ria l C o lle g e of
S cie n ce a n d T e c h n o lo g y o f th e U n iv e rsity o f L o n d o n .10 O th e r c e n te rs of
h ig h e r te c h n ic a l stu d y in B rita in in th e 1880s in c lu d e d M a n c h e s te r, B ir
m in g h a m , L iv e rp o o l, L ee d s, B r a d f o r d , a n d G lasg o w , as well as th e e n g i
n e e r in g fac ilities a n d c o u rse s a t C a m b rid g e U n iv e rsity .
T h e s e U .S ., B ritish , a n d G e r m a n in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r te c h n ic a l e d u
c a tio n re s p o n d e d to th e rise o f t h e e le c tric su p p ly in d u s try in v a rio u s ways,
a n d h e re th e tr e n d s a m o n g th e m c a n b e d e te c te d by c o n s id e r in g th e r e
s p o n se s o f sev e ral: th e M assa c h u se tts I n s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y a n d C o rn e ll
U n iv ersity in th e U n ite d S tate s, th e C e n tr a l In s titu tio n in L o n d o n , a n d th e
Technischen H odischulen a t D a r m s ta d t a n d B e rlin in G e rm a n y . In e ach case
se v e ra l q u e s tio n s will be ra ise d : W h e n w as e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g in tro d u c e d
in to th e in s titu tio n s c u rric u lu m ? W h e n w as a s e p a r a te d e p a r tm e n t o f elec
trica l e n g in e e r in g e sta b lish e d ? W h a t c o n s titu te d th e e d u c a tio n a l a n d p ra c
tical b a c k g ro u n d o f th e e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g fa cu lty , a n d in w h a t re se a rc h
a n d c o n s u ltin g a c tiv itie s w e re facu lty m e m b e rs e n g a g e d ? H o w d id th e c u r
ric u la re fle c t th e tra n s itio n to, a n d th e r e b y th e m o m e n tu m o f, th e poly
p h a se , u n iv e rsa l sy ste m a n d lo n g -d is ta n c e tra n sm issio n ?
In G e rm a n y , W e r n e r v o n S ie m e n s, a n in f lu e n tia l fig u re in th e e n g i
n e e r in g a n d sc ie n ce c o m m u n ity , s tim u la te d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f p ro fe s
so rsh ip s o f e le c tric a l e n g in e e rin g . H e re a liz e d th a t th e n e e d f o r yo u n g
e le c tric ia n s g r o u n d e d in sc ie n c e w o u ld e x c e e d th e n u m b e r fo rth c o m in g
See, Tor exam ple, (.re al Britain. Parliam ent, I lo use o f C om m ons. Sessional Papers: Second
Report o f the Royal Commissioners on Technical Instruction. 3 vols. (London: H MSO. 1884), I:

(\lnZTwd)h' 'mprnnt

and IWI",0lnW:ASho" //u ,orv f,helmPenalCol,egt

William W ickenden. A Comparative Study o f Engineering Education in the United States and
Europe Society for the Prom otion o r Engineering E ducation, Bulletin no. 16 (Lancaster. Pa.:
16 C ncas,er reS5, 1829), p. 38: Centenary of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, p-

145

Figure VI.2. Charles Cross. Courtesy oj

the M .I.T. Museum and Historical
Collections, Cambridge. Mass.

T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M
f ro m r e la te d fields o r fro m in fo rm a l e d u c a tio n . S p e a k in g in D e c e m b e r
1881 b e fo re G e rm a n y s E le k tro te c h n isc h e V e re in (Society o f E lectrical E n
g in e e rin g ), v on S ie m e n s ca lled fo r th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a c h a ir o f electric al
e n g in e e rin g in all T H s in o r d e r to fa m iliarize y o u n g m e n w ith th e th e o ry
a n d p ra c tic e o f e lec trica l e n g in e e r in g .11 So m o v e d , th e Technische Hochschule
in D a rm s ta d t a p p o in te d E ra sm u s K ittle r (1 8 5 2 -1 9 2 9 ) th e first p ro fe s s o r
o f e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g in G e rm a n y , a n d h e , in tu r n , e s ta b lish e d th e first
d e p a r tm e n t o f e le ctrica l e n g in e e rin g . H e c a m e to th e D a r m s ta d t T H in
1882 a f te r se rv in g as a n in s tru c to r in physics a t th e M u n ic h T H . T h e r e
w ere o n ly 137 s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d a t th e la n g u is h in g D a rm s ta d t T H in 1882,
b u t w ith in se v e ra l y e a rs K itlle rs ele ctric al e n g in e e rin g p r o g ra m w as in te r
n a tio n a lly r e n o w n e d a n d h a d tu r n e d o u t a la rg e n u m b e r o f G e rm a n y s
le a d in g ele ctric al e n g in e e rs , a m o n g th e m D o liv o -D o b ro w o lsk y .12
In 1882, a t th e B e r lin -G h a rlo tte n b u rg T H , A d o lf Slaby (1 8 4 9 -1 9 1 3 ) in
a u g u r a te d a tw o -h o u r c o u rs e in electric al m a c h in e ry . In 1883, also a t th e
B e rlin T H , W e rn e r vo n S ie m e n s e s ta b lish e d th e first c h a ir o f m a c h in e
c o n s tru c tio n a n d e le ctric al e n g in e e rin g (a p o sitio n h e ld by Slaby). W h e n
th e B e rlin T H m o v e d in 1884 in to im p re ssiv e new b u ild in g s o n g r o u n d
p ro v id e d by K a iser W ilh e lm I, th e facu lty e s ta b lish e d a n electric al la b o
ra to ry , a f te r w hich th e stu d y o f elec trica l e n g in e e rin g e x p a n d e d r a p id ly ;
by 1892, e ig h ty s tu d e n ts w ere e n g a g e d in la b o ra to ry w o rk th e re . E lectrical
e n g in e e r in g was n o t, h o w e v e r, a s e p a ra te d e p a r tm e n t at B e rlin as it was at
D a rm s ta d t; it w as p a r t o f th e m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g c u r ric u lu m . U n lik e
o th e r ea rly G e r m a n elec trical e n g in e e r in g p ro fe sso rs, Slaby h a d a b ack
g r o u n d in m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g r a th e r th a n p h y sic s.13 F ro m 1895 u n til
1905 G isb e rt K a p p (1 8 5 2 -1 9 2 2 ), a p io n e e r in th e scie n tific analysis o f
elec trica l m a c h in e ry , ta u g h t ele ctric al e n g in e e rin g at B e rlin . T h e p re se n c e
o f th e tw o m a jo r m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f G e r m a n electric al m a c h in e ry (S iem en s
a n d A EG ) in B e rlin p ro b a b ly stim u la te d th e e m p h a sis o n m a c h in e ry , o r
m ech a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g , c o u r s e s .'4
T h e M a ssac h u setts I n s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y esta b lish e d th e first fo u ry e a r c o u rse in e le ctric al e n g in e e rin g in A m erica in 1882. Its a c tio n was
ba se d o n th e b e lie f th a t th e ra p id ly in c re a sin g d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e v a rio u s
b ra n c h e s o f elec trical e n g in e e rin g , a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t d e m a n d fo r p e rso n s
c o n v e rs a n t w ith th e th e o ry a n d a p p lic a tio n s o f e le ctric ity , 15 c alled fo r an
a c a d e m ic re sp o n se . Initia lly th e c o u rs e re fle c te d th e in te re s t o f its p la n n e rs
in th e b e lte r-e s ta b lis h e d field o f e lec trical c o m m u n ic a tio n s, b u t e m p h a sis
e v e n tu a lly s h ifte d to lig h t a n d p o w er. A d m in istra tiv ely , th e c o u rs e was p a rt
o f t h e physics c u rric u lu m , a n d P ro fe sso r C h a rle s C ro ss (1 8 4 8 -1 9 2 1 ), h e a d
o f th e p h y sics d e p a r tm e n t, p la n n e d a n d d ire c te d it. A s e p a ra te d e p a r tm e n t
11 G eorg D ctlm ar. Die Entwicklung der Starhstromtechnik in Deutschland (Berlin: ETZ Verlag,
1940), pp. 279-80.
'* Von Siemens. House of Siemens, 1: 116.
" Chronik der Kbniglichen Technischen Hochschule iu Berlin. 1799-1899 (Berlin, 1899). p. 187.
MRolf Sonnem ann, W isscnschafllich-tcchnischer Fortschrilt, Ingenicurausbildung und
Monopolinlcrcsse im Spiegel d e r FJcktrotcchnischen Zcilschrifl, 1880-1900," NTM-Schriftenr.
Gesch., Technik, Med. (Leipzig) 11 (1974): I, 67. O ther early developm ents in electrical engi
neering education in Germ any included a professorship at the Munich 77/ held hy W. von
Beetz (1822-1886) and lectures given by W. Dietrich at Stuttgart Ircginning in 1882. Wilhelm
K ohlrausch (1855-1936) established a program at the H annover 77/ in 1884.
" Electrical Review 12 (1883): iii.

NETW ORKS o f p o w e r
o f e lectric al e n g in e e r in g w as e sta b lish e d in 1902, w ith L ouis D u n c a n (1 8 6 2 1916) as c h a irm a n . In 1907 D u g a ld C. Ja c k s o n (1 8 6 5 -1 9 5 1 ), h e a d o f th e
elec trica l e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t a t th e U n iv e rsity o f W isco n sin , m oved
to M .I.T . to re p la c e D u n c a n . Six s tu d e n ts h a d e n ro lle d in M .I.T .s fo u ry e a r c o u rs e a t th e o u ts e t, a n d th e c a ta lo g o f th e in s titu te s u g g e ste d a m o d e st
o u tla y f o r spe cial la b o ra to ry e q u ip m e n t. In th e 1890s, h o w e v e r, e n ro llm e n t
in electrical e n g in e e rin g rose to m a tc h th a t in civil a n d m e chanical e n g in ee rin g ,
a n d tw o ye ars a f te r Ja c k so n s a rriv a l, th e d e p a r tm e n t h a d 2 0 0 full-tim e

Figure VI. 3. William E. and Hertha

Ayrton, husband and wife, leaders in llie

Electrical Engineers. London.

Figure VI.4. Si/uanus P. Thompson.

Courtesy o f the Institution o f Electrical
Engineers, London.

s tu d e n ts ."
In 1883 C o rn e ll U n iv e rsity a n n o u n c e d a p r o g r a m in e le ctric al e n g i
n e e r in g h e a d e d by W illiam A. A n th o n y (1 8 3 5 -1 9 0 8 ), a p ro f e s s o r o f physics.
By 1885 C o rn e ll w as o ff e r in g a f o u r-y e a r u n d e r g r a d u a te p r o g r a m a n d a
o n e -y e a r g r a d u a te p r o g r a m in e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g . In 1887 P ro fe sso r E.
P. R o b e rts re c e iv e d a n a p p o in tm e n t to le a c h e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g a n d
b e c a m e C o rn e ll's first fu ll-tim e fa cu lty m e m b e r in ele c tric a l e n g in e e rin g .
P ro fe s s o r H a r ris J. R yan (1 8 6 6 -1 9 3 4 ) s u c c e e d e d R o b e rts in 1889. By 1905
th e d e p a r tm e n t w as o f f e r in g e le v en c o u rse s a n d was sta ffe d by o n e p r o
fe sso r, o n e a ssista n t p ro fe s s o r, a n d o n e in s tr u c to r . 17
T h e C e n tra l In stitu tio n o f th e City a n d G u ild s o f L o n d o n In stitu te o p e n e d
in 1884 o f f e r in g c o u rs e s in e lectric al e n g in e e r in g ta u g h t by W illiam E.
A y rto n (1 8 4 7 -1 9 0 8 ), a le a d in g e le ctrica l e n g in e e r in g sc ie n tist a n d h e a d of
th e p h ysics d e p a r tm e n t. A y rto n h a d lo u r e d G e rm a n y in v e stig a tin g its ele c
tric a l-e n g in e e rin g facilities b e fo re e s ta b lis h in g th e c u r r ic u lu m at th e C e n tra l
I n s titu tio n .18 T h e c o u rse s o f f e r e d w ith in th e ph y sics d e p a r tm e n t e x te n d e d
o v e r th r e e yea rs. In 1899, by way o f id e n tif y in g e le c tric a l e n g in e e rin g as
its m a jo r in te re s t, th e d e p a r tm e n t c h a n g e d its n a m e to ele c tric a l e n g in e e r
ing. T h e new d e s ig n a tio n r e fle c te d th e p h ilo s o p h y e x p re s s e d by th e P rince
o f W ales at th e sc h o o l's o p c n in g -d a y c e r e m o n ie s in 1884: T h e a lte re d
c o n d itio n s o f a p p re n tic e s h ip , a n d th e a lm o st g e n e ra l s u b s titu tio n o f m a
c h in e f o r h a n d la b o u r h av e m a d e th e le a c h in g o f sc ien c e, in its a p p lic a tio n
to p ro d u c tiv e in d u s try , . . . n e c e s s a ry ." "
E lectrical e n g in e e r in g w as a lso n u r t u r e d in L o n d o n by S ylv an u s P.
T h o m p s o n ( 1 8 5 1 - 1 9 1 6 ), a u th o r o f w idely in f lu e n tia l ele c tric a l e n g in e e rin g
te x ts a n d p rin c ip a l o f F in sb u ry T e c h n ic a l C o lle g e f o r m a n y years. J o h n
H o p k in s o n ( 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 9 8 ) , a d e v e lo p e r o f e n g in e e r in g th e o ry a n d a c o n
s u lta n t to th e E d iso n in te r e s ts in E n g la n d , w as th e First in c u m b e n t o f th e
c h a ir o f e le ctrica l e n g in e e r in g at K in g s C o lle g e (1 890) a n d tw ice se rv e d as
p re s id e n t of th e I n s titu tio n o f E le ctrical E n g in e e rs . H e h a d s tu d ie d e n g i
n e e r in g a t O w e n s C o lle g e in M a n c h e s te r a n d h a d c o n tin u e d at T rin ity
C o lle g e, C a m b r id g e , in m a th e m a tic s a f te r w in n in g a m a th e m a tic s fellow"Report o f the Visiting C om m ittee Assigned to the Electrical Engineering D epartm ent
27 I'c hrttary 1921!, in "C.E I rans. 1915-1923, M IT ," Elihu T hom son Papers, Library ol the
A merican Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Pa. I am indebted to B ernard Carlson of the
U niversity o f Pennsylvania lo r calling my a ttention to this a nd othe r items at the APS Archives.
17 W aterm an T . H ew ed. Cornell University: A Ihstoiy. A vols. (New York. 1905), 2: 315-17;
Electrical World 5 ( IHH5): 15*1. O th er early d ep artm en ts o f electrical engineering in the United
States were located at the University o f Missouri (1885) and the University o f Wisconsin
(1891). Irederick E T erm a n . "A Uriel History ol Electrical Engineering Education," IEEE
Proceedings 51 (1976): M 0 |.
Centenary of The Imperial College / Science and Technology, p. 15.
Ibid.. p. 37.
87 1

147

T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M

Figure VI. S. John Hopkinson and

itudenb at King's College, London. From
Creig, Jo h n H opkinson, p. 15.

sh ip . F o cu sin g o n e lec trica l sc ien ce a n d g e n e r a to r d e sig n , his p u b licatio n s

in th e e a rly 1880s e s ta b lish e d him as a le a d in g elec tric al e n g in e e rin g sci
e n tist. H e b e c a m e a Feilow o f th e Royal Society in 1877.
T h e c h a r a c te r o f th e p ro fe sso rs w ho s ta ffe d th e new d e p a r tm e n ts a n d
ta u g h t th e e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g c o u rse s in E n g la n d . G e rm a n y , a n d th e
U n ite d S ta te s in flu e n c e d th e field b o th in th e o ry a n d in p ra ctic e. A c o m m o n
ch a ra c te ristic o f th e f o u n d e r s o f ele ctrica l e n g in e e rin g co u rse s, ju d g in g
fro m th e a b o v e s a m p le , was th e ir stu d y o r physics, w hich h e lp s ex p la in th e
scie n tific b e n t o f th e c o u rse s. T h e p r io r in c lu sio n o f electric al science in
physics c o u rse s su g g e sts w hy physics p ro fe sso rs a sso ciated w ith e n g in e e rin g
p ro g ra m s e s ta b lish e d electric al e n g in e e rin g c o u rse s. C h a rle s R. G ross o f
M .I.T ., fo r in sta n c e , g r a d u a te d fro m M .I.T . in 1870 a n d re m a in e d th e re
to b e c o m e h e a d o f th e physics d e p a r tm e n t in 1876. H e n o t only c re a te d
th e fo u r- y e a r c o u rs e in e le ctrica l e n g in e e rin g b u t also d id p riv a te c o n su ltin g
w o rk a n d p u b lish e d p a p e rs o n acoustics a n d te le p h o n y . C ro ss also serv ed
as vice-president o f th e A m erican Institu te o r Electrical E n g in ee rin g (A IEE).
W illiam A. A n th o n y , a n o th e r o f th e first g e n e ra tio n o f p ro fe sso rs to
cu ltiv a te elec trica l e n g in e e rin g p ro g ra m s , h eld th e c h a ir in physics at C o r
nell U n iv e rsity fro m 1872 to 1887 b e fo re o rg a n iz in g a f o u r-y e a r c o u rse in
electric al e n g in e e rin g th e r e . E a rlie r h e ta u g h t m ec h an ics a n d physics at
Iow a S la te U niv ersity a n d in s e c o n d a ry schools. H e h e ld a d o c to r a te fro m
th e Y ale S cientific School (1856), w h e re lie was first in his class, a n d sh o rtly
a f te r g ra d u a tio n h e w o rk e d as a m ec h an ica l e n g in e e r in a c o tto n -m a c h in e i y
p la n t. H e left C o rn e ll to d o c o n su ltin g w ork a n d n ig h t te a c h in g at C o o p e r
U n io n . T h r e e yea rs la te r h e bec am e p re sid e n t o f th e A IE E . A m o n g his
p u b lic a tio n s w e re sev eral tex tb o o k s.
L ouis D u n c a n , w ho h e a d e d M .I.T .'s electrical e n g in e e r in g p ro g r a m a lte r
C ross, also h a d a b a c k g ro u n d in physics. A n 1885 g r a d u a te o f tb e U.S.
N aval A cad em y , D u n c an was sent by th e navy a lte r several y ea rs' service

148

Figure VI.6. William A. Anthony.

Zourlesy of the Cornell University Archives,
Ithaca, N.Y.

Figure VI.7. Louis Duncan. Courtesy of

the M .I.T. Museum and Historical
Collections, Cambridge, Mass.

n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

to J o h n s H o p k in s U n iv e rsity to d o g r a d u a te w o rk in physics a n d ele ctricity

u n d e r p h y sics p r o f e s s o r H e n r y A. R o w lan d . A t H o p k in s, D u n c a n h e lp e d
estab lish th e u n it o f e le ctrica l re sista n c e f o r th e U .S. g o v e r n m e n t. A fte r
re c e iv in g his P h .D . in 1887, h e re s ig n e d his c o m m issio n to te ac h in a H o p
kins p r o g r a m in a p p lie d e le c tric ity th a t h a d b e e n e sta b lish e d in 1886. D u n
ca n h a d m a jo r c o n tra c ts as a c o n s u lta n t, in c lu d in g w o rk o n th e W a sh in g to n ,
D .C ., u n d e r g r o u n d tro lle y sy stem a n d , in 1886, th e first e le c trific a tio n o f
a p o rtio n o f a m a in -lin e ra ilr o a d , th e B a ltim o re tu n n e l o f th e B a ltim o re &
O h io R a ilro a d . H e also p la y e d a le a d in g ro le in th e ele c trific a tio n o f th e
T h ird A v e n u e e le v a te d ra ilro a d in N ew Y o rk C ity (1 8 9 7 -1 9 0 1 ). H is a p
p o in tm e n t as c h a irm a n o f th e new ele c tric a l e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t at
M .I.T . fro m 1902 to 1907 was c h a ra c te riz e d as u n f o r tu n a te b e c a u se o f his
p re o c c u p a tio n w ith c o n s u ltin g w o rk .20 A m o n g h is c o n s u ltin g asso ciate s was
F ra n k J . S p ra g u e . D u n c a n was e le c te d p r e s id e n t o f th e A IE E in 1895. H e
w ro te n u m e r o u s r e s e a rc h p a p e r s .21
S o o n a se c o n d g e n e r a tio n to o k o v e r th e A m e ric a n p r o g ra m s . D u g a ld C.
J a c k s o n a n d H a rr is J . R yan o f th e se c o n d w ave h a d re m a r k a b ly sim ila r
c a re e rs . B o th w e re b o rn in P e n n sy lv a n ia a n d b o th s tu d ie d ele c tric a l science
a n d te c h n o lo g y at C o rn e ll u n d e r W illiam A. A n th o n y . Ja c k s o n lo o k th e
p o s tg r a d u a te c o u rs e in 1 8 8 5 -8 7 a n d R yan w o rk e d as a r e s e a rc h a ssistan t
to A n th o n y . T o g e th e r , in 1887, th e new g r a d u a te s e s ta b lis h e d a n e n g i
n e e r in g firm in L in co ln , N e b ra sk a , b u t a f te r a y e a r R yan r e tu r n e d to C o r
nell to te a c h a n d J a c k s o n b e c a m e a n e n g in e e r fo r th e S p r a g u e E lectric
Railw ay & M o to r C o m p a n y a n d th e n a d istric t e n g in e e r in C h ic a g o fo r th e
E d iso n m a n u f a c tu r in g in te re sts. Ja c k s o n w as c alle d to th e U n iv ersity o f
W isco n sin in 1891 a n d e sta b lish e d th e e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t
th e re ; R yan w as h e a d o f e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g at C o rn e ll fro m 1895 to
1905. B o th w ro te basic tex ts; J a c k s o n , Alternating Currents a nd Alternating
M achinery (1 8 9 6 ); R yan, Electrical M achinery (1903).
In 1905 R y a n b e c a m e c h a irm a n o f th e e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t
at S ta n fo r d U n iv e rsity ; in 1907 Ja c k s o n a s s u m e d th a t p o sitio n a t M .I.T .
R yan d id a p p lie d r e s e a rc h as h e a d o f th e h ig h -v o lta g e la b o ra to ry a t S ta n
fo r d , w hich w as la te r n a m e d fo r h im . W h ile h e was a p ro fe s s o r at M .I.T .,
Ja c k s o n h e a d e d Ja c k s o n & M o re la n d , a B o sto n c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm .
R yan also w as ac tiv e as a c o n s u lta n t, se rv in g , a m o n g o th e r c lien ts, th e Los
A n g e les p o w e r b u r e a u . Ja c k s o n w as p r e s id e n t o f th e A IE E in 1907; R yan,
in 1923. D u g a ld Ja c k s o n also se rv e d as p re s id e n t o f th e S ociety fo r th e
P ro m o tio n o f E n g in e e rin g E d u c a tio n in 1905. D u rin g W o rld W a r I, J a c k so n
su p e rv is e d th e p ro v isio n o f p o w e r lo A m e ric a n fo rce s in F ra n c e a n d R yan
h e a d e d a la b o ra to ry p ro je c t o n s u b m a r in e d e te c tio n .
In G e rm a n y , E ra sm u s Kit tie r (o f th e first w ave) h a d th e b a c k g ro u n d in
physics. H e h a d a d o c to r a te in p h ysics a n d w as a le c tu r e r in p h y sics at th e
M u n ich 7 7 / b e fo re m o v in g to D a rm s ta d t. At D a rm s ta d t, h o w e v e r, h e a r
ra n g e d fo r e lec trica l tec h n o lo g y a n d scien c e to b e o f f e r e d in an in d e p e n d e n t
d e p a r tm e n t r a th e r th a n u n d e r th e ju ris d ic tio n o f physics. H is c o n fid e n c e

"Sam uel Prescott, When M I T. Wa.x -Boston Tech." 1861-1916 (C am bridge. Mass.; M .I.T.
Press, I9!i<l).
B
I am indebted to Robert Rosenberg o f T h e Johns H opkins University for inform ation
on electrical engin eerin g education at I tonkins.

149

T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M

Figure VI.8. D. C. Jackson. Courtesy of

the M .I.T. Museum and Historical
Collections, Cambridge, Mass.
Figure VI.9. Professor and Mrs. Harris
J. Ryan. Courtesy o f the Cornell University
Archives, Ithaca, N.Y.

B.

...

Figure VI. 10. Erasmus Kiltler. From

Offizielle Z ciiung . . . F ra n k ru n am
Main 1891 , p. io).

in th e f u tu r e o f th e su b je ct m ay h av e b e e n stim u la te d by th e M unich
electric al e x h ib itio n o f 1882, w hich h e se rv e d as a sec tio n ju d g e . T h e e x
h ib itio n g e n e r a te d th e in te r e s t o f th e g r a n d d u k e o f H e sse n , h e a d o f th e
p ro v in c e , w ho g av e his s u p p o r t to K ittle r a n d th e su b je c t.22 K ittle r's p r o
g r a m o f stu d y se rv e d as a m o d e l fo r o th e r s in G e rm a n y . It involved e ig h t
se m e ste rs o f n a tu ra l science, m a th e m a tic s, th e o re tic a l a n d a p p lie d m e
ch an ics, e co n o m ics, a n d th e science a n d p ractic e o f e lec trica l e n g in e e rin g .
H e in tro d u c e d a fin al, c o m p re h e n s iv e e x a m in a tio n (Abgangsexamen, la te r
th e Diplom priifung) as well as a q u a lific a tio n re q u ire m e n t (P riifungsordnung)
th a t was to follow a t least a y e a r o f prac tica l e x p e rie n c e .
K ittle r stre sse d th e n e e d f o r p rac tica l e x p e rie n c e to c o m p le m e n t th e o ry .
H e was a c o n s u lta n t o n n u m e r o u s p ro je cts, in c lu d in g tw elve la rg e c e n tra l
sta tio n s a n d m an y iso late d p la n ts fo r in d u s try , c o m m e rc e , a n d p u b lic fa
cilities. H e a ssu m e d resp o n sib ility fo r e n tire pro jec ts, a d m ir e r s r e p o r te d ,
fro m th e p la n n in g stag e s to su ccessful o p e ra tio n . M any o f his s tu d e n ts
a ttrib u te d th e ir success to his e m p h a sis o n a th o r o u g h g r o u n d in g in th e
p ractic e, as w ell as th e sc ience, o f e n g in e e rin g .23 K ittler was also th e a u th o r
o f a w idely u se d th re e -v o lu m e te x t, Handbuch der Elektrotechnik (2 n d e d .,
1892).
A d o lf S laby a n d G isb e rt K ap p , w ho d e v e lo p e d th e p ro g ra m in e le c tro n ical e n g in e e rin g a t th e B e rlin -C h a rlo tte n b e rg 7 7 /, d iffe re d fro m K ittle r
. . . . .

>

r i

a n d lh e ir U S - Pe e rs m th a l lh e b a c k g ro u n d o f b o th was m e ch a n ic al eng in e e rin g r a th e r th a n physics. T h is e m p h a sis o n m a c h in e th e o ry a n d d e sig n

" Deitm ar, Starkstromlechnik, pp. 279-80.
R. W erner. "7.u Kittlers 70. G cburutag," Elektrotrchnische Zntschnft 43 (1922): 865-66.

150

the Siemens Museum. Siemens AG,

Figure VI.12. Gisberl Knpp. Courtesy oj

the Siemens Museum, Siemens AG,
Munieh.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

al th e B e rlin sc h o o l r e s u lte d in p a r t fro m th e in flu e n c e o f W e r n e r von
S ie m e n s, w h o as a m a n u f a c tu r e r was in te re s te d in m a c h in e d e sig n , e s p e
cially th a t o f g e n e r a to r s a n d m o to rs. W h e n S lab y s in te re s i t u r n e d to elec
trica l c o m m u n ic a tio n s , a H eld in w h ich h e p u b lis h e d a p io n e e rin g te x t, Die
Funhentelegraphie ( 1 8 9 7 ), a n d in w hich h e to o k o u t m a jo r p a te n ts , h e b r o u g h t
G isb e rt K a p p , a n o th e r e le c tric a l e n g in e e r w ith a m e c h a n ic a l b a c k g ro u n d ,
to th e B e rlin 777 fa cu lty . K a p p h a d h a d e x te n siv e e x p e r ie n c e in E n g la n d
in th e d e s ig n o f ele c tric a l m a c h in e ry a n d e lec trical c e n tr a l sta tio n s. A le a d
in g a d v o c a te o f p o ly p h a s e tra n s m is s io n a n d p o w e r system s, K a p p s books
a n d a rtic le s o n ele c tric a l m a c h in e r y a n d tra n s m is s io n w e re a u th o rita tiv e
g u id e s to th e sc ie n ce o f e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g . K a p p a lso se rv e d as first
s e c re ta ry o f th e V e rb a n d D e u ls c h e r E le k tro te c h n ik e r (A sso ciatio n o f G e r
m a n E lec tric al E n g in e e rs). In 1905 h e g a v e u p his fac u lty p o sitio n in B erlin
a n d r e tu r n e d lo E n g la n d , w h e re h e b e c a m e p r o f e s s o r o f ele c tric a l e n g i
n e e r in g a t th e U n iv e rsity o f B irm in g h a m a n d e v e n tu a lly p r e s id e n t o f Brita jn -s in s titu tio n o f E lec tric al E n g in e e r s .24
E n g la n d 's W illiam E. A y rto n , w h o ta u g h t e lec trical e n g in e e r in g a t th e
C e n tra l In stitu tio n in L o n d o n , h a d a notably d iv e rse b a c k g ro u n d . H e passed
th e first B .A . e x a m in a tio n o f th e U n iv e rsity o f L o n d o n in 1867 w ith h o n o rs
in m a th e m a tic s. H e la te r s tu d ie d e le c tric ity u n d e r S ir W illiam T h o m s o n
(L o rd K elvin) a t G lasgow . F ro m 1873 to 1878 h e h e ld th e p ro fe s s o ria l c h a ir
in ph y sics a n d te le g ra p h y a l th e I m p e r ia l E n g in e e r in g C o lle g e in T o k y o ,
w h ic h at th a t tim e w as th e la rg e st te c h n ic a l u n iv e rs ity in th e w o rld . In 1879
A y rto n r e tu r n e d to L o n d o n lo b e c o m e a p r o f e s s o r a t th e re c e n tly fo u n d e d
C ity a n d G u ild s I n s titu te . F ro m 1881 to 1884 h e w as p r o f e s s o r o f ap p lie d
p h y sics a t th e in s titu te s F in sb u ry T e c h n ic a l C o lle g e . N e x t h e b e c a m e h e a d
o f th e ph y sics d e p a r tm e n t a n d p r o f e s s o r o f e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g a t th e
C ity - a n d -G u ild s -s u p p o rle d C e n tr a l I n s titu tio n .
A y rto n , like his p e e rs in G e r m a n y a n d th e U n ite d S la te s, h a d e x te n siv e
p r a c tic a l e x p e rtis e . B e fo re m o v in g to T o k y o , h e w o rk e d fo r th e In d ia n
te le g r a p h serv ice . In E n g la n d h e s e rv e d as a c o n s u lta n t lo th e g o v e rn m e n t
o n e le c tric a l e q u ip m e n t fo r th e n avy a n d a d v ise d p riv a te c o m p a n ie s as well.
H is a p p lie d re s e a rc h in c lu d e d w o rk o n tr a n s f o r m e r s , p o w e r tra n sm issio n ,
a n d m e a s u r in g dev ic es. A y rto n p u b lis h e d n u m e r o u s p a p e r s a n d a w idely
u se d te x t, Practical Electricity (1 8 8 7 ). In 1892, h e w as e le c te d p re s id e n t o f
th e In s titu tio n o f E lectric al E n g in e e rs . A y r to n s w ife, H e r lh a , also was a
scien tist a n d e n g in e e r o f r e p u ta tio n . J o h n P e rry , A y rto n s d e p a rtm e n ta l
c o lle a g u e at C e n tr a l In s titu tio n , c o lla b o r a te d w ith h im in p ra c tic a l re se a rc h
as w ell as in te a c h in g .
F o r th e m o st p a r t, th e n , it w as p h y sicists w h o o r g a n iz e d th e e a rly e lectrical
e n g in e e r in g c o u rs e s a n d d e p a r tm e n ts , a n d so o n g r a d u a te s o f th e se d e
p a r tm e n ts w e re le a c h in g in th e m . J u d g in g fro m th e c a re e r s o f th e se s e condg e n e ra tio n s c ie n tis t-c n g in e e rs , th e y p la c e d c o n s id e ra b le e m p h a s is o n p ra c
tical e x p e rie n c e as w ell as th e sc ie n ce o f e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g in th e ir
a c a d e m ic a n d c o n s u ltin g activities. T h u s th e y fac ed in p ra c tic e th e ch alle n g e
of th e tr a n s itio n f ro m d ire c t c u r r e n t to th e p o ly p h a se , u n iv e rsa l system .
M W edding. "A dolf Slaby," ibid. 34 (1913): 4 2 9-30; B. A. B ehrcnd, "Gisbert K app Dies al
His H om e," Electrical World 80 (1922): 499; D. G. T u ck er. Gisbert Kapp. I8 J2 -1 9 2 2 (Bir
m ingham : University o f B irm ingham . 19731.

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T h is tra n s itio n , as h a s b e e n se e n , fu n d a m e n ta lly a lte re d p ra c tic a l e n d e a v o rs
a n d in tr o d u c e d new p ro b le m s fo r th o se w ho w ere d e v e lo p in g a scie n ce of
electrical en g in e e rin g . T h e n a tu re o f th e resp o n se can be seen in th e chan g e s
m a d e in e lec trica l e n g in e e rin g c u r ric u la b e tw e e n th e e a rly 1880s a n d th e
tu r n o f th e c e n tu r y .25
In 1884, d u r in g th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t e n , M .I.T .s d e s c rip tio n o f its fo u ry e a r c o u rs e in e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g re a d :
T ho ro u g h instruction is given in the theory o f electricity. Also an extended
course o f lectures is devoted to the consideration o f the various technical
applications o f electricity to land and subm arine telegraphy, the telephone,
electric lighting, and the electrical transmission o f power. Instruction is given by
lectures and laboratory exercises upon the processes o f photom etry, especially as
applied to the m easurem ent o f electric lights. Advanced instruction in electrical
m easurem ents, including work with dynam o-electric m achinery, together with a
course in the electrical testing o f telegraph lines is provided. T h e subjects o f
construction, specifications, and contracts also receive attention.26
T h is s u m m a ry re fle c ts th e ph y sic ists view o f te c h n o lo g y as th e a p p lic a tio n
o f sc ience. It a lso in d ic a te s a n e n d u r in g in te re s t in te le g r a p h y , a su b je ct
th a t h a d e n g a g e d te a c h e rs o f physics fo r y e ars a n d th a t w o u ld m e ta m o r
p h o se to d o m in a te th e c u rr ic u lu m a g a in a h a lf-c e n tu ry la te r w h en w ireless
a n d e lectro n ic co m m u n ic atio n s evolved. T h e electrical tran sm issio n o f p o w e r
re fe r s n o t lo lo n g -d ista n c e tra n sm issio n in c o n tra s t to c e n tra l-s ia tio n d is
trib u tio n , b u t to th e g e n e ra l s tu d y o f ele ctricity as a s u b s titu te f o r m e
c h an ica l p o w e r tra n sm issio n .
F ifte e n y ea rs la te r, th e a n n u a l M .I.T . c a ta lo g still c o n ta in e d m u c h o f th e
w o rd in g o f th e e a r lie r d e s c rip tio n , a fact th a t p e r h a p s re fle c ts th e p r o
p e n sity o f fac u lty m e m b e rs to assig n low p rio rity to c a ta lo g copy. S e v era l
g e n e ra l s ta te m e n ts in th e 1899 d e s c rip tio n , h o w e v e r, m a n if e s te d th e re v
o lu tio n th a t h a d ta k e n p lace in th e field. U tiliza tio n o f p o w e r h a d b e e n
a d d e d , a n d th e su b je c t m a tte r o f th e new a n d e x te n d e d se rie s o f prac tic al
le c tu re s in c lu d e d a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t g e n e r a to rs , m o to rs, a n d tr a n s
fo rm e rs . A m o n g th e p ra c tic in g e n g in e e rs listed as g u e s t le c tu re rs w e re
L ouis Bell (on th e tr a n sm issio n o f p o w e r) a n d J o h n B lo o d (o n th e d e sig n
o f a lte rn a tin g - c u rr e n t m a c h in e ry ). T h e m o st s u b sta n tia l a d d itio n to th e
d e s c rip tio n was a tw o -p a g e listin g o f th e e q u ip m e n t u se d in th e la b o ra to ry
o f ele ctric al e n g in e e rin g , m ost o f it fo r a lte rn a tin g a n d p o ly p h a se lig h t a n d
p o w e r sy stem s.27 B e ca u se th e first y e a r o f th e M .I.T . c u r ric u lu m was th e

* For fu rth er com parison o f the curricula in U.S. engineering schools, see Francis C.
Caldwell, "A C om parative Study o f the Electrical E ngineering Course Given at the Different
Institutions, Proceedings o f the Society fo r the Promotion 0/ Engineering Education 7 (1899): 128.
Professor Caldwell o f Ohio State University drew conclusions front a close study o f the courses
o f study in eighteen leading American technical universities.
For thc university and college catalogs and bulletins on which the present analysis is based,
I am indebted to Mrs. Je an n e Pingrec, archivist of the Im perial College o f Science and
Technology. L ondon: the archivist o f the I lessischc Landes u nd Hochschulbibliothek D arm
stadt; Mr. J . E. Bocll, d irector o f archives. University o f Wisconsin: Mrs. Faith M. Towle,
assistant reference librarian at M .I.T.; the reference librarian at Cornell University; and Mr.
J. Louis Kuethe o r T h e Jo h n s H opkins University library.
n M .l.r. Annual Catalogue. 1884-1885. pp. 4 3 -M .
27 Ibid., 1899-1900. pp. 89-90.

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NETW O R K S OF PO W ER
T a iii .f. VI. I. M .I.T .'s E lect ric al E ng in eering C ourse of St u d y . 1884-1885

Second Term

First Term
Physical L aboratory: Electrical T estin g , and
Construction o f In stru m en ts
T esting o f T eleg rap h Lines, Dynam o Ma
chines, etc.
Technical A pplications o f Electricity to T e l
e g ra p h . T elep h o n e, Electric L ighting,
etc.: Lectures
Mechanical E ngineering
Mecli. E ngineering L aboratory
A pplied M echanics, T herm odynam ics, H y
draulics. etc.

Physical Research
T echnical Applications of Electricity
A dvanced Physics. Memoirs, etc.
D ifferential Equations
T h eo ry of Probabilities
M ethod o f Least Squares
Calculus o f V ariations
M echanical Engineering
Mcclt. E ngineering L aboratory

Note: T h e stu d en t is advised to take Advanced G erm an.

Source: M .I.T. Annual Catalogue, 18841885, p. 28.

s a m e fo r all s tu d e n ts , a n d b e c a u se in th e n e x t tw o y ea rs, b o th in 1 8 8 4 -8 5
a n d 1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 0 , s tu d e n ts c o n c e n tra te d o n p h y sics, m a th e m a tic s , a n d m e
c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g , th e f o u rth - y e a r c o u rs e s b est sh o w th e sta te o f elec
tric al te c h n o lo g y a n d scien c e f ro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e facu lty . A c o m
p a r is o n o f th e tw o ca ta lo g s re v ea ls a n im p re ssiv e in c re a s e in co m p lex ity
a n d ric h n e s s w ith in a d e c a d e a n d a h a lf (see T a b le s V I. 1 a n d V I.2).
In 1885 C o rn e ll U n iv e rsity s Sibley C o lle g e o f M e c h a n ic a l E n g in e e rin g
a n d th e M ec h a n ic a l A rts o f f e r e d a n e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g p r o g r a m th a t
w as n e a rly id e n tic a l to its m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g c u rr ic u lu m fo r th e fre s h
m a n , s o p h o m o r e , a n d j u n i o r y ears; in c lu d e d in th is p r o g r a m w e re d r a w
in g , m a th e m a tic s , m e c h a n ic s, m e c h a n ism , m a c h in e d e s ig n , th e e le m e n ta ry
s tu d y o f phy sic s, a n d p r e lim in a ry p ra c tic e in th e u se o f e le c tric a l a n d o th e r
in s tr u m e n ts .2H T h e w ork in th e s e n io r y e a r in e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g d if
fe re d fro m th a t in m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g o n ly in th e s p r in g te r m , w hen
tr a in in g in th e te stin g , c o n s tru c tio n , a n d m a in te n a n c e o f e le c tric lig h tin g
a n d te le g r a p h sy stem s w as o f f e r e d . S ibley C o lle g e also o f f e r e d a o n e -y e a r
p r o g r a m o f g r a d u a te stu d y in e le ctrica l e n g in e e r in g c o m p r is e d o f c o u rse s
in e le ctric al m a c h in e r y a n d p la n ts.
By 1900 W illiam A n th o n y w as n o lo n g e r at C o rn e ll, a n d th e electrical
e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t h a d b e c o m e closely asso c ia te d w ith m ec h a n ic al
e n g in e e rin g . A s tu d e n ts c o u rs e o f stu d y w as th e s a m e d u r in g his first th r e e
y e ars re g a rd le s s o l his in te n tio n to c o n c e n tr a te in m e c h a n ic a l o r e le ctrical
e n g in e e rin g . In h is f o u r th y e a r h e co u ld c h o o se sp ecial w o rk in electrical
e n g in e e rin g , b u t his d e g r e e w as in m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g ; a sta te m e n t
was m a d e in th e d ip lo m a to th e e ffe c t th a t h e h a d e le c te d to d o w ork in
th e e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t.2"
T h e D e p a r tm e n t o f L ig h t a n d P o w e r, in w hich th e d e p a r tm e n ts o f m e
c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g a n d e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g w e re a sso c ia te d , a sse rte d
th e b u sin e ss c h a r a c te r o l C o rn e lls p r o g r a m . This e m p h a s is h a r m o n iz e d
w ith C o rn e ll s sta tu s as a la n d -g ra n l in s titu tio n d e d ic a te d to in d u s tria l a n d
a g ric u ltu r a l e d u c a tio n . T h e D e p a r tm e n t o f L ight a n d P o w e r in sisted that
*C ornell University, Register, 1885-86 p 107
"Ib id .. 1900-1901, p. 832.

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T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M

T able VI.2. M.I.T.'s E le c t r ic a l Engineering Course of Study. 1899-1900

Fourth Year
First Term

Second Term

Technical Applications o f Electricity to T elephony. Electric

Lighting. Electrical G eneration o f Power,
Railroad Signals, etc.
400.
Methods o f Dynam o T estin g (lectures)
General Electrical T estin g
Electrical E ngineering L aboratory; T esting o f Dynamos.
Electric Lamps, etc.
Electrical M easuring In stru m en ts a n d M ethods (lectures)
T heory o f Periodic C u rren ts
Photometry
Steam E ngineering
Dynamics o f Machines
Hydraulics
Engineering L aboratory
Strength o f Materials; Friction
Method o f Least Squares

403
402
405
420
406
404
392
540
543
471
545
86
57

Technical Applications o f Electricity; Electric Motors;

A lternating C u rren t Machines
Transm ission and D istribution o f Energy
Methods o f Dynamo T esting (lectures)
Principles of D ynamo Design
T elephone Engineering
Electrical E ngineering Laboratory; M easurem ents
o f D ynamo Electric Machinery. Special M ethods
T h eo ry o f Periodic C urrents
Discussion o f the Precision M easurem ents
E ngineering Laboratory
Economics o f C orporations
Thesis

400. I lf
11/
402
I lf
I lf
42f
4(M
42?
54!
261

Noie: S tu d en u having the requisite p rep aratio n and ability may pu rsu e m ore advanced courses in the mathem atical theory o feleciririi)
and o th er subjects. W ith this end in view, com petent students may take Fourier's Series and allied topics, also Energetics and Electro
Chemistry, as extra studies.
Source: M .I.T. Annual Catalogue, 1899-1900, p. 41.

its m e th o d s, like th o se o f th e Sibley C o lleg e o f E n g in e e rin g as a w hole,

w ere , as fa r as p ra c tic a b le , th o se o f th e b u sin e ss e sta b lish m e n t o r e n g in e e r s
office , a n d a d m issio n a n d d is c h a rg e will be g o v e rn e d as fa r as possible by
b u sin ess ru le s .30 U n lik e M .I.T ., w hich re q u ire d lib e ra l-a rts c o u rse s o f its
u n d e r g r a d u a te s in e n g in e e rin g . Sibley C o lleg e assu m e d th a t s tu d e n ts had
c o m p le te d th e ir g e n e ra l a c a d e m ic e d u c a tio n b e fo re e n te r in g its fo u r-y e a r
p ro g ra m , a n d th e r e f o r e it o rg a n iz e d its e n tir e c o u rse o f stu d y solely to
m e e t th e d e m a n d s o f th e e n g in e e r in g p ro fe ssio n . T h e re su lt was a m ix o f
m a th e m a tic s, p h y sical science, a n d sh o p w o rk c o u rse s d u r in g th e first th re e
years.
T h e electric al e n g in e e r in g c o u rse s th e s tu d e n ts w ere r e q u ire d to tak e in
th e ir f o u r th y e a r in th is b u sin e ss-o rie n te d e n g in e e rin g e n v iro n m e n t d ealt
w ith th e d e sig n a n d c o n s tru c tio n o f electrical m ac h in e ry , th e d istrib u tio n
o f elec tric lig h t a n d th e elec trical tra n sm issio n o f p o w e r, as well as th e
c o n s tru c tio n a n d m a in te n a n c e o f ele ctric lig h tin g a n d p o w e r p lan ts. R e
q u ire d c o u rse s in physics gave special a tte n tio n to th e n e e d s o f th e p rac tic al
e le c tric ia n . T h e e lec trical e n g in e e r in g la b o ra to rie s at C o rn e ll, like th e o n e
a t M .I.T ., w ere e q u ip p e d w ith a lte rn a tin g a n d p o ly p h a se m a c h in e ry . In
th e fo u rth y e a r o f s tu d y s tu d e n ts w ere e n c o u ra g e d to show a cap a city fo r
" in te llig e n t stu d y o f special o r o rig in a l p ro b le m s by w ritin g a thesis r e p
re s e n tin g special in v estig a tio n , p re fe ra b ly b o th th e o re tic a l a n d e x p e rim e n
ta l.31 P ro fe sso r R yan, w ho, possibly in a c c o rd a n c e with th e b u sin ess e n v i
ro n m e n t o f th e college, was id e n tifie d as c o n su ltin g e n g in e e r," of fe re d a
tw o -se m e ste r c o u rse in elec trical e n g in e e rin g to fo u rth -y e a r stu d e n ts. Ryan
also ta u g h t c o u rse s o n th e fin a n ce o f th e p ro d u c tio n a n d u tiliza tio n o f
elec tric al e n e rg y " a n d a h isto ry o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e le ctrical engi*> Ibid.. p. 330.
Ibid.. p. 345.

154

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

n e e r in g . ( T o o f f e r a h isto ry o f a field th a t w as so y o u n g w as re m a rk a b le .)
F o r g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts th e r e w as R y an 's y e a r-lo n g c o u r s e in e le ctric al e n
g in e e r in g . H e n ry N o rris , w h o h e ld a d e g r e e in m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g
a n d w as liste d as e le c tric ia n , a n d a M r. H o x ie a lso ta u g h t e le ctrica l
e n g in e e r in g c o u rs e s ; in a d d itio n , N o r ris ta u g h t a g r a d u a te c o u rs e o n elec
tric railw ays.
B e ca u se o f th e slow g r o w th o f e le c tric p o w e r sy ste m s d u r in g th e 1890s
in L o n d o n by c o m p a ris o n w ith C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin , a n d b e c a u se o f th e
fa ilu re o f p o ly p h a s e p o w e r sy ste m s lo ta k e h o ld in E n g la n d b e fo re 1900,
it is in te re s tin g to c o m p a re th e e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g c u r r ic u lu m a t L o n
d o n s C ity a n d G u ild s C e n tra l T e c h n ic a l C o lle g e w ith th e p r o g r a m s o ff e r e d
at M .I.T . a n d C o rn e ll. It s h o u ld b e re c a lle d th a t th e C e n tra l In s titu tio n ,
w hose n a m e was c h a n g e d lo C e n tra l T e ch n ica l C ollege in 1893, was fo u n d e d
by th e C ity a n d G u ild s o f L o n d o n In s titu te lo p r o m o te te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n
in L o n d o n a n d t h r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try . T o w a r d th a t e n d , th e C e n tra l
T e c h n ic a l C o lle g e c o n d u c te d o r d in a r y a s w ell as h o n o rs e x a m in a tio n s in
ele c tric a l e n g in e e rin g . S tu d e n ts p r e p a r e d fo r th e s e n o t o n ly a t th e C e n tra l
T e c h n ic a l C o lle g e b u t a t o th e r te c h n ic a l in s titu tio n s th r o u g h o u t B rita in .
C e r tific a tio n o f th e su cce ssfu l c o m p le tio n o f th e e x a m in a tio n s w as c o m
p a ra b le to a d ip lo m a in e n g in e e r in g in th e U n ite d S ta te s. P assin g th e e x
a m in a tio n s w as also c o n s id e r e d e q u iv a le n t to th e s ta tu s o b ta in e d a f te r c o m
p le tin g th e se v e n -y e a r a p p r e n tic e s h ip th a t tra d itio n a lly q u a lifie d o n e fo r
a d m issio n to a c ra ft g u ild .
A y rto n , w h o w as o n e o f th e first tw o p r o f e s s o rs a p p o in te d by C ity a n d
G u ild s In s titu te a n d w h o w as b rie fly a sso c ia te d w ith F in sb u ry T e c h n ic a l
C o lle g e b e fo r e b e c o m in g o n e o f f o u r p r o f e s s o rs a t th e C e n tra l In stitu tio n
in 1884, p re s id e d o v e r th e in s titu tio n 's p r o g r a m in ele c tric a l e n g in e e rin g
fro m 1884 to 1908. H e o r g a n iz e d th e ele c tric a l la b o ra to rie s , g av e re la te d
le c tu re s, a n d a d m in is te r e d a sm a ll d e p a r tm e n t (al first th r e e , b u t by 1899
sev e n p e rso n s). H e a lso a d m in is te r e d th e e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g e x a m in a
tio n s c o n d u c te d by his in s titu tio n . As e a rly as 1886, 151 c a n d id a te s fro m
v a rio u s p a rts o f B rita in p r e s e n te d th e m se lv e s f o r o n e o f th e tw o e x a m i
n a tio n s in ele c tric a l e n g in e e r in g .112 In 1885 th e h o n o r s - g r a d e e x a m in a tio n
in c lu d e d o n e q u e s tio n c a llin g fo r th e d e s c rip tio n o f a n a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t
m o to r a n d a n o th e r a sk in g how tw o a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t g e n e r a to r s m ig h t
be r u n in p a ra lle l, o r se rie s (c o u p le d u p " ), a n a rr a n g e m e n t th a t h a d not
yet b e e n w idely in tr o d u c e d in p r a c tic e /111
In 1885 A y rto n w as a ssisted by a la b o r a to r y a sso c ia te , T . M a th e r, w ho
b e c a m e d e p a r tm e n t h e a d in 1910, a n d a w o rk s h o p in s tr u c to r. T o g e th e r
th e y p r o v id e d a th r e e - y e a r p r o g r a m in w hat w as th e n c alled th e physical
d e p a r tm e n t, a p r o g r a m th a t lo c u se d o n e lec trica l e n g in e e rin g , h u t th a t also
p r o m is e d , a c c o r d in g to d e p a r tm e n t d e s c rip tio n , to o rg a n iz e c o u rse s in o p
tical in s tr u m e n t m a k in g a n d p ro b le m s o f h e a l a n d v e n tila tio n .
In 1899 th e th r e e - y e a r c o u r s e re m a in e d esse n tially m a th e m a tic s, c h e m
istry, p hysics, m e c h a n ic s, a n d e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g la b o ra to rie s a n d related
le c tu re s. C e n tr a l I ec h n ic a l C o lle g e e m p h a s iz e d la b o r a to r y w o rk to th e
p o in t th a t " in s tru c tio n is g iv e n la rg ely by tu itio n in th e la b o ra to rie s , the
' Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review l J (IH 8li): 120. 170, 240.
For a copy o f ilic exam ination for ilic year, sec ibid. Mi I I8B5): 511.

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T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M
le c tu re s b e in g r a th e r fo r th e p u r p o s e o f a id in g th e S tu d e n ts in th e ir lab
o r a to ry p ra c tic e th a n o f fo rm in g a d istin ct c o u rse by th e m se lv e s.3'' L a b
o r a to ry w ork in th e first y e a r c o n siste d o f q u a n tita tiv e e x p e rim e n ts th a t
w e re a r r a n g e d to v e rify th e laws o f physics; th e se c o n d -y e a r la b o ra to ry
p r e p a r e d th e s tu d e n ts to c a rry o u t o rig in a l, in d e p e n d e n t in v e stig atio n s.
D u rin g th e th ir d y ear, s tu d e n ts w ere e x p e c te d to sp e n d m u c h o f th e ir tim e
o n o rig in a l r e s e a rc h p ro je c ts.35 A y r to n s le c tu re s a n d r e la te d la b o ra to ry
w o rk in c lu d e d a la rg e u n it d e a lin g w ith a lte r n a tin g a n d p o ly p h a se system s.
H is le c tu re s also e x p la in e d lo ad c u rv e a n d o th e r a sp e cts o f th e e co n o m ics
o f e le ctrica l e n g in e e rin g . L a n g u a g e s, th e social sciences, a n d th e h u m a n itie s
w ere e x c lu d e d fro m th e c u rric u lu m .
j u d g i n g by th e s e c o u rs e a n d la b o ra to ry d e s c rip tio n s a n d by th e q u a lity
o f th e facu lty , th e B ritish s tu d e n t was re c e iv in g a n e d u c a tio n in electric al
scien c e a n d te c h n o lo g y th a t e q u a le d th e o f fe rin g s at M .I.T . a n d C o rn e ll.
T h is see m s to h a v e b e e n th e case d e sp ite th e rela tiv ely slow d e v e lo p m e n t
o f elec trica l su p p ly , esp ec ially ele c tric p o w e r system s, in E n g la n d . A p a rtia l
e x p la n a tio n fo r th is se e m in g p a ra d o x m ig h t be th a t th e b a c k w a rd n e ss o f
B rita in 's ele c tric s u p p ly in d u s try was q u a n tita tiv e , n o t q u a lita tiv e . G e rm a n y
a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s h a d m o re c e n tra l-sta tio n , d is trib u tio n , a n d tr a n s
m ission sy ste m s, b u t th o se th a t e x iste d in E n g la n d p r o v id e d a m p le e x p e
rie n c e fo r th e c o u n tr y s elec trica l e n g in e e r in g faculty a n d stu d e n ts . I f tr u e ,
th is e x p la n a tio n raises se rio u s d o u b ts a b o u t th e va lu e o f th e p a rlia m e n ta ry
h e a rin g s th a t w e re h e ld to in v e stig a te te ch n ica l e d u c a tio n as a c a u se o f th e
slo w in g pa ce o f B ritish in d u stria liz a tio n .
T h e p r o g ra m esta b lish e d by K ittler in G e rm a n y in 188485 was th e sam e
th e first tw o y ea rs as fo r all D a rm sta d t T H s tu d e n ts . E lectrical science a n d
p ra c tic e w e re s tre sse d in th e th ir d a n d fo u rth years. C o m p a ris o n o f th e
c u r ric u la fo r s tu d e n ts e n te r in g M .I.T . a n d D a rm sta d t in th e ac a d e m ic y e a r
1 8 8 4 -8 5 rev eals th a t th e G e rm a n s tu d e n ts w ere alm o st a y e a r m o re a d
v a n ce d th a n M .I.T . stu d e n ts . M ath e m a tic s c o u rse s, esp ecially a naly tic al a n d
d e sc rip tiv e g e o m e try a n d d iff e r e n tia l a n d in te g ra l ca lculus, w e re ta k e n th e
first y e a r a t D a rm s ta d t a n d th e se c o n d y e a r a t M .I.T . T h e G e rm a n s tu d e n ts
lo o k g e n e ra l physics th e first y e a r a n d physics la b o ra to ry th e s e c o n d ; M .I.T .
fo llow ed th is s e q u e n c e in th e se c o n d a n d th ird y ears. As n o te d , M .I.T .
stu d e n ts c o n c e n tr a te d o n elec trical e n g in e e rin g in th e ir f o u rth y ea r; D a rm
sta d t s tu d e n ts b e g a n th is sp ecializ atio n in th e ir th ir d y e a r.36 As o f 1884
85, D a rm s ta d t s tu d e n ts w ere re q u ir e d to ta k e political e c o n o m y in th e ir
th ird a n d f o u r th ye ars; th e y c o u ld elect h isto ry o f lite ra tu r e a n d fo re ig n
la n g u a g e s. T h is c o m p a ris o n w ith M .I.T . s u p p o rts th e g e n e ra liz a tio n th a t
G e rm a n s tu d e n ts e n te r e d in stitu tio n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g a t least o n e yea r
m o re a d v a n c e d in th e ir stu d ie s th a n U.S. s tu d e n ts a n d th a t a g r a d u a te o f
f o u r y e ars o f stu d y at a Technischen Hochschule h a d th e e q u iv a le n t o f a
m a s te r s d e g r e e in th e U n ite d S ta te s.37
O f th e c u rric u la c o n s id e re d h e re , th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c o u rse o f stu d y
"C entral Technical College. Session 1899-1900. Programme, p. 20.
Ibid., p. 23.
M Programm der Grosslierwglich Uesstchen Technischen Hochschule zu Darmstadt f.d. Studienjahr
1884-85. pp. 57-58.
W ickcndrn, A Comparative Study of Engineering Education, pp. 2<t8-4).

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

a t D a rm s ta d t f ro m th e e a rly 1880s to 1900 w as th e m o st im p ressiv e . By
1900, D a r m s ta d ts basic ele c tric a l e n g in e e r in g c o u rse s w e re ta u g h t in th e
first a n d se c o n d y ea rs r a t h e r th a n in th e th ir d y e a r as fo rm e rly . As a re su lt,
th e th ir d a n d fo u r th y e a rs in c lu d e d m o re sp ec ia liz e d c o u rse s su c h as p o w e r
tra n sm issio n sy stem s, w a te r-p o w e r te c h n o lo g y , a n d th e d e sig n a n d c o n
s tru c tio n o f c e n tra l sta tio n s. K illle r lim ite d his te a c h in g in th e th ir d a n d
f o u r th y ea rs to th e g e n e ra l c o u rs e o n ele c tric a l e n g in e e r in g a n d th e Praktikum, o r p ra c tic a l tra in in g , fo r e x a m in a tio n .
In a d d itio n to te a c h in g , c o n s u ltin g , a n d c u r r ic u lu m - p la n n in g , a c a d em ic s
e n g a g e d in re s e a r c h . T h e y o fte n d e s ig n e d th e ir e x p e rim e n ts to p r o b e th e
r e v e rs e s a lie n ts o f th e e v o lv in g p o w e r sy stem s a n d to g a in in fo rm a tio n a n d
th e o r y c o n d u c iv e to th e d e fin itio n a n d so lu tio n o f critical p ro b le m s. S ince
r e s e a rc h o cc asio n a lly in v o lv ed g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts , it d e p e n d e d to so m e e x
te n t o n g r a d u a te e d u c a tio n , b u t less so th a n in re c e n t d e c a d e s. O f th e
in s titu tio n s c o n s id e re d h e re , o n ly C o rn e ll U n iv e rsity listed g r a d u a te c o u rse s
w ith th o s e f o r u n d e r g r a d u a te s . In th e U n ite d S ta te s b e f o r e W o rld W a r I,
th e g e n e ra l a ltitu d e w as th a t p r a c tic a l e x p e rie n c e , w ith la rg e m a n u f a c tu r e r s
s u c h as G e n e ra l E lec tric o r W e s lin g h o u s e o r w ith a u tility , w as s u p e r io r to
stu d y b e y o n d th e b a c h e lo rs d e g re e . M any e m p lo y e rs view ed g ra d u a te study
as a w aste o f tim e h a n g in g a r o u n d c o lle g e a n d as a m e a n s o f a v o id in g
fa c in g u p to th e re a l w o rld .39 T h e sp e cial p r o g r a m s in itia te d by th e larg e
m a n u f a c tu r e r s d u r in g th e d e c a d e b e fo re W o rld W a r I le sse n e d in te r e s t in
p r o m o tin g g r a d u a te stu d ie s. T h e r e w as little h a n g in g a r o u n d ." In ele c
trica l e n g in e e r in g d u r in g th e p e rio d 1 9 0 0 -1 9 0 9 , M .l.T . a w a r d e d o n ly six
m a s te r s d e g r e e s a n d n o d o c to ra l d e g re e s ; th e fig u r e s fo r C o rn e ll w ere
f o u r te e n m a s te r's d e g r e e s a n d tw o d o c to r a te s .40
In G e rm a n y th e g r a d u a te o f a f o u r-y e a r T H p r o g r a m w as at least a year
a h e a d o f g r a d u a te s fro m a n A m e ric a n u n iv e rs ity a n d th e r e f o r e h a d e a rn e d
th e e q u iv a le n t o f a m a s te r s d e g re e . T h u s , th e P rufitngsordnung, o r q u a l
ific a tio n r e q u ir e m e n t, o f f e r e d by K ittle r a n d in p r o g r a m s m o d e le d o n his
w as m o re a d v a n c e d th a n th e m a s te r's p r o g r a m in th e U n ite d S late s. T h e
T H s in G e r m a n y d id n o t w in th e j e a lo u s ly g u a r d e d p riv ile g e o f a w a rd in g
d o c to ra l d e g re e s , h o w e v e r, u n til 1899, w h e n K a iser W ilh e lm I p e r s u a d e d
th e u n iv e rsitie s to ac c e p t th e Technischen Hocfischuten a m o n g th e elect. In
E n g la n d , p ro fe s s io n a l e n g in e e r in g societies e sta b lish e d th e ir p re ro g a tiv e
in r e c o g n iz in g th e h ig h ly q u a lifie d e n g in e e r by a w a r d in g h im m e m b e rs h ip
a f te r e x a m in a tio n . T h e s tr in g o f le tte rs sig n ify in g m e m b e r s h ip th e re fo re
s ig n ifie d e x p e r ie n c e a n d a d v a n c e d le a rn in g .
D e sp ite th e p a u c ity o f g ra d u a te p r o g r a m s a n d r e s e a rc h a ssista n ts in e lec
trica l e n g in e e r in g b e f o re W o rld W a r I, th e a c a d e m ic s c o n d u c te d re se a rc h
a n d p u b lis h e d th e ir re su lts. T h e y c h o se r e s e a rc h p r o b le m s r e la te d to evolv
in g lig h t a n d p o w e r sy stem s. T h e i r a p p r o a c h w as scien tific, if by " scientific"
o n e m e a n s u sin g a n d a tte m p tin g to f o rm u la te g e n e ra l s ta te m e n ts o r laws;
r e s o rtin g to m a th e m a tic s as a n an a ly tic a l to o l a n d la n g u a g e ; fo rm u la tin g
h y p o th e s e s ; a n d d e s ig n in g e x p e r im e n ts in th e la b o ra to ry o r in n a tu r e to
Programm drr Grasshmoglich Hrssischrn Trchmsrhrn llorhschulr lu Darmstadt f.d. Studirnjahr
1900-1901. pp. 6-1-65.
" T erm an , "H istory o f Electrical E ngineering E ducation." p. 1-102.
40 Ibid.. n. 1409
1

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te st th e se th e o rie s. N o t o n ly was th e ir re se a rc h m e th o d o lo g y scientific, b ut
th e ir a c a d e m ic c re d e n tia ls in so m e in stan c es w e re c o m p a ra b le to th o se o f
re se a rc h scientists. B ec au se o f th is c o m m o n m e th o d o lo g y a n d s h a r e d e d
u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e , th e a ca d e m ic elec tric al e n g in e e rs c an b e called e n
g in e e r in g scien tists a n d th e ir w o rk th e science o f e n g in e e rin g . T h e a c a
d e m ics o f te n c a rr ie d o n th e ir re se a rc h in th e u n iv ersities a n d e n g in e e rin g
colleges, b u t th e y also d id it as co n su lta n ts to in d u stry , b o th in th e p la n t
a n d in th e field. A fte r 1900 m o re e n g in e e rin g a n d n a tu r a l sc ien tists fo u n d
a congenial resea rch e n v iro n m e n t in th e in d ustrial la b o ratories o f th e U nited
S ta les a n d G e rm a n y .
T h e a ca d e m ic e n g in e e rin g scientists ch o se th e ir re se a rc h p ro je c ts in th e
co n te x t o f re v e rse salie n ts, n o t in re sp o n se to a n e v o lv in g p u re -sc ie n c e
p a ra d ig m . F ro m a b o u t 1890 u n til W o rld W a r I, re v e rse sa lie n ts a ro s e in
th e u n iv e rsa l u r b a n system a n d in p o in t-to -p o in t h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n ,
d e v e lo p m e n ts th a t fo llow ed u p o n th e re so lu tio n o f th e b a ttle o f th e sys
te m s a n d th e in tro d u c tio n o f p o ly p h a se system s. Electrical e n g in e e rs w ho
e s ta b lish e d th e e a rlie st elec trical e n g in e e rin g p ro g ra m s p u b lish e d e a rly in
th e ir c a re e rs. T h e y , to o , fo c u se d o n p ro b le m s r e la te d to th e m a in line o f
d e v e lo p m e n t a n d th e re b y c o n tr ib u te d to th e m o u n tin g m o m e n tu m . T h e y
d id n o t m a k e b r e a k th r o u g h in v e n tio n s like th o se o f th e in d e p e n d e n t in
v e n to rs, b u t th e y w o rk e d o n c ritical p ro b le m s th a t, w h en solved, allow ed
f u r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f u rb a n system s a n d p o in t-to -p o in t tra n sm issio n .
A fte r th e f o u n d in g o f th e A m e ric a n I n s titu te o f E lectrical E n g in e e rs in
1884, th e y o f te n u se d its p rin c ip a l o rg a n , th e A IE E Transactions, as th e ir
m e d iu m o f p u b lic a tio n .
L ouis D u n c a n , w h o ta u g h t at b o th T h e J o h n s H o p k in s U n iv e rsity a n d
M .I.T ., p u b lish e d a n a rtic le in th e Transactions in 1887 o n th e im p ro v e m e n t
o f a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t m o to rs, o n e o f th e critical p ro b le m s o f th e d ec a d e .
T w o y e ars la te r, h e p u b lish e d a p a p e r a b o u t c o n d u c tin g efficien c y tests o f
a.c. a p p a r a tu s in u rb a n c e n tra l sta tio n s. At this early d a te , D u n c a n stre sse d
th e tec h n ic al a n d e co n o m ic sig n ific an c e o f th e load d ia g ra m . Two m o re
artic le s o n a.c. sy ste m s follow ed in 1892 a n d 1894, w h e n h e d ire c te d his
a tte n tio n to th e c ritical p ro b le m o f p o ly p h a se m o to rs.1,1 D u g ald C. Ja c k so n ,
w h o s u c c e e d e d D u n c a n at M .I.T ., also p u b lish e d ea rly a n d o fte n . H e, loo,
c o n c e n tr a te d o n c ritical p ro b le m s associated w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a l
te r n a tin g a n d p o ly p h a se system s. F u rth e r m o r e , Ja c k so n d ire c te d his a tte n
tio n to electric al e n g in e e r in g e d u c a tio n .112
41 Louis Duncan, A licrnaling C u rren l Electric M otors." AIEE Transactions 5 (1887-88):
211-35; idem. "Some Tests on the Efficiency o f Alternating C urrent A pparatus." ibid. 7
(1889-90): 109-27; idem. "Note on Some E xperiments with Alternating Currents." ibid. 9
(1892): 179-91; and L. Duncan. S. I I. Brown, W. P. A nderson, and S. Q. I laycs, "Ex|>criments
on Two-Pltasc M otors," ibid. II ( 189'1): C I7-38. I am indebted lo Robert Bellield Tor bis
extensive and detailed search for. and categorization of. the academics who published in the
A IEE Transactions from 1887 lo 1904.
4* D. C. Jackson and R. J. O chsncr. "Alicrnaling C urrents and Fuses," AIEE Transactions
I I (1894): 430-40; D. C. Jackson and S. B. Fortcnbaugh, "Some Observations on a DirectConnected 300 K.W. Monocyclic A lternator." ibid. 12 (1895): 350-57; D. C. Jackson, "T he
C om m utated C urrent Wave o f a Com posite W ound A lternator," ibid. 15 (1899): 403-8; idem,
T h e T echnical Education o f the Electrical Engineer," ibid. 9 (1892): 476-99; and idem, " The
Typical College Courses Dealing with the Professional and Theoretical Phases of Electrical
Engineering." ibid. 22 (1903).

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H a rr is J . R yan o f C o rn e ll, a n o th e r o f th e se c o n d w ave o f e le ctric al e n
g in e e rin g a ca d em ic s, w ro te a n a rtic le o n tr a n s f o r m e r s f o r th e Transactions
in 1889 a n d also r e p o r te d o n a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t a p p a r a tu s . In 1899 he
p u b lish e d in th e s a m e j o u r n a l a n a rtic le o n th e w ave fo rm o f a lte rn a tin g
c u r re n ts . In 1903 h e w ro te a b o u t a c a lh o d e - ra y a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t wave
in d ic a to r, a n im p o r ta n t in s tr u m e n t fo r an aly sis o f p ro b le m s a ris in g in highvo ltag e tra n sm issio n . R y a n s 1905 a rtic le , T h e C o n d u c tiv ity o f th e A t
m o s p h e re a t H ig h V o ltag e s," also p e r ta in e d to h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n .43
B ec au se R yan ta u g h t in a m a jo r e lec trica l e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t a n d
e n g in e e rin g co lle g e a n d w as in flu e n tia l in th e field , his e a rly a n d p e rsiste n t
r e s e a rc h p e r ta in in g to th e c ritic al p ro b le m s o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n
p r o v id e in sig h t in to th e c h a r a c te r o f a d v a n c e d a c a d e m ic re s e a rc h in e lec
trica l e n g in e e r in g b e fo re W o rld W a r I.44 W h ile s tu d y in g a t C o rn e ll u n d e r
A n th o n y , R yan first b e c a m e in te re s te d in w h at w o u ld b e c o m e his ch ief
fo cus th e stu d y o f h ig h -v o lta g e p h e n o m e n a . T h e c irc u m sta n c e s o f his
ea rly c o m m itm e n t in v o lv ed a visit a r r a n g e d by A n th o n y in a b o u t 1886 to
th e w o rk s o f F ra n k S p ra g u e , p io n e e r in e le c tric tr a c tio n a n d m o to rs.
S p r a g u e s re m a rk s a b o u t e le c tric p o w e r tra n s m is s io n s ta rte d m e o u t in life
w ith a n e v e r -e n d in g e n th u s ia s m f o r th e s tu d y o f h ig h v o lta g e p h e n o m e n a ,
R yan re c a lle d .45 T h e fact th a t h e w as a w a rd e d th e E d iso n M e d al o f the
A IE E in 1925 fo r his c o n trib u tio n s to th e sc ien ce a n d th e a r t o f highte n sio n tra n sm issio n o f p o w e r su g g e sts th a t his self-an a ly sis w as s o u n d .46
T h e b ib lio g ra p h y o f his n u m e r o u s te c h n ic a l a rtic le s in v a rio u s j o u r n a ls
show s th a t a f te r p u b lis h in g th irty -se v e n a rtic le s o n d iv e rse su b je cts (but
w ith a te n d e n c y to w a rd a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t p ro b le m s) h e tu r n e d in 1903
o r 1904 to h ig h vo lta g es a n d tra n sm issio n s a n d th a t his a tte n tio n re m a in e d
fo c u sed o n th is su b je c t u n til his last a rtic le , w hich a p p e a r e d in 1925. O f
th e f o rty -f o u r a rtic le s p u b lis h e d by R yan a f te r 1903, all b u t te n a r e id e n
tifia b le by title as d e a lin g w ith h ig h -v o lta g e a n d tra n s m is s io n p ro b le m s .47
R y a n s m a jo r p a p e r o n h ig h -v o lta g e p ro b le m s w as p u b lis h e d in 1905
a f te r b e in g re a d b e f o r e th e A IE E o n 2 6 F e b ru a r y 1904.48 T h e f u n d a
m e n ta ls set fo r th in th is p a p e r w e re a d istin c t c o n trib u tio n to electrical
scie n c e .49 C h a rle s F. S co tt, a p io n e e r in th e w o rk in g o u t o f th e u n iv ersal
system a n d in tra n s m is s io n , said : T h e p a p e r we h a v e ju s t h e a r d re a d is a
re m a rk a b le o n e , a n d will p ro b a b ly b e c o n s id e re d u n iq u e a m o n g th e p a p e rs
p re s e n te d to o u r Institute.'' S u c h a tte n tio n a n d h ig h p ra is e a r e n o t sur H arris J. Ryan's articles included "T ran sfo rm ers." ibid. 7 (1889-90): 1-29: "Some Ex
p erim ents upon A lternating C u rren t A pparatus." ibid.. pp. 324-65; "T he D eterm ination of
Wave Form of A lternating C u rren ts without a Contact M aker," ibid. 16(1899): 345-60: T he
Cathode Ray A lternating-C urrent Wave Indicator," ibid. 22 (1903): 593 ff.: and T h e Con
ductivity o r the A tm osphere at High Voltages." ibid. 23 (1904): 101-34.
4,1
O n Ryans research sec W. F. D urand's m em oir " H arris Joseph Ryan. 1866-1934," in
National Academy o f Sciences. Biographical Memoirs, vol. 19 (W ashington. D.C.. 1938). pp.
285-306 (h ereafter cited as "Ryan," Biographical Memoirs).
44 Ibid.. p. 287.
4r Ibid.. p. 299.
4 I have relied on the Ryan bibliography a p p en d ed to D urand's m em oir as the basis for
my analysis. Ibid.. pp. 302-6.
4" Ryan, "High Voltages."
'""R ya n ," Biographical Memoirs, 19: 294.
40 Discussion o f Ryan's 1904 paper. M E E Transactions 23 f 19041: 135.

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p risin g , h o w e v e r, fo r by u sin g a scie n tific m e th o d . R yan h a d solved .1 critical
p ro b le m d e f in e d by S cott in e x p e r im e n ts fo r th e W e stin g h o u se C o m p a n y
a p ro b le m th a t h a d cast se rio u s d o u b t on th e possibility o f e x ce ed in g 10,0005 0 ,0 0 0
volts in lo n g -d ista n c e p o w e r tra n s m is s io n /1
R yan h a d b e e n a ttr a c te d to th e p ro b le m by S c o tts 1899 a rtic le d e sc rib in g
p o w e r losses in h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lines d u e to th e c o ro n a e f f e c t/*
H e d e f in e d m o re p rec isely th e v ariab le s a ffe c tin g th e o n set ol c o r o n a a n d
th e a tte n d a n t loss b e tw e e n lines. A f te r e x p e rim e n ta tio n a n d an a lysis, he
fo rm u la te d a n e q u a tio n e x p re s s in g th e re la tio n b etw e e n th e c ritica l, c o ro n a c a u sin g v o ltag e , c o n d u c to r sizes, a n d th e ir se p a ra tio n . H e a lso so u g h t the
v a lu e o f th e r u p tu r in g e le c tric field a n d th e d ista n c e fro m th e s u rfa c e ol
th e c o n d u c to r a t w h ic h r u p t u r e o c c u rr e d .
T h is is n o t th e p lac e to discu ss th e e q u a tio n , its v a ria b le s a n d c o n sta n ts,
fo r R yan h a s d o n e th a t w ith a d m ira b le clarity in his p a p e r, b u t th e n a tu r e
o f R y a n s style o f r e s e a rc h m e rits a tte n tio n . H is m e th o d w as scie n tific ; his
h y p o th e sis c a n b e s u m m a r iz e d . A c c e p tin g ele c tric -fie ld th e o ry , lie assu m e d
lh a l a n e le c tric fo rc e a p p lie d lo th e te r m in a l faces o f a d ie le c tric p ro d u c e d
a d is to rtio n o f th e a to m ic s tr u c tu r e o f th e d ie le c tric ." B e ca u se h ig h -v o lta g e
tra n sm issio n lin es in p ro x im ity w ere s e p a r a te d by a d ie le c tric (a tm o s p h e re ),
th e ele c tric fo rc e o f th e h ig h v o lta g e d is to rte d th e e le c tric field in the
a tm o s p h e re . C o ro n a , a visible e ffe c t d e s c rib e d e a r lie r by Scott (see p. 1G2
b elo w ),53 a n d p o w e r loss fin a lly o c c u rr e d , R yan b e lie v ed , w h e n th e d iele ctric
w as r u p tu r e d by th e f o rc e o f th e h ig h -v o lta g e a n d h ig h -d isp la c e m e n t c u r
re n t. W h e n r u p t u r e c a m e at th e critica l v o ltag e, o r d in a r y c o n d u c tio n c u r
re n t in th e d ie le c tric a n d c o ro n a b r o u g h t s u b sta n tia l re a l-p o w e r loss fro m
th e lin es b e c a u se th e re sista n c e o f th e c o n d u c tin g z o n e p ro d u c e d a lag in
th e c h a r g in g c u r r e n t, th e r e b y g iv in g it a p o w e r c o m p o n e n t in p h a se w ith
th e vo lta g e. R yan h y p o th e s iz e d th a t th e critical, c o ro n a -c a u s in g vo lta g e was
a fu n c tio n o f t ra n s m is s io n -lin e d ia m e te r a n d sp a c in g , fo r th e se d e te rm in e d
th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e d ie le c tric . In his p re lim in a ry s ta te m e n t o f th e o ry
a n d h y p o th e s is o f c a p a c ita n c e re a c tio n s, R yan cite d th e p r io r re s e a rc h o f
C h a rle s P. S te in m e tz , J . J . T h o m s o n , a n d o th e r s .5,1
R yan u s e d th e e x p e rim e n ta l o b se rv a tio n s o f Scott, b u t it b e c a m e ev id e n t
th a t h e n e e d e d , in a d d itio n , to p la n a n d d e sig n a series o f e x p e r im e n ts to
o b ta in th e d a ta n e c e ssa ry to w rite th e f o rm u la s e x p re s s in g th e re la tio n o f
th e fa c to rs c o n d itio n in g th e s ta rt o f a tm o s p h e ric loss a n d c o ro n a . In th e
s p r in g o f 1903 R yan set u p th e e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s w ith th e h e lp o f
h is s tu d e n ts . H e s u s p e n d e d th e w ire, o r c o n d u c to r, th a t s im u la te d th e
tra n sm issio n line a t th e c e n te r o f a m etallic lu b e . T h e elec tric field w as to
b e e sta b lish e d b e tw e e n w ire a n d tu b e . The tu b e also fa cilitated c o n tro l o f
te m p e r a tu r e a n d a tm o s p h e ric c o n d itio n s. H a v in g a lre a d y e sta b lish e d th e
valu e o f c a th o d e - ra y in d ic a to rs fo r o b s e rv in g a lte rn a tin g c u rre n ts , h e u sed

*' "Ryan." Biographical Memoirs, 19: 2!)3. In his m em oir on Ry:in, D urand expressed die
belief tlial Scon's work casl serious doubl on die use o f voltages above 40,000.
' C harles F. Scott, "High-V oltage Power T ransm ission," A!EE transactions 15 (1800): 531.
*" C harles P. Sleininclz bad used the term "corona in an 1803 papet on high-voltage
d ischarge (ibid. 10 (1893): 85). See Ryan. "High Voltages. p. 104.
" R y a n , "H igh Voltages," pp. 105-8.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

a n o scilloscope in th is e x p e r im e n t.53 H e a lso p lac ed o u ts id e a n d a lo n g sid e
th e lu b e a brass ro d in o r d e r to o b se rv e d iffe re n c e s o n th e oscilloscope
b e tw e e n th e c h a rg in g c u r r e n t fo r w ire a n d tu h e a n d th e c h a r g in g c u rr e n t
b e tw e e n tu b e a n d b ra ss ro d . H e a ssu m e d n o a tm o s p h e r ic d is c h a rg e w ould
o c c u r b e tw e e n th e lu b e a n d ro d . S w itches allo w ed h im , f o r c o m p a ris o n , to
a lte rn a te th e w ire a n d th e ro d in th e h ig h -v o lta g e c irc u it. T h u s h e e sta b
lish ed his re f e re n c e . H is a p p a r a tu s also in c lu d e d h ig h -v o lta g e a n d voltagea d ju s tin g tr a n s f o r m e r s a n d a p h a s e -a d ju s tin g in d u c tio n m o to r.
Ryan a n d his a ssistan ts w a tc h e d as th e c h a r g in g c u r r e n t fro m w ire to
tu b e re m a in e d th e sa m e as th a t fro m th e ro d to th e tu b e as th e vo lta g e was
in c re a se d . T h e n , at th e c ritical p o in t in th e v o ltag e rise, th e a n tic ip a te d
h u m p in th e d isp la y o f th e c u r r e n t c h a rg in g th e w ire o c c u rre d ; n o co m
p a r a b le e v e n t was se e n in th e o th e r c h a rg in g c u r r e n t. I f th e ro o m was
d a r k e n e d , th e c o ro n a a p p e a r e d at th e s a m e in sta n t. T h e d e sig n w o rk e d ,
a n d th e e x p e r im e n te r s tu r n e d to co lle c tin g d a ta o n d if f e r e n t d ia m e te r wires
a n d o th e r fa c to rs a f fe c tin g c o ro n a . T h e o b je ctiv e was n o t o b s c u re ; Ryan
w a n te d to su p p ly e n g in e e r s a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s w ith tab les (ca lc u la te d by
m e a n s o f his e q u a tio n ) th a t sh o w e d w h at d ia m e te r o f lin e c o n d u c to r an d
w h at sp a c in g h a d to b e u se d to av o id loss b e tw e e n c o n d u c tio n lines on
w hich s p e c ifie d vo ltag es w e re to b e tra n s m itte d .56 H e w as in te r e s te d not
o n ly in th e h ig h e st v o ltag e th e n b e in g u se d c o m m e rc ia lly b u t also in those
th a t co u ld b e re a so n a b ly a n tic ip a te d in th e n e a r f u tu r e . R y a n s re se a rc h
a n d his r e su lts d e a lt w ith c o n te m p o ra ry p ro b le m s o f h ig h -v o lta g e e n g i
n e e rin g ; th e y also r e a c h e d in to th e f u tu r e .57
A ca d em ic s like R yan d id r e s e a rc h in th e e n g in e e r in g sch o o ls a n d the
u n iv e rsitie s, b u t th e m o st active r e s e a rc h site in c re a sin g ly b e c a m e th e elec
trical m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n y . A f te r 1900 th e la rg e e le c tric a l m a n u fa c
tu r e r s e s ta b lish e d re s e a r c h -a n d - d e v e lo p m e n t la b o ra to rie s , b u t u n til th e n
th e e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n ts o f m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n ie s w e re re s p o n
sible fo r in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n ts th e r e
f o re d o m in a te d re s e a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t d u r in g th e in te rv a l a f te r th e
a p o g e e o f E d iso n a n d th e in d e p e n d e n t in v e n to rs a n d b e fo r e th e e stab lish
m e n t o f th e m a jo r in d u s tria l r e s e a rc h la b o ra to rie s . G e n e ra l h isto rie s o f
te c h n o lo g y a n d scie n ce le n d to ig n o re th e im p o r ta n t ro le o f th e e n g in e e rin g
d e p a r tm e n ts d u r in g th e fo rm a tiv e y ea rs o f th e e le ctric al in d u s tr y .58
" Ryan p ioneered in A merica in die use o f the oscilloscope as a research tool for the study
o f altern atin g -cu rren t p h enom ena. Sec "Ryan." Biographical Memoirs, pp. 202-3: and Ryan.
"T h e Cathode Ray A lternating C u rren t Wave Indicator," pp. 53!) ff.
'"R yan, "High Voltages." p. 127.
Sec rem arks o f Charles F. Scott in discussion o f Ryan's "H igh Voltages." A IEE Transactions
23 (1904): 135.
'* H arold Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers. 1875-1900 (Cam bridge, Mass.: H arvard Uni
versity Press, 1953), describes the problem solving tbat was d one by the engineering staffs of
leading American m anufacturers, especially G eneral Electric and W eslingbouse. T he third
part o f his book deals with the invention and developm ent associated with the rise of electric
traction and alternating- and polyphase-current equipm ent (pp. 211-345). A rthur A. Bright.
Jr., 'I lie Eleclnc-Lam/i Industry: Technological Change and Economic Development from 1800 to 1947
(New York: Macmillan, 1949), tells of research, invention, and developm ents within the
industry not only in the U nited Slates but in England and Europe as well. His study also
shows that m an u factu rers presided over research and developm ent a fter 1890. Von Siemens.
House of Siemens, discusses light and power systems research and developm ent at Siemens &

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T h e r e a re c o u n tle ss e x a m p le s o f c ritical p ro b le m s b e in g so lv ed b y -m a n
u f a c tu r e r s ' e n g in e e r s . N o te h a s b e e n ta k e n o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f tr a n s
fo rm e rs a n d m o to rs a t W e s lin g h o u s e in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d A E G in
G e rm a n y , a n d o f ro ta r y c o n v e rte rs a t b o th W e siin g h o u se a n d G e n e ra l
E lectric. M a n u fa c tu re rs a lso fo c u se d o n th e p r o b le m s o f tra n sm issio n . C o n
ceivably th e utilitie s m ig h t h a v e ta k e n re sp o n sib ility fo r re s e a rc h a n d d e
v e lo p m e n t. N e v e rth e le s s , a f te r th e i n d e p e n d e n t in v e n to rs a n d a lo n g w ith
th e a c a d e m ic s, e q u ip m e n t m a n u f a c tu r e r s s u c h as W e stin g h o u se to o k th e
in itia tiv e in so lv in g th e sa lie n t c ritic al p ro b le m s. A s a re s u lt, s o lu tio n s in
th e fo rm o f new e q u ip m e n t te n d e d to b e s ta n d a rd iz e d in th e U n ite d S tates
a n d G e r m a n y , w h e re th e m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n ie s w ere la rg e a n d in f lu
en tia l. In c o n tra s t, in B rita in th e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s a n d u tilitie s s p e c ifie d
c h a ra c te ristic s, a n d a c o n fu s in g v a rie ty re su lte d .
I n th e U n ite d S ta le s o n e e x a m p le o f c o m p a n y e n g in e e rs s o lv in g p ro b le m s
involves W e s tin g h o u s e a n d tw o o f its e n g in e e rs , C h a rle s F. Scott a n d R alp h
M e rsh o n . T h e i r e x p e r im e n ta tio n a n d field w o rk s tim u la te d th e la b o ra to ry
r e s e a r c h o f H a r r is R y an . S co tt, w h o was b o rn in A th e n s, O h io , in 186-1,
a tte n d e d O h io U n iv e rsity a n d th e n r e c e iv e d a b a c h e lo r's d e g r e e fro m O h io
S ta le U n iv e rsity . In 18 8 6 a n d 1887 h e d id a d v a n c e d w o rk in physics, m a th
em a tic s, a n d c h e m is try a t T h e J o h n s H o p k in s U niv e rsity . In 1888 h e b e g a n
w o rk in g fo r th e W e s tin g h o u s e E le ctric 8c M a n u fa c tu rin g C o m p a n y , w h e re
b e b e c a m e a s sista n t e le c tric ia n in 1891, e le c tric ia n in 1893, a n d c h ie f e le c
tric ia n in 1896. B esid e s ta k in g a le ad in a rtic u la tin g th e u n iv e rsa l e lec tric
p o w e r sy ste m , h e in v e n te d th e S cott c o n n e c tio n in 1894, w h ich was u sed
be tw e e n th e N ia g a ra p o w e r p la n t a n d th e tra n sm issio n line to B u ffa lo . T h e
Sco tt c o n n e c tio n T -c o n n e c te d " tw o tr a n s f o r m e r s to c h a n g e tw o -p h a se c u r
r e n t to th e th r e e - p h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t a n d was w idely u s e d .59 In 1911 Scott
a c c e p te d th e p ro f e s s o r s h ip o f e le ctric al e n g in e e rin g at th e S h e ffie ld Sci
e n tific S ch o o l, Y ale U n iv e rsity , w h e re h e se rv e d as d e p a r tm e n t h e a d u n til
his r e tir e m e n t in 1933. R a lp h M e rsh o n , his a sso cia te , was b o rn in Zanesville,
O h io , a n d r e c e iv e d a d e g r e e in m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g in 1890, also fro m
O h io S ta te U n iv e rsity . J o in in g th e W e stin g h o u se C o m p a n y in 1891, h e
d e s ig n e d th e tr a n s f o r m e r s th e c o m p a n y d isp la y e d a t th e C h ic a g o e x p o sitio n

Halske and includes dala on o th e r G erm an m anufacturers. Sigfrid von W eiher and H erbert
Goeizcler, The Siemens Company: Its Historical Role in the Progress o f Electrical Engineering (Berlin
and Munich: Siemens, 1972), survey inventions and innovation within a com pany selling.
T h ere are no studies com parable to Passers Electrical Manufacturers o r Bright's Electnc-Lamp
Industry as far as th e British m an u factu rers are concerned. I. C. K. Byatl, The British Electrical
Industry, 1875-1914 (O xford: C larendon Press, 1979), stresses economic rath e r than te ch
nological developm ents; Lord H inton o f Bankside. Heavy Current Electricity in the United King
dom: History and Development (O xford: Pcrgam on Press, 1979). offers an insightful but relatively
short survey o f Britain's electrical supply and m a nufacturing industries; and Leslie H annah.
Electricity Before Nationalisation (Baltim ore: T h e Jo h n s Hopkins University Press. 1979). con
centrates on Britain's supply industry, stressing business, economic, a nd political developm ents
rath e r th an research and developm ent.
Engineering d ep artm en ts in o th er m a nufacturing industries also underw ent the transition
from the era o f the in d ep en d en t, professional inventor to that o f the industrial research
laboratory. See, for exam ple, Lillian H oddeson, "T he Emergence of Basic Research in the
Bell T elep h o n e System, 1875-1915, Technology and Culture 22 (1 981):!> 1244.
Jam es E. Brittain, ed.. Turning Points in American Electrical History (New York: IEEF. Press.
1976). pp. 131-34.

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in 1893. H e also d e s ig n e d r o ta ry c o n v e rte rs , a n o th e r o f th e m a jo r system
c o u p le rs. B oth b e c a m e p r e s id e n t o f th e A IE E , S cott in 1902, M e rsh o n in
19 12.00
A f te r o b se rv in g tra n s m is s io n -lin e p h e n o m e n a o n W e stin g h o u se e x p e r
im e n ta l lines, S cott s u s p e c te d e n e rg y loss. Me d e s c rib e d th e m vividly:
T he wires began to give a hissing or crackling sound and in the dark began to
appear lum inous at a little below 20,000 volts. As the voltage was increased the
sound became m ore and m ore intense, the wires vibrated and became m ore and
m ore lum inous, until at the higher voltages they were surro u n d e d by a coaling
o f soft blue light many times the diam eter o f the wire. O ften there were bright
points along the wire, probably corresponding to hits o f dust o r rough places
resem bling points on the wire.61
Scott a n d o th e r s s u s p e c te d th a t th is d r a m a tic p h e n o m e n o n was ac c o m
p a n ie d by su b sta n tia l e n e rg y loss. L a te r, w h e n R yan in v e stig a te d it, th e
effe c t w as c o m m o n ly n a m e d c o ro n a ; fo r th e lim e b e in g , S c o tt sim p ly id e n
tifie d it by its m o st u n w a n te d e ffe c t loss b e tw e e n th e lin e s."
T h e s e e a rly o b s e rv a tio n s led S co tt a n d o th e r W e s tin g h o u s e e n g in e e r s in
1894 to tu r n fo r field o b se rv a tio n s to th e p io n e e r in g T e llu r id e , C o lo ra d o ,
tra n s m is s io n lin e th a t h a d b e e n p la c e d in o p e r a tio n in 1891 by W estingh o u se a n d th e S an M iguel C o ld M in in g C o m p a n y . B e c a u se o f th e p ro h ib
itive c o st o f tr a n s p o r tin g coal in th e m o u n ta in s a n d th e sca rcity o f w ood at
its h ig h e le v a tio n , th e m in in g c o m p a n y h a d d e s p e ra te ly s o u g h t to d ra w
ele c tric p o w e r fro m a w a te r-p o w e r site m o re th a n tw o m iles aw ay. T h e
facility h as b e e n called th e first la rg e a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t p o w e r tra n s m is
sion lin e in A m e ric a .02 It was a n g le p h a s e , h o w e v e r, w ith a s y n c h ro n o u s,
r a th e r th a n a n in d u c tio n , m o to r.
In p r e p a ra tio n fo r th e ir w ork at T e llu rid e , Scott a n d W estin g h o u se sh ip p e d
re c e n tly d e v e lo p e d h ig h -v o lta g e , h ig h -c a p a c ity tr a n s f o r m e r s to C o lo ra d o .
O n e o f th e se w as d e s ig n e d fo r th e u n u s u a lly h ig h o u tp u t o f 2 0 0 kw a n d
co u ld be s te p p e d u p to as m u c h as 6 0 ,0 0 0 volts fo r tra n sm issio n . T w o
g e n e r a to r s a n d sev e ral in te rc h a n g e a b le a r m a tu r e s also w e re av a ila b le at
T e llu rid e . T h e s e p ro v id e d d if f e r e n t fre q u e n c ie s a n d w a v e -fo rm o u tp u ts .
S c o tts p rim a r y in te re s t was to o b se rv e losses b e tw e e n lin es" as th e voltage
level w as v a rie d u n d e r d if f e r e n t clim a tic, lo a d , fre q u e n c y , w a v e -fo rm , a n d
sp a c in g c o n d itio n s.
U ltim a te ly , th e re su lts o f Scott a n d M e rs h o n s o b s e rv a tio n s a n d analysis
w e re p r e s e n te d in a set o f tab les, a fo rm o f c o m m u n ic a tio n th a t was read ily
u n d e r s to o d a n d a p p re c ia te d by w o rk in g e n g in e e r s d e s ig n in g tra n sm issio n
lines. I h e r e s e a rc h led S cott a n d M e rs h o n to c o n c lu d e th a t v a ry in g th e
fre q u e n c ie s a n d w ave fo rm s h a d little e ffe c t o n very h ig h v o lta g e tra n s
m ission a n d , su rp ris in g ly , th a t d if f e r e n t w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a lso h a d rel
atively little im p a c t. P re c ip ita tio n in c re a se d e n e rg y losses, b u t th e incre ase
'T h e M crshon Papers are in the M crshon Archives al O hio Slate University. Columbus.
Ohio. For a biographical sketch and his published essays, see Edith Cockins. Ralph D. Mershon.
2 vols. (Columbus: O hio State University, 10f>6). T h e Scott Papers a re al the Yale University
Library, New Haven. Conn.
Scott, "High-V oltage Power Transm ission." p. 536.
Ibid., pp. 5 3 1-32. For a history o f the T cllu rid c installation, sec C harles C. Britton. "An
Early Electric Power Facility in C olorado," Colorado Magazine 49 (1972): 186-95.

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T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M
w as sm all. W h a l d id p ro v e in te r e s tin g to th e m was th e h ig h level o f loss
th a t o c c u r re d b e tw e e n lin e s o n c e th e critic al, c o ro n a -c a u s in g v o lta g e h a d
b e e n re a c h e d . T h e m e a s u r e m e n ts led Scott to th e g e n e ra l co n c lu sio n th a t
th e losses b e tw e e n tra n sm issio n lin es w e re ec o n o m ic ally a c c e p ta b le below
4 5 ,0 0 0
volts, b u t in c re a s e d ra p id ly w h e n a b o u t 5 0 ,0 0 0 volts" w as e x
c e e d e d .63 T h e y h a d c le arly id e n tif ie d a re v e rs e sa lie n t in th e a d v a n c in g
f r o n t o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n ; th e ir r e s p o n s e w as to r e c o m m e n d lim
ita tio n s u n til th e p ro b le m was so lved.
M a n u fa c tu re rs e n h a n c e d th e in v e n tio n -a n d -d e v e lo p m e n t capacity o f th e ir
e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n ts by h irin g y o u n g m e n su ch as S co tt a n d M e rsh o n
( g ra d u a te s o f th e new ele c tric a l e n g in e e r in g p ro g ra m s ) a n d by e n te r in g
in to m e r g e r a n d a c q u isitio n s a g re e m e n ts . E c o n o m ic h is to ria n s stre ss th e
ec o n o m ic im p o rta n c e o f th e n u m e r o u s c o m p a n y m e r g e rs th a t o c c u r re d
d u r in g th e c lo sin g d e c a d e s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry ; th e y d o n o t, h o w e v e r,
su ffic ie n tly e m p h a s iz e th e te c h n o lo g ic a l c o n se q u e n c e s o f m e r g e rs a n d ac
q u isitio n s, p a r tic u la r ly in th e e lec trica l in d u s try . T h e c o m p a n ie s a c q u ire d
o fte n b r o u g h t lo th e m e r g e r th e m e n , m a te ria l, a n d id e as th a t w e re n e e d e d
to re ctify in a d e q u a c ie s in th e a c q u irin g c o m p a n y s sy stem o f p ro d u c tio n
a n d p r o d u c ts . T h e m e r g e r o f E d iso n G e n e r a l E lec tric a n d T h o m s o n - H o u s to n in 1892 r e s u lte d p r im a rily f ro m th e fac t th a t th e p a te n t h o ld in g s o f
th e c o m p an ies w e re c o m p le m e n ta ry .64 E d ison G en e ra l Electric h eld a stro n g
p o sitio n in u r b a n d .c. sta tio n s, d .c. p o w e r tra n sm issio n , a n d s tr e e t railw ays;
T h o m s o n - H o u s to n s s tr e n g th lay in a rc lig h tin g a n d a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n ts .65
T h e m e rg e rs w e re a way o f a c q u irin g th e serv ices o f in v e n to rs a n d e n
g in e e rs as w ell as th e ir p a te n ts . In so m e in sta n c e s, a n e n g in e e r o r in v e n to r
w ith th e a c q u ire d c o m p a n y b e c a m e a sa la rie d m e m b e r o f th e e n g in e e r in g
d e p a r tm e n t o f th e a c q u irin g c o m p a n y . In o th e r cases, th e a c q u irin g c o m
p a n y o b ta in e d th e r ig h t to p a te n t th e f u tu r e in v e n tio n s o f a n in v e n to r o r
e n g in e e r in a sp e c ifie d a re a . T h e in v e n to r a ssu m e d th e sta tu s o f c o n s u lta n t
vis--vis th e c o m p a n y . In 1888 C h a rle s J . V an D ep o e le (1 8 4 6 -1 8 9 2 ), o n e
o f th e p io n e e r in g in v e n to rs o f ele c tric s tre e tc a rs , jo in e d th e ele c tric railw ay
d e p a r tm e n t o f T h o m s o n - H o u s to n a f te r his c o m p a n y was b o u g h t. T h e c o m
p a n y a n d p a te n ts o f E lm e r S p e r ry , w h o in v e n te d se v eral im p ro v e d ele ctric
stre e tc a r c o m p o n e n ts a n d e le c tric m in in g m a c h in e ry , w e re p u rc h a s e d by
T h o m s o n -H o u s to n . S p e rr y a g re e d to act as a c o n s u lta n t lo T h o m s o n - H o u s
to n f o r tw o y e a rs a t a n a n n u a l sa lary o f $ 5 ,0 0 0 to d e v e lo p th is e q u ip m e n t.
In 1895 S p e r ry m a d e a sim ila r a r r a n g e m e n t w ith G e n e ra l E lectric, a g re e in g
to tu r n o v e r a p p lic a tio n s , p a te n ts , a n d f u tu r e p a te n ts o n th e ele c tric s tr e e t
c a r b ra k e a n d to a ct as a c o n s u lta n t in d e v e lo p in g th e p a te n te d in v e n tio n s.66
In 1893, w h e n G e n e ra l E lectric a c q u ire d th e firm o f E ic k e m e y e r 8c O ste rh e ld o f Y o n k e rs, N ew Y o rk , it a lso o b ta in e d th e services o f a y o u n g
e lec trica l e n g in e e r a n d m a th e m a tic ia n w hose c a re e r w o u ld b e in e x tric a b ly
lin k e d w ith th e h isto ry o f G e n e r a l E lectric. In 1889 C h a rle s P ro te u s S tein-

Scolt, "High-V oltage Power T ransm ission," pp. 543 and 556.
Passer, Electrical Manufacturers, p. 3 2 1.
Ibid., p. 325.
T hom as P. H ughes, Elmer Sperry, Inventor anti Engineer (Baltimore: T he |o h n s H opkins
Press, 1971), pp. 71-74.

]O l

Figure VI. 13. Charles Steinmelz and

Thomas F.tluon. Courtesy of the Samuel
Insull Archives. Loyola University.
Chicago, III.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

m e t 7. ( 1 8 6 5 -1 9 2 3 ), a re c e n t im m ig ra n t fro m B re sla u , G e rm a n y , h a d fo u n d
w o rk as a d ra fts m a n a t th e Y o n k e rs c o m p a n y , w hich m a n u fa c tu re d hatm a k in g m a c h in e ry a n d e le c tric m o to rs. R ea liz in g th a t S te in m e tz c o u ld solve
c o m p le x d e sig n p ro b le m s b e c a u se o f his a d v a n c e d e d u c a tio n in m a th e
m atics a n d m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rin g in G e rm a n y a n d S w itz e rla n d , R u d o lf
E ic k em ey er, also a G e rm a n im m ig ra n t, a s sig n e d S te in m e tz th e task o f d e
v e lo p in g a n a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t m o to r. W o rk in g in a sm all la b o ra to ry a t
ta c h e d to E ic k e m e y c rs fa cto ry , S le in m e tz d e r iv e d e q u a tio n s fo r analy zin g
m a g n e tic h y stere sis a n d e d d y c u r r e n ts , tw o c ritica l c au ses o f in e fficiency
in e le ctric al m a c h in e ry . H e p u b lish e d his in v e stig a tio n s a n d co n c lu sio n s in
1890 a n d 1892 in th e Electrical Engineer. In 1893 h e p r e s e n te d a m ajor
p a p e r o n th e a p p lic a tio n o f th e a lg e b ra o f co m p le x n u m b e rs to th e analysis
o f a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t circ u its. Mis a p p lic a tio n o f m a th e m a tic s to solving
a lte r n a tin g -c u r re n t-m a c h in e r y a n d c irc u itry p ro b le m s w as e sp ecially in
s tru c tiv e f o r e n g in e e rs b ec au se h e p re s e n te d his re su lts in a c o n g en ial
fo rm a l.1*7 A f te r jo in in g G e n e ra l E le ctric, S te in m e tz b e c a m e a m e m b e r of
th e c o m p a n y 's c a lc u la tin g d e p a r tm e n t; h e w o u ld r e m a in w ith G E u n til his
d e a th . In th e eyes o f m a n y A m e ric a n e n g in e e rs , h e b e c a m e th e sym bol of
succ essfu l scien tific e n g in e e r in g re s e a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. L o n g -d ista n ce
p o w e r tra n sm issio n was o n e o f th e re s e a rc h p ro b le m s o n w hich h e, like
S cott. R yan, M e rsh o n , a n d o th e r s , c o n c e n tr a te d fo r ye ars.
S te in m e tz h a d c o m p le te d his d o c to r a l d is s e rta tio n in m a th e m a tic s at the
U n iv ersity o f B re sla u , b u t fe a rin g a r r e s t b e c a u se o f his p a rtic ip a tio n in the
socialist s tu d e n t m o v e m e n t th e r e , h e h a d e m ig ra te d to S w itz e rla n d . In
Z u ric h h e s tu d ie d m ec h a n ic al e n g in e e r in g at th e P o ly tec h n ic S ch o o l, on e
o f th e w o rld s o u ts ta n d in g e n g in e e rin g in s titu tio n s . T h u s h e b r o u g h t with
him to A m e ric a th e p re stig e a sso c ia te d w ith a C e n tra l E u ro p e a n e d u c a tio n .
It sh o u ld b e re c a lle d , h o w e v er, th a t A m e ric a n a c a d e m ic s a n d in d u stria l
e n g in e e r s a lso w ere m o v in g b ey o n d e m p iric a l stu d ie s a n d ta k in g a m a th
e m a tical a n d scie n tific a p p r o a c h to so lv in g critic al e n g in e e r in g p ro b lem s.
M o re o v e r, in E u ro p e , a c a d e m ic e n g in e e rs a n d e n g in e e rs e m p lo y e d by in
d u s tr y w e re c a rry in g o n re se a rc h c o m p a r a b le to th a t b e in g d o n e in A m erica.
E d u c a te d in his m u c h -e m u la te d d e p a r tm e n t at D a rm s ta d t, K ittle rs stu d e n ts
e n h a n c e d th e r c s e a rc h - a n d - d e v e lo p in e n t ca p ac ity o f G e r m a n y s electrical
m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n ie s.
By 1900 th e ca p ac ity o f sc ie ntifically tra in e d e n g in e e rs a n d o f a cadem ics
w ith b a c k g r o u n d s in th e n a tu ra l sc ien c es to solve th e te c h n ic a l p ro b le m s
o f th e e x p a n d in g e le ctric su p p ly sy ste m s h a d b e e n a m p ly d e m o n s tr a te d
a n d so m e le a d e rs in th e field re so lv e d to d e v e lo p a n o r g a n iz a tio n a l form
th a t was especially w ell su ite d to th e p ro b le m -so lv in g style o f th e rese arc h
e n g in e e r s a n d in d u s tria l sc ientists. T h e in d u s tria l r e s e a r c h la b o ra to ry was
well k n o w n in th e ch em ic al in d u s try , esp ec ially in G e rm a n y , b u l le a d e rs o f
th e elec trica l in d u s try saw th e n e e d a n d o p p o r tu n ity to a d a p t th e fo rm for
th e ir in v e n tio n , re s e a rc h , a n d d e v e lo p m e n t f u n c tio n s.
A n im m e d ia te re a so n fo r fo rm in g a re s e a rc h la b o ra to ry at G e n e ra l Elec
tric was th e re a liz a tio n th ai re s e a rc h e n g in e e rs w e re p re o c c u p ie d w ith roui I " ' ? " ', "
Ur' ' ,illn' "(;l,i,rl,s Ifolcus Sleinm clz," in Dictionary of American Biography, ed
Jo h n A. (arraiy (New York: H arp er & Row. 1974). pp. I <)3.r>-36. See also |o h n W. H am mond.
Cliailes I rotews Stenwieli: A Biography (New Y ork/t.oiulon: t he Cenlurv Co.. 19*24).

105

T E C H N O L O G IC A L . M O M E N T U M

Figure VI. Id . First home of the GE

Research Laboratory, Schenectady, N.Y.
Courtesy o f the General Electric Co..
Schenectady, N.Y.

tin e p ro b le m -so lv in g (see Fig. V I. 14). T h e s ta tio n a ry p o w e r a n d tra c tio n

b u sin ess w as e x p a n d in g ra p id ly , a n d th e p ro b le m s o f d e s ig n in g im p r o v e
m e n ts in e x is tin g g e n e ra to r s , m o to rs , tra n s fo rm e rs , a n d o th e r m a c h in e ry
lo o k an in c re a sin g ly la rg e s h a r e o f th e e n g in e e r s tim e. M en w h o h a d co m e
to G E s e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t w ith a h isto ry o f in v e n tio n o r w ith a sp i
ra tio n s to in v e n t fo u n d th e m se lv e s b u r d e n e d by ro u tin e . C h a rle s S teinm etz 's w o rk in th e 1890s in v o lv ed m o re tr o u b le s h o o tin g th a n scientific
re s e a rc h .68 E d w in W . R ice, v ic e -p re s id e n t o f G e n e ra l E lectric, o b se rv e d in
1902: A lth o u g h o u r e n g in e e r s h a v e alw ays b e e n lib era lly s u p p lie d w ith
e v ery facility f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f new a n d o rig in a l d e sig n s a n d im
p r o v e m e n ts o f e x istin g s ta n d a r d s , it h a s b e e n d e e m e d w ise d u r in g th e p a st
y e a r to e sta b lish a la b o ra to ry to b e d e v o te d exclusively to o rig in a l re se a rc h .
It is h o p e d by th is m e a n s th a t m a n y p r o fita b le fields m ay b e d isc o v e re d ." 69
D esig n s a n d s ta n d a r d s w e re n o t th e sa m e as d isc o v ery ," so Rice w as a n
n o u n c in g th e b ir th o f th e G e n e ra l E lectric R e se arc h L a b o ra to ry , a n in sti
tu tio n w h ich w as g e n e ra lly c o n s id e re d a la n d m a rk e sta b lish m e n t in th e
h isto ry o f in d u s tria l re s e a rc h .
G eorge Wise, "A New Role for Professional Scientists in Industry: Industrial Research
at G eneral Electric, 1900-1916," Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 412. T his is a perceptive
account o f the origins o r the GE Research L aboratory and o f the new definition o f role for
scientists that it institutionalized. Wise used sources al G eneral Electric and elsew here that
were not available to earlier historians. Also valuable is Kendall Birr. Pioneering in Industrial
Research: The Story o f the General Electric Research Laboratory (W ashington, D.C.: Public Affairs
Press, 1957). Birr was one o f the Brst professional historians to write a bout industrial research.
L aurence A. Hawkins, an executive engineer o f the GE laboratory, also contributed with his
Adventures into the Unknown (New York: Morrow. 1950). T h e rise of the physics profession
and its growing interest in applied research is placed in broad perspective by Daniel J. Kevles
in The Physicists (New York: Knopf. 1978).
G eneral Electric Co.. A nnual Report fo r 1902 (New York. 1903). p. 13. quoled in Wise.
"A New Role for Professional Scientists." p. 408.

100

Figure V I.15. N enul lamp. From 50

Ja h re Elcctrotcchnischer Verein, ed.
Ham Gorges (Berlin: ETV. 1929),
p. 227.

n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

G e n e ra l E lectric also f o u n d e d th e la b o ra to ry in re sp o n se to a technical

c h a lle n g e fro m E u ro p e . A fte r alm o st tw o d e c a d e s o f c o n c e n tr a tin g on
in v e n tio n s in p o w e r, d is trib u tio n , a n d tra n sm issio n system s, G E disco v e red
th a t s o m e ty p es o f E u ro p e a n - in v e n te d in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s w e re th r e a te n in g
to d isp la c e th e c a rb o n -fila m e n l b u lb in v e n te d y e ars e a rlie r by T h o m a s
E d iso n . T h e m e c h a n ic a l a n d e le ctric al e n g in e e rs a n d in v e n to rs in G E s
e n g in e e rin g d e p a r tm e n t h a d th e ca p ac ity to reac t to c o m p e tito r s im p ro v e
m e n ts in m a c h in e ry , b u t th e new in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s fro m E u ro p e w ere
th e in v e n tio n o f h ig h ly e d u c a te d c h e m ists. T h e c o m b in a tio n o f a ro u tin e b u r d e n e d e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t a n d th e n e e d fo r re s e a rc h chem ists
p ro v o k e d th e d e c isio n by G E le a d e rs E dw in Rice, C h a rle s S te in m e tz , A lbert
G. D avis (a G E p a te n t a tto rn e y ) , a n d E lihu T h o m s o n (in v e n to r a n d fo u n d e r
o f T h o m s o n - H o u s to n ) to re c o m m e n d to G E s p re s id e n t, C h a rle s C offin,
th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a re s e a rc h la b o ra to ry . C o ffin c o n c u r r e d .70
A n o th e r re a s o n G e n e ra l E lectric w arn ed a re s e a rc h la b o r a to r y was its
aw a re n e ss o f th e im p o r ta n c e o f p a te n ts in s e c u rin g m a rk e t a d v a n ta g es.
T h is h a d b e e n sh a rp ly im p re sse d u p o n th e c o m p a n y by th e e x p ira tio n ol
m a jo r c a rb o n - fila m e n l p a te n ts. G E fac ed th e a lte rn a tiv e o f e ith e r buying
th e p a te n ts o f o u ts id e in v e n to rs o r c o m p a n ie s o r in v e n tin g a n d a p p ly in g
fo r its o w n . T h e re s e a rc h la b o ra to ry was e x p e c te d to p r o v id e th e c o m p a n y
w ith th a t o p tio n a n d th e ability to n e g o tia te w ith o u ts id e p a te n t h o ld ers
m o re e ffec tiv ely ; fo r in sta n c e , th e c o m p a n y c o u ld w ith d ra w fro m n e g o ti
a tio n s a n d se a rc h fo r ways o f in v e n tin g a r o u n d th e c o m p e tin g p a te n t if
th e p ric e fo r p a te n t license was lo o h ig h . T h e s e c o n s id e ra tio n s e x p la in why
G E s p a te n t a tto rn e y re c o m m e n d e d th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a re s e a rc h labo
ra to ry .
T h e m a r k e t c o m p e titio n w as fo rth c o m in g . In th e fall o f 1900 S tein m e tz
w ro te to E dw in Rice, a le rtin g h im to th e c h a lle n g e fro m th e N e rn st lam p.
W a lth e r N e rn s l (1 8 6 4 -1 9 4 1 ), a p r o fe s s o r o f e le c tro c h e m is try a t th e U n i
v e rsity o f G o ttin g e n a n d a f o u n d e r o f th e scien c e o f p h ysical ch e m istry ,
h a d p a te n te d his la m p in 1899. The la m p h a d a fila m e n t o f re fra c to ry
m etallic o x id e s (see Fig. V I. 15). O p e r a tin g at h ig h e r te m p e r a tu r e th a n th e
c a r b o n -f ila m e n l la m p , th e N e rn s t la m p was m o r e e ffic ie n t a n d e conom ical.
1 h e N e rn s l la m p cost f o u r to five lim es m o r e th a n th e im p ro v e d c a rb o n fila m e n t la m p , b u t th is h ig h e r first cost was o ffse t by lo w e r o p e ra tin g costs,
especially in E u r o p e , w h e re e lec tricity p ric e s w ere h ig h e r. T h e N e rn s l lam ps
w ere w idely u se d in E u ro p e d u r in g th e first d e c a d e o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .
T h e A llg e m c in e E le k trizita ls-G ese llsc h aft h a d p a te n t rig h ts in G erm a n y
a n d p ro d u c e d a b o u t 7 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 o f th e m b e f o re 1907. T h e W estin g h o u se
C o m p a n y th e n o b ta in e d rig h ts in th e U n ite d S tates, (h e re b y c a u sin g a d
d itio n a l c o n c e rn a t G E .71
E ven m o re p ro v o c a tiv e was th e re s e a rc h u n d e r w ay at S ie m e n s & H alske,
th e G e rm a n e lectric al m a n u f a c tu r e r . W ilh elm v o n S ie m e n s (1 8 5 5 -1 9 1 9 ),
w ho su c c e e d e d his fa th e r, th e fo u n d e r , as h e a d o f th e c o m p a n y , took a
k e en in te re s t in fin d in g a m e tallic fila m e n t to re p la c e th e c a rb o n o n e . H e
assig n e d th e task to W e r n e r von B o lto n (1 8 6 8 -1 9 1 2 ), a y o u n g scie n tist who
h a d s tu d ie d at L eip zig u n d e r W ilh elm O stw a ld ( 1 8 5 3 -1 9 3 2 ), a p io n e e r,
,0 Wise, A New Role feir Professional Scientists." p. -114.
Bright, ltfftrit-i.amp Industry, pp. 172-73.

107

T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M

SIEMENS <S HALSKE

O l.()H LAMPE NWE R K

v* I
Figure V I.16. Werner von Bolton.
Courtesy of the Siemens Museum, Siemens
AG, Munich.

. *

Tantallam pe"
Figure V I.17. Advertisement fo r the
tantalum-filament tamp. Courtesy of the
Siemens Museum, Siemens AG, Munich.

Figure VI.18. Making tantalum

filaments at the Siemens Co., Berlin, 1906.
Courtesy o f the Siemens Museum, Siemens
AG, Munich.

hum

e le k trisc h e O lu h la m p e

168

Figure VI. 19. Osmium-filament lam

From 50 J a h re Electrotechnischt
Verein, p. 22.

Figure V I.20. Carl Auer von Welsbach.

Courtesy o f tlir Siemens Museum. Siemens
AG. Munich.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

like N c rn s i, in physical c h e m istry . V on S ie m e n s p ro v id e d v on B o lto n space
in th e c o m p a n y s la b o ra to ry in B e rlin -M o a b it, w h e re h e c o n c e n tra te d on
th e possibilities o f ta n ta lu m . T h e m a jo r p ro b le m w as to o b ta in a p u r e a n d
m allea b le ta n ta lu m , w hich B o lto n su c c e e d e d in d o in g by u sin g a n electric
a rc f u rn a c e . In 1902 th e scien tist a n d his a ssista n ts a n n o u n c e d th e ir success
to W ilhelm v on S ie m e n s, a n d p a te n te d im p ro v e m e n ts in d e sig n a n d p ro
d u c tio n m e th o d s fo llo w e d . A fte r 1905 th e c o m p a n y su ccessfu lly m a rk e te d
th e ta n ta lu m la m p . (See Figs. V I . 17 a n d V I . 18.)
C o m p e tin g n o t o n ly a g a in st th e N e r n s t a n d ta n ta lu m la m p s b u t also
a g a in st a w idely u se d o s m iu m - fila m e n t la m p (Fig. V I. 19) in v e n te d by the
A u s tria n C a rl A u e r von W e lsb a ch (1 8 5 8 - 1 9 2 9 ),72 w h o h a d b e e n tra in e d
by R o b e rt B u n s e n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f H e id e lb e rg , th e G E la b o ra to ry strove
to in v e n t a n d d e v e lo p im p ro v e d a n d new fila m e n ts. C h a lle n g e d by invento r-sc ie n tists w h o h a d b e e n tr a in e d in C e rm a n y in p h y sical c h e m istry , a
field in w h ich C e r m a n y e x c e lle d , it is n o t s u r p r is in g th a t G E b r o u g h t to
its la b o ra to ry re s e a r c h c h e m ists w h o h e ld th e G e r m a n d o c to r a te . W illis R.
W h itn e y (1 8 6 8 -1 9 5 8 ), th e first la b o r a to r y h e a d , h a d a d o c to ra te fro m the
U n iv ersity o f L e ip z ig , w h e re h e , like W e rn e r v on B o lto n , s tu d ie d u n d e r
O stw a ld ; W illiam D. C o o lid g e (1 8 7 3 -1 9 7 5 ), w h o b e c a m e th e first assistant
d ir e c to r o f th e la b o ra to ry , also w as a ph y sica l c h e m ist w h o re ce iv e d his
P h.D . fro m L eip z ig ; a n d Irv in g L a n g m u ir ( 1 8 8 1 -1 9 5 7 ), th e th ir d m em b er
o f th e triu m v ira te th a t d o m in a te d th e G E la b o ra to ry in its e a rly yea rs, held
a d o c to ra l d e g r e e fro m th e U n iv e rsity o f G o ttin g e n , w h e re h e stu d ie d u n d e r
N e rn s t. W h itn e y a n d C o o lid g e ta u g h t a t M .I.T . b e fo r e g o in g to G E ; L a n g
m u ir w as a n in s tru c to r a t S tev e n s In s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y . G e n e r a l Electric
r e s p o n d e d lo th e im p a c t o f G e rm a n e x c e lle n c e in c h e m is try a t least a d ec ad e
b e fo re W o rld W a r I a n d th e e m b a r g o o f G e rm a n c h e m ic a l im p o rts m ade
th e fact d ra m a tic a lly c le ar. (See Fig. V I.2 2 .)
S cien tists at th e G E la b o ra to ry so o n d e v e lo p e d new fila m e n ts. W hitney,
u sin g a h e a t-tre a tm e n i p ro ce ss in a n e le c tric -re sista n c e f u rn a c e o f his ow n
d e sig n , d ro v e o f f im p u ritie s fro m th e c a r b o n fila m e n t a n d gav e it a h a rd e r
g r a p h ite c o a tin g . By 1904 th is b r o u g h t th e g re a te s t im p ro v e m e n t in th e
c a rb o n in c a n d e s c e n t la m p sin ce 1884. T h e c o m p a n y m a n u f a c tu r e d th e new
la m p u n d e r th e n a m e o f G E M (G e n e ra l E lec tric M eta liz ed ). C o o lid g e in
v e n te d a n d p a te n te d m e th o d s f o r m a k in g d u c tile m o ly b d e n u m a n d tu n g
ste n . In 1910, $ 5 4 ,0 0 0 , o r o n e - th ir d o f th e to ta l e x p e n d itu r e s o f th e GE
la b o ra to ry , w e n t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p ro c e ss, a n d su b sta n tia l a m o u n ts
w e re s p e n t a n n u a lly fro m 1906 to 1911. B e fo re C o o lid g e s suc ce ssfu l p a te n t
a p p lic a tio n in 1912, G E b o u g h t th e tu n g s te n - fila m e n t p a te n ts o f o u tsid e
c o m p a n ie s a n d in v e n to rs , p a y in g o u t $ 4 9 0 ,0 0 0 in 1909 a lo n e .73 W h e n G E
a tte m p te d to use its tu n g s te n p a te n t in E u ro p e , th e S ie m e n s 8c H alske
C o m p a n y , A E G , a n d th e A u e r G e se llsc h a fl p e r s u a d e d G E th a t th e y had
c o n flic tin g p a te n ts a n d p rio ritie s. (A u e r h e ld th e p a te n ts o f C a rl A u e r von
77 In 1891 Carl A uer von W clsbarli had grcaily enh an ced the com petitiveness o f gaslight
with his invention o f the W rlsbach mantel. His com pany. O sterreichische Gasgliihlicht und
Elektrizilatsgcscllschaft, successlully m arketed both his mantel and his osmium lam p in G er
many despite the stren g th o r AEG a nd Siemens. H ans-Joachiin Braun, "Gas o de r Elekirizilat?
Z ur K onkurrenz zwcier Belciichtuiigssysicm e. 1880-1914," Trchnikgesrhirhle 47 (1980): I I Von Siemens, House of Siemens I 9tin_oi

10 9

T E C H N O L O G IC A L M O M E N T U M

Figure V I.21. Irving Langmuirs

laboratory. 1912. Schenectady. N.Y.
Courtesy of the General Electric Co.,
Schenectady. N.Y.

Figure VI.22. First permanent home of

the GE Research Laboratory, Schenectady,
N.Y. Courtesy of the General Electric Co.,
Schenectady, N.Y.

W elsbach.) G e n e ra l E lectric a n d th e th r e e G e rm a n c o m p a n ie s th e n a g re e d
to s h a re rig h ts in th e u se o f th e C o o lid g e a n d S iem en s p a te n ts c o v e rin g
th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f tu n g s ie n -f ila m e n t lam ps.
T h e G e n e r a l E lectric R e se arc h L a b o ra to ry n o t o n ly s e p a ra te d in v e n tio n
a n d r e s e a rc h fro m e v e ry d a y p r o d u c tio n p ro b le m s a n d m in o r system im
p r o v e m e n ts b u t it o f f e r e d scie n tists a lte rn a tiv e ro les to th o se o f th e ac ad e m ic
a n d c o n s u lta n t. In th e la b o ra to ry , p e rs o n s w ith in v e n tiv e instin cts h a d access
to facilities f o r re s e a rc h a n d in v e n tio n w ith o u t th e a tte n d a n t re sp o n sib ilities
fo r d e v e lo p in g a n d m a rk e tin g th e in v en tio n s. F u rth e r m o re , W h itn e y e n
g e n d e r e d a n a tm o s p h e r e th a t was f o u n d co n g e n ia l by P h.D . scientists:

170

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

Figure VI.23. Early laboratory

colloquium at the GE Research Laboratory:
Willis Whitney (fourth from right);
William Coohdge (far right). Courtesy of
the General Electric Co., Schenectady. N.Y.

Figure V I.24. S taff at the GE Research

laboratory, c. 1912: Willis Whitney (third
from left); Irving Langmuir (far right).
Courtesy of the Gmrral Electric Co..
Schenectady, N. Y.

w eekly c o llo q u ia , p u b lic a tio n o f sc ie n tific p a p e rs , a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t to

a c q u ire a g r e a te r f u n d a m e n ta l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f te c h n o lo g ic a l p h e n o m
e n a .7"1 (See Figs. V I.23 a n d V I .24.) P a ra d o x ic a lly , th e p ro fe ssio n a l scientists
w ere a s s u m in g th e ro le o f th e in d e p e n d e n t in v e n to rs , w h o se e m p iric a l a n d
c o m m e rc ia l style so m a n y o f th e m d is d a in e d .
W h ile G E d is ta n c e d its re s e a r c h e rs fro m c o m m e rc ia l ac tivities, it looked
u p o n th e ir p a te n ts as c o m m e rc ia l p ro p e rty . S cien tists w e re e n c o u r a g e d to
d o w o rk o f th e h ig h e st q u a lity a n d to in v e stig a te re le v a n t fu n d a m e n ta l
p ro b le m s, b u t p a te n t rig h ts b e lo n g e d to th e c o m p a n y . As W h itn e y said
c ate g o ric a lly in 1909, W h a te v e r in v e n tio n re su lts fro m his [th e la b o ra to ry
s ta ff m e m b e r s] w o rk b e co m es th e p r o p e r ty o f th e c o m p a n y . I b e lieve that
n o o th e r w ay is p ra c tic a b le .75 So m u c h fo r th e m y th th a t th e la b o ra to ry
w as in s u la te d fro m e c o n o m ic c o n c e rn s.
T h e G e n e r a l E lectric R e sea rch L a b o ra to ry was n o t th e sole site fo r in
v e n tio n a n d re s e a rc h at G E , h o w ev e r. T h e c o m p a n y h a d a ra n g e o f pro b 74 Wise, "A New Rule for Professional Scientists." p. 426.
7'W illis R. W hitney. "O rganization of Industrial Research, "Journal of the American Chemical
Society 32 (1910): 74. cited in Wise, "A New Role for Professional .Scientists." p. 422.

171

T E C H N O L O G IC A L . M O M E N T U M
le m s lo solve th e o re tic a l, d e sig n , a n d o p e ra tio n a l. O th e r G E la b o ra to rie s
f o c u se d o n p ro b le m s o u ts id e th e R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry 's special c o m p e te n c e .
T h e R e se a rc h L a b o ra to r y s w o rk ra n g e d w idely, h o w e v er, fro m m a n u fa c
tu r in g tu n g s te n X -ray ta rg e ts to f u n d a m e n ta l stu d ie s o f th e s tr u c tu r e o f
m a tte r. A fte r 1910, fo r in sta n c e , L a n g m u ir w o rk e d o n gas-filled in c a n
d e s c e n t la m p s a n d e le c tro n ic v a c u u m tu b e s. O th e rs at th e la b o r a to r y c o n
c e n tr a te d o n e a rly r a d io p ro b le m s , X -ray r a d io g ra p h y , in su la tio n , a n d m a
te ria ls scie n ce , o r m e ta llu rg y .76 M u ch was left lo o th e rs , h o w e v e r, esp ecially
in r e la tio n s h ip to th e in v e n tio n , d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d d e sig n o f g e n e ra to rs ,
t r a n s fo rm e r s , m o to rs , a n d tra n sm issio n system s. In L y n n , M a ssach u se tts,
b e f o re W o rld W a r I, th e r e w as a re s e a rc h facility fo r E lihu T h o m s o n a n d
a la b o r a to r y c o n c e n tr a tin g o n a r c lam p s. In S c h e n e c ta d y , N ew Y o rk , th e re
w e re o th e r la b o ra to rie s in a d d itio n to th e R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry : th e G e n e ra l
E n g in e e rin g L a b o ra to r y ( g e n e ra l d e v e lo p m e n t w o rk ); th e In su la tio n s L a b
o ra to ry ; th e Illu m in a tin g L a b o ra to ry ; a n d th e D e p a r tm e n t o f C o n s u ltin g
E n g in e e r in g . G e n e ra l E le ctric a lso h a d re s e a rc h - a n d -d e v e lo p m e n t facilities
in E rie, P e n n sy lv a n ia ; H a rr is o n , N ew J e r s e y ; C le v e la n d , O h io ; a n d P itts
fie ld , M a ssa c h u se tts. By 1918 G e n e ra l E le ctric h a d tw elve la b o ra to rie s , th e
la rg e st o f w h ic h w as th e R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry , j u d g in g by th e re c o rd o f its
e x p e n d itu r e s .77
T h e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t was S te in m e tz s b ra in c h ild . H e
h a d d e c lin e d :h e o p p o r tu n ity to h e a d th e R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry , p e r h a p s
b e c a u se h e a n d o th e r s b e lie v e d h im to b e to o in d iv id u a listic fo r m a jo r
a d m in is tr a tiv e re s p o n sib ilitie s. H e m ay h a v e c o n s id e r e d h im s e lf m o re an
e n g in e e r th a n a r e s e a rc h sc ie n tist.78 As d e sc rib e d in 1912, th e c o n su ltin g
e n g in e e rin g d e p a rtm e n t s h o u ld have a p p e a le d to e n g in ee r-in v en to rs, m uch
as th e R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry w as in te n d e d lo a ttr a c t a n d h o ld scien tists w ith
in v e n tiv e ta le n t. S te in m e tz w ro te th a t his d e p a r tm e n t was to ad v ise o th e r
G E d e p a r tm e n ts a b o u t u n u s u a l p h e n o m e n a , d e sig n re q u ir e m e n ts , o r tr o u
b les it e n c o u n te r e d . T h e d e p a r tm e n t w o u ld also ad v ise c u sto m e rs a n d w ork
o n p ro b le m s o f g e n e ra l in te r e s t to th e electric al e n g in e e rin g p ro fe ssio n .
S te in m e lz w a n te d e a c h m e m b e r o f h is d e p a r tm e n t to ch o o se his ow n w ork,
a n d h e e m p h a s iz e d th a t s u c h a d iv e rsity o f activities re q u ir e d a n o r g a n i
z a tio n d if f e r e n t fro m th e " a u to c ra tic system e m p lo y e d by tra d itio n a l e n
g in e e rin g d e p a r tm e n ts .79 A m o n g th e p ro b le m s S te in m e tz ju d g e d to be o f
g e n e ra l in te re s t to th e e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g p ro fe s sio n a n d to G e n e ra l
E lectric w e re h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n , in c lu d in g th e c o ro n a effe c t a n d
in stab ility . A loss o f p o w e r in 1919 in th e C h ic a g o system o f C o m m o n w e a lth
E d iso n was th e ty p e o f c u s to m e r p ro b le m to w hich h e re s p o n d e d .80 Steinm etz m o d e le d th e sy ste m w ith c irc u it e q u a tio n s in o r d e r to lo cale th e
p ro b le m .
7 Birr, Pioneering in Industrial Research, pp. 41, 45. 47-48.
77 Ibid., pp. 82-83.
7"Jam cs E. Brittain, "C. P. Stcinm ctz and E. F. A lexandcrson: Creative E ngineering in a
C orporate Selling," IEEE Proceedings 64 (1976): 1414.
70 Ibid.
""C harles P. Stcininetz, "Sonic Problems o f High-Voltage Transm issions," AIEE Transac
tions 31 (1912): 167-73; idem, "Instability of Electric Circuits." ibid. 32 (1913): 2005-21. For
an exam ple o f how Slcinm etz responded lo a custom er problem , see his article about a |h>wci
loss in the Com m onw ealth Edison system in Chicago on 18 Septem ber 1919. "Power C ontrol
and Stability o f Electric G enerating Stations," ibid. 39 (1920): 1215-70.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

T h e im p re ssiv e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m eta llic f ila m e n ts in G e rm a n y n o tw ith
s ta n d in g , th e h e a d o f S ie m e n s & H alsk e in 1911 view ed A m e ric a n re se a rc h
ac h ie v e m e n ts in th e e lec trica l in d u s try w ith envy. W ilh elm von S iem en s
n o te d lh a l as a c o u n try o f th in k e rs a n d scien tific re s e a rc h e rs , G e rm a n y h a d
rise n to first ra n k as a n in d u s tria l p o w e r, b u t th a t A m e ric a s p riv a te e n
te r p r is e system c u ltiv a te d a n u n in te r r u p te d s tre a m o f im p re ssiv e re se a rc h
re su lts. V on S ie m e n s a c k n o w le d g e d th e ro le in G e rm a n y o f th e u n iv e rsities,
th e Technischen Uochschulen, a n d th e new ly e s ta b lish e d K a ise r W ilh e lm G esellsch a ft, b u t f e a re d lh a l his c o u n try w o u ld fall b e h in d u n le ss o th e r m e as
u re s w ere ta k e n a n d in s titu tio n s f o u n d e d ." 1
S ie m e n s & H a lsk e h a d a tra d itio n o f la b o r a to r y re s e a rc h , b u t th e se ac
tivities r e m a in e d d is p e rs e d a m o n g th e c o m p a n y s v a rio u s w o rk s, o r p la n ts,
u n til 1920, w h e n a c e n tr a l la b o ra to ry was e sta b lish e d . R e se a rc h th e r e , as
at th e G e n e ra l E lec tric R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry , w as in te n d e d to b e less tied
to p ro d u c tio n a n d r o u tin e im p ro v e m e n ts th a n was th e case in th e o th e r
la b o ra to rie s . A t first, th e c e n tr a l la b o ra to ry w as c alled th e Physical C h e m
istry L a b o ra to ry , b u t th e n th e c o m p a n y c h a n g e d th e n a m e lo th e R ese arc h
L a b o r a to r y o f th e S ie m e n s & H a lsk e C o m p a n y . D r. H a n s G e r d ic n , fo rm e rly
a le c tu r e r a t G o ttin g e n U n iv e rsity , b e c a m e d ir e c to r o f th e c e n tra l la b o ra
to ry . b u t b e c a u se th e m a n a g e r s o f th e d if f e r e n t w o rk s p r e f e r r e d to m a in ta in
th e ir sp ec ia liz e d la b o ra to rie s , h e h a d a d iffic u lt tim e c e n tra liz in g th e basic
re s e a rc h . T o c o o r d in a te th e v a rio u s r e s e a r c h c e n te rs , th e c o m p a n y in 1919
n a m e d D. H a r rie s to h e a d a c e n tra l o ffic e fo r scie n tific a n d te c h n ic a l re
se a rc h (Z e n tra lste lle fiir W isse n sc h a ftlic h -T e c h n isc h e F o rsc h u n g sa rb e ite n ).82
R e sea rch la b o ra to r ie s p ro v id e d in s titu tio n a l s tr u c tu r e s th a t s u p p o rte d
a n d in c re a se d th e m o m e n tu m o f th e ev o lv in g e le ctric al s u p p ly system s.
F u r th e r r e in fo rc e m e n t a ro s e fro m th e g ro w th o f p ro fe ssio n a l so cieties w ith
th e ir p e rio d ic a ls, a n n u a l m e e tin g s, a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f p ro fe ssio n a l e d
u c a tio n . T h e p ro fe s s io n a l societies, like th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s a n d th e ir lab
o r a to r ie s , d ire c te d th e a tte n tio n o f scien tists a n d e n g in e e r s lo th e p ro b le m s
o f g e n e ra l u r b a n sy stem s a n d h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n .
P arad o x ic ally , c o n s id e rin g th e s u b s e q u e n t h isto ry o f th e o rg a n iz a tio n ,
th e A m e ric a n In s titu te o f E le ctrical E n g in e e rs w as e sta b lish e d in 1884 by
m e n p rim a rily c o n c e rn e d w ith te le g ra p h y . By 1900 th e in s titu te 's e m p h a sis
h a d s h ifte d to w h a t th e G e rm a n s a p tly n a m e d Slarkstrom ( heavy c u r r e n t ),
in c o n tra s t to Swachstrom (lig h t c u rr e n t" ). H eavy c u r r e n t in v o lv ed light
a n d p o w e r; lig h t c u r r e n t w as u se d essen tia lly in te le g ra p h c o m m u n ic a tio n s
b e fo re th e w ireless a ssu m e d im p o rta n c e a b o u t 1900. O f th e tw enty-five
m e n w ho sig n e d th e call Tor fo rm a tio n o f a n a tio n a l electric al society,
tw e n ty -o n e w e re te le g ra p h in v e n to rs o r m a n u f a c tu r e r s o r w e re g e n era lly
classified as b e in g in th e te le g r a p h b u sin e ss.H:I T h e first p re s id e n t o f the
A IE E was N o rv in G r e e n , p re s id e n t o f th e W e ste rn U n io n T e le g r a p h C o m

1 Kerdinnnd rre n d clcn b u rg , Au.\ tier C.esrhirhte tier Fnnrhung tm Hausr Siemens (Diisseldorl:

VDI. 1975), p. 45.

^ r _ ^ g n ^ 'c ,,lcn s' Hntue of Siemens, 2: 3 5 -3 6 ; T ren d e len b u rg . Cesehichte der Fonrhung. pp"'D o n ald McNirnl, " te le g r a p h Men l-'oiinders ol (he A.I.K .E.. Electrical Engineering 53
(May 1934): 675.

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p a n y . O th e r s a m o n g th e e a rly o ffic e rs o f th e in s titu te w e re W e ste rn U n io n
m a n a g e rs o r e x e c u tiv e s.,H
T h e A 1E E so o n a c h ie v e d re c o g n itio n as th e p ro fe ssio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n ol
U .S. electric al e n g in e e rs . E lec trica l in v e n to rs a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r s h e ld th e
o ffic e o f p r e s id e n t d u r in g th e in s titu te 's first d e c a d e , h ut elec trica l e n g i
n e e rs o r te a c h e r s o f e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g d o m in a te d th e o ffice d u r in g its
se c o n d d e c a d e . O f th e e ig h t p re s id e n ts w ho s e rv e d d u r in g th e seco n d
d e c a d e , E d w in J . H o u s to n (1 8 9 3 -1 8 9 5 ) ta u g h t at C e n tra l H ig h S chool in
P h ila d e lp h ia , P e n n sy lv a n ia ; L o u is D u n c a n (1 8 9 5 -1 8 9 7 ) (a u g h t elec trica l
e n g in e e r in g a t M . l.T . ; F ra n c is C r o c k e r (1 8 9 7 -1 8 9 8 ) rec eiv ed a P h.D . in
e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g fro m C o lu m b ia U n iv e rsity b e fo r e te a c h in g th e re ;
A r th u r E. K en n elly ( 1 8 9 8 -1 9 0 0 ) w as a p p o in te d p r o f e s s o r o f e le ctrica l e n
g in e e r in g a t H a r v a r d U n iv e rsity tw o y ea rs a f te r se rv in g as A IE E p re s id e n t;
C a rl H e r in g ( 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 0 1 ) was a p ro fe s s o r at th e U n iv e rsity o f P en n sy lv an ia
a n d s tu d ie d at D a rm s ta d t u n d e r K ittle r; C h a rle s S te in m e tz ( 1 9 0 1 -1 9 0 2 )
h e ld a p ro fe s s o ria l p o sitio n a t U n io n C o lleg e in S c h e n e c ta d y , N ew Y ork,
w hile a G E e n g in e e r ; a n d C h a rle s S cott (1 9 0 2 -1 9 0 3 ) to o k p o s tg ra d u a te
c o u rse s a t T h e J o h n s H o p k in s U n iv e rsity a n d la te r b e c am e a p ro f e s s o r of
e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g a t Y ale a f te r se rv in g as A IE E p re s id e n t. As a g ro u p ,
th e se m e n b rid g e d th e a c a d e m ic a n d p ra c tic a l w o rld s.85
T h e p u b lic a tio n o f p a p e rs in th e in s titu te 's Transactions e n h a n c e d th e
fo rm a tio n o f a c o m m u n ity o f d isc o u rse c e n te re d o n c ritical p ro b le m s. A
classific atio n o f A IE E p a p e rs fo r th e y e ars 1 8 8 4 -1 8 9 9 show s th a t th e s u b
je c ts m o st f re q u e n tly d isc u sse d w ere a lte rn a tin g -c u rr e n t p ra c tic e , tra c tio n ,
d y n a m o s, m o to rs , a n d in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g . T h is c o n c e n tra tio n a c co rd s
well w ith th e fo c u s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g f o u n d d u r in g th e p e rio d o f " th e
b a ttle o f th e sy ste m s a n d its re s o lu tio n . O n ly th r e e p a p e r s d e a lt explicitly
w ith p o ly p h a s e sy ste m s (as c o m p a re d to fifty-tw o o n a lte rn a tin g -c u r re n t
p ra ctic e), b u t, as n o te d , th e g e n e ra l r u b ric " a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t" in c lu d e d
sin g le -p h a se a n d p o ly p h a se sy stem s.86
O th e r p e rio d ic a ls c o n tr ib u te d to th e id e n tific a tio n o f p ro b le m a re a s for
elec trica l e n g in e e rs . T h e le a d in g tra d e , as c o n tra s te d w ith p ro fe ssio n a l
society, j o u r n a l w as Electrical World. T h e f o re b e a r o f th is jo u r n a l, The O p
erator, was fo u n d e d in 1874 a n d w as p u b lish e d fo r te le g ra p h e rs . R e flecting
th e sa m e c h a n g e s as o c c u r re d in th e c h a ra c te r o f th e A IE E le a d e rs h ip . The
Operator b ro a d e n e d its p u rv ie w in 1883 to in c lu d e electric lig h tin g a n d
c h a n g e d its n a m e to The Operator and Electrical World. J a m e s H . M cG raw .
p u b lis h e r o f a rival jo u r n a l, th e American Electrician, b o u g h t o u t The Operator
and Electrical W orld a n d a n o th e r jo u r n a l, th e Electrical Engineer, a n d by 1906
h a d c o m b in e d th e m u n d e r th e title Electrical World. T h e M cG raw P u b lish in g
C o m p a n y a lso o w n e d th e Street Railway Journal. B esides M cG raw 's publiM A. Miclial McMahon, "C orporate Technology: T h e Social O rigins ol the A merican In
stitute o r Electrical Engineers." IEEE Proceedings 64 (1976): 1385.
" '" G re at Names behind the Institute." Electrical Engineering 53 (1934): 786-825.
""C harles F. Scott, "T h e Institute's First H alf C entury." ibid., p. 666. I have assumed llinl
the listing "A.I.E .E. Papers 1884-99 and 1929-33" refers to papers published in the AIEE
Transactions. T h e second category on the list, "miscellaneous and theory," is loo inclusive and
vague to be ranked with the others. Robert Delfield. who analyzed issurs ol the AIEE Trans
actions dating from 1887 to 1904, found discussion ol |M>lyphase problem s in many of these

174

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
ca lio n s, th e r e w ere n u m e r o u s o th e r tr a d e jo u r n a ls in th e elec trica l field by
1900.
O th e r p ro fe ssio n a l so c ieties, su c h as th e N a tio n a l E lectric L ig h t As
so ciatio n , w hich o r g a n iz e d u tility e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs a n d was th e
o rg a n iz a tio n o f E d iso n lig h t a n d p o w e r c o m p a n ie s, also h e ld m e e tin g s a n d
p u b lish e d p a p e rs . T h e p r e f e r r e d j o u r n a l fo r sc h o la rly p a p e r s d e a lin g w ith
m a tte r s new a n d o u ts ta n d in g , h o w e v e r, r e m a in e d th e A IE E Transactions
b e c a u se o f its p ro fe ssio n a l p re s tig e .87
In B rita in , th e p ro fe s s io n a l so ciety f o r e le c tric ia n s a n d elec trica l e n g i
n e e rs h a d e a rlie r o r ig in s th a n th e A IE E . In M ay 1871 a g r o u p o f m en
a sso c ia te d w ith te le g ra p h y m e t in L o n d o n a n d f o u n d e d th e Society o f
T e le g r a p h E n g in e e rs . W ith th e in c re a se in in te re s t in ele c tric lig h tin g ,
ho w e v e r, th e society in 1880 a d d e d a n d o f E le c tric ia n s to its n a m e , a n d
in 1889 c h a n g e d th e n a m e to I n s titu tio n o f E lectrical E n g in e e rs (IE E ). It
was re c o g n iz e d as th e p ro fe ssio n a l society fo r B ritish e le ctrica l e n g in e e rs .
P ro fe sso r W illiam A y rto n o f th e C ity -a n d -G u ild s -s p o n s o re d C e n tr a l In sti
tu tio n , S o u th K e n s in g to n , e d ite d th e 1EE Journal.
As in th e U n ite d S late s, th e la test new s in th e field w as s u p p lie d in p a rt
by tr a d e jo u r n a ls . A m o n g th e se w ere The Electrician, f o u n d e d in 1878; th e
Telegraphic J o u rn a l a nd Electrical Review, e sta b lish e d in 1872; th e Electrical
E ngineer (L o n d o n ), b e g u n in 1882; a n d L ighting (la te r The Electrical Times),
w hich first a p p e a r e d in 1891. G e n e r a l p u b lic a tio n s su c h as The Engineer
a n d Engineering, w h ich w e re f o u n d e d in 1856 a n d 1866 resp e ctiv e ly a n d
e n jo y e d a n in te rn a tio n a l r e p u ta tio n , a lso r e p o r te d d e v e lo p m e n ts in elec
trica l e n g in e e r in g .88
In B e rlin in 1879 a g r o u p o rg a n iz e d by P o s tm a s te r G e n e ra l H e in ric h
von S te p h a n a n d stim u lated by th e su p p o rt o f W e rn e r von S iem ens fo u n d e d
th e E le k tro te c h n is c h e r V e re in zu B e rlin , w h ich , b e g in n in g in 1880, p u b
lish ed a p e rio d ic a l e n title d Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift. A n o th e r e a rly p e ri
o d ica l, th e Zeitschrift f i i r angewandte Elektrizilatslehre (1 8 8 0 ), la te r re n a m e d
Centralhlatt f u r Elektrolechnik (1 8 8 3 ), m e rg e d w ith th e Elektrotechnische Zeit
schrift in 1889 to b e c o m e th e le a d in g p ro fe s s io n a l j o u r n a l in th e field.
A m o n g o th e r G e rm a n p ro fe s s io n a l e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g so cieties was th e
E le k tro te c h n is c h e G e se llsc h a ft fo u n d e d in F r a n k f o r t o n th e M ain. In 1893
th e V e r b a n d D e u ts c h e r E le k tro te c h n ik e r w as fo rm e d th r o u g h a m e rg e r o f
local e le ctric al so c ieties, th e re b y e s ta b lis h in g a n a tio n a l so c ie ty .89

"7 Scoti, T h e Institute's First Half C entury," p. 667.

For this account ol the Institution ol Electrical Engineers, I have draw n upon Percy
D unshcalh. A History of Electrical Power Engineering (C am bridge. Mass.: M .I.T. Press, 1962).
pp. 319-32. T h e authoritative work is Rollo A ppleyard. History of the Institution o f Electrical
Engineers, 1871-1931 (lam don: Institution o r Electrical Engineers. 1939).
m O ettm ar, Starkstromtechnih, pp. 2H 7-9I; and Sigwart Ruppel, cd Elektrotechnische Gesell
schaft I-rankfurl, 18 8 1 -1 9 3 1: (ieschichtstafeln Her Elektiatechnih (Frankfort on the Main: F.lektrotcchnische Cescllschaft, 1931?).

CHAPTER

VII

Berlin: The
Coordination
of Technology
and Politics
u r i n g th e la ie -e ig h te e m h , n in e te e n th , a n d e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s,
tw o w aves o f in d u s tria liz a tio n sw ep t o v e r th e W e ste rn w o rld . T h e
first, c o m m o n ly k n o w n as th e In d u s tria l R ev o lu tio n , im pressiv e ly tr a n s
fo rm e d r e g io n s o f E n g la n d a n d S c o tla n d ; th e se c o n d , o ccasionally called
th e S e c o n d I n d u s tria l R e v o lu tio n , c h a n g e d new ly u n ite d G e rm a n y a n d the
U n ite d S tate s. T h e 1870s a re o fte n cited as th e d e c a d e o f tra n sitio n fro m
th e first to th e se c o n d in d u s tria liz a tio n p h a se . T h e B ritish I n d u s tr ia l R ev
o lu tio n is u su ally asso c ia te d w ith a sy slem o f p ro d u c tio n a n d tra n s p o r ta tio n
th a t was h eavily d e p e n d e n t o n coal, ste a m , a n d iro n ; th e ra p id in d u s tr ia l
izatio n o f G e rm a n y a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s in v o lv ed th e se c o m p o n e n ts , hut
stee l, e le ctric ity , a n d m a n -m a d e ch em ica ls, b o th o rg a n ic a n d in o rg a n ic ,
w ere la y e re d o n th e e a rlie r te c h n o lo g ie s as well. T h e se c o n d e ra o f ra p id
in d u s tria liz a tio n is n o t as well u n d e r s to o d o r d e f in e d as th e first, b u t w hen
f u tu r e h is to ria n s p ro b e its p h e n o m e n a a n d s tru c tu re , ele ctric p o w e r es
pecially h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n a n d th e u n iv e rsa l system o f elec tric light
a n d p o w e r m a d e k n o w n to th e w o rld at F ra n k fo rt a n d N ia g a ra Falls will
fig u re in tric a te ly a n d p r o m in e n tly in th e ir in te rp re ta tio n s a n d p re s e n ta
tio n s. J u s t as M a n c h e ste r, B irm in g h a m , a n d o th e r B ritish cities w ere th e
c e n te rs o f th e first w ave o f in d u stria liz a tio n , c e rta in cities will be clearly
id e n tifie d as th e sites o f th e se c o n d . A m o n g th e u rb a n c e n te rs o f th e second
w ave will su re ly b e C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin ; a m o n g th e cities by -p a ssed will be
L o n d o n . C o n s id e ra tio n o f th e e le c trific a tio n o f th e first tw o b e fo re 1915
a n d th e la g g a rd d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e th ird will p ro v id e so m e u n d e rs ta n d in g
o f u rb a n in d u s tria liz a tio n in th e m o d e rn e ra .
D u rin g th e f o u r d e c a d e s b e tw e e n th e fo u n d in g o f th e G e rm a n e m p ire
a n d th e o u tb re a k o f W o rld W a r I, B e rlin , th e e m p ir e s c ap ita l, was a d y
n a m ic u r b a n c e n te r . It b e c a m e th e le a d in g in d u s tria l a n d co m m e rc ia l city
o n th e C o n tin e n t, a n d in w ea lth a n d p o p u la tio n ra n k e d b e h in d only L o n
d o n a n d Paris. W ith re g a r d to a d m in is tr a tio n a n d o rg a n iz a tio n , c o n te m
p o ra rie s n a m e d it th e m o d e l city o f E u r o p e a n d p ra ise d its citizens fo r th e
re m a rk a b le b u rs t o f e n e r g y th a t tra n s fo rm e d a pro v in cial cap ita l o f Prussia
in to a c o sm o p o lita n city o r in te rn a tio n a l e m in e n c e .1 T h e m u n ic ip a l au-

1A. Shadwcll. Industrial Effiarncy, 2 vols. (London: Longmans. I90fi), I: 159-fiO; and
Sigfrid von W cilier. llrrlins Wrg iur Elfklropalu: Trrhiuk und Industnrgr\chirhtr an drr Sprrr
(Berlin: Siapp, 1971). pp. 83-131.

I 75

170

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

ih o rily was w idely j u d g e d th e u ltim a te in e n lig h te n e d , e ffic ie n t, a n d socially
p u rp o s e f u l g o v e rn m e n t in a p ro g re ssiv e e ra th a t lo o k e d to its cities as
s ta n d a r d - b e a r e r s in a n u rb a n iz in g a n d in d u s tria liz in g civilization. O n th e
C o n tin e n t, a n d especially in G e rm a n y , a city was idealized as a g re a t family,
o rg a n iz e d fo r e c o n o m ic , politic al, a n d social e n d s a n d its g o v e r n m e n t was
see n as th e m e a n s fo r o b ta in in g th e se e n d s .2 A m o n g th e m e a n s w e re public
u tilities, in c lu d in g tr a n s p o r ta tio n , w a te r a n d gas, w aste d isp o sa l, a n d lig h t
ing. By W o rld W a r I, a h a llm a rk o f th e m o d e r n p ro g re ssiv e city was cu l
tiv atio n o f a new a n d s u b tle fo r m o f lig h t a n d p o w e r ele ctric ity . B erlin
was n o t fo u n d lacking.
B ec au se th e city g o v e r n m e n t in B e rlin so e ffec tiv ely re g u la te d th e p riv ate
u tility th a t p r o v id e d th e m e tro p o lis w ith lig h t a n d p o w e r, a n d b ec a u se th e
histo ry o f te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e in th e city c a n n o t b e u n d e r s to o d w ith o u t
ta k in g th e re g u la to ry ac tiv ities o f th e g o v e rn m e n t in to a c c o u n t, a b rie f
d e s c rip tio n o f th e g o v e r n m e n ts s tr u c tu r e a n d fu n c tio n s is n e e d e d . In 1881
B e rlin b e c a m e a n a d m in is tra tiv e a re a d istin c t fro m th e P ru ssia n p ro v in ce
o f B r a n d e n b u r g , a n d s u b s e q u e n tly th e civil g o v e rn m e n t o f B e rlin was o r
g a n iz e d in to tw o m a jo r d iv isio n s, th e M agistral a n d th e Stadtverordnelenversam m lung (c o m m o n c o u n cil" ). T h e M agistrat c o n siste d o f a n Oberburgermetster (c h ie f m a y o r), a Biirgermeister ("m ay o r), a n d a Stadtrat (city council)
o f th irty -tw o m e m b e rs , fifte e n o f w h o m w e re p a id a d m in is tr a to rs a n d sev
e n te e n o f w h o m s e rv e d w ith o u t pay. T h e 144 m e m b e rs o f th e Stadtverordnetenversam m lung w e re ch o se n by m a n h o o d s u f fra g e . F o r g e n e r a l d ecisions,
th e M agistrat a n d Stadtverordnetenversam m lung m e t in c o m m o n a n d so m e
tim es n a m e d c o m m itte e s th a t w e re r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e w hole. T h e s e
co m m itte e s h a d ju ris d ic tio n o v e r p u b lic serv ice s su ch as w a te r s u p p ly , th e
lig h tin g a n d c le a n in g o f th e stre e ts , a n d d r a in a g e . D e ta ile d c o n tra c tu a l
a r r a n g e m e n ts w ith th e p riv a te c o m p a n y s u p p ly in g B e rlin w ith e le c tric light
a n d p o w e r w e re e x e c u te d by th e M agistrat.
N o t o n ly was B e rlin p ro g re s s iv e b u t it w as in d u s tria l. A s in C h ica g o , this
fact d e e p ly a f fe c te d th e city s e le c tric u tility. L o n d o n a n d o th e r E u ro p e a n
ca p ita ls h a d b e c o m e w o rld c e n te r s e a r lie r, w h e n cities w ere th e focus o f
g o v e r n m e n t, c o m m e rc e , a n d re lig io u s activities. B e r lin s f o rm a tiv e yea rs as
a n a tio n a l c a p ita l c o in c id e d w ith G e r m a n y s r a p id in d u s tria liz a tio n a n d rise
to te c h n o lo g ic a l p re e m in e n c e fo llo w in g th e F ra n c o -P ru s s ia n W a r a n d th e
c o u n tr y s u n ific a tio n . B e rlin , m o re th a n V ie n n a , P a ris, o r L o n d o n , was
s h a p e d by in d u s tria l im p e ra tiv e s a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l o p p o rtu n itie s . By 1900
th e q u a in t tw o -sto ry h o u se s so c h a ra c te ris tic o f P ru ssia n B e rlin h a d given
way lo b u sin e ss b locks th a t h o u s e d n o t o n ly c o m m e rc ia l e n te r p r is e s b u t th e
h e a d q u a r te r s o f th e in d u s tria l c o rp o r a tio n s a n d fin a n c ia l in stitu tio n s (in
c lu d in g th e R e ic h sb a n k , D e u tsc h e B a n k , D isk o n to G e se llsc h a ft, a n d Ja c o b
L a n d a u ) th a t se rv e d th e m . T h e a d m in is tra tiv e b o u n d a rie s o f o ld B erlin."
w ith a p o p u la tio n o f a b o u t tw o m illio n , re m a in e d as th e y h a d b e e n since
1860, e n c o m p a s s in g o n ly a b o u t tw e n ty -n in e s q u a re m iles six m iles across
a n d a b o u t live a n d a h a lf m iles fro m n o r th to s o u th . In d u s try , how ever,
m u s h ro o m e d in so -called g r e a te r B e rlin ," ra d ia tin g te n m iles fro m city
* Frank S. H offm an. "M unicipal Activities in G erm any," Outlook 58 (1898): 1063. I am
indebted lo Alan Steiner for calling my attention to the H offm an article and to sources about
B erlins tran sp o rtatio n systems.

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B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S
c e n te r . M o re th a n 50 p e rc e n t o f th e w o rk in g p o p u la tio n o f o ld B e rlin was
e m p lo y e d by in d u s try , a n d th e p e rc e n ta g e in g r e a te r B e rlin , w ith a p o p
u la tio n a r o u n d th r e e m illio n , in c re a se d as new in d u s trie s a n d facto rie s
f o u n d g r o u n d th e re . B e rlin m a n u f a c tu r e d w ool, w o rk e d iro n a n d steel,
tu r n e d o u t hea v y m a c h in e ry (in c lu d in g ste a m e n g in e s a n d locom otives),
p ro d u c e d se w in g m a c h in e s a n d bicycles, o rg a n iz e d c h em ica l p ro ce sse s, a n d
d e s ig n e d a n d a sse m b le d heav y a n d lig h t e le ctric al e q u ip m e n t fo r G e rm a n y
a n d th e re st o f th e w o rld . W h e n b u r g e o n in g in d u s try w ith in th e city t h r e a t
e n e d to d e m e a n th e a r c h ite c tu r e a n d th e e n v iro n m e n t, th e m u n ic ip a l a u
th o ritie s c o n s tr u c te d a g r e a t c a n a l s o u th o f th e city to c o n n e c t th e S p re e
a n d H av e l riv e rs a n d p r o v id e a tr a n s p o r t a r te r y th a t w o u ld d ra w in d u stry
aw ay fro m city c e n te r .
B e rlin w as n o t o n ly a n in d u s tria l city b u t o n e w h o se in d u s try w as n o tably
elec trica l. T w o o f th e w o r ld s le a d in g m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f elec trica l m a c h in
e ry , S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e a n d A llg e m e in e E le k triz ila ts-G e se llsc h a ft (A EG ),
h a d c e n tra l o ffice s a n d fa c to rie s in B e rlin a n d its im m e d ia te s u r ro u n d in g s .
A b o u t 50 p e r c e n t o f th e p e rs o n n e l o f G e rm a n y s e lec trica l in d u s tr y w o rk e d
th e r e u n til W o rld W a r II. W ith g o o d re a so n , th e n , it h a s b e e n ca lle d th e
Elektropolis.3 T h is b u r g e o n in g in d u s try h e lp e d m a in ta in th e vitality o f B e r
lin s a n d G e r m a n y s ec o n o m y d u r in g p e rio d s o f m ild rec essio n in th e
th r e e d e c a d e s p re c e d in g W o rld W a r I. S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e s a n d A E G s
p re s e n c e also f u r th e r e d th e e le c trific a tio n o f in d u s tr y a n d tra n s p o rta tio n
in B e rlin . T h e h is to rie s o f b o th c o m p a n ie s in v o lv ed a t o n e tim e o r a n o th e r
n o t o n ly e le c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r in g b u t also ele ctric al s u p p ly in th e city. In
1883 S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e was p a rty to th e f o u n d in g o f D e u tsc h e E dison
G e se llsc h aft, w h ich in tim e m e ta m o rp h o s e d in to A E G , w hich in tu rn , in
1887, fo u n d e d th e B e rlin e r E le k tric ita ts-W e rk e (see p p . 6 8 - 7 7 above).
T h e f o u n d e r o f S ie m e n s 8c H alsk e , W e rn e r vo n S iem en s (1 8 1 6 -1 8 9 2 ),
his asso c ia tes, a n d th e c o m p a n y stim u la te d a n e th ic o f s cien ce a n d p ro fe s
s io n a liz a tio n as w ell as in v e n tio n a n d in d u s tr y in B e rlin .4 In 1879 von
S ie m e n s w as in s tr u m e n ta l in th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e B e rlin E lek tro tech n is c h e r V e re in (E le c tro te c h n ic a l A sso cia tio n ), w hich in tu r n , in 1894, stim
u la te d th e fo u n d in g o f th e V e r b a n d D e u ts c h e r E le k tro te c h n ik e r (la te r th e
le a d in g p ro fe ssio n a l o r g a n iz a tio n fo r th e field in all o f G e rm a n y ). V on
S ie m e n s also u r g e d th e g o v e rn m e n t to estab lish in B e rlin an in stitu te d e

5 See von W cihcr, Berlins W egzur Elektropolis. O n AEG in Berlin, sec 75 Jahre AEG, a booklet
published by the firm in 1958, especially pp. 29-30. On the Berlin electrical industry afier
W orld W ar I, sec Peter Czada, Die Berliner Elehtroindustrie in der Weimarrr Zeit (Berlin: Col
loquium , 1969).
' Biographies oC W ern er von Siemens and histories o f Siemens & Halske are num erous,
du e in p art to the existence o f the com pany's archives in M unich. Among the works are
W erner von Siemens, Inventor and Entrepreneur: Recollections o f Werner von Siemens (1892:
rep rin ted ed., L ondon: L und H um phries, I960): Georg von Siemens. History of the House of
Siemens, 2 vols. (Freiburg/M unich: Albcr, 1957); Ju rg en Kocka, Untemehmensvenvaltung und
Angestelltenschafl; am Beispiet Siemens 1847-1914: Zur Verlialtnis von Kapitalismus und Biirokratie
in der deutschen Industrialisierung (Stuttgart: Kleli, I9G9); Sigfrid von W eiher. Werner von Sie
mens: Ein Leben fu r Wissenschaft, Technih und Wirtschaft (Gottingen: M ustcrschinidl. 1970); and
Sigfrid von W cihcr and H erb ert Goetzelcr, The Siemens Company: Its Historical Role in the Progress
of Electrical Engineering (Berlin and Munich: Siemens, 1972). Sec also Jurg en Kocka, "Siemens
u n d d e r Aufliallsam c Aufslicg d er AEG," Tradition 17 (1972): 125-42: and, primarily for
later developm ents, Czada, Die Berliner Elehtroindustrie.

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v o ted to basic re se a rc h . In 1883, in a n a p p e a l to th e P ru ssia n g o v e rn m e n t,
h e w ro te , R e se a rc h is th e firm f o u n d a tio n o f te ch n o lo g ic al p ro g re ss; a
c o u n try 's in d u s try h a s n o h o p e o f a tta in in g a n in te rn a tio n a l, le a d in g p o
sition a n d s u s ta in in g itse lf u n le ss it is in th e f o r e f r o n t o f scie n tific r e s e a rc h ." '
S ie m e n s o f f e r e d to fin a n c e th e b u ild in g o f s u c h an in stitu te w ith fu n d s
th a t h a d b e e n le ft to h im in th e e s ta te o f his b r o th e r , W illiam . T h e G e rm a n
R e ic h stag e v e n tu a lly a c c e p te d a m o d ific a tio n o f S ie m e n ss p ro p o sa l an d
esta b lish e d th e P h y sik a lisc h -T e c h n isc h e R e ic h sa n sta lt (Im p e r ia l PhysicalT e c h n ic a l In s titu te ), o f w h ich H e r m a n n vo n H e lm h o ltz ( 1 8 2 1 -1 8 9 4 ), th e n
G e r m a n y s le a d in g p h y sicist, b e c a m e th e first p re s id e n t in 1887. Besides
th e se c o n trib u tio n s to th e sc ie n tific life a n d in te lle c tu a l s p irit o f B erlin,
W e r n e r v on S ie m e n s w as re s p o n s ib le fo r th e in sta lla tio n o f c h a irs in the
n ew field o f ele c tric a l e n g in e e r in g a t G e rm a n Technuchen Hochschulen (see
p p . 14 4 45 ab o v e).0 T h e s e in stitu tio n s, th e ir e n g in e e rs , a n d th e ir scientists
h e lp e d e n s u r e th a t te c h n o lo g y in g e n e ra l, a n d su ch a d v a n c e d fields as
elec trica l e n g in e e r in g sp ecifically, w o u ld flo u rish in B e rlin .
By 1900 B e rlin 's A llg e m e in e E le k triz iia is-G e se llsc h a fi was a la r g e r m a n
u f a c tu r e r o f e le ctrica l m a c h in e ry a n d a p p a r a tu s th a n S ie m e n s & H alske.
It h a d 17,300 e m p lo y e e s, w hile S ie m e n s h a d 13,600; it h a d 6 0 m illio n m arks
in s h a re c a p ita l, w hile S ie m e n s (in c lu d in g its f o r e ig n su b sid ia rie s) h a d 54.5
m illio n .7 W h e n f o u n d e d in 1887, A E G w as p rim a rily a fin a n c ie r a n d o p
e r a to r o f ele c tric a l u tilitie s a n d a m a k e r o f in c a n d e s c e n t lam p s. In c o n tra st,
S ie m e n s was a m a n u f a c tu r e r o f e q u ip m e n t. W ith in a d e c a d e , h o w e v e r, AEG
h a d e x p a n d e d its m a n u f a c tu r in g to in c lu d e p o w e r e q u ip m e n t a n d had
in tr o d u c e d a lin e o f p o ly p h a se m a c h in e ry . T h e c o m p a n y c o n tin u e d to
fin a n c e a n d b u ild c e n tra l p o w e r sta tio n s a n d d u r in g th e 1890s becam e
esp e cia lly a ctive in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f e le c tric s tre e tc a r sy ste m s. It a c q u ire d
th e r ig h ts to th e d e sig n s o f F ra n k S p ra g u e , th e A m e ric a n p io n e e r in electric
tra c tio n . T h e c o m p a n y fo llo w ed a policy o f fin a n c in g its c u s to m e rs , w h e th e r
th e y w e re h o r s e c a r c o m p a n ie s c o n v e rtin g to ele c tric ity o r c o m p a n ie s with
new fra n c h ise s. In c o o p e r a tio n w ith b a n k s in B e rlin a n d e lse w h e re , it also
fin a n c e d a n d c o n s tr u c te d p o w e r p la n ts fo r e le c tric su p p ly u tilities an d
in d u s tria l facilities th a t u se d h e a v y -p o w e r e q u ip m e n t. In 1888, fo r e x a m p le,
w ith th e h e lp o f s e v e ra l b a n k s. A E G esta b lish e d A lu m in u m - ln d u s tr ie A.G.
in N e u h a u s e n , S w itz e rla n d . By 1900 A E G h a d e sta b lish e d 2 48 p o w e r p lan ts
w ith a to tal ca p a c ity o f 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 h .p .8 A E G also g re w by a m a lg a m a tio n , the
e s ta b lis h m e n t o l Interessengemeinschaft (ad hoc c o m m o n - in te re s t o rg a n iz a
tions), a n d c a rte l (p ric e -c o n tro l) a r r a n g e m e n ts . W ith th e U n io n E lektrizi5 Q uoted in Sigfrid von W ciher, Werner von Siemens: A Life in the Service o f Science. Technology
and Industry (1970; Eng. trans.. C ou in g en : Musicrschn>idl. 1975), p. 73.
0 Von Siemens, House of Siemens, 1:115.
If, how ever, the 7,400 em ployees o f Sclmckerl Sc Co. arc included, then the Siemenscontrolled en terp rise was larger. In 1903 Siemens Sc l lalskc a nd Scluickert Sc Co. o f Niirnberg
established a bolding com pany, Sicm rns-Schuckerlw erke. T h e new entity operated the electric
pow er equipm ent m anu factu rin g facilities o f the two com panies. T h e shareholding, man
agem ent, and profits ol Siem ens-Schuckertwcrke were weighted slightly in favor of Siemens
Sc Halske. Siemens Sc I talske held 45.05 million m arks o f the holding com panys capital;
Scluickert, 44.95 million. Von Siemens. House of Siemens. 1:192, 196.
" C o n rad Maischoss, "Die gcschithilichc Eniwicklung d e r A llgemcinen Eleklriciiats-Cesellschaft in den crstcn 25 Jahrcn ilnes B cstchens. fleitrage cur Geschichte der Tecknik und
Industrie I (1909): 62.

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tais-G c se llsch a ft ( f o u n d e d by L u d w ig L oew e a n d T h o m s o n -H o u s to n I n
te rn a tio n a l). A E G fo rm e d a n Interesxengrmeimchaft th a t d iv id e d th e m ark et
a n d p ro fits in th e e le c tric s tr e e tc a r field , w h e re U n io n h a d a firm positio n .
In 1903 Em il K a th e n a u , th e fo u n d e r o f A E G , r e a c h e d an a g re e m e n t w ith
G e n e r a l E le ctric in A m e ric a to d iv id e th e ir w o rld m a rk e ts: A EG w ould
c o n tin u e to b e p r e e m in e n t in E u ro p e ; G E , in N o rth A m erica . A EG a n d
G E a lso a g r e e d to c o o p e ra te in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e R ie d le r-S tu m p l a n d
C u rtis s te a m - tu rb in e p a te n ts w h e n stea m tu rb in e s b e g a n d isp la c in g re c ip
ro c a tin g s te a m e n g in e s in p o w e r sta tio n s. A E G f u r th e r s tr e n g th e n e d its
p o sitio n in th e tu r b in e field by e x c h a n g in g stock w ith th e Swiss elec trica l
m a n u f a c tu r in g firm B ro w n , B o v eri & C o m p a n y , w hich h e ld rig h ts to m a n
u f a c tu r e th e P a rso n s tu r b in e .n
A E G s in f lu e n c e a m o n g G e r m a n utilities th r o u g h stock o w n e r s h ip was
e x te n siv e . B ec au se th e c o n tro l w as th a t o f a s u p p lie r o v e r its m a rk e t, th e
r e la tio n s h ip r e s e m b le d v ertica l in te g ra tio n . In 191 1 A E G o w n e d so m e p a ri
o f 1 14 p u b lic p o w e r p la n ts (Elektrizitatswerke), a n d th e se su p p lie d 3 1 p e rc e m
o f th e c o n n e c te d e le c tric lo a d in G e rm a n y . S ie m e n s-S c h u c k e ri o w n e d a
p a r t o f 80 p o w e r p la n ts, a n d th e s e s u p p lie d 6.3 p e rc e n t o f th e c o n n e c te d
lo a d . T h e tw o m a n u f a c tu r e r s h e ld a d is p r o p o r tio n a te in te re si in th e re l
atively few la rg e -c a p a c ity p la n ts r a th e r th a n in th e la rg e n u m b e r o f sm all
o n e s. P o w e r p la n ts w ith a c a p a c ity o f m o re th a n 10,000 kw. s u p p lie d 34.6
p e r c e n t o f th e c o n n e c te d lo a d , a n d th e tw o m a n u fa c tu r e rs o w n e d an in
te re s t in th e tw elve o f th e se th a t s u p p lie d 26.4 p e rc e n t o f th e lo a d ." M uch
o f th e c ap a city o f th e c e n tr a l sta tio n s in w hich A E G h a d in v este d was lo cated
in B e rlin o r its s u b u r b s a n d w as o p e r a te d by th e A E G su b sid ia ry , th e
B e rlin e r E le k tric ita ts-W e rk e (B E W ).
C o n s id e rin g th e in v e s tm e n t n e tw o rk a n d A E G s p ivotal ro le in it. ii is
n o t s u r p r is in g th a t E m il R a th e n a u , th e c o m p a n y 's f o u n d e r, was kn o w n in
G e rm a n y as th e in v e n to r o f th e p rin c ip le o f m a rk e t c re a tio n th r o u g h in
v e stm e n t fin a n c in g . R a th e n a u also f o u n d e d a n d p re s id e d o v e r th e B e rlin e r
E le k tric ita ts-W e rk e u n til his d e a t h ." L ike th a t o f W e rn e r von S iem ens.
R a lh e n a u 's n a m e lo o m s la rg e in th e h isto ry o f th e electric al in d u s try in
G e rm a n y a n d also in th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f B erlin as its Elektropalis, b ut while
von S ie m e n s c a m e to r e p r e s e n t in v e n tio n , e n g in e e r in g , a n d in d u stria l sci
en c e , R a th e n a u sto o d f o r th e p o w e rfu l a n d w idely in flu e n tia l in te ra c tio n
o f in v e s tm e n t c a p ita l, in d u s tria l e n te r p r is e , a n d hig h ly o rg a n iz e d m a r k e t
in g . H is so n , W a lth e r (1 8 6 7 - 1 9 2 2 ), s u c c e e d e d h im as h e a d o f A EG in 1915
a n d w e n t o n to d isp la y o r g a n iz a tio n a l a b ilitie s o n an ev en g re a te r stage
th a n h a d his fa th e r. D u rin g W o rld W a r I, W a lth e r d ire c te d th e allo catio n
o f G e rm a n y s re s o u rc e s , a n d sh o rtly th e r e a f te r h e se rv e d as m in iste r o f
re c o n s tr u c tio n (19 2 1 ) a n d f o re ig n m in is te r (1922). H e was a ssa ssin ated by
n a tio n a listic a n d a n ti-S e m itic fan atics w h o o p p o s e d , a m o n g o th e r th in g s,
0 Ibid., pp. 64-65.
10 llclga Nussbaum , "V crsuchc zur reichsgeselzlichen Rcgclung tin d c u isrh rn F.lrktri/ilatswirlschafl u n d zu ilircr U bciTulirung in R cichsrigentum , 1909 bis 1914," /nhrhurh fin
WirLschaftsgesclnclite (Berlin. 1968). pi. 3. pp. 137-38.
" See pp. 6 6 -7 8 above for a discussion o f R athenau and the founding of AFC- and BEW.
Biographies o f Emil R alhcnau include A. Ricdler, limil Rathenau und das Werden drr Cross
urirlschaft (Berlin: Springer, 1916), and Felix Pinner. F.mrl Rathenau und das elehtnsrhe Zeitalter
(Ixtipzig: Akadcmischc V erlagsgcscllsrhafi, 1918).

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Figure V II.I. Headquarters o f Berliner

Electnnlnls-Werke and Allgemeine
Elektriiitdts-Cesellschaft, Berlin, 1891.
From Orfizicllc Zciuing . . . Frankfurt
am Main 1891. p. 16).

his d e s ire to fulfill th e r e p a r a tio n s te rm s o f th e p e a c e s e ttle m e n t. W a lth e r,

w ho was p a ssio n a te ly c o m m itte d to p h ilo s o p h y a n d th e a rts, p ro b a b ly e n
c o u ra g e d his f a th e r to a p p o in t th e fa m o u s a rc h ite c t P e te r B e h re n s (1868
1940) as a rt a n d a rc h ite c tu ra l a d v ise r to A E G . B e h re n s d e s ig n e d th e fam o u s
1909 A E G tu r b in e fa c to ry in B e rlin . H e also d e s ig n e d v a rio u s e lectrical
a p p lia n c e s m a n u f a c tu r e d by th e c o m p a n y .12
N o a c c o u n t o f th e B erlin e n v iro n m e n t in w hich th e R a th e n a u s n u r tu r e d
A E G a n d B E W w o u ld b e a d e q u a te w ith o u t d u e e m p h a s is o n th e ro le o f
th e in v e s tm e n t b a n k s (Kreditbanken) th e r e . C o n s id e ra tio n o f th e se a n d th e ir
r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e ele ctric al in d u s try foc u ses a tte n tio n o n G e o rg von
S ie m e n s. A c o u sin o f W e r n e r s, G e o rg ro se th r o u g h th e ra n k s to beco m e
a h e a d o f th e D e u tsc h e B an k in B e rlin a f te r h a v in g w o rk e d fo r S ie m e n s
8c H alsk e. T h e D e u tsc h e B a n k w as o n e o f th e le a d in g Kreditbanken, w hich
w e re, in e ffe c t, a c o m b in a tio n o f c o m m e rc ia l a n d in v e stm e n t b a n k s, b an k s
th a t h a v e b e e n c h a ra c te r iz e d by m a n y h is to ria n s as th e c e n te r s o f g re a t
in d u s tria l in flu e n c e alm o st c o n tr o l d u r in g th e r a p id in d u s tria liz a tio n o f
G e rm a n y a f te r 1 8 7 1 .1:1 G e o rg v on S ie m e n s a d v ise d a n d assisted in th e
fin a n c in g o f b o th S ie m e n s 8c H alsk e a n d R a th e n a u 's e n te r p r is e s u n til A EG
'* Rooks an d articles about and by W alihcr Ralhcnau arc num erous, but most focus on his
political views, economic and social philosophy, and aesthetic interests. H erm ann Brinckm cycr, Die Rathenaus (M unich: W ieland, 1922), does direct attention to his AEG association.
15 H ugh Nett b urger, "T he Industrial Politics o f the KredtlbanJlen. 1880-1914." Business His
tory Review 51 (1977): I90--207. challenges the arg u m en t that the banks dom inated the bankindustry relationship in G erm any, a thesis advanced by Rudolf H ilferding, Das Fmanikapital
(Vienna: V crlag d c r W einer V olksbuchhandlung, 1923), and others. N euburger sees the
relationship as one am ong negotiating, autonom ous powers. T his view is also advanced in
Kocka, Untemehmensverwallung. p. 431.

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b e c a m e a s tro n g m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p e tito r o f th e S ie m e n s firm . In 1896
G e o rg re s ig n e d his c h a irm a n s h ip o f th e b o a rd o f A E G w h e n his p la n , w hich
was fo r A E G to fu n c tio n p rim a rily as a fin a n c e r o f utilitie s a n d p o w e r
p la n ts a n d S ie m e n s as a m a n u f a c tu r e r , was o b v iously n o lo n g e r viable.
G e o rg von S ie m e n s h a d g re a t re sp e c t f o r R a th e n a u , b e liev in g him to be
th e b est fin an cial a n d c o m m e rc ia l h e a d in th e in d u s try , b u t A E G s m a n a g e rs
b e lie v ed th a t G e o rg , b ec a u se o f his re lativ e s, was to o d e e p ly inv o lv ed in a
c o n flic t-o f-in te re st situ a tio n . F o r his p a rt, G e o rg th o u g h t th a t R a th e n a u
w as o v e r e x te n d e d as fin a n c ie r, m a n u f a c tu r e r , a n d o p e r a to r o f elec trica l
u tilities. A E G m a d e a p ro fit fro m se llin g h eavy m a c h in e ry , se llin g th e u tility
s h a re s it lo o k in p a y m e n t f o r th e e q u ip m e n t, a n d th e n fro m o p e ra tin g
so m e o f th e utilities. A lth o u g h G e o rg von S ie m e n s, w ith his G e r m a n se n se
o f o r d e r a n d c o o p e r a tio n , w as f r u s tr a te d in his a tte m p t to b a la n c e th e
ac tivities o f th e tw o le a d in g m a n u fa c tu re r s , h e was ab le to b rin g ab o u t th e
tra n s f o r m a tio n o f S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e fro m a n o n s h a re , fa m ily -o w n ed e n
te rp ris e to a sto c k c o m p a n y w h o se s h a re s w e re o w n e d by th e fam ily. T h is
m a d e it possib le f o r b a n k s su ch as th e D e u tsc h e B an k , w hich m a d e lo a n s
to S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e , to p lac e m e m b e rs o n th e b o a rd o f d ire c to rs (A u fsichstrat) o f th e s h a re c o m p a n y .14
M o tiv ated by in d u s tr ia l n e e d s a n d th e d e s ir e to seize te c h n o lo g ic a l o p
p o rtu n itie s , B e rlin d e v e lo p e d a n e x e m p la ry tra n s p o rta tio n system . As was
th e c ase in C h ic a g o , B e rlin s e le c tric u tility su p p lie d th e p o w e r w h e n m u c h
o f th e c itys tr a n s p o r ta tio n sy stem was e le c trifie d . E a rlie r, th e P ru ssia n sta te
b e c a m e in v o lv ed in th e p la n n in g a n d f u n d in g o f a tra n sit system in o r d e r
to facilitate m ilitary m obilization by railway. T h e locadon o f in d u stry , w o rk e r
se ttle m e n ts, a n d m id d le -c la ss s u b u r b a n n e ig h b o rh o o d s , as well as m ilitary
c o n s id e ra tio n s , s h a p e d th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e s ta le s tra n s p o r ta tio n n etw o rk .
B e rlin , like L o n d o n a n d P aris, was a railw ay n o d a l p o in t; tw elve m ain lines
c o n v e rg e d o n it. C o n c e rn e d , as L o n d o n h a d b e e n , th a t a d d itio n a l m a in
lin e railw ay sta tio n s in c e n te r city w o u ld m a r a n d c o n g est, B e rlin rin g e d
itse lf w ith m a in -lin e sta tio n s. T h e s e w ere c o n n e c te d by a Ringbahn ( rin g
ra ilr o a d ), w h ich o p e n e d in se ctio n s b e g in n in g in 1872 a n d w hich, a fte r
1882, fe d in to th e Stadtbahn (city railw ay ) th a t e x te n d e d acro ss B e rlin
fro m east to w est. C o n n e c tin g w ith th e Stadtbahn, str e e tc a r lines h o n e y
co m b e d th e city. T h e e le v a te d p o rtio n o f th e Stadtbahn was c a rr ie d a b o u t
tw e n ty fe e l ab o v e th e stre e ts, a n d its s ta tio n s a r e rich in histo rica l c o n n o
ta tio n s F rie d ric h s tra s s e , Z o o lo g isc h e r G a rte n , a n d A le x a n d e rp la tz . D e
s p ite b o th th e e x c e lle n c e a n d th e o rig in a l excess c apacity o f th e Stadtbahn,
as well as th e e x te n s io n s o f th e s tr e e tc a r lines, in c re a se d d e m a n d a n d g ro w
in g co n g e stio n led in 1896 to th e s ta r t o f c o n s tru c tio n o f a n ele v a te d a n d
sub w ay sy stem a cro ss c e n te r city, m ostly to th e s o u th o f th e Stadtbahn. T h e
city d e m a n d e d th a t th e system g o u n d e r g r o u n d in th e w estern se ction to
e lim in a te n o ise a n d tra ffic in th e c h o ic e re sid e n tia l a re a s in th e vicinity o f
C h a rlo tie n b u r g . E a rlie r th e city in siste d th a t elec tric stre e tc a rs ru n o f f
sto ra g e b a tte rie s in c e n te r city to av oid u n sig h tly a n d d a n g e r o u s o v e rh e a d
p o w e r lines. B ec au se o f tec h n ical p ro b le m s w ith s to ra g e b a tte rie s, h o w ev er,
th e r e q u ir e m e n t w as su b se q u e n tly e a se d . At th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry th e

14 Von Siemens, House o f Siemnu, I: 148-49, 154-58.

182

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
U.S. c o n su l g e n e ra l in B e rlin a tte s te d lo th e a rtistic b e a u ty , th e a rc h ite c tu ra l
c h a rm , th e fitness, a n d th e g e n e r a l e x celle n ce o f th e B erlin system s o f m ass
tr a n s it.15
As in o th e r in d u s tria liz in g cities, ele c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r h e lp e d sh a p e
B e rlin s a rc h ite c tu re ; d e e p ly in flu e n c e d th e d e sig n o f its fa cto rie s, an d
w o rk sh o p s, a n d c h em ic al p la n ts; s tim u la te d in d u s tria l g ro w th ; d e te rm in e d
th e lo c atio n o f th e city s tra n s p o r ta tio n sy stem s; p ro v id e d te le p h o n e a n d
te le g r a p h c o m m u n ic a tio n ; a n d , w h e n s u b s titu te d fo r steam p o w e r, le sse n ed
no ise a n d d irt. In s h o r t, e le c trific a tio n a ffe c te d th e way in w hich w o rk ers
la b o re d , m a n a g e m e n t o rg a n iz e d , a n d B e rlin e rs lived. B e ca u se o f this, th e
p riv a te c o m p a n y th a t s u p p lie d m ost o f th e ele c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r for
B e rlin u n til 1915, a n d th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t th a t r e g u la le d e lectrical
su p p ly , s h a p e d th e h isto ry o f B e rlin .
O n th e e ve o f W o rld W a r I, th e B e rlin e r E le k lric ita ts-W e rk e (BEW )
ra n k e d as o n e o f t h e w o r ld s le a d in g e le c tric su p p ly u tilities. E n g in e e rs a n d
m a n a g e rs lo o k e d to it, a lo n g w ith th e C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n C o m p a n y of
C h ic a g o , as p a c e s e tte rs in th e e sta b lish m e n t o f w o rld s ta n d a rd s , b o th te c h
nical a n d c o m m e rc ia l, f o r th e ele c tric su p p ly in d u s try . T h e city e n g in e e rs
o f M e lb o u rn e . A u stra lia , in c lu d e d B erlin a n d B E W o n th e ir w o rld to u r in
1912, o b s e rv in g th a t " o n th e C o n tin e n t o n e n a tu ra lly visits B e rlin , being
elec trica lly th e m o st im p o rta n t city, n o t o n ly f ro m an e le c tric s u p p ly p o in t
o f view , b u t o n a c c o u n t o f th e fact th a t th e tw o m ost p o w e rfu l electrical
m a n u f a c tu r in g c o n c e rn s in E u r o p e h a v e th e ir fa c to rie s h e r e . 16 In 1913
G e o r g K lin g e n b e rg , h e a d o f A E G s p o w e r- p la n t d iv isio n , b r o u g h t th e d e
tails o f B e rlin s e le c tric su p p ly sy ste m to th e a tte n tio n o f th e te c h n ic a l w orld
in his an aly sis o f th e u tilities in th e G e rm a n c a p ita l, C h ic a g o , a n d L o n d o n .17
S a m u e l In su ll o f C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n in c lu d e d th e B e rlin system in his
co m p a ris o n s o f th e te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic c h a ra c te ris tic s o f le a d in g util
ities. In G e r m a n y , B E W w as th e la rg e st o f th e u r b a n u tilities.
T h o s e w h o c o m p a r e d th e s la te o f ele c trific a tio n in v a rio u s cities fo u n d
th a t B e rlin h a d lit th e s tre e ts o f th e m e tro p o lis b e a u tifu lly , in p a r t w ith arc
lig h tin g fro m B E W a n d in p a r t w ith g aslig h t fro m th e city -o w n e d p la n t.
T h e d e le g a tio n o f e n g in e e rs f ro m M e llx m rn e w ax e d e lo q u e n t. B e rlin s
stre e ts , th e y said , w e re a m o n g th e fin e st in th e w o rld w id e, sm o o th , a n d
clea n . N o w h e re else was th e r e a th o r o u g h f a r e m o re b e a u tif u l th a n U n te r
d e n L in d e n as it s tre tc h e d th r o u g h th e h e a r t o f th e city a n d in to th e
Tiergarten. Its lig h tin g w as s u p p lie d by new ly in tr o d u c e d fla m e -a rc lam ps.
T h e s tre e t w as so sm o o th th a t a c o n s id e ra b le p ro p o r tio n o f th e y o u th ,
m a le a n d fe m a le , d u r in g th e ir le isu re , d is p o rt th e m se lv e s o n r o lle r skates,
in c u rrin g th e r e b y so m e c o n s id e r a b le risk fro m th e r a p id a u to m o b ile s th at
a b o u n d e v e ry w h e re ." T he le a d in g th o r o u g h f a r e s , w ith o r w ith o u t sk a te rs,
h a d a rc lig h ts, a n d o th e r stre e ts h a d e x c e lle n t g a s lig h tin g .18
13 Frank I I. Mason, "T ran sp o rtatio n Problems and Progress in G erm any." U.S. Consular
Reports, no. 273 (June 1903), p. 176; idem. "New Electric U n d erground and Elevated Railway
at Berlin," Advanre Sheets of U.S. Consular Reports, 29 March 1902, p. 7.
lr>City o f M elbourne, City Electncal Engineers' Notes on Tour Abroad (M elbourne. Australia.
1912), p. 13.
-lOt)7 tie 0 r* Klin,?C,,,,CrK "tlc c l,itil> Supply in U rg e Cities," The Electrician 72 (1913): 398'"C ily o f M elbourne, Engineers' Notes, p. 38.

B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S
A s e a rly as 1890 B e rlin s u tility was s u p e rio r , in m a n y p a rtic u la rs , to that
in N ew Y o rk , th e city w h e re E d iso n h a d in a u g u ra te d c e n tra l-s ta tio n elec tric
lig h tin g . J o h n B eggs, v ic e -p re sid e n t o f th e E d iso n E lectric Illu m in a tin g
C o m p a n y o f N ew Y o rk , p a id a p ro fe ssio n a l visit to K a th e n a u 's B erlin fa
cilities in th e s p r in g o f 1890, a n d his r e p o rts g low ed w ith a d m ira tio n . In
his e s tim a tio n a n d h e h a d in sp e c te d sta tio n s in A m e ric a a n d E u r o p e
B e r lin s c e n tr a l sta tio n s h a d a tta in e d th e g re a te st d e g r e e o f p e rfe c tio n
re a c h e d u p to th e p r e s e n t tim e ." H e f o u n d th e m , a rc h ite c tu ra lly , m e
c h an ica lly a n d electric ally c o n s id e re d , m o d e ls o f n e a tn e ss, e ffic ie n cy , re li
ability, e c o n o m y a n d p e rm a n e n c y .10
T h e h isto ry o f c e n tr a l-s ta tio n su p p ly in B erlin b e fo r e th e e sta b lish m e n t
o f A E G o r B E W , its fully o w n e d s u b sid ia ry , h a s a lre a d y b e e n to ld (sec p p .
6 6 - 7 6 a b ove). In 1884 D e u tsc h e E d iso n G e se llsc h a ft (D E C ), th e R a th e n a u
c o m p a n y th a t h e ld E d iso n p a te n ts , e s ta b lish e d th e S ta d tisc h e E lektri/.itatsW e rk e (StE W ) to ta k e o v e r th e s u p p ly fra n c h is e th a t h a d b e e n giv e n to
D E C by th e city o f B e rlin . T h e ne w c o m p a n y b u ilt c e n tr a l s ta tio n s in B erlin
o n M a rk g ra f e n s tr a s s e a n d M a u e rstra sse , o p e n in g th e m in 1885 a n d 1886
resp e ctiv ely . In 1887 S lE W s n a m e was c h a n g e d to B e rlin e r Elect ricitiiisW e rk e , a n d R a lh e n a u fo u n d e d A E G . A E G th e n to o k o v e r th e m a n a g e m e n t
o f B E W , lo c a te d th e B E W o ffic es in th e sa m e b u ild in g w ith its o w n o n
S ch le g e lstra sse , a n d f o r m e d a c o m m o n m a n a g e m e n t, o r ex e c u tiv e , b o a rd
( Vorstand) c o n sistin g o f R a th e n a u , O s k a r von M iller, a n d Felix D e u tsch .
T h e to n e o f th e a n n u a l r e p o r t o f th e B e rlin e r E le k iric ita ts-W e rk e was
sa n g u in e fo r a y e a r a n d a h a lf a f te r th is re o rg a n iz a tio n . T h e lig h tin g o f
U n te r d e n L in d e n , th e b ro a d th o r o u g h f a r e fro m P a rise r Platz to S p a n d a u e r s tr a s s e , w as g r e e te d [by] th e citiz en s o f B e rlin a n d by th e e n tire
elec trical in d u s try w ith j o y .20 T h e r a p id in c re a se in d e m a n d e m b o ld e n e d
th e c o m p a n y s d ir e c to r s to in stall c ap acity b e y o n d th e lo a d th a t c o u ld be
im m e d ia te ly c o n n e c te d . T h e y w e re n o t c o n c e rn e d th a t c ap a city w o u ld sta n d
id le; th e d e m o n s tr a te d p r e f e r e n c e o f th e p u b lic fo r e le ctric lig h t, especially
th e lively n ig h tlife o f t h e city, th e e re c tio n o f n u m e ro u s new b u ild in g s a n d
th e r isin g living s ta n d a r d s o f th e city" a ssu re d th e m th a t th e sy ste m s load
w o u ld so o n a g a in r e a c h th e lim its o f c a p a c ity .21
B EW so o n r a n k e d as th e la rg e st o f th e G e r m a n utilities. T h e first a n n u a l
statistics p u b lis h e d in th e 1895 Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, G ei m a n y s m ost
a u th o rita tiv e jo u r n a l in th e fie ld , sh o w e d th e B e rlin u tility r a n k in g well
a h e a d o f its clo sest rivals, H a m b u rg , F ra n k fo rt o n th e M ain, a n d M unich.
A t th a t lim e B E W h a d f o u r c e n tra l sta tio n s; all s u p p lie d d ire c t c u rre n t,
a n d th e y h a d a to ta l g e n e r a tin g c ap a city o f a b o u t 9 ,9 0 0 kw. T h e m u n ic ip a l
w orks in H a m b u r g h a d a ca p ac ity o f a b o u t 2 ,4 0 0 kw. A d e c a d e la te r, BEW ,
w ith a ca p a city o f 8 5 ,1 0 0 kw ., c o n tin u e d to o u tp a c e o th e r u rb a n utilities.
T h e H a m b u r g e r E le k tric ita tsw e rk e fo llow ed w ith 2 5 ,4 0 0 kw. In 1913, o n

'Jolin Beggs lo Board o f D irectors o f EEI Co.. New York, 8 April 1890, published in
Payson Jones, A Power History o f the Consolidated Edison System. 1878-1900 (New York: C on
solidated Edison Co., 1940), p. 331.
,0 B erliner Elcklriciliils-W erkc, Sechster Geschaftsbericht der Actirn-Gesellschaft Herhner EleklricilAts-Werke belreffenddas Gesehdflsjahr vom I. Januar 1887 bis JO.Jum 1888 (Berlin: BEW, 1888),
p. I.
Ibid.. p. 2.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

th e eve o f W o rld W a r I, B E W was still a h e a d , w ith a ca p ac ity o f 192,700
kw ., c o m p a re d to th e H a m b u r g u tility s 4 4 ,3 0 0 kw .22
B e rlin , th e n , was a n in d u s tria liz in g , w e ll-o rd e re d ca p ital th a t s u sta in e d
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o d e r n te c h n o lo g y , e sp ecially elec trica l te c h n o lo g y .
B E W u se d th e m o st a d v a n c e d lig h t a n d p o w e r e q u ip m e n t a n d p re sid e d
o v e r th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e g e n e ra l u r b a n system th a t h a d b e e n in v e n te d
a n d d e v e lo p e d d u r in g th e b a ttle o f th e sy stem s." A E G o w n e d B EW a n d
u sed it as a site fo r full-scale te stin g o f new te c h n o lo g y . B esid e s A EG
e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs , th e e x p e rts at S ie m e n s 8c H a lsk e, by v irtu e of
th e ir p re s e n c e in B e rlin , s tim u la te d B E W to e xcel. T h e C h a rlo tte n b u rg
Technische Hochschule a n d th e U n iv e rsity o f B e rlin also e n h a n c e d th e sp irit
o f a c h ie v e m e n t. The m u n ic ip a l g o v e r n m e n t w as n o t, h o w e v e r, o v era w ed
by th e te c h n ic a l, m a n a g e r ia l, scie n tific , a n d fin a n cial p o w e r o f its p riv a te
utility. B e rlin s offic ials d re w u p o n th e p r o u d tra d itio n o f th e P ru ssia n civil
serv ice , d e m a n d in g a n d re c e iv in g th e s a m e r e sp e c t a n d a u th o r ity th a t public
offic ia ls o f th e sta te a n d n a tio n a l g o v e r n m e n ts re c e iv e d . T h e s tro n g B erlin
g o v e rn m e n t stro v e to d ire c t a n d re g u la te its p u b lic utilitie s, in c lu d in g ele c
tricity, in o r d e r to fulfill its h ig h s ta n d a r d s a n d lo satisfy th e m o re b ro a d ly
e n f r a n c h is e d e le c to ra te s in c re a s in g d e m a n d fo r p u b lic services. A lw ays in
th e b a c k g ro u n d , in a n e ra o f s p r e a d in g m u n ic ip a l so cialism , o r m u n ic ip a l
o w n e r s h ip o f utilitie s, was th e possibility th a t socialists a n d th e ir allies in
th e Stadtverordnetenversam m lung w o u ld la k e o v e r th e u tility w h e n its fr a n
c h ise e x p ir e d . T h e socialists a rg u e d th a t g o v e rn m e n t o w n e rs h ip w ould
b rin g serv ic e th a t w as m o re re sp o n siv e to th e e le c to ra te th a n th a t p ro v id e d
by th e p riv a te u tility. U n til su ch a n e v e n tu a lity , h o w e v e r, th e city was d e
te rm in e d to ta x th e re v e n u e s o f th e u tility in o r d e r to m e e t th e in c re a sin g
cost o f social w e lfa re.
B e rlin b e fo re W o rld W a r I, th e r e f o r e , is a n e x c e lle n t se ttin g f o r a stu d y
o f th e in te ra c tio n s o f a n e ffe c tiv e , in f o r m e d , a n d s tr o n g re g u la to r y a u
th o rity w ith a w e ll-m a n a g e d , w e ll-lin a n c e d , a n d te c h n o lo g ic a lly a d v a n c e d
p riv a te e n te r p r is e s u p p o r te d by v a rio u s fin a n cial a n d b a n k in g in tere sts.
T h e v a rio u s c o n tra c ts n e g o tia te d b e tw e e n th e city a n d th e u tility m an ifest
n o t o n ly th e city s d e te r m in a tio n to s h a r e in th e re v e n u e s o f th e p riv a te
c o m p a n y b u t a lso th e k in d a n d e x te n t o f se rv ice s th e m u n ic ip a lity b elieved
its c o n s u m e r s w h e th e r h o u s e h o ld , c o m m e rc ia l, tra c tio n , o r in d u s tria l
s h o u ld have. In a d d itio n to th e p ro fit d r iv e , th e c o n tra c ts re fle c t th e u tility s
d e c isio n s a b o u t w h a t was, o r w as to be, tec h n ic ally feasib le. Finally, th e
a r r a n g e m e n ts m a d e b e tw e e n th e tw o p a rlie s m a n ife st th e te c h n ic a l style o f
a la rg e-sc ale, c a p ita l-in te n siv e , scie n c e -b a se d e n te rp ris e . As in E n g la n d ,
r e g u la to ry le g isla tio n c o u ld h av e r e ta r d e d te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e by im p o s
in g c o n d itio n s th a t re fle c te d a n o u tm o d e d sla te o f tec h n o lo g y o r by im
p o sin g lim its to g r o w th , b u t in B e rlin th is w as n o t th e case. As in C hicago,
po litician s co u ld h a v e b e e n so p lia n t as to h av e little e ffe c t o n th e utility,
b u t, a g a in , th is was n o t tr u e in B e rlin . B e rlin m a n a g e d to c o o r d in a te te c h
nical a n d p o litical p o w e r a n d c r e a te a w o rk in g p olitical e c o n o m y .
" T h e s e statistics arc taken from Elektrotechmchr Z.eitschrift 16 (IH95): 223-26; 26 (1905):
24; and 34 (1913): 1450. N um bers have been ro u n d ed o ff to the nearest 100 kw. In the
statistics for 1913, DiisscldoiT-Kcisholz and Gleiwitz rank ahead of H am burg, but these are
assumed to he area supply stations rath e r than u rban utilities.

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B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S
T h e first c o n tra c tu a l a g re e m e n t was re a c h e d in 1884 b e tw e e n th e city
a n d D e u tsc h e E d iso n G e se llsc h a ft a n d in c o r p o ra te d e sse n tial c a te g o rie s
fo u n d in la te r a g re e m e n ts . B e rlin re q u ire d an in c o m e fro m th e utility, a n d
th e c o n tr a c t s p e c ifie d th a t 10 p e r c e n t o f th e u tility 's g ro ss in c o m e a n d 25
p e r c e n t o f its a n n u a l n e t p ro fit w o u ld g o to th e city. T h e s e p e rc e n ta g e s
w ere c a lc u la te d a f te r a d iv id e n d o f 6 p e r c e n t o n sh a re c ap ita l was d e c la re d
a n d d e d u c te d . In a d d itio n , th e city w o u ld re g u la te ra te s by r e q u ir in g M a g
istral a p p ro v a l o f p ric e s fo r ele ctric ity s u p p lie d to c u sto m e rs. B eca u se th e
city w a n te d th e e x c itin g n e w lig h t fo r its stre e ts a n d p u b lic b u ild in g s, th e
p ric e fo r th is serv ic e w as sp e c ifie d . T h e u tility was r e q u ir e d to s u p p ly an y
c u s to m e rs w h o a g r e e d to la k e serv ice fo r th r e e y ears.
T h e w o rd in g o n c o m p u ls o r y p u r c h a s e a n d th e d u r a tio n o f t h e fra n c h ise
c a u se d d e b a te a n d c r e a te d p ro b le m s. T h e B e rlin n e g o tia to rs u n d o u b te d ly
re c a lle d th e c o n f u s in g a n d g e n e ra lly n e g a tiv e im p a c t o f th e c o m p u lso ry p u rc h a s e c la u se e n a c te d by th e B ritish P a rlia m e n t in 1882. A c c o rd in g to
th e B e rlin -D E G a g r e e m e n t, th e fra n c h is e w as in te n d e d to e x te n d fo r th irty
y e ars, b u t u p o n tw o y e a r s n o tic e a f te r 1 O c to b e r 1895 th e city w o u ld be
a b le to d e m a n d p u rc h a s e a t th e la x v alue. I f th e city ra ise d th e ta x es o n
th e u tility, th e p u r c h a s e p ric e f o r th e city th e n in c re a se d (a s u b tle co n tro l).
T h e a g r e e m e n t sp e c ifie d a s well th a t th e u tility h a d to set asid e 2 p e rc e n t
o f its g ro ss in c o m e y ea rly u n til it h a d a d e p re c ia tio n a n d r e p la c e m e n t fu n d
a m o u n tin g to 20 p e rc e n t o f th e sh a re capital. T h is provision g u a rd e d against
a p riv a te c o n c e r n s r u n n in g d o w n its p la n t b e fo re th e tim e o f c o m p u lso ry
p u rc h a s e .
A n in te re s tin g a rtic le in th e 1884 c o n tr a c t p ro v id e d th a t th e city w ould
h a v e lo pay 150 p e r c e n t o f th e a p p ra is e d v alu e if th e u tility was ta k e n o v e r
a f te r fifte e n y e a rs, a n d 3.3 3 p e r c e n t m o re f o r ea ch y e a r less th a n th e fifte en .
F o r e a ch y e a r in exc ess o f fifte e n , th e p ric e w o u ld be re d u c e d by 3.75
p e rc e n t. T h e in te n t w as to c o m p e n s a te th e o w n e rs fo r to o s h o rt a p e rio d
in w hich to o b ta in a r e tu r n o n th e ir in v e stm e n t. T h e e ffe c t was th a t a fte r
tw e n ty -e ig h t y e a rs B e rlin c o u ld p u r c h a s e th e u tility w ith o u t p a y in g a p r e
m iu m .23
W h a t d id th e p riv a te c o m p a n y receive? In esse n ce , th e city c o n c e d e d a
m o n o p o ly o n a n in n e r-c ity a re a w ith a ra d iu s, c e n te re d o n th e W e rd e rsc h
M a rk e t, o f a b o u t h a lf a m ile. T h e a re a m a tc h e d th e e c o n o m ical d is trib u tio n
a re a o f th e e a rly d .c. p la n t at th e P ea rl S tre e t s ta tio n in N ew Y ork. In this
a re a th e u tility c o u ld lay c o n d u c to r s u n d e r th e s tre e t, th u s also follow ing
th e P ea rl S tr e e t p r e c e d e n t. C o n s id e rin g th e stale o f th e tech n o lo g y , th e
a re a w as a p p r o p r ia te . T e c h n ic a l c h a n g e w o u ld so o n e x te n d th e r a n g e o f
d is trib u tio n , h o w e v e r, a n d th e n th e c o m p a n y w ould w an t th e fra n c h ise
e x te n d e d .
B e fo re th e tw o sid es r e a c h e d an a g r e e m e n t, th e Stadtverordnetenversam m lung e n g a g e d in h e a te d d e b a te . T o so m e m e m b e rs, th e g r a n tin g o f a
m o n o p o ly to a p r iv a te e n te r p r is e was a blow s tru c k ag a in st p ro g re ssiv e
m u n ic ip a l p rac tice . O th e rs fo u n d it h a rd to believe th a t th e city w ould
c o n s id e r c u ltiv a tin g a n elec tric lig h tin g system in p riv a te h a n d s w hile it
H ugo Meyer, "M unicipal O w nership in Germany, Journal o f Political Economy 14 (1906):
563; Robert C. Brooks, "M unicipalization o f the Berlin Electric W orks," Quarterly Journal of
Economic) 30 (1916): 192.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

o w n e d a n o p e r a tin g g a s lig h tin g p la n t in w hich it h a d in v e ste d heavily. T h e
p e rsu a siv e a r g u m e n t in fa v o r o f th e c o n tra c t w as th e sa m e as th a t u se d in
E n g la n d : b e c a u se e le c tric lig h tin g w as a new , u n p r o v e n te c h n o lo g y , p riv a te
e n te r p r is e sh o u ld ta k e th e risks, a n d th e fra n c h is e -g ra n tin g g o v e rn m e n t
sh o u ld s h a re th e in c o m e a n d look fo rw a rd to c o m p u ls o ry p u rc h a s e a fte r
th e u tility h a d b e e n tr ie d a n d p ro v e n . T a x p a y e r s m o n e y was n o t it was
th o u g h t th e n to be in v e ste d in te c h n ic a l in n o v a tio n s o f a c o m m e rc ia l k in d .
In lim e a la rg e m a jo rity o f th e c o m m o n c o u n c il a c c e p te d th e B erlin -D E G
a g r e e m e n t. A c c o rd in g to th e e n th u s ia s tic e n d o r s e m e n t o f o n e B e rlin new s
p a p e r , N o th in g c h a ra c te r iz e s th e s ig n ific a n c e o f a n ew c re a tio n b e lte r th a n
th a t a t th e m o m e n t o f b ir th it is re c o g n iz e d a s a c o m m o n g o o d fo r all.
O th e r cities a n d u tilitie s th r o u g h o u t G e rm a n y p a tte r n e d th e ir re la tio n sh ip s
o n th e B e rlin a r r a n g e m e n t.24
In la te r y e a rs B EW n e g o tia te d c o n tra c tu a l rev isio n s as B e rlin e rs o u tsid e
th e o rig in a l m o n o p o ly zo n e s o u g h t serv ice . R eq u e sts fo r e x te n s io n o f service
b r o u g h t a r e s p o n s e fro m th e m u n ic ip a l a u th o r itie s . T h e fra n c h is e service
a re a w as e x te n d e d to p r o v id e a lo a d fo r th e d ir e c t- c u r r e n t s ta tio n s o n
M a r k g r a fe n s tra s s e a n d M a u e rs tra s s e a n d fo r th e S p a n d a u e r s tr a s s e sta tio n ,
w hich o p e n e d in 1889. In 1890, h o w e v e r, th e M agistrat r e fu s e d to allow
e x p a n s io n o f B E W s facilities b e y o n d th e th r e e c e n tr a l s ta tio n s a lre a d y in
o p e r a tio n a n d a n o th e r u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n (S c h if fb a u e r d a m m ). F u r th e r
m o r e , th e city lim ite d e x p a n s io n o f B E W s to tal p la n t c ap a c ity to 2 8 ,0 0 0
h .p . T h is w as p ro b a b ly d o n e to p ro te c t th e lig h tin g m a r k e t o f th e cityo w n e d g a sw o rk s. T h e ra p id ly in c re a s in g d e m a n d fo r e le c tric ity , h o w e v e r,
so o n b ro u g h t s tr o n g p r e s s u re a g a in st th e se c o n s tra in ts . W ith in th e te rrito ry
o f s u p p ly , B E W m a d e a d ju s tm e n ts by th ic k e n in g its n e tw o rk o f d is tr ib u tio n
lin es a n d , w h e n th e d ista n c e s o f tra n s m is s io n e x c e e d e d g o o d d .c. prac tice,
by b u ild in g s to r a g e -b a tte ry su b s ta tio n s th a t co u ld b e c h a r g e d fro m th e
c e n tra l-s ta tio n g e n e r a to r s d u r in g th e lo w -load d a y lig h t h o u r s a n d th e n be
u se d to s u p p le m e n t th e su p p ly d u r in g th e h ea v y -lo a d e v e n in g h o u rs . B ut
th e m o r a to r iu m o n th e b u ild in g o f c e n tr a l sta tio n s a n d th e lim its o n p la n t
ca p ac ity f r u s tr a te d th e d r iv e o f B E W s m a n a g e r s a n d e n g in e e rs to e n h a n c e
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f ele c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r.
T h e d e m o n s tr a tio n o f a u n iv e rsa l su p p ly sy stem at th e C h ic a g o ex p o sitio n
in 1893 a n d o f th e te c h n o lo g y o f h ig h -v o lta g e p o w e r tra n sm issio n at L auffe n - F r a n k f o r t in 1891 m a d e o b so le te fro m th e v ie w p o in t o f B E W s e n
g in e e rs th e 1884 c o n tr a c t b e tw e e n th e city o f B erlin a n d B E W . In 1896.
p o ly p h a se e q u ip m e n t w as in tr o d u c e d at a new c e n tr a l sta tio n o n S c h iff
b a u e r d a m m (Fig. V I I .3). At th e c e n tra l sta tio n o n M a rk g ra fe n s tra s s e , e n
g in e e rs in sta lle d tr a n s f o r m e r s a n d c o n v e r te rs to c h a n g e 3,0 0 0 -v o lt poly
p h a se c u r r e n t fro m S c h iffb a u e rd a m m in to 2 2 0 -v o lt d ire c t c u r r e n t fo r
distrib u tio n . T h e tra n sfo rm a tio n o f th e M a rk g rafe n slra sse statio n th e first
c e n tra l s ta tio n in G e r m a n y in to a s u b s ta tio n was in d ic a tiv e o f th e sh ift to
th e u n iv e rsa l sy stem . T h e new tec h n o lo g y c h a lle n g e d o ld leg islatio n , a n d
th e c o n tra d ic tio n b e tw e e n tec h n o lo g y a n d le g islatio n s h a r p e n e d f u r th e r as
C onrad Matschoss, "G eschichilirhe Enlwicklung d e r Berliner Elekiricilais-W erke von
ih rcr B eg run du ng bis zur U bernalim e d u rrli die Sladt," Beitrage zur Geschichte der Technik und
Industrie 7 (1916): H; C onrad Matsclioss el al.. 50 Jahre Berliner Elektruitdtswerke. 1884-1934
(Berlin: VDI Verlag, n.d.), p. 12.

187

B1CHL1N: THX'I IN O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S

Figure V ll.3. h in t polyphase generator

in Berlin. Sclnffbauerdamm central station.
IS96 Courtesy of Berliner Kraft-und Licht
AC (formerly HEW).

th e c e n lra l-s ia lio n m a n a g e r s in B erlin so u g h t to s u p p ly th e rec en tly e le c

trifie d u r b a n tra n s it system w ith p o w e r. BF.VV w a n te d to b u ild a largep o ly p h a se s ta tio n o u ts id e city c e n te r in o r d e r to satisfy th e d e m a n d not
o n ly f o r lig h tin g b u t fo r s ta tio n a ry a n d tra c tio n p o w er. The u tility s goal
re fle c te d th e in te re s t o f A E G , th e m a n u f a c tu re r-o w n e r. in in tro d u c in g th e
new p o ly p h a se e q u ip m e n t its e n g in e e r M ichael D o livo-D obrow olsky had
d e v e lo p e d . Em il R a th e n a u c o n s id e re d b u ild in g a g ig an tic c e n tra l sta tio n "
o n th e S p re e R iver a b o u t te n m iles fro m th e city w h e re real esta te was
c h e a p e r , c o o lin g w a te r was av ailable, a n d coal d e liv ery a n d ash re m oval
w ere e a sier. T h e sta tio n w o u ld s u p p ly B e rlin by u sin g th re e -p h a s e tr a n s
m ission lo re a c h su b sta tio n s a n d th e c e n te r-c ity d is trib u tio n system .'"
B E W s n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e m u n ic ip a lity to o b ta in th e rig h ts to fulfill
th e se te ch n ica l possibilities w ere d ra w n o u t a n d d iffic u lt. D iscussion e x
te n d e d fro m th e s u m m e r o f 1897 u n til th e e n d o f 1898. B esides th e u tility s
d e te rm in a tio n to e x p a n d by fu lfillin g tec h n ica l possibilities a n d to o b ta in
p ro fits fro m r e la te d ec o n o m ie s, th e re was th e u n d e r ly in g issue o f p riv a te
v e rsu s pu b lic o w n e rs h ip , w hich th e Social D em o c rats in th e city g o v e rn m e n t
k e p t alive, a n d th e re la te d p ra ctic al q u e stio n o f w h en th e city sh o u ld e x
erc ise th e p o w e r o f p u rc h a se . BEW w a n te d a c le ar a n d p rec ise u n d e r s ta n d
ing a b o u t th e p u rc h a s e o p tio n so th a t it co u ld p lan its e x p a n sio n a n d
"T he History o f r G reat Electrical Com pany," Electrical Review 37 (IH'JS): 627.

188

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

estab lish p r o fita b le ra le s. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e m a jo rity o f th e M agistrat
a n d Stadtverordnelenversam m lung w a n te d th e u tility lo flo u rish so th a t c o n
s u m e r n e e d s w o u ld b e m e t a n d th e u tility w o u ld b e s o u n d w h en ta k e n
o v e r. T h e s itu a tio n c alle d fo r c o n s tru c tiv e n e g o tia tio n r a th e r th a n a d v e rsa ry
c o n fro n ta tio n .
T h e r a p id in c re a se in e le c tric s tr e e t railw ay lo ad a f te r 1896 p o se d a m a jo r
issue fo r n e g o tia tio n . In 1879 W e rn e r v on S ie m e n s h a d d isp la y e d a n elec tric
lo co m o tiv e a t a B e rlin tr a d e fa ir, b u t th e im p o rta n c e o f th is m o d e o f tr a n s
p o rta tio n d id n o t b e c o m e c le a r u n til th e 1890s. In 1894 th e p o w e r load
(tra c tio n a n d sta tio n a ry ) o n B E W w as o n ly o n e -te n th o f th e to ta l; in 1900
th e tra c tio n lo a d m a tc h e d th e c o m b in a tio n o f sta tio n a ry p o w e r a n d lig h t
lo ad . T h e city w a n te d th e ra le fo r tr a c tio n p o w e r lo be low in o r d e r to
fac ilitate th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n o f lo w e r-in c o m e g ro u p s , esp e cia lly th e in c re a s
in g n u m b e r o f in d u s tria l w o rk e rs. T h e u tility w a n te d lo in c re a se th e p o w e r
lo a d in o r d e r lo utiliz e e n la rg e d p la n t ca p ac ity m o r e fully, im p ro v e th e
lo a d fa c to r, a n d lo w e r u n it ca p ita l costs. T h e tw o p a rlie s finally a g r e e d th a t
all e le c tric - s tr e e tc a r fra n c h ise s g r a n te d by th e city w o u ld r e q u ir e th a t th e
e n f r a n c h is e d e n te r p r is e la k e e le c tric ity fro m B E W . In r e tu r n , th e utility
a g r e e d n o t to ex c e e d c h a rg e s o f 10 p fg ./k w h . fo r th e e le c tric -s tre e tc a r p o w e r
s u p p ly ; th is w as s u b s ta n tia lly lo w er th a n th e 16 p fg ./k w h . th a t h a d b e e n
c h a r g e d sin c e 1894 fo r p o w e r c u r r e n t, a r a te w h ic h h a d sca rcely e x c e e d e d
costs. T h e c o m p a n y to o k th e risk th a t e c o n o m y o f scale a n d im p r o v e d load
fa c to r w o u ld lo w e r costs below th e p ric e . E ach five y ea rs th e p ric e w as to
b e r e n e g o tia te d , b u t it w as n o t to b e h ig h e r th a n th a t c h a r g e d by th e th r e e
la rg e st G e r m a n cities th a t s u p p lie d c u r r e n t f o r e le c tric tra c tio n f ro m stea m g e n e r a tin g p la n ts.
O n th e issue o f th e a re a o f B E W s s u p p ly m o n o p o ly a n d th e d u r a tio n
o f its te n u r e b e fo re c o m p u ls o ry p u r c h a s e w as po ssib le , th e 1899 c o n tra c t
p r o v id e d a m o n o p o ly fo r all o f B e rlin a n d s p e c ifie d th a t th e c o m p u lso ry p u rc h a s e o p tio n c o u ld n o t be e x e rc ise d b e f o r e 1915. T h e ce ilin g s p la ce d
o n g e n e r a tin g c a p a c ity w e re ra ise d b u t n o t e lim in a te d in 1899, a g a in s u g
g e s tin g a re lu c ta n c e o n th e p a r t o f v a rio u s in te re s ts re p r e s e n te d in th e city
g o v e r n m e n t to see e le c tric light a n d p o w e r ra p id ly d isp la c e gas lig h tin g .
T h e a g r e e m e n t o f 1899 sta te d th a t c ap a city in sid e B erlin s h o u ld be lim ited
to 4 2 ,5 0 0 kw . a n d th a t p o w e r fo r th e city o rig in a tin g o u ts id e B erlin sh o u ld
n o t e x c e e d 3 7 ,0 0 0 kw. T h is p r o v id e d lo r th e h ig h -v o lta g e p o ly p h a se c a
pacity B E W w a n te d o u ts id e th e city a n d a t th e sa m e tim e a s s u re d c o m
p u lso ry p u rc h a s e o f th e se facilities a lo n g w ith th o se in th e city (see Fig.
VI 1.4). T h e c o n tra c t also sp e c ifie d th a t all e le c tric g e n e r a tin g p la n ts a n d
su p p ly fra n c h is e s h e ld by A E G as well as B E W w ith in a ra d iu s o f 30 kil
o m e te rs fro m th e c e n te r o f B erlin w o u ld b e su b jec t to p u rc h a s e in 1915.
By m e a n s o f th is u n d e r s ta n d in g , th e tw o p a rtie s a v o id e d th e p o ssib le d i
le m m a of th e p riv a te e n te r p r is e e x te n d in g its facilities b e y o n d th e political
ju r is d ic tio n o f th e g o v e r n m e n t a u th o r ity h o ld in g a p u rc h a s e o p tio n a
c h ro n ic p ro b le m in L o n d o n b e fo re W o rld W a r I.
In c re a sin g ly b u r d e n e d by e x p e n d itu r e s f o r city services, B e rlin to o k a d
v a n ta g e o f th e r e n e g o tia tio n o f th e c o n tra c t lo raise its s h a re o f B E W 's
in co m e. B e rlin c o n tin u e d to ta k e 10 p e r c e n t o f th e g ro ss in c o m e , b u t d o u
b le d its s h a re o f th e c o m p a n y s p ro fits. T h e 1899 c o n tra c t sp e c ifie d th at
th e m u n ic ip a lity w o u ld re c e iv e 50 p e r c e n t o f th e n e t p ro fits a f te r a 6 p e rc e n t

180

B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D R OLI I'K iS

Figure V11.4. BEW polyphase system.

1900: Central stations (A): motorgenerator conversion substations (O); and
the city limits of Berlin
From
Matschoss et a!.. 50 J a h rc . p. 127.

d iv id e n d o n s to c k s h a r e s h a d b e e n d e c la r e d a n d d e d u c t e d .11 (In 1 9 1 1 - 1 2
th e to tal in c o m e o f th e c ity f r o m B E W w a s 7 m illio n m a rk s .)
T h e c ity a ls o s p e c i f ie d th at w h e n p r o fit s (Reingewinn) e x c e e d e d

12 .9

p e r c e n t o f th e s h a r e c a p ita l, c u s t o m e r r a le s w o u ld b e r e d u c e d by u p to 10
p e r c e n t. B y

1 9 1 3 (a y e a r f o r w h ic h c o m p a r a t iv e ra te s w ith o l h c i

m a jo r

w o rld c itie s a r e a v a ila b le ) B E W . w ith c ity a p p r o v a l, c h a r g e d '10 p fg ./k w h .

f o r lig h t in g , w ith d is c o u n ts b a s e d o n th e a n n u a l b ill f o r c u r r e n t : 10 p ig ./
k w h . f o r n ig h t s e r v ic e a n d a d v e r t is in g ; a n d 1 1 p lg ./ k w h . f o r p o w e r . ( T h e r e
w a s n o c h a r g e f o r m e te rs.)- 7
D i f fe r e n t i a l r a te s f a v o r in g in d u s tr ia l c o n s u m e r s , b o th tr a c tio n a n d s t a
t io n a r y , k e p t lig h t a lu x u r y f o r p r iv a te c o n s u m e r s but s p u r r e d i n d u s t r ia l
iz a tio n . In 1 9 1 4 o n ly 6 .6 p e r c e n t o f B e r lin h o u s e h o ld s w e r e c o n n e c te d fo r
e le c tr ic ity s u p p l y ; o n ly in 1 9 2 7 d id th e n u m b e r r e a c h 5 0 p e r c e n t (see f ig.
V I I . 5 ) .28 A s o b s e r v e d , th e s h a r e o f lig h t in th e to tal lo a d d r o p p e d s h a r p ly
a f t e r 1 8 9 4 , a n d th e tr a c tio n lo a d f a r s u r p a s s e d th e lig h t lo a d at th e tu rn
o f th e c e n t u r y . T h e m o st n o ta b le c h a n g e in th e lo a d m ix a l t e r 19 0 0 w as
th e s t e a d y in c r e a s e in s t a tio n a r y p o w e r lo a d (see F ig . V I I . 6). In 19 0 0 BF.W
m Satings Horsen jahrbuch. 1900/1901. p. ItIDO: 1901/1 {102. |>|>. ll7 (i-7 7 .
''', T h e County o f L ondon Electric Supply Co.. Ltd.. Public Inquiry Held by the Eleitnrity
Commissioners in Connection with Application for Consent [or the Erection of a / own Station at /lathing
October 6, 7, S. 9. 1920: Justification of Evidence (liven by Mr. Charles II. M en. ;ipp. .1. "Lie tut itv
Supply in Great Cities T h ro u g h o u t the W orld" (item in Mrrz & M rl.ellan Co. Art hives.
Amhcrley. Killingworlh, n ear Newcastle upon Tyne, England). The inform ation on Berlin is
lo r the years 191 1-13; see p. 258 below for a com parison o f tales for Berlin and othri t ines.
A nother source, City o f M elbourne. Engineers' Notes, p. 13, reported the nuinicipality's income
from BEW revenues in 1910-11 as 174,000. T h e city's share of the utility's income combined
with its share o f the profits totaled 37 percent o f BEW's gross income. W. Eellenherg, "Die
Enlwicldung d e r Starkstrom Icchnik in Deutschland und in (let Vereinigten Staaten von
N ordam crika," Elehlrotechnische Zeilsclinfl 30 (1909): I 199.
Matschoss el nl.. W Jahre. p. 50.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure VII. S. Increase in electricity

consumption in Berlin: Percentage af
Berlin households connected (table left):
increase in kilowatt-hours consumed per
capita (graph right). From Matschoss el
at.. 50 J a h re , p. 56.

Figure VII.6. Development of various

loads. BEW: Light and power (Licht und
Kraft): electric traction (B ahnen); and
higli-voltage transmission
(H orh sp an nu n g ). From Matschoss et a!.,
50 J a h re . p 89

s u p p lie d 5 2 , 0 1 4 , 6 1 2 k w h . C o n n e c t e d to th e B e r lin n e tw o r k b y th e e n d o l
fiscal y e a r 1 8 9 9 / 19 0 0 w e r e 4 ,9 6 4 m o to rs, 3 0 3 ,3 0 4 in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s, 1 2 ,3 9 6
a r c la m p s , a n d 6 7 6 m is c e lla n e o u s a p p a r a l u s . T h e to tal c o n n e c te d lo a d w as
3 6 .3 5 0 k w . In a d d it io n , th e s t r e e t c a r lo a d a m o u n t e d to 8 ,0 0 0 h .p . O f th e
to tal c o n s u m p t io n , in c o n tr a s t to c o n n e c t e d lo a d , lig h t a m o u n t e d to 2 8
p e r c e n t ; s t a t io n a r y m o t o r p o w e r , 2 4 p e r c e n t ; a n d s t r e e t c a r , o r tr a c tio n
p o w e r , 4 8 p e r c e n t . - I n 19 0 0 th e c o n n e c te d s t a t io n a r y p o w e r lo a d s u r p a s s e d
I
190111902. p. I 176. T hese statistics refer to the business year
I Ju ly 1899 to 30 Ju n e 1900.

191

B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S
T able V II.1. M otor L oad of B erlin er E l e k t r ic it Ats -Werke in B erlin C la ssified
A ccording to U se , 1914
Load
Metal W orking
Elevators
W oodworking
Presses
V entilators
Meat Packing
Sewing Machines
W ashing Machines
Pum ps
Paper Mills
Cloth C ulling
Leather W orking
G rinding and Polishing
D ough and B u tter Machines
Stirring, Mixing, and G rinding
Spinning
D ynam o Drive
Coffee Making
Tobacco M anufacturing
Mat Pressing
Various
Total

No. of Motors

Kw

7,023
4.940
3.816
3.749
3.297
1.724
1.638
1.026
880
698
630
571
493
400
395
274
188
156
146
53
4.686

24.155
28.939
11.464
8.997
1.240
5.287
1,280
1.947
5.813
1,831
390
1.615
1.381
1,881
2.154
558
2.743
273
393
1 13
14.030

36.783

116.484

Source: B erliner Electricilats-W erke, Geschaftsbrrichl. . . 1914/15, pp. 1 0 -1 1.

th e c o n n e c te d lig h t lo ad fo r th e first lim e. (As n o te d , tra c tio n lo ad a b o u t

m a tc h e d th e c o m b in a tio n o f s ta tio n a r y p o w e r lo a d a n d lig h tin g lo ad .) F ro m
th a t p o in t o n , B E W w as p r im a rily a p o w e r c o m p a n y . By 1907 th e tra c tio n
a n d s ta tio n a ry p o w e r lo a d s w e re a b o u t eq u a l. A fte r 1910, w h en BEW b e g a n
s u p p ly in g in d u s tria l c o n s u m e rs by m e a n s o f 100-h.p. m o to rs d ire c tly fro m
a h ig h -v o lta g e n e tw o rk r a th e r th a n fro m th e re g u la r 22 0 -v o lt system , th e
s ta tio n a ry p o w e r lo ad s u rp a s s e d th e tra c tio n lo ad a n d c o n tin u e d to g ro w
la rg e r. B E W p ro m o te d in fa c to rie s th e in tr o d u c tio n o f e le c tric m o to rs to
re p la c e s te a m e n g in e s w ith b e ll-ira n sm issio n system s by re n tin g m o to rs at
a m o d e st cost a n d allo w in g th e ir r e tu r n o r p u rc h a s e a f te r th o ro u g h te stin g
a n d e v a lu a tio n . T h e close c o o rd in a tio n b etw e e n A E G , tb e m a n u f a c tu r e r
o f th e se m o to rs, a n d B EW f u r th e r e d th e e le c trific a tio n a n d in d u s tria liz a
tio n p ro c e ss.3" (See T a b le VI 1.1.)
F u r th e r b re a k d o w n o f th e lo a d a c c o rd in g to ty p e o f c o n s u m e r th ro w s
light o n th e n a tu r e o f in d u stria liz a tio n in B erlin . In 1 9 10-11 th e total
o u tp u t o f B E W , in c lu d in g e n e rg y u sed in its o w n c e n tra l sta tio n s, a m o u n te d
to 198,0 3 1 ,7 4 3 kw h. T h e to ta l w as c a te g o riz e d as follow s: lig h tin g , 26
p e rc e n t; p o w e r, 37 p e rc e n t; tra c tio n , 32 p e rc e n t; a n d h ig h -v o lta g e su p p ly
( p ro b a b ly sta tio n a ry p o w e r), 5 p e rc e n t. In c o n tra s t to th e o u tp u t, th e c o n
n e c te d lo ad was 2 0 6 ,7 2 6 kw., 39 p e rc e n t o f w hich was in lig h tin g , 54 p e rc e n t
in p o w e r a n d h e a lin g (m ostly sta tio n a ry a n d tra c tio n p o w e r), a n d 6 p e rc e n t
in h ig h -v o lta g e su p p ly .31 In 1911 th e c o n n e c te d load fo r all G e rm a n c e n tra l
sta tio n s was 38 p e rc e n t lig h tin g (in c a n d e sc e n t a n d arc) a n d 6 0 p e rc e n t
,0 Matschoss. "B erliner Elektricilats-W crkc," pp. 20-21.
31 City o f M elbourne, E n g tn tm ' Notts, p. 13. Klingenbcrg, "Electricity Supply in l.arge
Cities," p. 398, lisls BEW s 1910-11 o u tput as 192.100,000 kwh.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure VII.7. BEW load curvet on days

of highest load (Hoclistlasl). From
Matschoss el al., 50 Ja h rc , p. 71.

p o w e r a n d h e a lin g (sta tio n a ry , 43 p e rc e n t; tr a c tio n , 15 p e rc e n t; a n d h e a t,

2 p e r c e n t) .12 T h e c o r re la tio n b e tw e e n B erlin a n d th e re st o f G e rm a n y ,
u rb a n a n d r u ra l, in lo ad m ix is p a rtia lly e x p la in e d by th e fact th a t w hile
B e rlin h a d a b o u t 8 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l c o n n e c te d lo a d o n c e n tra l sta tio n s
in G e rm a n y , o th e r la rg e cities a lso h a d su b sta n tia l sh a re s. L ike B e rlin , th e
la rg e cities w e re in d u s tria liz in g a n d p r o v id in g m ass tr a n s it. T h e tra c tio n
sh a re o f th e to tal p o w e r lo a d , h o w e v e r, w as m u c h h ig h e r in B e rlin th a n in
th e re st o f G e rm a n y .
By W o rld W a r I, BF.W h a d c re a te d a u n iv e rsa l su p p ly sy stem o f th e k in d
f o u n d in C h ic a g o , a system (h a t w as still n o ta b ly a b se n t in L o n d o n . BEW
h a d ta k e n th e in itial s te p to w a rd e s ta b lis h in g su c h a sy ste m in 1896 w ith
th e in a u g u ra tio n o f p o ly p h a se s u p p ly at th e S c h if fb a u e rd a m m c e n tra l sta
tio n . Its m a jo r m o v e was m a d e in 1899 (al th e tim e o f its new c o n tra c t w ith
B e rlin ) w ith th e ta k e o v e r o f th e O b e r s p r c e p o w e r s ta tio n fro m A E G (see
Fig. V I I .8). T h is was a la rg e sta tio n lo c a te d o u ts id e B e rlin . A E G h a d p u t
O b e r s p r e e in to se rv ic e in 1897, b e fo re B E W w as a u th o r iz e d by th e city to
o p e r a te p o w e r p la n ts o u ts id e th e city. W ith a n in itial c ap acity o f 1,000 kw.,
th e p o w e r p la n t h a d th e a d v a n ta g e s o f lo w er-cost re a l e sta te , a vailable
cooling w ater, a n d e asier coal a n d ash h a n d lin g . O b e rsp re c was also e q u ip p e d
fo r p o w e r tra n sm issio n to w e ste rn B erlin a n d th e citys w e ste rn s u b u rb s al
6 kv., b u t b e fo re 1899 th e p la n t s u p p lie d in d u s try in th e im m e d ia te vicinity,
in c lu d in g a n A E G c a b le -m a n u fa c tu rin g p la n t (see Fig. V I I .8, p. 193). A fte r
,w G eorg D ettm ar, "Die Sinlistik d c r Elckirizitatswcrke in Deutschland nach dcm Stande
voin I April 1915," Elektrolerhnisrhr Zntschrifl 34 <1913): 1447-50.

193

Figure VII.8.
Ja hre, p. 30.

B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S

The polyphase central station at Oberspree (left) and the AEG Cable Works, its primary load (right), 1897. From Matschoss el at.. 50

ca p ac ity re s tric tio n s o n BEW w e re e lim in a te d in 1907 by a revision ol th e

1899 c o n tra c t, B E W in c re a se d th e ca p ac ity o f th e O b e r s p r e e p la n t, in stall
in g 5 2 ,0 0 0 kw. by 1912.
As th e lo ad w ith in th e a re a o f th e city a lre a d y su p p lie d w ith tw o-w ire,
1 10-volt c u r r e n t ste ad ily in c re a se d , BEW d e c id e d (in 1899) to e n la r g e th e
ca p ac ity o f its d is tr ib u tio n system by ra isin g th e vo ltag e to th e c o n s u m e r
fro m I 10 to 220. B EW w as th e first utility in G e rm a n y to m ove to th e 220volt system , a n d it set a p re c e d e n t th a t sp r e a d th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try ,
m u c h o f th e C o n tin e n t, a n d to E n g la n d . ( The U n ite d S tate s stay e d with
th e 110 system .) W ith th e c h a n g e , BEW a ssu m e d th e cost o f c o n v e rtin g
c o n s u m e rs ' a p p lia n c e s a n d m o to rs to th e h ig h e r voltage. T h e c o n se q u e n t
lo w e rin g oT d is trib u tio n costs b e ca u se o f m o re eco n o m ical d is trib u tio n (less
c o p p e r) w ould c o m p e n sa te th e c o m p a n y . D e v e lo p m e n t o f a m etallic inc a n d e sc e n t-la m p fila m e n t c ap ab le o f w ith sta n d in g th e h ig h e r v oltage m a d e
th e c h a n g e o v e r possible.''
T h e m cta llic -filam en i la m p in tro d u c e d in B erlin in 1906 use d o n ly o n e
w all fo r ea ch c a n d le p o w e r o f illu m in a tio n a n d ab o u t o n e - th ird th e e n e rg y
o f th e c a rb o n filam en t. T h e a tte n d a n t re d u c tio n in th e cost o f lig h tin g
M.nschoss, "Berliner ElckiriciiiitvW crkc." p. 19.

194

n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

Figure VII.9. Polyphase supply system.

BF.W. 1915: A = central stations; O =
current conversion (motor-grnerators); -

m a d e th e in c a n d e s c e n t la m p a ttra c tiv e to a n e v en la rg e r se g m e n t o f th e
p o p u la tio n th a t h a d fo rm e rly u sed g a s lig h t.'w S e v era l y ea rs e a r lie r BEW
h a d r e a c h e d o u t fo r lo w e r-in c o m e c u s to m e rs a f te r h e in g s h a rp ly c h a lle n g e d
by th e lo w e r ra le s o f sm all iso la ted s ta tio n s o p e r a te d by th e o w n e rs o f la rg e
a p a r tm e n t a n d o ffic e b u ild in g s fo r th e ir o w n a n d th e ir te n a n ts ' use. I hese
block sta tio n s" w ere ab le to o f f e r lo w er ra te s b e c a u se th e y d id n o t u se th e
s tre e ts fo r d is tr ib u tio n , n e e d e d n o re v e n u e - s h a r in g fra n c h ise fro m th e city,
a n d c o n c e n tra te d o n h ig h -lo u d d istric ts. T o m ee t th e c h a lle n g e . B EW h a d
lo w e re d its g e n e r a l lig h tin g ra te s in J a n u a r y 1904 to 4 0 p fg ./k w h ., a r e
d u c tio n o f 25 p e r c e n t. I n s te a d o f a n in c re a se in d e m a n d , h o w e v e r, BEW
e x p e rie n c e d a s h a r p d o w n w a rd m o v e m e n t in c o n s u m p tio n d u r in g th e winMaischoss cl nl., 50 Jahre, p. 38; I Ians-Joachim B raun. "Gas oder Elckiriziiai? ur Konk urren z zweier ItclcuclminRssysicnie, I8 8 0 -I!)M ." Technikgeschichle 47 (I9 8 0 ):IS -I4 .

195

B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S

Figure VII. 10. Comparative sue of

reciprocating steam engine with generator
(bottom) anil steam turbine with generator
(lop). From Mabchoss el at.. 50 jalirc. p.
1)2 .

te r o f 1908/9. T h is re s u lte d in p a rt fro m th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e m o te

e ffic ie n t m e ta llic -fila m e n t la m p , b u t it also follow ed th e g o v e r n m e n t's lim
itin g s h o p h o u rs to e ig h t, th e m o re e ffic ie n t use o f e lec tric ity by stre e tc a rs,
a n d th e c ity -o w n e d gas p la n t's re d u c tio n in rates. BEW c o u n te re d w ith
f u r th e r ra te c h a n g e s, esp ecially th o se th a t e n c o u r a g e d th e la rg e po w er
u se rs.3ft T h e e n tic e m e n t o f h eavy p o w e r c o n s u m e rs was a re sp o n se to th e
e n d e m ic p ro b le m o f th e iso lated p la n t fro m w hich la rg e in d u stria l c o n
s u m e rs su p p lie d th e ir ow n n e e d s. As th e g ra p h s o f BEW o u tp u t show , th e
tr e n d was a g a in ste e p ly u p w a rd in 1909. (See Fig. V II.ft.) Iso late d p lan ts
s u p p ly in g in d iv id u a l in d u s tr ie s c o n tin u e d to o f f e r su b sta n tia l c o m p e titio n ,
h o w e v er; in 1913 it was e stim a te d th a t iso lated p la n ts a n d block sta tio n s"
s u p p lie d a b o u t 4 0 m illion kw h., o r th e e q u iv a le n t o f alm ost o n e -llfth ol
th e e n e rg y sold by B E W .:,(>
B EW c o n tin u e d to b u ild a g e n e ra liz e d system by in tro d u c in g stea m t u r
b in es b e g in n in g in 1902 (see Fig. V II. 10). T h e ea rly h isto ry o f tu rb in e use
by B EW show s th e close r e la tio n s h ip o f A EG as m a n u fa c tu re r a n d HEW
as full-scale te stin g g r o u n d . A E G e n te r e d th e tu r b in e field soon a fte r early
in sta lla tio n s o f P a rso n s tu r b o g e n e r a to r s in E n g la n d a n d P a rso n s-ty p e t u r
b in es b u ilt by B ro w n , B overi & Go. o f B a d e n /M a n n h e im , a su b sid iary o f
th e Swiss firm , in E lb e rfe ld . G e rm a n y , p ro v id e d s tr o n g in d ic a tio n s o f th e
in v e n tio n s p rac tica lity a n d p o te n tia l im p ro v e m e n ts. A EG m a d e a false start
by a tte m p tin g lo d e v e lo p th e R ie d le r-S tu m p f d e sig n . T h e R ie d lc r-S tu m p f
t u r b in e was an a d a p ta tio n o f th e basic c o n s ta n l-p r c s s u rc d e sig n in tro d u c e d
by th e S w edish in v e n to r C a rl G. P. d e Laval in 1883. By m e a n s o f la rg e
cro ss-sec tio n al tu rb in e b lad e s a n d th e r e o r d e r in g o f a d d itio n a l stea m n o z
zles, A E G h o p e d to h o ld th e sp e e d o f ro ta tio n to p ractic al lim its. T h e first
la rg e tu r b in e o f th is d e sig n was in sta lle d in 1902 in B EW 's M oabit p o w er
s ta tio n (see Figs. V I I .I I a n d V I I . 12). At its m a x im u m s p e e d , 3,8 0 0 rp m ,
Mulschoss cl al., J 0 Jahre. pp. 37-38.
Klingenlierg, "Electricity Supply in I j i g c Cities. pp. 398-99.

197

B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S
1h e R ic d le r -S tu m p f tu r b in e p r o d u c e d 2 ,0 0 0 h .p ., b u t AFX', d e c id e d th at
la r g e r m o d e ls w o u ld h av e stability p ro b le m s a n d be p ro h ib itiv e ly e x p e n siv e
to install, so it a b a n d o n e d th e d esig n .
A E G th e n m a d e a n a g re e m e n t w ith th e G e n e ra l E lectric C o m p a n y o(
A m e ric a to use th e C u rtis d e sig n th a t G E h a d d e v e lo p e d a n d p a te n te d .
T h e m a n u fa c tu re r s also a g re e d to e x c h a n g e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d o p e ra tio n a l
e x p e r ie n c e as th e y w o rk e d o n th e tu rb in e . F ro m 1904 u n til 1917 all BF.W
tu rb in e s e x c e p t o n e w e re o f th e C u rtis ty p e. T h e e x c e p tio n a ro se w hen
A E G was u n a b le to su p p ly w ith in a sh o rt tim e a C u rtis tu r b in e w h en BF.YVs
load d e m a n d su d d e n ly in c re a se d sh a rp ly in 1905. T h e u tility th e re f o r e
p lac ed a B ro w n -B o v e ri-b u ill 1a rs o n s ty p e o f tu rb in e o f 5 .800-kw . c apacity
in to o p e ra tio n at O b e rs p re e . M o re tu r b in e s w e re in sta lled at O b e r s p r e e ,
b u t B E W s first a ll- tu rb in e sta tio n a sta tio n c o m p a ra b le to th e Fisk S tre et
s ta tio n o p e n e d in 1903 in C h ic ag o was R u m m e lsb u rg , w hich b e g a n o p
e ra tin g in N o v e m b e r 1907 w ith a 13,500-kw . ca p acity. F u r th e r e v id e n c e
th a t th e p o st-E d iso n e ra h a d a rr iv e d was th e c o m p le te co n v e rsio n , in th e
sam e y ea r, o f th e o rig in a l M a rk g ra fe n s tra s s e d ir e c t-c u r re n t sta tio n to a
s u b s ta tio n .37
By th e eve o f W o rld W a r I a n d th e ta k e o v e r o f th e u tility by B erlin in
1915 BEW h a d a c q u ire d sa lien t c h a ra c te ristic s th a t d e f in e le a d in g u rb a n
system s e v en to d a y . Its su p p ly a r e a s p r e a d b e y o n d th e 5 -k ilo m e te r ra d iu s
o f o ld B erlin o u t to th e 3 0 -k ilo m e te r ra d iu s sp e cifie d in th e 1899 c o n tra c t.
D raw in g h eavily o n th e O b e rs p re e p la n t, B EW su p p lie d a b o u t a h u n d r e d
sm all d istric ts, o r local a u th o ritie s , m ostly to th e e ast, so u th , a n d n o rth o f
B e rlin (see Fig. V II. 13). T h is s u b u rb a n r e g io n h a d a p o p u la tio n o f a b o u t
2.5 m illion (c o m p a r e d to th e 2 m illio n w ithin o ld B e rlin ). By 1915 B FW
h a d tw o o th e r p o ly p h a se p la n ts (M oabit a n d R u m m e lsb u rg ) a n d th r e e
in n e r-c ity p la n ts (M a u e rstra sse , S p a n d a u e r, a n d S c h iffb a u e rd a m m ). These
six p la n ts h a d a c o m b in e d c ap a city o f 155,000 kw. T h e r e w ere tw e n ty -fo u r
su b sta tio n s (tw elve w ith in th e city) fo r th e c o n v e rsio n o f p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t
to d ir e c t c u r r e n t a n d fo r tra n s fo rm a tio n o f voltage. T ra n sm issio n a n d
d is trib u tio n c ab le e x te n d e d 7.7 4 0 k ilo m e te rs. W ith in th e city, g e n e ra l d is
trib u tio n w as a lm o st e n tire ly 4 4 0 /2 2 0 -v o lt d ire c t c u r r e n t fo r th e lig h tin g
a n d s m a ll-p o w e r c o n su m e rs. A lso a vailable in th is a re a w ere 550-600-volt
d ire c t c u r r e n t fo r tra c tio n a n d 6-kv. p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t fo r heavy s ta tio n a i yp o w e r u se rs. A f te r 1904 th e level o f tra n sm issio n v oltage w-as raise d . O b
e r s p r e e a n d M oabit s u p p lie d d ista n t su b sta tio n s w ith 10-kv. tra n sm issio n ,
a n d in 1911 B E W p io n e e re d o n th e C o n tin e n t by c o n s tru c tin g a 30-kv.
r in g s u p p ly fo r B e rlin s n o r th e r n a n d s o u th e rn su b u rb s. 'T h e in c rea se in
vo ltag e n e c e ssita te d th e in tro d u c tio n o f o il-cooled sw itches in to th e sys
te m .38
G e o rg K lin g c n b e rg , th e e n g in e e rin g h e a d o f A E C s p o w e r p lan t d e sig n
a n d c o n s tru c tio n d iv isio n , a n e n g in e e r o r in te rn a tio n a l r e p u ta tio n a n d a u
th o r o f d e fin itiv e w orks o n p o w e r-p la n t d esig n a n d o p e r a tio n , d e sc rib e d
a n d a n a ly z ed BEW a r o u n d 1 9 I3 .3 C o m p a rin g th e B erlin utility w ith th o se
in C h ic a g o a n d L o n d o n , h e r o u n d th a t th e cap ital cost o f th e p o w e r sta tio n s
Matschoss et ul.. 50 Jahre, pp. 133D. 218-19.
Ibid., pp. 43. 165-70.
K lingenberg, "Electricity Supply in Large Cities, pp. 3 9 8 -4 0 1.

198

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

a n d th e c a p ita l cost o f th e d is trib u tio n system p e r in sta lle d kilow att w ere
low est in B e rlin . B e r lin s p e r-c a p ita c o n s u m p tio n o f c u r r e n t w as h ig h e r
th a n L o n d o n s a n d lo w e r th a n C h ic a g o 's, b u t th e c o m p a ris o n d id n o t tak e
in to a c c o u n t blo ck a n d iso late d s ta tio n s, o f w h ich th e r e w e re a n u n u su a lly
la rg e n u m b e r in B e rlin . K lin g e n b e r g also n o te d th a t B e rlin h a d th e m ost
ev e n ly b a la n c e d lig h tin g , tra c tio n , a n d s ta tio n a r y - m o to r lo ad s. B e rlin s lo a d
fa c to r, th e h ig h ly s ig n ific a n t in d ic a to r, w as h ig h e r th a n L o n d o n s a n d lo w e r
th a n C h ic a g o s. E x a m in in g th e cost c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e th r e e system s,
K lin g e n b e rg o b s e rv e d th a t th e B e rlin u tility 's o p e r a tin g costs w ere th e
low est, a n d h e c o n c lu d e d th a t th is re s u lte d fro m lo w e r w ages a n d lo w er
fu e l c o n s u m p tio n p e r k ilo w a tt- h o u r o f o u tp u t. E c o n o m y in th e c o n s u m p
tio n o f coal w as c o u n te rb a la n c e d , h o w e v e r, by th e h ig h e r p ric e o f coal in
B e rlin c o m p a r e d to C h ic a g o a n d L o n d o n . T h e to tal cost p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r,
th e n , was h ig h e r in B erlin th a n in C h icag o . N ot o n ly w as th e p ric e o f coal
h ig h e r th e r e , b u t th e B e rlin g o v e r n m e n t to o k a la rg e s h a re o f B E W s
re v e n u e s. (See Fig. IX .9, p. 2 5 8 below , fo r a d e ta ile d c o m p a ris o n o f th e
th r e e c itie s u tilities.)
In view o l th e la rg e re v e n u e s th e city d e riv e d fro m B E W , so m e c o n te m
p o ra rie s e x p re s s e d s u r p r is e th a t B e rlin w o u ld se rio u sly c o n s id e r ex e rc isin g
its c o n tr a c tu a l lig h t to ta k e o v e r B E W in 1915. T h e Social D e m o c ra ts in
th e c o m m o n c o u n c il a d v o c a te d m u n ic ip a l o w n e rs h ip fo r ide o lo g ica l as well
as e c o n o m ic re a so n s. T h e utility co u ld be m o r e easily d ir e c te d to w a rd th e
fu lfillm e n t o f v a rio u s social o b je ctiv es if it w as o w n e d a n d o p e r a te d by th e
city, th e y a r g u e d . R ate s, fo r e x a m p le , co u ld be a d ju s te d to fa v o r low erin c o m e g ro u p s . In a d d itio n , th e socialists a r g u e d , p ro fits ta k e n by th e

199

Figure V II.14. Georg Klingenberg, an

AEG engineer noted for central-statwn
designs. Courtesy of Berliner Kraft-und
Litht AG (formerly BEW).

B E R L I N : T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P O L IT IC S
p riv a te o w n e rs, esp e cia lly A E G , s h o u ld co m e to th e city. By 1915, th o se
w h o fa v o re d th e ta k e o v e r b elie v ed th a t since th e p e rio d o f h ig h fin an c ia l
risk h a d p a sse d , it was a p p r o p r ia te fo r th e u tility to be g o v e rn m e n t o w n e d
a n d m a n a g e d , as w e re o th e r , o ld e r u tilitie s su c h as gas. T h e y also b elieved
th a t full g o v e r n m e n t c o n tro l o f th e c itys elec tric p o w e r s u p p ly w o u ld b rin g
in c re a se d c o n tro l o f th e city's in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t.
E m p o w e re d by c o n tr a c t to p u r c h a s e th e u tility in O c to b e r 1915 if notice
o f in te n t was giv en tw o y ea rs in ad v a n c e , th e city b e g a n n e g o tia tin g w iih
B EW in 1911 th e q u e stio n o f e x te n d in g th e c o n tra c t o r p u rc h a s in g th e
utility. T h e p rin c ip a l p o in ts at issue w e re ra te s a n d th e r e la tio n s h ip b etw e e n
B E W a n d A E G . T h e city w a n te d low er ra te s (fo r w hich th e r e was p re c e d e n t
in G e rm a n y ) a n d less A E G in flu e n c e . H a v in g lo w e red its ra te s co n siste n tly
o v e r th e p a st th irty y ea rs, B EW a rg u e d th a t f u r th e r re d u c tio n was im p o s
sible u n less costs w e re su b sta n tia lly lo w ere d . If, BEW in siste d , th e city
allow ed it to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f a d v a n c e d tr a n sm issio n a n d g e n e ra tio n te c h
no lo g y by c o n s tr u c tin g a la rg e m in e -m o u th p o w e r p la n t at th e B ittc rfe ld
lig n ite field s alm o st e ig h ty m iles fro m B e rlin , lo w e r costs w o u ld follow .
T h e im p e ria l G e rm a n g o v e rn m e n t, h o w e v er, fru s tra te d B E W 's p la n s fo r
a B itte rfe ld p o w e r p la n t. It seized th e lig n ite d e p o sits to ex p lo it th e m fo r
c ritical w a rtim e n e e d s a n d th e n , in 1916, s u p p o r te d th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e
G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz p o w e r p la n t th e r e (see p p . 2 8 8 - 8 9 below ). D e p riv e d
o f th e c o s t- re d u c in g te c h n o lo g y , B E W a g re e d o n ly to a n e x te n s io n o f th e
e x istin g fra n c h is e a n d th e e x istin g o r slightly m o d ifie d ra te s tr u c tu r e for
th e n e x t six y ears. L ed by an Oberbiirgermeisler w ho fa v o re d m u n ic ip a l o w n
e rs h ip , a Sladtverordnetenversam m lung d o m in a te d by socialists a n d th e ir allies,
a n d a M agistral th a t h a d co m e to a g r e e w ith th e c o m m o n co u n c il, tlu* city
th e n p u rc h a s e d th e B e rlin e r E le k tric ita ts-W e rk e a n d to o k o v e r m a n a g e
m e n t o f th e u tility in O c to b e r 1915.
L ike th e g e n e ra l c o n tra c tu a l a r r a n g e m e n ts b e tw ee n th e city a n d th e u til
ity, th e sp e cific p ro v isio n s fo r p u rc h a s e w ere c o m p le x a n d in g e n io u s. B e
fo re th e r e n e g o tia tio n o f th e c o n tra c t in 1899, th e city h a d h a d th e rig h t
lo p u r c h a s e B EW a t th e tax valu e d e te rm in e d by tw o e x p e rts , o n e a p p o in te d
by th e city a n d th e o th e r n a m e d by th e utility. T h e y w e re to a p p ra is e th e
p r o p e rtie s as a n in te r d e p e n d e n t w hole a c c o rd in g to c o m m e rc ia l p rin c i
p le s.40 In 1899, th e p a rtie s h a d a g re e d th a t th e p la n t a n d rea l e sta te w ould
in ste a d b e p u rc h a s e d a c c o rd in g lo boo k value. S u b se q u e n t analysis sho w ed
th a t th e boo k va lu e (o rig in al cost) o f th e u tility s real e sta te was 4 ,1 9 5 ,0 0 0
m a rk s lo w e r th a n th e a p p ra is e d valu e in 1915, b u t th a t th e book v alue o f
th e p la n t was 1,700 ,0 0 0 m a rk s h ig h e r th a n th e a p p ra is e d va lu e in 1915.
T h e b o o k -v a lu e p u r c h a s e p ric e o f p la n t a n d real e sta te in 1915 was, th e r e
fo re , 2 ,4 9 5 ,0 0 0 m a rk s lo w er th a n th e a p p ra is e d value. T h e city co u n cil
v o ted lo p u rc h a s e BEW fo r 130 m illion m a rk s; th e exact sale p ric e was
132,40 0 ,0 0 0
m a rk s .41
J u d g in g by its u n w illin g n ess lo n e g o tia te p u rp o se fu lly a fte r th e co lla p se
o f th e m in e -m o u lh p o w e r-p la n t p ro p o sa l, A EG m ay not h av e b e e n re lu c ta n t
lo sell BEW in 1915. T h e sale p ro v id e d A EG w ith su b sta n tia l cap ital fo r
new in v e stm e n ts; m o re o v e r, th e years o f BEW o w n e rsh ip h a d b ro u g h t
"Brook*. Berlin Electric W orks," p. 192.
Ibitl., pp. 188, 193; Matsclm** el al.. JO Jahre. p. 223.

200

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

c|uite a c c e p ta b le d iv id e n d s to s h a re h o ld e rs " a n d h a d p ro v e d a v erita b le
go ld m in e to th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y (A E G )."'12
In A m e ric a , u tility m a n a g e rs , w h o o fte n fo u n d th e m selv e s in an a d v e r
sary . e v e n h o stile , r e la tio n s h ip w ith g o v e rn m e n t, m ay hav e b e e n s u rp ris e d
to le a rn th a t le a d in g e x e c u tiv e s fro m th e p riv a te G e rm a n c o m p a n y w ere
ta k in g jo b s in th e m u n ic ip a lly o w n e d p la n t. T h e new ly n a m e d S tad tisch e
E le k triz ila ts-W e rk e B e rlin (S lE W ) was d e te r m in e d to h a v e th e best m a n
ag e ria l a n d te c h n ic a l ta le n t a v aila b le a n d w as w illing to pay a c c o rd in g ly ."1'
M e m b e rs o f th e Vorstand (e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e " ) w e re to rec eiv e a g u a r
a n te e d salary o f 15,000 m a r k s as w ell as in c r e m e n t a c c o rd in g lo n e t in c o m e ,
so lo n g as th e to ta l d id n o t e x c e e d 3 9 ,0 0 0 m a rk s. D r. H e rm a n P assavant
fro m B E W s Vorstand b e c a m e a m e m b e r o f S lE W s Vorstand. G u stav W ilkens,
w h o h a d b e e n a d e p u ty m e m b e r o f th e o ld Vorstand, h e ld th e sa m e po sitio n
in th e new c o m m itte e . E m a r W ik a n d e r , a m a n a g e r a t B E W , b eca m e a
m e m b e r o f S lE W s Vorstand a n d te c h n ic a l d ir e c to r o f th e p la n t.1'1 O n 18
A p ril 1915 th e B e rlin c o m m o n c o u n c il v o ted to p u rc h a s e B E W , a n d o n 1
O c to b e r 1915 th e u tility p a sse d in to new o w n e rs h ip . Em il R a th e n a u d ie d
o n 2 0 J u n e o f th a t y e ar.

17 Brooks, "Berlin F.lrnrii Wot In," pp. 190, 191-92.

n Ibid.. p. 193.
" Miilichoss PI al.. 50 Ialirr, pp. 14, 95

CHAPTER

VIII

Chicago: The
Dominance
of Technology

HE ea rly h isto ry o f m a n y utilities is to ld in te r m s o f collective e n te r p r is e

a n d o rg a n iz a tio n . In th o se in sta n ce s, n o in d iv id u a l serv es well as th e

focus o r c e n te r a b o u t w hich to s tr u c tu r e s u c h a n a c c o u n t. C h ic a g o , h o w ev er,
o f fe rs a n e x c e p tio n . T h e h isto ry o f th e C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n C o m p a n y ,
th e u tility th a t c a m e to d o m in a te e le ctric su p p ly in th e w indy city," ca n he
o rg a n iz e d m ost e ffectiv ely a r o u n d th e p e rso n o f S am u el In su ll (1 8 5 9 1938). P re s e n tin g th e h isto ry o f e le ctric s u p p ly in C h ic a g o in th is m a n n e r
d o e s n o t m e a n th a t In su ll w as a g r e a t m a n w hose ac tio n s m a d e h isto ry ; it
m e a n s th a t h e was th e p iv o tal fig u re d u r in g fo u r d e c a d e s o f t h e c o m p a n y 's
h isto ry . A look a t th e e le c tric s u p p ly in d u s try in C h ic a g o th r o u g h his eyes
p ro v id e s a n e n c o m p a s s in g view. F u r th e r m o r e , In su ll was a m a s te r o f p ublic
re la tio n s, a n d his s p e e c h e s, a d d re s s e s , a n d p a p e r s a r e in f o r m e d so u rc e s o f
th e c o m p a n y 's h isto ry .
By W o rld W a r I, C h ic a g o was a c r e a tu r e o f th e in d u s tria l ag e , in c o n tra s t
to B e rlin a n d L o n d o n , th e tw o cities w ith w hich it will be c o m p a r e d . B erlin 's
lo n g h isto ry as a c a p ita l city, as well as th e s tro n g P ru ssia n tra d itio n s , set
th e s tag e fo r th e r e m a rk a b le tra n s itio n th e city u n d e rw e n t d u r in g th e p e rio d
o f ra p id in d u s tria liz a tio n in C e rm a n y . L o n d o n b o re th e m a rk s o f m o d e rn
in d u stria l in flu e n c e s, b u t its sh a p e a n d s u b sta n c e re fle c te d a lo n g p r e in
d u s tria l e x p e rie n c e . C h ic ag o , h o w ev e r, was p liab le a n d o p e n to in flu e n c e s,
a n d so tr a n s p o r ta tio n , in d u s try , a n d e le ctric p o w e r, th e p rim a ry c o m p o
n e n ts o f i n d u s tria liz a tio n , in te ra c te d a n d d e v e lo p e d th e r e relatively fre e o f
co n serv a tiv e, o r tra d itio n a l, c o n stra in ts. T h e e le ctric su p p ly in d u s try in
C h ica g o d id n o t face th e c h a lle n g e s p o se d by th e fo rces o f p a ro c h ia lism in
L o n d o n o r th e stro n g -w ille d , r a tio n a l g o v e r n m e n t o f B erlin.
R a ilro ad s s tim u la te d th e first g re a t wave o f physical, eco n o m ic , a n d social
g ro w th in C h ica g o . By 1905, a b o u t 14 p e r c e n t o f th e w o rld 's railw ay m ileage
passed th r o u g h C h ica g o , a n d th e city was th e a ck n o w le d g e d railw ay c e n te r
o f th e U n ite d S tates. T h e M idw est, th e n a tio n 's g re a t a g r ic u ltu ra l re g io n ,
tr a n s p o r te d its g o o d s by ra ilro a d a n d by L ake M ichigan fro m C h ic ag o to
th e o th e r g re a t cities o f th e U n ite d States, a n d fro m th e ir p o rts to m any
o th e r p a rts o f th e w orld. M o v e m e n t w ithin th e city was facilita te d by an
ele v a te d railw ay a n d by stre e tc a rs, a n ex ten siv e system th a t was largely
e le c trifie d b e fo re W o rld W ar I. M any o f C h ic ag o 's citizens, h o w ev e r, con201

202

Figure
Samuel insult. 1895.
(.ourtesy of Commonwealth Edison Co..
Chicago, ill.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

sid e rc d th e system in a d e q u a te a n d its m a n a g e m e n t r id d le d w ith c o rr u p tio n ,
a n d th is a ttitu d e led to m a n y re f o r m e ffo rts , in c lu d in g e n d e a v o rs to es
ta b lish m u n ic ip a l r a th e r th a n p r iv a te o w n e rs h ip o f th e tr a n s p o rta tio n n e t
w o rk . T h u s C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n b e c a m e d e e p ly inv o lv e d in politics as
it s o u g h t to p o w e r th e sy stem .
T h e in c re a se in C h ic a g o s p o p u la tio n a t th e e n d o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry
was im p re ssiv e , e v e n by th e e le v a te d s ta n d a r d s o f u r b a n g ro w th in th e
U n ite d S lates. F ro m 1890 to 1910, th e fo rm a tiv e y e ars o f th e elec tric light
a n d p o w e r in d u s tr y , C h ic a g o s p o p u la tio n in c re a se d by 5 9 9 ,0 0 0 ; th e g ro w th
d u r in g th e se tw o d e c a d e s w as th e la rg e st in th e citys h isto ry . T h e valu e o f
p r o d u c ts m a n u f a c tu r e d in C h ic a g o in th e first d e c a d e o f th e tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry w as se c o n d o n ly to th e v a lu e o f p ro d u c ts m a d e in N ew Y ork City.
S la u g h te rin g a n d m e a t p a c k in g w as th e city's le a d in g in d u s try , b u t fo u n
d rie s , m a c h in e sh o p s, a n d o th e r p r o d u c e r s o f iro n a n d steel p ro d u c ts o p
e r a te d o n a la rg e scale a n d w e re n u m e r o u s . T h e r e w e re c o u n tle ss o p p o r
tu n itie s fo r a utility s e e k in g to e le c trify in d u s tr ia l o p e r a tio n s a n d to in c lu d e
t |1eni jn a Sy S te m Gf c e n ir a l-s ta iio n se rvice.
,

re-

U n lik e B e rlin , C h ic a g o w as n o t k n o w n f o r th e e ffic ie n c y a n d h o n e sty o f

its g o v e r n m e n t. B u t ve n al, pliab le p o litic ia n s a n d ill-d e fin e d p o litical in sti
tu tio n s d id n o t a u to m a tic a lly f r u s tr a te th e g ro w th o f p u b lic e le c tric su p p ly .
In th e first d e c a d e o f th is c e n tu r y , C h ic a g o w as s u b s u m e d u n d e r th e a n
tiq u a te d g e n e r a l c h a r te r o f th e sta te o f Illin o is, a c h a r te r th e city h a d
ac c e p te d in 1875. S u b s e q u e n tly , th e city g re w d ra m a tic a lly a n d fac ed new
p r o b le m s to w hich th e c h a r ie r d id n o t s p e a k . A city co u n c il a n d m a y o r
s h a r e d p o w e r, b u t th e ir in flu e n c e a n d e ffe c tiv e n e ss w e re h a m p e r e d by th e
co n flic tin g a n d c o n tra d ic to r y p o w e rs still e x e rc ise d by sta te a n d c o u n ty
a u th o ritie s a n d by th e s u rv iv in g a u to n o m y o f to w n sh ip s th a t h a d b een
a b s o rb e d by th e city in its g ro w th . T h e p o w e r o f th e city to lax was c o n
s tra in e d by sla te law, a n d city se rv ic es s u f f e r e d . M a jo r e x c e p tio n s w e re th e
w a te r-su p p ly system a n d th e g r e a t d r a in a g e c a n a l, w hich h a d b e e n c o n
str u c te d b e tw e e n 1892 a n d 1900 to p ro v id e fo r sew ag e d isp o sa l w ith o u t
p o llu tio n o f L a k e M ic h ig a n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e tra n s it sy ste m , th o u g h
c o n so lid a te d a n d e le c trifie d , was in th e h a n d s o r p riv a te o w n e rs a n d su b je ct
to (he in flu e n c e o f c o r r u p tib le p o litician s. T h e city h a d e re c te d a n electriclig h tin g p la n t in 1887, b u t by 1900 th e e le c tric su p p ly system also was fo r
th e m o st p a r t p riv a te ly o w n e d .
In 1892, b lu ste ry , v ig o ro u s C h ic a g o b e c a m e th e h o m e o f S a m u e l In su ll,
a m a n a g e r- e n tre p r e n e u r o f in c o m p a ra b le v ita lity .' W h e n In su ll left th e
new ly fo rm e d G e n e r a l E le ctric C o m p a n y to a ssu m e th e p re sid e n c y o f th e
C h ic a g o E d iso n C o m p a n y ( a f te r 1907 th e C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n C o m
p a n y ), h e g a v e lip th e v ic e -p re sid e n c y o f a $ 5 0 m illion c o rp o ra tio n to
b e c o m e th e h e a d o f a n $ 8 8 5 ,0 0 0 o n e . H e also left th e elec trica l m a n u fa c
tu r in g b u sin ess to e n te r th e utilities field . In su ll h a d r e c o m m e n d e d h im se lf
fo r th e new p o sitio n a lte r b e in g a sk e d by th e C h ic a g o c o n c e rn f o r su g
gestio n s. H e h a d rea liz e d th a t G e n e ra l E lectric, th e c o m p a n y fo rm e d fro m
th e m e r g e r o f E d iso n G e n e ra l E lectric, in w hich h e h a d p la y ed su ch a
T h is acroum ol Insult and C om m onw ealth F.dison is draw n in pari from T hom as P.
H ughes, "T h e Flcrl i iflcalion o f A m erira: T h e System Builders." Technology and Culture 20
(197!)): 124-til

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p ro m in e n t ro le as h e a d o f sales a n d m a n u fa c tu r in g . a n d T h o m s o n - ilo u s to n , th e c o m p a n y led by th e im p ressiv e C h a rle s C o Min, w ould be d o m in a te d
by T h o m s o n - H o u s io n m e n .2 In su ll, w ho was th irty -tw o y e ars o ld . ac c u s
to m e d to e x e rc isin g a u th o rity , a n d in s p ire d by E d iso n 's d riv e to create- an d
c o n s tru c t, was r e a d y to b u ild his ow n system .
C h ic a g o E d iso n 's a c c e p ta n c e o f In s tills n o m in a tio n is easily u n d e r s to o d ,
fo r In su ll, d e s p ite his y o u th , h a d an im p ressiv e re p u ta tio n in th e elecirii
lig h tin g H eld. In 1880 h e h a d e m ig ra te d fro m E n g la n d to A m erica it
b e co m e E d iso n s p e rso n a l se c re ta ry . E d iso n 's initial im p re ssio n o f h im was
not positiv e In su ll w as y o u n g , w e ig h ed I 17 p o u n d s , a n d h a d b e e n seasick
fo r eig h t successive days. S o o n , h o w e v er, E d iso n u n d e rs to o d w hy E d w a rd
II. J o h n s o n h a d r e c o m m e n d e d th e y o u n g m a n w h o h a d w o rk e d as p riv ate
s e c re ta ry f o r E d iso n 's L o n d o n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e : In su ll was k n o w le d g e ab le,
in te llig e n t, a m b itio u s, a n d b o ld . O n ly h o u rs a fte r m e e tin g E d iso n , Insull
su g g e ste d a way to ra ise th e a d d itio n a l $ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 n e e d e d to e stab lish c o m
p a n ie s to m a n u f a c tu r e c o m p o n e n ts fo r th e e le ctric lig h tin g system being
built at th e Pearl S tree t station a n d soon to lie e re c te d elsew here in A m erica.''
In su ll was o f g r e a t valu e to E d iso n , b u t E d iso n s in flu e n c e o n In su ll was
o f g r e a te r c o n se q u e n c e . B etw ee n 1880 a n d 1892, In su ll was th e in v e n to r's
se c re ta ry a n d p e rs o n a l r e p re s e n ta tiv e a n d th e n b ec a m e m a n a g e r ol th e
E d ison G e n e ra l E le ctric p la n t at S c h e n e c ta d y . T h e s e w ere fo rm a tiv e y ears
fo r th e electric lig h t a n d p o w e r in d u s try a n d fo r In sull. H e was in at th e
sta rt w h e n E d iso n p r e s id e d o v e r th e c o n s tru c tio n a n d ea rly o p e ra tio n o f
N ew Y o rk s P earl S tre e t s ta tio n ; h e to o k p a r t in th e e sta b lish m e n t o f th e
m a n u fa c tu r in g facilities th a t u ltim ately b ec a m e G e n e ra l E lectric; h e p a r
tic ip a te d in n u m e r o u s c o n f e r e n c e s in v o lv in g in v e n to rs, e n g in e e rs , e n t r e
p r e n e u rs , m ec h a n ic s, f in a n c ie rs, m a n a g e rs , e le ctric ia n s, a n d o th e rs w ho
s h a p e d th e ea rly h isto ry o f th e ele ctric al in d u stry , b o th utility a n d m a n u
fa c tu rin g . In s h o rt, h e s tu d ie d in th e E d iso n school, a b so rb in g its c re ativ e ,
p ro b le m -so lv in g , in c lu siv e , sy stem atic, in n o v ativ e, a n d e x p a n sio n ist a p
p ro a c h . H e k n ew its g ra d u a te s , w ho s p re a d fa r a n d w ide to tak e p a rt in
th e g ro w th o f th e in d u s try . F u r th e r m o r e , as a le a d in g m e m b e r o f th e school,
In su ll w as very close to th e m a ste r. In su ll la te r said: (E d iso n ) g r o u n d e d
m e in th e fu n d a m e n ta ls . . . . n o o n e c o u ld h av e h a d a m o re c o n s id e ra te
a n d fa sc in a tin g te a c h e r. In su ll n e v e r tire d o f c h a ra c te riz in g E d ison as th e
g re a te s t m a n h e h a d e v e r k n o w n a n d th e o n e w ho h a d th e s tro n g e st in
flu e n c e o n his c h a ra c te r.
Y ears la te r, in 1934, w h e n S am u el In su ll w ent o n trial f o r u sin g (he mails
to d e f r a u d in c o n n e c tio n w ith his b a n k r u p t h o ld in g c o m p a n y , his d e fe n s e
was essen tially th a t h e , like E d iso n , was a cre a tiv e m a n a n d o n e g rea tly
in te re s te d in m a n a g in g p ro d u c tiv e tec h n o lo g y ; h e d e n ie d th at h e was a
p re d a to ry h o ld in g -c o m p a n y ty coon. H is so n , S am u el In su ll, Jr., recalls that
a fte r th e g o v e rn m e n t p ro s e c u to r h e a rd th e d e fe n s e , he said priv ately to
* Forrest McDonald, /run// (Chicago: University of Chicago Ircss. MHi2), pp. f>0-.r>'2.
Burton Y. Berry, "M r. Samuel Insull" (typescript), pp. 33-34, Samuel Instill Papers. Loyola
University, Chicago, III. T hese papers were used try kind permission ol' Samuel Instill, 11..
and are hereafter ciled as Instill Papers. I would like to thank Janet lla ld e r lot her help m
sorting th rough the collection.
Samuel Insull, "M em oirs of Samuel Instill" (typescript written in Il34-3.r), p 37, Instill
Papers.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
th e so n , Say, y ou fellow s w e re le g itim a te b u s in e s s m e n ." 5 S a m u e l In su ll
w as a c q u itte d , b u t h e w as e x h a u s te d ; th e im m e n se system o f u tilitie s h e
h a d b u ilt u p lay f r a c tu r e d , n e v e r lo b e in his h a n d s a g a in . H isto ry h as n o t
d e a lt g e n e ro u s ly w ith In su lt; th e d is a s tro u s c lim ax o f his c a r e e r b u rn e d
itse lf in to th e p u b lic 's m e m o ry . F o r n e w s p a p e rm e n , politic ia n s, a n d f o r m e r
c o m p e tito r s , in su ll w as a D e p re s s io n sc a p e g o a t; th e d e c a d e s o f c o m p le x
sy ste m -b u ild in g w e re e a s ie r to ig n o re o r f o rg e t th e y in v o lv e d d iffic u lt
c o n c e p ts, e so te ric te c h n o lo g y , u n c o m m o n e c o n o m ic s, a n d s o p h istic a te d
m a n a g e m e n t.
T h e c r e a tio n o f a n a ll-e m b ra c in g system o f e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r fo r
C h ic a g o was I n s u lls p rim e o b jec tiv e fo r a lm o st tw o d e c a d e s. In th e e n d h e
r e a c h e d o u t b e y o n d th e city a n d in te r c o n n e c te d th e C h ic a g o sy stem with
s u b u r b a n c o m p a n ie s a n d th e n lin k e d th e se w ith n e ig h b o rin g m u n ic ip a litie s.
T h e sc o p e o f th e sy ste m b e c a m e re g io n a l. T h e h isto ry o f th e P ublic S ervice
C o r p o r a tio n o f Illin o is (a r e g io n a l sy ste m ) a n d o f In s u lls M id d le W est
U tilitie s C o m p a n y (a h o ld in g c o m p a n y o n a n a tio n a l scale) a re im p o rta n t
c h a p te r s in th e life o f In su ll a n d th e h isto ry o f e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r.6
A n a c c o u n t o f th e C h ic a g o sy ste m a lo n e , h o w e v e r, re v ea ls th e p o w e rfu l
a n d e ffe c tiv e c o n c e p tu a l sy n th e sis o f te c h n o lo g y a n d e c o n o m ic s th a t g u id e d
In su ll a n d his asso ciates as th e y k n it to g e th e r a n d m a n a g e d th e C h ic ag o
sy ste m c o n s id e r e d by m a n y as e a rly as 1910 to b e th e w o rld s g re a te st.
W h e n In su ll a rriv e d , th e C h ic a g o E d iso n C o m p a n y w as b u t o n e o f m o re
th a n tw e n ty sm all e le c tric -lig h tin g utilities. W ith in tw o d e c a d e s , In su ll a n d
his a sso c ia te s h a d c re a te d a m o n o p o listic , m a s s -p r o d u c in g , te c h n o lo g ic ally
effic ie n t, a n d e c o n o m ic a lly o p e r a te d c o m p a n y fo r all o f C h ic a g o .7 In su ll
b e c a m e a s p o k e s m e n fo r th e u tilities in d u s try , a n d h is c o m p a n y was a
p a c e s e tte r in b o th te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d m a n a g e m e n t policy. (See Fig. V I I I .2.)
T h e sy stem a n d th e way in w hich it was c r e a te d b e c a m e m o d e ls fo r o th e r
u r b a n utilitie s. F o r th e h is to r ia n , it w as b o th th e le a d in g e d g e a n d a r e p
re s e n ta tiv e case o f th e w aves o f d e v e lo p m e n t th a t fo llow ed.
U n d e r In su lt's d ire c tio n , his c o m p a n y lo o k th e le ad a m o n g utilitie s in
te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n . T h e g ro w th o f th e C h ic a g o sy ste m c a n n o t be
e x p la in e d w ith o u t ta k in g in to a c c o u n t th is te c h n o lo g ic a l c o m p o n e n t. N e i
th e r, h o w e v e r, c a n th e e v o lu tio n o f th e sy stem b e e x p la in e d w ith o u t c o n
sid e rin g th e p o litica l s itu a tio n in C h ic a g o a n d th e s ta te o f Illinois a n d th e
ro le In su ll p la y e d in th is p a r tic u la r sc e n e . In su ll d id n o t sim p ly m a n ip u la te
po litician s a n d p o litic al fo rc e s; th e e n tir e s itu a tio n w as rip e fo r m a n ip u
la tio n . A t a b o u t th e s a m e lim e , a n o th e r e n tr e p r e n e u r o f e le ctric al s u p p ly ,
C h a rle s M erz , f o u n d L o n d o n to b e a re m a rk a b ly d if f e r e n t p ro b le m (see
p p . 2 4 9 - 5 4 b e lo w ).T h e d e v e lo p m e n ts in L o n d o n a n d C h ic a g o d ire c t a t
te n tio n n o t o n ly to th e tw o m e n b u t to th e ir s itu a tio n s.
In su ll, o f C h ic a g o E d iso n , a n d M erz , o f th e N ew ca stle u p o n T y n e E lectric
* M cDonald. Inutll, p. 331.
0 Historical sketches o f the Middle West Utilities Co. can be found in the com pany's annual
rep o rts on file in the Insull Papers (see especially "R eport . . . for the Fiscal Year E nding
Decem ber 31, 1926"). See also "Presentation o f Public Service C om pany o f N orthern Illinois
in C om petition Tor the Charles A. Coffin Prize A ward April 1st 1924," Insull Papers.
7 1-1. A. Seym our. "H istory o f C om m onw ealth Edison C om pany." (typescript com pleted in
1935), p. 200, C om m onw ealth Edison Co. Archives. Chicago. III. I am grateful to Helen P.
T h o m p so n , librarian, for help in using the archives and the library.

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Figure V lll.2 . Prominent electrical industry executives, 1897: Samuel Insult (second row, cighlh from left): John Knirsi. General F.lcctnc Co
(second row, th ird from left); Charles Batchelor (second row, seventh from left): Louts Ferguson, Chicago Edison Co. (second row, ninth
from left); J. W. Lieb. Edison Electric Illuminating Co . N Y. (third row, third from left): and T C Martin, editor of Electrical W orld (fourth
row, seventh from left). From the author's private collection.

S u p p ly C o m p a n y , w ere g o o d frie n d s a n d p ro fe ssio n a l associates. B oth

d isp la y e d a n im p re ssiv e d riv e to b u ild system s. B o th , like E d iso n , w ere
h e d g e h o g s. W ith in th e s p e c tru m o f e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l ta le n ts e x te n d in g fro m
e n g in e e rin g to m a n a g e m e n t, M erz w o u ld be p la ce d to w a rd th e e n g in e e rin g
e n d , b u t th e a b ilities o f b o th m e n r a n g e d fro m e n g in e e rin g to m a n a g e m e n t
a n d to politics a n d fin a n c e as w ell. Y et M erz was f ru s tr a te d by political
p o w e r in his e f fo rts to b rin g a u n ifie d ele ctrica l system to L o n d o n , w hile
In su ll used p o litics to c re a te a system in C h ic ag o th a t th e u tilities w orld
e n v ie d .
In L o n d o n d u r in g th e d e c a d e s b e fo re W o rld W a r I, M erz a n d his a s
sociates fo u n d th e m se lv e s c o n f ro n te d by th e effe ctiv e re sista n c e o f p r o
p o n e n ts o f local g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e foes o f p riv a te o w n e rs h ip (see pp .
2 5 3 - 5 4 below ). In C h ica g o , In su ll le a r n e d how to d e a l w ith th e local p o l
iticians a n d e v e n tu a lly o rg a n iz e d ' re p re se n ta tiv e s o f th e sta te g o v e rn m e n t
in s u p p o r t o f his system b u ild in g . In a d d itio n , h e h e ld th e ad v o c a te s o f
p u b lic o w n e rs h ip at bay w ith a ste ad y b a r ra g e o f publicity. In L o n d o n , th e
p o liticians w ere n o t re c e p tiv e to M erz's p lan s; in C h ica g o a n d Illinois, p o l
itics b e c am e a p a r t o f In su lls system . F o rre st M cD onald, In su ll's b io g ra
p h e r, believes th a t In su ll was fo r ab o u t th irty -fiv e ye ars th e m ost p o w e rfu l
p olitical o p e r a to r o n th e A m e ric an bu sin e ss scene."
" McDoiuikl, Insult, p. 82. My discussion of Insull in politics is based on McDonald's bi
ography.

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C h ic a g o s p o litic ian s, esp e cia lly th o se o n th e city c o u n cil, e x p lo ite d th e
fra n c h is e -g r a n lin g p o w e r o f g o v e rn m e n t. A n o u ts ta n d in g e x a m p le o f th e
in g e n io u s way in w h ich th e y o b ta in e d w e alth fro m political p o w e r w ith o u t
h a v in g lo ste al p u b lic m o n e y is th e O g d e n G as C o m p a n y case. In su ll le a rn e d
m u c h fro m o b s e rv in g th e ir m a n e u v e rs . In 1895 a g r o u p o f p o litician s th a t
la te r b e c a m e k n o w n as th e O g d e n G as C ro w d h e lp e d p ass a n o rd in a n c e
th a t g r a n te d a lo n g - te rm fra n c h is e lo th e O g d e n G as C o m p a n y , a n e n te r
p rise th e y h a d fo u n d e d a n d in w h ich th e y h e ld a la rg e block o f stock. T h e
a lre a d y e x istin g gas c o m p a n y , th e P e o p le s G as L ig h t 8c C o k e C o m p a n y ,
e n v ie d th e fra n c h is e h o ld e rs a n d r e g r e tte d th e c o m p e titio n th e new c o m
p a n y c o u ld o ff e r. So th e O g d e n G as C ro w d so ld th e fra n c h is e to th e P e oples
C o m p a n y fo r o v e r $7 m illio n a n d se v e ral p o litic ia n s m a d e an in d iv id u a l
p ro f it o f a lm o st tw o -th ird s o f a m illio n d o lla rs. T h e r e w e re o th e r v ariatio n s
o n th e fra n c h is e th e m e , as In su ll, h e a d o f C h ic a g o E d iso n , w o u ld le a rn .9
In su ll also to o k n o te o f h ow C h a rle s T y s o n Y e rk es, C h ic a g o s le a d in g
tra n s p o r ta tio n -u tilitie s m a g n a te , su rv iv e d , e v e n flo u ris h e d , in C h ic ag o . By
1897 Y erk es, a lso a system b u ild e r, h a d f o rg e d a u n ifie d a n d e le c trifie d
u r b a n tr a n s p o r ta tio n sy stem . T o d o th is h e h a d b e e n fo rc e d re g u la rly to
b rib e m e m b e rs o f th e city c o u n c il to e x te n d th e m a n y s h o rt-te rm fra n c h ise s
h e a c q u ire d in b u ild in g his tr a n s p o r ta tio n n e tw o rk . B ec au se it was d iffic u lt
to o b ta in lo n g - te rm lo an s o r lo m a r k e t lo n g -te r m b o n d s w ith s h o rt-liv e d
fra n c h ise s, a n d b e c a u se th e b rib e s w e re u n e n d in g , Y erk e s in 1897 m a d e a
b o ld a n d ra tio n a l m o v e. H e a r r a n g e d fo r th e in tro d u c tio n in th e state
le g is la tu re o f a se t o f bills to e x te n d all s tre e tc a r a n d e le v a te d railw ay
fra n c h is e s in th e sta te o f Illin o is f o r fifty y e a rs, re q u ir e c o m p a n ie s to pay
th e cities th e y se rv e d a n in itial fee a n d a n a n n u a l p e rc e n ta g e o f g ross
re v e n u e s , a n d re m o v e c o n tro l o f th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o m p a n ie s fro m city
c o u n c ils a n d pla ce r e g u la tio n in th e h a n d s o f a sta te c o m m issio n . S h iftin g
re s p o n sib ility lo th e sta te level m ig h t r e d u c e c o r r u p tio n ; it w o u ld su re ly
e x te n d th e ju r is d ic tio n oT th e r e g u la to ry a u th o r ity to a c c o rd w ith th e e x
p a n d in g tr a n s p o r ta tio n n e tw o rk s. T h e bills d id n o t pass, b u t th e leg isla to rs
d id a u th o r iz e city c o u n c ils to issue fifty -y e a r fra n c h ise s.
In su ll g o t a ta ste o f th e city co u n c il's fra n c h is e e n te r p r is e so o n th e re a fte r.
M e m b e rs o f th e C h ic a g o C ity C o u n c il a sk e d how m u c h h e w o u ld pay to
b lock th e g r a n tin g o f a fifty -y e a r fra n c h is e to a rival co m p a n y . F ollow ing
th e O g d e n G as C ro w d p a tte r n , th e c o u n c il v o te d a fra n c h is e to th e C o m
m o n w e a lth E le ctric C o m p a n y , w hich h a d b e e n esta b lish e d to h o ld th e f r a n
chise. In su ll d id n o t yield, h o w e v e r, so m e m b e rs o f th e c o u n c il a n d th e ir
f r ie n d s w e n t a h e a d w ith p la n s to tra n s f o r m th e d u m m y c o m p a n y in to an
o p e r a tin g c o m p e tito r . T h e n th e y le a r n e d w hy I n su ll h a d sto o d his g ro u n d :
h e h e ld e x c lu siv e r ig h ts fro m e v e ry A m e ric a n m a n u f a c tu r e r to b uy e le c
trica l e q u ip m e n t fo r C h ic a g o . So d a u n te d , th e c re a to rs a n d o w n e rs o f
C o m m o n w e a lth E lec tric so ld th e v alu a b le fifty -y e a r fra n c h ise a n d th e c o m
p a n y to C h ic a g o E d iso n Tor $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 .111
In su ll a n d lik e -m in d e d utilities m e n w e re to su c c e e d w h e re Y e rk es h a d
fa ile d ; th e y w o u ld b rin g a b o u t th e tr a n s f e r o f re g u la to ry p o w e rs to th e
state. Insull first m u ste re d th e s u p p o rt o f le a d in g utilities executives th ro u g h
* Ibid., p. 83.
,u Ibid., pp. 88-89.

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ih e N a tio n a l E lectric L ight A ssociation (N E L A ), a tr a d e o rg a n iz a tio n . In
his N E L A p re s id e n tia l a d d r e s s in 1898, h e c alled fo r sta te re g u la tio n o f
r a le s a n d service; h e also a d v o c a te d th a t m u n icip a litie s b e e m p o w e re d to
p u rc h a s e , at cost m in u s d e p re c ia tio n , th e p la n t o f an y u tility th a t failed to
r e n d e r satisfac to ry service. O n th is o ccasion a n d th r o u g h o u t m ost o f his
c a r e e r , In su ll sh o w e d his re sp e c t fo r th e p u b lic service re sp o n sib ilitie s o f
th e u tilities, a n d h e let th e p u b lic know o f his c o n c e rn . H e was a p io n e e r
in u tility p u b lic re la tio n s. A lth o u g h th e N E L A m e m b e rs h ip was n ot re a d y
fo r In su ll's policy in 1898 a n d re le g a te d th e p ro p o sa l to a c o m m itte e , w ithin
a d e c a d e it re a liz e d th a t sta te r e g u la tio n w o u ld b o th fac ilitate e x p a n s io n
a n d c o u n te r th e risin g tid e o f m u n ic ip a l o w n e rsh ip . A new N E L A P ublic
Policy C o m m itte e s u b m itte d a s tro n g r e p o r t fa v o rin g sta te re g u la tio n a n d
th e m e m b e rs h ip e n d o r s e d it. In 1907, w h e n th e m u n ic ip a l-b o n d m a rk e t
c o n tr a c te d sev ere ly a n d m u n ic ip a l o w n e rs h ip th e r e f o r e b e c a m e less a t
trac tiv e, its p r o p o n e n ts jo in e d th e call fo r sta te re g u la tio n as a re fo r m . T h e
N a tio n a l Civic F e d e ra tio n (in w hich In su ll p la y e d an im p o r ta n t ro le as
m e m b e r o f th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e m a d e u p o f bu sin ess a n d la b o r le a d e rs
a n d p u b lic re p re s e n ta tiv e s ) also d e c id e d th a t sta te re g u la tio n o f pu b lic
u tilitie s was an im p o r ta n t s te p in its e ffo rt to b rin g a b o u t u rb a n re fo rm
th r o u g h o u t th e n a tio n . Its r e p o r t o f 1907, w hich c o in c id e d w ith In su ll's
a n d N E L A s views, p ro v id e d th e basis fo r m ost re g u la to ry laws, in c lu d in g
th o se th a t g o v e rn e d th e p io n e e r in g r e g u la to r y co m m issio n s e sta b lish e d in
W isconsin, M a ssa ch u se tts, a n d N ew Y ork in 1907. Iro n ic ally , b e c a u se o f
co m p le x itie s in Illin o is law, e specially in th e Field o f tra n s p o rta tio n utilities,
In su ll's state d id n o t esta b lish a sta te re g u la to ry co m m issio n u n til 1 9 1 4 ."
W h en th e e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f L o n d o n s local a u th o ritie s in r e sistin g th e tr a n
sc e n d e n c e o f t h e ir a u th o rity is rec a lle d , it seem s re m a rk a b le th a t In su ll a n d
o th e r s e n c o u n te r e d rela tiv ely in e ffe c tu a l resista n ce in C h ic a g o as r e g u la to ry
ju r is d ic tio n w as m o v ed u p to th e s ta te level. T h e r e was, h o w ev er, a d e la y ed
re a c tio n . A lm ost sim u lta n e o u sly w ith th e e s ta b lish m e n t o f th e Illinois Public
U tility C o m m issio n in 1914, a m o v e m e n t ca lled H o m e R u le was la u n c h e d
in C hicago to re tu rn ju risd ic tio n to th e m unicipal g o v ern m e n t. T h e stre n g th
o f th is m o v e m e n t was re in fo r c e d in th e n e x t few years by a c o m p le x alliance
o f C h ic a g o p o litic ian s w h o w e re a cu tely a w are o f th e ir loss o f in flu e n c e ;
by critics o f p ro fitm a k in g fro m d e fe n s e e x p e n d itu re s , especially by p ublic
u tilities; a n d by a d v o c a te s o f g o v e r n m e n t o w n e rsh ip . T h e m o v e m e n t took
o n a m id w e ste rn c h a ra c te r as P ro g ressiv e le a d e rs like R o b e rt La F ollette
o f W isconsin, W illiam B o ra h o f Id a h o , B u rto n W h e e le r o f M o n ta n a , a n d
G e o rg e N o rris o f N e b ra sk a tu r n e d a g a in st w ar p ro fite e rs a n d , by 1919,
especially th e p u b lic utilities. (As in E n g la n d , a d v o cates o f local a n d c e n tra l
g o v e rn m e n t o w n e rs h ip c o m b in e d ag ain st th e e x p a n d in g , priv a te ly o w n e d
u tility system .)
D u rin g W o rld W a r I, In su ll h e a d e d th e S tate C o u n cil o f D efe n se in
Illinois a n d was especially active in m o b ilizin g p ublic o p in io n in th e w ar
e ffo rt. A fte r th e w ar, w ith utilities, not th e U n ite d States, u n d e r a ttac k , h e
u sed th is p u b lic r e la lio n s -p ro p a g a n d a o rg a n iz a tio n as a m o d e l lo r th e
Illinois Public U tility In f o r m a tio n C o m m itte e. O th e r utilities a n d NF.LA
follow ed his lea d , a n d sp e e c h e s a n d p u b lic atio n s p o u r e d fo rth . "By th e
" Ib id ., pp. I 13-1 <1. 117, 121. 177-78.

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NETT W O R K S O F P O W E R
m id -lw e n tie s, h a lin g u tilitie s w as, in C h ic a g o , as r a r e as h a tin g m o th e r a n d
th e fla g . 12 T h e th r e a t o f H o m e R u le" h a d p a sse d .
R e le g a tin g p o litic al a u th o rity lo th e su b se rv ie n t p o sitio n d e e m e d a p p r o
p r ia te by A m e ric a n e n tr e p r e n e u r s , In su ll p ro c e e d e d w ith th e fu lfillm e n t
o f his p r im a ry ob jectiv e s, w h ich w e re in th e tech n ic al a n d e c o n o m ic re alm s.
W ith in tw o y e ars o f his a rriv a l in C h ic a g o , In su ll d e m o n s tr a te d th e b o ld n e ss
o f his in te n tio n s by ra is in g f u n d s to b u ild th e H a r ris o n S tr e e t c e n tra l sta tio n
d u r in g a y e a r o f fin a n c ia l p a n ic. T h is g e n e ra tin g sLalion b e c a m e k n o w n
f o r its a d v a n c e d e n g in e e r in g a n d ra p id g ro w th d u r in g its first d e c a d e o f
o p e ra tio n . G iv en his th o r o u g h e x p o s u re to th e te c h n o lo g y o f e le c tric lig h t
a n d p o w e r w hile h e w as w ith E d iso n a n d his c o m p a n ie s, In su ll lo o k fa r
m o re th a n an a b s tra c t m a n a g e ria l in te r e s t in th e way th e H a rr is o n S tre e t
sta tio n w as e q u ip p e d . O p e n in g in 1894 w ith 400-kw . d ir e c t- c u r r e n t g e n
e r a to r s to ta lin g 2 ,4 0 0 kw. a n d d riv e n in p a irs by h ig h ly e ffic ie n t 1 ,2 5 0 -h .p .
c o n d e n s in g , re c ip ro c a tin g ste a m e n g in e s , th e sta tio n e x p a n d e d w ith in a
d e c a d e to a to ta l c ap a c ity o f 16,200 kw. g e n e r a te d by 3 ,5 0 0 -k w u n its. L o
c a te d o n n a v ig a b le w a te r, it h a d easy access to coal a n d c o o lin g w a te r.
M o reo v er, as its capacity in creased, a la rg e r a n d m o re d iv erse m a rk e t evolved.
O n th e b u sin e ss level, C h ic a g o E d iso n a c q u ire d tw e n ty C h ic a g o u tilities
a n d th e ir m a rk e t a re a s. T h e c u lm in a tio n o f th e e x p a n s io n w as its fo rm a l
m e r g e r w ith C o m m o n w e a lth E lectric to f o rm C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n in
1907.
( T h e tw o c o m p a n ie s h a d b e e n jo in tly m a n a g e d f o r so m e y e a r s .),!l
In p re s id in g o v e r th e g ro w th o f th e C h ic a g o sy ste m , In su ll d e m o n s tra te d
ho w th e new te c h n o lo g y co u ld b e c o u p le d to th e o ld in th e u n iv e rsa l s u p p ly
system . As th e sm all a n d in e ffic ie n t c o m p a n ie s w e re a b s o rb e d , th e ir g e n
e r a tin g p la n ts w e re u se d f o r a tim e . A fte r 1896 a n d th e in tro d u c tio n of
p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t, h o w e v e r, o b so le te g e n e r a tin g s ta tio n s w ere tr a n s f o r m e d
in to su b sta tio n s. In su ll b e lie v e d th a t a f te r S e b a stia n Z. d e F e rra n ti, h e was
th e first to tr a n s f o r m in e ffic ie n t s ta tio n s in to s u b sta tio n s. ( T h e very p re fix
su b - in d ic a te d th e e m e rg in g h ie ra rc h ic a l sy stem .) F e rra n ti, th e fo rw a rd lo o k in g B ritish e n g in e e r a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r , h a d c o n v e rte d th e sm all G rosv e n o r G allery sta tio n in to a t r a n s f o r m e r su b sta tio n fo r th e m a m m o th D e p t
fo rd g e n e r a tin g p la n t ac ro ss th e T h a m e s .1-1 L ike F e rr a n ti, In su ll a n d his
asso ciate s n o t o n ly u tiliz ed p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t, tr a n s f o r m e r s , a n d h ig h -v o lt
a g e d is trib u tio n lin e s b u t also e m p lo y e d th e new ly in v e n te d r o ta ry c o n
v e rte r. (See p p . 1 2 1 -2 2 abo v e.)
T h e ro ta r y c o n v e r te r p ro v e d to b e a n e ffe c tiv e tool in th e h a n d s o f th e
C h ic a g o e lectric al e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e rs w h o w e re in te n t u p o n g ro w th .
A f ru s tra tio n f o r th e m h a d b e e n th e c o m b in e d heavy in v e stm e n t in d o w n
to w n d ir e c t- c u r r e n t sta tio n s o f th e E d iso n ty p e a n d iso lated s u b u r b a n a l
t e r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sta tio n s. K n o w in g th a t e c o n o m ie s o f scale w o u ld re su lt
w h e th e r o n e m e a s u re d g e n e r a to r ca p ac ity o r a re a o f d istric t se rv e d , th e y
in tro d u c e d th e c o n v e rte r lo c o u p le th e a.c. a n d d .c. sy ste m s at th e ir in te r
face, th u s in te g r a tin g th e o ld a n d th e new a n d b u ild in g a u n iv e rsa l system .
A t th e C h ic a g o e x p o sitio n in 1893 a ro ta r y c o n v e rte r was e x h ib ite d by
'* Ibid.. p. 185.
C om m onw ealth Edison C om pany" (typescript p rep ared c. 1934 for Samuel Insull prior
to his federal trial), pp. 2 -3 . Insull Papers.
" A r th u r Ridding. S 7. tie Ferranti. Pioneer ol F.lerlnr Power (London: IIMSO. 1964).

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C H IC A G O : T H E D O M I N A N C E O F T E C H N O L O G Y
th e W e siin g h o u se C o r p o ra tio n . In su ll a n d his c h ie f e n g in e e r. L ouis F e r
g u so n , b elie v ed th a t th e y w ere th e first to o r d e r th e new in v e n tio n (in May
1896) b u t a c k n o w le d g e d th a t B o sto n E d iso n h a d used it first. In th e case
o f C h ic a g o E d iso n , F e rg u s o n a n d In su ll first s h u t d o w n a n in e ffic ie n t d.c.
s ta tio n o n W a b ash A v e n u e , in sta lle d a re v e rse d ro ta ry c o n v e rte r at th e
H a r ris o n S tre e t sta tio n (d ire c t c u r r e n t fro m th e g e n e ra to r s was c h a n g e d
in to a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t) , a n d s e n t th e h ig h -v o lta g e a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t o v e r
th e tra n sm issio n lin e th r e e m iles to th e f o rm e r g e n e ra tin g s ta tio n , nowc o n v e rte d in to a su b sta tio n , w h e re a ro ta ry c o n v e rte r c h a n g e d a lte rn a tin g
c u r r e n t to d ir e c t c u r r e n t fo r u se by c o n s u m e rs in th e d is tr ic t.15 T h is was
a v a ria tio n o n th e u su a l p a tte r n o f c o n v e rsio n .
By 1900 In su ll, w h o u su ally d e p e n d e d o n G e n e ra l E lectric fo r elec trica l
e q u ip m e n t, h a d th e ro tary c o n v e rte r, th e freq u en c y c h a n g e r, a n d , o f course,
th e tr a n s fo rm e r. S c h o o le d by E d iso n , In su ll n e v e r lost his sensitivity to
te c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts ; his e c o n o m ic a n d b u sin ess a c u m e n allow ed
him to g r a s p q u ick ly h ow to e x p lo it th e m . A t his sid e w e re L ouis F e rg u so n ,
his c h ie f e n g in e e r, w h o was re c o g n iz e d as a le a d e r by his p e e rs, a n d F ra n k
S a rg e n t, a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r w h o se re p u ta tio n as a p o w e r-p la n t d e s ig n e r
g re w ra p id ly as h e b e c a m e p rim a r y c o n s u lta n t to C h ic a g o E d iso n (see Fig.
V I I I .3 ) .16
In su ll n o t o n ly s p r e a d his d is trib u tio n system b u t h e in c re a se d th e scale
o f th e g e n e r a tin g u n its w ith in th e system . As in th e case o f his c o u p lin g o f
th e o ld a n d new te c h n o lo g ie s, h e was m o tiv a te d by a hig h ly d e v e lo p e d
ec o n o m ic s e n se a n d a n a p titu d e fo r id e n tify in g t h e te c h n o lo g y o f th e fu tu re .
O n e h isto ric te c h n o lo g ic a l a c h ie v e m e n t o f w hich h e was im m e n sely p ro u d
w as th e Fisk S tr e e t sta tio n , w h ich o p e n e d in 1903 (see Figs. VI11.4 a n d
V I1 1.5). H is c o n tro v e rs ia l d e c isio n to b u ild th e sta tio n follow ed fro m th e
re a liz a tio n th a t la rg e g e n e r a tin g u n its w e re m o re e ffic ie n t th a n sm all ones.
A lso in f lu e n c in g h im was th e re a liz a tio n th a t re c ip ro c a tin g stea m e n g in e s
w ith m o r e th a n a 5 ,0 0 0 -h .p . ca p ac ity (th e lim it o f th e u n it rece n tly in stalled
in th e H a r ris o n S tre e t s ta tio n ) w o u ld be im p ra c tic a l b e ca u se o f t h e ir siz e .17
A d h e r in g to his o b jec tiv e o f a m a ssin g p r o d u c tio n in la rg e u n its, h e tu r n e d
to th e ste a m tu rb in e , w hich w as w in n in g p ra ise in E u ro p e fo r its relatively
sm all size, sim p lic ity o f m e c h a n ism , a n d m o d e ra te first cost. In th is d ec isio n ,
as in m a n y o th e r s , In su ll d e m o n s tra te d his a w a re n e ss o f E u ro p e a n te c h
n o lo g ic al d e v e lo p m e n ts a n d his in c lin a tio n to tra n s fe r a n d a d a p t te c h n o l
o g y .18
H a v in g se e n ste a m tu r b in e s in a c e n tra l s ta tio n in G e rm a n y , In su ll sent
F e rg u so n a n d S a rg e n t to E u ro p e e arly in th e s u m m e r o f 1901 to in sp ec t
' Seym our, "Hislory o f Com m onw ealth Edison," pp. 308-9. In a paper presented at the
O rganization o f A merican H istorians'S eventy-fifth Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, Pa., I April
1982, H arold Platt discussed In su lts supply-side m arketing techniques, stressing Insult's a p
preciation o f the economic im portance and use o f the W right D em and M eter and the rotary
converter. Sec H arold L. Platt. Sam Insull and the Electrification o f Chicago, 18 8 0 - 1925."
'" O n Sargent sec Sargent 8c Lundy, The Sargent ( Lundy Story: Seventy Years of Engineering
Service (Chicago: Sargent 8c Lundy 1961).
Seym our. "History o f Com monw ealth Edison." p. 319.
'"W h en traveling in Europe as a young man, Samuel Insull, Jr., investigated technological
developm ents th ere at his father's request. He later confirm ed that his father had paid close
attention to European technological developm ents (interview with Samuel Insull, Jr., Chicago.
14 Aukusi 1975).

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure VIII. 3. Offices o f (he consulting

engineering firm Sargent Id l.undy.
Fredenek Sargent, consultant to Samuel
liuull (left); /Iyres Lundy (sealed al
desk). Courtesy o f Sargent id l.unry
F.ngineers, Chicago, III.

Figure VIII.4. Fish Street station,

Chicago, under construction. 1903. From
Sargent id Lundy, T h e Sargeni 8c
Lundy Slory, p. 13.

,.J F
Figure VI1I.5. Fisk Street station. From
Saigenl id Lundy, T h e Sargenl 8c
L undy Story, p 22.

Us

21 1

C H IC A G O : T H E D O M I N A N C E O F T E C H N O L O G Y
tu r b in e in sta llatio n s. In E n g la n d , C h a rle s P a rso n s h a d in tr o d u c e d th e stea m
tu r b in e as a g e n e r a to r d riv e in 1884. T h e r e w e re sm all s te a m - tu rb in e in
sta lla tio n s th e re , a n d in 1900 a m a jo r c e n tra l-sta tio n in sta lla tio n was c o m
p le te d in E lb e rfe ld , G e r m a n y .19 D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e stea m tu r b in e b r o u g h t
a m a rk e d d e c re a s e in w eight p e r h o rs e p o w e r as c o m p a re d to th e re c ip
ro c a tin g e n g in e . I f In su ll h a d b e e n c o n te n t to try a 1,000-kw . u n it, th e r e
w o u ld h av e b e e n little c o n tro v e rsy a b o u t th e d e cisio n ; th e tu r b in e s at E l
b e rf e ld w e re 1,000-kw . u n its, a n d th e H a r tf o r d E lectric C o m p a n y in A m e r
ica h a d o r d e r e d a 1,500-kw . tu r b o g e n e r a to r fro m W c stin g h o n se in 1900.-"
C o m m itte d to size a n d effic ie n cy , h o w e v e r, In su ll w a n te d 5 ,000-kw . u n its
fo r th e Fisk S tre e t sta tio n .
In E u r o p e , F e rg u s o n s a n d S a rg e n ts e n th u s ia s m fo r tu rb in e s in c re a se d .
S ucc essfu l in sta lla tio n s o f w a te r tu rb in e s also e n c o u ra g e d th e m . T h e y saw
th e M ilan E d iso n C o m p a n y s w a te r-p o w e r s ta tio n at P a d e rn o , w ith its seven
2 ,0 0 0 -h .p . tu rb in e s ; th e c o m p a n y s c h ie f e n g in e e r in f o r m e d th e m th a t th e
tu rb in e s h a d b e e n so su cce ssfu l th a t h e h a d o r d e r e d tw o ste a m tu rb in e s
ra te d at 4 ,0 0 0 h .p . ea c h . G re a tly stim u la te d , F e rg u so n a n d S a rg e n t th e n
visited th e w orks o f B ro w n , B overi & C o m p a n y in B a d e n , S w itze rla n d ,
w h e re th e la r g e r M ilan E d iso n tu rb in e s w o u ld be b u ilt. T h e r e they also
le a r n e d o f a n o r d e r fro m F r a n k fo r t, G e rm a n y , fo r a 4 ,0 0 0 -h .p . t u r b o
g e n e ra to r ; th e y w e re c o n v in c e d th a t E u ro p e was le n d in g ve ry d e fin ite ly
to th e tu r b o g e n e r a to r u n it." 21
Back in th e S tates, C h a rle s C o ffin , p re s id e n t o f G e n e ra l E lectric, was
in te re s te d in su p p ly in g C h ic a g o E d iso n w ith a sm all, 1,000-kw . tu r b o g e n
e r a to r , b u t h e w o u ld o f f e r n o n e o f th e c u s to m a ry g u a ra n te e s fo r la rg e r
u n its, c e rta in ly n o t th e 5 ,000-kw . u n it In su ll h a d in m in d . In su ll p e rsiste d ,
h a v in g d e c id e d to g o a h e a d a n d b o re with a big a u g e r" r a th e r th a n live
fro m h a n d to m o u th " by a d d in g a sm all tu rb in e to a re c ip ro c a tin g -e n g in e
s ta tio n .22 T h e c o m p r o m is e r e a c h e d was th a t G e n e ra l E lectric w ould tak e
th e m a n u f a c tu r in g risk a n d C h ic a g o E d iso n w o u ld a ssu m e th e e x p e n se o f
th e in sta lla tio n w h e th e r it su c c e e d e d o r fa iled. (F o r e x a m p le , th e b u ild in g
w ould h av e to be r e m o d e le d e x te n siv e ly if th e tu rb in e p ro v e d u n sa tisfa c
to ry .) In su ll p la c e d his o r d e r fo r th e 5.000-kw . tu r b in e o n 28 D ec e m b e r
1901 a n d th e u n it w en t in to serv ice o n 2 O c to b e r 1903 (see Fig. V I1 1.6).
T h r e e m o re 5,0 0 0 -k w . u n its fo llow ed by 1905, b u t th e se w e re th e n re p la c e d
by 12,000-kw . u n its. By 1911 th e r e w ere te n 12,000-kw . u n its at th e Fisk
S tre e t s ta tio n .23
In su ll a n d o th e r E d iso n o fficials c e le b ra te d th e ir p io n e e rin g de cisio n .
' A rnold T. Gross. "Zeillard zur Entwicklung tier E lcktrizilalsversorgung," Techmkgeschichte 25 (1936): 131; R. H. Parsons. The Early Days o f the Power Station Industry (Cambridge:
Al the University I'rcss, 1940). pp. 170 IT. O n the introduction olTlie steam turbine in m itra l
stations, see also Kurt Mnucl, "Die B edeutung d er D aniprturbine fin die Entwicklung (In
elcktriscbcn F.ncrgiccrzcugung." Teehnikgeschichte 42 (1975); 229-42.
'" T h e Mart ford Electric L.igltt Co. installed a single 1,500-kw. steam turbine in its existing
Pearl Street plant in 1901. T his W estinghousc-Parsons turbine was the first built in America
for a utility. See Glenn Weaver, The 11art foul Electric Light Company (H artford. Conn., 1969),
p. H7.
71 Com monw ealth Edison Co., Edison Hound Table. November 1928, p. 2.
77 Ibid.. p. II.
71 Com monw ealth Edison Co.. Principal Generating Stations and Transmission System (Chicago:
CEC. 191 I), pp. 3. 16.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER

Figure V lll.6 . Fisk Street station: First

5,000-kui. turbine unit (foreground), the
largest steam turbine in existence in 1903.
From Sargent Of Lundy, T h e Sargent 8c
Lundy Story, p. 14.

b u t In su ll la te r a d m itte d th a t th e first ste a m tu r b in e s w e re n o t e co n o m ica l

to o p e r a te , p e r h a p s n o t as e c o n o m ic a l as th e re c ip ro c a tin g e n g in e s . I th in k
it w as th e f o u r th t u r b in e , h e re c a lle d , th a t w as a really e ffic ie n t tu r b in e .2,1
H o w e v e r, th e low firs t c o st a n d la b o r sa v in g s o f th e u n it o ffse t o p e r a tin g
p ro b le m s . T h e in s ta lla tio n also h e lp e d in tr o d u c e th e tu r b in e to A m erica;
w ith in a y e a r a f te r th e Fisk S tre e t s ta tio n b e g a n o p e r a tin g . G e n e ra l E lectric
a n d W e s tin g h o u s e re c e iv e d o r d e r s fo r a to ta l o f 5 4 0 ,0 0 0 kw. o f tu r b o
g e n e r a to r c ap a c ity . F e rg u s o n c o n s id e r e d In su ll's in tr o d u c tio n o f th e la rg e
tu r b in e d a r in g , d e s p ite th e E u r o p e a n p r e c e d e n t. " E u r o p e a n c o n d itio n s,"
h e r e m a r k e d , in d iv id u a liz e d (th e ] d e s ig n o f e a c h m a c h in e , th e c a re fu l
c o d d lin g o f ne w d e v ic e s a n d th e in fin ite p a in s a n d c o m p lic a tio n w hich is
o f th e n a tu r e o f E u r o p e a n e n g in e e r in g g av e a n u tte rly d if f e r e n t e n v iro n
m e n t fr o m A m e r ic a n c o n d itio n s ." 25
A lo o k a t C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n a b o u t 1910 sh o w s h ow th e H a r ris o n
S tre e t, Fisk S tr e e t, a n d o th e r c o m p o n e n ts h a d b e e n s h a p e d in to a u n iv e rsa l
sy stem ( see Fig. 1.1, p. 3 ). In a d d itio n to th e c e n tra l g e n e r a tin g statio n s,
t h e r e w e re six ty -se v en su b s ta tio n s in th e C h ic a g o sy ste m ; so m e w ere c o n
v e r te d , o b so le te g e n e r a tin g s ta tio n s , b u t o th e r s h a d b e e n sp e cially b u ilt as
s u b s ta tio n s . In 1910 Fisk S tre e t re m a in e d th e la rg e s t o f th e g e n e ra tin g
sta tio n s, b u t ju s t a c ro ss a slip o f th e C h ic a g o R iv er sto o d th e Q u a r r y S tre e t
sta tio n , w h ic h b e g a n o p e r a tin g in 1908 a n d by 1910 h a d six 14,000-kw .
tu r b o g e n e r a to r s . F re q u e n c ie s a n d v o lta g e s w e re m a n ip u la te d w ith in g e
n u ity . All o f th e Fisk S tre e t u n its g e n e r a te d th r e e - p h a s e a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t
at 9 ,0 0 0 volts a n d 25 cycles, b u t th r e e 5 ,0 0 0 -k w .-c a p a c ity tra n s fo rm e r s
ra ise d th e o u tp u t o f th r e e o f th e g e n e r a to r s to 2 0 ,0 0 0 volts. T h e h ig h e rv o lta g e c u r r e n t w as fo r tra n s m is s io n to th e m o re d is ta n t su b sta tio n s. In th e
u Edison Round Table, N ovem ber 1928, u. 12.
Ibid.. u. 3.

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214

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Q u a r r y S tre e t sta tio n fo u r o f th e g e n e r a to r s w o rk e d a t 9 ,0 0 0 volts a n d 25
cycles, w h ic h fa c ilita te d th e in te r c h a n g e o r c u r r e n t w ith Fisk, b u t tw o o th e r
g e n e r a to r s p r o d u c e d c u r r e n t at 12,000 volts a n d 60 cycles. T h e Q u a rry
S tre e t sta tio n also u se d fre q u e n c y c h a n g e r s to c o n v e rt 25-cycle c u r r e n t for
th e 60-cycle lo a d . T h e sy ste m 's s u b s ta tio n s re c e iv e d c u r r e n t by d ire c t line
fro m th e Fisk, Q u a r r y , a n d H a rr is o n S tre e t sta tio n s.
T h e c o m b in a tio n o f te c h n o lo g ie s m a d e p o ssib le th e su p p ly o f in ca n d esc e n t-lig lu lo a d , s ta tio n a ry -m o to r lo a d , a n d s tre e tc a r/e le v a te d ra ilro a d load.
T r a n s f o r m e r s u b s ta tio n s re d u c e d th e 25-cycle c u r r e n t to usa b le voltages
fo r th e la r g e m o to rs o f in d u s tria l e n te r p r is e s ; ro ta ry c o n v e rte r su b sta tio n s
re c e iv e d very h ig h v o lta g e, a lte r n a tin g , p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t d ire c t fro m Fisk
o r Q u a r r y a n d tr a n s f o r m e d it in to d ir e c t c u r r e n t a t th e 6 0 0 volts n e e d e d
by th e s tre e tc a rs a n d th e e le v a te d ra ilw ay; a n d th e 12,000-volt, 60-cycle
c u r r e n t w as tr a n s f o r m e d in s u b s ta tio n s in to th e low vo ltag e s u sed by inc a n d e s c e n t- lig h t c o n s u m e rs . S ince la rg e -c a p a c ity lie lines c o n n e c te d Fisk
a n d Q u a r r y , th e sta tio n s assiste d e a ch o th e r in h a n d lin g th e v a ry in g p e ak
a n d low lo a d s. T h e sin g le C h ic a g o sy stem w as im p re ssiv e . Its to ta l g e n e r
a tin g c ap a c ity w as 2 1 9 ,6 0 0 kw .; its h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lines e x te n d e d
fo r 5 2 5 m iles; a n d its lo w -v o ltag e d is trib u tio n sy stem (m o stly u n d e r g r o u n d )
s p r e a d to all p a rts o f th e g ro w in g m e tr o p o lis .20
N o d e s c rip tio n o f th e te c h n o lo g y o f th e u n iv e rsa l e le ctric s u p p ly system
a r o u n d 1910 w o u ld b e c o m p le te w ith o u t c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e load d is
p a tc h e r, fo r h e f u n c tio n e d as th e c o n tro l c e n te r o f th e sy stem . A fte r his
ro le w as d e f in e d , th e sy stem c o n c e p t w as c o n scio u sly a n d o p e ra tio n a lly
a r tic u la te d . T h e lo a d d is p a tc h e r s o ffic e a t C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n d a te d
back to 1903. A c c o rd in g to a c o m p a n y p u b lic a tio n o f th a t y e a r, ( T h e |
sy stem h a d a s s u m e d s u ffic ie n tly d e fin ite p r o p o r tio n s to call fo r th e o r g a n
iz atio n o f a n o p e r a tin g o ffice p r e p a r e d to h a n d le a t all tim e s th e steadily
in c re a s in g in tric a c y o f d e ta il c o n n e c te d w ith th e o p e r a tio n o f a c e n tra liz e d
sy stem o f ele c tric a l su p p ly ." In o th e r w o rd s, th e sy stem c o u ld be o p e ra te d
as a c o h e r e n t w h o le .27
A p r im a ry re s p o n sib ility o f th e lo a d d is p a tc h e r w as to r u n th e Fisk a n d
Q u a r r y S tre e t s ta tio n s in ta n d e m , o r p a ra lle l, so th a t e a c h w o u ld c a rry a
re a s o n a b le s h a re o f th e v a ry in g sy ste m lo a d . A lso, w h e n g e n e r a to r s in o n e
o f th e sta tio n s fa ile d o r h a d to b e la k c n o f f lo ad lo r r e p a ir, it was th e load
d is p a tc h e r s re sp o n sib ility to lo c ate th e c o m b in a tio n o f g e n e r a to r s a n d s u b
sta tio n s to c a rry th e lo ad in th e in te r im . ( T h e re w e re s to ra g e b a tte rie s in
so m e o f th e s u b s ta tio n s a n d th e se fa c ilita te d th e m e e tin g o f p e a k s u n d e r
u su al a n d u n u s u a l c o n d itio n s .) The lo ad d is p a tc h e r w as n o t o n ly a tr o u
b le s h o o te r b u t s o m e th in g o f a h is to ria n . A t his d isp o sa l w ere load curv es,
o r g ra p h ic re c o rd s , o f th e v a ry in g o u tp u t fro m d if f e r e n t p a rts o r th e system
fo r e ac h h o u r a n d e ac h d a y d u r in g p a st ye ars. By a n a ly z in g th e se , th e
d is p a tc h e r a n tic ip a te d lo a d s r e s u ltin g fro m th e social cu sto m s a n d in d u stria l
r o u tin e s o l C h ic a g o s p o p u la tio n . ( T h e lo a d d is p a tc h e r e v e n k new w hen

I"1C om m onw ealth Edison Co., Principal Ceneratmg Stations, pp. 21-22.
'i7 National Electric Light Assoc., C om m onw ealth Edison Section, rom p.. How Commonwealth
Edison Works (Chicago: NEI.A, HIM), p. 62. T h e following section on the load dispatcher is
hascd on die essay by R. 1). K ennedy. O p craiin g D epartm ent: Load Dispatching of Old, and
o f T o d ay , ibid.. pp. 6 2-66.

CHICACJO: T H E D O M I N A N C E O F TK C I IN ()l.(H iY
Figure V III.10. Genrrating-slation
operating chart. 1914. From National
Electric Light Assoc.. I low
Com monw ealth Edison W orks,/). 131.

p e o p le le fl w o rk e a rly o n C h ristm a s Eve, fo r th e in d u s iria l. s ta tio n .n v m o to r load d r o p p e d a n d th a t o f th e s tr e e tc a r a n d ele v a te d railw ay rose.)

H e also k new th a t C h ic a g o o b se rv e d th e S a b b a th , a n d h e p la n n e d syslem
o p e ra tio n s a c c o rd in g ly (see Fig. V II I. I 1).
T h e load d is p a tc h e r s o p e r a tin g b o a rd p ro v id e d a g ra p h ic m o d el ol th e
system Tor in fo r m a tio n a n d c o n tro l. It sh o w e d all g e n e r a tin g un its, th e
fre q u e n c y c h a n g e r s , th e tra n s f o rm e r s , a n d th e layout o f th e h ig h -v o ltag e
transm ission lines a n d d ie low -voltage d istrib u tio n system. In d ica to rs show ed
th e c o n d itio n o f all sw itches. M e a su rin g in s tru m e n ts gave c o n tin u o u s r e a d
ings o f th e o u tp u t a n d load in v ario u s p a ils o f th e system . O f critical
im p o rta n c e lo (h e load d is p a tc h e r was th e d ire c t-c o n n e c te d te le p h o n e sys
le m th a t p r o v id e d c o n tro l o v e r all g e n e ra tin g u n its a n d sw itches. The c o m
plex c o n tro l p ro b le m s o f th e system involved a n u m b e r o f sim u lta n e o u s
variab les, a n d th u s it is n o t s u rp ris in g th a t early a n a lo g c o m p u te r s n e t
w ork a n d d iff e r e n tia l a n a ly z ers w ere used se v era l d e c a d e s la te r to solve
som e o f th e load d is p a tc h e r s p ro b lem s.
In its te c h n o lo g y a n d o rg a n iz a tio n , th e C h ica g o system re p re s e n te d a
syn th e sis o f th e id e as a n d activities o f in n u m e r a b le in v e n to rs, e n g in e e rs ,
e n tr e p r e n e u r s , m a n u f a c tu r e r s , a n d m a n a g e rs fro m all p a rts o f th e w orld.
Insull d id n ot in v e n t th e C h ica g o syslem in th e se n se th at E d ison in v e n te d

210

n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

Figure V l l l . l l . Incidents in the routine

of load dispatching. 1914. From National
Electric Light Assoc.. Mow
C om m onw ealth td is o n W orks./;. 61.

th e P e arl S tre e t sy ste m . E d iso n a c q u ire d p a te n ts o n th e e sse n tia l c o m p o

n e n ts o f h is sy stem , a n d th e o r g a n iz in g c o n c e p t o f th e sy stem was clearly
his. In su ll, o n th e o th e r h a n d , w as n o t a p r o fe s s io n a l in v e n to r o r a n e n
g in e e r. H e was, h o w e v e r, a sy stem s c o n c e p tu a liz e r c o m p a ra b le to E d iso n ,
th o u g h o n a h ig h ly a b s tra c t level. E d iso n w as d e e p ly a w a re o f th e in te r
w oven fa b ric o f e c o n o m ic s a n d te c h n o lo g y , b u t w as re la tiv ely n aiv e ab o u t
th e lo n g - te rm e c o n o m ic a n d social fa c to rs th a t m a d e u p th e e n v ir o n m e n t
w ith in w hich his s y stem f u n c tio n e d . O th e rs , like G ro s v e n o r L o w rey , ad v ised
h im o n su c h m a tte rs as th e e x p a n s io n o f c o n s u m e r a n d m o n e y m a rk e ts.
F u r th e r m o r e , E d iso n d id n o t a rtic u la te his te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d ec o n o m ic
c o n c e p ts su ffic ie n tly to e n a b le a la rg e o r g a n iz a tio n to m a k e d ecisio n s a n d
c a rry o u t po lic ies w ith o u t his im m e d ia te s u p e rv isio n .
In su ll, by c o n tr a s t, a n a ly z e d a n d a rtic u la te d c o n c e p ts th a t c o u ld a n d d id
g u id e policies n o t o n ly fo r th e C h ic a g o sy ste m b u t fo r o th e r utilities as well.
H is c o n c e p tu a l s y n th e sis in v o lv e d social a n d m a rk e t n e e d s, fin a n cial tre n d s ,
e c o n o m ic p rin c ip le s , te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s , e n g in e e r in g d e sig n , a n d
m a n a g e ria l te c h n iq u e s . I n su ll d isc u sse d his c o n c e p ts , p olicies, a n d e x p e
rie n c e s in a d d r e s s e s to u tilities g ro u p s a n d th e p u b lic .28 T h e s p e e c h e s d a tin g
fro m a r o u n d 1910 a r e esp e cially in fo rm a tiv e a n d im p o rta n t b e c a u se th e y
w ere g iv e n a f te r h e h a d h a d tim e to re fle c t o n th e fo rm a tiv e y e ars in C h ica g o
a n d w hile h e w as p re s id in g o v e r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a la rg e a n d c o m p le x
e n te rp ris e . F ro m th e s ta rt, In su ll w as c o m m itte d by policy to la rg e u n its
g e n e r a to rs , s te a m e n g in e s , tr a n s f o r m e r s , a n d o th e r s . In o r d e r to use la rg e,
e ffic ie n t u n its, h e a m a sse d p r o d u c tio n a n d d is trib u tio n facilities in to th e
v" Samuel Insull. Central-Stalion Electric Sendee: Its Commercial Dmelopment and Economic Sig
nificance as Set Forth in the Iuhlic Addresses (IN 9 7 -I9 I4 ) o f Samuel liuull. ed. William F.. Keily
(Chicago: Privately p rin ted. 1915): idem. Public Utilities in Modern Life: Selected Speeches. 1914192), cd. William F. Kcily (Chicago: Privately p rin ted . 192-1).

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C H IC A G O : T H E D O M I N A N C E O F T E C H N O L O G Y
la rg e g e n e r a tin g sta tio n s a t H a rris o n , Fisk, a n d Q u a r r y stre e ts. H e also
a d h e re d to th e p rin c ip le o f low ra te s to in c re a se c o n s u m p tio n a n d o f a
ta r if f s tr u c tu r e d if f e r e n tia te d a c c o rd in g to th e p a tte r n o f c u s to m e r d e
m a n d . In su ll also co n siste n tly s o u g h t to im p ro v e th e d iv e rsity o f lo ad a n d
load fa c to r by m e a n s o f c a re fu lly p la n n e d sales a n d lo a d m a n a g e m e n t. In
o r d e r to re d u c e th e cost oT b o rro w in g m o n e y a n d th e re b y th e u n it cost ol
o u tp u t, w hich in c lu d e d in te re s t p a id o n c ap ita l in v e ste d , h e s o u g h t a re g u la r
r e tu r n o n his in v e stm e n ts; in th is way h e h o p e d to e stab lish a h ig h ly fa
vo ra b le m a rk e t fo r his c o m p a n y 's stocks, b o n d s, a n d d e b e n tu re s . H is c o n
ce p ts w e re in te rr e la te d . By m e a n s o f a m a s s -p ro d u c in g m o n o p o ly h e co u ld
su p p ly a d iv e rse lo ad b ro a d ly b a sed o n low, d if f e r e n tia te d ra le s a n d o b ta in
a fa ir r e tu r n fro m e ffic ie n t p ro d u c tio n a n d m a x im u m u tiliz a tio n o f cap ita l
b o rro w e d a t re a s o n a b le ra te s o f in te re st. In su lt's p u rs u it o f his policies was
fac ilita te d by his c o m p a n y 's s u p e r b statistics d e p a r tm e n t, w hich k e p t him
in fo rm e d o f o u tp u t, p e rf o r m a n c e , costs, a n d o th e r variab les in his bu sin e ss
a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l system .
T h e way In su lt's u tility m a n a g e d C h ic a g o s p o w e r load d e se rv e s special
a tte n tio n . It is c o m p a ra b le to th e h isto ric m a n a g e ria l c o n tr ib u tio n s m a d e
by railw ay m e n in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry a n d is as in te re s tin g as th e widely
pu b licized m a n a g e ria l c o n c e p ts a n d policies o f J o h n D. R o c k e fe lle r a n d
H e n ry F o rd . In su ll e x p la in e d his m e th o d o n m an y o ccasions, b u t n e v e r
m o re clea rly a n d g ra p h ic a lly th a n in a 1914 a d d r e s s .2y H e b e g a n by e x
p la in in g d iv e rsity o f d e m a n d . R e f e r rin g to d a ta o n a block o f a p a r tm e n t
b u ild in g s in C h ic a g o , h e d e f in e d th e c ritical item s as th e c u s to m e rs s e p
a ra te m a x im a " (92 kw.) a n d th e m a x im u m at tr a n s f o rm e r s " (29 kw .). T h e
first a m o u n t w as sim p ly th e su m o f th e in d iv id u a l a n n u a l m a x im u m d e
m a n d s o f th e 193 c u s to m e rs in th e a p a r tm e n t block. B ec au se o f th e v a rie d
h a b its a n d activities o f th e c u sto m e rs, th e m a x im u m d e m a n d o f e a ch o c
c u r r e d at a d if f e r e n t tim e d u r in g th e ye ar. T h e r e f o r e , th e m a x im u m si
m u lta n e o u s d e m a n d m e a s u re d a t th e tr a n s fo rm e r s su p p ly in g th e a p a r t
m e n t block was o n ly 29 kw. A d iv e rsity fa c to r o f 2.3 was a rriv e d at by
d iv id in g th e s e p a ra te c o n s u m e r m a x im a by th e m a x im u m a t th e tr a n s
fo rm e rs (see Fig. V I1 1.12).
C itin g ele v en d if f e r e n t classes o f c o n su m e rs, In su ll e x p la in e d th e a d
v a n ta g es o f a d iv e rsifie d lo a d . I f th e m a x im u m d e m a n d o f each h a d o c
c u r re d s im u lta n e o u sly , C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n s p e a k load fro m th e se c u s
to m e rs w o u ld ha v e b e e n 2 6 ,6 4 0 kw. As a m a tte r o f fact, o n th e d a y th e
utility c a rr ie d its m a x im u m load in 1914 (6 J a n u a ry ), th e e le v en c u s to m e r
c a te g o rie s m a d e a s im u lta n e o u s d e m a n d o f o n ly 9 ,7 7 0 kw. In su lt's g ra p h ic s
sh o w ed th e m a x im u m d e m a n d m a d e by each class o f c u s to m e r d u r in g th e
w in te r o f 1913/14; th e sh a d e d p o rtio n o f e a ch c o lu m n re p re s e n te d th e
d e m a n d m a d e o n 6 J a n u a r y 1914, in d ic a tin g th e re b y th e resp o n sib ility
o r lack o f it o f eac h class o f c u s to m e r fo r th e utility s bete noire, th e a n n u a l
p e ak lo ad . In su ll e n jo y e d e x p a n d in g o n his th e m e , d e sc rib in g th e va rio u s
c h a ra c te ristic s o f e ach c u s to m e r o r class o f c u s to m e r, a n d e x p la in in g how
th e se co u ld b e an a ly z e d a n d c o m b in e d to ach iev e e co n o m ies o f scale. F or
in stan c e, th e p ro file fo r ice m a n u f a c tu r e r s was o p tim a l be ca u se th e ir level
*"Samuel Insult, "Ccnlmlizniion o f Energy Supply." in Central-Stnlion Electric Service, pp.
<145-75.

218

N E T W O R K S O F TOW EH

Figure V III.13. Chicago load on the Commonwealth Edison system, 3 January

1912: Diversity factor advantage. 72,260 kw. From Insult, Central-Station
Electric Service, p. 267.

o f activity was low o n co ld J a n u a r y d ay s w h e n C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n s

ca p a c ity was s tra in e d by th e h e a v ie st lo a d s o f t h e y e a r. T h e b ric k y a rd s a n d
q u a r r ie s a lso fit in well w ith I n s u lls s c h e m e o f th in g s , fo r fro st in te rf e r e s
(See Fig. V I1 1 .14.) I f it h a d n o t b e e n fo r th e c o m p le x
;a ih e rin g te c h n iq u e s o f C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n
5 o f th e c o m p a n y s statistic s d e p a r tm e n t. Insull
" a to rs th a t a llo w ed h im to e x p lo it d iv e rsity a n d
C losely r e la te d to th e c o n c e p t o f d iv e rsity w as lo ad fa c to r. E arly in his
m a n a g e r, In su ll re c o g n iz e d th e lo ad fa c to r as
} p rin c ip le in c e n lr a l-s ta tio n e c o n o m y .31 T h e
, b u t h e re le n tle ssly p u r s u e d th e policies th a t
I fa c to r is th e ra tio o f th e a v e ra g e lo a d to th e m axt g r o u p o f c u s to m e rs , o r th e e n tir e system d u r in g

I fa c to r to b e th e p a r a m o u n t e c o n o m ic p rin c ip le o f
it o th e r s h a d d e fin e d it fo r e le ctric al e n g in e e rs ,
ta n a g e rs , e a rlie r. T h e te r m m ay h av e b e e n inJ in 1891 by C o lo n e l R. E. C r o m p to n , o n e o f th e p io n e e rs o f B ritish

ru t (if the C entral S tation," in Central-Slnlion Electric Service,

210

C H IC A G O : T H E D O M I N A N C E O F T E C H N O L O G Y

Figure V III.14. Diversity o f large

customers, Chicago. From Insull, CcnlralSiaiion Electric Service, p. 450.

elec trica l e n g in e e r in g (see p. 58 ab o v e).32 E ven b e f o r e it was d e f in e d ,

E d iso n a n d o th e r s w h o w ere c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e ec o n o m ic s o f ele ctric
su p p ly rea liz e d th a t r e g u la r ity o f lo ad a n d m a x im u m p rac tical u tiliz atio n
o f g e n e ra tin g c ap a c ity w e re th e d o m in a n t c o m m e rc ia l a sp e c ts o f c e n tra lsta tio n s u p p ly . L o n g b e fo re th e rise o f ele c tric su p p ly , m a n a g e r s in o th e r
fields, su ch as r a ilro a d o p e r a tio n , also rea liz e d th e im p o r ta n c e o f u tiliz in g
ca p ital (p la n t a n d re la te d facilities) fully in o r d e r to o b ta in a m a x im u m
re tu r n o n in v e s tm e n t. As a rtic u la te d so well by elec trical e n g in e e rs a n d
m a n a g e rs , th e r e a s o n lo a d fa c to r w as critical fo r ele ctric su p p ly is th a t
electric ity c a n n o t re a d ily b e s to re d ; it m u st be u sed w h en g e n e ra te d . (S to r
ag e b a tte rie s a n d p u m p -s to ra g e facilities a r e e x c e p tio n s to th e ru le .) B e
ca u se ele ctric ity c a n n o t b e s to re d , g e n e ra tin g ca p ac ity c a n n o i be used to
p r o d u c e p o w e r fo r s to r a g e w h e n d e m a n d is o ff, say, in s h o e o r sew ingm a c h in e m a n u fa c tu re .
T o ra ise th e lo a d fa c to r, In su ll s o u g h t c u sto m e rs w hose load c u rv e s lacked
h ig h p e a k s a n d low valleys. H e also w a n te d ty p es o f c u s to m e rs w hose
co m b in e d lo ad c u rv e s w e re d iv e rse a n d c o m b in e d well. (H e re c o g n iz e d th e
re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n d iv ersity a n d load fa cto r.) T o h a v e h a d sev era l classes
o f c u s to m e rs w ith g o o d in d iv id u a l lo a d c u rv e s b u t s im u lta n e o u s p e a k d e
m a n d s w o u ld h a v e re s u lte d in a p o o r system load fa c to r d e s p ite th e g o o d
c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e in d iv id u a l loads. T h r o u g h lo a d m a n a g e m e n t a n d
p la n n e d sales o f m a c h in e ry a n d a p p lia n c e s th a t w o u ld im p ro v e th e lo ad ,
C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n im p ro v e d th e load fa c to r fro m y e a r to y ea r. As a
re su lt, th e cost p e r kilow att re s u ltin g fro m fix ed , o r in v e stm e n t, c h a rg e s
fell, w hich g re a tly p le ased In sull. H e id e n tifie d in te re st o n in v e stm e n t as
th e m o st im p o rta n t fa c to r in cost in an y p u b lic service b u sin e ss.33
In su ll la te r rec a lle d th a t h e b ec am e a w a re o f th e im p o rta n c e a n d c o m
ple x ity o f th e lo ad fa c to r w h e n h e first m et A r th u r W rig h t, m a n a g e r o f a
Parsons, Early Days o f the Power Station Industry, pp. 208-9.
Insull, "Development o f the C entral Station," p. 29.

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
sm all m u n ic ip a l sta tio n in B rig h to n , E n g la n d . W rig h t also in fo rm e d him
o f th e critic al re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n m e te rin g a n d lo a d fac to r. "W e h a d to
go to E u r o p e , In su ll n o te d , to le a r n s o m e th in g a b o u t t h e p rin c ip le s u n d e r
ly in g th e sale o f t h e p r o d u c t.3'1 V a c a tio n in g in E n g la n d d u r in g th e C h ris t
m as se a so n o f 1894, I n su ll first e n c o u n te r e d th e re su lts o f W r ig h ts system
o f m e te rin g . In B rig h to n , I n su ll n o tic e d th a t sm all sh o p s b u r n e d ele ctric
lig h t as th o u g h in d if f e r e n t to th e a m o u n t th e y c o n s u m e d . U p o n in q u iry
h e f o u n d th a t W r ig h t h a d d e v e lo p e d a n in g e n io u s m e te rin g sy stem th a t
m e a s u r e d n o t o n ly a c tu a l u se b u t also th e e x te n t to w hich e a ch c u s to m e r
u se d his in sta lle d c ap a c ity . So m e te r e d , th e c u s to m e r p a id a c h a rg e th a t
w as fa ir a n d e c o n o m ic a l. H is bill re fle c te d his s h a r e o f th e c e n tr a l s ta tio n s
fix ed costs th a t re s u lte d fro m th e g e n e r a tin g c ap a c ity th e c e n tra l s ta tio n
h a d in sta lle d in o r d e r to c a rry his p e a k lo a d ; th e bill a lso m ir r o r e d his
s h a re o f o p e r a tin g costs, w hich v a rie d w ith th e a m o u n t o f ele ctric ity he
c o n s u m e d . A c u s to m e r w ith m a n y se ld o m -u s e d e le c tric la m p s p a id m o re
th a n o n e w h o h a d th e sa m e n u m b e r o f la m p s in sta lle d a n d u se d th e m
o f te n u n le ss th e r a te h e w as c h a rg e d r e fle c te d th e in sta lle d lo a d as well
as u se. In esse n c e , W r ig h ts m e te r in g sy stem to o k in to a c c o u n t th e c u s to m
e r s lo a d fa c to r. In su ll a c k n o w le d g e d th a t B o sto n E d iso n C o m p a n y m ay
h a v e c o n s id e re d a d o p tin g th e W rig h t sy stem b e f o r e C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n
d id , b u t h e a s s e rte d th a t it was his c o m p a n y th a t d e v e lo p e d a n d p ro m o te d
th e sy ste m in th e U n ite d S ta te s u n til it b e c a m e a w idely u se d basis of
c h a r g in g fo r e n e r g y .35
T h e u s e fu ln e s s o f th e lo a d f a c to r a n d re la te d lo a d c u rv e s as g u id e s to
utility p o licy m a k in g w as g re a tly e n h a n c e d by th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e u n i
versa l su p p ly sy ste m in C h ic a g o a n d e ls e w h e re . As n o te d , th e u n iv e rsa l
sy stem p ro v id e d fo r lo a d d iv e rsity , so by in s p e c tin g lo a d c u rv e s a n d a n a
lyzing th e lo a d fa c to r, a m a n a g e r like In su ll c o u ld see w h e re his u tility s
lo a d c u r v e n e e d e d to b e ra ise d a n d c o u ld c u ltiv a te th e a p p r o p r ia te lo a d ,
o r c u s to m e rs (see Fig. V I1 1 .1 5). O n e e a rly d isc u ssio n o f lo a d fa c to r w as
su ccin ct a n d d ire c t;
Load factor is the convenient term which has been introduced to express
this percentage, and a load factor o f 40% is rare; 20% is m ore like the average
results. T ake for instance a load factor o f 25%, with a station which pays 6%
dividends. T his means, that with one q u a rte r its greatest possible output,
the investm ent is ea rning the whole o f its interest in addition to the ru n ning
expenses and depreciation, du e to the actual o utput. Consequently, if additional
load can be a d ded to the same plant, any excess oT income from it, over the
entire ru n n in g expense and depreciation du e to it, is so m uch net profit. For
special services limited to the slack hours, the station can profitably m ake special
prices. With the load curve before his eyes, show ing plainly and definitely the
hollows to be filled u p and the low levels to be raised, the m anager can best
apply his local know ledge o f his custom ers and possible custom ers, to devising
plans for m eeting their needs without increasing his plant plans increasing his
custom ers o r their profits, and show ing to his own satisfaction on his annual
balance sheet.
3,1Sam uel Insull, S tepping Stones o f Central-Station D evelopment through T h ree Dec
ades," in Central-Station Electric Service, p. 3 5 1.
O n the a doption o f W rights ineler system, see Insull. M emoirs," pp. 88-89; Seym our.
"H istory o f C om m onw ealth E dison," pp. 2 78-79.
30Canadian Electrical News, D ecem ber 1894. p. 168.

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C H IC A G O : T H E D O M I N A N C E O F T E C H N O L O G Y

Figure V III.I5 . Load diagrams.

Commonwealth Edison Co., 1907-8. From
Insull, C entral-Stalion Eleciric Service,
/>. 56.

N ot o n ly c o u ld sta tio n m a n a g e rs p lo t b u sin ess s tra te g y u sin g th e load factor,

b u t m a n u f a c tu r e r s c o u ld as well. T h e y c o u ld a n tic ip a te th e k in d s o f m a
c h in e s a n d a p p lia n c e s th e u tility m a n a g e r w o u ld w ant to h a v e av a ila b le for
th o se c u s to m e rs w h o w o u ld im p ro v e th e lo ad fa cto r. F o r in sta n c e , in the
1920s, h o u s e h o ld a p p lia n c e s w e re p u s h e d by m a n u f a c tu r e r s a n d utilities.
B e fo re W o rld W a r I, In su ll a n d o th e r s w e re c u ltiv a tin g th e tra c tio n (s tr e e t
c a r, e le v a te d railw ay, subw ay, a n d in te r u r b a n lines) a n d in d u s tria l, o r sta
tio n a r y - m o to r, loads. T h e m a n u f a c tu r e o f e q u ip m e n t in th e se a re a s was
c o r r e s p o n d in g ly b risk.
T h e r e m a rk a b ly la rg e tra c tio n lo a d cu ltiv a te d by C o m m o n w e a lth E dison
re fle c ts th e m a n a g e m e n t s tra te g y a d o p te d by In su ll a n d his associates in
1901.
By 1908, a y e a r f o r w hich statistics a r e available, th e c o m p a n y s
tra c tio n lo a d was 65 p e rc e n t o f its sales. F o r se v eral ye ars this p e rc e n ta g e
in c re a se d slig h tly a n d b e g a n to d e c lin e on ly a t th e o u tb re a k o f W o rld W ar
I as th e p e r c e n ta g e f o r la rg e p o w e r u se rs s w u n g ra p id ly u p w a rd . (See Fig.
V I1 1.8, p . 2 13.) T h e d is p r o p o rtio n a te ly la rg e tra c tio n load fo llow ed fro m
C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n s d ecisio n lo la k e a d v a n ta g e o f a n o p p o r tu n ity c re
a te d by th e d e p a r tu r e fro m C h ic a g o o f C h a rle s T . Y erkes, th e tr a n s p o r
ta tio n m a g n a te , in 1901. W ith Y erkes n o lo n g e r in th e p ic tu re , stre e tc a r
a n d e le v a te d railw ay o p e r a to r s w e re fre e lo m a k e choices. In th e pa st, th ey
h a d c o n stru cte d a n d o p e ra te d th e ir ow n p ow er plants because Y erkes w anted
th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o m p a n ie s h e c o n tro lle d to b uy ele ctric g e n e r a tin g
e q u ip m e n t fro m th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s h e c o n tro lle d . (In su ll d id n o t ha v e

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
exc lu siv e rig lu s in C h ic a g o fo r tr a c tio n e q u ip m e n t as h e d id fo r p o w e r
eq u ip m e n t.)-17
D ra w in g u p o n th e c a p a c ity o f h is s ta f f to m a k e statistic al an aly se s, In su ll
h a d d a ta p r e p a r e d s h o w in g th a t th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o m p a n ie s c o u ld buy
p o w e r m o r e in e x p e n siv e ly fr o m his c o m p a n y th a n fro m th e ir o w n isolated
pla n ts. H is a d v a n ta g e w as th a t C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n co u ld ex p lo it d i
v e rsity o f lo ad m o r e e ffe c tiv e ly th a n c o u ld iso la te d p la n ts, w ith th e ir c o n
c e n tra tio n o n o n e ty p e o f lo a d . T o p u l it d if fe re n tly , In su ll re a liz e d th a t
an in c re a s e d tra c tio n lo a d w o u ld im p ro v e his c o m p a n y s lo ad fa c to r a n d
th e re b y r e d u c e th e u n it cost o f p o w e r p r o d u c e d . H is an aly sis o f lo ad cu rv es
re v e a le d th a t th e lig h tin g , s ta tio n a r y - m o to r , a n d tra c tio n lo ad s p e a k e d a t
d if f e r e n t lim e s d u r in g th e a v e ra g e tw e n ty -fo u r -h o u r p e rio d a n d th a t t h e r e
fo re th e g e n e r a l- p u r p o s e utility c o u ld la k e o n a tra c tio n lo a d w ith o u t in
c re a s in g its g e n e r a tin g c a p a c ity to th e sa m e e x te n t. T h e tra c tio n lo ad w ould
c o n s u m e so m e o f th e u n u s e d s ta tio n a r y -p o w e r a n d lig h t-g e n e ra tin g c a
pacity th a t w as a v aila b le d u r in g th e e a rly m o r n in g a n d e v e n in g r u s h h o u rs .
S im ilarly , th e lig h tin g a n d s ta tio n a ry -p o w e r c u s to m e rs w o u ld u se so m e of
th e new ly in sta lle d ca p a c ity w h e n th e tra c tio n lo a d d e c re a s e d .
In su lt's c o m p a n y o b ta in e d its first m a jo r tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o n tr a c t in 1902
fro m th e L ak e S tre e t E le v a te d R a ilro a d a n d w ith in a relativ e ly s h o rt tim e
h a d s ig n e d c o n tra c ts w ith all e le v a te d railw ay a n d su rfa c e s tr e e tc a r c o m
p a n ie s in th e c ity .38 T o o b ta in th e se c o n tr a c ts , In su ll a n d his salesm e n
n e g o tia te d e sp ec ially low ra te s w ith th e ir la rg e c u s to m e rs . In a b o u t 1910
C o m m o n w e a lth E d is o n s tr a c tio n ra te s r a n g e d fr o m less th a n a c e n t p e r
k ilo w a tt-h o u r d o w n to fo u r - te n th s o f a c e n t. T h e s e ra te s d if f e r e d fro m
th o se fo r re la tiv ely sm all c o m m e rc ia l a n d r e s id e n tia l c u s to m e rs , to w h o m
a u n ifo rm ra te s c h e d u le w as a p p lie d . R e g u la rly re d u c e d , th e se u n if o r m
ra te s d r o p p e d fro m tw e n ty c e n ts p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r in 1892 to te n c e n ts in
1908.
(T h e a v e ra g e ra te f o r all classes o f c u s to m e rs d r o p p e d fro m tw en ty
c e n ts p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r in 1892 to tw o a n d a h a lf c e n ts in 1 9 0 1.)39 T h e
co m p a n y s sm all c u s to m e r s m ay h a v e c o m p la in e d th a t th e y w e re su b sid iz in g
th e low ra te s f o r th e tra c tio n c o m p a n ie s , b u t C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n w ould
m o st likely h a v e a r g u e d th a t th e cost o f e le c tric ity in C h ic a g o f o r all c u s
to m e rs was below th a t in m o st o th e r la rg e cities, a n d th a t f u r th e r m o r e , th e
p re c ise c o stin g o f serv ic e w as a b o o k k e e p in g d e c isio n .
In s u lls in n o v a tiv e d e c isio n in 1901 to in tr o d u c e 5,0 0 0 -k w . tu rb in e s in
th e Fisk S tre e t sta tio n a n d h is d e c isio n to sell ele ctric ity o n a la rg e scale to
th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o m p a n ie s w as in te r r e la te d . H is a n tic ip a tio n o f th e larg e ca p a city p o w e r u n its a n d o f lo w e r g e n e r a tio n co sts fu e le d his c o m p a n y s
d riv e fo r th e la rg e c u s to m e rs . A t th e s a m e lim e , c a re a n d fo re s ig h t w ere
e x e rc ise d to a v o id s c h e d u lin g n ew d e m a n d b e fo re a d d itio n a l c ap a city
esp e cia lly th e ne w tu rb in e s h a d b e e n in sta lle d a n d sa tisfa c to rily te ste d . In
th e c ase o f e le c tric utilitie s, sales p r e s s u r e o r th e lack o f it sig n als idle
ca p a city o r th r e a te n e d o v e rlo a d .
37 McDonald, Insull, pp. 96-97.
3" Notes p rep a re d on 8 May 1926 by William E. Keily for a speech delivered by B. E. Sunny
at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia on the occasion o f the unveiling of a portrait o f
Samuel Insull. p. 6, Insull Papers. Keily edited In su lts two books o f speeches. Crnlral-Stalion
Electric Service and Public Utilities in Modem Life.
3 McDonald. Insult, p. 104.

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M any b u sin e ssm e n c o n s id e re d th e ra p id ly in c re a sin g tra c tio n lo a d to be
th e im p o rta n t m a rk e t lo r electricity. T h e o rig in a l n a m e s ol m a in elet trit
u tilities in c lu d e d th e w o rd "railw ay ." A lte r 1910 Instill saw th e d a n g e r ol
th e ir m yopic c o n c e n tra tio n o n tra c tio n , a n d th e k ilo w a tt-h o u r sales o f C o m
m o n w e a lth E d iso n b e g a n to in c lu d e a n in c re a sin g p e rc e n ta g e ol sales to
la rg e in d u s tria l c u s to m e rs w ith w hom sp ecial c o n tra c ts a n d r a te s w ere n e
g o tia te d . A d is p r o p o r tio n a te tra c tio n lo ad vio la te d I n s tills c o m m itm e n t to
div e rsity . By 1925 th e c o m p a n y s la rg e sta tio n a ry -p o w e r a n d lig h tin g loads
a m o u n te d to 4 0 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l, th e tra c tio n load on ly 32 p e rc e n t: in
1929 th e fig u re s w ere 47 p e rc e n t lo r th e la rg e light a n d p o w e r c u sto m e rs
a n d 25 p e rc e n t fo r tra c tio n .'0
In su ll was d e te r m in e d to re p la c e all o f C h ic a g o s iso la te d p o w e r p la n ts,
b o th tra c tio n a n d sta tio n a ry , w ith his system . In M ay 1908 th e Electrical
W orld arid E ngineer r e p o r te d th a t a lth o u g h iso la te d p la n ts a re still n u m e r
o u s in C h ic a g o , th e y w e re n e v e r so h a rd p re sse d by c e n tra l sta tio n serv ice
as now . . . . T h e C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n C o m p a n y has a m o n g its c u s to m e rs
esta b lish m e n ts fo rm e rly r u n by so m e o f th e la rg est iso lated p la n ts in th e
city. . . . T h e m a n u f a c tu r in g d istric ts also h av e b e e n in v a d e d a n d all-day
m o to r load s e c u r e d .'" T h e Electrical Review and Western Electrician c o n
firm e d th e tr e n d , n o tin g th a t in a d d itio n to th e g re a t g ro w th in tra c tio n
lo a d th e r e was a n in c re a se in s ta tio n a r y -m o to r lo ad , in c lu d in g a n u m b e r
o f s m a lle r fa c to rie s a n d sh o p s a n d a la rg e n u m b e r o f g re a t m a n u f a c tu r in g
a n d in d u s tria l p la n ts ." ''2 T e s tify in g b e fo re th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il m
1914, In su ll b o a ste d : "N ow we d o a big in d u stria l b u sin ess. W e h av e six
c u sto m e rs w ho b u y fro m us 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 u n its a y e a r." -13 T h is a m o u n te d
to a b o u t o n e -te n th o f th e to tal p o w e r g e n e ra te d by C o m m o n w e a lth E dison
in 1913. In su ll also to ld th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n cil th a t his c o m p a n y , in
s p e n d in g th e e q u iv a le n t o f 1 0 0 .0 0 0 an n u a lly to get new bu sin ess, m a tc h e d
th e a m o u n t s p e n t to w a rd this e n d by all th e u tilities in G re a t B rita in a n d
Ir e la n d . (O p p o n e n ts o f m u n ic ip a lly o w n e d c o m p a n ie s in B rita in also c r it
icized th e ir p o o r sales e ffo rt.)
In 1909 th e C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n C o m p a n y o p e n e d an " E lectric S h o p "
in d o w n to w n C h ica g o . T h e g ro u n d flo o r e m p h a siz e d d o m e stic ap p lia n c e s:
th e flo o r below , a n I n d u s tria l P ow er R o o m " w ith a w ide v ariety o f m o to rd riv e n m a c h in e s, in c lu d in g lath es, d rills, p u n c h e s, a n d so o n . C ity e n g i
n e e rs fro m M e lb o u rn e , A u stra lia , w ho s lo p p e d in C h ica g o o n th e ir to u r
o f elec tric s u p p ly b u sin esses a n d te c h n o lo g y c e n te rs in N o rth A m erica a n d
E iiropc, fo u n d th e Electric S h o p " a rem ark ab ly effective m ark e tin g schem e.
T h e y d id n o t fin d th a t in d iv id u a l C h ic a g o a n s o r A m e ric a n s " h u s tle d " no-

Statistics from a set o f tables and graphs in the Insult Papers labeled "used in federal
material"; sec especially pp. 7 and 7A. I have assumed that the figures lalx-led "railway"
include all types o f traction load.
31 T h e Systems and O perating Practice o f the Com monwealth Edison Com pany ol C hi
cago," Electrical World and Engineer Dl (1908); 1023.
37 F. B. B ern h ard t, "New Features o f C entral Station Service in Chicago," Electrical llemew
and Western Electrician 54 (1909): 975.
Testim ony o f Samuel Instill. 23 J an u ary 1914. in L ondon County Council. Special Com
mittee on London Electricity Supply. 1913-14 (privately printed pap er on tile in the Mctv Sc
McLcllan Co. Archives, Ambcrly, Killingworlh, near Newcastle u|x>n Tyne. E ngland), p. 7.
33 "T he Chicago 'Electric Shop.' " Electrical World and Engineer 53 (1909): 084-89.

224

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

liceably m o re th a n in d iv id u a ls e ls e w h e re in th e w o rld ; w h ai im p re sse d th e m
was th e o rg a n iz e d h u s tlin g th e y o b se rv e d . (O f in d iv id u a l h u stle little
was to be s e e n , b u t o f e ffic ie n t o rg a n is a tio n th e r e w as a g re a t d e a l.)45 T h e y
w e re also im p r e s s e d by C o m m o n w e a lth E d is o n s c o n tra c t a g e n t, w ho was
g e n e ra lly re s p o n s ib le f o r sa le s a n d w h o e m p lo y e d five assista n ts a t $ 3 ,0 0 0
a n n u a lly , o n e o f w h o m c o n c e n tr a te d e n tir e ly o n sales to very la rg e c o n
s u m e r s w ith iso la te d p la n ts. T h e y also to o k n o te o f th e c o m p a n y s 125
sa le sm e n , o r so lic ito rs, w h o d id c a n v a ssin g f o r a n a n n u a l w age o f $ 1 ,0 0 0
p lu s c o m m issio n s. T h is sales m a c h in e ry im p re s s e d th e A u s tra lia n s .46
C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n also m a d e g o o d u se o f n e w s p a p e r a n d p e rio d ic a l
a d v e r tis in g a n d p u b lic ity . It p u b lis h e d th e n a m e s o f th e la rg e in d u s tria l
cu s to m e rs it in c o r p o r a te d in to its sy ste m a n d r a n n e w s p a p e r a d v e r tis e m e n ts
a p p e a lin g to M r. P riv a te P la n t O w n e r .47 B e g in n in g in J a n u a r y 1912, a
le a d in g t r a d e p e rio d ic a l, th e Electrical R eview a n d W estern Electrician, c a rr ie d
a se rie s o f a r tic le s o n th e in tr o d u c tio n o f s ta tio n a ry p o w e r in in d u s try .
B e tw e e n 2 0 J a n u a r y 1912 a n d 7 F e b ru a r y 1914, th ir ty - f o u r m a jo r a rtic le s
a p p e a r e d , a n d h a lf o f th e s e d e a lt specific ally w ith C h ic a g o in d u s tr ie s , n in e
o f w h ich w e re id e n tifie d as b e in g s u p p lie d by C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n . M any
o f th e s e a rtic le s p r o b a b ly o rig in a te d w ith C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n , a p ra c tic e
th a t w as n o t u n u s u a l a m o n g tr a d e j o u r n a ls .48
By p ro v id in g in e x p e n s iv e a n d c o n v e n ie n t p o w e r, b o th s ta tio n a ry a n d
tr a c tio n , C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n e n h a n c e d C h ic a g o s a ttra c tiv e n e s s to in
d u s try . A s In su ll said in o n e o f his m a n y a d d re s s e s , C h ic a g o s g re a tn e s s
d e p e n d e d o n o u ts ta n d in g le a d e r s a n d m a te ria l a d v a n ta g e s , a n d a m o n g th e
la tte r th e p o ssib ility o f p r o c u r in g c h e a p e le c tric p o w e r is m o st im p o r
ta n t." 49 T h a t h e m a d e th is e x tr a v a g a n t c laim fo r e le c trific a tio n as ea rly as
1 City o f M elbourne. Cily Electrical Engineers Notes on Tour Abroad (M elbourne, Australia.
19 12), p. 26.
'"i Ibid.. p. 27.
17Elcctric Service in Chicago." Electrical World and Engineer 61 ( 19 13): 1144.
1BT h e following industrial custom ers w ere listed in these articles as taking pow er from
C om m onw ealth Edison: H afn er Fu rn itu re . Palm er H ouse L aundry, E m pire M attress Co..
C ard en City Sand Co.. B unte Bros.. Roberts Sash 8c D oor Co., Daniel B urkhartsm eicr Coop
e rage Co., A. O. Fisher Co.. M orand Bros., Im perial L eath er M anufacturing Co., and E. B.
Miller 8c Co.
Listed as Com m onw ealth Edison custom ers in "Electric Service in Chicago." Electrical World
and Engineer 61 ( 19 13): I 13715. w ere L. W olff M a nufacturing Co. (plum bers supplies).
Crane Co. (pipes, valves, fillings), Jo se p h T . Ryerson 8c Son, Ajax Forge Co.. Union Drop
Forge Co., V ierling Steel W orks. Federal E ngraving 8c Colortype Co., O scar H cinem an Co.
(silk m anufacturers), an d H ugo D tiB rork 8c Co. (m aker o f shirtwaists).
In addition, "Electric Service in Chicage Suburbs." ibid., pp. 1243-54. listed the following
as the com pany's custom ers: A m erican Brake Shoe F oundry, Melrose Park; Bliss 8c Laughlin,
H arvey; Chicago H ardw are Fou n d ry Co.. N orth Chicago (esi. in Chicago area 1902. but
a ccording to Moody's Industrials. 1912); Edgar Allen A m erican M anganese Steel Co., Chicago
H eights; Franklin Park F o undry Co.. Franklin Park; King 8c A ndrew s Co., Chicago Heights;
T h e Buda Co., Harvey; C entral Locomotive 8c C ar W orks. Chicago H eights; Cyclone Fence
Co., N orth C hicago; Forsyth Bros. Co., N o rth C hicago; V ictor Chem ical Co., C hicago Heights;
U nited C ar Co., Chicago H eights; Vulcan Louisville Sm elling Co.. N orth Chicago; Acme
Brick Co.. Chicago Flcights; W hiteacre Fire p roofing Co.. Chicago H eights; and Dolesc 8c
Sh ep ard , Hodgekins.
I am indebted to B arbara Kim m elm an o f the University o f Pennsylvania for this compilation.
'M r. Insull on the Sale o f Electric E nergy in Chicago," Electrical World and Engineer 54
(1909): 1024.

225

C H IC A G O : T H E D O M I N A N C E O F T E C IIN O L fX IY
1909 is n o ta b le , e v en th o u g h h e m a d e it b e fo re a n a u d ie n c e as sy m p a th e tic
as th e E lectric (T u b o f C h ica g o . C h e a p e lec tric p o w e r a ttra c te d in d u s try to
th e city in (h e w ay th a t n a tu r a l re so u rc e s d re w in d u s try to th e co u n try sid e .
A fte r th e e x p lo ita tio n o f N ia g a ra Falls, m an y o f I n s u lls c o n te m p o ra rie s
n a tu ra lly a ssu m e d th a t w a te r p o w e r w o u ld b e co m e th e focus o f a clu stei
o f in d u strie s. H o w e v e r, th e c o m b in a tio n o f a larg e , c o n c e n tra te d m a rk e t
a n d c h e a p ele ctric ity in th e n a tio n 's la rg e cities h a d a m o re p o w e rfu l, il
less d ra m a tic , a ttr a c tio n lo r in d u s try .50 T his tr e n d was iro n ic in th a t som e
v isio n aries, in c lu d in g P e te r K ro p o tk in in 1899 a n d F .bcnezer H o w a rd in
1902, h a d p r e d ic te d (hat tra n sm issio n o f e le ctric p o w e r w o u ld d is p e rs e the
p o p u la tio n ac ro ss th e g re e n c o u n try s id e .51
By e q u ip p in g p ro d u c tio n a n d d is trib u tio n facilities w ith la rg e , h ig h-efficiency u n its, in c re a s in g th e C h ic a g o sy ste m s d iv e rsity a n d load factors,
a n d a d o p tin g a m e te r in g system th a t re fle c te d th e p rin c ip le o f lo a d factor,
In su ll a rtic u la te d , c la rifie d , a n d sy n th e siz e d m an y te ch n o lo g ic al a n d e c o
n o m ic p rin c ip le s d u r in g his first tw o d e c a d e s at C o m m o n w e a lth E dison.
M o re o v e r, by 1914 his c o n c e p ts h a d b ro u g h t a n o r d e r th a t e m b ra c e d even
m o re c o m p le x a n d ab stra c t v ariables. F o r e x a m p le , h e e x p lic a te d th e r e
la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n k ilo w a tt-h o u rs sold p e r c a p ita , a u tility's in co m e p e r
k ilo w a tt-h o u r so ld , a n d a sy stem 's a n n u a l load fa cto r. F o r p u rp o s e s ol
c o m p a riso n h e c h o se th e m u n ic ip a l u tilities o f la rg e A m e ric a n cities. B erlin,
a n d L o n d o n . (In su ll, w ho h a d close c o n tac ts a b ro a d , o fte n c o m p a re d c o n
d itio n s in A m e ric a w ith th o se in E n g la n d a n d G e rm a n y .) A c c o rd in g to his
analysis, as th e in c o m e p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r fell, th e o u tp u t p e r c ap ita in
c re a se d ; c o r re s p o n d in g ly , as th e in c o m e p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r d e c re a s e d a n d
th e o u tp u t p e r c a p ita in c re a se d , th e load fa c to r in c re a se d . O f th e system s
In su ll a n a ly z e d , th e o n e at N ia g a ra Falls h a d th e h ig h est o u tp u t p e r c ap ita,
th e low est in c o m e p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r, a n d th e best load fac to r; L o n d o n had
th e p o o re st. C h e a p h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r a n d a w ide a re a o f tra n sm issio n
e x p la in e d th e d a ta o n N ia g a ra ; L o n d o n h a d d is p e rs e d , sm all g e n e ra tin g
s ta tio n s a n d a rela tiv ely sm all in d u s tria l (o r m o to r) lo a d , a m o n g , fro m
In su ll's p o in t o f view , o th e r p ro b le m s. In su ll to o k satisfactio n in p o in tin g
o u t th a t d e s p ite its d e p e n d e n c e o n th e rm a l p la n ts, C h ica g o c o m p a r e d fa
vorably with N ia g ara a n d San Francisco, which utilized hydroelectric |jo w c r.5a
(See Fig. IX . 10, p. 259.)
In su ll u su a lly h a d at his fin g e rtip s an im p ressiv e a rra y o f statistical d ata.
B esides w hat h a s b e e n n o te d , h e co u ld cite fo r C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n
a n d o fte n fo r o th e r u tilities to tal c a p italiz atio n y e a r by y e ar (g ro w th was
ste a d y u n til 1930); th e n u m b e r o f th e c o m p a n y s c u sto m e rs a n d th e size
o f C h ic a g o s p o p u la tio n (th e f o rm e r in c re a sin g m o re ra p id ly th a n th e la tte r,
a g ain u n til 1930); th e g ro ss o p e ra tin g re v e n u e a n d to ta l o p e ra tin g e x p e n se s
o f th e c o m p a n y ; its to tal pay ro ll: th e c o n n e c te d load by class o f c o n s u m e r
" A fter I860 the availability o f steam power ill the urban centers of ilic U nited States drew
industry away from the countryside with its waler-|Ktwcr sites, into the urban renters located
at the crossroads of transportation systems. Louis H unter, Waterpower: A History of Industrial
rawer in the United Stales, 1780-1930 (Charlottesville: University Iress ol Virginia. 1979). pp.
<185-90.
lew is M untford, The City in History (New York: H arco u n , Brace & W orld, 1961), pp.
514-24.
'I n s u ll. "Centralization." pp. 461-63.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

(esp e cia lly a b re a k d o w n in to lig h t, s ta tio n a r y p o w e r, a n d railw ay); taxes;
a n d in te r e s t c h a rg e s (see Figs. V I I I . 8 a n d V I I I . 9, p. 213).
In s u lls b le n d o f te c h n o lo g y , fin a n c e , m a n a g e m e n t, a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l
d riv e w as by n o m e a n s e x h a u s te d in th e m ass p ro d u c tio n o f c h e a p e lec tricity
fo r C h ic a g o . A s e a rly as 1910 In su ll a p p lie d his c o n c e p ts, te c h n o lo g y , a n d
m an a g erial te c h n iq u e s to sm all-tow n a n d ru ra l electrification in Lake C ounty,
Illinois. H is b io g r a p h e r , F o rr e s t M cD o n a ld , believ e s th a t th e L a k e C o u n ty
e x p e r im e n t w as th e first d e m o n s tr a tio n a n y w h e re th a t sy ste m a tiz e d ele ctric
serv ice w as e c o n o m ic a lly a n d te c h n ic a lly possib le in la rg e a re a s, r u r a l as
well as u rb a n . T h e n ew s o f it e x p lo d e d u p o n th e in d u s tr y .' 3 T o fulfill his
co n c e p t o f a n in te g r a te d , c e n tra lly s u p p lie d sy stem , In su ll a c q u ire d isolated
u tilities s e r v in g sm all to w n s a n d I h e ir vicinities, s h u t d o w n th e ir in e ffic ie n t
g e n e r a tin g p la n ts, e r e c te d s u b s ta tio n s , a n d s u p p lie d e le ctric ity f ro m a few
la rg e g e n e r a tin g p la n ts by m e a n s o f tra n s m is s io n lines. By 1911 h e h a d
o r g a n iz e d th e e n tir e L ak e C o u n ty e n te r p r is e in to th e P ublic S e rv ic e C o m
p a n y o f N o r th e r n Illinois. By 1923 th e c o m p a n y was s u p p ly in g a te rrito ry
o f 6 ,0 0 0 s q u a r e m iles a n d 195 c o m m u n itie s . In th e p ro c e ss fifty-five m u
n icip al o r p riv a te ly o w n e d e le c tric a l p la n ts w e re s h u t d o w n o r d ism a n tle d
a n d r e p la c e d by su b s ta tio n s a n d 8 7 5 m iles o f h ig h -te n s io n tra n sm issio n
lin es fro m f o u r la rg e , e ffic ie n t c e n tr a l s ta tio n s .54
A fte r su cce ssfu lly in te rc o n n e c tin g th e c e n tra l s ta tio n s o f a C h ic a g o utility,
a n d in te rc o n n e c tin g L ak e C o u n ty u tilitie s p h y sic ally by h ig h -v o lta g e tr a n s
m issio n lin es a n d th e n o rg a n iz a tio n a lly by m e r g e r o r a c q u isitio n , In su ll
c o n tin u e d to e x p a n d by m e a n s o f th e h o ld in g -c o m p a n y s tr u c tu r e . By th e
m id -tw e n tie s, w h e n h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s w e re flo u ris h in g in th e A m e ric a n
utilitie s fie ld , In su ll o p e r a te d o n e o f th e la rg e st, th e M id d le W est U tilities
C o m p a n y , w hich h a d s u b s id ia rie s in n in e te e n sta te s. T h is co m p a n y s u p p lie d
8 p e rc e n t o f t h e c o m m e rc ia l to ta l o f k ilo w a tt-h o u rs f o r th e U n ite d S la te s.55

CHAPTER

IX

London:
The Primacy
of Politics

o m p a r e d to C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin , L o n d o n was a b a c k w a rd m e tro p o lis

in th e e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . E lectric p o w e r was b eliev e d to be the
h a llm a rk o f p r o g r e s s in e n lig h te n e d cities like C h ica g o a n d B e rlin , a n d
L o n d o n h a d n o ta b ly little o f it. F u r th e r m o r e , L o n d o n s elec trica l su p p ly
in d u s tr y w as d is o r d e r e d a n d sm all-scale in a tim e o f ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d
m ass p ro d u c tio n . C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin e ac h h a d a c e n tra liz e d lig h t a n d po w er
system s u p p ly in g th e e n tir e city fro m a h a n d fu l o f m o d e r n p o w e r statio n s:
G r e a te r L o n d o n h a d sixty-five e lec trica l u tilities, sev e n ty g e n e ra tin g s ta tio n s
a v e ra g in g o n ly 5 .2 8 5 kw. in c ap a city , f o rty -n in e d iff e re n t ty p es o f supply
system s, te n d if f e r e n t fre q u e n c ie s , th irty -tw o vo lta g e levels fo r tra n sm issio n
a n d tw e n ty -fo u r fo r d is trib u tio n , a n d a b o u t se v en ty d if f e r e n t m e th o d s o f
c h a rg in g a n d p ric in g .1 L o n d o n e rs w ho could a ffo rd electricity toasted b read
in th e m o r n in g w ith o n e k in d , lit th e ir offic es w ith a n o th e r, visited associates
in n e a rb y o ffic e b u ild in g s u sin g still a n o th e r v ariety , a n d w alked h o m e
a lo n g stre e ts th a t w e re illu m in a te d by yet a n o th e r k in d . T h is was a n ig h t
m a re fo r th e s u p p lie r o f ele c tric la m p s a n d a p p lia n c e s; in te re s tin g p ro b le m s
aro se w h e n o n e m o v e d o n e s h o m e o r busin ess. L o n d o n 's e n g in e e rs a n d
b u sin e ssm e n m a d e su ch re m a rk s as T h e larg est city in th e w orld o ffe rs
an e x c e lle n t e x a m p le o f w h a t elec tric s u p p ly o u g h t n o t to be" a n d W hat
exists in L o n d o n to -d a y is h a rd ly w o rth ta lk in g a b o u t." 2 By W o rld W ar I,
L o n d o n s p ro g re ssiv e citizens w e re w aitin g ea g e rly fo r th e city to get in
ste p a n d c atc h u p .
T h o s e w ho e q u a le d tec h n o lo g ica l c h a n g e w ith p ro g re ss a n d w an ted to
stim u la te re m e d ia l activity r e f e r r e d to th e C h ic ag o a n d B e rlin utilities as
m o d els o f te c h n o lo g ic a l a c h ie v e m e n t in la m e n tin g th e s ta te o f affa irs in
L o n d o n . C lo se r at h a n d was a n o th e r e x e m p la r, th e elec tric su p p ly system
on th e n o rth e a s t co ast o f E n g la n d . A m o n g th o se w ho testifie d b e fo re Par-

1T h ese statistics are Tor the year 1913. Sec London County Council, llrfinrl on London
Electricity Sufifily. p rep ared by Mcrz Sc McLellan (London, 1914). app. 2. pp. 37. 38
Electrical Development in England," Electrical World 82 (1923): 1056. See also testimony
o f C harles I I. Mcrz, 6 Ju n e 1913, in London County Council, "Special C om m itter on London
Electricity Supply, 1913-14" (privately printed paper supplied to council mrml>crs for their
inform ation only), p. 8: copies in Mcrz Sc Mcl.cllan Co. Archivrs, A inbcrlry. KilliiiKwonh,
near Newcastle upon T yne. F in lan d .

227

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
lia m e n l, th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il, a n d e n g in e e r in g society co m m itte e s
o n th e su b je c t o f e le c tric ity in L o n d o n w e re S a m u e l In su ll o f C h ic ag o ,
G e o rg K lin g e n b c r g o f B e rlin , a n d C h a r le s M erz o f th e N ew castle u p o n
T y n e E le ctric S u p p ly C o m p a n y . M e rz a n d In su ll w ere th e ir resp ectiv e
c o u n tr ie s le a d in g s p o k e s m e n fo r la rg e e le c tric p o w e r system s. T h e y w e re
g o o d f rie n d s , e x c h a n g e d e n g in e e r in g a n d m a n a g e ria l in f o rm a tio n , a n d
la m e n te d th e s itu a tio n in L o n d o n . M e rz u se d C h ic a g o a n d his o w n district
as m o d e ls f o r L o n d o n a n d ca lle d o n S a m u e l In su ll to e x p la in to L o n d o n e rs
his e n v ia b le su ccess in C h ic a g o . G e o rg K lin g e n b e rg a lso was b r o u g h t to
L o n d o n to tell th e city h ow b a c k w a rd it w as e le ctrica lly . K lin g e n b e rg s
a u th o r ity c a m e f ro m his p o sitio n as c h ie f e n g in e e r fo r p o w e r sy stem s fo r
A llg e m e in e E le k triz iia is-G e se llsc h a fl, th e e le ctric al m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m
p a n y th a t also o w n e d a n d o p e r a te d th e B e rlin utility.
O n th e eve o f W o rld W a r I, M erz , In su ll, a n d K lin g e n b e rg all testifie d
to L o n d o n s r e tr o g r a d e c o n d itio n . (See Fig. 1.5, p. 16.) M e rz also p r e p a r e d
a r e p o r t fo r th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il su g g e s tin g w ays to re fo r m the
e le c tric s u p p ly in d u s try in th e m e tro p o lis . S p e a k in g in L o n d o n , In su ll, w ho
w as m in d fu l o f E n g lish civility, ta c tfu lly a v o id e d m a k in g a n y ex p lic it c o m
p a ris o n s ; h e sim p ly sh o w e d h o w a d v a n c e d h is C h ic a g o syslem was. Back
in A m e ric a , h o w e v e r, h e d isp la y e d a c h a r t th a t re v e a le d L o n d o n s p lace in
th e h ie ra rc h y o f th e e le c tric a l su p p ly w o rld . H is g r a p h sh o w e d th a t o f ten
l e a d in g W e s te rn cities, in c lu d in g C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin , L o n d o n h a d the
low est o u tp u t o f ele c tric ity p e r c a p ita , th e h ig h e st utility in c o m e p e r kilo
w a tt- h o u r , a n d th e low est lo a d fa c to r.3 T h e s e w e re th e a n tith e s e s o f A m e r
icas m a s s -p ro d u c tio n style. In su ll, a c h a m p io n o f A m e ric a n m ass p r o d u c
tio n ( w h e th e r o f kilo w atts o r m e c h a n ic a l g a d g e ts), w as a p p a lle d to fin d th at
m o st L o n d o n u tilitie s m a n a g e rs w e re c o n te n t to e a r n a h ig h r a te o f r e tu rn
o n a re la tiv ely sm all in v e s tm e n t fro m p ro f its th a t w ere d is trib u te d over
relativ e ly few u n its.
M e rz n e v e r tire d o f d e s c rib in g th e ir r a tio n a lity o f e le c tric su p p ly in L o n
d o n . In 1913 h e a d v ise d th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il th a t if L o n d o n u sed
e le c tric ity o n th e sa m e scale as C h ic a g o , c o n s u m p tio n w o u ld rise th re e fo ld .
H e sa id : W e u se . . . a n a b s u r d ly sm all a m o u n t o f ele ctric ity . . . . we o u g h t
to b e first, n o t s e c o n d , o r th ir d , o r last; a n d 1 am a fr a id th a t at th e p re s e n t
ra te o f p ro g r e s s th e r e is very g re a t d a n g e r o f o u r n o t o n ly b e in g last, b ut
o f o u r re m a in in g la s t.'1
K lin g e n b e rg , in a p a p e r r e a d in 1913 b e fo r e th e I n s titu tio n o f E lectrical
E n g in e e r s in L o n d o n , also c o m p a r e d L o n d o n w ith C h ic a g o a n d B erlin . H e
to ld his a u d ie n c e th a t u se o f ele c tric ity in L o n d o n w as o n ly 110 kw h. p e r
c a p ita as c o m p a r e d to 3 1 0 kw h. in C h ic a g o a n d 170 kw h. in B e rlin .3 H e
n o te d th a t L o n d o n h a d th e m o s t-fr a g m e n te d s u p p ly syslem o f th e th r e e
cities. H e also r e p o r te d th a t L o n d o n s p o w e r p la n ts w o rk e d th e least eco4 Insult's da la arc p resum ed to be lo r public supply and for (lie year 1913 or 1914. See
Samuel Insull, "Centralization o f E nergy Supply," an address given in New York on 20 April
19 14 and published in his Central-Station Electric Service: Its Commercial Development and Economic
Significance as Set Forth in the Public Addresses (1897-1914) o f Samuel Insull. ed. William E. Keily
(Chicago: Privately p rin ted , 1915). p. 401.
4 L ondon C ounty Council, Report (1913-14). p. 3.
'G e o rg K lingenberg. "Electricity Supply in U r g e Cities." The Electrician 72 (1913): 39840(1

22

L O N D O N : T H E P R IM A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
nom ically. F o llow ing his c o m p a ra tiv e analysis, K lin g c n b e rg v o lu n te e re d a
p la n to m ak e L o n d o n m o re like B e rlin a n d C h icag o . H is p a p e r c r e a te d a
s tir a m o n g th e B ritish e n g in e e rs ; w hile so m e cite d it as m o re e v id e n c e of
th e n e e d fo r r e f o rm , o th e r s d e f e n d e d L o n d o n by in te r p r e tin g th e statistics
d iffe re n tly . F o r e x a m p le , th e statistics fo r th e c e n tra liz e d B e rlin a n d C h i
ca g o sy stem s in c lu d e d a s u b sta n tia l s u p p ly o f p o w e r fo r tra c tio n , b ut this
was n o t th e ca se in L o n d o n , w h e re tra c tio n lo a d was su p p lie d m ostly by
iso lated , p riv a te p la n ts. O th e rs , h o w ev e r, a rg u e d th a t th e fact th a t tra c tio n
was n o t s u p p lie d by p u b lic p o w e r sta tio n s in L o n d o n was a n a d d itio n a l
in d ic a tio n o f th e n e e d fo r a c e n tra liz e d system . T h e e d ito r o f th e tra d e
jo u r n a l The FAeclncian h e a rd th e v a rio u s a r g u m e n ts a n d th e n sid e d with
th o se w ho fo u n d L o n d o n s ele ctric ity su p p ly th e m a d d e st so rt o f p e r
f o rm a n c e .
In 1913 L o n d o n was th e la rg e st city in th e W e ste rn w o rld . T h e p o p u la tio n
o f G r e a te r L o n d o n was 7.25 m illio n ; G r e a te r B e rlin h a d a p o p u la tio n ol
on ly 3 m illio n ; C h ic a g o c o u n te d a b o u t 2 m illion: Paris, n e a rly 3 m illion;
a n d N ew Y ork, 5 m illio n .7 T h e C ity, th e sm all fin an c ia l d istric t in th e h e a rt
o f L o n d o n , r e m a in e d th e fin an c ia l h e a rt n ot o n ly o f th e enVpire b u t o f th e
w orld as well. T he p o rt o f L o n d o n still d re w th e w o rld 's la rgest a n n u a l
to n n a g e .
T h is g re a t city h a d an e x tre m e ly c o m p lic a te d a d m in is tra tiv e s tru c tu r e
th a t d e fie d c o m p re h e n s io n by n o n -L o n d o n e rs a n d re fo r m -m in d e d L o n
d o n e rs alike. T h e c o m p le x s tr u c tu r e h a d a lo n g histo ry a n d was re in fo rc e d
by a s tro n g re sp e c t fo r tra d itio n . L o n d o n 's p lu ralistic a n d histo ric a d m in
istrativ e s tr u c tu r e d e e p ly a ffe c te d th e g ro w th o f th e ele ctric s u p p ly in d u stry
th e re .
O n th e local g o v e r n m e n t level, elec tricity su p p ly in L o n d o n , as e lse w h ere
in E n g la n d , was u n d e r th e ju ris d ic tio n o f local a u th o ritie s , a co m p le x a rra y
o f a d m in is tra tiv e u n its. A f te r p assag e o f th e L ocal G o v e rn m e n t Act o f 1888,
th e se a d m in is tra tiv e u n its, o r local a u th o ritie s , in c lu d e d c o u n tie s, m u n icip al
b o ro u g h s , a n d p a rish e s. As w o u ld be e x p e c te d in a c o u n try so sensitive to
h isto ry , th e r e w ere n u m e ro u s a n o m a lie s th a t deH e d ta x o n o m ic analysis.
T h e situ a tio n in L o n d o n , fo r in sta n c e , involved e x ce p tio n s. T h e C ity o f
L o n d o n , 6 73 a c re s o f fin a n cial activity, was o n e o f th e local a u th o ritie s o f
G re a te r L o n d o n , a n d o n e w ith s u b sta n tia l a u to n o m y a n d in flu e n c e. T h e
C ity a n d tw e n ty -e ig h t o th e r local a u th o ritie s (m u n icip al b o ro u g h s) m a d e
u p th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e A d m in istra tiv e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n , w hich at th e
tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry was a p a rt o f G r e a te r L o n d o n . In 1888 a m ove to w ard
c e n tra liz e d a u th o r ity fo r L o n d o n was m a d e th r o u g h th e c re a tio n o f th e
L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n cil, w hose m e m b e rs w ould be e le cted . The co u n c il's
ju ris d ic tio n a l a sp ira tio n s in c lu d e d th e c o u n tie s o f L o n d o n , M iddlesex, a n d
p o rtio n s o f f o u r o th e r c o u n tie s. T h e p o w e r o f th e c o u n ty council was

" Ibid. J. F. C. Snell presented llie London situation more favorably in the ensuing dis
cussion (see ibid.. p. <100). T h e editorial appeared on p. 393 of the same issue.
7 T b e population count depen d ed upon the area being d efined as the city. G reater London,
for instance, included not only the County o f L ondon, with an area o f I 17 square miles, but
also the whole o f Middlesex County and pan s o f four other contiguous counties, or an
additional 693 square miles. T b e radius o f G reater Berlin extended ten miles from city renter,
but "old" Berlin was smaller and its population was about 2 million.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

c h a lle n g e d by I h e local a u th o r itie s , o r th e c o u n tie s, b o r o u g h co u ncils, a n d
th e City.
T h e f u n c tio n in g o f th e a g g r e g a te o f a d m in is tra tiv e a u th o ritie s was f u r
th e r c o m p lic a te d by P a r lia m e n t's p o w ers, w hich in c lu d e d th e a u th o rity to
e n a c t le g isla tio n d e f in in g e le c tric s u p p ly u n d e rta k in g s (p riv a te ly o w n e d
c o m p a n ie s a n d g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d e n te r p ris e s ) a n d e s ta b lish in g th e c o n
d itio n s o f r e g u la tio n . T h e p a rlia m e n ta ry legisla tio n a ffe c tin g electric al s u p
ply in th e c o u n try a n d in L o n d o n c o n siste d o f a se rie s o f e n a c tm e n ts.
G e n e ra lly , e a ch o f th e e le c tric lig h tin g (la te r, p o w e r) acts w as passed fol
lo w in g th e d e lib e ra tio n s o f a p a r lia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e . T h e c o m m itte e s
w ere fo rm e d w h e n P a rlia m e n t d e e m e d th a t th e sta te o f th e te c h n o lo g y h a d
c h a n g e d to th e e x te n t th a t th e in tr o d u c tio n o r m o d ific a tio n o f reg u la tio n s
was nec essary . U su ally , h o w e v e r, th e le g isla to rs w e re u n a b le to k e e p pace
w ith th e in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs . T h e first E lec tric L ig h iin g A ct (see p p .
5 8 -6 1 ab o v e) c a m e in 1882 a f te r a c o m m itte e h e a d e d by L yon P la y fair
d e c id e d th a t e le ctric ity s u p p ly e n te r p r is e s w ere o f su ffic ie n t im p o rt to re
q u ire s ta tu to ry re c o g n itio n a n d r e g u la tio n . T h e act o f 1882 e n a b le d th e
B o a rd o f T r a d e , a d e p a r tm e n t o f th e c e n tr a l g o v e rn m e n t, to g ra n t p r o
visional o r d e r s fo r ele c tric su p p ly to local g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s o r to
p riv a te c o m p a n ie s. P ro v isio n a l o r d e r s b y -p assed th e e x p e n siv e a n d tim ec o n s u m in g p riv a te bill in P a rlia m e n t, b u t a f te r issu an c e h a d to be c o n f ir m e d
by P a rlia m e n t. T h is law, in th e o p in io n o f p riv a te e n te r p r is e , stifle d th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e e le c tric s u p p ly in d u s tr y b e c a u se th e p ro v isio n a l o rd e r s
p r o v id e d th a t p riv a te c o m p a n ie s c o u ld be p u rc h a s e d a f te r tw e n ty -o n e years
u p o n d e m a n d o f th e local a u th o r ity w ith in w h o se te r r ito r y th e co m p a n y
su p p lie d ele ctricity . T h e E le ctric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1888, th e p ro v isio n s of
w hich w ere r e c o m m e n d e d by a n o th e r p a rlia m e n ta r y c o m m itte e , e x te n d e d
th is p e r io d to fo rty -tw o y e ars, b u t le ft e le c tric su p p ly in th e h a n d s o f local
a u th o ritie s , su ch as th e m u n ic ip a l b o ro u g h s o f L o n d o n , o r w ith p riv a te
c o m p a n ie s w h o se te r r ito r y w as c o e x te n siv e w ith th a t o f th e local a u th o rity .
Political b o u n d a r ie s c o n tin u e d to d e f in e th e ra n g e o f te c h n o lo g y .
F u r th e r p a rlia m e n ta r y d e lib e r a tio n s a n d d e c isio n s a ffe c te d e le ctric s u p
ply follo w in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e u n iv e rsa l p o w e r a n d lig h t system in
th e 1890s. B ec au se th e B ritish e le c tric su p p ly u n d e r ta k in g s (p riv a te c o m
p a n ie s a n d lo c a l-a u th o rity -o w n e d e n te r p ris e s ) w ere n ot in tro d u c in g th e new
system to th e e x te n t it w as b e in g a d o p te d a b ro a d , a jo in t c o m m itte e o f b o th
h o u se s o f P a rlia m e n t in 18 9 8 in v e stig a te d a n d r e c o m m e n d e d m o d ific a tio n s
in th e E lectric L ig h tin g Act o f 1882 a n d th e a m e n d in g act o f 1888. T h e
c o m m itte e , h e a d e d by V isco u n t C ro ss, re c o m m e n d e d th a t a u th o rity be
given to utilitie s to su p p ly p o w e r in b u lk , o r w h o lesale, to o th e r u n d e r ta k
ings, w h e th e r privately o r lo cal-authority o w ned. It was e x p ected that sm aller
e n te rp ris e s lo c ated in th e te r r ito r y a s sig n e d to th e la rg e p o w e r u n d e r ta k in g s
w o u ld th u s d is trib u te th e p o w e r to c o n s u m e rs . The p o w e r u n d e rta k in g s
c o u ld also s u p p ly p o w e r n o t lig h t d ire c tly in d istric ts w h e re n o su p p ly
u n d e r ta k in g e x iste d . P a rlia m e n t th e n p r o c e e d e d to e n a c t a n u m b e r o f bills
esta b lish in g th e p o w e r u n d e rta k in g s , m ost o f w hich w e re p riv a te c o m p a
nies. T h e bills w e re all o p p o s e d by local a u th o ritie s , b u t th e y in c lu d e d
clau ses re c o m m e n d e d by a M ouse o f C o m m o n s c o m m itte e h e a d e d by Sir
J a m e s K itson s ta tin g th a t p o w e r s h o u ld n o t b e s u p p lie d by a p o w e r c o m p a n y
to an y d istric t a lre a d y b e in g s u p p lie d by an ele c tric s u p p ly u n d e r ta k in g

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L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
u n le ss th a t u n d e r ta k in g a p p r o v e d . U n r e a s o n a b le d e n ia l was p re c lu d e d a n d
c o u ld be o v e rr u le d by d ie B o a rd o l T rad e . P o w er c o m p a n ie s , h o w e v e r,
w ere slow to g ro w u n d e r th e new a u th o rity , a n d th e y a r g u e d th a t th e
re a so n s w e re th e w id ih o ld in g of a p p ro v a l by local a u th o r itie s lo r th e p o w e r
u n d e r ta k in g s to su p p ly p o w e r d ire c tly to la rg e c u s to m e r s in th e ir d istric ts
a n d th e fa ilu r e o f local a u th o r itie s to n e g o tia te s e rio u sly to b uy p o w e r in
b u lk f o r d is trib u tio n . All o f t h e s e c o n d itio n s a n d e ffe c ts a p p lie d to L o n d o n ,
w h e re th e local a u th o r itie s g u a r d e d th e ir p riv ileg es in th e face o f w ouldb e p o w e r s u p p lie rs .
In a d d itio n to a d m in is tr a tiv e c o m p le x ity , b o th lo c a l-a iith o ritv a n d p a r
lia m e n ta ry , th e sta te o f in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t in L o n d o n m u st be ta k e n
in to a c c o u n t in e x p la in in g th e h isto ry o f e le c tric s u p p ly th e re . Statistic s
su g g e st th a t th e sy m b io tic re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n in d u s tria liz a tio n a n d elec
trific a tio n th a t w as o b s e rv e d in C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin was n o t rife in L o n d o n .
In 1911 o n ly 3 9 p e rc e n t o f L o n d o n s k ilo w a tt-h o u rs w e re u se d fo r p o w er;
in B e rlin , s ta tio n a r y m o to rs a n d tra c tio n u se d 6 6 p e r c e n t o f th e kilow atth o u r o u tp u t s u p p lie d by B E W ; a n d in C h ic a g o , s ta tio n a ry a n d tra c tio n
p o w e r to o k 81 p e r c e n t o f th e k ilo w a tt-h o u r to ta l.8 In su ll b o a ste d th a t C o m
m o n w e alth E dison h a d six larg e in d u stria l c u sto m ers w ho Ix niglu I ()().()()().()()<)
u n its a n n u a lly ; th is w as a b o u t o n e - th ir d o f th e to ta l e lec tricity sold In th e
L o n d o n u tilities in 191 I .9
L o n d o n in th e e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry w as a m a n u f a c tu r in g c e n te r a n d
th e r e f o r e a p o te n tia l m a rk e t fo r e le c tric p o w e r. It was th e site o f t h e g re a te st
a m o u n t o f e c o n o m ic a ctivity in th e c o u n try as m e a s u re d by th e n u m b e r ol
w o rk e rs e m p lo y e d . A b o u t o n e in five E n g lish a n d W elsh w o rk e rs in m a n
u fa c tu rin g a n d serv ice s w e re lo c a te d in G r e a te r L o n d o n . O n th e o th e r
h a n d , la rg e -sc a le a n d h ea v y in d u s trie s w ere s itu a te d in th e M id la n d s a n d
in th e n o r th . M ost o f L o n d o n 's fa c to rie s w e re sm all. D esp ite th e c o m m it
m e n t o f tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry e n g in e e r s a n d in d u stria lists to la rg e-sc ale u n
d e rta k in g s , L o n d o n m a in ta in e d its h isto ric c h a ra c te r as a s u sta in e t o f sm allscale e n te r p r is e s . As la te as th e 1930s th e r e w ere 5 5 ,0 0 0 fa c to rie s a n d
w o rk sh o p s in th e L o n d o n fa c to ry a r e a (an a re a slig h tly la rg e r th a n G r e a te r
L o n d o n ), b u t o n ly 34 fa c to rie s e m p lo y e d m o re th a n tw o th o u s a n d w o rk ers:
2 2 ,0 0 0
e m p lo y e d fe w e r th a n tw en ty -fiv e w o rk e rs, a n d m o re th a n 10,000
e m p lo y e d u n d e r te n . T h is sm a lln e ss o f scale r e ta r d e d m e c h a n iz a tio n .'" T h e
m o st im p o r ta n t in d u s trie s in L o n d o n w e re e n g in e e rin g w o rk s (m e ta l tra d e s
su c h as w a tc h m a k in g , fo r in sta n c e ), b u ild in g , c lo th in g , p rin tin g a n d p a p e r,
fo o d , a n d f u r n itu r e . T h e h e a v ie r e n g in e e r in g e n te rp ris e s w ere c o n c e n
tr a te d in s o u th e r n a n d e a s te rn L o n d o n , n e a r th e T h a m e s R iver; f u r n itu r e
a n d c lo th in g m a n u f a c tu r e r s w ere lo c ated in B e th n a l G re e n , S h o re d itc h ,
a n d H a c k n e y ; a n d p r in tin g w o rk s w e re c o n c e n tr a te d in th e so u th w e st p a rt
o f th e C ity a n d in S o u th w a r k . L a te r in th e c e n tu ry , w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f ro a d tr a n s p o r t a n d s u b u r b a n railw ays, in d u s try w o u ld m ig ra te to th e
o u te r rin g o f L o n d o n .
Klingcnbci'Ki "Electricity Supply in Large Cities," p. 399.
9 Testim ony o f Samuel Insull. 23 Ja n u ary 1914. in London County Council. Report (191314). p. 7.
10 Mcrz 8c McLcllan, Report on Electric Service in New York. London, Pans, and llerhn, prepared
for C onsolidated Edison Co. o f New York (London: M et/ 8c M cl.ellan. 1937). p. 41. t his
report estim ated that about 20,000 factories in L ondon were using power, mostly e lem itity

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

In L o n d o n th e a u th o r iz e d e le ctric al u tilities c a r rie d n ot o n ly a small
in d u stria l load b u t, c o m p a re d to B erlin a n d C h ic a g o , a sm all tra c tio n load
as w ell: in L o n d o n , tra c tio n w as 12 p e r c e n t; in B e rlin , 31 p e rc e n t; a n d in
C h ica g o , 6 9 p e rc e n t o f th e to tal k ilo w a tt-h o u rs s o ld ." T r a c tio n c o m p an ies
in L o n d o n g e n e r a te d p o w e r in th e ir o w n p la n ts. I f th e p u b lic u tilitie s had
s u p p lie d th e citys u n d e r g r o u n d , tra m s, a n d s u b u rb a n lines, L o n d o n s total
su p p ly fig u re s w o u ld h a v e b e e n m o re im p re ssiv e , fo r th e m e tro p o lis was
ra p id ly e le c trify in g e x istin g tr a n s p o r ta tio n sy ste m s a n d c o n s tr u c tin g new
e le c trifie d ro u te s. T h e first se c tio n o f th e L o n d o n u n d e r g r o u n d , o r subw ay,
was o p e n e d in 1863. B e fo re 1900 th is line a n d o th e r s u sed ste a m trac tio n .
B ec au se o f p o o r v e n tila tio n , h o w e v e r, th e u n d e r g r o u n d was ex tre m e ly
u n c o m fo rta b le , so w ith th e c o m in g o f e le c tric p o w e r, e x p e rim e n ta l elec
trific a tio n w as trie d in 1900. B e g in n in g in 1906 th e D istrict system was
ex ten siv ely e le c trifie d a n d th e M e tro p o lita n sy stem a lso in tro d u c e d elec
tricity. D u rin g th e n e x t d e c a d e la rg e p o w e r s ta tio n s w ere c o n s tru c te d at
C h e lse a a n d N e a sd e n to su p p ly th e n e tw o rk , a n d ne w e le c trifie d lines w ere
c o n s tru c te d . L o n d o n s s u rfa c e tra m s w ere o w n e d a n d o p e r a te d m ostly by
th e c o u n tv c o u n cil. T h e s e , to o , w e re c o n v e rte d to ele c tric m o to rs. As som e
o b se rv e rs c o m m e n te d . " N o w h e r e in th e w o rld is th e r e a fin e r system ol
ele c tric tra m w a y s th a n th o se to be se e n in L o n d o n , a n d c o n tr o lle d by the
L .C .C ." 12 T h e fa ilu re o f th e tra n s p o r ta tio n sy stem to d ra w m o re pow er
fro m th e m u ltitu d e o f L o n d o n g e n e ra l-s e rv ic e u tilities also p a rtia lly e x
pla in s th e u tilitie s f a ilu re to d e v e lo p in to la rg e -sc a le sy stem s. T h e u n d e r
lying q u e s tio n re m a in s W hy d id th e L o n d o n tr a n s p o r ta tio n sy stem fail to
ta k e p o w e r fro m th e u tilitie s as th e B e rlin a n d C h ic a g o sy stem s d id ?
B e rlin in th e e a rly ye ars o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y c o u ld w ith re a so n be
called th e e lec trica l m e tro p o lis. T w o m a n u f a c tu r e r s , A llg e m e in e Eleklrizita ts-G ese llsc h afl a n d S ie m e n s, h a d la rg e p la n ts fo r th e b u ild in g o f p ow ersta tio n e q u ip m e n t th e re . In c o n tr a s t, o n th e e ve o f W o rld W a r 1 th e lead in g
B ritish e le ctric al m a n u f a c tu r e r s as a g r o u p p ro d u c e d less hea v y electrical
m a c h in e ry th a n e ith e r o f th e tw o le a d in g G e r m a n firm s a n d less th a n e ith e r
G e n e ra l E lectric o r W e stin g h o u se in th e U n ite d S la te s .11 F u r th e r m o r e , not
o n e o f th e f o re m o s t B ritish m a n u f a c tu r in g c o m p a n ie s h a d b u ilt a m a jo r
p la n t fo r th e p ro d u c tio n o f h eav y e le ctric al m a c h in e ry in L o n d o n . T h e
le a d in g B ritish p r o d u c e r s o f p o w e r e q u ip m e n t w ere su b sid ia rie s o f fo re ig n
m a n u fa c tu r e r s . B ritish W e siin g h o u se h a d its m a jo r p la n t in T r a f f o r d , n e a r
M a n c h e ste r; B ritish T h o m s o n - H o u s to n . a su b sid ia ry o f A m e ric a n G e n e ra l
Electric, h a d a m a jo r m a n u f a c tu r in g facility in R u g b y ; a n d S ie m e n s in
E n g la n d m a n u f a c tu r e d d y n a m o s a t S ta ff o rd , in c e n tr a l E n g la n d . T h e le a d
in g B ritish -o w n e d m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f p o w e r-p la n t e q u ip m e n t b e fo re W orld
W a r I w ere D ick, K e rr 8c C o m p a n y a n d P a rso n s. T hese c o m p a n ie s ha d
m a n u f a c tu r in g facilities fo r e lectric al m a c h in e ry in P re sto n a n d n e a r N ew
castle u p o n 1 yn e resp ec tiv ely . T h e B ritish -b a se d c o m p a n ie s w e re especially
11 T hese statistics are lo r the period 1910-12; sec K lingcnbcrg. "Electricity Supply in Large
Cities," p. 399.
City o f M elbourne. City ElectnraI Engineers Notes on Tour Abroad (M elbourne. Australia.
1912). p. 52.
15 I. C. R. Byall, The llntish Electrical Industry. IN 7 5 -I9 h l (O xford: C larendon Press. 1979).
tables on pp. 150 and 160. C om pared arc the gross o u tp u t in electrical m achinery in Britain
and the electrical m anufacturing sales o f the G erm an and A merican companies.

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active in th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f e q u ip m e n t fo r p o w e r p la n ts su p p ly in g a trac
tio n lo a d . T h e o n ly su b s ta n tia l e le ctrica l m a n u fa c tu rin g p la n ts lo ca te d in
o r n e a r L o n d o n p r o d u c e d in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s a n d te le g r a p h cable. T he
h e a d o f th e B ritish G e n e r a l E le ctric C o m p a n y (G E C ) (not a sso ciate d with
A m e ric a n G e n e ra l E le ctric ) e x p la in e d th a t m a n u f a c tu r in g p la n ts w ere sit
u a te d w h e re th e re le v a n t m a n u f a c tu r in g skills h a d b e c o m e a lm o st h e r e d
itary . G E C . fo r in sta n c e , c h o se W itto n , n e a r B irm in g h a m , fo r he av y m a
c h in e ry b e c a u se o f th e p r e s e n c e o f th e iro n a n d steel in d u s tr ie s th e re ; ii
s itu a te d its la m p - m a n u f a c tu r in g p la n t (O sra m ) in H a m m e rs m ith because
L o n d o n h a d a n a lm o st lim itle ss re s e rv o ir o f sk illed fe m a le w o r k e r s ."
In L o n d o n , as in B e rlin , o u ts ta n d in g m e m b e rs o f th e a c a d e m ic c o m
m u n ity ta u g h t e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g (see p p . 14647 ab o v e). T h e a c a d e m
ics' in flu e n ce was c o m p le m e n te d by c o n su ltin g e n g in e e rin g firm s with w o rld
w ide e x p e rie n c e a n d by th e In s titu tio n o f E lec tric al E n g in e e rs . T h e se
p ro fe ssio n a ls w e re a b re a s t o f th e latest te c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts in e le c
trica l e n g in e e r in g e v e n th o u g h , by in te rn a tio n a l s ta n d a r d s o f size a n d r a
tio n a lity , L o n d o n s u tilitie s w e re c o n s id e re d b a c k w a rd . In p a p e rs a n d lec
tu re s th e a cadem ics a n d pra cticin g electrical e n g in e e rs re m in d e d L o n d o n ers
o f th e ir p e rilo u s c o n d itio n in a n in te n se ly c o m p e titiv e te c h n o lo g ic a l w orld.
T h e y also la m e n te d E n g la n d 's in ab ility to p ra c tic e its skills in its o w n cap ital.
T h o s e e n g in e e rs w h o w e re sa tisfie d w ith th in g s sm all a n d b e a u tifu l (som e
o f th e L o n d o n s ta tio n s w e re m o d e ls o f th a t k in d ) w ere d e fin ite ly in a
m in o rity .
IE E le c tu re s a n d p a p e rs c alle d fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f la rg e , c e n tra liz e d
p o w e r sy stem s o f th e k in d th a t w e re b e in g b u ilt in C h ic a g o . B e rlin . N ew
Y o rk , a n d e ls e w h e re . In h is p r e s id e n tia l a d d r e s s to th e IE E in 1901, Sylvanus T h o m p s o n said: L a rg e r a re a s o f su p p ly a n d few er g e n e ra tin g cen tres
in a n a r e a a r e n e c e ssitie s it is re c o g n iz e d th a t th e se c re t o f e co n o m ic
w o rk in g is to g e n e r a te o n a la rg e scale a n d to d is trib u te o v e r a la rg e a re a
at a n a p p r o p r ia te h ig h v o lta g e . 15 T h e IE E collectively trie d to r e o rg a n iz e
th e e le c tric s u p p ly n e tw o rk in L o n d o n a n d all o f E n g la n d . H o ld in g m e e tin g s
a n d ta k in g te stim o n y fro m e x p e r ts f o r sev e ral m o n th s in 1901, a n I EE
c o m m itte e lo o k e d in to th e b a c k w a rd s ta te o f th e elec trical su p p ly in d u stry .
T h e s e h e a rin g s fo c u se d o n leg isla tio n th a t a ffe c te d th e in d u s try . T h e r e p o r t
a d o p te d by th e c o m m itte e o n 10 A p ril 1902 id e n tifie d p a ro c h ia lism o n th e
p a r t o f local a u th o r itie s as th e m a jo r c a u se o f th e p ro b le m . In J u n e a
d e p u ta tio n fro m th e IE E p r e s e n te d th e c o m m itte e s fin d in g s to G e ra ld
B a lfo u r, p re s id e n t o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e . S p e a k in g fo r th e d e p u ta tio n .
Jam es S w in b u rn e sa id : W e h o ld th a t e lec trica l e n te rp ris e s s h o u ld have
th e ir lim its a n d b o u n d a rie s set by e c o n o m ic a l c o n s id e ra tio n s o n ly , a n d that
a rb itr a r y b o u n d a rie s , m ostly o f m ed iev a l ecclesiastical o rig in , s h o u ld not
14 A dam G. W hyte, Forty Years of Electrical Progress: The Story of G.E.C.. (London: Denn,
1930), pp. 5 0-51, 73. O n (he British electrical m anufacturers, see Hyatt. British Electnral
Industry, chap. 8; and Robert Jo n e s and Oliver M arriott, Anatomy of a Merger (London: Gape,
1971). Electrical m an u facture in L ondon included cables, lamps, domestic appliances, accu
m ulators. and, later, electronic apparatus. O n London industries in general, see IV G. Hall.
The Industries of London since 1861 (London: H utchinson, 1962), pp. 21. 26. 35-36. MH. 15152.
11 Q uoted in R. A. S. H ennessey, The Electric Revolution (Newcastle upon Tyne: Oriel, 1971).
p. 36.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

lim it th e d is tr ib u tio n o r th e g ro w th o f e le ctric al sy ste m s." ,G T h e re c u r rin g
a n d p e r s is te n t clash o f v alu es b e tw e e n th o se fa v o rin g te c h n o lo g ic a l o rd e r
a n d th o se a tta c h e d to th e h isto ric a l c o n s titu tio n o f th in g s was th u s e x p re sse d
succinctly.
T h e I EE c o m m itte e w a n te d to lay to re st th e c o n c e r n th a t b a c k w a rd n e ss
o f scie n ce m ig h t b e th e re a s o n w hy L o n d o n failed to d e v e lo p a c e n tra liz e d
e lec tric su p p ly sy stem . I EE w o rth ie s in sisted th a t E n g la n d siill led th e w orld
in scien ce a n d e sp ecially in th o s e d isc ip lin e s o n w hich elec trical in v en tio n
d e p e n d e d . P a ra d o x ic a lly , th e n a tio n s g r e a t in s titu tio n s o f sc ien ce T h e
Royal Society, th e R oyal I n s titu tio n o f G re a t B rita in , th e B ritish A ssociation
fo r th e A d v a n c e m e n t o f S c ie n ce , a n d th e S ociety o f A rts w e re all h e a d
q u a r te r e d in L o n d o n , a city th a t w as u n a b le to o rg a n iz e its e le c tric su p p ly
n e tw o rk a c c o rd in g to s c ie n tific p r in c ip le s .17
T h e o p in io n o f so m a n y c o n te m p o ra r y e x p e rts n o tw ith s ta n d in g , in te r
estin g d e v e lo p m e n ts in e le c tric s u p p ly w e re ta k in g p la ce in L o n d o n . T h e
city p r o v id e s a n u n u s u a l o p p o r tu n ity to c o n s id e r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f sm allscale te c h n o lo g y in a n e ra w h e n la rg e -sc a le e n te r p r is e s h e ld th e in te re st o f
m o st o b s e rv e rs . T h e s e sm all u n d e r ta k in g s w e re o f te n a p p r o p r ia te fo r th e
d e m a n d th e y m e t a n d fo r th e leg islativ e c irc u m s ta n c e s o f th e day, a n d
L o n d o n sta tio n m a n a g e r s a n d e n g in e e r s to o k p r id e in th e ir style o f su p p ly .
T h e rela tiv ely sm all scale o f th e u n d e r ta k in g s a n d o f th e te c h n o lo g y they
e m p lo y e d e n c o u r a g e d a se n se o f p e rs o n a l in v o lv e m e n t a n d in flu e n c e ; th e
w ide v a ria tio n s in c h o ic e o f e q u ip m e n t a n d o r g a n iz a tio n m a n ife s te d p e r
so n al e x p re s s io n . F u r th e r m o r e , se v era l o f th e L o n d o n c o m p a n ie s sho w e d
o p e r a tin g e ffic ie n c ie s a n d e c o n o m ic a c h ie v e m e n ts th a t w e re c o m p a ra b le to
th o se o f th e la rg e st u r b a n sta tio n s. B e fo re c o n s id e r in g e f f o r ts to in tro d u c e
larg e -sca le e le c trific a tio n in L o n d o n , w e s h o u ld su rv e y th e sm all a n d by
so m e b e liev e d to be th e m o re a p p r o p r ia te u tilities.
T h e W e s tm in s te r E lectric S u p p ly C o r p o r a tio n , L td ., w as o n e o f th e o ld e st
o f th e p riv a te ly o w n e d c o m p a n ie s; like se v e ra l o th e rs , it s u p p lie d L o n d o n s
w ea lth y W est E n d .18 A. B. W. K e n n e d y , c h ie f e n g in e e r o f th e W e stm in ste r
C o m p a n y f ro m 1890 to 1926, was c o n se rv a tiv e in his a ttitu d e to w a rd te c h
n olo g y . A c o n s u lta n t to th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il o n e lec trica l m a tte rs,
h e te stifie d in 1905 a g a in st M e rz s p la n f o r a u n ifie d s u p p ly system in th e
m e tro p o lis. K e n n e d y a rg u e d , fo r e x a m p le , th a t th e c u r r e n t o f th e fu tu re
was sin g le -p h a se a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t, n o t th e th r e e - p h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t (a
p re d ic tio n th a t w as fa r o f f th e m a r k ) .19 H e d e s ig n e d f o r th e W e stm in ste r
C o m p a n y th e sm all p la n ts at M illb a n k , E ccleston Place, a n d D avies S tre e t,
w hich in 189 0 -9 1 s u p p lie d , a m o n g o th e r d istric ts, B e lg ra v ia a n d M ayfair,
L o n d o n s m o st fa sh io n a b le q u a r te r s . T h e sy stem is a n e x c e lle n t e x a m p le
o f th e u se o f lo w -voltage, d ire c t- c u r r e n t su p p ly a t a tim e w h e n m a n y e n
g in e e rs ju d g e d a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t to be th e w ay o f th e f u tu r e .20 All th r e e
s ta tio n s h a d s to ra g e b a tte rie s c h a r g e d in p a ra lle l w ith th e lo a d d u r in g low er1,1/ f t ' Journal 31 (1001-2): 1324.
17 The Electrician 40 (1002): 46.
I he account ol the W estm inster Electric Supply C orp. and other supply utilities given
in this section is based on R. II. Parsons, The Early Days of the Power Station Industry (Cambridge:
At the University Press. 1010), pp. 71-135.
Byatl, British Electrical Industry, p. J25.
Parsons. Early Days of the Power Station Indiutiy, p. 08.

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d e m a n d , d ay lig h t h o u r s ; late in th e e v e n in g , a f te r (he load h a d lig h te n e d ,
th e g e n e r a to r s w e re s h u t d o w n a n d b a tte rie s s u p p lie d th e sy stem , m ost ol
w hich was lig h tin g . K e n n e d y se le c te d e q u ip m e n t fro m a n u m b e r o f m a n
u fa c tu re rs a n d in so d o in g ig n o r e d th e m o v e to w a rd s ta n d a rd iz a tio n ol
e q u ip m e n t a n d c o n c e n tr a tio n o f m a n u f a c tu r e lh a l was th e n ta k in g place
in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d G e r m a n y . H is c h o ices in c lu d e d S ie m e n s, C r o m p
to n , W illans, a n d P a rso n s m a c h in e ry .
Faced w ith a s h o r ta g e o f c o o lin g w a te r fo r its ste a m c o n d e n s e rs , the
W e stm in ste r C o m p a n y in g e n io u sly co lle c te d ra in w a te r fro m th e r o o f of
th e V ic to ria Railw ay S ta tio n a n d c a r rie d it in u n d e r g r o u n d m a in s to the
s u p p ly sta tio n s. In s u m m e r, w h e n th e u tility s lo a d was re la tiv ely lig h t, the
c o m p a n y o p e r a te d ic e -m a k in g m a c h in e s at its sta tio n s to im p ro v e th e load
c u rv e w ith o u t e x p a n d in g th e a r e a o f su p p ly . In 1902 W e s tm in s te r jo in e d
w ith th e St. J a m e s 8c Pall M all C o m p a n y to c o n s tru c t a jo in t g e n e ra tin g
s ta tio n a t G ro v e R o a d , St. M a ry le b o n e . T h is sta tio n tr a n s m itte d w ith th re e p h a se c u r r e n t at 6 ,6 0 0 volts to th e o ld e r s ta tio n s, w h o se m o to r g e n e ra to rs
c o n v e rte d th e su p p ly to d ire c t c u r r e n t fo r d is tr ib u tio n .
T h e M e tro p o lita n S u p p ly C o m p a n y , a n o th e r p riv a te ly o w n e d L o n d o n
su p p ly c o m p a n y , o p e r a te d a c e n tra l sta tio n at W h ite h a ll C o u rt. D esig n ed
in 1888 by J . E. H . G o r d o n , th e sta tio n a ttra c te d a tte n tio n b e c a u se G o rd o n ,
w ho h a d b e e n a le a d in g e x p o n e n t o f a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t d u r in g th e b attle
o f th e sy stem s," u se d d ire c t c u r r e n t at W h ite h a ll C o u rt. H e a n tic ip a te d a
m u c h m o re re g u la r lo a d th e r e as well as in c re a se d e c o n o m ie s fro m th e use
o f s to ra g e b a tte rie s c h a r g e d by d ir e c t c u r r e n t d u r in g p e r io d s o f low load
a n d d is c h a rg e d d u r in g p e a k s. Low s a n d p e a k s w ere a c c e n tu a te d in a sta tio n
th a t c a rr ie d m o stly a lig h tin g lo a d . W illans h ig h -s p e e d e n g in e s w ere d ire c tly
c o u p le d to 110-volt g e n e r a to r s , a c o m m o n a r r a n g e m e n t at th a t tim e in
B rita in .21
A f te r p a ssa g e o f th e E lec tric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1888. th e M e tro p o lita n
C o m p a n y o b ta in e d p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s to su p p ly th e St. M a ry le b o n e,
B lo o m sb u ry , L in c o ln s I n n , a n d C o v e n t G a r d e n d istric ts, a n a re a w ith th e a
te rs, sh o p s, fa s h io n a b le re sid e n c e s, a n d e d u c a tio n a l a n d pu b lic in stitu tio n s.
B e fo re th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu r y a n d th e in c re a se in p o w e r lo ad , su ch an
a re a was h ig h ly d e s ira b le b e c a u se o f its la rg e lig h tin g lo ad . In 1889 M et
r o p o lita n c o m m issio n e d th e S a rd in ia S tre e t s ta tio n at th e s o u th w e st c o r n e r
o f L in c o ln s In n F ields. S h iftin g to a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t f o r th is s ta tio n , th e
c o m p a n y in sta lle d A m e ric a n W e stin g h o u se sin g le -p h a se . 125-kw. a lte r n a
to rs w ith a g e n e r a tin g ca p ac ity o f 1,000 v o lts.22 T h e im p o rta tio n o f m a
c h in e ry by E n g lish utilitie s, b o th f ro m th e U n ite d S la tes a n d G e rm a n y , was
in c re a sin g ly c o m m o n a f te r 1 890.23 A fte r a fire a lm o st d e s tro y e d th e S a r
d in ia S tr e e t sta tio n in S e p te m b e r 1889, th e co m p a n y re e q u ip p e d it w ith
tu rb in e s , a n d in 1897 c o n v e rte d it fro m a lte rn a tin g to d ire c t c u r r e n t a
ra tio n a l d e c isio n , e v e n in 1897, f o r a n u r b a n u tility su p p ly in g lig h tin g to
a d e n se ly p o p u la te d a re a fro m a c e n tra lly lo c ated p o w e r sta tio n .
By in sta llin g P a rso n s's tu r b o - a lte r n a to r s (tu rb in e s a n d a lte rn a tin g - c u r-

*' Ibid.. pp. 72-73.

" I b i d .. p. 76.
O n die e xport and im port o f electrical m achinery and app aratus, see Byati. Htttish Elrrtrical Industry, pp. 16 7 - 170.

236

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

r e n t g e n e ra to r s c o m b in e d ) in a n o th e r sta tio n a t M a n c h e s te r S q u a re in 1894,
M e tro p o lita n p r o v e d th a t L o n d o n s ta tio n s n e e d n o t be te c h n ic a l lag g ard s.
Each u n it h a d a n o u tp u t o f 3 5 0 kw. a t 1,000 volts a n d 100 cycles, which
was m o r e th a n tw ice th e ca p a c ity o f an y o th e r t u r b o g e n e r a to r c o n stru c te d
u p to th a t tim e .2'1 P re c ip ita tin g th e c h o ic e o f tu rb in e s was legal a c tio n tak en
by n e ig h b o r s o f th e M a ry le b o n e sta tio n w h o c o m p la in e d th a t v ib ra tio n from
th e o rig in a lly in sta lle d r e c ip ro c a tin g s te a m e n g in e s was a n in to le ra b le n u i
san ce . T h e g r o u n d s fo r th is d e c isio n d if f e r e d fro m th o s e u su ally given for
th e in tro d u c tio n o f tu rb in e s : la rg e u n its f o r a la rg e a r e a o f s u p p ly . T u r b in e s
th e r e f o r e b o th p ro lo n g e d th e life o f, a n d m a d e o b so le te , th e re la tiv e ly small
u r b a n c e n tra l sta tio n s.
A r a r e a c c o u n t o f th e e x p e rie n c e s o f e n g in e e rs a n d w o rk m e n o p e ra tin g
a n ea rly c e n tra l s ta tio n c o n c e rn s th e M a n c h e s te r S q u a r e s ta tio n a f te r the
first tu rb in e s w e re in sta lle d . D u rin g th e first y e a r a n d a h a lf o f th e sta tio n s
o p e ra tio n , th e se re s o u rc e fu l m e n k e p t th e tu rb in e s r u n n in g d e s p ite the
loss o f as m an y as o n e - th ir d o f th e tu r b in e b lad e s. T h e y co o le d o v e rh e a tin g
b e a rin g s w ith w a te r a n d oil at least u n til th e sm o k e d ro v e th e crew out
o f th e e n g in e h o u se . T h e y h e ld relay valves o p e n w ith c o rk s a n d tie d w eights
o n to s ta r tin g lev e rs to k e e p tu r b in e s o p e r a tin g a f te r th e s te a m p re ssu re
h a d d r o p p e d below r e c o m m e n d e d levels. D e sp ite th e se d iffic u ltie s, the
e n g in e e r s se em to h av e a p p r o v e d h ig h ly o f t h e new s te a m e n g in e s at least
yea rs a f te rw a rd w h e n w ritin g th e ir m e m o irs.
In c r e a s in g d e m a n d , risin g real e sta te costs, a n d c o m p la in ts a b o u t sm oke,
d irt, a n d n o ise c a u se d M e tro p o lita n finally to lo ca te a p la n t o u ts id e the
d istric t it w o u ld s u p p ly . In 1897 th e c o m p a n y b e g a n c o n s tru c tin g th e Wille sd en sta tio n a lo n g th e G ra n d J u n c tio n C a n a l a n d tw o r a ilr o a d lines (six
m iles fro m th e s ta tio n s d e m a n d c e n te r). A g ain th e c o m p a n y t u r n e d to
A m e ric a n W e stin g h o u se , th is tim e lo r tw o -p h a se , 60-cycle a lte r n a to r s fro m
w hich c u r r e n t w o u ld be tra n s m itte d at 10,000 volts to th e lo a d c e n te r, w h ere
r o ta ry c o n v e r te rs w o u ld c h a n g e th e su p p ly to d ire c t c u r r e n t fo r d is trib u
tio n . T h e u n iv e rsa l system h a d finally re a c h e d L o n d o n .
O th e r p riv a te ly o w n e d L o n d o n c o m p a n ie s at th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry
w ere th e C h a r in g C ro ss E lectric S u p p ly C o m p a n y , w hich s u p p lie d cu s
to m e rs in th e C ity a n d in th e S tra n d ; th e C ity o f L o n d o n E lectric L ig h tin g
C o m p a n y ; a n d th e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n E lectric L ig h tin g C o m p a n y . T o m ee t
d e m a n d , th e C h a rin g C ro ss C o m p a n y in 1900 c o n s tr u c te d a s ta tio n fo u r
m iles fro m th e C ity a n d tra n s m itte d w ith th re e -p h a s e a lte r n a to rs , at 11,000
volts, to s u b sta tio n s fo r co n v e rsio n to d ire c t c u r r e n t. B ec au se o f th e s h o rta g e
o f c o o lin g w a te r, th e s ta tio n u se d s ix te e n c irc u la r s te e l-c o o lin g lo w ers. T h e
City o f L o n d o n C o m p a n y s B a n k sid e s ta tio n b e c a m e o n e o f L o n d o n s la rg
est. A m o n g o th e r c u s to m e rs , it s u p p lie d th e C ity s p r in tin g e sta b lish m e n ts,
w hich n e e d e d d ir e c t- c u r r e n t d is tr ib u tio n ; th e c o m p a n y p e r s u a d e d th e
p rin tin g p la n ts to a b a n d o n th e ir o w n iso lated in sta lla tio n s.
In 1911 in th e a re a u n d e r th e ju risd ic tio n o f th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o uncil
(LCC) th e re w ere th irte e n privately o w n ed a n d fifteen local-authority-ow ned
electric su p p ly u tilities. T h e n u m b e r o f utilities a n d th e n u m b e r o f m u
n icipal b o r o u g h s w ere th e sa m e (tw en iy -eig lu ). ( T h e r e w ere sixty-five u til
ities in th e G r e a te r L o n d o n a re a .) In th e L C C a re a , p riv a te c o m p a n ie s had
'MParsons. Early Days of the Power Slalwn Industry, p. 79.

237

Figure IX .I. Sebastian Ztani de Ferranti

at the age of tu/enty-two, shortly before his
appointment as engineer of the London
Electric Supply Corp., Ltd. Courtesy o f the
Ferranti Ltd. Archives, Holtinwood,
England.

L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
in v e ste d 14 m illio n , c o m p a r e d to local a u th o r itie s ' in v e stm e n t o l 6 .2 5
million. T h e le a d in g lo c a l-a u th o rity -o w n e d s u p p ly c o m p a n ie s w ere th o se
fo r St. M a ry le b o n e , S te p n e y , St. P a n c ra s, H a m m e rs m ith , a n d P o p la r. G e n
erally , th e lo c a l-a u lh o rity u tilities h a d to s u p p ly th e in d u s tria l a n d p o o r e r
h o u s in g a re a s o f e a st a n d s o u th L o n d o n . T h e v estry o f St. P a n c ra s w as th e
first local a u th o rity in L o n d o n to s u p p ly elec tricity . Its o rig in a l in te n t in
1883 in o b ta in in g a p ro v isio n a l o r d e r w as to k e e p p riv a te c o m p a n ie s o u t
ol its d istric t, b u t in 1890 th e e a rly policy o f " m a ste rly in activ ity ' c o u ld no
lo n g e r b e m a in ta in e d , in view o f th e in te n tio n s o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e th a t
a s u p p ly o f e le c tric ity s h o u ld be av a ilab le to all w ho n e e d e d it." 21 S e ek in g
th e best ad v ic e, th e vestry tu r n e d to P ro fe s s o r H e n ry R o b in so n , D r. J o h n
H o p k in s o n , a n d S ir W illiam P reec c. T h e r e s u ltin g d ir e c t- c u r r e n t s ta tio n
w ith s to r a g e b a tte rie s n e a r R e g e n ts P a rk was a m o d e l o f its k in d . W a te r
fo r its c o n d e n s e rs was co o le d o n lo p o f th e c e n tra l- s ta tio n b u ild in g , a n d
th e ste a m c lo u d s risin g fr o m it b e c a m e a w e ll-k n o w n p a r t o f th e cily scap e.
T h e v e stry s se c o n d p o w e r s ta tio n , o n K in g s R o ad , also was in te re s tin g ; it
o p e r a te d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith a re fu s e d e s tr u c to r . A c c o rd in g to a v ailability,
e ith e r h o t ga se s fr o m th e b u r n in g re fu s e o r coal c o u ld b e u se d to fu el th e
sta tio n .
T h e r e w ere o th e r r e fu s e - b u r n in g , e le c tric p o w e r s ta tio n s in L o n d o n . T h e
E a lin g Local B o a rd o p e n e d a c e n tra l sta tio n in 1894 w hich su p p lie d se v e n ty
arc la m p s a n d th e e q u iv a le n t o f e ig h t th o u s a n d 8-c.p. in c a n d e sc e n t lam ps.
T h e re fu s e p la n t ra ise d s u ffic ie n t h e a t to su p p ly a n e stim a te d fifty h o r s e
p o w e r; th e r e m a in d e r c a m e fro m b u r n in g coal. N o t c o n te n t w ith th is in
g e n io u s u se o f w aste m a tte r , h o w e v e r, th e d e s ig n e r s o f th e s ta tio n u sed
c o n v e rte d se w ag e as c o n d e n s e r c o o lin g w a te r. In 1896 th e local a u th o rity
a t S h o r e d itc h c a rrie d o u t a n e v e n m o re a m b itio u s sc h e m e . H a v in g p a id a
c o n tra c to r n e a rly 2 ,0 0 0 a n n u a lly to re m o v e a sh b in re fu s e , th e s ta tio n 's
d e s ig n e r s in sta lle d tw elve ce lls. e ac h o f w hich h a d th e ca p ac ity to b u r n
8 - 1 2 to n s o f r e f u s e p e r d a y as fu e l. C o n s id e ra b le c o n tro v e rsy especially
o v e r re g u la rity , o f s u p p ly a ro s e c o n c e r n in g th e v alu e o f re fu s e as fuel,
b u t a s p o k e s m a n fo r th e S h o re d itc h s ta tio n sta te d in 1897 th a t e n o u g h h e a t
was ra ise d fro m th e re fu s e to d riv e th e 250-kw . p la n t.27
T h e s m a ll-a re a sta tio n , b o th p riv a te ly a n d lo c a l-a u th o rity -o w n e d , p r e
vailed in L o n d o n b e fo re W o rld W a r I. P a rlia m e n ta ry leg islatio n , th e sm all
scale o f th e c ity s in d u s tr ia l e n te rp ris e s , th e a b se n c e o f elec trica l m a n u fa c
tu r e rs , a n d c o n c e rn fo r th e p re s e r v a tio n o f local g o v e rn m e n t, a m o n g o th e r
fac to rs, s u s ta in e d th is style o f e le c trific a tio n . T h e r e w ere , h o w e v e r, tw o
co n sid e ra b le a tte m p ts , led by tw o o u ts ta n d in g B ritish e n g in e e rs , to sw im
a g a in st th e tid e a n d b rin g la rg e-sc ale, c e n tra liz e d s u p p ly to L o n d o n . B oth
e ff o rts fo llo w e d m o d ific a tio n s in e x istin g leg islatio n a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f p olitical a ttitu d e s th a t se e m e d to fa v o r a c h a n g e o f style. T h e first e n
d e a v o r, h e a d e d by th e e n g in e e r S e b a stia n Z. d e F e r ra n ti, was s tim u la te d
by th e a m e n d in g E lec tric L ig h tin g Act o f 1888, a n d th e se c o n d , led by
C h a rle s H . M erz, w as in te n d e d to lak e a d v a n ta g e o f th e re c o m m e n d a tio n
o f th e V isc o u n t C ro ss C o m m itte e th a t P a rlia m e n t a u th o riz e p o w e r com 85City o f M elbourne, Engineers' Notes, p. II.
J" Paisonj, Early Days o f the Power Station Industry, p. 124.
* Ibid., p. 135.

238

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

p a n ie s. It is w o rth n o tin g th a t F e r r a n tis e n d e a v o r c o in c id e d w ith th e d e
v e lo p m e n t o f a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t a n d th a t M e rzs e n d e a v o r follow ed th e
w ide a c c e p ta n c e o f th e u n iv e rsa l system .
In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e e a sin g o f th e rece ssio n o f th e m id -1 8 8 0 s a n d th e
ra p id rise o f th e c e n lr a l-s la lio n in d u s try in A m e ric a , th e E lectric L ig h tin g
A ct o f 1888 d ra m a tic a lly in c re a se d in te re s t in e lec tric p o w e r in B ritain,
esp e cia lly in L o n d o n . F ace d by a n u m b e r o f q u e stio n s c o n c e rn in g th e re g
u la tio n o f f u tu r e s u p p ly in L o n d o n a n d w ith re q u e sts fro m fifte e n priv ate
c o m p a n ie s a n d local a u th o ritie s fo r a u th o riz a tio n to su p p ly L o n d o n , th e
B o a rd o f T r a d e , w h ic h e x e rc ise d p a rlia m e n ta r y a u th o rity o v e r elec tric util
ities, r e s o r te d to a c o m m itte e h e a d e d by F. A. M a rin d in f o r g u id a n c e in
issu in g p ro v isio n a l o rd e r s . A m o n g th e q u e s tio n s th e c o m m itte e co n sid e re d
w e re w h e th e r u tilities s h o u ld be allo w e d to c o m p e te in th e sam e locala u th o riiy d istric t a n d to w h a t e x te n t a local a u th o rity c o u ld use p a rlia
m e n ta r y p o w e rs to e x c lu d e a p riv a te c o m p a n y f ro m su p p ly in g electricity
w ith in its ju ris d ic tio n . T h e o n g o in g s tru g g le b e tw e e n p r o p o n e n ts o f th e
d ir e c t- c u r r e n t a n d a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sy stem s b r o u g h t a d d itio n a l c o m
p lex ity to th e d e b a te . A m o n g th e a p p lic a n ts f o r p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s was the
L o n d o n E lectric S u p p ly C o r p o r a tio n , w hich w a n te d to b u ild a p o w e r station
o f u n p re c e d e n te d size across th e T h a m e s at D e p tfo rd . O th e r utilities w anted
to e sta b lish re la tiv ely sm all a re a su p p ly sy ste m s.28
A f te r h e a r in g th e te stim o n y o f e x p e rts a n d r e p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e locala u th o r ity a n d p riv a te in te re s ts fro m 3 A p ril to 1 M ay 1889, th e M arin d in
C o m m itte e r e c o m m e n d e d th a t local a u th o ritie s b e giv en p rio rity in ob
t a in in g p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s , b u t th a t if th e y d id n o t in te n d to a p p ly , they
sh o u ld n o t b e allo w ed to block th e g r a n tin g o f p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s to p rivate
c o m p a n ie s. T h e c o m m itte e also u r g e d th e B o a rd o f T r a d e to g r a n t p r o
visional o r d e r s to tw o s u p p lie rs w ith in th e sa m e lo c a l-a u th o rity d istric t if
o n e o f th e s u p p lie r s u se d a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t a n d th e o th e r u se d direc t.
(T h e c o m m itte e , in flu e n c e d by th e b a ttle o f th e sy stem s, b eliev e d th at
a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t h a d n o t b e e n p ro v e n a n d th a t th e r e f o r e c u sto m e rs
sh o u ld be giv en th e a lte r n a tiv e o f th e m o re relia b le , d ire c t c u r r e n t.) A p
p a re n tly th e c o m m itte e d id n o t c o n s id e r th e p ossibility th a t w ith f u rth e r
d e v e lo p m e n t a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t w o u ld b e c o m e as re lia b le as d ire c t c u rr e n t
a n d th e n w o u ld b e d is c rim in a te d ag a in st b e c a u se o f th e c o m p e titio n p r o
vision. N o r d id it p ro v id e well fo r th e a.c. sy ste m s g re a te s t s tr e n g th : largea re a s u p p ly u sin g h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n . F u r th e r m o r e , th e c o m m itte e
d id n o t a n tic ip a te th e in c re a se in th e city's p o w e r lo ad a n d th e re su ltin g
n e e d fo r la rg e p o w e r s ta tio n s to su p p ly n u m e r o u s d istric ts. T h e M a rin d in
C o m m itte e p e r p e tu a te d th e p a tte r n o f sm a ll-scale ele c tric su p p ly first d e
fin e d in th e E le ctric L ig h tin g Act o f 1882.
D esp ite th e c o m m itte e s fa ilu re to s u p p o r t a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t a n d largea re a s u p p ly , h o w e v e r, th e L o n d o n E lectric S u p p ly C o m p a n y w ent a h e a d
w ith its b o ld sc h e m e fo r a c e n tra l s ta tio n o n th e T h a m e s in D e p tfo rd , a
s o u th e a s t L o n d o n b o ro u g h . It c h o se S. Z. d e F e rr a n ti to h e a d th e p ro ject.
F e r r a n tis re p u ta tio n as an in v e n to r a n d e n g in e e r a n d his success in re
o r g a n iz in g th e G ro s v e n o r G alle ry sy stem n o tw ith s ta n d in g , it is d iffic u lt to
u n d e r s ta n d w hy h e a n d his fin a n cial b a c k e rs to o k su c h a g re a t le a p b e y o n d
v" The Electrician 23 ( I HH9):.r>r>-!itt.

239

L O N D O N : T I IE P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
th e sta te o f e x istin g te c h n o lo g y in th e ir D e p tfo rd p ro je c t. F e r ra n ti's a lte r
n a to rs , o r a.c. g e n e ra to rs , at th e G ro s v e n o r G a llery s ta tio n w e re 7 0 0 -h .p .
u n its tra n s m ittin g at 2 .5 0 0 volts; w h at h e p r o p o s e d fo r th e new c e n tra l
s ta tio n w ere 1 0 ,0 0 0 -h .p . a lte r n a to r s tra n s m ittin g at 10,000 volts. N ot u n til
th e first d e c a d e o f th e n e x t c e n tu r y d id e n g in e e rs d e sig n , a n d fin an c ia l
b a c k e rs risk , 1 0 ,0 0 0 -h .p . u n its, a n d th e se w e re th e n d riv e n by tu r b in e a
s te a m e n g in e th a t w as m o re a d a p ta b le to la rg e -sca le tra n sm issio n (b a n (lie
re c ip ro c a tin g e n g in e s e n v isa g e d by F e r r a n ti.29
In p ro p o s in g th is re m a rk a b ly la rg e in c re a se in scale, F e r ra n ti n ot only
d e f ie d tr a d itio n a l e n g in e e r in g c o n se rv a tism in th e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d use
o f new in v e n tio n s b u t h e in tr o d u c e d a system th a t b a d n o t b e e n fully p ro v e n
by w id e s p re a d use u n d e r v a rio u s co n d itio n s. T h e in s ta lla tio n s o f G a n z 8c
C o m p a n y a n d W e s lin g h o u s e in th e U n ite d S ta te s w e re th e n relativ ely sm all
in scale, in v o lv in g a lte r n a to r s r a te d in h u n d r e d s , n ot th o u s a n d s , o f kilo
w atts. T h e r e f o r e , m ista k e s in th e s e sy ste m s w o u ld n o t be so costly. F u r
th e r m o r e , G a n z a n d W e s lin g h o u s e in te n d e d to g et in v o lv ed in th e seria l
p ro d u c tio n o f m a c h in e ry , th e p ro b le m s o f w hich co u ld be so lv e d by m o d est
a n d fr e q u e n t m o d ific a tio n s, o r m o d e l c h a n g e s. F.ven th o u g h F e rr a n ti h a d
e s ta b lish e d a m a n u f a c tu r in g e n te r p r is e in 1887 a t C h a r te r h o u s e S q u a r e in
L o n d o n to m a k e d y n a m o s , tr a n s f o r m e r s , sw itches, a n d o th e r a p p a r a tu s ,
th e D e p tfo rd sta tio n co u ld n o t be ju s tifie d as a " try o u t f o r e q u ip m e n t h e
in te n d e d to im p ro v e u p o n a n d sell in q u a n tity , fo r few fin a n c ie rs a n d
e n g in e e rs in th e w o rld w ere r e a d y to scale u p so d ra m a tic a lly ." W hat
F e rr a n ti was b rin g in g in to use w as a system th a t h a d not b e e n successfully
d e v e lo p e d a n d f o r w h ic h th e r e was little fo re se e a b le o p p o r tu n ity fo r d e
v e lo p m e n t.
W hy was th e e xcessively b o ld p ro je c t e m b a rk e d u p o n ? F irst, it sh o u ld be
n o te d th a t F e r ra n ti d id e n v isa g e th e f u tu re , a t least in p a r t. H e w a n te d his
g ia n t p o w e r p la n t to b e lo c a te d o n th e T h a m e s , w h e re la n d co u ld be p u r
c h a se d c h e a p ly , coal tr a n s p o r te d c o n v e n ie n tly a n d in e x p e n siv e ly , w aste
re m o v e d e x p e d itio u sly , a n d c o o lin g w a te r u sed easily. F ro m th is site elec
tricity c o u ld b e tra n s m itte d a cro ss th e riv e r to th e heavily se ttle d d istric ts
o f L o n d o n a n d th e r e d is trib u te d by tra n s fo r m e rs . T h e r e f o r e , F e r ra n ti saw
b e y o n d th e local d ir e c t- c u r r e n t s ta tio n s th a t w e re so o n to m u s h ro o m in
L o n d o n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , d e s p ite th e a b se n c e o f a p rac tica l m o to r, he
u sed single-phase a lte rn a tin g c u r re n t. B ut th e f u tu re lay w ith m o to rs (pow er)
a n d lig h tin g , n o t ju s t w ith lig h tin g . O th e rs c o n s id e re d th e lack o f a pra ctic al
m o to r f o r th e a.c. sy stem to be a c ritical p ro b le m a n d w e re en e rg e tic a lly
tr y in g e ith e r to solve it o r to av o id u sin g a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t a lto g e th e r (see
p. 110 above).
A n o th e r e x p la n a tio n fo r F e r r a n tis p ro je c t was th e e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l sp irit
o f his fin a n cial b a ck e rs. F e r r a n tis y o u th a n d b rillian ce u n d o u b te d ly c a p
tu r e d th e ir im a g in a tio n . S ir C o u lts L in d sa y a n d L o rd W a n ta g e (R o b ert
J a m e s L in d sa y , a b r o th e r o f C o u tts L indsay) w ere th e h ea viest s u b sc rib e rs

70 A Description of the Inception and Growth of the London Electric Supply Corporation Limited and
Its Deptford Generating Station. 1889-1912 (n.p.. n.d.), a 20-page pam phlel loaned to llie author
by Mr. J. H ood o f London.
30 W. L. Randcll, S.
de Ferranti and His Influence upon Electrical Development (London:
Longmans. G reen, 1948), p. 3.

240

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

lo th e u n d e r ta k in g . T h e s e tw o w ere m e m b e rs o f th e L in d say fam ily h e a d e d
by th e ir n e p h e w th e e a rl o f C ra w fo rd . L o rd W a n ta g e , w ith s h a re s valued
a t 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 , w as th e la rg e st s h a re h o ld e r. H is re la tio n s h ip to F e r ra n ti was
s im ila r to th a t o f W all S tr e e t fin a n c ie rs lo E d iso n . W a n ta g e re p re s e n te d
th a t se g m e n t o f th e B ritish a risto c ra c y w hich h a d a h isto ry o f fin a n cin g
te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e . (E d w a rd J o h n s o n , f o r in sta n c e , a p p e a le d to it w hen
h e b r o u g h t E d is o n s sy stem to L o n d o n .) D istin g u ish e d o f b e a rin g , E tone d u c a te d , a m e m b e r o f th e Scots F u silie r G u a rd s , h u s b a n d o f th e heiress
to a p rin c e ly f o r tu n e , s o ld ie r, a n d p a tr o n o f w o rth y cau ses, W a n ta g e had
fin an c ia l d a r in g to m a tc h th e d a r in g o f F e r r a n tis e n g in e e r in g . R. H . P a r
so n s b e liev e d th a t L o rd W a n ta g e s fin a n c ial c o u r a g e was c o m p a ra b le to th e
p h ysical c o u ra g e th a t h a d e a r n e d h im th e V icto ria C ro ss in th e C rim e a n
W a r.31
A c c o u n t s h o u ld a lso be ta k e n o f th e bu llish sp irit th a t h a d re su rfa c e d
a m o n g B ritish in v e sto rs by 1887. A n u m b e r o f e n tr e p r e n e u r s w h o had
p u lle d o u t o f e lec trica l in v e stm e n ts in 1882 a n d 1883 w e re now o p tim istic
th a t P a rlia m e n t w o u ld so o n p ass a bill m o re fa v o ra b le to p riv a te v e n tu re s
th a n th e a ct o f 1882 h a d b e e n .32 T h e r e w as ta lk o f a m ig h ty B rita in s h r u g
g in g o f f h e r le th a rg y a n d c lo sin g th e g a p b e tw e e n h e rs e lf a n d th e e n te r
p risin g Y an k e e s in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e lec trica l su p p ly .33 S o o n th e new s
p a p e rs w e re c o m p a r in g th e y o u n g F e rra n ti w ith th e y o u n g E d iso n ; p e rh a p s
S ir C o u tts L in d say a n d L o rd W a n ta g e h a d b e e n s tru c k e a rlie r by th e sam e
a n alo g y .
O n 2 6 A u g u s t 1887 e n th u sia stic fin a n c ie rs r e g is te re d th e L o n d o n E lectric
S u p p ly C o m p a n y (L E SC ) w ith a n a u th o riz e d c a p ita l o f 1 m illio n .34 T h e
c o m p a n y s tw e n ly -th re e -y e a r-o ld c h ie f e n g in e e r d e s ig n e d th e D e p tfo rd sta
tio n h o u se w ith s ta rk , r e c ta n g u la r, 150-foot c h im n e y s. T h e b u ild in g was
to b e 2 1 0 feet lo n g a n d 195 feet w ide. T h ere w e re to b e tw o e n g in e ro o m s
w ith in th e s tru c tu re : o n e c o n ta in in g tw o 1 ,2 5 0 -h .p . C o rliss e n g in e s d riv in g
5 ,0 0 0 -v o lt F e rra n ti a lte r n a to r s ; th e o th e r h o u s in g f o u r m a m m o th 10,000h .p . e n g in e s, e ach d ire c tly c o u p le d to a 10,000-volt F e rra n ti a lte r n a to r . T h e
sta tio n 's u ltim a te c a p ac ity w as to b e 120,000 h .p .
L ike E d iso n b e fo re him at th e P ea rl S tre e t sta tio n , F e rra n ti sp e c ifie d o r
d e s ig n e d m o st o f th e m a jo r c o m p o n e n ts o f his system a n d p la n n e d th e
la y o u t o f his p la n t. A B ritish ele ctric al jo u r n a l d u b b e d h im a M ich elan g elo ,
a n d P unch c re a te d a d ia lo g u e b e tw e e n J o h n B ull a n d E d iso n in w hich
F e rr a n ti w as a c h a m p io n o f B rita in 's electric al p ro g re ss.
Edison
. . you still have some go.
You haven't yet m astered the big dynamo.

41 Parsons, Early Days of Ihr Power Station Industry, p. 23.

Clipping h o rn Money, 7 N ovem ber IHH8, "D eptford C lipping Book." Science Museum.
London, used with the kind permission o f Dame M. K. W eston, then keeper o f the Electrical
E ngineering Collection at (he m useum .
44 Clipping from Electrical Engineer (London). 26 O ctober 1888, "D eptford C lipping Book."
Science M useum, London.
44 Deptford, a short historical pam phlet rep rin ted Trom Notes and Records of the Royal Society
o f London 19 (1964): 2; and Money, 7 N ovem ber 1888.

241

L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC K

Figure IX .2. S. 7.. de Ferranti. the

rnodrm-day Colossus, astride the London he
intended to light. Cartoon in Electrical
Plant. May 1889.

Jo h n Dull
No. that's what I fear, my own knowledge is scanty.
And 1 cant decide between you and Ferranti;
But. if we are licked by Berlin I must try
T o stir up the slugs o f the London Supply."51
C o n s tr u c tio n o f th e D e p tfo rd s ta tio n b e g a n in 1888, a n d F e rra n ti h o p e d
to b e su p p ly in g L o n d o n fro m th e sta tio n 's tw o 1,2 5 0 -h .p . sets by 1889.
T h e s e w o u ld c a rry th e lo a d u n til th e 1 0 ,0 0 0 -h .p . u n its w e re in place. In
O c to b e r 1888 The Electrician p ro u d ly r e f e r r e d to th e D e p tf o r d s ta tio n as
a n a n sw e r to " Y a n k e e b o a sts," a n d Electrical Engineer said it w o u ld cau se
o u r A m e ric a n c o u sin s to r e c o n s id e r th e v e rd ic t o f c o n tin u e d b a c k w a rd n e ss
o f E n g la n d in th e m a tte r o f c e n tra l s ta tio n s fo r elec tric lig h tin g .30
By 1889, h o w e v e r, p ro b le m s h a d d e v e lo p e d , a m o n g th e m th e d e lib e r
a tio n s o f th e M a rin d in C o m m itte e , w hich p e rta in e d esp ecially to F e rra n ti's
n ew co m p a n y . A lm o st a d o z e n c o m p a n ie s h a d a p p lie d fo r th e rig h t to light
L o n d o n d istric ts u n d e r th e p ro v isio n s o f th e E lectric L ig h tin g Act o f 1888,
a n d L E S C s o u g h t a lio n s s h a re o f th e m e tro p o lita n a re a . As w o u ld be th e
case in 1905, w h e n a n o th e r b o ld sc h e m e fo r L o n d o n was p r o p o s e d by a
p riv a te c o m p a n y , th e local a u th o r itie s o f L o n d o n now o p p o s e d L E S C s
r e q u e s t fo r a la rg e s u p p ly a re a . T h e S tra n d a n d St. M a ry le b o n e a u th o ritie s ,

51 Punch, D O ctober 1889, quoted in G ertru d e Ziani de Ferranti and Richard Ince. The Lift
and Letters o f Sebastian Z. de Ferranti (London: Williams Sc Norgatc, 1934), p. 64.
w Clippings from The Electrician, 26 O ctober 1888, and Electrical Engineer (London). 26
O ctober 1888, D eptford Clipping Book," Science M useum, London.

242

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

th e St. M a rg a re t a n d St. J o h n (W e stm in ste r) v e stries, a n d th e St. P ancras
vestry all o b je c te d b e f o r e th e M a rin d in C o m m itte e . E ach sla te d th e in te n
tio n to e stab lish its o w n sy stem a n d c la im ed p rio rity o v e r th e p riv a te co m
p a n y .37 U n f o rtu n a te ly , fro m th e p o in t o f view o f th e D e p tfo rd p lan , the
M a rin d in C o m m itte e in M ay 1889 d e c id e d to re d u c e th e te rrito r y so u g h t
by LE SC a n d to allow c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n a.c. a n d d.c. system s w ith in th e
c o m p a n y s L o n d o n d istric ts. Even R. E. H . C ro m p to n , o f th e c o m p e tin g
M e tro p o lita n S u p p ly C o m p a n y , la te r ca lle d u n f a ir to LE SC th e M a rin d in
C o m m itte e s d istric t a p p o r tio n m e n t. I n ju s tic e to th e c o m m itte e , it sh o u ld
b e n o te d th a t te llin g critic ism s o f th e new a.c. system w e re ra ise d d u rin g
th e h e a rin g s. T h e s e in c lu d e d th e p re d ic tio n th a t a.c. tra n sm issio n lines
w o u ld in te rf e r e w ith te le g r a p h a n d te le p h o n e se rv ic e a n d th e w a rn in g th a t
th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f e n e rg y in o n e s ta tio n w o u ld in tr o d u c e th e risk o f a
sin g le a c c id e n ts d a r k e n in g m u c h o f L o n d o n . T h e d .c. sta tio n s, tra n s m ittin g
o v e r a lim ite d a re a , s p re a d th e risk o f b la c k o u t o v e r a n u m b e r o f stations.
D e p tfo r d a g re a t e x p e r im e n ta l v e n tu r e w o u ld h av e to c o m p e te w ith th e
sm all d.c. s ta tio n s th a t h a d alm o st a d e c a d e o f o p e r a tin g e x p e rie n c e .
L E S C s d ire c to rs a d ju s te d to th e M a rin d in C o m m itte e s r e p o r t by lim iting
F e rr a n ti to tw o in ste a d o f f o u r 1 0 ,0 0 0 -h .p . g e n e r a to r sets a n d by d e c id in g
to b u ild e lse w h e re a n o th e r 2 0 ,0 0 0 -h .p . s ta tio n . By th e s u m m e r o f 1889 th e
tw o 1 ,2 5 0 -h .p . ste a m e n g in e s h a d b e e n e r e c te d a n d th e a lte rn a to rs w ere
n e a r c o m p le tio n . T h e 1 0 ,0 0 0 -h .p . ste a m e n g in e s w ere b e in g b u ilt by M essrs.
H ick, H a r g r e a v e s 8c C o m p a n y , L td ., w hich h a d th e h ea v ie st stee l in g o ts in
B ritish h isto ry cast fo r fo r g in g in to e n g in e c ra n k s h a fts . A t D e p tfo rd . F e r
r a n ti u se d im m e n se m a c h in e tools to fin ish th e s ta tio n s a lte r n a to r c o m
p o n e n ts . (See Figs. IX .3 a n d IX .4.)
In S e p te m b e r 18 8 9 T h o m a s A. E d iso n v isited th e D e p tfo r d sta tio n , w hich
was gaily b e d e c k e d fo r his a rriv a l. T h e London Daily News r e p o r te r w ho
a c c o m p a n ie d h im w ro te th a t E d iso n lo o k e d e n e rv a te d by his c o ld , b u t th a t
his e x p re s s io n b rig h te n e d w h e n h e saw th e 1 .2 5 0 -h .p . u n its. E d iso n was
also sa id to h a v e liste n e d w ith in te re st to th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e 1 0 ,000-h.p.
u n its, d e s p ite his firm advo c ac y o f d .c. s ta tio n s a n d his p a rtis a n ro le in th e
b a ttle o f th e c u r r e n ts .38
W h e n a r e p o r te r a sk e d E d iso n , N ow , M r. E d iso n . . . h ow d o y ou th in k
we a r e g e ttin g a lo n g in th is c o u n try ? " h e re p lie d , Y ou m ay be slow to
b e g in b u t I m u st say th a t w h e n you d o g o a h e a d , you m ay ev e n b e at us."
E d iso n p o in te d o u t th e d a n g e r to life o f 10,000-voll tra n sm issio n , as c o m
p a re d to his o w n lo w -voltage sy stem , w hich d id n o t e n d a n g e r e v en a child.
Y et w h e n su m m in g u p his im p re ssio n s o f D e p tfo r d fo r th e r e p o r te r , h e
ex c la im e d in his w ay, O h , it will g o !3'1
B u t it d id n o t go, at least n o t as F e rra n ti h a d e n v isa g e d it w o u ld . T h e
sta tio n tr a n s m itte d n o elec tricity in 1889 a d is a p p o in tm e n t to in v esto rs,
w ho h a d b e e n led to e x p e c t tra n sm issio n in 1888. F e r r a n tis e n th u sia sm
d id n o t lag, h o w e v er. As his w ife w ro te , T h e p rin c ip a l th in g I re m e m b e r

17 The Electrician 23 (1889): 148.

61 " t f t nd0" ^ ,/V NfWi ^ ^e P,<n'*,cr 1889. quoted in Ferranti and Ince, Life o f Ferranti, pp.
lw Engineering News ( Post, 26 Septem ber 1889, "D eptford C lipping Book," Science Mu
seum. London.

243

L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S

Figure IX .3. Ferranti's sketch of the

Deptford station boiler and economizer,
dated ISS7. Courtesy o f the Ferranti Ltd.
Archives. Ilollinwood. England.

Figure IX.4. A Ferranti alternator under

construction, Deptford station, 1889.
Courtesy of the Ferranti Ltd. Archives,
Hollinuiood, England.

d u r in g th o se first m o n th s o f m a rr ie d life was D e p tf o rd , a n d ag a in D e p tfo rd .

W e ta lk e d D e p tfo rd a n d d r e a m e d D e p tf o r d .'40
W h e n , f o r e x a m p le , F e r ra n ti fo u n d th a t th e cab le h e h a d p u rc h a s e d to
tra n s m it 10,000 volts to L o n d o n w o u ld n o t d o , h e d e s ig n e d his ow n. T h e
F e rr a n ti m a in s e x c ite d m u c h c o m m e n t at th e tim e a n d a r e re c o g n iz e d
to d ay as a la n d m a rk in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p a p e r- in s u la te d cable. F e rra n ti
m a in ta in e d th e o u te r c o n d u c to r o f his cable at e a r th p o te n tia l h ig h -v o lta g e
a n d by m e a n s o f a d ra m a tic d e m o n s tr a tio n p ro v e d th e cable safe u n d e r
th e se c irc u m sta n c e s (th e re b y also relie v in g th e a n x ie ty o f pu b lic a u th o r i<n Ferranti and Ince. Life of Ferranti, p. 95.

244

NETW ORKS o f p o w e r

Figure IX. 5. Deptford central station.

From L ondon Illustrated News. 26
October I.SS9. Courtesy of the Ferranti Ltd.
Archives. Ilollinwood. England.

ties). W h ile o n e o f F e r r a n tis a ssistan ts h e ld a co ld ch isel, a n o th e r d ro v e it

th r o u g h th e live 10.000-voli cable. T h e ch isel sh o r t- c irc u ite d th e m a in , a n d
a fu se c u t th e s u p p ly . Y ea rs la te r, o n 3 M a rc h 1910, F e rra n ti w ro te w ith
ju s tifia b le p r id e to his so n . V in c e n t: " A lth o u g h th e s e m a in s w ere m a d e in
a g re a t h u r r y a n d w ith so m e w h a t fa u lty a p p lia n c e s, a n d w ith a g re a t w ant
o f k n o w le d g e , n o tw ith s ta n d in g th a t, at least h a lf th e q u a n tity o f m ains
o rig in a lly laid d o w n a re still su p p ly in g L o n d o n o n 10,000 volts to d a y , th e
re m a in in g p o r tio n o f th e se sa m e m a in s b e in g still in u se b u t w o rk in g at a
lo w e r p r e s s u r e ."11
In O c to b e r 1890 th e D c p tlo r d s ta tio n tra n s m itte d c u r r e n t to L o n d o n ,
a n d h o p e s ra n h ig h . O n 15 N o v e m b e r 1890, h o w e v e r, th e First o f a series
o f m ish a p s o c c u rre d . T h e o ld G ro s v e n o r G alle ry sta tio n , n ow c o n v e rte d
to a su b sta tio n w ith a b a n k o f tr a n s f o r m e r s to s te p d o w n th e v o ltag e , was
d e s tro y e d by fire. T h e fire b e g a n w h e n a n a rc fo r m e d as a sta tio n a tte n d a n t
re m o v e d a p lu g sw itch c a r ry in g h ig h v o lta g e. T h e a tte n d a n t e x te n d e d th e
a rc by p u llin g th e p lu g back in ste a d o f re p la c in g it, a n d th e a rc r a n u p th e
w o o d w o rk , s e llin g fire to th e ce ilin g . T h e blaze d e s tro y e d th e s u b sta tio n
in tw e n ty m in u te s a n d cost L L SC a b o u t 1 5 ,0 0 0 in u n in s u r e d a p p a ra tu s .
F e rr a n ti b la m e d th e a tte n d a n t. In a n in te rv iew h e a rg u e d th a t th e m a n
c o u ld h av e r e in s e r te d th e p lu g sw itch, p u lle d th e sw itch n e a rb y to c u t o ff
th e c u r r e n t to th e p lu g sw itch, o r p u lle d th e m a in sa fety sw itch to c u t o ff
th e su p p ly Trom D e p tf o rd . W ith h in d s ig h t, an e n g in e e r to d a y m ig h t ju d g e
th e h u m a n c o m p o n e n ts o f th e sy slem o v e rlo a d e d .
T h e c o m p a n y m a d e re p a ir s q u ic k ly a n d by D e c e m b e r h a d re s to r e d serv
ice fro m D e p tfo rd via th e G ro s v e n o r su b sta tio n , b u t o n 3 D e c e m b e r 1890
th e syslem ag a in Tailed w h en o n e r e p a ir e d tr a n s f o r m e r a t D e p tfo rd b u r n e d
o u t a n d t r a n s f e r r e d its load to th e a lre a d y fully lo a d e d r e m a in in g tr a n s
fo rm e rs . 1 h e b a n k o l tr a n s f o r m e r s b u r n e d o u t in su ccession. All D e p tfo rd 41 Ferranti Private Letters, vol. -1, letter no. 477b. 1 am indebted to C. J. Som m ers, compan)
archivist for Ferranti Ltd.. Hollinwood, England, for calling iny attention to this letter.

245
Figure IX.6. A London Electric Supply
Corp., Ltd.. leaflet, c. 1893. From
Ridding, S. Z. de Ferranti, p 17.

L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S

The London Eleclrio Supply Corporation Limited.

s u p p lie d lig h ts b la ck ed o u t. A fte r th e se c o n d d isa ste r, th e c o m p a n y d is

c o n tin u e d serv ice fo r th r e e m o n th s to c a rry o u t m a jo r m o d ific a tio n s in th e
system . R e w in d in g o f th e tw o 1,2 5 0 -h .p . u n its w ould raise th e ir o u tp u t
v o lta g e fro m 5 ,0 0 0 lo 10,000, th e re b y m a k in g it possible to feed th e o u tp u t
in to th e 10,000-voll m a in s w ith o u t u sin g a s te p - u p tra n s fo rm e r. In th e
m e a n tim e , F e rr a n ti p la n n e d to use tw o 200-kw . a lte r n a to rs b ro u g h t o v e r
fro m th e o ld G ro s v e n o r sta tio n . T h e sm all o u tp u t o ff e r e d n o p ro b le m ,
since th r e e - q u a r te r s o f th e D e p tfo rd s ta tio n s c u sto m e rs h a d b e e n lost d u r
in g th e sh u td o w n . T h e c o m p a n y w ent a h e a d w ith th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a d
d itio n a l su b sta tio n s at T r a f a lg a r S q u a re , B lac k friars, a n d D e p tfo rd , a n d by
A u g u st 1891, 3 0 ,0 0 0 la m p s w e re c o n n e c te d . W h en F e rra n ti le a r n e d th a t
th e c o m p a n y w o u ld n o t c o m p le te th e g ian t a lte rn a to rs , h o w e v er, h e r e

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

sig n e d . A fte r his d e p a r tu r e , fa ilu re o f system c o m p o n e n ts c o n tin u e d to
p la g u e th e D e p tfo rd s ta tio n . In N o v e m b e r, th e b o a rd c h a ir m a n re m a rk e d ,
" T h e w h o le th in g c a m e to a c o llap se ; th e d y n a m o s, m ain s, a n d e v e ry th in g
w ent w ro n g . . . .42 A m u c h -c h a n g e d D e p tfo rd su rv iv e d , b u t a r e v a lu a tio n
o f sto c k in 1898 r e v e a le d th a t th e L o n d o n E lectric S u p p ly C o rp o r a tio n had
lost a t least 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 .
T w o le a d in g B ritish e lec trical e n g in e e rs w ere b r o u g h t in to assess th e
situ a tio n . J o h n H o p k in s o n a n d J o h n A m b ro se F lem in g c o n c lu d e d th a t
b e c a u se o f its h ig h -v o lta g e , lo n g -d ista n c e tra n sm issio n , th e D e p tfo rd station
w as c o n stitu tio n a lly a fflic te d a n d was su rv iv in g o n ve ry th in ice." T h e
co n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s h o p e d th a t th e ice c o u ld be th ic k e n e d . T h e on ly total
so lu tio n w o u ld be to b u ild new , sm all d .c. s ta tio n s n e a r th e a re a o f c o n
s u m p tio n . In an e r a w h e n th e b a ttle o f th e c u r r e n ts w as b e in g w ag e d by
th e a d v o c a te s o f a lte r n a tin g a n d d ire c t c u r r e n t, th is was a n especially h u
m ilia tin g blow fo r th e a.c. c h a m p io n , F e r ra n ti. T h e c o n s u lta n ts m a d e m any
te c h n ic a l su g g e stio n s to salvage th e best o f w h a t th e y j u d g e d a b a d e n g i
n e e rin g situ a tio n . T h e y r e c o m m e n d e d r e d u c in g th e tra n sm issio n voltage
to 5 ,0 0 0 if th e c o m p a n y c o n tin u e d a.c. tra n sm issio n , b u t w o u ld give no
a ssu ra n c e s o f th e sy ste m s p e rf o r m a n c e .43
H is to ria n s ' a n d e n g in e e rs a ssessm e n ts o f F e rr a n ti h a v e b e e n m o re sym
p a th e tic . R. H . P a rso n s, in The Early Days o f the Power Station Industry, says
th a t a t D e p tfo rd , F e r r a n tis p re sc ie n c e w ith re g a r d to e lec trica l d e v e lo p
m e n t was little s h o rt o f m a rv e lo u s; his e n g in e e rin g c o u ra g e in a tte m p tin g
to rea lize his vision . . . n o less w o n d e rfu l." W . L. R a n d e ll, in 5. Z. de Ferranti,
dism isse s th e sy stem 's fa ilu re s by sta lin g th a t in th a t m a g n ific e n t a n d d a rin g
e n te r p r is e F e rra n ti ac h ie v e d w hat e n g in e e rs o f s ta n d in g c o n s id e re d im
p o ssible. In O x f o r d 's ftv e-v o lu m e History o f Technology th e c o lla p se o f th e
D e p tf o rd s ta tio n is ig n o re d a n d F e r r a n tis e x p e r im e n t is c h a ra c te riz e d as
th e f o r e r u n n e r o f all la rg e c e n tra l sta tio n s. Percy D u n s h e a th , in A History
o f Electrical Power E ngineering, w rite s o f th e g re a t re p u ta tio n F e r ra n ti e a rn e d
fro m his sc h e m e . O n th e o th e r h a n d . L o rd H in to n o f B a n k sid e n o te s th a t
if you feel th a t th e g re a t e n g in e e r o u g h t to b e n o t m e re ly a n in n o v ativ e
ge n iu s b u t sh o u ld also give g o o d valu e to his fin a n cial sp o n s o rs th e n F e r
ran ti c a n n o t sta n d beside m e n like G e o rg e S te p h e n so n o r T e lf o rd o r W att.44
A t least F e rra n ti is a sso c ia te d w ith th e g re a t S m ile sian e n g in e e rs .45
F e r r a n tis re fle c tio n s alm o st h a lf a c e n tu ry la te r p r o v id e a n in te re s tin g
d e fe n s e o f his p la n a n d e x e c u tio n o f it. A fte r n o tin g a n u m b e r o f m e ch a n ic al
a n d electric al p ro b le m s solved in th e c o u rse o f c o n s tr u c tio n , te stin g , a n d
ea rly o p e r a tio n , h e la m e n te d th e c o m p a n y s fa ilu re to in stall th e 10,000-

Parsons, Early Days of the Powrr Station Industry, p. 39.

" J . A. Fleming and Jo h n H opkinson, "R eport o f D ecem ber 1891"; copy in die Elecirical
E ngineering Collection, Science M useum, L ondon.
44 Parsons. Early Days o f thr Power Station Industry, p. 28; Randell, Ferranti, pp. 9-19; Percy
Dunslteall), A History of Electrical Power Engineering (Cam bridge. Mass.: M .I.T. Press, 1962).
p. 167; C. Singer. E. J. I lolm yard. A. R. Hall, and T . I. Williams, eds.. A History of Technology,
5 vols. (New York: O xford Univcrsiiy Press, 1958), 5: 199-200; Lord Ilin lon o r Banksidc.
Heavy Current Electricity in the United Kingdom: History and Development (O xford: Pergamon
Press, 1979), p. 30.
'On ihc character o f lite Smilcsian engineers, see T hom as P. H ughes, ed.. Selections from
Lives of the Engineers (Cam bridge, Mass.: M .I.T. Press, 1966), pp. 1-29.

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L O N D O N : T H E P R IM A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
h .p . u n its, w h ic h , h e sta le s, w e re b u ilt a n d n e v e r e re c te d . H e fo u n d ii h ig h ly
s ig n ific a n t th a t r e c ip ro c a tin g s te a m e n g in e s f o r th e N ew Y o rk su b w a y c o n
s tru c te d te n y ea rs la te r w e re also 10,000 h .p ., h a d tw o lo w -p re s s u re cyl
in d e rs o f th e s a m e d ia m e te r (88 in.) as his, a n d th e sa m e p isto n s p e e d
( a b o u t 7 5 0 ft./m in .). [It] se e m s a c u rio u s c o in c id e n c e ," h e w ro te , th a t te n
y e a rs la te r o n th e b e st e n g in e e r in g p ra c tic e was still c o n s id e re d to b e w h a t
w e h a d p la n n e d a n d b u ilt fo r D e p tf o r d . T h e fa ilu re o f th e D e p tfo r d s ta tio n
was, h e r e c a lle d , se ttle d b e fo re it s ta r te d . H e r e f e r r e d to th e d e c isio n
m a d e by th e M a r in d in C o m m itte e to g re a tly r e d u c e th e p r e s u m e d a re a o f
su p p ly , a n d w o rse th a n th is," h e c o n tin u e d , we h a d c o m p e titio n fro m
local s ta tio n s a r r a n g e d fo r in e v e ry p a rt o f o u r a re a ." T h e s e c o m p e tito r s
to o k a c tu a l a n d p o te n tia l c u s to m e rs as D e p tf o rd e x p e rie n c e d its b r e a k
d o w n s. W ith a m o n o p o ly , th e c o m p a n y c o u ld h a v e h e ld o n a n d m o d ific a tio n
w o u ld h a v e b e e n p o ssib le , F e rra n ti c o n c lu d e d .46
F e r r a n tis D e p tf o r d sta tio n w as b e g u n in 1888, a b o u t th e lim e T e sla a n d
th e o th e r in v e n to r s o f th e p o ly p h a s e sy stem w e re ta k in g o u t th e ir p a te n ts ;
it was a b a n d o n e d in its g r a n d d im e n s io n s in 1891, th e y e a r th a t p o ly p h a se
po w er tran sm issio n was successfully d e m o n s tra te d at F ra n k fo rt o n th e M ain.
D u rin g th e y ea rs w h e n it w as b e in g b u ilt a la rg e n u m b e r o f sin g le -p h a se
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t c e n tr a l s ta tio n s w e re c o n s tru c te d , b u t by th e m id - n in e
ties e n g in e e rs a n d s ta tio n m a n a g e r s h a d b e g u n to c o m p r e h e n d th e a d v a n
ta g e s o f th e u n iv e rs a l, p o ly p h a s e sy stem fo r s u p p ly in g lig h t, sta tio n a ry
p o w e r, a n d tra c tio n . In s h o r t, F e rr a n ti set o u t o n his bo ld v e n tu re in a tim e
o f tra n s itio n a n d p u r s u e d a c o u rs e th a t b rie fly a p p e a r e d to be th e m a in
s tre a m b u t to o k h im o u t o f th e risin g tid e o f te ch n o lo g ic al c h a n g e .
O th e r L o n d o n u tilitie s a lso e x p a n d e d g re a tly d u r in g th e p e r io d o f tr a n
sitio n a n d th e n fa ile d to c o m m it th e m se lv e s to th e u n iv e rsa l, p o ly p h a se
sy stem . T h e r e w as a f lu r ry o f c o n s tr u c tio n o f new v e n tu r e s a f te r p a ssa g e
o f th e E lectric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1888. L o n d o n se e m s to h a v e b e e n th e E u
ro p e a n city b e st lig h te d by e le ctric ity in 1891, b u t it o p te d f o r d ire c t c u r r e n t
a n d s in g le -p h a s e a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t. D u r in g th e F r a n k f o r t e x h ib itio n th e
o r g a n iz e rs c o n d u c te d a su rv e y a m o n g th e le a d in g electrica l m a n u fa c tu re rs
in a tte n d a n c e to a s c e rta in th e lo ca tio n o f m a jo r c e n tra l s ta tio n s in E u ro p e
a n d d isc o v e re d th a t L o n d o n h a d m o re in c a n d e s c e n t lig h ts lit fro m c e n tra l
s ta tio n s th a n B e rlin , P aris, o r a n y o f th e o th e r m e tro p o lise s. A c c o rd in g to
th e 1891 c o m p ila tio n , L o n d o n h a d 4 7 3 ,0 0 0 in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s r a te d at
16 c .p ., B e rlin h a d 7 5 ,0 0 0 , a n d P aris 6 7 ,6 0 0 .47 O f th e L o n d o n la m p s,
3 0 7 ,0 0 0
w ere c o n n e c te d to sin g le -p h a se a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t. E ven th o u g h
th e c o m p ile rs s tre s s e d th e in c o m p le te n e ss o f th e su rv ey , a n d e v en th o u g h
th e r e a r e o b v io u s e r r o r s in it, L o n d o n 's lea d w as sig n ifica n t. A fte r th is b u rst
o f lig h t, h o w e v e r, L o n d o n a n d E n g la n d virtu ally ig n o re d th e p o ly p h a se
system d u r in g th e 1890s, fo rm a tiv e d e c a d e o f th e new s ystem . N a tiv e s c o u ld
o n c e a g a in a t th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry la m e n t, as th ey h a d in th e e ig h tie s,
B r ita in s e le c tric lig h tin g a n d now p o w e r lag .48
By 1900 P a rlia m e n t w as b e in g to ld th a t electric al te c h n o lo g y p u s h e d to
" C lipping Trom The Engineer, 16 Ju n e 1944. p. 469.
47 Offhielte Zeitung der Inlernationalen Ausstellung Frankfurt am Main 1891, pp. 634-39. T h ere
a re a p p aren t omissions and erro rs in this list.
Byatt, British Electrical Industry, p. 69.

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NETW ORKS OF PO W ER
T able IX.I. L egislatio n R ela

to

E lectric S ervic e in th e L ondon A rea

Central Scope of Act

Central Acts
Electric Lighting Act, 1882
Electric Lighting Act, 1888
Electric Lighting (Clauses) Act, 1899
Electric Lighting Act. 1909
Electricity (Supply) Act. 1919
Electricity (Supply) Act. 1922
Electricity
Electricity
Electricity
Electricity
Electricity

(Supply) Act, 1926

(Supply) Act, 1928
(Supply) Act, 1933
(Supply) Act, 1935
Supply (Meiers) Act. 1936

London Acts
L ondon Electric Lighting A reas Act,
1904
London Electric Supply Act. 1908
L ondon Electric Supply Act, 1910

London Electricity (Nos. I and 2)

Acts. 1925
L ondon and H om e C ounties Joint
Electricity A uthority Act. 1927

C onditions o f franchises: early term s of purchase

(21 years)
Extended period o f franchises and im proved
term s o f purchase
Stan d ard clauses for special orders and private
acts
P rohibited un au tho rized com petition with statu
tory utilities
Established electricity commissioners and provided
lo r establishm ent o f jo in t electricity authorities
C o n fe rred fu rth er pow ers on electricity commis
sioners and jo in t electricity authorities
Established C entral Electricity Board and the Grid
M inor am en d m en ts to the 1919 act
M inor am en d m en ts to the 1919 and 1922 acts
CEB a uthorized to sell energy to railroads
M inor im portance

A djustm ent o f service areas o f utilities

Purchasing pow ers o f local authorities transferred
to London County Council
C onstituted L ondon C ounty Council purchasing
authority for utilities to which 1908 act did not
apply
Repealed p urchase provisions o f e arlier acts. Im
posed sliding scale
C o n ferred additional pow ers on Joint Electricity
A uthority

Source: Merz Sc McLellan. Report o Electric Sm nce in New York. London, Paris, c d Berlin
p 49.

b u rs tin g th e sea m s o f lo c a l-a u th o rily c o n fin e s. P riv a te c a p ita l s o u g h t a u

th o r ity to e stab lish p o w e r c o m p a n ie s o u ts id e L o n d o n in o r d e r to s u p p ly
elec tricity in b u lk o v e r a la rg e a r e a fro m la rg e-sc ale p o w e r p la n ts h o u sin g
th e new ly in tr o d u c e d steam tu r b in e as p rim e m o v e r. S o m e e n g in e e rs c o n
sid e r e d L o n d o n to be su ita b le g r o u n d fo r an e m b ra c in g , u n iv e rsa l system .
T h e r e w as a lso d iscu ssio n o f ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f V isc o u n t C ro sss rec
o m m e n d a tio n s fo r p a rlia m e n ta ry p o w e r bills a n d e sta b lish in g a p o w e r c o m
p a n y fo r L o n d o n . O n c e a g a in , h o w e v e r, th e p o litical p o w e r o f E n g la n d s
local a u th o ritie s w as m a n ife st. In L o n d o n , th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il a n d
th e local a u th o ritie s c o n f e r r e d a b o u t th e f u tu r e o f la rg e -a re a s u p p ly a n d
a d o p te d a re so lu tio n th a t e x p re s s e d well th e rea litie s o f t h e s itu a tio n th e re :
While reserving intact the rights o f the local authorities in regard to electric
lighting and energy, it is desirable that the London County Council should be in
a position to undertake if it so determ ine, o r if so requested by the local
authorities, to supply electrical energy for the convenience o f any districts
desirous o f being supplied, provided the Council does not become competitive
with the local authorities.'''
So lac ed w ith "ifs" a n d p ro v id e d s," th e re so lu tio n sh o u ld h a v e b e e n fair
1,1

London County Council, Report (1913-14), app. 2. p. 34.

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L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
w a rn in g f o r w o u ld -b e e n tr e p r e n e u r s w h o e n v isio n e d a c e n tra liz e d L o n d o n
system .
W h e n C h a r le s M erz su rv e y e d th e L o n d o n sce n e in 1904 f ro m th e p e r
sp ec tiv e o f N ew c astle u p o n T y n e , his se n se o f sy ste m , te c h n o lo g ic a l scale,
a n d e c o n o m ic e ffic ie n cy m u st h av e b e e n o f fe n d e d . L o n d o n m o tiv a te d him
to a tte m p t to r e o r d e r th e situ a tio n in a c c o rd a n c e w ith his a c h ie v e m e n ts in
sy ste m a tiz in g la rg e-sca le su p p ly at N ew castle. B ecau se M erz is a m o n g th e
le a d in g fig u re s in th e h isto ry o f B ritish su p p ly , a n d b e c a u se h e is e n c o u n
te r e d n o t o n ly in c o n n e c tio n w ith his b o ld L o n d o n s c h e m e b u t as a p io n e e r
in th e e sta b lis h m e n t o f th e B ritish G rid , his b a c k g ro u n d is o f in te re st.
C h a rle s H e s te rm a n M erz (1 8 7 4 -1 9 4 0 ) was b o rn in to a n in f lu e n tia l a n d
a f f lu e n t fam ily (see Fig. X I V .29, p. 44 9 ). H is m o th e r, a Q u a k e r , was a sister
o f th e N ew ca stle s h ip b u ild e r J o h n W ig h a m R ic h a rd so n , a n d his f a th e r was
a m a n o f r e m a rk a b le c u ltu r e . J o h n T h e o d o r e M erz (1 8 4 0 - 1 9 2 2 ) is k n o w n
to s c h o la rs as th e a u th o r o f A History o f European Thought in the Nineteenth
Century (4 vols., 1 8 9 6 -1 9 1 4 ). A m o n g his p e e rs h e was k n o w n as a c h em ica l
m a n u f a c tu r e r o n T y n e s id e (his c o m p a n y w as e v e n tu a lly a b s o rb e d by I m
p e ria l C h e m ic a l I n d u s tr ie s ). F inally, h e was a fo u n d e r a n d c h a ir m a n o f th e
N ew castle u p o n T y n e E lec tric S u p p ly C o m p a n y . Y o u n g M erz th e r e f o r e
h a d access to p e rs o n s o f w e alth a n d p olitical in flu e n c e . As a c o n s u ltin g
e n g in e e r p r e s id in g o v e r larg e -sc a le p ro je c ts w ith p o litical a n d fin a n cial
d im e n sio n s, h e m u s t h a v e f o u n d a sso ciatio n s o f th is k in d h e lp fu l.
C h a rle s M erz a tte n d e d B o o th a m S chool a t Y o rk A rm s tr o n g C o lleg e in
N ew castle, b u t le ft w ith o u t ta k in g a d e g r e e to p u r s u e m o re w o rld ly m a tte rs
as a n a p p r e n tic e a t P a n d o n D e n e , th e first c e n tra l s ta tio n o f his f a th e r s
N ew castle u p o n T y n e E lec tric S u p p ly C o m p a n y (N E S C O ), a n d la te r at
B ritish T h o m s o n - H o u s to n (B T H ). H e th e n jo in e d B T H a n d b e c a m e m a n
a g in g e n g in e e r o f a utility it o w n e d a t C ro y d o n . T h e s e e a rly e x p e rie n c e s
h e lp e x p la in M e rz s s u b s e q u e n t in v e n tio n o f im p ro v e m e n ts in p o w e r-p la n t
e q u ip m e n t. In 1899 M erz set u p a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rin g firm , th e n a m e
o f w h ich w as c h a n g e d to M e rz 8c M cL ellan a f te r W illiam M cL ellan j o in e d
him in 1902. F ro m th e b e g in n in g M erz a n d th e firm m a n ife ste d a bias
to w a rd a n d a p titu d e fo r th e c re a tio n o f la rg e -a re a ele c tric p o w e r sys
tem s.
P rio r to his in tr o d u c tio n o f p a rlia m e n ta ry legisla tio n in 1905, w hich was
in te n d e d to re v o lu tio n iz e ele c tric a l s u p p ly in L o n d o n , M erz g a th e r e d w ith
a c lo se-k n it g r o u p o f N o rth e a s t C o a st le a d e rs. T h is m e e tin g a n d th o se th a t
follow ed in 1905 a n d 1906 in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e L o n d o n p ro je c t p ro v id e
a n e x a m p le o f th e n a tu r e o f te c h n o lo g ic a l e n tr e p r e n e u r s h ip . M erz was a
system b u ild e r, a h e d g e h o g like T h o m a s E d iso n a n d S a m u e l In su ll; h e h a d
less in v e n tiv e g e n iu s th a n E d iso n , less m a n a g e ria l e x p e rie n c e th a n In sull,
b u t h e m a n ife s te d su ffic ie n t in stin c ts fo r in v e n tio n , ta le n t fo r m a n a g e m e n t,
a n d e x c e p tio n a l sen sitiv ity to th e w o rld o f politics a n d fin a n c e to p e rf o r m
as a s u p e r b o r ig in a to r a n d to p re s id e o v e r th e fu lfillm e n t o f b o ld te c h
no lo g ical p ro je c ts. (See p p . 4 4 9 - 6 0 below fo r his e x p e rie n c e s as a c o n s u ltin g
e n g in e e r fo r N E S C O , a n d p p . 3 5 0 -5 7 fo r his ro le in th e b u ild in g o f th e
B ritish G rid .)
O n 28 S e p te m b e r 1904 M erz m e t in N ew castle u p o n T y n e w ith m e n o f
e x p e rie n c e a n d in flu e n c e in la rg e in d u s try , ra ilro a d s, fin a n c e , law, p a rlia
m e n ta ry politics, a n d elec trica l su p p ly . T h e ir collective p e rsp e c tiv e was

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

n e e d e d fo r th e e n c o m p a s s in g p ro je c t th a t w as to be d isc u sse d . P re s e n t w ere
G. B. R ic h a rd so n , a d ir e c to r o f th e s h ip b u ild in g c o m p a n y W ig h a m R ich
a rd s o n 8c C o m p a n y , J a m e s F a lc o n e r o f t h e M e rsey R ailw ay C o m p a n y ; a n d
R o b e rt S p e n c e W a tso n , a Q u a k e r w h o m a r r ie d th e siste r o f M e rzs m o th e r
a n d w h o w as a m e m b e r o f a firm o f solicito rs, a le a d e r o f th e L ib era l p arty
in th e T y n e s id e re g io n , a n d a c h a m p io n o f e d u c a tio n a l a n d social re fo rm .
Also p a rtic ip a tin g w as M erz 's fa th e r , w h o h a d b e c o m e c h a irm a n o f th e
elec trica l su p p ly c o m p a n y N E S C O a n d o f th e c h e m ic a l c o n c e rn S ir C.
T e n n a n t 8c C o m p a n y o f C a rn o u s tie , as well as a d ir e c to r o f B ritish T h o m s o n -H o u s to n . N o t p re s e n t, b u t w ish in g to b e k e p t in f o r m e d , w e re S ir A n
d re w N o b le , c h a ir m a n o f A rm s tr o n g W h itw o rth 8c C o m p a n y , a h eavy e n
g in e e rin g c o n c e r n fa m o u s fo r a r m o r a n d g u n s ; a n d , f ro m o u ts id e th e
d istric t, S a m u e l In su ll, J o h n A n n a n o f A n n a n , K irby, D e x te r 8c Soc., a n d
A. S. N o r th c o te o f L o n d o n . At th e m e e tin g , M erz o u tlin e d th e L o n d o n
e lec tric s u p p ly p ro b le m , S p e n c e W atso n d isc u sse d th e d iffic u ltie s in o b
ta in in g p a rlia m e n ta r y p o w e rs, a n d th e g r o u p c h e e r e d itse lf o n by re fe rr in g
to th e su ccesses o f N E S C O in su p p ly in g p o w e r to in d u s try a n d th e railw ays.
T h e g r o u p d e c id e d to fo rm th e E lec tric P o w er D e v e lo p m e n t C o m p a n y in
a n e f f o r t to solve L o n d o n 's p r o b le m in a s im ila r m a n n e r .30
C h a rle s M erz, w h o h a d b e e n m u llin g o v e r th e L o n d o n p ro b le m for
se v e ra l y e a rs a n d w h o h a d e sta b lish e d a b ra n c h o f h is c o n s u ltin g e n g i
n e e r in g firm o n V icto ria S tre e t in W e s tm in s te r, L o n d o n , s p e a r h e a d e d th e
N e w c a stle -b o rn p ro je c t. H is e n th u s ia s m w as fire d by th e a n a lo g y th a t e lec
tric su p p ly in th e N e w c astle re g io n p r o v id e d fo r th e L o n d o n p ro je c t. T h e
N ew ca stle u p o n T y n e E le ctric S u p p ly C o m p a n y , w h ic h his f a th e r c h a ire d
a n d h e a d v ise d as c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r, e n te r e d a p e r io d o f d ra m a tic g ro w th
in 1900 w h e n th e c o m p a n y b e g a n to fo cu s o n p o w e r r a th e r th a n lig h tin g
(see p p . 4 4 7 - 4 8 below ). P e rs u a d in g hea v y in d u s tr ie s in th e T y n e s id e a re a
to ta k e p o w e r fro m its system r a th e r th a n g e n e r a te f ro m th e ir o w n p o w e r
p la n ts, N E S C O d ra m a tic a lly r e d u c e d its p ro d u c tio n co sts p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r
a n d , c o r r e s p o n d in g ly , th e p ric e it c h a rg e d fo r e le ctric ity . In so d o in g , th e
co m p a n y 's m a n a g e m e n t fo llo w ed th e s tra te g y o f m ass p ro d u c tio n a d o p te d
by In su ll a n d o th e r p ro g re ssiv e p o w e r c o m p a n ie s in th e U n ite d S ta le s a n d
G e rm a n y . M erz a lso p ro m o te d s te a m tu rb in e s , o n e o f w h ich h e h a d re ce n tly
in stalled at th e N e p tu n e B an k s ta tio n , as th e key to la rg e - a r e a su p p ly fro m
u n its o f u n p r e c e d e n te d size.
By N o v e m b e r 1904 M erz h a d f o rm u la te d his basic a r g u m e n t. As d ir e c to r
o f th e L o n d o n p ro je c t, h e p o in te d o u t th a t L o n d o n was a m a n u f a c tu r in g
c e n te r w ith o v e r 3 0 ,0 0 0 fa c to rie s a n d w o rk sh o p s a n d 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 e m p lo y e es.
(H e d id n o t stre ss th e a v e ra g e sm all size o f th e se p la n ts.) T h e sta rtlin g
p a r a d o x , to M erz, w as th e fact th a t th e m e tr o p o lis u se d o n ly o n e -f if th as
m u ch e le c tric p o w e r p e r c a p ita as B e rlin a n d o n e - te n th as m u c h as his ow n
N ew castle d istric t. H is m a jo r e x p la n a tio n fo r th is p a r a d o x w as th e sm alln e ss
o f scale o f th e utilities in L o n d o n , w hich m e a n t la rg e c a p ita l a n d o p e r a tin g
costs th r e e lim es m o re in b o th in sta n c e s th a n la rg e-sc ale utilities e x p e r i
e n c e d e lse w h e re . D ra w in g a g a in o n an a n a lo g y w ith th e N E S C O system ,
311N olcs o f m eeting held in Newcastle upon T yne. 28 Septem ber 1904. Merz Sc McLellan
Papers (Folio 7 0 /M 53.5/55), I yne a nd W ear County Council Archives, Newcastle upon T yne,
E ngland (h ereafter cited as Merz Sc McLellan Paoers).

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L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
fro m w hich 8 0 m iles o f s u b u r b a n ra ilro a d lo o k p o w e r. M e r/ p ro je c ic d a
system fo r L o n d o n th a t w o u ld fe e d ra ilro a d s , tra m w a y s, a n d th e u n d e r
g r o u n d . 51
In a s tra te g ic m o v e to g a in a p p ro v a l fo r th e ir p o w e r c o m p a n y . M er/. a n d
his a sso c ia tes d e c id e d to p r e s e n t a p o w e r bill to P a rlia m e n t. 'I'h e y n a m e d
th e ir c o m p a n y th e A d m in is tra tiv e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n a n d D istrict E lectric
P o w er C o m p a n y b e c a u se p o w e r bills w e re g e n e ra lly ta k e n u p in a lp h a b e tic a l
o r d e r . T h e tactics a n d s tra te g y u sed in th e e f f o r t to g a in p a ssa g e ol d u
bili d e m o n s tr a te d y o u n g M erz 's sen sitiv ity to th e p ro b le m o f c o m m u n ic a t
in g th e esse n c e o f te c h n o lo g y a n d e c o n o m ic s to th e n o n te c h n ic a lly tra in e d ,
b u t th e y also re v e a le d , in th e lo n g r u n , a n o v e rc o n fid e n c e in th e ra tio n a l
te c h n ic a l a r g u m e n t. D u r in g th e c o u rs e o f M e rz s s u s ta in e d e n d e a v o r I.lovd
G e o rg e , w h o w as th e n p re s id e n t o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e , to o k th e p a in s to
say lo th e th e n relativ e ly in e x p e rie n c e d M erz, w h e n h e , "w ith th e u sual
e n th u s ia s m o f a n E n g in e e r," s p o k e a b o u t th e te c h n ic a l m e rits o f his L o n d o n
s c h e m e , My d e a r y o u n g f r ie n d , th is is n o t a q u e s tio n o f e n g in e e rin g , it is
a q u e s tio n o f p o litic s.52
F ro m a te c h n ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic p o in t o f view, th e c a m p a ig n fo r M et v s
bill w as w ell m o u n te d . B e c a u se th e r e w as n o c e n su s o f in d u s tr ia l p ro d u c tio n
av ailab le, M erz h a d his a sso c ia te T . H . M in sh a ll, w h o h e a d e d th e c o n s u ltin g
firm s L o n d o n o ffic e , s p e n d se v e ra l w eeks at th e B ritish M u se u m g o in g
th r o u g h th r e e h u n d r e d O r d n a n c e S u rv e y m a p s o f L o n d o n in o r d e r to
lo cate th e fa c to ry sites. T h e n M in sh a ll c h e c k e d w ith th e o w n e rs to fin d o u t
w h at k in d o f p o w e r th e y u se d a n d if c h e a p ele ctricity w o u ld be a b o o n to
th e m . T h e in f o r m a tio n M in sh all g a th e r e d a b o u t L o n d o n w as th e n c o m
p a r e d w ith statistics f o r o th e r in d u s tria l cities. I n c lu d e d in th e d a ta w ere
e stim a te s o f th e e le c tric a l r e q u ir e m e n t o f L o n d o n , coal c o n s u m p tio n in
G r e a te r L o n d o n , th e a n tic ip a te d sa v in g s f ro m a d o p tio n o f elec tricity , th e
to ta l a m o u n t o f h o rs e p o w e r in sta lle d in L o n d o n , th e p e rc e n ta g e o f p o w e r
s u p p lie d by e x istin g utilities, a n d v a rio u s c o m p a ra tiv e costs o f e x istin g
p o w e r sy stem s a n d o f p o w e r u n d e r th e M erz p ro je c t (see Fig. IX .7). Bv
th e tim e th e p a rlia m e n ta ry h e a r in g o n M e rz s bill b e g a n o n 16 M a rch 1905,
M erz h a d h a d his d a ta p r in te d a n d b o u n d in a h a n d s o m e le a th e r boo k a n d
co p ies o f il h a d b e e n d is trib u te d lo c o m m itte e m e m b e rs. T h e w hole scale
a n d style o f th e p r e p a r a to r y d a ta was s o m e th in g new in th e P a rlia m e n ta ry
C o m m itte e R o o m s. M e rz re c a lle d th a t su c h ta bles b e c a m e th e fa sh io n
a fte rw a rd s b u t u p to th e n I d o n o t th in k a n y th in g h a d e v e r b e en m o re
c o m p le te ly o r c lea rly s ta te d a n d sh o w n ." 5'
A c c o rd in g lo M e rz a n d his associates, th e ir p o w e r c o m p a n y w o u ld o p
e ra te a p o w e r sta tio n w ith six tu r b o - a lte r n a to r s c a p a b le o f s u p p ly in g a
11 C harles I I. Mcrz lo T h e Electric Power Development Co.. I .id., Novem ber I'.HH. M er/
8c McLcllan Papers.
C harles II. Mcr/., "A utobiography," May 1986. p. 19; copy in Merc 8c McLellan Co.
Archives. T h e account o f the London project given here draw s u|x>n the chapter entitled
"L ondon," and the page num bers cited hereafter refer to this chapter. Jo h n Rowland's Progress
in Power: The Contribution o f Charles M en and llis Associates to Sixty fears of Electrical Development,
1899-1939 (London: Newman Ncamc, I960) closely follows Merz's autobiography; on h in don see pp. 38-50. I am indebted to Ms. Kathleen Bramlcy, form er librarian at Merz Sc
M clxllan. for calling my attention lo this privately published work.
,5 Mcrz, A utobiography," p. 12.

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Figure IX .7. Table and graph prepared by M en Id McLellan for Charles

M en's testimony before a parliamentary committee in support of a London
electric supply bill. From M en Id McLellan. A dm inistrative County of
L ondon and District Power Com pany. 1906. Courtesy o f the Tyne and
W rar County Council Archives. Newcastle upon Tyne. England.

m a x im u m lo a d o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 kw. (In su ll h a d in tr o d u c e d 5,0 0 0 -k w . u n its in

C h ic a g o in 1903, a n d th e M e tro p o lita n E lec tric S u p p ly C o m p a n y h a d in
sta lle d a 3 ,0 0 0 -k w . u n it fo r L o n d o n s u p p ly in 1904.) F ro m th is 2 0,000-kw .
s ta tio n , tra n sm issio n lin es w o u ld d e liv e r p o w e r d ire c tly fro m th e p o w e r
c o m p a n y to in d u s trie s in e ast L o n d o n a n d w o u ld su p p ly p o w e r in b u lk , o r
w h o le sa le , to e x istin g u tilitie s, e sp e cially in w est L o n d o n . A fte r c o n v e rsio n
to d ire c t c u r r e n t o r o th e r fo rm s, th is b u lk c u r r e n t w o u ld b e d is trib u te d by
th e e x istin g u tilities, th r o u g h th e ir o w n system s, m ostly fo r lig h tin g . By
leav in g m u c h o f th e lig h tin g su p p ly to th e sm all u tilities, M erz h o p e d to
w in th e ir s u p p o r t fo r his p la n . T h e new p o w e r c o m p a n y w o u ld b e e specially
g e a re d to su p p ly L o n d o n s g ro w in g tra c tio n lo ad . M erz p re d ic te d th a t by
ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f e c o n o m ie s o f scale a n d d iv e rsity o f lo ad , his c o m p a n y
co u ld sell in b u lk to th e sm a lle r L o n d o n utilities fo r a lo w e r p ric e th a n

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L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S

7b
77
76
79
30
31
32
33
34

Figure IX.8. Location of London eleclnc

light and power stations, c. 1923. From
Electrical W orld 82 (1923). 1037.

Hompateod
Islington
Pcplar
5t Moryleborve
51 Pancsaa
Shoreditch
Southwark
Stepney
County erf London

w hat it w o u ld cost th e m to g e n e r a te th a t p o w e r, e v en in new , e x p a n d e d

p lan ts.
M erz a n d M in sh all w on s u p p o r t fo r th e ir bill in th e fo rm o f a p e titio n
s ig n e d by 2 5 0 L o n d o n m a n u f a c tu r in g firm s. In a d d itio n , m o re in flu e n tia l
fig u re s in th e field o f fin a n c e a n d in d u s tr y b e c a m e s u p p o r te r s o f th e p ro je ct
a n d in v e ste d in sh a r e s in th e s y n d ic a te , a m o n g th e m , W a lle r C u n liffe , later
g o v e r n o r o f th e B a n k o f E n g la n d ; th r o u g h h im , M erz h o p e d to b rin g in
m o r e C ity -fin a n c e d in te re sts. B e ca u se M erz also h a d th e s u p p o r t o f B a rin g
B r o th e rs , h e b e liev e d th a t h e n e v e r h a d a n y criticism o f (h e fin an c ia l
stability o f th e p r o m o t i o n . I t is in te re s tin g to n o te , h o w ev e r, th e a b se n c e
o f le a d in g re p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f B rita in s elec trica l m a n u fa c tu rin g c o m p a n ie s,
in te re sts th a t w o u ld h a v e fig u r e d p r o m in e n tly in a s im ila r A m e ric a n o r
G e rm a n sch em e.
A rr a ig n e d a g a in st th e bill o n th e o p e n in g d a y o f th e h e a rin g s w ere o v e r
o n e h u n d r e d local a u th o ritie s fro m L o n d o n a n d e lse w h e re in E n g la n d as
r e p re s e n te d by th irty -fiv e c o u n se l. In th e size, d iv ersity , a n d in flu e n c e o f
M erz s o p p o s itio n lies a key to u n d e r s ta n d in g th e h isto ry o f electric al s u p p ly
in L o n d o n . M o re o v e r, th e bill b ro u g h t c o n c e rt b etw e e n p a rlie s w h o w ere
n o rm a lly o p p o s e d . T h e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il (L C C ) firm ly o p p o s e d th e
bill. T h e L C C a n d local a u th o ritie s , w hich w e re e n g a g e d in a lo n g -te rm
MIbid., p. 8.

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s tru g g le o v e r th e g o v e rn a n c e o f L o n d o n , u n ite d to o p p o s e a p riv a te c o m
p a n y th a t, it w as sa id , w o u ld b o th p r e v e n t th e L C C fro m e s ta b lish in g a
L o n d o n p o w e r c o m p a n y a n d s u b v e rt e x istin g lo c a l-a u lh o rity - a n d p riv a te ly
o w n e d u n d e rta k in g s . T h e P ro g re ssiv e p a rty , w hich d o m in a te d th e LCC,
o p p o s e d M e rz s bill as a c h a lle n g e lo th e L C C s p o te n tia l ro le in electric
s u p p ly , a n d so m e o f th e m o re ra d ic a l P ro g re ss iv e s c h a lle n g e d th e bill b e
c au se o f th e ir ad v o c ac y o f m u n ic ip a l socialism . Issu es in v o lv in g L o n d o n
o fte n in v o lv ed n a tio n a l p o litical p a rlie s , a n d in th e c ase o f elec trical su p p ly ,
th is was to b e e x p e c te d b e c a u se o f th e ro le P a rlia m e n t a n d th e B o a rd o f
T ra d e p la y e d in q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g th e re g u la tio n o f elec trica l su p p ly .
T h e C o n se rv a tiv e p a rty w as in p o w e r in P a rlia m e n t in 1905. A lth o u g h
n o rm a lly it w o u ld be e x p e c te d lo fa v o r a p riv a te e n te r p r is e sc h e m e , in this
c ase it fell th a t th e new p o w e r c o m p a n y m ig h t o v e rw h e lm e x istin g p riv ate
utilities in L o n d o n a n d also th e p olitical a u th o r ity o f local g o v e rn m e n t,
w hich C o n se rv a tiv e s c h a m p io n e d in L o n d o n . E ven p riv a te L o n d o n gas
c o m p a n ie s j o in e d th e o p p o s itio n .
D u rin g th e c o m m itte e h e a rin g s a n d in th e face o f s u c h o p p o s itio n , M erz
m o d ifie d h is bill. A g re e m e n ts w e re r e a c h e d a s s u r in g th e f u tu r e o f p riv a te
c o m p a n ie s , esp e cially in L o n d o n s W est E n d . T h e M e tro p o lita n S u p p ly
C o m p a n y , fo r e x a m p le , w as p ro m is e d a la rg e su p p ly d istric t th e r e , a n d a
s p ecial a rr a n g e m e n t w as m a d e w ith th e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n E lec tric L ig h tin g
C o m p a n y . W ith so m e p riv a te c o m p a n ie s a g re e in g to th e m o d ific a tio n s, th e
B o a rd o f T r a d e len t th e bill its s u p p o r t. T h e bill th e n p a sse d th e L o rd s
c o m m itte e , th e se c o n d re a d in g in th e H o u se o f C o m m o n s , a n d , a f te r a
p ro tr a c te d h e a rin g , th e v ole o f th e select c o m m itte e . D elay by th e select
c o m m itte e , h o w e v e r, d o o m e d th e bill b e c a u se t h e r e w as n o t lim e to have
th e th ir d re a d in g in th e H o u se oT C o m m o n s b e f o r e th e C o n se rv a tiv e g o v
e r n m e n t o f A r th u r B a lf o u r c o lla p se d . M erz view ed th e d e la y s in c o m m itte e
as a s u b tle tactic in te n d e d to d e fe a t th e bill.53
In tr o d u c e d a g a in in 1906 a lte r th e L ib e rals c a m e to p o w e r in P a rlia m e n t,
th e A d m in is tra tiv e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n bill c o m p e te d w ith a n L C C p ro p o sa l
a n d w ith a p o w e r bill p r o m o te d by th e H a c k n e y a n d S h o re d itc h b o r o u g h s ,
a u th o ritie s th a t w a n te d lo b u ild a n d in te r c o n n e c t sta tio n s. A c tin g o n th e
adv ice o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e , th e new ly c o n v e n e d p a r lia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e
re je c te d th e m all. D avid L loyd G e o rg e , c h a n c e llo r o f th e E x c h e q u e r in th e
n ew g o v e rn m e n t, was o f th e o p in io n th a t an y sc h e m e fo r u n ifie d a n d
c e n tra liz e d s u p p ly w o u ld c o n tin u e lo m e e t c o n s id e ra b le o p p o s itio n fro m
e x istin g in te re sts. W ith r e g a r d to th e M erz bill, h e b elie v ed th a t a n y sc h em e
p la c in g e le c tric ity su p p ly in th e u n f e tte r e d c o n tro l o f a p riv a te c o m p a n y
w o u ld c o n tin u e to a r o u s e su ch o p p o s itio n as to e x c lu d e it fro m th e re alm
o f p ra c tic a l politics. T h e LC C p ro p o s a l was, in his view , to o te n ta tiv e , to o
p ro te c tiv e o f th e veste d in te re s ts o f th e e x is tin g u tilitie s a n d th e r e f o r e
d e s tin e d lo fail in th e e l I o n to b rin g ab o u t th e efficien c y a n d e c o n o m y o f
a tru ly c e n tra liz e d su p p ly system . B e ca u se o f th e sc h e m e s s p e c u la tiv e n a
tu re , h e also h a d d o u b ts a b o u t a p u b lic a u th o rity 's rig h t to c a rr y o u t such
a bo ld p la n w ith ta x p a y e rs ', o r ra te p a y e r s , m o n ey . L loyd G e o rg e le a n e d
to w a rd a c o o p e ra tiv e v e n tu r e in w hich a p riv a te c o m p a n y w o u ld c a rr y o u t
th e m o re sp e c u la tiv e ste p s a n d th e LC C w o u ld h a n d le th e n o n sp e c u la tiv e
** Ibid.. pp. 17-IH.

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L O N D O N : T H E P R IM A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
d e ta ils. A fte r s u c h a p ro je c t was p r o v e n a n d p riv a te in v e sto rs h a d re a p e d
a r e tu r n , th e L C C w o u ld b e allo w ed to a c q u ire th e e n tir e .system /' In 1907
a n L C C bill a lo n g th e lin es o f th e c o m p ro m is e e n v isa g e d by Lloyd G e o rg e
a n d fo llo w in g th e re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f a select p a rlia m e n ta ry C o m m itte e
se e m e d likely to p ass th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s, g iven its la rg e L ib e ral m a
jo rity , b u t th e v ictory o f th e c o n se rv a tiv e M u n ic ip a l R e fo rm p a rty o v e r th e
P ro g ressiv e s in th e L C C e le c tio n in M a rch o f th a t y e a r led to th e a b a n
d o n m e n t o f t h e p ro p o s a l. A c c o rd in g to th e Times, th e L C C e le c tio n o f 1907
tu r n e d o n th e e le c tric ity issue. T h e M u n ic ip a l R e fo rm p a r ty th e n m o d ifie d
th e L C C bill a n d ca lle d f o r th e c o o p e ra tio n o f th e L C C a n d M cr/.'s A d
m in istra tiv e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n C o m p a n y . D e sp ite L loyd G e o rg e s s u p p o r t,
ho w e v e r, th e p a r lia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e r e p r e s e n tin g a L ib era l m a jo rity r e
je c te d th e c o m p r o m is e .57
T h e p olitics o f te c h n o lo g y a n d th e c o n tro v e rs y o v e r p riv a te v e rsu s public
o w n e rs h ip o f e le c tric a l utilitie s c o n tin u e d a f te r 1900 w ith th e rise o f th e
F ab ian Society. L e d by S id n ey a n d B e a tric e W e b b , G. B e r n a r d S h a w , a n d
o th e r p ro g re ssiv e s, th e F a b ia n s view ed m u n ic ip a l e n te r p r is e , a n d especially
m u n ic ip a l o w n e rs h ip o f p u b lic utilities, as a n e sse n tia l p a rt o f a w e ll-o r
g a n iz e d society. T h e c h a lle n g e o f m u n ic ip a l o w n e r s h ip so m e tim e s called
m u n ic ip a l soc ia lism to tra d itio n a l p riv a te e n te r p r is e a n d th e p e rsu a siv e
tra c ts o f t h e F a b ia n s h e lp e x p la in w hy, in th e w o rd s o f H . H . B allin, w hat
sh o u ld h a v e b e e n a c o m p a ris o n o f th e e c o n o m ic s o f sm a ll-sc ale a n d la rg escale s u p p ly , d e v e lo p e d in to a d is p u te o n th e m e rits o f p riv a te v ersu s publice n te rp ris e , in w h ich th e te c h n ic a l a sp e c t was o n ly o f se c o n d a ry im p o r
ta n c e .58
A f te r 1907 th e u tilities o f L o n d o n im p ro v e d th e ir tec h n ic a l p e r fo rm a n c e
b u t m a d e little p ro g r e s s to w a rd e sta b lish in g a u n ifie d , c e n tra liz e d s u p p ly
system b e fo re th e o u tb r e a k o f W o rld W a r I. T h e te c h n ic a l o p tio n s o p e n
to th e m in c lu d e d th e in te rc o n n e c tio n o f lo a d a n d su p p ly a m o n g u tilities,
th e tra n s fo rm a tio n o f o b so le te g e n e r a tin g s ta tio n s in to su b sta tio n s th r o u g h
th e c o n v e rsio n o f b u lk p o w e r, c o o p e r a tio n a m o n g u tilitie s in th e c o n s tru c
tio n a n d o p e r a tio n o f la r g e p o w e r p la n ts, a n d th e s ta n d a rd iz a tio n o f d is
tr ib u tio n a n d tra n s m is s io n c u rre n ts . M a n a g e ria l c o n se rv a tism a n d re sist
an c e to in s titu tio n a l in n o v a tio n , h o w e v e r, u su ally f r u s tr a te d th e a d o p tio n
o f th e se o p tio n s. P a r lia m e n ta ry law fo rb a d e th e in stitu tio n a l a m a lg a m a tio n
o f utilitie s; a n d e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e rs o f th e e x is tin g u tilitie s sh o w ed
little e n th u s ia s m f o r th e f o rm a tio n o f jo in t c o m m itte e s to p r e s id e o v e r
te ch n ic al in te rc o n n e c tio n p ro b a b ly b e c a u se th e y w o u ld lose th e ir in d iv id
ual a u th o rity . E ven th o u g h se v e ra l utilities c o o p e ra te d in b u ild in g a n d
o p e r a tin g p o w e r sta tio n s, th e p riv a te c o m p a n ie s o p p o s e d a L o n d o n -w id e

M em orandum by David Lloyd George, 13 Ju n e 1906, in (lie tiles ol'lhc Electricity C ouncil,
London (COAAB. 37/83-no. 56) and brought to iny attention by Dr. Leslie H annah.
37 H. H. Ballin. The Organisation o f Electricity Supply in Great Britain (London: Elect rical Press,
1946), pp. 8 1 -8 3 ; Leslie H annah, Electricity Before Nationalisation (Baltimore: The Joh n s H op
kins U niversity Press, 1979), p. 47.
Ballin, Electricity Supply in Great Britain, p. 22. On the relationship between private and
public en terp rise in France, see Pierre L in th ier, T h e Relationship betw een Slate and Private
Electric Industry, France, 1880-1920," in llecht und Entwicklung der Grossuntemehmen tm 19.
und fruhen 20. Jahrhundert, ed. N orhert H orn and Jiirg e n Kocka (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck
Sc R uprecht, 1979), pp. 590-603.

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e n d e a v o r p re s id e d o v e r by th e L C C . T h e m u n ic ip a l c o m p a n ie s a n d th e
LC C c o n tin u e d to b e w a ry o f a L o n d o n p o w e r c o m p a n y . In view o f th e
in v e stm e n t th a t h a d b e e n m a d e in in n u m e ra b le v o ltag e, fr e q u e n c y , a n d
o th e r c u r r e n i v a ria tio n s, s ta n d a r d iz a tio n se e m e d im p ro b a b le . T h r o u g h
p a rlia m e n ta r y acts, h o w e v e r, th e LC C d id a c q u ire th e rig h t to p u rc h a s e
L o n d o n c o m p a n ie s in 1931, a rig h t th a t h a d fo rm e rly b e e n h e ld by th e
local a u th o r itie s /9
In 1914 M erz & M c L e lla n a g a in m a d e a p r o p o s a l, th is tim e a t th e re q u e s t
o f th e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il. A c o m m itte e o f th e c o u n cil h a d ta k e n
te stim o n y fro m In su ll, F e rra n ti, a n d o th e r s , a n d M erz 8c M cL ellan su b
m itte d a d e ta ile d r e p o r t o n th e L o n d o n su p p ly s itu a tio n . T h e y su g g e ste d
th a t a c o m p a n y fo r m e d by th e e x istin g p riv a te L o n d o n u tility c o m p a n ie s
w o u ld b e th e m ost p r o m is in g in s titu tio n a l a r r a n g e m e n t by w h ich to co
o r d in a te a L o n d o n -w id e su p p ly n e tw o rk , p r o v id e d th e L C C w as s u p p o rtiv e .
A n LCC. c o m m itte e re je c te d th is a r r a n g e m e n t, h o w e v e r, a n d a d o p te d , in
ste a d , a p la n fo r a m ix e d u n d e r ta k in g th a t c o m b in e d lo c a l-a u lh o rity o w n
e r s h ip a n d p riv a te -c o m p a n y m a n a g e m e n t. R e fe re n c e s w e re m a d e to s im ilar
e n d e a v o rs in G e rm a n y . T h e L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n c il as a w h o le, h o w e v er,
re fu s e d to se n d a bill to P a r lia m e n t in c o r p o r a tin g th e p la n . T h e o p p o sitio n
o f th e L o n d o n local a u th o r itie s was su b sta n tia l.
T h e w a r th a t b e g a n in 1914 w o u ld g re a tly in flu e n c e th e d e v e lo p m e n t of
e le c tric s u p p ly in L o n d o n a n d e lse w h e re in B rita in . T h e r e f o r e , th e year
1914 is a n a p p r o p r ia te p o in t fro m w h ich to assess a q u a r te r - c e n tu r y ol
e le c tric su p p ly h isto ry in L o n d o n a n d in th e c o u n tr y a t la rg e . It sh o u ld be
n o te d th a t a d isc u ssio n o f th e sta le o f L o n d o n 's e le c tric su p p ly in d u s try is
to a n e x te n t a d isc u ssio n o f th e B ritish su p p ly in d u s tr y . L o n d o n s p o p u la tio n
was so la rg e a n d its e c o n o m ic a ctivities w e re so e x te n siv e th a t th e y c o n sti
tu te d a su b sta n tia l s h a r e o f th e e n tir e n a tio n s p o p u la tio n a n d e co n o m ic
e n d e a v o rs . In th e d e c a d e b e fo r e W o rld W a r 1. th e p o p u la tio n oT G re a te r
L o n d o n a m o u n te d to a b o u t 15 p e rc e n t o f th a t o f th e U n ite d K in g d o m ,
a n d th e elec tricity sold in th e G r e a te r L o n d o n a re a a m o u n te d to b e tw e e n
o n e - q u a r te r a n d o n e - th ir d o f th a t sold in th e n a tio n as a w h o le.60
D u rin g th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , th e B ritish h a d e x
p re sse d g ro w in g c o n c e r n a b o u t th e sta te o f th e c o u n try 's in d u s tr ia l d e v e l
o p m e n t. A fte r th e o p e n in g o f th e e r a o f in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g in 1882, this
c o n c e rn was e x a c e rb a te d by a n a w a re n e ss th a t th e c o u n try , esp e cia lly L o n
d o n , w as n o t d o in g w ell w ith th is new a n d e x c itin g tec h n o lo g y . A c e n tu ry
la te r, th e y w o u ld h a v e sp o k e n o f a lag in h ig h te c h n o lo g y . T e s tim o n y o f
c o n te m p o r a ry w itn esses a n d th e m e a g e r statistic s th a t a r e av aila b le d o leave
little d o u b t th a t B rita in fell b e h in d th e U n ite d S lates in e le c tric lig h tin g
d u r in g th e p e rio d b e tw e e n p a ssa g e o f th e tw o e le c tric lig h tin g acts (see pp .
6 2 -6 4 ab o v e ), b u t L o n d o n , a t least, e x p e rie n c e d a n in c re a se in lig h tin g
in sta lla tio n s a n d c e n tra l s ta tio n c o n s tr u c tio n o n c e th e a m e n d in g clauses
w ere p assed in 1888. T h e e x p la n a tio n s o f f e r e d fo r th e e a r lie r lag w ere
Vl Itallin, Electricity Supply in Great Britain, pp. 84-89.
""T hese are approxim ations based oil statistics in H an n ah. Be/are Nationalisation, pp. 42728; Hyatt, British Electrical liulusliy, p. 98; the Merz statistics presented to a parliam entary
com m ittee in 1906 (see p. 2!>2 altove); and K lingenherg, "Electricity Supply in Large Cities."
pp. 398-99.

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v a rie d , ra n g in g fro m th e c o m p u ls o r y -p u r c lia s e clau se s o f th e 1882 aci to
th e availability o f gas lig h tin g at lo w e r cost. T h e re c o v e ry was g e n e ra lly
a ttr ib u te d to th e e x te n s io n o f th e p e rio d b e fo re c o m p u lso ry p u r c h a s e c o u ld
be e ffe c te d a n d th e re s u ltin g a v a ilability o f fin a n c e esp ec ia lly fo r L o n d o n s
p riv a te u tility c o m p a n ie s. T h e a rg u m e n t b ased o n (h e c o m p a ra tiv e p ric e
o f g a slig h t a n d e le c tric lig h t se em s, th e n , to h a v e lost its v a lidity; at least
th e in v e n to rs b eliev ed it h a d .
As th is c h a p te r ha s sh o w n , L o n d o n d id n o t m a k e th e tra n s itio n fro m
ele c tric lig h tin g lo e le c tric p o w e r a f te r 1890. T h e r e f o r e , th e q u e s tio n was
n o lo n g e r th e d im n e s s o f L o n d o n s e le c tric lig h ts b u t th e fe e b le n e ss o f th e
ele c tric p o w e r s u p p lie d fro m h e r c e n tra l sta tio n s. By th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry ,
th e r e was a g a in a c h o r u s o f la m e n t o v e r L o n d o n s fa ilu re to k e e p a b re a st
o f d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e a d v a n c in g te c h n o lo g y , a tec h n o lo g y th a t was in
cre a sin g ly se e n as th e te c h n o lo g y o f th e new c e n tu ry . By 1900, statistical
i n f o r m a tio n a n d p ro fe ssio n a l ju d g m e n ts c o n firm e d th e lag. T h e In s titu tio n
o f E lectrical E n g in e e rs calle d a tte n tio n to th e b a c k w a rd s la te o f a ffa irs in
1902, a n d M e rz trie d lo m a k e th e c o n d itio n o f L o n d o n a la rm in g ly c le a r
in 1905. T h e r e w e re q u a lific a tio n s to b e m a d e su c h as th e g e n e ra tio n o f
tra c tio n lo a d in iso la te d p la n ts in L o n d o n in ste a d o f by utilitie s as in C h ic ag o
a n d B e rlin b u t th is was n o t stre sse d in th e c o m p a ra tiv e s ta te m e n ts a n d
fig u re s o n th e o u tp u t o f c e n tra l sta tio n s.
In 1913 K lin g e n b e rg p ro v id e d a c o m p a ris o n o f t h e C h ica g o , B e rlin , a n d
L o n d o n sy ste m s th a t was G e r m a n ic in d e ta il b u t B ritish in e m p h a s is o n th e
b a c k w a rd n e ss o f L o n d o n s e lec trical te c h n o lo g y . K lin g e n b e rg s a u d ie n c e o f
B ritish e n g in e e r s h a rd ly q u e s tio n e d his p r e s e n ta tio n , f o r it r e in fo r c e d w hat
m ost o f th e m h a d b e e n say in g . T h e e x c e p tio n s w ere th e m a n a g e rs a n d
e n g in e e r s o f th e sm all a n d o fte n w e ll-ru n L o n d o n sta tio n s. H a v in g a n
n o u n c e d th e m o st o b v io u s o f th e statistics c o n s u m p tio n o f c u r r e n t in
k ilo w a tt-h o u rs p e r c a p ita K lin g e n b e rg p ro c e e d e d lo th e m o r e e so te ric
fig u re s (see Fig. IX .9). C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin e ac h h a d ca p ac ity c o n c e n tra te d
in six la rg e c e n tra l s ta tio n s; L o n d o n , in six ty -fo u r sta tio n s. T h e in sta llatio n
cost p e r k ilo w att w as h ig h e r in L o n d o n th a n in th e o th e r tw o cities. In
C h ic a g o th e tra c tio n lo a d p r e d o m in a te d ; in B erlin th e p o w e r, lig h tin g , a n d
tra c tio n lo a d s w e re m o r e n e a rly e q u a l; a n d in L o n d o n , as th e a u d ie n c e
k new , th e c e n tra l sta tio n s su p p ly w as u sed m ostly fo r lig h tin g . As se en in
Fig. IX . 10, L o n d o n h a d th e p o o re st lo ad fa c to r, as S a m u el In su ll h a d o fte n
stre sse d . D e sp ite th e h ig h e r cost o f coal in B e rlin , th e to tal o p e r a tin g costs
p e r k ilo w a tt-h o u r so ld w e re lo w er in B e rlin th a n in L o n d o n , a n d th e ra tio
o f p r o f it lo re al v alu e was h ig h e s t in B erlin a n d low est in L o n d o n .01 T h e
B ritish h a d re a s o n to be c o n c e rn e d .
T h e te stim o n y o f c o n te m p o ra rie s lea d s to th e q u e stio n , W hy w ere L o n
d o n s u tilities j u d g e d b a c k w a rd by su ch p ro g re ssiv e e n g in e e rs as K lin g e n
b e rg , M erz, a n d th e m e m b e rs o f th e I EE? T o th e m , a p r o g re ssiv e u rb a n
u tility was, as d e fin e d by In su ll, a m a s s -p ro d u c in g m o n o p o ly th a t su p p lie d
by m e a n s o f a u n iv e rsa l system a d iv e rse load o v e r a w ide a re a at b ro a d ly
b ased low ra le s a n d o b ta in e d a fa ir r e tu r n re s u ltin g fro m e ffic ie n t p r o
d u c tio n a n d m a x im u m u tiliz atio n o f c ap ital b o rro w e d at re a so n a b le in te re st.

01 KlifiRcnbcrK, "F.lccliicily Supply in l-argc C ili ," p. 399.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER

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L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S

Figure IX .10. Utilities o f the Western

world: Relation o f income to output and
load factor. From Insull, Cenlral-Siaiion
Electric Service, p. 461.

L o n d o n s six ty -fo u r utilitie s d id n o t fill th e bill o f p a rtic u la rs . T h e reaso n s

w ere d iv e rs e a n d c o m p le x .
A p a rtia l e x p la n a tio n is su g g e s te d by a c o m p a ris o n o f th e c o n te x t in
w hich th e th r e e cities' u tilities d e v e lo p e d . In su ll b o a ste d o f his la rg e in
d u s tria l p o w e r c o n s u m e r s , a n d in B e rlin , B E W s u p p lie d th e h eavy in d u s
trie s th a t w e re f lo u r is h in g in th e o ld city a n d in th e n e w e r s u b u rb s . T h e r e
was ev e n a sp ec ia l c a te g o ry in B e r lin s lo ad statistics fo r th e la rg e in d u stria l
p o w e r u se rs. L o n d o n s in d u s tria l base was relativ ely sm all-scale. M o re s p e
cifically, th e utilitie s in B e rlin a n d C h ic a g o c o o p e ra te d w ith la rg e elec tric al
m a n u f a c tu r e r s th a t h a d th e r e s e a rc h - a n d - d e v e lo p m e n i s tr e n g th to d e v e lo p
c a p ita l-in te n siv e m a c h in e ry th a t w o u ld n o t o n ly raise c o n s u m e r d e m a n d
bu* im p ro v e th e lo a d fa c to r. T h e L o n d o n u tilitie s h a d to w o rk w ith re latively
sm all B ritish ele c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r e r s o r im p o rt e q u ip m e n t fro m th e la rg e
m a n u f a c tu r e r s in G e rm a n y a n d th e U n ite d S tates. F u r th e r m o r e , th e B erlin
u tility was o w n e d a n d m a n a g e d by a la rg e m a n u f a c tu r e r a n d th e r e f o r e
re p r e s e n te d a sy m b io tic, ve rtica l c o o r d in a tio n o f su p p ly a n d d e m a n d . All
th r e e cities w e re e le c trify in g th e ir tra n sit system s, b u t w hile C o m m o n w e a lth
E d iso n a n d B E W in te g ra te d tra c tio n in to th e ir d iv e rsifie d a n d u n iv e rsal
elec tric p o w e r system s, L o n d o n s tra c tio n load re m a in e d sm all, on ly 12
p e r c e n t o f th e u tilitie s to ta l load.
A lth o u g h c o n te m p o r a rie s o fte n lo o k ed to th e c o n d itio n o f te c h n o lo g ica l
a n d scie n tific e d u c a tio n a n d th e h e a lth o f scien ce in g e n e ra l fo r a n e x p la
n a tio n o f th e sla te o f te c h n o lo g y , th e s itu a tio n s in B erlin , C h ica g o , a n d
L o n d o n w ere so m u c h a like th a t this ra tio n a le is o f little h e lp in e x p la in in g
th e d iffe re n c e s in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e th r e e utility system s. M a jo r te c h
nical a n d scie n tific in stitu tio n s w e re lo c ated in B e rlin a n d L o n d o n , a n d

200

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

C h ic a g o s e le ctric al m a n u f a c tu r e r s c o u ld e m p lo y e n g in e e rs a n d scientists
w ho h ad bee n tra in e d in lea d in g e n g in e e rin g colleges th ro u g h o u t th e U nited
S tales.
A n o th e r c o n te m p o r a r y e x p la n a tio n m ig h t be c alled th e A m e ric a n view .
T h e e d ito r o f a le a d in g A m e ric a n tr a d e jo u r n a l, Electrical World, o p in e d as
late as 1923. a f te r a visit to L o n d o n , th a t e le ctric ity w as alm o st, b u t n ot
q u ite , as u n k n o w n in G re a t B rita in a n d e sp ec ially L o n d o n as th e C h ris
tia n s G o d w as in a n c ie n t A th e n s. R e fe rr in g to a n a lta r St. P aul h a d fo u n d
th e r e o n M a rs H ill a n d its in s c rip tio n , to th e U n k n o w n G o d ," th e e d ito r
w ro te th a t, sim ilarly , th e B ritish sh o w e d sig n s o f o n ly d im ly c o m p r e h e n d in g
th e g o d elec tricity . T h e r e w as so m e h o p e , h e a d d e d , th a t th e stre e ts o f
L o n d o n w o u ld n o t alw ays be lit by gas la m p s. T o d r iv e h o m e his p o in t, h e
f u r th e r o b s e rv e d th a t th e e s tim a te d o u tp u t o f ele c tric ity f ro m g e n e ra tin g
s ta tio n s in th e U n ite d K in g d o m w as a p p r o x im a te ly 5 b illion kw h., o r less
th a n th e to ta l g e n e r a te d in th e m e tro p o lita n d istric t o f N ew Y o rk . (T h e
U n ite d K in g d o m , h e h a s te n e d to a d d , h a d 4 5 m illio n p e o p le ; N ew Y ork
C ity. 7 m illio n .) T h e A m e ric a n b la m e d g o v e r n m e n t o w n e rs h ip fo r as we
h a v e re a s o n to kn o w in th e U n ite d S la te s, h e said , th a t is a se v e re h a n d
ic a p .62 T h e A m e ric a n e d ito r s d ia g n o sis o f B rita in 's "sick n e ss" as a case o f
re p re ssiv e g o v e r n m e n t o w n e rs h ip w as b iase d by his o w n id eo lo g y . P e rh a p s
h e , a n d A m e ric a n s g e n e ra lly , w e re n o t a w a re o f c o m p a ris o n s o f th e p e r
fo rm a n c e o f lo c a l-a u lh o rity a n d p riv a te ly o w n e d u tilitie s in L o n d o n a n d
B r ita in ; su c h c o m p a ris o n s sh o w e d th a t o n e w as n o t c lea rly s u p e r io r to th e
o th e r w h e n m e a s u re d by c rite ria in c lu d in g costs a n d r e tu r n o n in v e st
m e n t.63
T h e p o litica l, o r legislative, e x p la n a tio n fo r th e o v e ra ll b a c k w a rd n e ss o f
L o n d o n s u tilitie s is p e rsu a siv e . T h e tw o g re a t te c h n o lo g ic a l fa ilu re s in
L o n d o n D e p tfo rd a n d th e M erz p o w e r sc h e m e f o u n d e r e d o n th e rocks
o f leg islativ e o b s tru c tio n . F e rr a n ti to o k to o g ia n t a s te p a n d c o m m itte d
h im se lf to a k in d o f c u r r e n t w hich h a d little p o te n tia l f o r d e v e lo p m e n t,
b u t his te stim o n y th a t th e E le ctric L ig h tin g Act o f 1888 a n d th e M a rin d in
C o m m itte e s in te r p r e ta tio n o f it im p o se d c r ip p lin g h a n d ic a p s m u st b e ta k e n
se rio u sly in view o f s u p p o rtiv e e v id e n c e . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t M e rz s
p la n w as f r u s tr a te d by le g isla tio n . W ith o u t leg islativ e s u p p o r t, h e sim ply
co u ld n o t g o a h e a d . At th e s a m e tim e , th e C h ic a g o a n d B e rlin utilities w ere
a c q u irin g fra n c h ise s th a t w e re c o e x te n siv e w ith te c h n o lo g ic a l lim its.
T h e q u e s tio n re m a in s , h o w e v e r. W h a t fr u s tr a tin g fo rc e s w ere b e h in d
th e leg isla tio n ? W h a t in te re sts, valu es, a n d tra d itio n s d id th e le g islation
m a n ife st o r b e lte r, n o t re p r e s e n t? T h e q u e s tio n c a n b est b e a p p ro a c h e d
in d ire c tly by re f e r e n c e to B erlin (see Fig. IX . 10). C h ic a g o d o e s n o t p ro v id e
as in stru c tiv e a c o m p a r is o n , b e c a u se C h ic a g o s p o litic ia n s w ere pliable.
T e c h n o lo g y a n d e co n o m ic s d o m in a te d politics in C h ic a g o , w h e re political
p o w e r was a c o m p o n e n t in a n e m b ra c in g te c h n o lo g ic a l-e c o n o m ic system .
The C h ic a g o system was A m e ric a n a n d " g o -a h e a d ." It was c o u p le d to th e
f u tu r e , n o t ro o te d in th e pa st. In B e rlin , o n th e o th e r h a n d , p o litical a n d
te c h n o lo g ic a l p o w e r w e re n o t as th o r o u g h ly in te g ra te d as th e y w e re in
m W. II. O nkcn. J r.. "Electrical D evelopment in E ngland." Electrical World 82 (1923): 1055.
H annah, Electricity Before Nationalisation, pp. 5 0 - 5 1; Hallin, Electricity Supply in Great Brit
ain. p. 27.

261

L O N D O N : T H E P R I M A C Y O F P O L IT IC S
C h ica g o , a n d th e y c o u ld a n d o fie n d id c o n flict. U n lik e th e situ a tio n in
L o n d o n , h o w e v e r, th e c o n f ro n ta tio n s c u lm in a te d in n e g o tia te d c o o r d in a
tio n a n d c o o p e ra tio n r a th e r th a n in s ta le m a te . In B e rlin , th e r e w e re in
d iv id u a ls w h o b u ilt b rid g e s b e tw e e n th e w o rld o f tec h n o lo g y a n d th a t o f
politics. T h e p re s e n c e o f b a n k e rs a n d in d u stria lists o n th e a d v iso ry b o a rd
o f B E W was a m a n ife s ta tio n o f t h e c o h e re n c e a n d c o o rd in a tio n o f fin a n c e ,
in d u s try , a n d u tility in B e rlin . S u ch a p ro g re ssiv e c o m b in a tio n o f c o o r d i
n a te d fo rc es w as n e e d e d lo o v e rc o m e veste d a n d h isto ric a l in te re s ts in
L o n d o n , b u t s u c h a c o m b in a tio n d id n o t exist. In s te a d , th e p r o p o n e n ts o f
local g o v e rn m e n t a u th o rity , o f m u n ic ip a l socialism , a n d o f p riv a te e n t e r
p rise c o n f r o n te d o n e a n o th e r in a p lu ra listic d e b a te th a t fro m th e p o in t o f
view o f th e fo rc e s fo r te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e p ro d u c e d a s ta le m a te . W h e n
th e 1EE d e le g a tio n p re s e n te d its re s o lu tio n to G e ra ld B a lfo u r, p r e s id e n t
o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e , in 1902, h e a c k n o w le d g e d th a t B rita in s su p p ly
in d u s try la g g e d b e h in d th a t o f th e U n ite d S la te s a n d G e rm a n y , b u t h e
e x p re s s e d d o u b t th a t th is w as a lto g e th e r d u e to leg islative r e g u la tio n . H e
insisted th a t th e r e w ere in B rita in a la rg e n u m b e r o f s tro n g ly e s ta b lish e d
in te re s ts w hich p r o d u c e d a ve ry stro n g ly d e v e lo p e d in stin c t o f c o n s e rv a
tism .64 H e re c o g n iz e d th e p rim a c y o f politics in th is in sta n c e , th e p o w e r
o f c o n se rv a tiv e p o litical in te re sts.

* IEF. Journal 3 1 (1901-2): 1326.

CHAPTER

California
White Coal

h e c o n flu e n c e o f s te a m -tu rb in e te c h n o lo g y a n d th e u n iv e rsa l su p p ly

sy stem p u s h e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f u r b a n p o w e r sy ste m s fu e le d by
coal, a n d in th e sy m b io tic in te r a c tio n .o f w a te r -tu r b in e te c h n o lo g y a n d th e
u n iv e rsa l sy ste m lies a m a jo r e x p la n a tio n fo r th e ra p id u tiliz a tio n o f w hite
coal. B e c a u se th e efficien c y o f a tu r b in e in c re a se s w ith c ap a city , th e ste am tu r b in e p o w e r p la n ts w ere lo c a te d in o r n e a r cities w h e re d e m a n d was
hea v y ; fo r th e s a m e re a s o n , w a le r - lu r b in e p o w e r p la n ts s itu a te d a t th e
w a te r-p o w e r sites h a d to re a c h a cro ss m a n y m iles w ith tra n sm issio n lines
in o r d e r to s u p p ly a la rg e lo ad . L o n g -d is ta n c e tra n sm issio n a n d th e u n i
versal sy ste m p ro v id e d th e m a r k e t n e e d e d f o r la rg e , e ffic ie n t h y d ro e le c tric
p la n ts. T h is c h a p te r d e a ls w ith th e in te g r a tio n o f th e se p la n ts , lo n g -d ista n c e
p o in t-to -p o in t tra n sm issio n , a n d u r b a n d is tr ib u tio n sy stem s in C a lifo rn ia .
P o in t-to -p o in t tra n s m is s io n , as d is tin g u is h e d f ro m tra n sm issio n n e t
w orks. o r g rid s, is d e fin e d as th e lo n g , o v e rla n d tra n sm issio n o f h ig h vo ltag e
u n in te r r u p te d by la r g e -c a p a c ity d is trib u tio n a n d s w itc h in g s ta tio n s a lo n g
th e w ay. T r a n s m is s io n n e tw o rk s, o r g rid s , also u se h ig h vo ltag e, b u t th ey
c o n sist o f a n u m b e r o f relativ ely s h o r t tra n sm issio n se c tio n s tie d to g e th e r
at m a jo r n e x u s, o r lo a d c e n te rs , fro m w hich d is trib u tio n lin es s p r e a d . As
will be se e n , p o in t-to -p o in t tra n sm issio n is a p p r o p r ia te w h e re a g re a t d is
ta n c e s e p a r a te s th e p o w e r s o u rc e s (w a te r o r coal) a n d th e u r b a n a n d in
d u s tria l lo ad . At th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry , m o r e d e n se ly p o p u la te d re g io n s,
su ch as th e u r b a n c e n te r s o f G e rm a n y , te n d e d to w a rd th e u se o f tr a n s
m ission n e tw o rk s. In C a lifo rn ia , p o in t-to -p o in t tra n sm issio n r e a c h e d its
g re a te s t h e ig h ts o r d ista n c e s.
T h e e a rly h isto ry o f tra n s m is s io n in volves m a n y so -c alled firsts th r o u g h
o u t th e w o rld . T h e r e w ere m a jo r tra n sm issio n d e m o n s tra tio n s in Italy a n d
F ra n c e , as well as in G e rm a n y a n d th e U n ite d S la te s. B e fo re th e 1880s,
these d e m o n stra tio n s involved d irec t c u r re n t. C a n a d a , J a p a n , M exico, C hile,
In d ia , B razil, Italy, T a s m a n ia , S o u th A fric a . S p a in , S w e d e n , F ra n c e , Sw itz
e rla n d , th e U n ite d S ta le s, a n d G e rm a n y all h a d tra n sm issio n sy stem s o f
7 0 ,0 0 0
volts o r m o re b e f o re W o rld W a r I. O f th e fifty-five sy stem s th e n
u sin g 7 0 ,0 0 0 o r m o re volts, fo rty -n in e tra n s m itte d fro m la rg e h y d ro e le c tric
p o w e r p la n ts; th e re m a in in g six tra n s m itte d fro m c o a l-fire d p la n ts, se v era l
fro m m in e -m n u ih p la n ts. T h e tra n sm issio n d ista n c e was o v e r a h u n d r e d

203

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E CO A L
m iles in h a lf o f th e in s ta lla tio n s .1 M o re o f th e se h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n
sy stem s w e re in th e re g io n o f C a lifo rn ia (e ig h t) th a n in a n y o th e r re g io n
o f th e w o rld , a n d all e ig h t C a lifo rn ia sy ste m s tra n s m itte d h y d r a u lic p o w e r.
T h e h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d sta te o f w a te r- tu rb in e tec h n o lo g y at th e lim e h ig h v o lta g e tra n sm issio n b e c a m e fe asib le g re a tly fa cilitated th e use o f h y d ro elec tricity . W a te r tu rb in e s h a d b e e n a r o u n d fo r a lo n g tim e. E ssential t u r
b in e p rin c ip le s w e re in c o r p o r a te d in th e h o riz o n ta l w a te r w h ee ls sh o w n in
d ra w in g s by s ix te e n th - c e n tu ry E u r o p e a n e n g in e e rs . T h e h isto ry o f th e
tu r b in e p rin c ip le in o th e r p a rts o f th e w o rld m ay b e e v e n o ld e r .2 T u rb in e s ,
w hich a r e g e n e ra lly classified as w a te r w h eels, d if f e r fro m tra d itio n a l w a te r
w h eels in th a t th e y d e p e n d fo r p o w e r m o re o n th e m o m e n tu m o f th e w a te r
as it e n te r s th e tu r b in e h o u s in g th a n o n th e fall d u e to g r a v ity o f th e m ass
o f w a te r at th e site o f th e w h e el. In effe c t, th e b la d e s o f th e tu r b in e w heel
m u st be fo rc e d a sid e (ro ta te d ) in o r d e r fo r th e h ig h -m o m e n tu m w a te r to
ex it, o r e sc a p e , fr o m th e tu r b in e h o u sin g . T h e im p o rta n c e o f th e d if fe re n c e
fo r th e e n g in e e r s d e s ig n in g , a n d th e c a p ita lists fin a n c in g , h y d ro e le c tric
p ro je c ts is th a t tu r b in e w h e els o f m u c h s m a lle r size c a n b e u se d to o b ta in
th e s a m e p o w e r as a m u c h la r g e r w a te r w h e el o f th e tr a d itio n a l k in d .
B ec au se b u ild in g s, p e n sto c k s, flu m e s, d a m s, a n d o th e r civil e n g in e e r in g
w o rk s m a k e u p th e la rg e st s h a r e o f th e co st o f a h y d ro e le c tric in s ta lla tio n ,
r e d u c tio n in size f ro m th e tra d itio n a l w a te r-w h e e l ty p e is o f g re a t im p o r
ta n c e . F u r th e r m o r e , tu r b in e e ffic ie n c y h a d b e e n n o ta b ly im p ro v e d by 1890
th r o u g h e x p e r im e n t a n d a n aly sis th a t d re w o n sc ie n tific k n o w le d g e .
T u r b in e s , esp e cially th o s e o f th e F ra n c is ty p e , w hich h a d b e e n d e v e lo p e d
in th e U n ite d S ta te s b u t w e re b a se d o n E u r o p e a n e x p e rie n c e a n d h y d ra u lic
science, w e re w ell-su ite d b o th fo r th e h ig h -h e a d sites o f C a lifo rn ia a n d th e
lo w e r-h e a d sites o f th e e a s te r n s e a b o a rd o f th e U n ite d S ta te s. T h e C a lifo rn ia
e n g in e e r s also u tiliz e d a n im p u lse , o r ta n g e n tia l, w a te r w h e el d e v e lo p e d
by L e ste r P e lto n a n d o th e r s in C a lifo rn ia a n d in o th e r m o u n ta in o u s re g io n s
o f th e W e st.3 T h e im p u ls e w h e el was d riv e n by a n e x tre m e ly h ig h velocity
je t o f w a te r p la y in g o n b u c k e ts a t th e p e r ip h e r y o f a h ig h -s tre n g th iro n o r
steel w h ee l. T h e s e w a te r w h e els d e p e n d e d n o t o n th e m ass o f w a te r fallin g
th e d ista n c e o f th e d ia m e te r o f th e w heel, b u t o n th e velocity a n d m ass o f
th e im p a c tin g je t o f w a te r. T h e r e f o r e , th e se w heels, like tu r b in e w heels,
w ere m u c h s m a lle r in d ia m e te r th a n th e c o n v e n tio n a l w a te r w heel.^

1 U.S., D epartm ent o f Com m erce, Bureau o f the Census, Central Electric Light and Power
Stations and Street and Electric Railways, with Summary o f the Electrical Industries, 1912 (W ashington,
D.C.: CPO , 1915). foldout facing p. 132.
* F. M. Fcldhnus, Die Technik Der Vorzeit, Der Geschichtlichen Zeit und Der Naturvolkrr (Leipzig
and Berlin: E ngclm ann, 1914), p. 1304.
5 Charles M. C olem an, P.O. and E. o f California: The Centennial Story o f Pacific Cat and Electric
Company, 1852-1932 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952), pp. 112-15.
5O n the history o f the turbine, sec Louis C. H u n ter, Waterpower: A History of Industrial
Power in the United States, 1780-1930 (Charlottesville: University Press o f Virginia, 1979), pp.
292-342; Edwin T . Layton, J r., "Scientific Technology. 1845-1900: T he Hydraulic T urbine
and O rigins o f A merican Industrial Research," Technology and Culture 20 ( 1979):64-89; HansJoachim Braun, "T cchnischc N eucru n g cn um die M ine dcs 19. Ja h rh u n d e rts: Das Bcispiel
de r W asserturbincn," Technikgeschichte 46 (1979): 285-305; and T erry Reynolds, Stronger Than
a Hundred Men: A History o f the Vertical Water Wheel (Baltimore: T h e Joh n s I lopkins University
Press, 198.1).

204

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f electric p o w e r transm ission in a u g u ra te d a new phase
in th e h isto ry o f h y d r a u lic p o w e r. W a te r-p o w e r sites w ere e x p lo ite d only
by local c ra fts, m in in g , a n d in d u s try so lo n g as p o w e r tra n sm issio n was
lim ited to m e c h a n ic a l m e a n s, p rim a rily b ells a n d g e a rs. As a re su lt, w a te r
p o w e r r e s o u rc e s in m o u n ta in o u s a re a s th ro u g h o u t th e w orld w ere only
p a rtia lly d e v e lo p e d . A fte r th e in tro d u c tio n o f d ir e c t- c u r r e n t g e n e ra to rs
a n d m o to rs d u r in g th e 1870s, h o w e v e r, e n g in e e rs a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s saw
th e p o ssibilities o f lo n g -d is ta n c e e le c tric p o w e r tra n sm issio n . A m o n g those
w h o led in p o w e r-lra n s m is s io n e x p e r im e n ts a n d d e m o n s tra tio n s was M arcel
D e p re z , th e F re n c h e n g in e e r w h o trie d d ir e c t- c u r r e n t h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s
m issio n in m a n y d e m o n s tra tio n s . O s k a r v on M iller, as n o te d e a rlie r, invited
D e p re z to in stall a p o w e r-tra n s m is s io n d e m o n s tr a tio n o n th e occa sio n ol
th e M u n ic h e le ctrica l e x h ib itio n in 1882 (see p. 131 ab o v e). T w o y e a rs later,
at th e T u r i n e x h ib itio n , G a u la rd a n d G ib b s d e m o n s tr a te d tra n sm issio n ol
elec tricity o v e r lo n g d ista n c e s fo r use in lig h tin g (see p. 94 ab o v e). In 1891
von M iller, w h o se in te re s t in p o w e r tra n sm issio n w as g re a tly stim u la te d by
th e h u g e w a te r-p o w e r p o te n tia l o f th e B a v a ria n A lp s n o t fa r fro m his native
M u n ic h , a lso h e lp e d o rg a n iz e th e w o rld s first su b sta n tia l d e m o n s tr a tio n
o f p o ly p h a s e -c u rre n t tra n sm issio n o v e r a lo n g d is ta n c e (see p. 131 above).
A b o u t a d e c a d e la te r von M iller b e g a n th e in v e stig a tio n s a n d p la n n in g that
w o u ld c u lm in a te in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a la rg e A lp in e h y d ro e le c tric station
at W a lc h e n se e , in th e B a v a ria n A lps, fr o m w hich p o w e r was tra n s m itte d
in a g rid t h r o u g h o u t B av a ria (see p p . 3 3 7 - 5 0 below ).
E arly d e m o n s tr a tio n s o f p o w e r tra n s m is s io n w e re m a d e in G erm a n y ,
B rita in , a n d th e U n ite d S tale s, b u t th e h isto ry o f h ig h -v o lta g e lo n g -d ista n ce
p o w e r tra n sm issio n fro m w a te r-p o w e r sites d o e s n o t le n d itse lf to c o m
p a ris o n , f o r d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e th r e e c o u n trie s w e re n o t c o m p a ra b le .
N e ith e r B rita in n o r G e rm a n y h a d a m a jo r ( ra n k e d o n a w o rld scale) pointto -p o in t h y d r a u lic p o w e r tra n sm issio n sy ste m by 1914.s T h e m a jo r reaso n
fo r th e less im p re ssiv e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e te c h n o lo g y in G e r m a n y was the
d e n sity o f th a t c o u n tr y s s e ttle m e n t a n d in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e m ajor
ca u se s in B rita in w e re d e n sity o f s e ttle m e n t a n d th e lack oT m a jo r m o u n ta in
ra n g e s. G e rm a n y h a d m a jo r w a te r-p o w e r sites in th e A lp s s p re a d along
h e r s o u th e r n a n d s o u th e a s te rn b o rd e r s , b u t lo ad c e n te rs w e re w ith in tens
o f m iles r a th e r th a n h u n d r e d s . B rita in h a d m u c h less p o te n tia l w a te r p ow er,
a n d h e r in d u s tria l a re a s w ere w ith in a relativ ely few m iles o f h e r h ig h hills
a n d low m o u n ta in s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e H ig h la n d s o f S c o tla n d . B oth
c o u n trie s h a d h y d ro e le c tric s ta tio n s b e fo re W o rld W a r I G e rm a n y 's w ere
la rg e -ca p ac ity in s ta lla tio n s b ut th e c o m b in a tio n o f la rg e c a p ac ity a n d
tra n sm issio n d ista n c e s o f a h u n d r e d m iles o r m o re was a C a lifo rn ia p h e
nom enon.
B e cause o f its d ra m a tic b e a u ty a n d th e im m e n se a m o u n t o r w a te r p ow er
it h a rn e s s e d , so m e h isto ria n s h av e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e e le c tric p o w e r p ro jec t
at N ia g a ra fa lls, n o t th e C a lifo rn ia system s, was th e tu r n in g p o in t in the
h isto ry o f lo n g -d ista n c e p o w e r tr a n sm issio n in th e U n ite d S tates. T h e e n
g in e e rs a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s w ho p re s id e d o v e r its c o n s tru c tio n e x p e c te d
B u ffa lo , N ew Y o rk , a heavily in d u s tria liz e d city a lm o st tw en ty m iles fro m
th e p o w e r s ite at th e falls, to be th e lo ad c e n te r. In s te a d , a n in d u s tria l c e n te r
' H.iremi of the Census. Central Electric Ught and Power Station, foMoul facinR p. 132.

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C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E CO A L
s p r a n g u p at th e falls. M ost o f th e 15,000 h .p . th a t w as m a d e av aila b le in
th e initial in s ta lla tio n o f 1895 was p u t to u se in th e m e ta llu rg ic a l a n d
e le c tro c h e m ic a l p la n ts th a t lo c a te d th e r e to use th e c h e a p e lec tricity . A
tra n sm issio n lin e to B u ffa lo d id n o t o p e n u n til 1896, a n d h a d a ca p ac ity
o f o n ly 1,000 h .p . N o t u n til 1910 d id a m a jo r lo n g -d ista n c e tra n sm issio n
line e x te n d fro m N ia g a ra Falls, a n d th is w as th e w o rk o f th e H y d ro -E le c tric
P o w er C o m m issio n o f O n ta rio , a g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d sy ste m s u p p ly in g T o
ro n to a n d th e p ro v in c e o f O n ta r io . In 1914 th e T o r o n to P o w e r C o m p a n y
c o n s tr u c te d th e se c o n d m a jo r tra n sm issio n line fro m a p o w e r p la n t at th e
rails.6
W ith in th e U n ite d S ta te s, o n ly th e s o u th e a s te rn re g io n e x te n d in g fro m
V irg in ia to A la b a m a w itn e sse d d e v e lo p m e n t o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r tr a n s
m ission c o m p a r a b le to th a t o f th e C a lifo rn ia re g io n . T h e r e th e w a te r p o w e r
a v ailab le in th e A p p a la c h ia n M o u n ta in s, th e re la tiv ely th in ly p o p u la te d
u p la n d s , a n d th e c o n c e n tr a tio n o f in d u s tr y a h u n d r e d o r m o re m iles d is ta n t
o n th e co astal p la in all fa v o re d lo n g -d ista n c e tra n sm issio n . By 1914 N o rth
C a ro lin a h a d tw o m a jo r tra n sm issio n sy stem s in o p e r a tio n , o n e e x te n d in g
9 6 m iles a n d th e o th e r 2 1 0 m iles; V irg in ia -W e s t V irg in ia s sy stem co v e re d
75 m iles; C e o r g ia h a d a 170-m ile syste m ; a n d A la b a m a s a n d T e n n e s s e e s
sy stem s e x te n d e d 150 a n d 140 m iles resp e ctiv e ly . D istrib u tio n sy ste m s in
u rb a n c e n te rs a n d re g io n a l g rid s o r n e tw o rk s w o u ld c o n n e c t to th e se s o u th
e a s te rn tra n s m is s io n lin es in a w ay th a t was s im ila r to th e C a lifo rn ia c o n
n e ctio n s. T h e o n ly m a jo r d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts in
th e tw o re g io n s w as th e cla ssific atio n o f th o se in C a lifo rn ia as h ig h -h e a d
p la n ts, r a n g in g fro m 1,000 to 2 ,0 0 0 fee t, a n d th o se in th e S o u th e a st as
m e d iu m - h e a d p la n ts, m e a s u r in g in th e h u n d r e d s o f fe e t.7
It was in C a lifo rn ia , h o w e v e r, in th e 1890s, th a t a n e ra o f lo n g -d ista n c e
h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r tra n sm issio n b e g a n . T h e first fa in t g lim m e rin g s o f a
new d a w n , th e Electrical W orld o b se rv e d in 1912, w ere ju s t visible a n d th e
new d a w n w as in th e W e st." C a lifo rn ia , th e jo u r n a l h a d c la im e d e a rlie r,
is th e b ir th p la c e o f re a l lo n g -d ista n c e p o w e r tra n sm issio n o n th is c o n ti
n e n t. S u b se q u e n tly th e re g io n b e c a m e th e g re a t c e n te r o f d e v e lo p m e n ts ,
th e w o rld s la b o ra to ry o f b rillia n t a n d suc ce ssfu l e x p e rim e n ts in h ig h -te n
sion e n e r g y tra n s m is s io n .8 T h e h isto ry o f th e e p is o d e is a s trik in g e x a m p le
o f h u m a n b e in g s u sin g te c h n o lo g y to m e d ia te b etw e e n th e m se lv e s a n d
n a tu re , a r e la tio n s h ip as o ld as h u m a n h isto ry .
T h e h isto ry o f h y d ro e le c tric d e v e lo p m e n t a n d p o w e r tra n sm issio n in
C a lifo rn ia is a n o u ts ta n d in g e x a m p le o f th e way in w hich te c h n o lo g y c an
c o m p e n s a te fo r n a tu ra l in a d e q u a c ie s. N a tu re h a d le ft th e C a lifo rn ia re g io n

* For a com parative study o f the use o f N iagara power in Canada and the U nited States,
sec Robert BcIHeld, T h e Niagara Frontier: T h e Evolution o f Electric Power Systems in New
York and O ntario, 1880-1935" (Ph.D. diss.. University o f Pennsylvania, 1980). T h e c ontem
porary and historical literature on the N iagara project is extensive. Bclfield cites many or
these sources.
7 "T he G reat S o uthern T ransm ission N etwork." Electrical World 63 (I9M ): 1201, reprinted
in Turning Points in American Electrical History, ed. Jam es G. Brittain (New York: IEEE Press,
1976), p. 163.
" T h e L arger Aspect o f Central Station W ork," Electrical World 59 ( I9 I 2 ) :IM I; "T he
W orld's Longest Power Transm issions," ibid. 39 (1902): 188.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

sh o rt o f e n e rg y r e s o u r c e s /' F o re st c o v e re d th e lo w e r e le v a tio n s o f t h e S ier
ras, b u t th e ra p id ly g ro w in g p o p u la tio n o n th e co a st c o u ld n o t a ff o r d to
t r a n s p o r t th is w o o d f o r fu e l. T h e Electrical W orld s u m m a riz e d th e p lig h t
o f th e re g io n , w ith its e x p a n d in g p o p u la tio n a n d lim ite d e n e rg y su p p ly :
T h e unw ooded plains and bare foothills |o n the coast) sm oothed as with a
T itan's trowel, give small supply above g round and save for a m odest supply o f
petroleum n ear Los Angeles there is little below. Until the beginning o f power
transmission by electricity the m ain reliance was Australian coal and the cost of
power was almost prohibitive.10
C o n s id e rin g th e S a n F ra n c isc o a re a , a n o th e r c o n te m p o r a r y o b se rv e d :
Until o f late pow er for industrial uses has been a com m odity as expensive as it is
indispensable. Except in m ountainous localities, wood is not to be had for fuel,
while the supply o f California coal has thus far been really insignificant when
com pared with its total c o nsum ption."
O n th e p o sitiv e sid e , C a lifo rn ia d id h a v e n a tu r a l e n d o w m e n ts th a t w ere
tra n s fo r m a b le by te c h n o lo g y in to e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s .12 T h e h isto ry o f e lectric
p o w e r in C a lifo rn ia is a n o ta b le r e m in d e r th a t c h a n g in g te c h n o lo g y can
m a k e n a tu r e a r e s o u rc e , a fa c to r o f p ro d u c tio n . T h e c o m in g o f lo n g -d is
ta n c e p o w e r tra n sm issio n m a d e th e re m o te lak e s, s tre a m s , a n d riv e rs of
th e S ie rra N e v a d a p o w e r so u rc e s first fo r re la tiv e ly n e a rb y m in in g tow ns,
th e n fo r n e ig h b o rin g f a rm c o m m u n itie s o f th e g r e a t c e n tra l valley o f C al
ifo rn ia , a n d finally f o r th e fa r m o re h e avily se ttle d coastal cities. U n til th e
a d v e n t o f p o w e r tra n s m is s io n , th e S ie rra s w e re p e rc e iv e d by c o a stal in
h a b ita n ts as o b stac les to th e w a g o n tra in s a n d r a ilro a d s , as th e lo catio n of
g o ld a n d silv er m in e s, a n d as th e site o f w in te r snow s, w h ic h , d u r in g th e
s p rin g th aw , b r o u g h t w a te r fo r irrig a tio n b u t flo o d s as w e ll.13
B e fo re d e s c rib in g th e way in w hich te c h n o lo g y m o v e d e n e rg y a h u n d r e d
m iles o r m o re , h o w e v e r, it is p e r tin e n t to c o n s id e r th e n a tu ra l e n d o w m e n ts
in C a lifo rn ia th a t e n g in e e rs a n d o th e rs e x p lo ite d to a c c o m p lish th is p o w e r
tra n sm issio n . N a tu r a l g e o g r a p h y in v a ria b ly fig u re s p ro m in e n tly in ac c o u n ts
o f h y d ro e le c tric p ro je c ts. T h e m o is tu re -la d e n w in d s p a ssin g e a stw a rd fro m
th e Pacific first e n c o u n te r th e C o a st R a n g e r u n n in g a lo n g th e o c e a n a n d
ra n g in g in h e ig h t fro m a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 to 8 ,0 0 0 fe el. T w e n ty to fo rty m iles in
w id th , th e se hills a n d m o u n ta in s re ceiv e so m e ra in as th e y d e fle c t th e m oist
a ir u p w a rd , b u t n o t e n o u g h to m a in ta in r e g u la rly flo w in g stre a m s. N o r is
w a te r a c c u m u la te d as d e e p sn ow fall. T h e r e f o r e , th e C o a st R a n g e h as b een
o f lillle c o n s e q u e n c e to th e e n e rg y -s e e k in g coastal c o m m u n itie s . In c o n tra st,
in th e e a s te r n re a c h e s o f th e sta te , riv e rs a n d s tre a m s flow fro m th e slo p in g
face o f th e S ie rra N e v a d a . T h is n o rth - s o u th r a n g e e x te n d s a b o u t 4 3 0 miles
u H am ilton W right, "Long-D istance H igh-T ension Transm ission of Power in California,"
Scientific American 88 (1903): 373; I I. G. Umlcr. "Pools o r Power." Survey Graphic 51 (1924):
605; Albert W. Atwood, "T esting Big Business in the West," Saturday Evening Post, 22 De
cem ber 1923, p. 16.
" "A Notable Transm ission System," Electrical World and Engineer 45 (1905): 375.
" George P. Low, I lie W orld s Longest Electric Power Transm ission." Journal of Electricity,
Power and Gas II (1901): 145.
" I have concentrated on California in this section on the history o f pow er transmission.
Similar developm ents occurred in o th e r m ountain states o r the A merican West.
"Rivers o f the West," Electrical West 129 (1962): 344-45.

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w ith e le v a tio n s r a n g in g u p lo 14,495 feet. T h e n o r th e r n h a lf n o rm a lly has
a n a n n u a l ra in fa ll o f m o re th a n 4 0 0 in c h es; ih c s o u th e r n p o r tio n usu a lly
has 1 0 -2 0 in c h e s, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e s o u th e r n m o s t tip , w hich re a c h e s
in to th e lo w -ra in fa ll a re a below F re s n o a n d ab o v e L os A n g e le s. N a tu ra l
b a sin s a n d d e e p , riv e r-w o rn c a n y o n s p u n c tu a te th e S ie rra s a n d o f f e r p o w er
a n d llo o d -c o n lr o l sites f o r d a m s , m a k in g possib le y e a r - r o u n d u tiliz a tio n of
th e a b u n d a n t w in te r p re c ip ita tio n . T h e Y u b a , th e F e a th e r, a n d th e S ta n
islaus a re a m o n g th e riv e rs th a t p r o v id e sites fo r d a m s.
T he C o a st R a n g e a n d th e S ie rr a s rim , a n d v irtu a lly close in a t b o th e n d s,
a n e x te n siv e valley. F ro m n o r th to so u th it e x te n d s a b o u t 4 3 0 m iles fro m
la titu d e 40 to la titu d e 35. In w id th it a v e ra g e s a b o u t 4 0 m iles. T h e r e
s u ltin g 1 7 ,2 0 0 -sq u a re -m ile a re a is d r a in e d by th e S a c r a m e n to a n d San
J o a q u in riv e rs in to th e S an F ra n c isc o Bay. T h e cities in th e valley, w hich
in c lu d e S a c r a m e n to , F re sn o , S an J o s e , S to c k to n , a n d , a t th e b a y s o p e n in g
to th e sea, O a k la n d , A la m e d a , S a n F ran c isco , a n d B e rk e le y , w a iled fo r
i rrig a tio n p o w e re d by e le c tric p u m p s lo m a k e p o ssib le th e in te n siv e c u lti
v a tio n o f fru its , v e g e tab les, a n d o th e r cro p s. S im ila rly , th e se c o m m u n itie s
a w a ited th e a r riv a l o f e n e rg y to reliev e th e c o n s tra in ts o n th e ir g ro w th .
T h e y w o u ld s p rin g to life d ra m a tic a lly as th e tra n sm issio n lin es r e a c h e d
th e m , a s itu a tio n n o t u n lik e th a t w hich o c c u rr e d w h e n c an a ls a n d ra ilro a d s
first s p r e a d in th e U n ite d S lates.
As w as th e c ase t h r o u g h o u t th e w o rld b e fo re th e e ra o f e le c tric p o w e r
tra n sm issio n , th e w a te r p o w e r in th e m o u n ta in s b e n e fite d m ostly th e local
in h a b itan ts, w ho w ere few in n u m b e r because o f th e difficult te rra in . A m o n g
th o se few w e re u su a lly m in e rs , w h o to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e n a tu ra l p ro x im ity
o f m in e ra ls a n d w a te r. T h e w a te r was u sed to w ash o re f re e fro m th e e a r th ,
a n d th e r u s h in g s tre a m s p o w e re d th e w heels th a t d ro v e th e bellow s a n d
o th e r m a c h in e ry u se d by th e p ro c e sso rs o f th e o r e a n d m etal. C a lifo rn ia n s
in th e 1850s a n d six tie s c o n s tru c te d w a te rw o rk s lo fa cilita te m in in g a n d
m e ta llu rg ic a l o p e ra tio n s . In N e v a d a , P la cer, E ld o ra d o , A m a d o r, C alav e ras,
S ta n islau s, a n d T u o lu m n e c o u n tie s, m in in g o r w a te r c o m p a n ie s b u ilt s to r
a g e r e se rv o irs a n d ca n a ls to c a rry th e w a te r to m in in g sites to w ash aw ay
th e sa n d a n d g ra v e l hills in w hich th e go ld lay b u rie d . By th e e a rly 1860s,
o v e r 5 ,0 0 0 m iles o f a rtificial w a te r c o u rse s h a d b e e n b u ilt. As m in in g te c h
n iq u e s c h a n g e d a n d m in in g activity w an ed , so m e o f th e se facilities w ere
m o d ifie d fo r u se in ir r ig a tin g th e n e a rb y valleys, a n d e v en la te r so m e o f
th e e n g in e e r in g w o rk s w e re ta k e n o v e r fo r h y d ro e le c tric d e v e lo p m e n t.M
T h e h isto ry o f h y d ra u lic d e v e lo p m e n t, th e a b u n d a n c e o f r a in fa ll, a n d
th e h ig h e le v a tio n s w ith r u s h in g stre a m s in e a s te rn C a lifo rn ia , to g e th e r
w ith th e co astal c o m m u n itie s a s p ir in g to g ro w , th e ex te n siv e valley la n d s
a w a itin g irrig a tio n , a n d th e n a sc e n t coastal in d u s try n e e d in g c h e a p e n e rg y ,
fo rm e d a re v e rs e salien t, d e fin e d a critical p ro b le m , a n d s u g g e ste d a so
lu tio n . T h e s itu a tio n called fo r e n g in e e rs , fin a n c ie rs, m a n u fa c tu r e r s , c o n
s tru c tio n c rew s, a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s lo p ro v id e tec h n o lo g y , to b rin g new
p o w e r w h e re it w as d isp o sa b le . T h e h isto ry o f th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f h y d r o
ele c tric p o w e r a n d p o in t-to -p o in t tra n sm issio n in C a lifo rn ia is e x tre m e ly
c o m p le x a n d ca n on ly be h ig h lig h te d h e re ; this a p p ro a c h will c o n c e n tr a te
o n re p r e s e n ta tiv e acts o f lo n g -d ista n c e p o w e r tra n sm issio n fro m th e S ie rra
Coleman, I.G. anil E. of California, pp. 92-94.

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N e v a d a to th e b u stlin g S a n F ra n c isc o Bay a re a a n d la te r to sp ra w lin g Los
A n g e le s a n d its en v iro n s.
L ocal fin a n c ie rs w ith e a s te r n so u rc e s o f c a p ita l, as well as local r e p r e
s e n ta tiv e s o f e a s te rn e lectric al m a n u fa c tu r e rs , w ere in v o lv ed , b u t d u r in g
th e first tw o d e c a d e s o f p o w e r tra n sm issio n in C alifo rn ia , m o st o r th e
electric al e q u ip m e n t a n d te c h n ic a l a d v ice c a m e fro m e a s te rn m a n u fa c tu re rs
a n d c o n s u lta n ts . A list o f tu rb in e s , g e n e ra to rs , a n d tra n s fo rm e r s u sed in
m a jo r h y d ro e le c tric sta tio n s in c lu d e s th e n a m e s o f th e S ta n le y E lectrical
C o m p a n y o f M a ssa c h u se tts, th e W e siin g h o u se C o m p a n y , a n d th e G e n e ra l
E lectric C o m p a n y . T h e e x c e p tio n s to th e e a s te rn bias w ere th e A llis-C halm e rs M a n u f a c tu rin g C o m p a n y o f W isconsin, s u p p lie r o f g e n e ra to rs , tr a n s
fo r m e r s , a n d tu rb in e s ; th e O h io B rass C o m p a n y , m a k e r o f critically im
p o r ta n t s tra in in s u la to rs fo r th e tra n sm issio n line; a n d th e P elto n C o m p a n y
o f C a lifo rn ia a n d I. P. M o rris o f P h ila d e lp h ia , P en n sy lv a n ia , p ro d u c e rs o f
w a te r w h e els a n d tu r b in e s .15 T h e m o d ific a tio n o f e q u ip m e n t to su it C ali
f o rn ia c o n d itio n s , th e su p e rv isio n o f c o n s tru c tio n , a n d th e o v e ra ll d esig n
o f sy stem s, h o w e v e r, in c re a sin g ly b e c a m e th e w o rk o f C a lifo rn ia e n g in e e rs ,
s o m e o f w h o m h a d b e e n e d u c a te d at S ta n fo rd , th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia
a t B e rk eley , a n d o th e r C a lifo rn ia in stitu tio n s."* A m o n g th e se C a lifo rn ia n s
th e r e w as n o r e s p e c t fo r c o n s titu te d a u th o rity . . . |o n ] h y d ra u lic , m e
c h a n ic a l a n d e lec trica l m a tte rs . I f a n im p o ssib le d a m h as to b e e re c te d . . .
th e y b u ild it . . . if a n a lto g e th e r u n h e a r d - o f bit o f tu n n e l ha s to b e m ad e
to c o n n e c t w ith a q u ite im p ra c tic a b le flu m e . . . th e y b o re th e tu n n e l an d
b u ild th e f lu m e . . . if th r e e o r f o u r sta tio n s m u s t b e o p e r a te d to g e th e r in
d e f ia n c e o f all p r e c e d e n ts , in g o th e sw itch e s a n d th e p la n ts o p e r a te ." 17
S ev e ral o f th e e a rly p o w e r p la n ts a n d a s h o n - d is ta n c e p o in t-to -p o in t
tra n sm issio n lin e w ere c o n c e n tr a te d in th e S ie rra s to th e n o r th a n d west
o f S a c r a m e n to , th e ca p ita l o f th e sta te . T h e Folsom p o w e r p la n t 011 the
A m e ric a n R iver, w hich tra n s m itte d 2 0 m iles to th e city, w as co n c e iv e d of
a n d c o n s tr u c te d u n d e r c irc u m sta n c e s th a t in m a n y w ays w e re r e p r e s e n t
ative o f th e e a rly d e v e lo p m e n t o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r in C a lifo rn ia (see
Fig. X .l). T h e h isto ry o f th e sm all p la n t has a lm o st b e e n fo rg o tte n , but
w h e n it b e g a n tra n s m ittin g ele ctric ity to S a c ra m e n to in th e s u m m e r o f 1895,
c o n te m p o ra rie s c e le b ra te d th e o c casion by illu m in a tin g th e c ap ita l w ith
th o u s a n d s o f in c a n d e s c e n t lam p s, firin g h u n d r e d s o f g u n s in sa lu te , a n d
m a k in g b o a stfu l a d d re s s e s . L ocal n e w s p a p e rs a n d jo u r n a ls p ro c la im e d it
th e la rg e st p o w e r p la n t in th e w o rld as well as th e lo n g e st p o in t-to -p o in t
From a survey o f the Journal of Electricity, Dr. A rth u r N orberg and his staff at the Center
for the History ol Science and T echnology, University <r California at Berkeley, concluded
that th ro u g h 1025 th ere was no m ajor m an u factu rer o f dynam os, generators, or large motors
in the West; instead, th ere w ere many sales representatives from the East. T h ere were,
however, western m an u factu rers o r pow er-line switches (Pacific Electric M anufacturing Co.
o r N apa. K-P-F Electric Co. o f San Francisco, and A guttet-Grisw old o f Seattle. Wash.), water
wheels, and turbines.
IAA num ljcr o f instructors ol electrical engineering in California colleges and universities
c ontributed to the growth o f the utility systems th ro u g h their leaching and also by working
for the utilities and m anu factu rers or as consulting engineers. Utilities and m anufacturers
also contributed to research projects and facilities at leading departm ents of electrical engi
neering, such as those at Stanford and the I'h roop Institute ofT cchnology (later the California
Institute o f Technology). See the section on high-voltage laboratories, pp. 3 77-80 below.
17"T h e T ransm ission Systems o f the ('.teat West." Electrical World 50 (1012): I 142.

209

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E CO A L

Figure X .I. Fobom power plant. /9 M .

Courtesy of the Pacific Gils id Electric Co..
San Francisco. Calif.

tra n sm issio n o f p o w e r. T h e e n g r a v e d in v ita tio n fo r a " G ra n d E lectrical

C a rn iv a l" r e f e r r e d to th e g re a te st o p e r a tiv e electric al p la n t o n th e A m e r
ican c o n tin e n t." 18
In sev e ral asp e c ts, F o lso m , C a lifo rn ia , was like Low ell, M assac h u setts,
b e fo re th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f N ia g a ra Falls, th e b est-k n o w n w a te r-p o w e r site
in A m erica . In 1850 H o ra tio G a te s L iv e rm o re h a d c o m e fro m N ew E n g la n d
to E ld o ra d o C o u n ty . C a lifo rn ia , w h e re go ld was first d isc o v e re d , w ith an
im ag e o f w a te r-p o w e re d Low ell in his m in d . Fie e n v isio n e d a sim ila r in
d u s tr ia l city at F o lso m , a sto p o n th e S a c ra m e n to V alley R a ilro a d , a n d he
p ic tu re d lo g g in g , m in in g , a n d o th e r in d u s trie s a lo n g th e n e a rb y A m e ric a n
R iver. In 1850 L iv e rm o re in te n d e d to b u ild a Low ell, b u t his initial ste p s
c u lm in a te d q u ite d iff e r e n tly , in 1895, b e ca u se o f electricity.
In 1867 L iv e rm o re c o n s tru c te d a d a m o n th e A m e ric a n R iver as p a rt o f
his g r a n d d e sig n fo r th e e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t o f F olsom . H is p lan s also
ca lled fo r a c an a l o n e ach sid e o f th e riv e r e x te n d in g ab o u t tw o m iles fro m
th e d a m to th e to w n o f Folsom : o n e , a p o w er c an a l, w ould p ro v id e a h e a d
o f a b o u t 80 fe et ab o v e th e riv e r fo r p o w e rin g w a te r w heels; th e o th e r w ould
c a rry logs a n d irrig a te th e p o te n tia lly rich f a rm la n d in th e re g io n . E a rlie r,
L iv e rm o re h a d in v este d in a system o f w a te r-c a rry in g d itc h e s to su p p ly th e
p la c e r m in e s w ith w a te r to w ash th e g o ld -b e a rin g soil. T h e e ld e r L iv e rm o re ,
like so m a n y o th e r e n te rp r is in g C a lifo rn ia n s, in g e n io u sly u tilize d w a te r as
a m u ltifa c e te d re so u rc e .
'"C o lem an . P.O. ( E. of California, pp. I 16-17. T h e acrotint ol Folsom is based on ibid.,
pp. I 16-27; and A rchie Rice, "Folsom Power Plant.'" Journal of Electricity. Powci and Gas, as
reprinted in Pacific. Gas and Electric Company: Historical and Descriptive (n.p., n.d.). pp. 1-21

270

Figure X .2. Horatio P. Livermore.

Courtesy of the Pacific Gas (d Electric Co..
San Francisco, Calif.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

V a rio u s tro u b le s d e la y e d c o m p le tio n o f th e p o w e r can a l a n d th e d a m
u n til 1893, h o w e v e r. (C o n v ict la b o r h a d b e e n u se d in th e c o n stru c tio n .) By
th e n , H o ra tio P. L iv e rm o re , a so n o f H o ra tio G a les L iv e rm o re , h a d re a d
r e p o r ts oT th e p o w e r-tra n s m is s io n e x p e r im e n t a t F ra n k f o r t o n th e M ain
a n d o f th e su c ce ssfu l c o m p le tio n in 1888 o f F ra n k S p r a g u e s p io n e e rin g
s tre e tc a r sy stem in R ic h m o n d , V irg in ia . So s tim u la te d , H . P. L iv e rm o re
d e c id e d to b u ild a h y d ro e le c tric p la n t a t th e te rm in a tio n o f th e p o w e r ca nal
in F olsom , tra n s m it w ith a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t o v e r th e 2 0 m iles to S a c ra
m e n to , a n d , to e n s u r e th e sy stem a lo ad , o r m a rk e t, a c q u ire a stre e tc a r
fra n c h is e in S a c ra m e n to . L ow ell, M a ssa ch u se tts, w as n o lo n g e r th e w o rk in g
m o d e l fo r th e sy ste m . F o r fin a n c in g , th e y o u n g e r L iv e rm o re t u r n e d first
to S an F ran c isco , w h e re local c ap ita lists, in c lu d in g th e h e a d o f th e E dison
E lectric L ig h t & P o w e r C o m p a n y , a p p e a le d to th e E le ctrical S e c u ritie s C o m
p a n y o f B o sto n . E lectrical S e c u ritie s u n d e r w r o te th e F olsom u tility s b o n d s,
d ra w in g u p o n th e ad v ice o f C h a rle s C o ffin , p re s id e n t o f th e new ly fo rm e d
G e n e r a l E lectric. F in a n c e d by E lec tric S e c u ritie s, L iv e rm o re o r d e r e d his
g e n e ra to r s , tr a n s f o r m e r s , a n d o th e r e q u ip m e n t fro m C o f fin s G e n e r a l Elec
tric. T h e F olsom p la n t first tra n s m itte d 3 ,0 0 0 kw. fro m f o u r G E a lte rn a to rs
at 11,000 volts by m e a n s o f 60-cycle th re e -p h a s e c u r r e n t. T h e tra n sm issio n
lin e w as c a rrie d a to p 4 0 -fo o t c e d a r po les se t u p in tw o lin es a lo n g e a c h side
o f a c o u n tr y ro a d . A t S a c ra m e n to , c o n v e r te rs s u p p lie d d ire c t c u r r e n t for
th e s tr e e tc a r lo a d , a n d lo w er-v o llag e c u r r e n t w en t to th e u tility 's o th e r
c u s to m e rs . I n d u s tr y d id n o t n e e d to m o v e to th e w a te r-p o w e r site; the
p o w e r h a d tra v e le d o v e r sm all w ires to in d u s try .
T h e L iv e rm o re s ( a n o th e r o f H o ra tio G a te s s so n s, C h a rle s , a lso h a d b e
co m e in v o lv e d ) d id n o t a n tic ip a te , h o w e v e r, th e r e g io n s s u m m e r d r o u g h ts ,
w hich c a u s e d th e A m e ric a n R iv er to r u n low. In 1897 a n d 1898, de sp ite
th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a s u p p le m e n ta r y , 750-kw . h y d ro e le c tric p la n t a t Folsom ,
th e in c re a s in g in d u s tria l a n d s tr e e t-lig h tin g lo ad in S a c ra m e n to c o u ld not
be fully m e t b e c a u se o f d ro u g h t c o n d itio n s. N o r d id a n a u x ilia ry steam
p la n t u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n in S a c r a m e n to p ro m is e to p ro v id e a so lu tio n to
th e p ro b le m . T h e r e f o r e , in 1899 th e L iv e rm o re s a n d th e ir a sso c iates in the
S a c ra m e n to P o w e r & L ig h t C o m p a n y c o n tra c te d to ta k e p o w e r fro m the
Y u b a E le ctric P o w e r C o m p a n y s C o lg a te h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r p la n t 61 miles
aw ay.
N e w e r a n d la rg e r th a n F o lso m , th e C o lg a te p o w e r p la n t w as to b e com e
m u c h b e lte r k n o w n b e c a u se its o w n e rs a n d e n g in e e rs w o u ld re a c h b ey o n d
S a c ra m e n to in th e g re a t tra n sm issio n le a p to O a k la n d , o n S a n Francisco
Bay. T he c o n s tru c tio n o f th e C o lg a te p la n t was b e g u n in 1895 by two
C a lifo rn ia e n tr e p r e n e u r s , E u g e n e J. d e S abla. J r .. a n d J o h n M arlin . It
w o u ld b e c o m e th e n u c le u s o f a sy ste m -b u ild in g e n d e a v o r th a t c u lm in a te d
in th e Pacific G as & E lectric C o m p a n y , o n e o f th e w o rld s la rg e st utilities.
B o th d e Sabla a n d M a rlin c a m e to th e field w ith o u t tec h n ic a l e x p e rie n c e .
D e S abla in 1892 h e a d e d a n im p o rt-e x p o r t h o u se e s ta b lish e d by his f a th e r
in S an F ra n cisc o , a n d M a rtin d e a lt in p ig -iro n a n d c a st-iro n p ip e .19 Also
in v o lv e d w as R o m u lu s R iggs C o lg a te , a fin a n c ie r, an e n th u s ia s tic a d v o c ate
'" T h e account o f dc Salila and M artin is based on Colem an, P.O. fcf E. of California, pp.
128-43; and A rchie Rice. "Colgate and Yulia Power Plants." Journal of Electricity. Power and
Gas. as rep rin ted in Pacific Gas and Electric Company, pp. 75-97,

271

Figure X .3. John Martin, 1904.

Courtesy of the Pacific Gas id Electric Co.,
San Francisco, Calif.

Figure X.4. Eugene de Sabla, j r ., 1910.

Courtesy of the Pacific Gas & Electric Co.,
San Francisco, Calif.

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E C O A L
o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r, a n d th e w e alth y g ra n d s o n o f th e f o u n d e r o f th e
C o lg a te S o a p & P e r fu m e C o m p a n y .
W illiam S ta n le y , th e d e v e lo p e r o f W e stin g h o u se s a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t sys
te m a n d , by 1895, h e a d o f t h e S ta n le y E lectrical M a n u fa c tu rin g C o m p a n y ,
a s u p p lie r o f p o ly p h a s e p o w e r e q u ip m e n t, e n c o u ra g e d a n d a d v ise d M a rtin
a n d his a sso cia te s o n th e C o lg a te a n d o th e r h y d ro e le c tric p ro je c ts. S tan le y
a s sig n e d M a rtin th e a g e n c y f o r S ta n le y e q u ip m e n t in C a lifo rn ia a f te r in
te rv ie w in g h im a t ih e S tan ley p la n t in P ittsfield , M a ssa ch u se tts. L a te r S ta n
ley d is p a tc h e d o n e o f his e n g in e e rs to C a lifo rn ia to in s tru c t M a rtin in
elec trica l th e o ry a n d p ra c tic e a n d in th e in sta lla tio n o f S ta n le y e q u ip m e n t.
S ta n le y b e c a m e a fa m ilia r n a m e in C a lifo rn ia p o w e r tra n s m is s io n , a n d
S ta n le y -d e sig n e d e q u ip m e n t c o n tin u e d to b e u se d in th e re g io n a f te r th e
S ta n le y E lectrical M a n u fa c tu r in g C o m p a n y w as a b s o r b e d by th e G e n e ra l
E lec tric C o m p a n y .
A c o m m o n f in a n c ia l in te re s t in th e g o ld m in e s o f th e Y u b a R iv e r re g io n
to th e n o r th o f S a c ra m e n to b r o u g h t d e S abla a n d M a rlin to g e th e r. In s e a rc h
o f a p o w e r s o u rc e f o r th e ir m in e s th a t w o u ld b e m o re e c o n o m ic a l th a n
ste a m , th e y t u r n e d to h y d r o e le c tric p o w e r. T h e y m ay h a v e b e e n s p u r r e d
o n by th e su cc essfu l d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e n e a rb y F olsom p la n t. B e fo re b u ild
in g th e C o lg a te p la n t, th e y c o n s tru c te d a 6,1 0 0 -k w . p o w e r p la n t o n th e
S o u th Y u b a R iv e r, a b o u t fo u r m iles fro m N e v a d a C ity, C a lifo rn ia , a c e n te r
o f g o ld -m in in g activity. D e S abla ra ised th e c ap ita l a n d fo u n d th e c u sto m e rs
fo r th e N e v a d a C ity p la n t, a n d M a rtin , th e s e lf -ta u g h t h y d ra u lic a n d e le c
trica l e n g in e e r , a ssiste d by S tan ley , in sta lle d 133-cycle tw o -p h a se S ta n le y
g e n e r a to r s a n d P e lto n w h e els in th e p la n t a n d e re c te d a 5 ,5 0 0 -v o lt tr a n s
m issio n lin e to N e v a d a C ity a n d G ra ss V alley. W o rk b e g a n o n th e N ev a d a
p la n t (Fig. X .5) o n 5 J u ly 1895, a n d sev en m o n th s la te r th e system was in
o p e ra tio n . As d e S a b la su c cin ctly s u m m e d u p th e e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l h isto ry
o f th e N e v a d a p o w e r p la n t,
I owned some m ining interests at Nevada City and 1 started by trying to get
electric pow er for use in the mines. T h e problem was to take water by ditch
from the South Yuba and, by a gradient less than the rivers, carry it down to
some point where a sufficient fall could be secured to operate electric
generators. Land and water rights were acquired, plans m ade for the
u ndertaking, a site selected for a dam , and, some three miles fu rth er down
stream , a spot chosen for a pow er house at a point on the river about 15,000 ft.
above the level o f the ocean.20
W ith th e success o f th e N e v a d a C ity p la n t, d e Sabla b ec a m e c o n f id e n t
th e r e w as a m a rk e t fo r m o re p o w e r in n e a rb y S a c ra m e n to , a n d e v e n in
S an F ra n cisco . H e ra ise d m o re m o n e y fo r h y d ro e le c tric p ro je c ts f ro m R.
R. C o lg a te , w h o la te r h e lp e d fin a n c e th e p o w e r p la n t th a t was n a m e d fo r
h im . M a rlin th e n b o u g h t p o w e r rig h ts fro m w a te r c o m p a n ie s th a t o w n e d
sy stem s o f d itc h e s, flu m es, a n d ca n als th a t h a d b e e n b u ilt fo r irrig a tio n
a n d f o r su p p ly in g w a te r to m ines. O n e o f th e m ost p ro m is in g p r o p e rtie s
fo r c o n v e rsio n lo h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r was lo c ated o n th e n o rth fo rk o f th e
Y uba. T h e r e th e p a r tn e r s e re c te d th e Y uba p o w e rh o u se , ta k in g a d v a n ta g e
o f th e h e a d o f w a te r p ro v id e d by a n irrig a tio n can a l situ a te d a lo n g sid e a
,n Archie Rice, "Slory o f the Nevada Power Planl." Journal o f Electricity, Power and Gas, as
rep rin ted in Pacific Gas and Electric Company, p. 59.

272

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

Figure X.5. Nevada power plant: Lowhead and high-head penstocks (rear).
Courtesy of the Pacific Gas Id Electric Co.,
San Francisco. Calif.

m o u n ta in . By lo c a tin g th e p o w e r p la n t below in B ro w n V alley, th e y o b

ta in e d a fall o f 2 95 fee t. C o m p le te d in 1898. th e Y u b a p o w e r p la n t h a d a
c ap a city o f 1,080 kw. A n 18-ntile tra n s m is s io n lin e c a rry in g 16,000 volts
ra n fro m it to m in e s a n d p o w e r c u s to m e rs in M arysville.
T h e su ccess o f th e N ev ad a a n d Y uba p o w e r p la n ts k in d le d th e e n t h u
siasm , p ro v id e d th e e x p e rie n c e , a n d e n g e n d e r e d th e c o m m itm e n t th a t led
M a rtin , d e S a b la , a n d C o lg a te to c o o p e ra te in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e C o l
g a te p la n t (see Fig. X .6). W ith a c o n tra c t to su p p ly 2 ,2 0 0 kw. to th e Live r m o r e s w a te r- a n d p o w e r- s h o rt F olsom p la n t in S a c ra m e n to , M a rlin , d e
S abla, a n d C o lg a te in J a n u a ry 1899 fo r m e d th e Y u b a P o w er C o m p a n y , a
m illio n -d o lla r c o rp o ra tio n . The c o m p a n y s im m e d ia te o b je ctiv e was to c o n
s tru c t, o n th e Y uba R iv er e ig h t m iles a b o v e th e 1898 Y u b a p la n t, th e C o lg ate
p la n t, w hich w o u ld su p p ly b o th th e local lo ad a n d S a c ra m e n to , o v e r 60
m iles aw ay.
T h e C o lg a te p la n t, w h ich was n a m e d fo r th e m a n w h o h e lp e d fin an c e
it, h a d m a n y o f th e te c h n ic a l f e a tu re s th a t c a m e to c h a ra c te riz e th e h ighh e a d , C a lifo rn ia h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts. E x ten siv e c iv il-e n g in e e rin g c o n s tr u c
tio n w as n e e d e d . W a te r d iv e r te d fro m th e h ig h ly e le v a te d riv e r at th e d a m
site flo w ed in a w o o d e n flu m e (7 feet in w id th a n d 5 fe e t in d e p th ) th at
sn a k e d a lo n g th e c o u rs e o f th e riv e r. T h e Tall o f th e riv e r was ste e p , b u t
th e flu m e lo w e re d th e e le v a tio n o f th e d iv e rte d w a te r g ra d u a lly , th e g r a
d ie n t b e in g a g e n tle 12% Teet to th e m ile. By th e tim e th e flu m e re a c h e d
th e p o w e r p la n t, w hich was situ a te d at riv e r level 8 m iles d o w n s tre a m fro m
th e d a m , th e fall fro m th e flu m e to th e p o w e r p la n t w as 7 02 fe et, o r m o re

273

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E CO A L

Figure X.7. Flume line to Colgate power

house. Courtesy o f the Pacific Gas id
Electric Co., San Francisco, Calif.

O rig in a lly tw o, a n d la ie r five, 30 -in c h p ip e s, o r p e n sto c k s, c a r rie d w ate r

d o w n to th e p o w e r p la n t w h e re n o zzle-e n d s p lay e d s tre a m s o f w a te r, th e
th ic k n e ss o f a m a n 's a rm , u p o n th e steel b u c k e ts o f m a n h ig h im p u lse
w heels. T h e fo rc e o f th e w a te r in sp ire d aw e a m o n g c o n te m p o ra r y o b se rv
e rs. V isitors w e re w a rn e d th a t a slip in to th e icy, s u rg in g w a te rs o f th e
flu m e m e a n t s u re d e a th ; th e y also h e a rd th a t a m a n c o u ld h a m m e r u p o n
th e je t o f w a te r issu in g fro m th e nozzles as if u sin g a s le d g e u p o n a n anvil.
T h e C o lg a te p o w e r p la n t b e g an o p e ra tin g in 1899 c a rry in g th e local m in e
a n d in d u s tria l load a n d s u p p ly in g S a c ra m e n to . B ecause o f th e v a ria tio n s
in e x istin g m o to rs, th e p la n t h a d bo th th re e -p h a s e 00-cycle a n d tw o -p h a se

274

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
133-cycle S ta n le y g e n e ra to r s . By 1901 C o lg a te s cap a city w as 14,000 h .p .,
3 ,0 0 0
o f w hich c o u ld b e d e liv e re d to O a k la n d .21
In 1901 M a rlin , d e S ab la , a n d C o lg a te m a d e a h isto ric d e cisio n th a t
re s u lte d in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e w o rld s lo n g e st tra n sm issio n line fro m
C o lg a te to O a k la n d , o n S a n F ra n c isc o Bay, a d ista n c e o f 140 m iles. T h e
e a s te rn b o n d firm s E. H . R o llins & S o n s a n d N . W. H a r ris Sc C o m p a n y
h e lp e d fac ilita te th e p ro je c t. S e e k in g re fin a n c in g , th e O a k la n d T ra n s it
C o m p a n y , w hich o p e r a te d 126 m iles o f s tr e e t railw ay, n e g o tia te d w ith th e
R ollins a n d H a r ris c o m p a n ie s. T h e fin a n c ie rs d e c id e d th a t th e tr a n s it c o m
p a n y n e e d e d low -cost p o w e r to im p r o v e its e c o n o m ic h e a lth . E n g in e e rs of
th e b o n d h o u se s e x a m in e d th e fea sibility o f tra n s m is s io n fro m C o lg ate.
U p o n r e c e ip t o f a fa v o ra b le re p o r t, th e fin a n c ie rs s u g g e s te d in J u n e 1900
th e f o r m a tio n o f th e B ay C o u n tie s P o w e r C o m p a n y to c o n so lid a te the
c o m p a n ie s o p e r a tin g t h e N e v a d a , Y u b a , a n d C o lg a te p o w e r p la n ts. D e Sabla
b e c a m e p re s id e n t a n d g e n e ra l m a n a g e r , R. R. C o lg a te a m e m b e r o f the
b o a rd o f d ire c to r s , a n d M a rlin h e lp e d c a rry o u t th e tra n sm issio n pro je ct,
d r a w in g u p o n his S ta n le y c o n n e c tio n s .22
A f te r c o n s u ltin g in P ittsfie ld w ith W illiam S ta n le y a n d tw o o f his asso
ciates, J o h n F. Kelly a n d C. C. C h e sn e y , b o th p r o m in e n t e n g in e e rs , M artin
d e c id e d o n 6 0 ,0 0 0 -v o li tra n sm issio n , d o u b le th e v o lta g e re c o m m e n d e d by
G e n e r a l E le ctric a n d W e stin g h o u se . T w o p a ra lle l lin e s, o n e c o p p e r an d
o n e a lu m in u m , c a r rie d o n c e d a r p o le s 25 fe e t a p a r t, re a c h e d fro m C o lgate
to th e su b s ta tio n at O a k la n d . T h e d u p lic a tio n s e e m e d n e c e ssa ry to in su re
th e re liab ility o f th e p io n e e r p ro je c t. S an F ra n c isc o s J o u rn a l o f Electricity
h e r a ld e d th e d e liv e ry o f p o w e r o n 27 A p ril fr o m th e S ie rra s to th e Bay
a re a as " th e g re a te s t e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g tr iu m p h e v e r a c c o m p lis h e d .23
N o t o n ly th e tra n sm issio n lin e, w ith its u n p re c e d e n te d le n g th a n d r e
m a rk a b ly h ig h v o ltag e s, b u t also a n im p re ssiv e w a te r c ro ssin g e x c ite d th a t
c o m m e n t. B e c a u se it w as n e c e ssa ry to cro ss S an F ra n c isc o Bay in o r d e r to
re a c h O a k la n d , th e e n g in e e r s h a d to d e c id e b e tw e e n a s u b te r r a n e a n a n d
an o v e rh e a d c ro ssin g . T h e y c h o se su s p e n s io n at a n a r ro w g a p , th e C arq u in e z S tra it, w h e re th e w a te r r e a c h e d a d e p th o f 120 fe e t a n d r a n in heavy
a n d d a n g e r o u s c u r r e n ts n e a r th e n o r th e r n e x tre m ity o f S an F ra n c isc o Bay.
T h e s tra it w as 2 ,7 5 0 fe e t w id e, w ith a b lu f f risin g to 162 fe e t to th e n o r th
a n d a hill risin g to a b o u t 4 0 0 fe et to th e s o u th . T h e n o r th sid e p re s e n te d
a spe cial p r o b le m b e c a u se th e la n d w as m a rs h y b e h in d th e b lu f f, m ak in g
a n c h o ra g e fo r th e cables d iffic u lt. T h e to w e rs c o u ld n o t w ith s ta n d th e to n s
o f la te ra l p u ll f ro m th e fo u r s u s p e n d e d cables, so th e y h a d to b e a n c h o re d
in ro ck o r c o n c r e te b e h in d a n d below th e m a in lo w ers. T w o p rin c ip a l tow ers
w ere e r e c te d , a 2 2 5 -fo o t steel s tr u c tu r e o n th e n o r th a n d a 6 4 -fo o t o n e o n
th e 4 0 0 -fo o l e le v a tio n o f th e hill. B e h in d th e n o r th to w e r, at a d ista n c e o f
1,385 Teel, a s h o r t to w e r w as n e e d e d to s u s p e n d th e cab le s o v e r th e m a rsh y
g ro u n d b e fo r e th e y w e re c a r rie d d o w n to th e ir a n c h o ra g e s (see Fig. X.8).
T h e h o riz o n ta l d ista n c e b e tw e e n th e p rin c ip a l to w e rs w as m o re th a n th re e q u a r te r s o f a m ile, th e c le a ra n c e a b o v e th e bay o f th e s u s p e n d e d cables at
' Rice, "Colgate and Yuba Power Plains." p. 05; Low. "W orld's Longest Electric Power
T ransm ission," pp. 154, 167.
C olcntan, P.G. (d E. of California, pp. 144-45.
1,3 L.ow, "W o rlds Longest Electric Power T ransm ission," p. 145.

275

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT R CO AL

Figure X.S. Transmission Span,

Carquinez Strait, 1936. Courtesy o f the
Pacific Gas ( Electric Co., San Francisco,
Calif.

th e ir low est p o in t w as j u s t o v e r 2 0 0 fe et, a n d th e c a b le le n g th fro m a n

c h o ra g e to a n c h o ra g e w as 6 ,2 9 2 fee t. Each ca b le e x e r te d a p u ll o f 12 to n s
o n its a n c h o ra g e . T h e p ro b le m o f in s u la tin g th e ca b le s a t th e to w e rs a n d
a n c h o ra g e s w as a d iffic u lt o n e .24
A fte r c o m p le tio n o f its g r e a t p o in t-to -p o in t tra n sm issio n p ro je c t, th e Bay
C o u n tie s P o w e r C o m p a n y e n te r e d a new p h a s e o f d e v e lo p m e n t in te r
c o n n e ctin g w ithin its 14,000-square-m ile su p p ly a re a its several S ierra po w er
p la n ts a n d v a rio u s k in d s o f lo a d s in th e S ie rra s w ith c o n s u m e rs in th e
f a rm la n d s a lo n g th e r o u te o f th e tra n sm issio n lin e a n d w ith th o se a t th e
te r m in u s o f th e lin e in th e ra p id ly d e v e lo p in g O a k la n d re g io n . A c c o rd in g
to th e p ra c tic e o f th e d a y , th e c o m p a n y tie d to g e th e r th e N e v a d a , Y uba,
a n d C o lg a te p la n ts to e n a b le th e m to b e o p e r a te d in u n iso n as a sin g le
s ta tio n as easily as th o u g h th e y w e re c o m b in e d u n d e r a sin g le ro o f." 2r>
T h r o u g h in te r c o n n e c tio n s w ith o th e r in d e p e n d e n t c o m p a n ie s, p o w e r fro m
th e C o lg a te , N e v a d a , a n d Y u b a p la n ts in th e S ie rra s r e a c h e d C a lifo rn ia
c o u n tie s to t h e n o r th a n d so u th o f O a k la n d a n d S a n F ra n cisc o . T h e in d u s try
a n d a g r ic u ltu re in th e re g io n s e rv e d th e re b y in c lu d e d s tr e e t railw ay, m a n
u fa c tu re , s h ip p in g , m in in g , slock ra isin g , a n d fru it g ro w in g .26 Yet Bay
C o u n tie s r e m a in e d p rim a rily a p o w e r- g e n e ra tin g a n d - tr a n s m ittin g c o m
p a n y , in c o n tr a s t lo a u tility th a t is s tro n g ly b a se d in d is trib u tio n . W ith in
a few ye ars, h o w ev e r, m e r g e rs a n d th e acq u isitio n o f d is trib u tio n system s,
especially in S an F ran c isco , w o u ld c h a n g e th e sy ste m s c h a r a c te r .
M G eorge P. Low. T h e G rcal Carquincz Transm ission Span,"youm<i/ of Electricity, Power
and Gas II (1901): 91-102.
Low, "W orld's Longest Electric Power T ransm ission." p. 151; W right. "Long-Distance
Transm ission." p. 373.
"Low, W orld's Longest Electric Power Transm ission." p. 164.

270

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

In 1903 d e S abla a n d M a rlin , se e in g th e e c o n o m ic a d v a n ta g e s especially
th e im p ro v e m e n t in lo a d fa c to r th a t w o u ld follow f u r th e r in te rc o n n e c tio n
a n d sy stem -building, fo rm e d th e C alifo rn ia G as & Electric C o m p a n y (CG&E)
lo a c q u ire a n d m e rg e p o w e r c o m p a n ie s, n o t o n ly to in te rc o n n e c t th e m .
C G & E m e rg e d se v e ra l S ie rra h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r c o m p a n ie s w ith its ow n
B ay C o u n tie s C o m p a n y . O n e o f th e se , th e S ta n d a r d E le ctric C o m p a n y ,
o p e r a te d th e E le c tra h y d ro e le c tr ic p la n t in th e S ie rra s, w hich tra n s m itte d
p o w e r to th e B ay a re a u sin g 3 0 ,0 0 0 volts. C a lifo rn ia G as & E lectric also
a b s o rb e d th e S a c ra m e n to E lec tric G a s & R ailw ay C o m p a n y , w hich o w n ed
th e p io n e e rin g F o lso m p la n t a n d lo o k p o w e r fro m C o lg a te as w ell. A th ird
c o m p a n y th a t w as a c q u ir e d e a rly w as th e C e n tr a l C a lifo rn ia E lectric C o m
p a n y , w h ich s e rv e d a d istric t, b e iw e e n th e F olsom a n d C o lg a te p la n ts, w ith
th r e e h y d ro e le c tr ic p la n ts. By 1905, f u r th e r e x p a n s io n h a d b r o u g h t in to
th e CG&F. sy slem te n h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts w ith in te r c o n n e c tin g tra n s m is
sio n lin es a n d tw o lo n g -d ista n c e , h ig h -v o lta g e lin es e x te n d in g to th e Bay
a re a .
O n th e d e m a n d (o r lo a d ) sid e , C G & E o b ta in e d , in a d d itio n to th e r e la
tively sm a ll d is trib u tio n sy stem s a c q u ire d w ith th e S ie rra p o w e r c o m p a n ie s,
se v e ra l u tilities in th e B ay a re a . In 1903 M a rtin p u r c h a s e d th e lo n g -e sta b
lish ed O a k la n d G as L ig h t & H e a t C o m p a n y , w h ic h s u p p lie d O a k la n d a n d
B e rk e le y , a n d th e U n ite d G as & E lec tric C o m p a n y , w hich se rv e d c o m
m u n itie s s o u th o f S an F ran c isco , in c lu d in g S an J o s e . O b v io u sly th e n e x t
p r im e o b jec tiv e fo r d e S abla a n d M a rtin as s y ste m b u ild e rs w as a d is trib u tio n
sy stem in S an F ra n cisco . T h e y fu lfille d th is g o al in 1906 w h e n th e y a c q u ire d
th e S a n F ra n c isc o G as & E le ctric C o m p a n y . A fte r m o r e th a n a d e c a d e o f
s h a r p c o m p e titio n in S an F ran c isco , th e S an F ra n c isc o G as & E lectric C o m
p a n y h a d e s ta b lis h e d itse lf as th e d o m in a n t u tility th e r e . T h e p r io r histo ry
o f c o m p e titio n , m e r g e r , a n d a c q u isitio n in S a n F ra n c isc o w as s im ila r to th a t
in o th e r u r b a n c e n te r s su c h as C h ic a g o . As in C h ic a g o , a n E d iso n d ire c tc u r r e n t lig h tin g syslem w as th e n u c le u s o f e a rly s u p p ly in S an F rancisco.
T h e E d iso n L ig h t & P o w e r C o m p a n y o f S an F ra n cisco , e sta b lish e d in 1891
a n d f u n d e d in p a r t by th e E d iso n G e n e ra l E lec tric C o m p a n y o f N ew Y ork,
m e rg e d w ith th e S an F ran c isc o G as L ight C o m p a n y in 1896 to fo rm th e
San F ra n c isc o G as & E le ctric C o m p a n y . T h is c o m p a n y a c q u ire d c o m p e tin g
S an F ra n c isc o utilities d u r in g th e n e x t d e c a d e b e fo re b e in g a c q u ire d by
C G & E . (See Fig. X .9.)
J u s t as N ew Y o rk fin a n c ie rs h a d s tim u la te d th e fo rm a tio n o f th e Bay
C o u n tie s P o w e r C o m p a n y a n d th e tra n sm issio n f ro m C o lg a te lo O a k la n d ,
N. W. H alse y & C o m p a n y , a N ew Y ork in v e stm e n t a n d b r o k e ra g e h o u se,
lo o k th e le ad in m e rg in g th e S an F ra n c isc o u tility a n d C G & E lo fo rm a
new c o r p o r a te e n tity , th e Pacific G as & E lectric C o m p a n y . H alsey & C o m
p a n y w as a c q u a in te d w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f C a lifo rn ia p o w e r, h a v in g
u n d e rw r itte n a $3 m illio n b o n d issue o f th e V alley C o u n tie s P o w e r C o m
p a n y , a su b sid ia ry o f Bay C o u n tie s P o w e r C o m p a n y . M a rtin a n d d e Sabla
a p p ro a c h e d H alsey a g a in in 1905 w ith th e p ro p o s a l th a t it o rg a n iz e th e
m e rg e r . A fte r a n a u d it a n d e n g in e e rin g s tu d y by H alsey a u d ito rs a n d
e n g in e e rs , th e fin a n cial h o u se a g re e d .
1 h e c re a tio n of th e new u tility w as a n in g e n io u s e x e rc ise o f e a ste rn
fin an c ial e x p e rtis e . I h e Pacific G as & E lectric C o m p a n y (PG & E ) was in
c o r p o ra te d in O c to b e r 1905 w ith a ca p ita l o f $ 2 0 m illio n in c o m m o n stock.

277

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E CO A L

Figure X.9. PGtdE mergers and

consolidations. Courtesy o f the Pacific Gas
(d Electric Co., San Francisco. Calif.

C illc rrti Elec Lite: (

Electric Cc^pi-TScuih Y -b i '.Vate:

Slasdarc; E.et Co.

Lt Y.'eiun, Power Coccpa-y of

Sin loaq Lpc asd Power
Sir. Jciqnin Power Co.
San Joaquia Electric
Midland Ccunriej Public Ser
Corporation
tern Slates Gas and Elec. Co.

19:0-15:7

Calif. Telephone and Light Co.

$ 1 0 m illio n in p r e f e r r e d sto c k , $ 1 0 m illio n in c o lla te ra l tr u s t b o n d s, a n d

$4 .5 m illion in d e b e n tu r e s . T h e Pacific G as 8c E lectric C o m p a n y a c q u ire d
th e a lm o st $ 1 6 m illio n in o u ts ta n d in g stock o f th e S an F ra n cisc o G as 8c
E lectric C o m p a n y (SFG & E ) by p a y m e n t o f P G & E b o n d s (w o rth $ 10 m illion)
a n d c ash , so m e o f w h ich d e r iv e d fro m th e sale o f PG & E d e b e n tu re s . T h e
o u ts ta n d in g stock o f th e C a lifo rn ia G as & E lectric C o m p a n y (C G & E ) was
a c q u ire d by PG & E in e x c h a n g e fo r PG & E p r e f e r r e d stock w o rth $ 1 0 m il
lion. T h e stock p u rc h a s e d fro m th e S an F ran c isco G as & E lec tric C o m p a n y ,
w hich re ta in e d its c o r p o r a te id e n tity , was d e p o s ite d w ith th e U n io n T rust
C o m p a n y as se c u rity fo r th e PG & E b o n d issue.
A t a b o u t th e s a m e lim e th a t PG & E w as i n c o r p o ra te d , H alsey in c o rp o ra te d
th e Pacific G as & E lectric In v e stm e n t C o m p a n y , th e p u rp o s e o f w hich was
lo a c q u ire a n d h o ld th e stocks, b o n d s, m o rtg a g e s, a n d so o n , o f o th e r
c o rp o ra tio n s . T h e c o m p a n y s a u th o riz e d c ap ital was $ 2 0 m illion. H alsey
tu r n e d o v e r to th e in v e stm e n t c o m p a n y th e o p tio n s lo p u rc h a s e th e slock
o f C G & E a n d SFG & E a n d a g re e d to a d v a n c e n o t m o re th a n $4 .5 m illion
(se c u re d by n o te ) lo th e in v e stm e n t c o m p a n y . T h e in v e stm e n t c o m p a n y
gave all b u t 10 o f its s h a re s to H alsey fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f PG & E, a ssig n m e n t
o f rig h ts, a d v a n c e o f fu n d s, a n d H alsey s y e a r o f ex p e n siv e in v e stig a tio n s
a n d n e g o tia tio n s. The in v e stm e n t c o m p a n y th e n tra n s f e r r e d to th e PG & E
th e rig h ts a n d th e a d v a n c e o f cash w hich it n e e d e d to pay to th e SFG & E
fo r its stock. In r e tu r n , PG & E tu r n e d o v e r all b u t 15 s h a re s o f its co m m o n
slock to th e in v e stm e n t c o m p a n y . As a re su lt o f this tra in o f tra n sa c tio n s,
N. S. H alsey & C o m p a n y re ce iv ed c o m m o n stock o f th e in v e stm e n t c o m

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

p a n y w o rth p o te n tia lly $ 2 0 m illio n b e c a u se o f th e $ 2 0 m illio n in PG & E
stock th e in v e s tm e n t c o m p a n y o w n e d . T h e sh a re s o f th e in v e stm e n t c o m
p a n y , it was u n d e r s to o d , w e re d iv id e d e q u a lly a m o n g H alsey, d e S abla,
M a rlin , F ra n k D ru m (a S an F ra n c isc o fin a n c ie r w h o p a r tic ip a te d in d e
S abla u tility e n te rp r is e s ) , a n d th e c o m p a n y s tr e a s u r e r , in a p o te n tia l $20
m illio n r e tu r n f o r c r e a tin g p r o p e r ty o f v a lu e in ex ce ss o f th e v a lu e o f th e
tw o fo rm e rly i n d e p e n d e n t u tilitie s.27 Pacific G as & E le ctric b e g a n b u sin e ss
in J a n u a ry 1906.28
T h e S a n F ra n c isc o c o m p a n y b r o u g h t s te a m p o w e r p la n ts to th e new
P acific G as & E lec tric C o m p a n y . T h e s e p la n ts c o m p le m e n te d th e P G & E s
h y d r o e le c tr ic p o w e r by c a rry in g p e a k lo a d s w h e n d e m a n d ro se h ig h a n d
w h e n w in te r fre e z e s o r d r o u g h ts lo w e re d th e ca p a c ity o f th e h y d ro e le c tric
sy stem . T h e ste a m p la n ts also a id e d in re g u la tin g th e w h o le system bec au se
o f th e ir ability to r e s p o n d ra p id ly to lo a d c h a n g e s . S u c h a sym b io tic re la
tio n s h ip w as n o t u n u s u a l a t th is p o in t in th e h isto ry o f e le ctric al utilities,
b u t th e use o f p e tr o le u m - f ir e d b o ile rs f o r th e s te a m p la n ts w as. A c o n flu
e n c e o f c irc u m s ta n c e s m a d e C a lifo rn ia p e tr o le u m a v aila b le a t a b o u t the
sa m e tim e th a t h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r r e a c h e d S a n F ra n c isc o . In 1907 PG & E s
la rg e st ste a m p la n t, lo c a te d in S an F ra n c isc o , u se d 5 4 6 ,0 0 0 b a rre ls o f C a l
ifo r n ia c r u d e a n d g e n e r a te d 73 m illio n kw h. In 1913 th e c o m p a n y s h y
d r o e le c tric ca p a c ity o f o v e r 1 23,000 h .p . w as s u p p le m e n te d by o il-fire d
ste a m p la n ts in S an F ran c isco , O a k la n d , S a c ra m e n to , a n d S an J o s e w ith a
c o m b in e d c ap a c ity o f m o re th a n 110,0 0 0 kw .29
A b r ie f su rv e y o f th e h isto ry o f th e c o m p a n y u p to 1914 will sh o w th a t
by th e n th e tr a n s itio n fro m a p o w e r c o m p a n y to a c o m p a n y p re s id in g ov e r
an in te g ra te d re g io n a l sy stem w as c o m p le te (see Fig. X. 10). P G & E h a d
b e c o m e th e la rg e s t sy stem o n th e Pacific C o a st a n d r a n k e d a m o n g A m e ric a s
five la rg e st u tilities. O p e r a tin g in th ir ty c o u n tie s o f c e n tr a l C a lifo rn ia , th e
c o m p a n y , v irtu a lly a sin g le o p e r a tin g u n it o f in te r c o n n e c te d p la n ts, s u p
p lie d a n a re a o f 3 7 ,0 0 0 s q u a re m iles a n d a p o p u la tio n o f 1.3 m illio n (1910
ce n su s). P G & E h a d 36 p e r c e n t o f th e e le c tric a n d gas b u sin e ss in C a lifo rn ia .
T h e n u m b e r o f h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts r e m a in e d a b o u t th e s a m e d u r in g th e
first e ig h t y e a rs o f th e c o m p a n y s e x iste n c e , b u t th e in sta lle d h y d ro e le c tric
ca p ac ity in c re a s e d by 64 p e rc e n t. T h e n u m b e r o f ste a m p la n ts d e c lin e d ,
b u t la r g e r u n its b r o u g h t a 160 p e rc e n t in c re a se in c ap a city . T h e c o n s u m p
tio n o f oil as fu e l in c re a s e d . T h e p e a k d e m a n d o n th e system in c re a se d
fro m 6 3 ,0 0 0 h .p . in 1906 to 160,0 0 0 h .p . in 1 913.30
T h e re la tiv e in c re a se in s te a m -g e n e r a tin g c ap a c ity as c o m p a re d to hy
d r o e le c tr ic ca p a c ity is n o ta b le . T h e u tility h a d b e g u n , in 1906, w ith alm o st
tw ice as m u c h h y d ro e le c tric p la n t as ste a m p la n t a n d w ith e x te n siv e w a te r
p o w e r rig h ts in th e S ie rra s. T h e d e c r e a s in g p ric e o f C a lifo rn ia c r u d e oil
a n d th e in c re a s in g B ay A re a lo a d p a rtia lly e x p la in th e c o m p a n y s fa ilu re
to invest in a d d itio n a l h y d ro e le c tric facilities. A n o th e r re a so n f o r n o t ac Colem an. P.G. i E. o f California. pp. 230-31.
Ibid., pp. 227-33.
m Pacific (.as 8c Electric Co., Eighth A nnual Report o f the Pacific Gas and Electric Company for
the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 1913 (San Francisco: PG&E. 1914). D uring the winter of
1910, the com pany installed its first steam tu rb in e; four years later 85 percent o f its steam
capacity was the tu rb in e type.
,n Ibid.. p. 11.

279

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E CO A L

Figure X .10. California Gas Id Electric

Co. (later (PGldE) distribution and
transmission system, central California,
1904. Courtesy o f the Pacific Gas Id
Electric Co., San Francisco, Calif.

q u ir in g a d d itio n a l fa cilities was th e a vailability o f low -cost h y d ro e le c tric

p o w e r fro m th e G re a t W e ste rn P o w e r C o m p a n y . A lth o u g h G re a t W e ste rn
h a d o w n e d a p o w e r lin e fro m B ig B e n d in th e S ie rra s to O a k la n d since
1909, il h a d la ck e d a d is trib u tio n sy stem in S a n F ra n cisc o , a n d so it w h o le
sale d p o w e r lo Pacific G as & E lectric fo r sale th e r e .
In 1911 G re a t W e ste rn finally a c q u ire d a d is trib u tio n system in San
F ran c isco , a n d in 1912 it laid a tra n sm issio n c able u n d e r th e Bay fro m
O a k la n d to S an F ran c isco . A n tic ip a tin g th e loss o f w h o lesale p o w e r. Pacific
G as 8c E lectric e m b a rk e d o n a h y d ro e le c tric p ro je c t to in c re a se th e g e n
e ra tin g ca p ac ity o f th e c o m p a n y s system by 80 p e rc e n t. T h e D ru m sta tio n ,
th e first p o w e r p la n t in a re la te d p ro je c te d series o f six, ca m e in to o p e r a tio n
in 1913, a d d in g m o re th a n 3 3 ,0 0 0 h y d ro e le c tric h o rs e p o w e r to th e Pacific
G as & E lectric sy stem . D ru m a c c o u n te d b o th fo r th e first s u b sta n tia l in
c re a se in th e sy ste m s h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r since th e fo u n d in g o f th e c o m
p a n y a n d fo r th e rela tiv e rise o f h y d ro e le c tric g e n e r a tio n to th e level o f
ste a m g e n e ra tio n in 1913.31
T h e p u rp o s e o f th e D ru m p ro je c t was lo utilize th e w a te rsh e d o f th e
S o u lh Y uba a n d B e a r riv e rs. T h e sco p e o f th e c o n c e p t e x te n d e d fa r b e y o n d

11 For accounts o f the project see ibid.. pp. 12, 14; and Rudolph W. Van N orden, "L ike
Spau ld in g -D ru m Power Development." journal of Electricity 31 (1913): 525-41.

280

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

th e N e v a d a , Y u b a , a n d C o lg a te s c h e m e s o f slightly m o re th a n a d e c a d e
e a rlie r, h o w ev e r. R ig h ts a n d facilities h a d b e e n a c q u ire d in th e 12 0 -sq u arem ile w a te rs h e d in 1905. T w o c o m p a n y e n g in e e rs , F ra n k B a u m a n d J . H.
W ise, th e first a g r a d u a te o f S ta n fo rd a n d th e o th e r o f th e U n iv e rsity o f
C a lifo rn ia a t B e rk e le y , fo re sa w th e e n o r m o u s p o te n tia l o f th e w a te rsh e d
fo r p o w e r a n d fo r irrig a tio n a n d in 1905 b e g a n s u rv e y in g a n d p la n n in g .
T h e tw o m e n w e re in c h a r g e w h e n c o n s tru c tio n o n th e D ru m p o w e r p la n t
b e g a n in 1912, b u t W ise d ie d la te r th a t y ea r.
T h e c o m p re h e n s iv e p la n in 1912 c a lle d fo r a n in c re a se in th e ca p ac ity
o f L ak e S p a u ld in g to 9 7 ,0 0 0 a c re - fe e t in o r d e r to u tiliz e m o re o f th e flow
o f th e S o u th Y u b a R iv e r a n d th e r u n o f f fro m th e w a te rs h e d . D ru m a n d
five o th e r p o w e r h o u s e s w e re to b e s te p p e d a lo n g th e B e a r R iv er a n d alo n g
a rtific ia l w a te rw ay s f o r a d is ia n c e o f a b o u t 50 m iles in o r d e r to m a k e use
o f th e 4 ,6 0 0 -fo o l d if f e r e n c e in e le v a tio n fro m th e re s e r v o ir to th e last
p o w e rh o u se . T h e u ltim a te capacity o f th e six p lan ts was p ro je cted as 190,750
h .p . A 1 10-m ile sle e l-to w e r tra n s m is s io n lin e c a rrie d th e p o w e r at 100,000
volts to C o rd e lia , Pacific G a s 8c E le c tric s lo a d c e n te r a n d s w itc h in g s ta tio n
n e a r th e C a rq u in e z s p a n across th e San F rancisco Bay. A fte r passing th ro u g h
th e last o f th e p o w e r p la n ts , th e h a rn e s s e d w a te r was to su p p ly a n irrig a tio n
sy stem .
C o n s tr u c tio n o f p o in t-to - p o in t tr a n s m is s io n lin es f ro m th e d is ta n t m o u n
ta in s to th e e n e r g y - s h o r t c o a st w as c a rr ie d o u t by o th e r u tilities e lse w h e re
in C a lifo rn ia . T h e p r e e m in e n c e o f C a lifo rn ia a m o n g re g io n s o f th e w o rld
th a t w e re d e v e lo p in g lo n g -d is ta n c e tra n s m is s io n sy stem s p r io r to W o rld
W a r 1 w as m a d e c le a r by th e U .S. C e n s u s B u r e a u s listin g o f tra n sm issio n
sy stem s o p e r a tin g a t 7 0 ,0 0 0 volts o r m o re t h r o u g h o u t th e w o rld in 1914.
T w e n ty - e ig h t o f th e sy ste m s w e re lo c a te d in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d , as
o b se rv e d e a r lie r, e ig h t o f th e s e w e re in C a lifo rn ia . F o u r, in c lu d in g Pacific
G as 8c E le c tric s D ru m -to - C o rd e lia sy ste m , te r m in a te d in th e S a n F ran cisc o
Bay a re a , a n d fo u r s e rv e d th e Los A n g e le s re g io n . M ich ig a n h a d th r e e
tra n sm issio n sy stem s o p e r a tin g at 7 0 ,0 0 0 volts o r a b o v e, b u t n o o th e r A m e r
ican s ta te h a d so m a n y . C a n a d a a n d Italy led th e o th e r n a tio n s w ith fo u r
ea c h ; E n g la n d h a d n o n e ; a n d G e rm a n y h a d tw o, b o th o f w h ic h w e re coalfire d p la n ts (see Fig. X .l I).32
T h e h isto ry o f Pacific G as & E le ctric is re p r e s e n ta tiv e in m a n y ways o f
th e h isto ry o f th e o th e r utility c o m p a n ie s o p e r a tin g th e m a jo r C a lifo rn ia
tra n sm issio n lin es a n d re la te d g e n e r a tio n a n d d is trib u tio n system s. T h e s e
utilities like Pacific G as 8c E le ctric r e s u lte d fro m m e rg e rs o f p o w e r tr a n s
m ission c o m p a n ie s a n d u r b a n utilitie s. In n o r th e r n C a lifo rn ia th e G re a t
W e ste rn P o w e r C o m p a n y c o m p e te d w ith Pacific G as 8c E lectric fo r th e
O a k la n d a n d S an F ra n c isc o m a rk e ts . W ith h y d ro e le c tric facilities at Big
B e n d in th e S ie rra s , G re a t W e s te rn also b u ilt u p a d is trib u tio n system in
th e Bay a re a by a c q u irin g sm a ll c o m p a n ie s th a t su rv iv e d a lo n g sid e th e San
F ra n cisco G as 8c E lec tric C o m p a n y a n d th e re b y a v o id e d m e r g e r w ith Pacific
G as 8c E lectric. H e ld by a n e a s te r n p o w e r tr u s t w ith h e a d q u a r te r s in New
Je rs e y , h o w e v e r, G r e a t W e s te rn m e rg e d w ith its c o m p e tito r in 1930. A n
o th e r o f th e n o r th e r n C a lifo rn ia lo n g -d ista n c e tra n sm issio n e n te r p r is e s ,

** Bureau o f the Census. Centra! Electric Light and Power Stations, fblclotil facing p. 132.

281

C A L IF O R N IA W H IT E CO A L
th e S ie rra & S an F ran cisc o C o m p a n y , so ld all o f its p o w e r to S an F ran c isc o
tra n sit o p e r a to rs , b u t Pacific G as & E lectric a c q u ire d it as well in 19 2 7 .33
T w o o f th e s o u th e r n C a lifo rn ia u tilities, th e Pacific L ig h t 8c P o w e r C o m
p a n y (PL & P) a n d th e S o u th e r n S ie rra s P o w e r C o m p a n y , h a d p o in t-to -p o in t
p o w e r tra n sm issio n o f g r e a te r le n g th th a n th e c o m p a n ie s in th e n o r th . In
1913 Pacific L ig h t 8c P o w e r c o m p le te d th e 2 4 1 -m ile B ig C r e e k - to - L o s
A n g e le s tra n s m is s io n .34 It c o m p e te d in th e Los A n g eles a re a w ith th e S o u th
e r n C a lifo rn ia E d iso n C o m p a n y , w hich o p e ra te d th e 1 1 7 -m ile -p lu s K e rn
R iv e r - to - L o s A n g e le s tra n sm issio n . Pacific L ig h t 8c P o w e r s u p p lie d p o w e r
fro m B ig C re e k to th e L os A n g e le s R ailw ay C o rp o ra tio n a n d th e Pacific
E lec tric Railw ay, th e la rg e st in te rc ity railw ay system in th e U n ite d S la te s.
By 1915 H a r ry E. H u n tin g d o n , th e railw ay a n d in d u s tr ia l fin a n c ie r, o w n e d
s u b sta n tia lly all o f th e slock o f Pacific L ig h t 8c P o w e r a n d all o f th e slock
o f th e Los A n g e le s R ailw ay C o rp o ra tio n . In 1917 PL & E m e rg e d w ith S o u th
e r n C a lifo rn ia E d is o n .35 T h e S o u th e r n S ie rra s P o w e r C o m p a n y , la te r th e
C a lifo rn ia E lec tric P o w er C o m p a n y , was th e first to tra n s m it p o w e r fro m
th e S ie rra s s o u th w a r d to th e s o u th e r n C a lifo rn ia c o m m u n itie s. T h e c o m
p a n y 's B is h o p - to - S a n B e r n a r d in o line, s tre tc h in g ac ro ss th e M ojave D e sert
a n d u sin g 2 ,0 0 0 stee l to w ers, e x te n d e d 2 38 m iles. A n e tw o rk o f d is trib u tio n
lin es ra d ia te d o u t f ro m S an B e r n a r d in o in to R iv ersid e a n d S a n B e rn a rd in o
co u n tie s.
T h e m o st u n o r th o d o x o f th e C a lifo rn ia p o w e r tra n sm issio n a n d d is tri
b u tio n u tilities w as th e L os A n g e le s a q u e d u c t sy stem w ith its tra n sm issio n
lines e x te n d in g f ro m S an F ran c isco to L os A n g e le s o v e r a d ista n c e o f 383
m iles a t 1 00,000 volts. T h e sy ste m w as u n u s u a l b e c a u se a n e x te n d e d a q
u e d u c t w as u se d to su p p ly w a te r to Los A n g e le s, th e w a te r was u se d to
g e n e ra te e le c tric p o w e r, a n d th e system w as m u n ic ip a lly o w n e d .
T h e tra n s m is s io n lin es a n d re la te d irrig a tio n sy stem s o f s o u th e r n C ali
fo rn ia , like th o s e in th e n o r th , tr a n s fo rm e d a re g io n by N a tu r e le ft w ith
a w holly in su ffic ie n t w a te r su p p ly a n d p a rc h e d fro m lack o f it in to [one]
o f th e g a r d e n sp o ts o f th e c o n tin e n t.36 T h e p o w e r system s in th e so u th ,
a lo n g w ith th o s e in th e n o r th , a lso m o v e d th e e n tir e sta te to th e fo r e f r o n t
a m o n g e le c lric -p o w e r- g e n e ra tin g re g io n s. As e a rly as 1902 a n d still in 1912,
C a lifo rn ia ra n k e d se c o n d o n ly to N ew Y ork S ta te in th e c ap a city o f w a te rp o w e re d p r im e m o v e rs in c e n tra l e le ctric sta tio n s; a n d by 1912 C a lifo rn ia
h a d risen fro m se v e n th to fo u r th b e h in d N ew Y o rk , Illinois, a n d P e n n
sylvania in ste a m -p o w e r-sta tio n ca p acity. T h e c o m b in a tio n p la ced th e s la te
a t th a t tim e se c o n d to N ew Y ork in th e g e n e ra l c a te g o ry o f p rim a ry p o w e r
ca p ac ity in c e n tra l ele c tric statio n s. A n d in th e ra n k in g o f th e sta te s ac
c o r d in g to to tal k ilo w a tt-h o u r o u tp u t, C a lifo rn ia s c e n tra l sta tio n s, com -

Sketches o t the history o f the Pacific Coast utilities can be found in the seventy-fifth
anniversary issue o f Electrical IV/. 129 (1962).
T h e Big C rc ek -lo -L o s Angeles transmission line, because it o perated with the highest
voltage, drew upon the largest capacity, and was the longest o f the major world transmission
systems, attracted considerable publicity. See. for exam ple, A. J. Farnsw orth, "T he Big Creek
Power D evelopm ent. Slone ( Webster Journal 1 1 (1912): 167-75; J. H. A ndcrton, "Electrical
Features o f the Big Creek Development," ibid. 13 (1913): 326-36; I I. A. H agcm an. The Big
Creek Development: H ydraulic and Mechanical Features," ibid., pp. 228-47
"M erger o f California Hydroelectric Systems," Electrical World 68 (1916): 1134-35.
M"A Notable Transm ission System," p. 375.

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Figure X.I1. Transmission systems of the world operating at and above 70,000 volts, 1914, ranked according to operating voltage. A = mesh grouping (three phases joined as
equilateral triangle). Y = star grouping (three phases united at a common junction). From table compiled by Selby Hoar as a supplement to Electrical W orld. 25 Apnl 1914. and revised
and brought up to date by Hoar for the Hydro-Electro Section, Xational Electric Light Convention, Philadelphia, Pa.. 2-5 June 1914 Reprinted in Bureau of the Cemiu. C entral
Electric Light and Power Stations, foldout facing p. 1)2. Data on transmission lines not included here.

284

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
m erc ial a n d m u n ic ip a l, w e re s e c o n d o n ly 10 N ew Y o rk S la te s.37 C o m p a riso n
o f C a lifo rn ia w ith th e le a d in g e le c tric - p o w e r-g e n e ra tin g stales N ew Y ork,
Illinois, a n d P e n n sy lv a n ia re v e a ls th a t C a lifo rn ia h a d th e larg est p e r
c e n ta g e in c re a se in kilo w a tt cap a c ity a n d in k ilo w a tt-h o u r o u tp u t d u r in g
th e d e c a d e 1 9 0 2 -1 2 .

B ureau o f the Census. Central Electric Light and Power Stations, pp. 30. 33. 34. 46. ami
5 0 .1
lie statistics are lor private and tntiniripally owned central stations supplying the public:
see ibid., p. 15.

CHAPTER

XI

War and Acquired

Characteristics

ng in eers

and m anagers engaged in prediction p re fer the ex tra p o

la tio n o f tr e n d s to th e fo r m u la tio n o f c o m p le x s c e n a rio s based on

likely in te ra c tio n s o f tr e n d s a n d c o n tin g e n c ie s su g g e ste d by h isto rica l p r e c
e d e n ts a n d an a lo g ie s. B e fo re W o rld W a r I th ey u n d o u b te d ly a n tic ip a te d
th a t th e tr e n d s o f th e p a st d e c a d e o r so w ould e x te n d in to th e fu tu re .
B e cau se o f th e m o m e n tu m o f th e ele ctric su p p ly in d u s try , th is was a r e a
s o n a b le a s s u m p tio n . M o re o v e r, th e fac to rs in flu e n c in g th e g r o w th th e
c o n te x t in w hich it o c c u r r e d w ere, by im p lic a tio n , p ro je c te d in to th e fu
tu re . T h e c o m b in a tio n o f g ro w in g m o m e n tu m a n d re in fo rc in g c o n te x t was
e x p e c te d to o v e rw h e lm c o n tin g e n t p e r tu rb a tio n s . H isto ry , o f c o u rse , raises
g ra v e d o u b ts a b o u t e x tra p o la tio n s , b u t th e s tu d y o f h isto ry is n o t r e q u ire d
o f e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs .
H isto ry is a re c o r d , a m o n g o th e r th in g s, o f c o n tin g e n c ie s, ev en o f u n
a n tic ip a te d c a ta s tro p h e s , n a tu r a l a n d m a n -m a d e . In A u g u st I9 M a m an m a d e c a ta s tro p h e s tru c k E u ro p e a n d la te r s p re a d to A m e ric a. T he im
m e d ia te e ffe c ts a n d c o n se q u e n c e s o f W o rld W a r 1 h av e b e e n d o c u m e n te d
by h isto ria n s. T h e e ffe c ts o f th e w ar o n th e e v o lv in g ele ctric p o w e r system s,
h o w e v e r, h a v e b e e n o v e rlo o k e d . T h e s e system s, too, w e re a ffe c te d by th e
w ar a n d a c q u ire d c h a ra c te ristic s th a t su rv iv ed in to p e a ce tim e .
T h e p e r tu r b a tio n s a n d la stin g c h a n g e s b r o u g h t by c a ta s tro p h e s such as
w ar re su lt fro m fo rc es th a t a re s tr o n g e n o u g h to d is ru p t th e m o m e n tu m
o f system s. O r, to use a d iff e re n t m e ta p h o r, a c h a n g e in th e e n v iro n m e n t
selects o u t d iff e re n t c h a ra c te ristic s. W o rld W a r I, fo r in sta n c e , a lte re d th e
re la tiv e in flu e n c e o f th e v a rio u s c o n te x tu a l fac to rs a ffe c tin g elec tric p o w e r
system s. E n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs w ho, be ca u se o f th e ir e x p e r ie n c e a n d
sp ecial c o m p e te n c e , w e re c o m m itte d to sm alln ess o f scale n e v e rth e le ss ac
k n o w le d g e d th e p rim a c y o f o u tp u t w hen p e rso n a l a n d n a tio n a l survival
se e m e d to d e p e n d o n it. L ikew ise, c o m p a n ie s a n d g o v e rn m e n ts th a t w ere
ec o n o m ic ally a n d id eologically c o m m itte d to vested in te re st a n d a u th o rity
y ield ed in th e face o f th e s a m e im p e ra tiv e . A h isto ry o f p o w e r su p p ly d u r in g
th e w a r will sh o w this.
B ec au se te c h n o lo g y is o fte n m a n ife ste d in m ate ria l f o r m mac hin e s,
p r o c e ssin g e q u ip m e n t, .stru ctu res, a n d tools its lasting effe c ts a re easily

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

o b se rv e d . Id e a s a n d e v e n ts, h is to ria n s a r g u e , h av e e ffe c ts f a r b e y o n d th e
tim e in w hich th e y o c c u r, b u t th e ir e ffe c ts a r e less visible. In th e case o f
te c h n o lo g y , e v en th e c asu a l o b s e rv e r k now s th a t h e is s u r r o u n d e d by th in g s
th a t w ere m a d e in th e p a st, th in g s th a t w e re o fte n m a d e u n d e r su b stan tially
d if f e r e n t c irc u m sta n c e s. In a sen se , th e r e f o r e , su rv iv in g te c h n o lo g y b rin g s
to th e p re s e n t th e c h a r a c te r o f th e p a st, a p a st th a t im p o se d its c h a ra c te ristic s
o n th e te c h n o lo g y w h e n it w as first in v e n te d , d e v e lo p e d , a n d in tro d u c e d
in to use. T h e te c h n o lo g y o f e le c tric p o w e r sy ste m s th a t w as in tro d u c e d
d u r in g W o rld W a r I n o t o n ly c a u se d p e r tu r b a tio n s in tr e n d s b u t a lso c a rr ie d
in to p e a c e tim e c e rta in a sp e c ts o f th e w a rtim e e n v ir o n m e n t. T h e e x tre m e ly
la rg e ele c tric g e n e r a tin g sta tio n s th a t w ere b uilt to fill th e p re ssin g a n d
u n u s u a l n e e d s fo r e le c tric p o w e r d u r in g W o rld W a r 1 su rv iv e d th e w ar
a n d b e c a m e , in a se n se, a so lu tio n in s e a rc h o f a p ro b le m . A n o th e r , less
ob v io u s case is th e la rg e n u m b e r o f in te rc o n n e c tio n s o f ele c tric lig h t a n d
p o w e r sy stem s th a t w e re m a d e d u r in g th e e m e r g e n c ie s o f w a rtim e a n d
c a r rie d o v e r in to p e a c e tim e .
T h is c h a p te r c o n sid e rs h ow w a r b r o u g h t th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f G e rm a n y
a n d th e U n ite d S tates to fu n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o w e r p la n ts o f u n
p re c e d e n te d size. T h e r e a d e r s a tte n tio n is also d ir e c te d to th e se rie s o f
w a rtim e in te r c o n n e c tio n s in G r e a t B rita in a n d th e U n ite d S la te s th a t re
su lte d fro m th e u n u s u a l, e v en ra d ic a l, d e m a n d s th a t w e re m a d e o n fo rm e rly
re lu c ta n t u tilitie s by c e n tra l g o v e r n m e n ts c o n c e rn e d a b o u t su rv iv al. A fte r
n o tin g th e c re a tio n o f w a rtim e a rtifa c ts, th is c h a p te r f u r th e r o b se rv e s th e
e ffo rts m a d e by th e th r e e g o v e rn m e n ts to m a in ta in in p e a c e tim e th e m o
m e n tu m o f th e ir w a rtim e p la n n in g a n d n u r tu r in g o f te c h n o lo g y . T h e e f
fo rts fa ile d in th e th r e e cases c o n s id e re d h e re . T h e r e a so n fo r th e fa ilu re
was in p a r t a c o n se rv a tiv e re a c tio n c o m p a ra b le to th a t w hich is o fte n e n
c o u n te r e d in th e p olitical re a lm a f te r ra d ic a l c h a n g e s h a v e b e e n in tro d u c e d .
O n c e th e d is ru p tiv e fo rc e in th is case, w a r is re m o v e d , th e p r e w a r c o n
te x t a g a in prev a ils. T h e r e w ere o th e r c au ses, h o w e v e r, a n d th e y d if fe re d
fro m c o u n tr y to c o u n try .
T h e fact th a t th e e x ig e n c ie s o f w a r c a u se d th e a c c e le ra te d d e v e lo p m e n t
o f c e rta in te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a ra c te ris tic s in th is in sta n c e , la rg e size a n d in
te rc o n n e c tio n sh o w s a g a in th a t th e ra te a n d d ir e c tio n o f te c h n o lo g ica l
c h a n g e c an b e s h a p e d by n o n te c h n o lo g ic a l fac to rs. In o th e r w o rd s, te c h
no lo g y is n o t n e cessarily a sim p le e x tr a p o la tio n o f its p a st, o r a w o rk in g
o u t o l in h e r e n t te c h n o lo g ic a l im p lic a tio n s. The cases c o n s id e r e d su g g est
th a t w ar d id n o t so m u c h s tim u la te th e in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f new
te c h n o lo g ie s as c le a r aw ay th e p o litic al, e c o n o m ic , a n d o th e r n o n le c h n o logical fa c to rs th a t p r e v e n te d o r r e ta r d e d th e u tiliz a tio n o f e x istin g te c h
n o lo g ie s. T h e im p e ra tiv e s o f w a r d id not re v e rse th e d ir e c tio n o f te c h n o
logical e v o lu tio n n o r d id th e y ca u se m u ta tio n s ; ra th e r , th e y b ro k e a
c o n se rv a tiv e c ru st th a t h a d r e s tra in e d a d ju s tm e n ts in c o u rs e a n d velocity.
T h e w a rtim e h isto ry o f e le c tric p o w e r s u p p ly su g g e sts th a t a society u n d e r
th e in flu e n c e o f ev e n m o r e p re ssin g d e m a n d s a m o ra l e q u iv a le n t o f w ar
co u ld a lte r th e s h a p e o f te c h n o lo g y e v en m o re dra stically .
In th e U n ite d S ta te s a n o u ts ta n d in g in sta n c e o f a m a m m o th a r tifa c t built
u n d e r th e e m e rg e n c y c irc u m sta n c e s o f w ar, a n d s ta n d in g like a la rg e w hite
e le p h a n t at w a rs e n d , was th e n itra te -fix a tio n p la n t a n d its p a rtia lly c o m
p le te d h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r s ta tio n a n d d a m lo ca ted o n th e T en n e sse e R iver

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
a t M uscle S h o als, A la b a m a .1 T h e la rg e d e m a n d f o r n itra te s u se d in fe rtiliz e r
a n d e x p lo siv es, c o u p le d w ith A m e ric a s te n u o u s d e p e n d e n c e u p o n C h ile 's
n itra te m o n o p o ly , p e r s u a d e d th e U .S. C o n g re ss ev e n b e f o r e th e c o u n tr y
e n te r e d W o rld W a r I to in c lu d e in th e N a tio n a l D e fe n se A ct o f 1916
p ro v isio n fo r th e c o n s tr u c tio n , w ith in th e U n ite d S tates, o f facilities c a p a b le
o f fix in g a tm o s p h e ric n itro g e n . A lre a d y in G e rm a n y , se v e ra l n itro g e n fix a lio n p ro c e sse s h a d b e e n d e v e lo p e d , in c lu d in g th e h ig h -p re s s u re a n d
h ig h -te m p e ra lu re H abe r-B o sch process.2 Such a p lan t was built in th e U n ited
S ta te s a t S h e ffie ld , A la b a m a , b u t th e g o v e r n m e n t, d o u b tf u l o f th e ability
o f A m e ric a n e n g in e e rs a n d scie n tists to h a n d le th e H a b e r-B o sc h p ro c e ss,
also c o n tr a c te d w ith th e A m e ric a n C y a n a m id C o m p a n y fo r th e c o n s tr u c tio n
o f a cy a n am id e -p ro c essin g p lan t. In co m p a riso n to th e H ab er-B o sch m e th o d ,
th e c y a n a m id e p ro c e ss c o n s u m e d la rg e a m o u n ts o f e n e rg y ; th u s th e p la n
was to b u ild th e M uscle S h o als h y d ro e le c tric s ta tio n a n d d a m a n d u se its
c h e a p p o w e r to s u p p ly th e c y a n a m id e p la n t.
T h e M uscle S h o a ls n itr a te facility was c o m p le te d j u s t b e fo re th e w ar
e n d e d in N o v e m b e r 1918. C lose to $ 7 0 m illio n h a d b e e n in v e ste d in it, b u t
n o n itr a te s f ro m it h a d b e e n u se d d u r in g th e w ar. A tra n sm issio n lin e h a d
b e e n e re c te d to b rin g p o w e r fro m a ste a m p o w e r s ta tio n b e c a u se th e d a m
a n d h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r sta tio n w ere n o t y et c o m p le te d . T h e g o v e rn m e n t
c o n tin u e d c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e se u n til 1925, by w hich lim e a n a d d itio n a l
$ 45 m illio n h a d b e e n in v e s te d .3 G o v e rn m e n t fin a n c in g p r o v id e d th e c ap ita l
in v e stm e n t o f m o re th a n $ 1 0 0 m illio n in th e n itr a te p la n t a n d h y d ro e le c tric
facility, fo r p riv a te c a p ita l w as re lu c ta n t to in vest th e la rg e su m s d e m a n d e d
by th e h ig h first co st b u t relativ ely low o p e r a tin g cost h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts .4
A s th e valu es a n d im p e ra tiv e s o f w a rtim e fa d e d , M uscle S h o a ls sto o d like
a n o rg a n is m th a t h a d p a sse d in to a fo re ig n ev en h o stile e n v ir o n m e n t.
W a rtim e d e m a n d s fo r e n e rg y fo rc e d th e G e rm a n s to b u ild g ia n t p o w e r
p la n ts as well. W h ile th e U n ite d S ta tes to o k a le a p fo rw a rd in th e d e v e l
o p m e n t o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r, G e rm a n y a c c e le ra te d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
e le c tric p o w e r p la n ts fu e le d by b ro w n coal, o r lig n ite. In b o th cases th e
e n e rg y s o u rc e w as a b u n d a n t a n d c h e a p , a n d th e p la n ts th a t w ere b u ilt to
u tilize it w e re la rg e -sc a le a n d c a p ita l-in te n siv e . B eca u se o f th e e m e rg e n c y
1 For a general study o f (he Muscle Shoals n ilraie plant and power station and the postwar
controversy they stim ulated, see Preston J. H ubbard, Origins o f the TV A : The Muscle Shoals
Controversy, 1920-1932 (New York: N orton, 1961). O n the response to the em ergency dem and
for n itrates in the U nited States, see U.S., W ar D epartm ent. O rdnance Office, N itrate Division.
Report on the Fixation and Utilization o f Nitrogen, W ar D epartm ent Report no. 204 I (W ashington,
D C.: GPO, 1922).
* For a description o f nitrogen-fixation processes, especially the Habcr-Bosch m ethod, see
J. R. Partington and L. I I. Parker, The Nitrogen Industry (New York: Van N ostrand, 1928).
H ubbard, Muscle Shoals, p. 7; the governm ent invested $68 million in the nitrate plant.
In History o f the Georgia Power Company, 1835-1956 (Atlanta: G eorgia River Co., 1957), p. 274,
W ade H. W right states that the hydroelectric power station at Muscle Shoals was com pleted
in 1925 with 184,000 kw. installed at a cost o f $45.6 million.
* D uring the war, the private utilities com plained o f difficulty in raising funds for expansion.
T h e Philadelphia Electric Co., a large utility that was extremely hard-pressed by wartime
d em ands arising from shipbuilding on the Delaware River and from m unitions plants, was
not able to raise the $25 million it needed to construct the "Delaware Station," which was
sorely needed to m eet anticipated dem and in 1918-19. See Nicholas B. W ainwright, History
o f the Philadelphia Electric Company, 1881-1961 (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Electric Co., 1961).
pp. 137-40.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

n a tu r e o f w a rtim e , c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n ts p r o v id e d th e n e ce ssa ry c ap ita l.
T h e p a rtic u la r im p e ra tiv e s o f w a r a c c e le ra te d e c o n o m ie s o f scale a n d th e
use o f c a p ita l-in te n siv e te c h n o lo g y , th e re b y c re a tin g a w a rtim e style o f
te c h n o lo g y . T w o g ia n t G e r m a n p la n ts s p a w n e d by th e w a r w e re K na p sa ck
( la te r re n a m e d G o ld e n b e rg ) a n d G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz . T h e f o rm e r , lo cated
in th e la rg e b ro w n -c o a l fie ld s n e a r C o lo g n e , b e c a m e a p a r t o f th e R h e in isc h W estfa lisch e s E le k triz ita lsw e rk sy stem th a t s u p p lie d heav y in d u s try in th e
R u h r valley. G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz , like M uscle S h o a ls, w as c o n s tru c te d in
re s p o n s e to a critica l w a rtim e s h o rta g e o f n itro g e n .
S o m e e x p e r ts p re d ic te d th a t th e s h o r ta g e w o u ld p a ra ly z e G e rm a n y 's
a rm ie s a n d s ta rv e h e r p e o p le so o n a f te r th e w ar b e g a n . T h e w o rld s larg e st
im p o r te r o f n itr o g e n c o m p o u n d s b e f o r e th e w a r, G e rm a n y h a d d e p e n d e d
esp e cially o n C h ile s n a tu ra l coasta l d e p o sits. T h e c o u n tr y s o th e r m ajo r
s o u rc e o f n itro g e n w as a b y -p ro d u c t o f h e r o w n c o k e a n d gas p ro d u c tio n .
A fte r th e B ritish navy c u t G e r m a n y s su p p ly lines, th e G e rm a n p e o p le faced
d ir e s h o rta g e s o f e x p lo siv e s a n d a g ric u ltu ra l fe rtiliz e r, b o th o f w hich re
q u ir e d n itro g e n . T h e y h a d to rely o n s to r e d n itr o g e n c o m p o u n d s u n til new
p ro c e sse s f o r th e ir p r o d u c tio n co u ld be d e v e lo p e d w ith in th e co u n try .
T h e s e p ro c e sse s r e q u ir e d u n u s u a lly la rg e a m o u n ts o f ele c tric a l e n e rg y .5 A
m a jo r r e s p o n s e to th is critic al p ro b le m w as th e G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz po w er
sta tio n .
T h e h isto ry o f th e G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz sta tio n d a te s ba ck to 1915, w hen
G e rm a n y s s to re d n itr o g e n su p p lie s n e a r e d e x h a u s tio n a n d th e n itro g e n
d e riv a b le as a b y - p ro d u c t f ro m th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f co k e a n d ga s f ro m coal
c o u ld n o t m a tc h d e m a n d . T h e situ a tio n w as a lle v ia te d o n ly as th e G e rm a n s
b r o u g h t in to o p e r a tio n th e new p la n ts fo r fix in g in c o m p o u n d s th e n itro g e n
o f th e a tm o s p h e r e . A fte r th e g o v e rn m e n t f o u n d th a t p riv a te c o m p an ies
w e re n o t w illing to b u ild p la n ts o f su ffic ie n t ca p a city u n le ss th e g o v e rn m e n t
g u a r a n te e d a lo n g -te r m m a r k e t, it d e c id e d to fin a n c e th e b u ild in g o f its
o w n n itro g e n p la n ts a n d to tu r n o v e r to p riv a te in d u s try th e o p e r a tio n of
th e p la n ts. O n e o f th e la rg e st o f th e se , P ie sleritz , w as s itu a te d in th e brow ncoal fie ld s a b o u t 80 m iles so u th e a s t o f B e rlin .6
P ie ste rilz r e q u ir e d a g ia n t p o w e r s ta tio n . E a rly in 1915 th e R eich, or
c e n tr a l, g o v e r n m e n t p e r s u a d e d th e B r a u n k o h le n w e rk e G o lp a -Je ssn itz AG,
o w n e r o f th e b ro w n -c o a l fields a n d a su b sid ia ry o f th e A llg e m e in e Elektriz ila ts-G c se llsc h a fi, to b u ild th e G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz sta tio n (Fig. X I.I).
T h e g o v e rn m e n t c o n tr a c te d to b u y ele c tric p o w e r fo r th e n itr o g e n p la n t
fro m th e s ta tio n . U n d e r th e d ire c tio n o f G e o r g K lin g e n b e rg , th e in te r
n a tio n a lly k n o w n h e a d o f e le c tric p o w e r p la n t d e sig n a t A E G , th e sta tio n
w as c o m p le te d in th e re m a rk a b ly s h o r t p e r io d o f n in e m o n th s . T h e d e sig n
w as fo r 180,0 0 0 kw ., a n d th e sta tio n w ent in to o p e r a tio n in J a n u a r y 1916
w ith 128,000 kw. in sta lle d . B ra u n k o h le n w e rk e fo rm e d a new c o m p a n y ,
E le k lro w e rk e A k tie n g e se llsc h a ft (E W A G ), to o w n a n d m a n a g e th e G olpaZ sc h o rn e w itz s ta tio n . T h e s ta tio n so o n d e v e lo p e d te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d e co
n o m ic p ro b le m s, h o w e v e r, a n d th e se w e re in te n sifie d b e c a u se th e g u a r* T hom as P. H ughes, T echnological M om entum in History: H ydrogenation in Germany.
1898-1933," Past and Present, no. 44 (August 1969), pp. 106-32.
"G eo rg Boll, Enlstehung und Enluncklung des Verbundbelriebs in del deutschen Elektrizilatswirtschaft bis turn europdisehen Verhund (Frankfort on the Main: VWEW. 1969), pp. 27-29.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S

Figure X I.1. Golpa-Zsehomrwitz power

station at the mine mouth. From Electrical
W orld 75 (1920): 602.

a n te e d p ric e o f c u r r e n t fo r P ie ste ritz was too low. In M ay 1917 th e situ a tio n

b e ca m e m o r e tr o u b le s o m e w h e n a n e ig h b o rin g p la n t e x p lo d e d a n d d a m
ag e d th e G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz s ta tio n . F o r a w hile th e e n e rg y d e m a n d s o f
th e n itro g e n p la n t a t P ie ste ritz co u ld n o t b e m e t. T h e se rie s o f p ro b le m s
led to n e g o tia tio n s fo r th e g o v e rn m e n t to p u rc h a s e th e E le c tro w e rk e c o m
p a n y a n d its p o w e r s ta tio n . T h e R eich stag a g r e e d a n d o n 1 O c to b e r 1917
th e R eich g o v e rn m e n t to o k o v e r o p e ra tio n o f th e s ta tio n .7
S u p p ly in g th e n e e d s o f P ieste ritz, b u t fa ced w ith a n excess c ap a city a f te r
th e e x p lo sio n o f th e n e ig h b o rin g p la n t (w hich h a d also b e e n a c o n s u m e r),
E le k tro w e rk e , n ow R e ic h -o w n e d , b e g a n in 1918 to c o n s tru c t a 1 10,000-volt
tra n sm issio n lin e to B e rlin , w h e re th e city g o v e r n m e n t h a d re c e n tly ac
q u ir e d BEW . T h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n to a b s o rb th e
excess c ap acity o f th e G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz s ta tio n h e ra ld e d th e d e v e lo p
m e n t o f a p e a c e tim e tra n sm issio n system c e n te re d o n th e g ia n t a r tifa c t th e
w a r h a d sp a w n e d .
G ia n t p o w e r p la n ts w e re bu ilt to m e e t th e in c re a se d w a rtim e d e m a n d
fo r electric ity in G e r m a n y a n d th e U n ite d S tates. I n te r c o n n e c tio n was a n
o th e r m e a n s u se d by th e b e llig e re n ts to ra ise o u tp u t; it was a way to in c re a se
s u p p ly w ith o u t b u ild in g new p la n ts. In B rita in , w h e re th e r e w as a s h o r ta g e
o f b u ild in g m a te ria ls, in te rc o n n e c tio n se e m e d especially a ttra c tiv e . W h e n
B rita in e n te r e d th e w ar, h e r ele ctric s u p p ly in d u s tr y w as s h a p e d by th e
p olitical p o w e r o f local g o v e rn m e n ts . T h e s itu a tio n was rip e fo r in te r c o n
n e c tio n . W a rtim e so o n b r o u g h t sh o rta g e s o f la b o r, coal, a n d e lec tric ity (th e
la st-n a m e d c a u se d , in p a rt, by th e o th e r tw o). A s h o rta g e in th e su p p ly o f
ele c tric m a c h in e ry also d e v e lo p e d as th e electric al m a n u fa c tu r e rs tu r n e d
to m o re p ro fita b le m u n itio n s c o n tra c ts. T h e g o v e rn m e n t p r o v id e d e x e m p 7Ibid., p. 28.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

lio n s fo r w o rk e rs in th e e le c tric su p p ly in d u s tr y , b u t s h o rta g e s o f coal a n d
m a c h in e ry c re a te d critica l p r o b le m s b e c a u se th e g ro w th a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n
o f th e a rm a m e n ts , o r m u n itio n s , in d u s try d e p e n d e d u p o n in c re a se d elec
trific a tio n o f th e m e a n s o f p ro d u c tio n . E n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs fro m v a r
io u s fields o f in d u s tr y w e re b r o u g h t in to th e d e p a r tm e n ts a n d c o m m itte e s
c re a te d by th e w a rtim e c a b in e t, a n d th e se m e n te n d e d to se e th e a n sw e r
to th e p ro b le m in f u r th e r e le c trific a tio n , esp e cially in e c o n o m ie s o f scale,
a n d in c o o rd in a tio n a n d s y s te m a tiz a tio n th r o u g h in te rc o n n e c tio n .8 T h e
N ew ca stle u p o n T y n e E le ctric S u p p ly C o m p a n y (N E S C O ) s to o d as a m o d el
fo r th e m in B ritish e le c tric ity su p p ly .
S e v e ra l o f th e c o m m itte e s a n d d e p a r tm e n ts th a t w e re e s ta b lish e d d u r in g
th e w a r h a d p a r tic u la r re sp o n sib ilitie s f o r elec tricity s u p p ly a n d m a c h in e ry
m a n u f a c tu re . B e fo re 1917 th e s e c o m m itte e s c o n c e n tra te d o n s h o r t- te rm
re s p o n s e s to s h o rta g e s ; a f te r 1917 th e y d e a lt w ith te c h n o lo g ic a l ch a n g e s
th a t r e s p o n d e d n o t o n ly to im m e d ia te w a rtim e n e e d s b u t also to a n tic ip a te d
p e a c e tim e in d u s tria l n e e d s. C h a rle s M e rz a n d his p a r tn e r , W illiam M c
L ellan , w e re a sk e d by th e g o v e rn m e n t to se rv e in th e se d e p a r tm e n ts a n d
c o m m itte e s b e c a u se o f th e ir re m a rk a b le su ccess in c r e a tin g b e f o r e th e w ar
a n e x c e p tio n to th e B ritish ru le , a la r g e re g io n a l p o w e r sy stem (see p. 446
b elo w ). M cL e llan b e c a m e th e a d v iso r o n p o w e r s u p p ly to th e d ir e c to r of
p r o d u c tio n in th e M in istry o f M u n itio n s c r e a te d by P rim e M in iste r Lloyd
G e o r g e in M ay 1915. T h e im p o r ta n c e o f p o w e r s u p p ly was f u r th e r re c
o g n iz e d by th e e sta b lis h m e n t o f a D e p a r tm e n t o f E lectric P o w e r S u p p ly in
J u n e 1916 w ith M cL ellan as h e a d . M e rz b e c a m e a m e m b e r o f th e C oal
C o n s e rv a tio n S u b C o m m itte e o f th e c a b in e ts R e c o n s tru c tio n C o m m itte e .
T h is s u b c o m m itte e w as h e a d e d by L o rd H a ld a n e , w h o a d m ir e d th e in
d u s tria l o rg a n iz a tio n a n d e ffic ie n cy o f th e G e rm a n s . L o rd H a ld a n e d e le
g a te d m o st o f th e c o m m itte e s w o rk to M e rz, a n d a n in te rim r e p o r t on
e le c tric p o w e r s u p p ly was p re s e n te d in A p ril 1917. M e rz, w h o h a d b e en
u n a b le to re o rg a n iz e L o n d o n s s u p p ly in 1 9 0 5 -6 , now a p p lie d his c o n c e p ts
to r e o rg a n iz in g th e s u p p ly n e tw o rk o f th e e n tir e c o u n try .
A s a n a d v is o r o n p o w e r su p p ly , M cL ellan a d v o c a te d in te rc o n n e c tio n . H e
kn e w th a t in te rc o n n e c tin g p a ro c h ia l utilities w o u ld in c re a se th e div e rsity
o f lo ad a n d th e lo ad fa c to r, th e re b y b r in g in g a fu lle r use o f e x istin g capacity.
H e a n d his a sso c ia tes h a d to c o n te n d , h o w e v e r, w ith th e d e e p ly e n tre n c h e d
s p irit o f c o m p e titio n , e v en h o stility , th a t p re v a ile d b e tw e e n th e m u n icip ally
o w n e d u tilitie s a n d th e p riv a te o n e s. Id e o lo g ic a l te n sio n s w e re c o m p o u n d e d
by th e b e w ild e rin g v a rie ty o f su p p ly system s, vo ltag e s, a n d fre q u e n c ie s in
B rita in , a v a rie ty th a t m a d e in te r c o n n e c tio n a m u c h m o re d iffic u lt task
th a n it w as in th e U n ite d S ta tes. N e v e rth e le ss, s p u r r e d o n by w a rtim e
ex ig e n c ie s, th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t a n d its a d v iso rs e f fe c te d lim ite d a g r e e
m e n ts a m o n g c o m p e titiv e utilitie s a n d fin a n c e d in te rc o n n e c tio n . At th e
u r B 'n 8
M erz, th e B o a rd o f T r a d e , w hich h a d ju r is d ic tio n o v e r th e B ritish
ele c tric su p p ly in d u s tr y , in M ay 1916 p ro m is e d p rio ritv in th e a llo ca tio n
o l la h o r a n d m a te ria ls to u tilities th a t w o u ld in te r c o n n e c t. In S e p te m b e r
1916 tw o le a d in g tr a d e asso c ia tio n s, th e I n c o r p o r a te d M u n ic ip a l E lectrical
A sso c iatio n a n d th e I n c o r p o r a te d A sso cia tio n o f E lectric P o w er C o m p a n ie s,
* Leslie H an n ah . Electricity Before Nnlumaliuitinii (Baltimore: T h e lohns H opkins University
Press, 1979), pp. 53-57.
1

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
tr a n s c e n d e d th e ir d if fe re n c e s s u ffic ie n tly to issue a j o in t re c o m m e n d a tio n
fo r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f liaison g ro u p s to disc u ss in te rc o n n e c tio n . The
In s titu tio n o f E lec trical E n g in e e r s a lso o r g a n iz e d d isc u ssio n s o f th e in te r
c o n n e c tio n a n d re o rg a n iz a tio n o f E n g la n d s e le c tric su p p ly sy stem . T he
im p e ra tiv e s o f w a r s tim u la te d a ra d ic a l c h a n g e in a ttitu d e s a n d ac tio n s.
T a n g ib le re su lts w e re n o t as im p re ssiv e as g ia n t p o w e r p la n ts o f t h e U n ite d
S ta te s a n d G e r m a n y , b u t th e c h a n g e th a t w as b r o u g h t a b o u t in th e d ire c tio n
o f d e v e lo p m e n t w as a m o re H e rc u le a n a c h ie v e m e n t.
W illiam M cL ellan a n d A rn o ld G rid le y , a lso a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r a n d
M cL ella n 's su c c e sso r in th e D e p a rtm e n t o f E le ctric P o w er S u p p ly , c o m p le
m e n te d in te r c o n n e c tio n by a r r a n g in g fo r in d u s tria l c o n s u m e rs to ta k e e le c
tricity f ro m u tility sy stem s r a th e r th a n u se in e ffic ie n t, iso la te d p la n ts o r
e x p a n d is o la ie d -p la n l ca p ac ity . T h is policy re s u lte d in a n in c re a se in th e
ca p a c ity o f th e m ost e ffic ie n t u tility p o w e r p la n ts a n d in e c o n o m ie s o f scale.
M cL ellan a n d his s ta f f w e re d is a p p o in te d by th e u n w illin g n e ss o f th e g o v
e r n m e n t to in sist m o re o fte n o n e x p a n s io n w ith p o stw a r r e o rg a n iz a tio n o f
th e n a tio n s p o w e r su p p ly in view .9 H o w e v e r, e x p a n s io n o f th e m o re e f
ficien t p la n ts in in d u s tria l a re a s a n d th e in te rc o n n e c tio n o f p la n ts d id save
coal a n d a llo w ed th e su p p ly in d u s try to in c re a se o u tp u t a t a b o u t th e sam e
r a te as d u r in g th e p re w a r ye ars. T h e c h a r ts o f th e se sta tistics c o n c e a le d
n o ta b le c h a n g e s b e n e a th th e ir sm o o th c u rv e s, h o w ev e r. A g g re g a te sales in
th e U n ite d K in g d o m ro se fro m 2 ,1 0 0 gw h. (g ig a w att h o u rs ) in 1914 to
a b o u t 4 ,0 0 0 g w h . by 1918, b u t th e L o n d o n in c re a se w as o n ly 14 p e rc e n t
b e tw e e n 1914 a n d 1918. T h e lo a d fa c to rs o f g e n e r a tin g sta tio n s in c re a se d
fro m a n a tio n a l a v e r a g e o f a r o u n d 23 p e rc e n t b e fo re th e w a r to 3 0 p e rc e n t
by 1 9 1 8 .'
In th e U n ite d S tate s, p o w e r c o n s u m p tio n also c o n tin u e d u p w a rd in 1915
as th e c o u n try lo o k e d to its d e fe n se s. A fte r th e U n ite d S tates e n te r e d th e
w ar in th e s p rin g o f 1917 a n d b e fo re th e w a rs e n d in th e fall o f 1918,
m o re th a n tw o m illio n h o rs e p o w e r was a d d e d to th e e le c tric -g e n e ra tin g
ca p ac ity o f th e c o u n try , an in c re a se o f 10 p e rc e n t in less th a n tw o years.
E x p e rts n e v e rth e le s s p r e d ic te d th e r e w o u ld b e a d ir e s h o rta g e o f e lectric al
p o w e r in th e w in te r o f 1 9 1 8 -1 9 if th e w a r c o n tin u e d . F aced by th e lik e lih o o d
o f a s h o r ta g e , B e r n a r d B a ru c h , h e a d o f th e W a r In d u s trie s B o a rd fo rm e d
by P re s id e n t W ilso n in J u ly 1917 to m o bilize th e e c o n o m y , o r d e r e d a su rv e y
o f th e e lec trica l g e n e ra tin g facilities in th e U n ite d S lates. In o r d e r to d e
te r m in e ca p ac ity , e ffic ie n cy , a n d th e e x te n t to w hich th e o u tp u t w as b e in g
u se d by w a r-re la te d in d u s trie s a n d services, a rm y e n g in e e r s a c tin g fo r th e
b o a rd e x a m in e d p o w e r s ta tio n s in th e critical re g io n s w h e re w a r in d u s trie s
w e re c o n c e n tra te d . T h e su rv e y n o t o n ly allow ed th e b o a rd to id e n tify a re a s
o f s h o rta g e a n d excess, a n d to locale new w a r c o n tra c ts a c c o rd in g ly , b u t it
also re v e a le d a n d th is p ro v e d im p o rta n t fo r th e lo n g -ra n g e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f th e ele ctric al p o w e r in d u s try th e possibility o f u sin g e x istin g p o w e r
facilities m o re effe ctiv e ly by in te rc o n n e c tin g p o w e r sta tio n s a n d u tilities
th a t h a d c o m p le m e n ta ry load a n d d iv e rsity fa c to r s .11

ln Ibid., pp. 59 and 01.

" B ernard Baruch, American Industry in VVnr: A Report of the War Industries Board (March
1921) (Englewood ClifTs, N.J.: Prenlicc-Hall, 1941), pp. 298-99: U.S., Congress, House,
Emergency Power Bill, 65th Cong., 2d sess., 1918, I I. Kepi. 795.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
S triv in g to m e e t th e a n tic ip a te d p o w e r s h o rta g e o f th e w in te r o f 1918
19, th e W a r I n d u s tr ie s B o a rd a n d o th e r g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s, local a n d
fe d e ra l, s tim u la te d e v e n o r d e r e d in te rc o n n e c tio n s o f p riv a te u tility sys
te m s in o r d e r to ra ise th e lo a d f a c to r .12 P riv a tely o w n e d utilities h a d been
in fr e q u e n tly in te rc o n n e c te d in th e U n ite d S lates b e fo re W o rld W a r I, d e
sp ite th e p ra c tic a lity o f h ig h v o lla g es fo r tra n sm issio n o f p o w e r be tw e en
la rg e -a re a u tilitie s .13 As Electrical W orld o b se rv e d d u r in g th e w ar, " T h e
in c e n tiv e fo r in te rc o n n e c tin g e le c tric se rv ice sy ste m s h a s b e e n a b se n t w h e re
e a c h in d iv id u a l c o m p a n y h a s b e e n a b le to m e e t its local re q u ire m e n ts a n d
a t th e s a m e tim e m a in ta in a s o u n d fin a n c ia l c o n d itio n . 4 W a r c h a n g e d th e
local re q u ire m e n ts ; th e u tilitie s w e re n o lo n g e r a b le to m e e t th e m ; a n d th e
in c e n tiv e " a t least a m o n g th o se in g o v e rn m e n t a n d in d u s try w ho w ere
aw a re o f th e im p e n d in g critic al s h o rta g e s e m e rg e d . B e c a u se u tilitie s w ere
r e g u la te d by c o m m issio n s in e ac h o f th e sta te s a n d b e c a u se re g u la to ry
c o n d itio n s v a rie d fro m sla te to sta le , th e a c tio n s th a t w e re n e e d e d to stim
u la te o r o r d e r th e in te r c o n n e c tio n o f u tilitie s in 1 9 1 7 -1 8 v a rie d . O n e m a jo r
in te r c o n n e c tio n in o n e sta le s u g g e sts th e g e n e ra l c h a r a c te r o f th e w artim e
e n d e a v o r in th e U n ite d S tates.
In te r c o n n e c tio n in M a ssa c h u se tts in v o lv ed th e S a lem E le ctric L ig h tin g
C o m p a n y , th e M a ld e n E le ctric C o m p a n y , a n d th e R e v e re S u b u rb a n Gas
8c E lec tric C o m p a n y . T h e d e c isio n to in te rc o n n e c t th e se th r e e c o m p a n ie s
re s u lte d fro m th e ir c o m p le m e n ta r y lo ad a n d d iv e rsity fa c to rs a n d illu strates
how th e s e fa c to rs w e re ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. T h e th r e e c o m p a n ie s se rv e d
d istric ts to th e n o r th o f B o sto n . T h e S ale m a n d M a ld e n c o m p a n ie s c a rrie d
an in d u strial, co m m e rcia l, a n d d o m estic load, w hile R e v ere s load was greatly
in flu e n c e d by th e s e a s h o re re s o rt d istric t it se rv e d . E ac h c o m p a n y h a d
sa lie n t c h a ra c te ristic s: S a le m h a d a n e x cess o f g e n e r a to r c ap a c ity ; M a ld e n s
g e n e r a to r ca p a c ity w as slig h tly below th e m a x im u m lo a d it c o u ld a n tic ip a te ;
a n d R e v e re , th e r e s o rt d istric t, e x p e rie n c e d its m a x im u m lo a d at 8 :0 0 p .m .
o n s u m m e r e v e n in g s (th e o th e r tw o sta tio n s c a rrie d m a x im u m lo a d s d u r in g
th e w in te r m o n th s a t a b o u t 5 :0 0 p .m ., w h e n fa c to rie s a n d b u sin e sse s w ere
still o p e n a n d h o m e s w ere lig h te d fo r th e e v e n in g ). In te r c o n n e c tio n m e a n t
th a t S alem c o u ld s h a r e its excess cap ac ity w ith M a ld e n a n d th a t R evere,
be c a u se o f its d iv e rs e c h a ra c te r , c o u ld s u p p ly p o w e r to th e o th e r tw o d u r in g
w in te r p e a k s a n d d r a w p o w e r fro m th e m d u r in g th e s u m m e r ev e n in g s.
N o t o n ly d id th e in te rc o n n e c tio n re s u lt in in c re a se d p o w e r w h e re a n d w hen
n e e d e d , b u t it ra ise d th e lo ad fa c to r fo r e a ch c o m p a n y .15
F o llo w in g th e w a r, th e te c h n o lo g y o f in te rc o n n e c tio n was u se d a p p r o
p ria te ly ; in te r c o n n e c tio n s w e re u se d o r n o t, as c irc u m sta n c e s re q u ire d .
C o m p a re d to th e fin a n c in g o f th e w a rtim e g ia n t-p o w e r p la n ts, th e cap ital
in v e s tm e n t in in te r c o n n e c tio n w as sm all. By c o n tra s t, th e c e n tr a l g o v e rn
m e n ts in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d G e r m a n y fac ed a s e rio u s p ro b le m in de'* Mouse, Emergency Power Bill, pp. 2 -3 , 6-9 .
E ditorializing about in lc m m n e n io n , the Electrical World wrote: "W ar accelerates nego
tiations betw een interests which in peacetim e might work Tor years with little o r no physical
co-ordination. " Electrical World 71 (1918): 1246.
"Interconnection a Itoon to New England Plants," ibid. 70 (1917): 422. I am indebted
to T h o m as G uidcr o f the University o f Delaware for calling my attention to this and other
references cited on wartim e interconnections in Massachusetts.
'* Ibid., pp. 422-24.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S

Figure X I.2. Interconnections raising

load factor in Massachusetts. From
Electrical W orld 71 (1918): 1192.

te r m in in g th e f u tu r e o f th e g ia n t p o w e r p la n ts. T h e y w e re, in p e a c e tim e ,

ex o tic a rtifa c ts b e c a u se o f th e ir la rg e size, g o v e rn m e n t fin a n c in g , a n d d e
p e n d e n c e u p o n n e a rb y m u n itio n s p la n ts. F o r th e U .S. g o v e r n m e n t th e
p ro b le m o f M uscle S h o als was n e a rly u n so lv ab le. T h e N a tio n a l D e fe n se
A ct o f 1916, c o n tr a r y to th e tr a d itio n a l A m e ric a n o p p o s itio n to g o v e r n m e n t
ow n ersh ip , unrealistically p ro v id e d th a t a f te r th e w ar th e g o v e rn m e n t sh o u ld
m a in ta in o w n e rs h ip o f th e p la n t, u sin g M uscle S h oals to m a n u fa c tu r e n i
tr o g e n fo r e x p lo siv e s a n d fe rtiliz e r. C o n g re ss, h o w e v er, d e fe a te d th e W adsw o r lh -K a h n Bill, w h ic h w o u ld h a v e m a in ta in e d g o v e rn m e n t o w n e rs h ip by
m e a n s o f a c o rp o ra tio n w h o se stock was e n tire ly o w n e d by th e g o v e rn m e n t.
T h e new a d m in is tra tio n o f P r e s id e n t W a rr e n H a r d in g in 1921 ask e d fo r
o ffe rs f ro m p riv a te so u rc e s th a t w o u ld g u a r a n te e th e g o v e r n m e n t a r e tu r n
o n its in v e stm e n t. A s tr a ig h tfo rw a r d a n d s u b sta n tia l c o m m itm e n t fro m
p riv a te e n te r p r is e se e m e d u n lik ely , h o w e v er, b e c a u se th e to ta l in v e stm e n t
was u n p r e c e d e n te d ly la rg e fo r th e elec tric p o w e r fie ld .16 W ith c o n tin u e d
g o v e rn m e n t o p e r a tio n d o u b tfu l a n d p riv a te in v e stm e n t im p ro b a b le , d r a
m atically re s o u r c e f u l a n d in n o v a tiv e re sp o n se s w ere n e e d e d to solve th e
p ro b le m p o se d by M uscle Shoals.
O n 8 J u ly 1921 H e n ry F o rd su b m itte d a bid fo r M uscle S hoals. In r e t
ro s p e c t th is c o m m itm e n t is u n d e rs ta n d a b le : F o rd h a d p r o v e n h im s e lf a n
in d u s tria lis t o f d ra m a tic a lly b ro a d vision in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f his system
fo r th e m ass p ro d u c tio n o f a u to m o b ile s; th e in n o v a tiv e c h a r a c te r o f th e
m a n m a tc h e d th e ex c e p tio n a l n a tu r e o f th e p ro b le m . F u r th e r m o r e , F o rd
was fa sc in a te d by o p p o rtu n itie s to o rg a n iz e p ro d u c tio n o n a m a m m o th
'* As o f 1912, the largest-capacity hydroelectric power station in the U nited States was the
112,500-kw. plant on the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa; it was built at a cost o f about
$25 million by the Mississippi River Power Co. U.S., D epartm ent o f Com m erce, B ureau of
the Census, Central Electric Light and Power Stations ami Street and Electric Hailways, with Summary
o f the Electrical Industries. 1912 (W ashington. D.C.; GPO. 1915). p. 123 and foldout facing p.
132.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
scale, a n d M uscle S h o a ls p r o v id e d h im a n o p p o r tu n ity to p ro d u c e p o w e r
m assively. H is f in a n c ia l o f f e r w as n o t r e m a rk a b ly g e n e ro u s ; a m o n g o th e r
s tip u la tio n s in il w as th e r ig h t to lease th e p o w e r facilities fo r 100 years
a n d a m o r tiz e th e g o v e r n m e n ts in v e stm e n t by a m o d e st a n n u a l p a y m e n t
o f $ 4 6 ,5 4 7 . T h is p a y m e n t, h e c a lc u la te d , w o u ld p r o d u c e th e to tal su m
d e s ire d by th e g o v e r n m e n t if il w as in v e ste d a t 4 p e rc e n t a n d c o m p o u n d e d
s e m ia n n u a lly f o r 100 y e a rs, a f te r w h ic h tim e o w n e rs h ip w o u ld p ass to h im .17
I f F o r d s p la n f o r f in a n c in g was c lo se fiste d , his vision o f M uscle S h o a lss
f u tu r e was e x p a n siv e . F o rd in d ic a te d n o t o n ly th a t h e e x p e c te d to use
M uscle S h o als h y d ro e le c tr ic p o w e r to s u p p o r t an in d u s tria l c o m p le x in th e
im m e d ia te vicinity b u t th a t h e w as also th in k in g in te rm s o f th e re g io n a l
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e T e n n e s s e e valley. H e a n d his e n g in e e rs w e re well aw a re
th a t th e re c e n tly e sta b lish e d p ra c tic a lity o f tra n sm issio n v o lta g es as h ig h as
1 10,000 e v e n 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 volts m e a n t lh a l e le c tric p o w e r f ro m a n a b u n d a n t
s o u rc e like M uscle S h o a ls c o u ld be tr a n s m itte d e c o n o m ically th r o u g h o u t a
re g io n .18 In se e k in g s u p p o r t f o r his o ffe r , F o rd , w ho d isso c ia te d him self
fro m th e fin a n c ie rs o f W all S tre e t a n d id e n tifie d h im s e lf as a p ro d u c tiv e
in d u s tr ia lis t, re lie d hea v ily u p o n th e A m e ric a n fa ith in te c h n o lo g ic a l g e n iu s
a n d in d u s tr ia l e n tr e p r e n e u r s h ip ; h e e v e n b r o u g h t in his frie n d a n d h e ro ,
th e v e n e ra b le T h o m a s E d iso n , to a d v ise h im .
F o rd 's vision m a tc h e d th e scale o f M uscle S h o a ls, b u t his o f f e r w as fru s
tr a te d by a co a litio n th a t f o rm e d a g a in st h im in th e H a r d in g a d m in is tra tio n
a n d C o n g re ss. N e v e rth e le ss, by 1924 his o f f e r h a d s tim u la te d w id e sp re a d
in te re s t in th e f u tu r e o f M uscle S h o a ls, fo r h e h a d a p p e a le d to th e public,
esp e cia lly in th e S o u th , to w h o m h e p ro m is e d a n ew p ro s p e rity th r o u g h
re g io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. W ith th e w id e s p re a d in te re s t, n e w p o in ts o f view
w ere f o r m u la te d , a n d th e issu e b e c a m e m o r e c o m p le x . A s P re sto n J . H u b
b a r d c o n c lu d e d f ro m his stu d y o f th e M uscle S h o a ls p ro je c t, th e p ro b le m
o f th e u ltim a te d isp o sa l o f th is w a rtim e e d ific e b e c a m e th e c o re o f a m ajo r
c o n tro v e rs y in th e p o w e r fig h t o f th e 1920s in v o lv in g a d v o c a te s o f p riv a te
e n te r p r is e , c o n te n d e r s fo r p u b lic p o w e r, p r o p o n e n ts o f re g io n a l d e v e l
o p m e n t, a n d fa c tio n s w ith in th e s e b r o a d g r o u p s . Iy A w a rtim e e x p e d ie n t
h a d d e m o n s tr a te d a te c h n o lo g ic a l p o te n tia l a n d re v e a le d th e in h e r e n t p o
litical, e c o n o m ic , a n d social p r o b le m s a sso c ia te d w ith il.
M o re sp e cific ally , th e p a rtie s to th e c o n tro v e rs y o v e r th e F o rd o ffe r,
w h o se p o sitio n s w e re b ac k e d by c o n g re s s m e n a n d a d m in is tra tio n officials,
in c lu d e d p riv a te ly o w n e d e le c tric u tilitie s (led by th e A la b a m a P o w er C o m
p a n y ); W all S tre e t in d u s tr ia l a n d h a n k in g c o n c e rn s ; A n d re w M ellon, sec
re ta r y o f th e tre a s u r y u n d e r P re s id e n ts H a rd in g a n d C o o lid g e ; J o h n W.
W eeks, s e c re ta ry o f w a r u n d e r H a r d in g ; a n d S e n a to r G e o rg e W . N o rris
17 In Muscle Shoab, pp. 2 8-146, H ubbard explores die Ford offer and the reaction lo il.
"Kor d ala showing die increase in transm ission voltages between 1889 and 1934. see
Electrical World 83 (1924): 998. A ccording lo this source, transmission voltages o f roughly
110,000 were practical in 1908, and by 1923 the n utnher had risen to 220,000. However,
these estim ates were based on pioneering endeavors rath e r than on com m on practice. T he
w orld's first 110,000-volt transm ission line was huili from C ro to n -G ra n d Rapids to M uskegon,
M ichigan, in 1906; the second was built from Niagara Falls lo T oro n to and St. Thom as,
C anada, in 1910. Bureau o f the Census, Central Electric Light and Power Stations, foldout facing
p. 132.
'" H u b b a rd , Muscle Shoals, pp. vii-viii.

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o f N e b ra sk a , c h a irm a n o f th e A g ric u ltu r e C o m m itte e , a le a d e r o f p r o
gressiv e c o n g re s s m e n a n d a n a d v o c a te o f p u b lic p o w e r a n d re g io n a l p la n
n in g . T h e way in w hich th e s e v a rio u s ad v o c a te s in te n d e d to e x p lo it M uscle
Sh o als re fle c te d n o t o n ly d if f e r e n t e c o n o m ic a n d p o litica l view s b u t th e
d if f e r e n t w ays in w hich th e te c h n o lo g y o f ele c tric p o w e r c o u ld b e d e v e l
o p e d . T h e u tilities w e re a g re e a b le to g o v e r n m e n t o w n e r s h ip o f th e h y
d r o e le c tric p la n t at M uscle S h o a ls, b u t th e y w a n te d th e g o v e r n m e n t to sell
th e m th e p o w e r w h o le sale fo r tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n to th e ir c u s
to m e rs; th e W all S tr e e t b a n k e r s a n d th e w ell-e stab lish e d e n e rg y -in te n s iv e
m a n u f a c tu r in g in d u s trie s like a lu m in u m a n d c a r b o r u n d u m h a d th e tw o fo ld
o b jec tiv e o f o p p o s in g F o r d s m o n o p o ly o f M uscle S h o a ls p o w e r a n d fa
v o rin g d e v e lo p m e n t o f iso la te d in d u s tr ia l p o w e r sites a lo n g th e T e n n e s s e e
R iver; a n d th e a d v o c a te s o f p u b lic u tilitie s e n v isa g e d th e c o o rd in a te d d e
v e lo p m e n t o f p o w e r, a g r ic u ltu re , a n d in d u s try .
O n ly th e c o m in g o f a n o th e r n a tio n a l e m e rg e n c y c o u ld re so lv e th e c o n
tro v e rsy p o se d by th e s e te c h n o lo g ic a l im p lic atio n s. T h e im p e ra tiv e fo r e m
p lo y m e n t a n d e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t im p o se d by th e G re a t D e p re ssio n
b r o u g h t a b o u t d ra m a tic a n d decisiv e a ctio n c o m p a ra b le to th e dec isio n s
th a t h a d c re a te d M uscle S h o als. In M ay 1933 C o n g re ss e n a c te d P re s id e n t
F ra n k lin R o o se v e lts re c o m m e n d a tio n fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e T e n
nessee valley by m e a n s o f th e T e n n e s s e e V alley A u th o rity A ct, a n d th e
M uscle S h o a ls d a m a n d p o w e r sta tio n b e c a m e th e k e y sto n e o f th e new
g o v e r n m e n t- c o n s tr u c te d , - o w n e d , a n d - o p e r a te d sy ste m .20
In th e U n ite d S ta te s, th e e x iste n c e o f th e g ia n t, g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d p la n t
a t M uscle S h o a ls c a u s e d a n id eo lo g ic al clash th a t fo r m o re th a n a d e c a d e
th w a r te d e ffe c tiv e u tiliz a tio n o f th e p la n t in a r e g io n a l sy stem . In G e rm a n y ,
by c o n tr a s t, th e G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz p la n t, w h o se o rig in s w e re sim ila r to
th o se o f M uscle S h o als, m a d e th e tra n s itio n to p e a c e tim e w ith relatively
little id e o lo g ic al co n flict. A f te r th e G e r m a n c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t in 1918
c o n s tr u c te d a 132-km . h ig h -v o lta g e line fro m G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz to B erlin ,
th e c ity -o w n ed utility , th e fo r m e r B E W , h a d th e cap acity to s u p p ly a n
alu m in u m w o rk s a t R u m m e ls b u rg , n e a r B e rlin . A n o th e r lin e, 18 km . in
le n g th , w as b u ilt fro m G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz to B itte rfe ld to s u p p ly a n a lu
m in u m w o rk s. A f te r th e w a r, E W A G , th e R eich -o w n e d u tility th a t o p e ra te d
G o lpa-Z schom ew itz, c o n tin u e d to su p p ly th e nea rb y w a rtim e n itro g e n p lant,
fo r it tu r n e d fro m m u n itio n s to th e p ro d u c tio n o f n itro g e n -c o m p o u n d
fe rtiliz e rs. F o llo w in g th e success o f th e B e rlin a n d B itte rfe ld tra n sm issio n
lines, E W A G re a c h e d o u t in 1920 w ith a 110,000-volt line to L eipzig. E W A G
th e n a c q u ir e d th e b ro w n -co a l p la n t at T r a tte n d o r f , w hich h a d b e e n b uilt
in 1915 by th e Swiss ele ctric al m a n u f a c tu r e r B ro w n B overi to s u p p ly ele c
tricity to n e a rb y L o n z a w e rk , an en e rg y -in te n siv e , c a r b id e - p r o d u c in g p la n t.
A 1 1 0 ,000-voll tr a n sm issio n lin e was th e n e re c te d to c o n n e c t T r a t t e n d o r f
w ith G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz . By a c q u irin g o th e r p o w e r p la n ts a n d u tilitie s a n d
m a k in g c o n tra c ts to su p p ly la rg e in d u stria l c o n su m e rs a n d sm all u tilities
in b u lk , E W A G in th e 1920s b ec am e o n e o f G e rm a n y s larg e st re g io n a l
u tilities.21 B e ca u se o f th e ab se n c e o f p a ra ly z in g con flic t b e tw e en g o v e rn " T lie literature on the Tennessee Valley Authority is extensive. One recent study is Thomas
K. McCraw's TV A and the Power Fight, 19)3-1 9 3 9 (Philadelphia: L ippinrott, 1971).
71 Boll. Verhundbetriebi, pp. 28-30.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
m e n l a n d p riv a te in te re s ts , th e tr a n s itio n o f w a rtim e te c h n o lo g y to p e a c e
tim e u se w as sm o o th .
T h e g ia n t w a rtim e p o w e r p la n ts, w ith th e ir e n o r m o u s ca p ac ity , s p ro u te d
p e a c e tim e tra n sm issio n sy ste m s as th e y re a c h e d o u t fo r new m a rk e ts. In
E n g la n d , th e U n ite d S ta te s, a n d G e r m a n y , th e w a rtim e e x p e rie n c e w ith
c e n tra lly p la n n e d in te rc o n n e c tio n s in flu e n c e d p e a c e tim e th in k in g ab o u t
system s. T h e su ccess o f e m e rg e n c y w a rtim e in te r c o n n e c tio n s s iim u la ie d
th e p la n n in g o f f u r t h e r in te rc o n n e c tio n s , n o t o n ly in a n tic ip a tio n o f p o stw a r
d e m a n d , b u t also in lig h t o f th e im p e ra tiv e s o f f u tu r e w a rs.22 T h e e n g in e e rs
a n d m a n a g e rs w h o h a d b e e n c alle d in to w a rtim e g o v e rn m e n t serv ice w ere
esp e cially in te re s te d . B e y o n d a sim p le in c re a se in in te rc o n n e c tio n s lay th e
in te g ra tio n o f utilities. A s im p le in te r c o n n e c tio n tie d to g e th e r at o n e j u n c
tu r e o r a lim ite d n u m b e r o f p o in ts o n ly tw o u tility sy stem s; o fte n th e
ca p a city o f th e tie lin e was sm all, p e r m ittin g tr a n s f e r o f o n ly a lim ited
a m o u n t o f exc ess p o w e r. C o n tro l o f e a c h sy stem r e m a in e d in d e p e n d e n t.
By c o n tra s t, in te g r a tio n w o u ld b rin g tw o fo rm e rly i n d e p e n d e n t system s
u n d e r c o m m o n c o n tro l. N o lo n g e r w o u ld it b e p o ssib le to d is tin g u is h th e
b o u n d a r ie s o f th e se sy stem s by th e ir lie lin es, f o r th e se w o u ld b e c o m e p a rt
o f th e tra n s m is s io n -lin e n e tw o rk o f th e in te g r a te d sy ste m .23 I n stitu tio n a l
m e r g e r d id n o t follow im m e d ia te ly , h o w e v e r.
In th e U n ite d S ta le s in 1919 S e c re ta ry o f th e I n te r io r F ra n k lin K n ig h t
l.a n e e x p r e s s e d a c a rry -o v e r o f w a rtim e a ttitu d e s w h e n h e w ro te , T h e
e n o r m o u s d e v e lo p m e n t o f w a r in d u s trie s h a d c re a te d a n a lm o st insatiab le
d e m a n d fo r p o w e r, a d e m a n d th a t w as o v e r- re a c h in g th e av a ilab le su p p ly
w ith s u c h r a p id ity th a t, h a d hostilities c o n tin u e d , it is c e rta in th a t we s h o u ld
now b e fa c in g a n e x tre m e p o w e r s h o r ta g e .2, F o r th is re a so n h e re c o m
m e n d e d th a t C o n g re s s stu d y th e feasibility o f d e v e lo p in g a c o m p re h e n s iv e ,
s u p e r p o w e r sy stem fo r th e g e n e ra tio n a n d d is trib u tio n o f e lec tricity in
th e B o s to n -W a s h in g lo n in d u s tria l re g io n . T h e s e c re ta ry 's in te re s t was fo
cu se d o n su p p ly in g larg e in d u stry a n d tra n s p o rta tio n ne tw o rk s w ith c h e a p e r
p o w e r. O th e rs , like G iffo rd P in c h o t, g o v e r n o r o f P e n n sy lv a n ia , a n d M o rris
C o o k e , his a d v is e r o n e le c tric a l s u p p ly , c alle d f o r u n ifie d p o w e r system s
th a t w o u ld su p p ly (eco n o m ically ) m o re g e n e ra l social n e e d s , su c h as th e
n e e d fo r c h e a p p o w e r in r u r a l a re a s. T h e g o v e r n o r m a in ta in e d th a t a
u n ifie d g ia n t p o w e r sy ste m , w ith its im p ro v e d lo ad fa c to r, w o u ld re su lt in
ra isin g th e s ta n d a r d o f living . . . e lim in a tin g th e ph y sic al d r u d g e r y o f life
. . . w in n in g th e a g e -lo n g s tru g g le a g a in st p o v e r ty .25
O n ly o n e m o n th a f te r W o rld W a r I e n d e d , W illiam S. M u rra y , a c o n
s u ltin g e lec trical e n g in e e r, u rg e d th e s e c re ta ry o f th e in te r io r to p r e p a re
VJ Maj. G en. William C rozier, "Giant Power and N ational D efense." Annals of the American
Academy o f Political and Social Science I 18 (1925): 105.
A fter ihe war some utility executives strongly advocated interconnection to counter the
loss o f c om pany indep en d en ce that followed integration; they were reluctant to see holding
com panies o r the governm ent (by regulation) take over the integrated systems. Alex Dow.
head o f the Detroit Edison Co.. was a case in point. Raymond C. Miller. Kilowatts at Work: A
History o f the Detroit Edison Company (Detroit, Mich.: Wayne Stale University Press, 1957). p.
225.
" W. S. M urray cl :tl.. A Superpower System for the Region between Boston and Washington, U.S.
D epartm ent o f the In terio r, U nited States Geological Survey Professional Paper no. 128
(W ashington. D.C.: GPO, 1921), p. 9.
G ifford Pinchot. "Giant Power." S u m n C.raidne 51 M094>- 51.1

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
th e g r o u n d fo r th is s u p e rp o w e r system hy s u p p o r tin g a d e ta ile d su rv e y ol
th e e n e rg y r e s o u rc e s o f th e in d u s tria l N o rth e a st fro m B o sto n . Massac h u
setts, to W a sh in g to n , D .C . T h e su rv e y w ould be sim ila r to th e o n e m a d e
e a rlie r f o r th e W a r In d u s trie s B o a rd . In tr a n s m ittin g th e re q u e st to C o n
gre ss, th e s e c re ta ry o f th e in te rio r w ro te , T h e c o u n tr y is now p a ssin g
th r o u g h a p e rio d o f tr a n s itio n , w hich, I firm ly believe, will so o n b e fo llow ed
by o n e o f in d u s tria l activity a n d ex p a n s io n .20 C o n g re ss a g r e e d , a n d th e
su rv e y was c a r rie d o u t. U sing th e re su lts o f th e su rv ey , M u rra y a n d his
asso ciate s s u b m itte d in 1921 a r e p o r t o r p lan fo r a s u p e r p o w e r system
w hich h e p r o je c te d c o u ld be fu lfilled by 1930. In e ssen c e, M u rra y re c
o m m e n d e d th a t th e la rg e-sc ale a n d e ffic ie n t p o w e r p la n ts th e n o w n e d by
n o r th e a s te r n p riv a te u tilities be s u p p le m e n te d by new s u p e r p o w e r p la n ts
(6 0 ,0 0 0 -3 0 0 ,0 0 0 kw .), b o th th e rm a l a n d h y d ro e le c tric ; tra n sm issio n lines
o f 110,0 0 0 to 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 volts w o u ld in te g r a te th e se . H a v in g b e e n jo in e d by
th is n e tw o rk , th e p o w e r p la n ts w o u ld fe ed th e ir o u tp u t in to a p o w e r pool,
w hich w o u ld be la p p e d at load c e n te rs fo r d is tr ib u tio n by th e utilities to
c o n s u m e rs . T h e utilitie s' e x istin g h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lines (3 3 ,0 0 0
volts) w o u ld b e u sed f o r d is tr ib u tio n to c u s to m e rs in 1930 to in d u stria l,
e le c trifie d ra ilro a d , a n d sm a lle r c o n su m e rs. H o ld in g c o m p a n ie s fu n d e d by
in v e sto rs w o u ld ow n a n d m a n a g e th e s u p e rp o w e r c o r p o r a tio n s facilities
th e new la rg e -sc a le p o w e r p la n ts a n d th e h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lines.
U tilities w o u ld o w n th e lo w e r-v o lta g e d is trib u tio n n e tw o rk . M u rra y e sti
m a te d th a t, c o m p a re d w ith th e cost o f a n u n in te g r a le d system su p p ly in g
th e sa m e re g io n , a n in v e s tm e n t o f $1 billion by 1930 w o u ld re su lt in an
a n n u a l sa v in g o f m o re th a n $ 2 0 0 m illion b e ca u se o f th e h ig h e r load fa c to r
a n d o th e r e c o n o m ie s o f th e in te g r a te d sy ste m .27 (See Fig. X I.3.)
G ia n t P o w e r w as a n o th e r id e a sp a w n e d by w a rtim e co n d itio n s. It, too.
in v olved a p la n f o r a n in te g r a te d sy stem , b u t it was lim ited to th e sta te o f
P en n sy lv a n ia. T h e m o v in g s p irit b e h in d th e disc u ssio n s o f G ia n t P o w e r in
th e e a rly 1920s was G o v e rn o r G iffo rd P in c h o t (1 8 6 5 -1 9 4 6 ) o f P e n n sy l
v a nia, a le a d in g c o n s e rv a tio n ist a n d p ro g re ssiv e fo llo w e r o f T h e o d o r e R oo
sevelt. P in c h o ts a b le tec h n ical assista n t was M o rris L lew ellyn C o o k e (1 8 7 2 1960), a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r w ith a re p u ta tio n fo r liberal social views. G iant
P o w er d if f e r e d fro m s u p e r p o w e r in te c h n o lo g ica l asp ects, b u t p e rh a p s
m o r e in te re s tin g ly also in its social p o te n tia l. P in ch o t saw G ia n t P ow er as
a m e a n s o f b r in g in g a social re v o lu tio n th r o u g h c h e a p e r elec tricity , ru ra l
e le c trific a tio n , a n d g ia n t m in e -m o u lh p lan ts.
T h e h isto ry o f G ia n t P o w e r is o n e o f fa ilu re . C o n ce iv e d o f u n d e r th e
in flu e n c e o f w a rtim e c irc u m sta n c e s, th e p la n e x p e rie n c e d th e chill o f th e
p o stw a r re a c tio n , o r r e tu r n to n o rm alcy . S im ila r bold p lan s in B ritain a n d
G e rm a n y also fa iled to rea ch fru itio n . F o r a tim e, h o w e v er. G ian t P ow er
a ttra c te d c o n sid e ra b le p ro fe ssio n a l a n d p u b lic a tte n tio n ; th e electric al j o u r
n als a n d th e p o p u la r p re ss g av e it f r e q u e n t a n d b ro a d c o v era g e. P ro p o n e n ts
saw it as a ste p to w a rd a N ew J e ru s a le m ; o p p o n e n ts c o n s id e re d it a n alie n
s c h e m e th a t th r e a te n e d c o n tin u e d p ro g re ss in th e utilities field. Its m ost
p ro m in e n t p r o p o n e n t, th e g o v e rn o r o f P en n sylvania, d e sc rib e d it as fo l
lows;
317M urray el al., Superpower System, p. 9.
37 For a sum m ary o f the supcr|>owcr plan, see especially ibid.. pp. 9-26.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure X I.3. William S. Murray's plan for a superpower system. Murray el al.. Superpow er
System, plate III.

Giani Power is a plan lo bring ch e aper and better electric service to all those who
have it now. and to bring good and cheap electric service to those who are still
without it. It is a plan by which most o f the dru d g ery o f hum an life can be taken
from [the) shoulders o f m en and women who toil, and replaced by the power of
electricity.'
,l,
A n o p p o n e n t , th e h e a d o f th e P e n n s y lv a n ia E le c tr ic A s s o c ia tio n , w h ich
r e p r e s e n t e d 9 0 p e r c e n t o f th e s t a te 's u tilitie s , s a id :

T h e very clear purpose o f this plan is to take from any electric service system
the benefits it has thus far accrued by reason o f able m anagem ent, successful
financing, painstaking research work, [and] courage in the replacem ent of
Report of the Giant Power Survey Hoard to the Genrral Assembly of the Commonwealth of Penn
sylvania (H arrisb u rg . Pa.: T eleg rap h Printing Co.. 1925). pp. iv-v (hereafter cited as Giant
Power Survey). T h e accouul of Giant Power p resented here is taken from T hom as P. Hughes.
T echnology and Puhlir Policy: T h e failu re o f Giant Power." IF.EH Proceedings 64 (1976):
1361-71. See also Jean Christie. "Giant Power: A Progressive Proposal of the NineteenTw enties," Pennsylvania Magaiine of History and Biography 96 (1972): 480-507.

W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
apparatus. . . . Private initiative is to be driven out o f the electric service
com panies and [to] be supplanted by a political plan based upon a socialistic
theory and offering all the possibilities o f the construction o f a state-wide, all
powerful, political m achine.29
T h e issues a n d o rig in s o f G ia n t P o w e r w ere, h o w e v e r, fa r m o re c o m p le x
th a n th e rh e to r ic o f th e g o v e rn o r a n d this in d u s try s p o k e s m a n in d ic a te s.
T h e c o n tro v e rs y c o n siste d o f fa r m o re th a n a sim p listic c o n fro n ta tio n b e
tw e e n th e p o litician a n d th e ca p italist. It inv o lv e d d if f e r in g views a b o u t th e
e x p lo ita tio n o f new ly d e v e lo p e d te c h n o lo g y in th e field o f e lec trical p o w e r;
it was fire d by th e e n th u s ia s m o f c o n se rv a tio n ists w h o h a d f lo u ris h e d in
T h e o d o r e R o o se v e lts P ro g re ssiv e p a rty ; it w as h e ig h te n e d in in te n sity by
th e w ax in g p o w e r o f p riv a te ly o w n e d h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s in th e U n ite d
S ta le s, a n d th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f pu b lic ly o w n e d utilities in C a n a d a a n d
E u ro p e ; it a r o u s e d p u b lic in te r e s t in th e N o rth e a s t b e c a u se th e r e w as ev i
d e n c e th a t th e S o u th a n d F a r W est w ere m o v in g a h e a d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f e le c tric p o w e r; a n d it was in flu e n c e d by th e p r io r c o n f ro n ta tio n s o f th e
p e rs o n a litie s in v o lv e d . W ith so m an y c o m p lic a tio n s, th e p ro b le m s ra ised
by G ia n t P o w e r co u ld n o t b e so lv e d by rh e to ric . N o r c o u ld th e y b e s e ttle d
by te c h n o lo g ic a l e x p e rtis e . F o r o n e th in g , e n g in e e rs d is a g re e d a m o n g t h e m
selves; fo r a n o th e r , th e va ria b le s a n d th e o p tio n s e x te n d e d fa r b e y o n d th e
te c h n o lo g ic a l re a lm to th e p o litical, e c o n o m ic , a n d social a re n a s .
T h e s e w e re so m e o f th e a ltitu d e s a n d g e n e r a l tre n d s in th e c o n te x t o f
w hich M o rris C o o k e a n d G if fo rd P in c h o t in tr o d u c e d th e ir G ia n t P o w er
p la n . C o o k e s c o n c e p t c an b e tra c e d back d ire c tly to his w a rtim e e x p e r i
e n ce s. A s a n a d v is e r o n e n e r g y a n d tr a n s p o r ta tio n p ro b le m s, h e h a d re c
o m m e n d e d th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t lig h te n th e f re ig h t lo a d o n ra ilr o a d s by
fin a n c in g th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f la rg e p o w e r p la n ts a t th e m in e m o u th a n d
by tra n s m ittin g p o w e r fro m th e s e to lo a d c e n te rs by h ig h -v o lta g e lines.
S pecifically, C o o k e w a n te d m in e -m o u th p la n ts b u ilt in e a s te r n P en n sy lv a n ia
to s u p p ly P h ila d e lp h ia .30 In m a k in g th e se re c o m m e n d a tio n s , C o o k e raise d
th e possibility o f a c o n fr o n ta tio n w ith th e P h ila d e lp h ia E le ctric C o m p a n y .
T h e w a r e n d e d b e fo re C o o k e s r e c o m m e n d a tio n s c o u ld be a c te d u p o n , b u t
his p la n s re v ea l his e a rly c o m m itm e n t to o n e o f th e c e n tra l o b je ctives o f
G ia n t P o w e r. T h e y also m a rk e d th e b e g in n in g o f a s tru g g le b e tw e e n C o o k e ,
P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric, a n d o th e r utilities. T h e p a ssio n s in v o k e d by G ian t
P o w er a n d ev e n th e c h a r a c te r o f th e p la n itse lf c a n n o t b e c o m p r e h e n d e d ,
h o w e v e r, u n le ss we first review th e h isto ry o f C o o k e s activities in re la tio n
sh ip to P e n n sy lv a n ia s u tilities. L o n g -te rm tr e n d s w ere m a n ife st in G ia n t
P o w er, b u t th e ro le o f in d iv id u a ls like C o o k e c a n n o t be ig n o re d .
C o o k e s tu d ie d e n g in e e r in g a t L e h ig h U n iv ersity , b u t h e g a in e d p ro m i
n e n c e m o re as a r e f o r m e r th a n as a tec h n ical e x p e r t.31 E arly in his c a r e e r
m Pennsylvania, G eneral Assembly, Giant Power: Proceedings before the Committee on Corpo
rations o f the Senate and the Manufacturers Committee of the House o f Representatives, being a Joint
Hearing on Senate Giant Power Bilk Nos. 32, 33, 34, 33, 36, and 37. Extraordinary Session of 1926,
pp. 34 -3 5 (h ereafter cited as Joint Hearing on Giant Power).
""Cooke to Robert Woolley, 15 April I9IH. Morris L. Cooke Papers (G roup 40. Box 200.
file labeled C heap Electric Power"), Franklin D. Roosevcll Library. Hyde Park. N Y. (here
after cited as Cooke Papers).
" 'T h e biographical sketch o f Cooke is draw n from Edwin T. I jy to n Jr.'s Revolt of the
Engineers (Cleveland: Press o f Case W estern Reserve University. 1971), pp. 154-71.

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h e b ec a m e a n a d v o c a te o f s cien tific m a n a g e m e n t a n d a n asso ciate o f F re d
e ric k T a y lo r, th e o r ig in a to r o f th e m o v e m e n t. C o o k e , h o w ev e r, d id not
m a k e a n a m e f o r h im s e lf by a p p ly in g p rin c ip le s o f scien tific m a n a g e m e n t
to in d u s tria l p ro b le m s ; h e u se d scien tific m a n a g e m e n t as th e ideological
f o u n d a tio n fo r his ad v o ca cy o f social r e fo rm as well as th e r e fo rm o f the
e n g in e e rin g p ro fe s s io n w hich social r e fo rm e n ta ile d . C o o k e w a n te d to see
e x p e r ts , esp e cia lly e n g in e e rs , so lv in g social p ro b le m s th r o u g h th e a p p li
c a tio n o f e n g in e e r in g a n d r a tio n a l m a n a g e m e n t p rin c ip le s: h e w as c o n
vinced th a t th is w o u ld n e v e r c o m e to pass, h o w e v e r, u n less th e p ro fessio n al
e n g in e e r c o u ld d ista n c e h im s e lf fro m th e in flu e n c e o f p riv a te b u sin e ss an d
fin a n c e . S in ce m o st e n g in e e rs w e re h ir e d by la rg e m a n u f a c tu r e r s a n d util
ities, C o o k e b e lie v e d th a t it w as d iffic u lt f o r th e m to s erv e th e p u b lic in te rest,
fo r p u b lic a n d b u sin e ss in te re s ts c o n flic te d . B e c a u se C o o k e w as a n effective
pu b licist w ith in f lu e n tia l c o n ta c ts in th e p u b lis h in g w o rld , his id e o lo g y alone
was e n o u g h to th r e a te n b u sin e ss in te re sts.
C o o k e s u ite d his a ctio n s to his id e as by u s in g his p olitical skills to c o n stru c t
a p o w e r ba se fo r h im s e lf a n d o th e r lik e -m in d e d e n g in e e rs w ith in th e A m e r
ican Society o f M ech a n ic al E n g in e e rs (A SM E ). H e b eliev ed th a t th e ASM E
a n d th e o th e r p ro fe ssio n a l e n g in e e r in g so c ietie s c o u ld p r o m o te th e public
in te re s t m u c h m o re effectiv e ly th a n in d iv id u a l e n g in e e rs c o u ld . H e saw the
elec trica l u tilitie s as th e m a jo r o b sta cle to th is go al. H e c o n s id e re d d o m i
n a tio n o f th e A m e ric a n In s titu te o f E le ctrica l E n g in e e rs (A IE E ) by the
elec trica l u tilities a n o to r io u s fact; th e u tilitie s d o m in a tio n o f his o w n ASM E
was less o b v io u s b u t n o less c e rta in to h im . B e c a u se o f his close association
w ith F re d e ric k T a y lo r (1 8 5 6 -1 9 1 5 ), w h o b e c a m e p r e s id e n t o f th e ASM E
in 1906, a n d b e c a u se o f a r e f o r m m o v e m e n t a m o n g y o u n g e r m e m b e rs of
th e A SM E , th e utilitie s h a d to ta k e C o o k e se rio u sly in p ro fessio n a l-so c iety
politics.
As if th a t w e re n o t e n o u g h fo r th e utilities, C o o k e e n g a g e d in a hotly
c o n te s te d r a te case in v o lv in g o n e o f th e c o u n tr y s la rg e st utilitie s, th e Phil
a d e lp h ia E lec tric C o m p a n y . R u d o lp h B la n k e n b e rg , th e su cc essfu l re fo rm
c a n d id a te fo r m ay o r o f P h ila d elp h ia, n a m e d C oo k e d ire c to r o f public works.
H is a p p o in tm e n t m ay h a v e r e s u lte d m o re fro m his fam ily b ac k g ro u n d ,
c u ltu ra l style, a n d politic al s e n tim e n ts th a n f ro m his e n g in e e r in g e x p e rtise ,
fo r C o o k e , like m a n y o th e r re f o r m p o litician s o f his d a y , c a m e fro m a
g e n te e l a n d m o n e y e d fam ily d e d ic a te d to r e fo rm c a r rie d o u t in th e public
in te r e s t by p ro fe ssio n a l elites. W h a te v e r th e re a so n s f o r th e a p p o in tm e n t,
C o o k e, as a re s u lt, w as in a p o sitio n to o b ta in in fo rm a tio n a b o u t utility
services a n d to p u b lic iz e his in te r p r e ta tio n o f th a t d a ta . In th e case o f
P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric, w hich h e b r o u g h t to c o u r t, h e w as c o n v in c e d th a t the
utility was o v e rc h a rg in g th e city fo r s tr e e t lig h ts a n d re s id e n tia l c u sto m ers
fo r g e n e ra l service. T h e o v e rc h a rg in g re s u lte d , C o o k e b e lie v e d , fro m the
u tility s in fla tin g th e v alu e o f its assets.
B ec au se th e s ta te 's r e g u la to r y b o d y , th e P ublic S erv ice C o m m issio n , al
low ed u tilities to e a r n a p e rc e n ta g e o f th e ir a ssets as p r o fit, in fla te d val
u a tio n re su lte d in in c re a se d p ro fits. C o o k e m a n a g e d to h a v e P h ila d e p h ia
E lectric b rin g in o u ts id e e n g in e e r in g e x p e rts to m a k e a new ev a lu a tio n ,
b u t th e re su lts, h e in siste d , w ere b iase d by th e p ro -u tility p r e ju d ic e o f the
c o m p a n y s p rin c ip a l c o n s u lta n t. B e cau se th a t c o n s u lta n t was P ro fe sso r Dugald C. Jack so n , h e a d of th e e le ctrica l e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t a t M .1.1-

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
(p p . 1 4 8 -4 9 ab o v e ), a n d b e c a u se C o o k e a lle g e d th a t a n u m b e r o f utility
c o n s u lta n ts fro m th e a c a d e m ic w o rld w e re p r e ju d ic e d like J a c k s o n , C o o k e s
r e p u ta tio n as a ra d ic a l g re w . In th e case o f P h ila d e lp h ia E le c tric s ra te s,
h o w e v e r, C o o k e su c c e e d e d in g e ttin g th e c o m p a n y to r e d u c e th e m , b o th
f o r th e city a n d fo r re s id e n tia l c u sto m e rs.
C o o k e s a u th o r s h ip o f th e G ia n t P o w er re c o m m e n d a tio n s w as c e rta in ly
e n o u g h to c a u se th e u tilitie s lo view th e p la n a p p re h e n s iv e ly , a n d G o v e rn o r
P in c h o ls s p o n s o r s h ip o f it d id n o th in g to reliev e th e te n sio n . P in c h o t h a d
a lo n g h isto ry o f r e f o r m a ctiv ities m o tiv a te d by his c o n v ic tio n th a t p u b lic
a n d b u sin e ss in te re s ts w e re n o t sy n o n y m o u s. A fo r m id a b le a d v o c a te o f th e
ca u se s h e c h o se to c h a m p io n , h e was c h a r a c te riz e d as e n th u s ia s tic , a m b i
tio u s, a n d s e lf- rig h te o u s .82 L ik e C o o k e , P in c h o ts fam ily was a f f lu e n t a n d
h a d close c o n ta c ts w ith th e h ig h - m in d e d p ro g re s s iv e r e f o r m e r s o f his e ra .
F u r th e r m o r e , a n d also like C o o k e , h e w as a n e ffe c tiv e p u b lic ist. A f te r
s tu d y in g fo r e s try in E u r o p e , h e b e c a m e c h ie f f o re s te r o f th e U .S. F o re stry
S ervice. H is p r o g r a m ca lle d fo r th e scien tific m a n a g e m e n t o f tim b e r la n d s
a n d fo r th e c o n s e rv a tio n o f th e se la n d s as a n a tio n a l re s o u rc e fo r his a n d
f u tu r e g e n e ra tio n s . H e h a d se e n E u r o p e a n s h u s b a n d th e ir lim ite d r e
so u rc e s (fo re s t a n d o th e r ), a n d h e w as d e te r m in e d to ste m th e th o u g h tle s s
e x p lo ita tio n o f th e re s o u rc e s in A m e ric a th a t h e kn ew to b e fin ite , p o p u la r
o p in io n to th e c o n tr a r y .
P in c h o ts a ctiv ities d re w h im in to a close politic al a llia n c e w ith his lo n g
tim e p ro g re s s iv e f r ie n d T h e o d o r e R o o sev e lt. T h e y also s p a r k e d a c o n tr o
v ersy w ith p o litic ia n s a n d fin a n c ia l-b u sin e ss in te re s ts th a t h e b e lie v ed w e re
i n te n t u p o n e x p lo itin g th e c o a l-ric h la n d s in A laska a n d th e h y d ro e le c tric
p o w e r site s in th e A m e r ic a n W est lh a l h e w a n te d re s e rv e d fo r g o v e rn m e n t
c o n tro l. H is s ta n d b r o u g h t h im in to c o n flic t w ith, a m o n g o th e r p o w e rfu l
p e rs o n s a n d c o rp o r a tio n s , th e M o rg a n -G u g g e n h e im s y n d ic a te . B e c a u se o f
his r e p u ta tio n f o r m a k in g e n e m ie s , h e c a r rie d a legacy in to th e G ia n t P o w er
c o n tro v e rs y th a t o n ly in c re a s e d its in te n sity . H e w as m o tiv a te d in his .ad
vocacy o f G ia n t P o w e r by his co n v ictio n th a t h e w as w a g in g a s tru g g le
a g a in st selfish a n d a v a ric io u s m o n o p o lie s o r g a n iz e d by p o w e rfu l fin a n cial
in te re sts. A m o n g th e se w as th e o ld foe, th e H o u se o f M o rg a n , w hich,
a c c o rd in g to P in c h o t, c o n tro lle d th e P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric C o m p a n y , a m o n g
o th e r u tilities. (P in c h o t a n d C o o k e , it a p p e a rs , h a d m u c h in c o m m o n .)
In 1922, h a v in g g a in e d a r e p u ta tio n fo r his re fo rm s a n d his o b jectiv es,
P in c h o t w on th e P e n n sy lv a n ia g u b e r n a to r ia l e le ctio n . S h o rtly a fte rw a rd , in
1923, h e e s ta b lis h e d th e G ia n t P o w e r S u rv e y B o a rd , a m o n g w h o se p r o m
in e n t m e m b e rs w as P h ilip P. W ells, d e p u ty a tto rn e y g e n e ra l o f P e n n sy l
v a nia. A n a d v iso ry c o m m itte e lo th e b o a rd in c lu d e d S a m u e l G o m p e rs ,
A r th u r E. M o rg a n , H e n ry L. S tim so n , a n d W illiam A llen W h ite. M o rris
C o o k e was d ir e c to r o f th e b o a rd . In 1925 th e b o a rd s u b m itte d its r e p o rt
to th e G e n e r a l A sse m b ly o f P en n sy lv a n ia (see Fig. X I.4 ).88 T he r e p o r t w as
w idely c irc u la te d by th e g o v e rn o r so as to d ra w n atio n w id e a tte n tio n to th e
p rin c ip le s o f G ia n t P o w er; it also in c lu d e d p ro p o sa ls f o r leg isla tio n .
N u m e ro u s n e w s p a p e rs a n d jo u r n a ls , p o p u la r a n d tec h n ical, c a rrie d su m G ifford Pinchot, The Power Monopoly: Its Make-up and Its Menace (Milford, Pa.: Privately
p rinted , 1928), p. 5.
See Giant Power Survey.

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m a r ie s o f th e p la n . F.lectrical W orld p r i m e d a m a t t e r - o f - fa c t s u m m a r y , but
d id so u n d e r th e h e a d i n g " P in c h o t T a k e s R a d ic a l S t a n d . 34 T h i s sig n a le d
th e r e a c t io n o f th e u tilitie s, b u t b e f o r e th e o p p o s it io n c o u ld m o u n t an
e f f e c t i v e c a m p a ig n , th e g o v e r n o r a n d C o o k e w e r e r e c e iv in g c o n s id e r a b le
a t te n tio n f o r th e ir p r o g r a m . In e s s e n c e , th e C ia n t P o w e r p la n , a s d e v e lo p e d
in th e r e p o r t a n d a s la t e r i n c o r p o r a t e d in le g is la t io n , c a lle d f o r th e estab
lis h m e n t o f g ia n t m in e - m o u t h p o w e r p la n ts (e a c h w ith a g e n e r a t i n g c ap ac ity
o f at le a st 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 k w .) in w e s t e r n P e n n s y lv a n ia ; th e c o n s tr u c t io n o f a
n e tw o r k o f h ig h - v o lt a g e tr a n s m is s io n lin e s c a p a b le o f c a r r y i n g 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r
m o r e v o lts; a n d th e a d a p t a t io n o f th e d is t r ib u t io n s y s t e m s o f p riv a te , m u
n ic ip a l, a n d c o o p e r a t iv e u tilitie s to d e li v e r e le c tr ic ity f r o m th e h ig h -v o lta g e
n e tw o r k to in d u s t r ia l, r e s id e n t ia l, t r a c tio n , a n d o t h e r c o n s u m e r s . T h e m in em o u th p o w e r sta tio n s w e r e to b e in t e g r a t e d w ith p la n ts th a t p r o c e s s e d raw
b itu m in o u s c o a l to d e r i v e g a s , b e n z o l, a m m o n iu m c o m p o u n d s , a n d o th er
c h e m ic a ls b e f o r e d e li v e r i n g lo w - g r a d e fu e l m a t e r ia l to th e p o w e r p la n ts.
T h e G ia n t P o w e r c o n c e p t a p p e a le d to u tility e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e rs
b e c a u s e its b o ld u s e o f a d v a n c e d t e c h n o lo g y , la r g e - s c a le p o w e r p la n ts , an d
w id e - a r e a g r i d s o f t r a n s m is s io n lin e s p r o m is e d e f f i c i e n c y a n d e c o n o m y .
H o w e v e r , o n c e P in c h o l a n d C o o k e s p r o p o s a l s c o n c e r n i n g r e g u la tio n , li
c e n s in g , o w n e r s h ip , r a te s , c o r p o r a t e s t r u c t u r e , a n d s e c u r it ie s w e r e c o m

Figure X1.4.

Title page from Giant

Power Survey.

p r e h e n d e d , th e b lo o m w a s o f f th e r o s e . T a k e n to g e t h e r , th e s e a s p e c ts o l
th e p la n , a s le g is la t iv e h e a r in g s a n d p u b lic d e b a t e r e v e a l e d , c o u ld , in the
o p in io n o f th e u tilitie s, b e la b e le d g o v e r n m e n t in t e r f e r e n c e , e v e n a p re lu d e
to g o v e r n m e n t o w n e r s h ip . A s is s u e s w e r e d e f i n e d a n d th e c o n tr o v e rs y
d e v e lo p e d , it b e c a m e c le a r th a t in th e c a s e o f G ia n t P o w e r , th e qu estio n
w as n o t so m u c h w h e t h e r o r n o t to a d o p t th e n e w t e c h n o lo g y a s w h o w ould
o w n a n d c o n t r o l th e te c h n o lo g y a n d in w h o s e in te r e s t.
R e g u la t io n b y th e s la te w a s to b e a c h ie v e d t h r o u g h b o th th e e s ta b lish e d
P u b lic S e r v i c e C o m m is s io n a n d a n e w , p e r m a n e n t G ia n t P o w e r B o a r d . T h e
la tte r w o u ld a u t h o r iz e in c o r p o r a t io n o f G ia n t P o w e r g e n e r a t i n g c o m p a n ie s
a n d G ia n t P o w e r t r a n s m is s io n c o m p a n i e s .33 S in c e a ll m a jo r p o w e r p lants
a n d tr a n s m is s io n fa c ilitie s in th e f u t u r e w e r e to b e o f th e n e w a n d la rge
k in d , th e sta te w o u ld d e t e r m i n e n o t o n ly th e k in d o f t e c h n o lo g y u se d in
g e n e r a l b u t a ls o th e r e g u l a t o r y d e ta ils o f th e c h a t te r s is s u e d to th e n ew ,
p r iv a te ly f u n d e d G ia n t P o w e r c o r p o r a t i o n s . E x i s t i n g u tilitie s c o u ld a p p ly
f o r G ia n t P o w e r c h a r t e r s , b u t o t h e r in v e s to r s w o u ld h a v e th e o p p o r tu n ity
to a p p ly f o r th e r ig h t to i n c o r p o r a t e f o r th e p u r p o s e o f c o n s tr u c t in g an d
o p e r a t in g th e g e n e r a t io n a n d tr a n s m is s io n f a c ilitie s a s w e ll. T h e g e n e ra tin g
c o m p a n ie s w e r e to b e g iv e n a u t h o r it y b y th e G ia n t P o w e r B o a r d to a p p r o
p r ia t e by c o n d e m n a t io n e n o u g h m in in g la n d s to s u p p l y f u e l f o r not m o re
th a n f if t y y e a r s .
I h e tr a n s m is s io n c o m p a n ie s w e r e to b e c o m m o n c a r r ie r s o f elec tricity
p u r c h a s e d a t w h o le s a le p r ic e s f r o m th e G ia n t P o w e r g e n e r a t i n g c o m p a n ie s
a n d fr o m s u r v i v in g u tility p o w e r p la n ts w h e n th e y h a d a s u r p l u s a b o v e the
n e e d s o l th e ir o w n d is t r ib u tio n s y s t e m s . T h e r o u t e s o f th e tra n sm is sio n
MF.lertriral World H5 (1925): -I2I-22.
T h e IV,Mowing description ( .he Gian. Power plan is based prim arily on Giant Power
im/ry ant
eport o f lie Giant Pawn Hoard to the Governor of Prnnsyliiania. December 7. 1926
(I la rn sb u ra . Pa . 10271
'
J

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lin es w o u ld b e d e te r m in e d by th e G ia n t P o w e r B o a rd . T h e tra n s m is s io n
co m p a n ie s w o u ld sell p o w e r to d is trib u tio n c o m p a n ie s , th e m a jo rity o f
w h ic h , a t least fo r th e fo re s e e a b le f u tu r e , w o u ld be th e e x istin g u tilities.
B e c a u se a u th o r iz a tio n fo r ne w p o w e r p la n ts w o u ld b e lim ite d to G ia n t
P o w e r c o m p a n ie s , th e e x istin g utilitie s o v e r th e y ea rs w o u ld b e g ra d u a lly
tr a n s f o r m e d fr o m m u ltip u r p o s e e n te r p r is e s to sim p le d is tr ib u tio n c o m
p a n ie s.
A s if th e p r o s p e c t o f th is tr a n s f o r m a tio n w e re n o t e n o u g h fo r th e o w n e rs
o f t h e p o w e r fu l u tilitie s to p o n d e r , th e r e was a n o th e r b itte r pill th e y w o u ld
ha v e to sw allow if G ia n t P o w e r le g isla tio n w as e n a c te d . A f te r fifty ye ars,
th e s ta le w o u ld h a v e th e rig h t to ta k e o v e r th e G ia n t P o w e r fa cilities a n d
o p e r a te th e m u p o n p a y m e n t o f t h e m o n e y th e G ia n t P o w e r c o m p a n ie s h a d
p r u d e n tly in v e s te d d u r in g th a t p e r io d . D u r in g th e fifty y e a rs, th e c o m
p a n ie s w o u ld h a v e p a id a n a n n u a l fe e to a m o r tiz e th e cost o f th e la n d
m in e d o r u se d as r ig h t o f w ay fo r tra n sm issio n . ( T h e r ig h t o f w ay w o u ld
ha v e b e e n a c q u ire d by th e c o m p a n ie s th r o u g h th e s ta te 's p o w e r o f c o n
d e m n a tio n o r by sim p le p u rc h a s e .)
T h e G ia n t P o w e r c o m p a n ie s (b o th g e n e r a tin g a n d tra n s m is s io n ) w e re
e x p e c te d to m a k e a p r o fit. A s in th e c ase o f e x is tin g u tilities, th e p ro fits o f
th e new c o m p a n ie s w o u ld be r e g u la te d by th e sta te . W h a t w as new was th e
r a te b ase. M o rris C o o k e h a d se e n in th e v a lu a tio n p ro c e d u r e s o f th e u tilities
a n o p p o r tu n ity f o r th e m to m a k e e x cessive p r o fits d e s p ite th e ir ra te s b e in g
re g u la te d o n th e basis o f p e r c e n ta g e o f in v e stm e n t. U n d e r G ia n t P o w er
laws th e r a te b a se w o u ld n o t b e r e p la c e m e n t v a lu e o f th e p la n t a t th e tim e
o f r a te c h a n g e ; it w o u ld b e th e a m o u n t p r u d e n tly in v e ste d in facilities. T h e
ra te o f r e t u r n o n in v e s tm e n t w as to b e a d ju s te d to allow su ffic ie n t p ro f it
to a ttr a c t n e e d e d c a p ita l. T h r o u g h th e P ublic S erv ice C o m m issio n th e state
w o u ld also c o n tro l th e issu a n c e o f s e c u ritie s, th e p a r v alu e o f w h ich h a d
to c o r r e s p o n d to th e a m o u n t o f c a p ita l in v e s te d .36
T o a n A m e ric a n u tilitie s in d u s tr y a lr e a d y a la rm e d by n a tio n a liz a tio n
le g islatio n in G re a t B rita in . G e r m a n y , a n d e lse w h e re in E u ro p e , G ia n t
P o w e r sig n ifie d u ltim a te g o v e r n m e n t o w n e rs h ip . A n x ie tie s w e re f u r th e r
a ro u s e d by P in c h o t a n d C o o k e s c o m m itm e n t to ru r a l e le c trific a tio n . O n ly
6 p e r c e n t o f th e p o w e r g e n e r a te d by utilities se rv e d fa rm s in 1925. A c
c o r d in g to th e G ia n t P o w e r p la n , th e P u blic S erv ice C o m m issio n w o u ld be
e m p o w e re d to r e q u ir e e x te n s io n o f d is tr ib u tio n sy ste m s to u n s e r v e d te r
rito ry ; f u r th e r m o r e , th e f o rm a tio n o f r u r a l m u tu a l a n d d istric t d is tr ib u tio n
co m p a n ie s w as a u th o r iz e d a n d e n c o u ra g e d . M u tu a l c o m p a n ie s w e re to be
fo rm e d by v o lu n ta ry a sso c ia tio n s o f c o n s u m e rs ; d istric t c o m p a n ie s w ould
be c r e a te d u p o n th e fa v o ra b le v o te o f a m a jo rity o f th e d is tric ts in h a b ita n ts
a n d o f th e o w n e rs o f a s u ffic ie n t m a jo rity o f th e a c re a g e . T h e d istric t
co m p a n ie s w o u ld h a v e th e p o w e r to la x , assess b e n e fits a n d d a m a g e s , a n d
so o n . T h e s e c o m p a n ie s w o u ld bu y p o w e r fro m th e G ia n t P o w er tr a n s
m ission c o m p a n ie s in th e sa m e m a n n e r as utilities.
A n o th e r p a r t o f th e G ia n t P o w e r p la n (su b tle, b u t n o t lost o n th e h o ld in g
co m p a n ie s) p e rta in e d to th e in te r s ta te tra n sm issio n o f p o w er. P in c h o t a n d
C o o k e d e p lo r e d th e o p p o r tu n ity th a t la rg e u tilitie s a n d h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s

,n Giant Power Survey, pp. 4-8 .

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N H 7T W O R K S O F P O W E R
h a d lo o p e r a te o u ts id e th e ju r is d ic tio n o f th e s la te a n d fe d e ra l g o v e rn m e n ts.
T h e fe d e ra l g o v e r n m e n t h a d n o t yet e n a c te d le g isla tio n r e g u la tin g th e
in te r s ta te flow o f e le c tric ity , a n d th e sla te s f o u n d it f r u s tr a tin g lo re g u la te
a u tility o r h o ld in g c o m p a n y w h o se a c tiv ities e x te n d e d b e y o n d th e ir political
b o u n d a r ie s . A m o n g o th e r p ro v isio n s, th e p ro p o s e d G ia n t P o w e r le g islation
c alled f o r P e n n sy lv a n ia to m a k e p acts w ith o th e r sta le s lo r e g u la te in te rs ta te
e le c tric tra n s m is s io n a n d th e re b y av o id th e q u e s tio n o f fe d e ra l ju r is d ic
tio n .S7
T h e G ia n t P o w e r p la n h a d lo b e p r e s e n te d to th e P e n n sy lv a n ia le g isla tu re
in th e fo rm o f bills, a p ro c e ss th a t w o u ld p u b licize th e u tilitie s' o p p o sitio n .
P in c h o t p r o b a b ly a n tic ip a te d th e o p p o s itio n : h e m a y e v e n h a v e e x p e c te d
d e f e a t in th e le g is la tu re ; b u t h e lo o k e d b e y o n d it to th e n a tio n a l im pact
th e p u b lic ity a t te n d a n t u p o n th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e leg isla tio n a n d th e
p u b lic a tio n o f th e le n g th y Report o f the G iant Power Survey Board w ould
h a v e .38 (P in c h o l c o n s id e re d G ia n t P o w e r to b e a n a tio n a l issue, a n d h e
h im s e lf w as th o u g h t o f as a likely c a n d id a te f o r n a tio n a l p o litica l office).
S in c e b o th P in c h o t a n d C o o k e w e re e x p e rie n c e d p u b licists, th e p re s e n ta tio n
o f G ia n t P o w e r to th e le g is la tu re a n d to th e p e o p le w as im p re ssiv e in
its p e rs u a s iv e n e s s . T h e a r g u m e n ts w e n t b e y o n d te c h n ic a l d e ta il a n d b e y o n d
th e d r y s ta te m e n ts o f le g isla tiv e adv o ca cy .
In h is m e ssa g e o f tr a n s m itta l o f th e G ia n t P o w e r r e p o r t, P in c h o t c o m
p a r e d th e e le c tric a l s u p p ly re v o lu tio n lo th e s te a m re v o lu tio n . S tea m ,"
P in c h o t w ro te , m ig h t well say o f e le c tric ity , O n e m ig h tie r th a n I c o m e th ,
th e la tc h e t o f w h o se sh o e s I a m n o t w o rth y to u n lo o s e . 39 S te a m po w e r
h a d c h a n g e d th e fac e o f th e e a r th , th e g o v e r n o r b e lie v e d , b u t its p o te n tia l
fo r th e g o o d o f all th e p e o p le h a d b e e n le sse n e d by th e c o n flic t be tw ee n
c a p ita l a n d la b o r a n d by th e u n p la n n e d c h a r a c te r o f th e in d u s tr ia l re v o
lu tio n . T h e U n ite d S ta te s e sp e cia lly , h e c o n tin u e d , h a d b e n e fite d fro m
s te a m , g a in in g th e h ig h e s t ra tio o f m e c h a n ic a l p o w e r to c itiz en in th e w o rld ,
b u t if e le c tric ity w e re u se d fo r all th e p e o p le , it w o u ld b rin g a n ev e n h ig h e r
s ta n d a r d o f living. P in c h o t w a n te d e v e ry h o m e to h a v e e le c tric lig h t, h e at,
a n d la b o r-sa v in g a p p lia n c e s ; h e w a n te d e v e ry fa rm to h a v e ele ctric ity fo r
m ilk in g , fe e d c u ttin g , w o o d sa w in g , a n d a m u ltitu d e o f o th e r o n e ro u s tasks.
H e ca lled fo r e le c tric ity to b e g e n e r a te d in s u c h a way a n d in su ch places
th a t th e c ities w o u ld b e fre e o f th e n u isa n c e o f s m o k e a n d a sh . H e fo recast
th a t ele c tric ity w o u ld e ffe c t th e s u b s titu tio n o f g a r d e n cities fo r s lu m s, sm all
in d u s tria l c o m m u n itie s f o r g a r g a n tu a n , c h a o tic cities, a n d w o u ld b rin g
a b o u t a r e tu r n to th e c o u n try s id e .
P in c h o l b elie v ed th a t th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts w o u ld be possib le o n ly if th e
s p r e a d in g n e t o f e le c tric p o w e r c o u ld b e b ro u g h t u n d e r p u b lic co n tro l.
P o in tin g o u t th a t th e in te rc o n n e c tio n o f u tilitie s h a d a lre a d y m a d e reg io n a l
sy ste m s a reality , lie p re d ic te d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n a tio n w id e g rid . G rid s
in te g ra te d p o w e r u n d e r c e n tra l c o n tro l as s te a m n e v e r h a d b e e n ab le to.
P in c h o l fo re sa w th e g r o w th o f te c h n o lo g ic a l syste m s; h e also p r e d ic te d th a t
c e n tra liz e d fin a n c ia l a n d b u sin e ss sy ste m s w o u ld c o n tro l a n d m o n o p o liz e
Ibid, pp. 9-1 0 .
,B Pinchni in Cooke, 18 February 1925. and Cooke to Pinchol. 20 April 1925, Cooke Papers
(G roup <10. Box 35. File 391).
,u Giant Power Sunity, p. iv.

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th e te c h n o lo g y . O n th e g o o d sid e , e lec tric p o w e r w as c a p a b le o f sh o w e rin g
u p o n th e p e o p le g ifts o f u n im a g in a b le b e a u ty a n d w o rth ." O n th e b a d
s id e ," P in c h o t o b se rv e d , it is as th o u g h a n e n c h a n te d evil s p id e r w ere
h a s te n in g to s p r e a d his w eb o v e r th e w h o le o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d to
c o n tro l a n d live u p o n th e life o f o u r p e o p le ." '10
T h e evil s p id e r w as th e m o n o p o listic u tility fin a n c ie r, a n d th e n e t was
th e s p r e a d in g h o ld in g co m p a n y . G o v e rn o r P in c h o t h a d n o d o u b t th a t a
u n ifie d e lec trical m o n o p o ly e x te n d in g t h r o u g h o u t th e n a tio n was in ev itab le
a n d close at h a n d . T h e o n ly q u e s tio n was w o u ld a selfish few c o n tro l it o r
w o u ld th e p e o p le re g u la te it. I f th e u tilities w o u ld n o t c o o p e ra te in p ublic
r e g u la tio n , th e n c o n tro l th r o u g h p u b lic o w n e rs h ip was th e o n ly a lte rn a tiv e .
G ia n t P o w er, th e g o v e r n o r a r g u e d , p ro v id e d f o r p u b lic r e g u la tio n ; it a c
c e p te d p riv a te o w n e rs h ip . A s P en n sy lv a n ia a n d th e N a tio n d e a l w ith ele c
tric p o w e r," h e c o n c lu d e d ,
. . . so shall we and o u r descendants be free m en, m asters o f o u r own destinies
and o u r own souls, o r we shall be the helpless servants o f the most widespread,
far-reaching, and p enetrating m onopoly ever known. Either we m ust control
electric power, o r its m asters and ow ners will control us."1
M o rris C o o k e , also n o m e a n m a s te r o f rh e to ric , let th e g o v e rn o r p a in t
w ith a b ro a d b r u s h ; C o o k e m a ste rfu lly d e sc rib e d th e te c h n o lo g y a n d eco
n o m ic s o f G ia n t P o w e r so th a t th e in te llig e n t lay m an c o n c e r n e d a b o u t p ublic
policy co u ld u n d e r s ta n d a n d s u p p o r t it. C o o k e p r o b a b ly saw th e task o f
w in n in g o v e r th e u tility e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs as a n ex e rc ise in futility.
H e se ttle d in s te a d fo r th e H e n r y S tim so n s, th e W illiam A llen W hites, a n d
th e C h a rle s W. E liots. C o o k e a p p e a le d to th e in te lle c tu a ls a n d th e elitist
re f o r m e r s a n d to o k little h e e d o f th e im p a c t o f his re c o m m e n d a tio n s u p o n
v e sted in te re s ts in th e u tility field .
In his se c tio n o f th e 1925 r e p o r t, C o o k e re c o m m e n d e d th a t th e e x istin g
u tilitie s e lim in a te th e ir g e n e r a tin g p la n ts as th e se b ec a m e o b so le te a n d th a t
th e y u ltim a te ly lim it th e m se lv e s to d is trib u tin g e lec tric ity b o u g h t w h olesale
fro m th e G ia n t P o w e r c o m p a n ie s. P in c h o t said th is in g e n e ra l te rm s; C o o k e
w as su cc in c t a n d b lu n t. As f o r th e g e n e ra tin g sta tio n s th e n o p e r a tin g , if
th e y w e re e ffic ie n t, th e y w o u ld b e u se d fo r p e a k loads; if th e y w e re in e f
fic ien t, th e y w o u ld sim p ly b e e lim in a te d . (C o o k e d id n o t in d ic a te th e fate
o f th o se w h o h a d e x p e c te d a lo n g -te rm r e tu r n o n th e ir in v e stm e n t in th ese
p o w e r p la n ts .)42
C o o k e also e m p h a s iz e d b y -p ro d u c t rec o v ery fro m coal at m in e -m o u th
p la n ts (see Fig. X I.5). B oldly, h e r e c o m m e n d e d th e u se o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 to n s o f
b itu m in o u s coal e a c h d ay by c o m b in e d b y -p ro d u c t re co v ery p la n ts a n d
5 0 0 ,0 0 0 -k w . ele c tric p o w e r p lan ts. As a p re c e d e n t, h e co u ld cite on ly th e
la rg e st coal d istilla tio n p la n t in th e U n ite d S tates, th e C la irlo n h ig h -tem p e r a tu r e d istilla tio n p la n t o f th e U.S. Steel C o rp o ra tio n , w hich p ro v id e d ,
a m o n g o th e r p ro d u c ts , coke fo r blast fu rn a c e s a n d gas fo r ste e l-w o rk in g
fu rn a c e s. H e a ssu m e d a d e m a n d fo r th e la rg e a m o u n ts o f a m m o n iu m
s u lfa te , b e n zo l, ta r , gas, c oke, a n d o th e r su b sta n ce s th a t th e G ia n t P ow er
p la n ts w o u ld p o u r u p o n th e m a rk e t. B ecause c o n su m p tio n o f th e w o rld 's
<0 Ibid, p. xii.
" Ibid, p. xiii.
Ibid, pp. 36. 42.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER

Figure XI. J. Giant Power project: Pretreating bituminous coal to derive by-proilucts before burning residue in mine-mouth power plants. From
Gianl Power Survey, p. 104.
p e t r o le u m r e s o u r c e s w a s e x p e c t e d to b e r a p id , h e a ls o s u g g e s t e d th a t oil
a n d g a s o lin e b e d e r i v e d f r o m c o a l d is t illa t io n .43 C o o k e m a y h a v e h e a r d o f
th e d e c is io n o f th e I. G . F a r b e n C o m p a n y in G e r m a n y to in v e s t h e a v ily in
a p r o c e s s f o r p r o d u c in g g a s o li n e f r o m

c o a l: b o th h e a n d I. G . F a r b e n

a n t ic ip a t e d p e t r o l e u m s h o r t a g e s , u n a w a r e a s th e y w e r e o f th e im m e n s e oil
f ie ld s th a t w o u ld h e f o u n d in th e s o u t h w e s t e r n U n it e d S ta t e s w ith in s e v e r a l
y ears.
C o o k e a n t ic ip a t e d th e o b je c t io n f r o m u tility e n g in e e r s th a t th e c o a l- m in
in g r e g io n s la c k e d a n a d e q u a t e s u p p l y oT c o o lin g w a te r . G e n e r a l ly it w as
a g r e e d th a t a n e le c t r ic p o w e r st a tio n n e e d e d at le ast 4 0 0 to n s o f c o o l w a te r
to c o n d e n s e th e s t e a m e x h a u s t e d f r o m t u r b in e s f o r e a c h to n o f c o a l u sed
in p r o d u c in g th e s t e a m f o r th e t u r b in e s . T h e c u s t o m a r y w a y o f o b ta in in g
c o o lin g w a t e r in P e n n s y lv a n ia in th e tw e n tie s w a s to s itu a te p o w e r p la n ts
o n la r g e r iv e r s o r o n tid e w a t e r . T h e A ll e g h e n y w a s o n e o f th e fe w r iv e r s
in th e c o a l- m in in g d is t r ic ts o T e a s t e r n P e n n s y lv a n ia th a t h a d s u f fi c i e n t s u m
m e r H ow to c o o l G i a n l P o w e r p la n ts . C o o k e r e c o m m e n d e d th a t d a m s be
b u ilt to p r o v i d e th is w a te r in sla c k tim e s. T h e d a m s , h e a r g u e d , w o u ld a lso
s e r v e a s a m e a n s o f flo o d c o n tr o l a n d w o u ld p r o v i d e a m o r e r e g u l a r s u p p ly
Ibid, p. 33.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
o f w a te r fo r w aste a n d se w ag e d isp o sal. In a d d itio n to d a m s a n d h e re h e
w en t fa r b e y o n d A m e ric a n p ra c tic e h e u rg e d th e c o n s tru c tio n o f m a m
m o th co o lin g to w e rs, w hich allo w e d a g iv en a m o u n t o f w a te r to b e c irc u la te d
th r o u g h th e c o n d e n s e r s , c o o le d in th e to w ers by th e a tm o s p h e r e , a n d c ir
c u la te d o n c e a g a in th r o u g h th e c o n d e n se rs. H e c alled a tte n tio n to th e
p ra c tic e in E u ro p e , esp ecially a t C o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz a n d T r a t t e n d o r f in
G e rm a n y , w h e re p o w e r p la n ts w ith c o o lin g to w e rs n e e d e d w a te r o n ly to
m a k e u p fo r loss d u e to e v a p o r a tio n .44
As a y o u n g s tu d e n t o f fo re stry , P in c h o t h a d o b se rv e d how E u ro p e a n s
h u s b a n d e d th e ir lim ite d fo re sts, a n d h e u rg e d s im ila r ways u p o n re so u rc c ric h a n d p r o flig a te A m e ric a n s. It is n o t c le a r w h e th e r C o o k e re a liz e d th a t
by r e f e r r in g to E u ro p e a n p re c e d e n ts in e le c tric p o w e r p ra c tic e s su c h as th e
co o lin g to w e rs h e , to o , w as a s k in g th a t th e te c h n iq u e s o f a re s o u rc e -s h o rt
re g io n be a d a p te d in o n e a c c u sto m e d to a n a b u n d a n c e o f r e so u rc e s. H e
d id n o t e x p licitly a c k n o w le d g e th a t in E u r o p e , esp e cia lly in G e rm a n y , m in e m o u th p la n ts a n d co o lin g lo w e rs w ere lo c a te d w h e re lo w -h e a t-v a lu e coal,
b ro w n -c o a l (lig n ite ), w as b e in g e x p lo ite d , a fu e l th a t w as to o low in calo ric s
to be tr a n s p o r te d b e c a u se o f th e h ig h w e ig h t-to -c a lo ric -c o n te n t ra tio .4* T h e
p o w e r p la n t m o v e d to th e fu e l; th e fu e l d id n o t m o v e to th e site o f po w erp la n t co o lin g w a te r a n d lo ad . C o o k e p re s e n te d E u ro p e a n p re c e d e n ts ju s t
as h e r e f e r r e d to th e A m e ric a n p r e c e d e n t in h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n in
C a lifo rn ia sim p ly as a d v a n c e d te c h n o lo g y s h o w in g th e way o f th e fu tu re .
T h e su b tle ty o f s u itin g te c h n o lo g y to fa c to r e n d o w m e n t m ay h av e b e en
lost o n h im .
C o o k e, like P in c h o t, w as g re a tly c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e fa rm e rs ' lack o f
access to e le c tric ity (see Fig. X I.6). C o o k e sh o w e d th a t o f 2 0 2 ,2 5 0 fa rm s in
P e n n sy lv a n ia , o n ly 12,452 w e re e s tim a te d to h av e p u b lic u tility se rvice. (H is
estim a te , h e w ro te , w as h ig h e r th a n th a t m a d e by th e u tilitie s.) N ea rly
2 0 ,0 0 0
f a rm s h a d e ith e r th e ir o w n e le c tric p la n t o r gas p la n t, b u t th a t left
171,581 fa rm s w ith o u t m o d e r n m e a n s o f illu m in a tio n in th e se c o n d d e c a d e
o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .46 (S o m e o f th e se fa rm s w ere A m ish , h o w ev e r,
a n d in th o se in sta n c e s elec tricity was r e f u s e d f o r c u ltu ra l re a so n s.) T h e
m a jo r re a so n so m a n y fa rm s w e n t u n s e rv e d was th a t th e utilities w o u ld n o t
invest in th e d is trib u tio n lin es n e e d e d a n d w o u ld n o t levy ra te s s im ila r to
th o se th e y c h a rg e d th e ir in d u s tria l c u sto m e rs. B eca u se fa rm s w ere w idely
sc a tte re d , in v e s tm e n t in th e n e ce ssa ry d is trib u tio n facilities w as re latively
h ig h c o m p a re d to t h e cost o f se rv in g u rb a n c u sto m e rs, a n d p a rtia lly b ec a u se
o f th is th e fa r m e r s w e re c h a r g e d ra te s like th o se o f re sid e n tia l o r lig h tin g
c o n s u m e rs in th e cities. L ik e P in c h o ts p la n , C o o k e s p ro p o sa l fo r solving
th is p ro b le m in c lu d e d m u tu a l c o m p a n ie s a n d d istric t u tilities, b u t it also
ca lle d fo r utilities to allo c ate as m u c h as 5 p e r c e n t o f th e ir c u r r e n t a n n u a l
ca p ita l e x p e n d itu r e s to r u r a l e le c trific a tio n . In a d d itio n , C o o k e w a n te d
lo w e r ra te s w hich w o u ld e n c o u ra g e in c re a se d c o n s u m p tio n . C o o k e s re c
o m m e n d a tio n s b e c a m e m o re sig n ific a n t w ith h in d sig h t fo r h e was a p
'On ihc problem o f cooling, see also August Ulinann, Jr., "T he Influence o f W ater on
the Location o f Giant Power Plants," Annals o f the American Academy of Political and Social Science
118 (1925): M I-4 8 .
n In 1924 Cooke sent O. M. Rau. an engineer who was assisting him on the Giant Power
project, to Europe to observe the electric supply practices followed there.
"'Giant Power Survey, pp. 37 ff.

308

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure X1.6. Areas o f Pennsylvania within economical range of existing electric supply, c. 1920: only 50 percent were served. From Gianl Power
Survey, p. 39.

p o in te d h e a d o f th e R u r a l E le c t r ific a t io n A d m in i s t r a t i o n u n d e r th e N e w
D e a l.
S o m e o f th e u tilitie s ' r e s p o n s e s to th e i d e a o f G i a n t P o w e r w e r e s h rill.
O n e e n g in e e r la b e le d C o o k e s id e a s c o m m u n is t ic .47 R e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f a
m o r e r a t io n a l r e a c t io n f r o m th e u tilitie s w a s a 1 9 2 5 a d d r e s s b y C h a r le s
P e n r o s e .48 In c o n t r a s t to C o o k e , w h o s e t e c h n ic a l a c h ie v e m e n t s w e r e lim ite d ,
P e n r o s e , a n e le c t r ic a l e n g in e e r f r o m P r in c e t o n , h a d w o r k e d a s a n e le c tr ic a l
e n g in e e r f o r th e P h i la d e l p h ia E le c t r ic C o m p a n y a n d w a s its e n g in e e r in
c h a r g e o f e r e c t io n o f S c h u y lk ill N o . 2 S ta t io n in 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 5 . F r o m 19 2 0
h e h a d b e e n a s s is ta n t g e n e r a l m a n a g e r o f th e p r o m i n e n t P h i la d e l p h ia c o n
su lt in g e n g in e e r i n g f ir m o f D a y & Z i m m e r m a n n . M e w a s, in 1 9 2 5 , c h a ir m a n
o f t h e P u b lic R e la t io n s S e c tio n o f th e P e n n s y lv a n ia E le c tr ic A s s o c ia tio n (th e
tr a d e a s s o c ia t io n o f th e s t a t e s u tilitie s) a n d a m e m b e r o f th e P u b lic R e la tio n s
E x e c u t i v e C o m m i t t e e o f th e N a t io n a l E le c tr ic L ig h t A s s o c ia tio n (th e tr a d e
as s o c ia t io n o f u tilitie s n a tio n w id e ) .
17W. S. M urray, teller lo e d ito r. Electrical World 85 (1925): 5 13. M urray, a consulting
engineer, had a n o th er schem e for large pow er stations and high-voltage transmission, lie
called his plan S uperpow er. It was lo cover the n o rth eastern U nited Stales.
"Charles Penrose, "Pow er in Pennsylvania" (Address before the Hydro-Electric C onfer
ence, Philadelphia, Pa., 10 March 1925): o ffp rin t in Cooke Papers (G roup 40. Box I99, Hie
labeled Propaganda").

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
A d d re s s in g e n g in e e r s in c o n fe re n c e in P h ila d e lp h ia , P e n ro se s tru c k two
re sp o n siv e c h o rd s : (1) a n e x p e r ie n c e d e n g in e e r o p te d f o r re a s o n a b le p r o g
ress fro m a s o u n d base o f e x p e rie n c e ; a n d (2) e n g in e e rs h a d th e r e s p o n
sibility o f in fo rm in g th e p u b lic a b o u t so u n d policy in o r d e r to save it fro m
th e reck less v e n tu re s o f p o litic ia n s a n d o th e r la y m e n tr e a d in g o n th e e n
g in e e r s g r o u n d . H e also in sisted th a t tec h n o lo g ical c h a n g e sh o u ld n o t play
fast a n d loose w ith veste d in te re sts, w hich to h im w e re e c o n o m ic o n e s, a n d
th a t in d u s tr ie s sh o u ld n o t su b sid ize fa r m e r s a n d re sid e n tia l c o n s u m e r s by
allo w in g th e m to b e c h a r g e d r a te s c o m p a ra b le to w h at th e in d u s tr ie s p aid .
In a re v e a lin g re m a rk , P e n ro se la b eled G ia n t P o w e r te c h n o lo g y ra d ic al."
T o a n e x p e rie n c e d a n d p r u d e n t e n g in e e r it was ra d ic al b e c a u se th e le n g th
a n d vo ltag e levels o f th e tra n sm issio n lines p r o p o s e d h a d n o t b e e n th o r
o u g h ly p ro v e n in p ra c tic e a n d b ec au se th e 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 -k w . p o w e r a n d by
p r o d u c t p la n is w e re u n re a listic a lly la rg e fo r th e m in e -m o u th . P e n ro s e also
q u e s tio n e d th e w isd o m o f m a k in g in d u s tria l P en n sy lv a n ia p o w e r p la n ts
d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e m in in g d is tric ts lim ited s u p p ly o f c o o lin g w a te r (d am s
p ro b a b ly c o u ld n o t c o m p e n s a te fo r d ro u g h ts ) o r u p o n c o o lin g to w e rs. A r
tificial c o o lin g in A m e ric a h a d b e e n lim ite d , h e re p o r te d , to in sta lla tio n s
less th a n o n e - te n th th e size o f G ia n t P o w e r p la n ts. H e a lso d o u b te d th e
c o m m o n se n se o f a p r o p o s a l th a t w o u ld h av e all o f e a s te rn P en n sy lv an ia
re ly in g o n 3 0 0 -m ile -lo n g tra n sm issio n lines. (R eliability o f se rv ic e m e a n t
m o r e th a n lo w e r ra te s to m a n y in d u s trie s .) T h e elec trical u tilities in P e n n
sylvania, P e n ro s e in siste d , w ere m o v in g a h e a d a t a re a so n a b le ra te in th e ir
e f f o r t to in te r c o n n e c t system s, ra ise tr a n sm issio n v oltages, a n d im p ro v e
d iv ersity a n d lo a d fa c to rs. P e n n sy lv an ia, h e o b se rv e d , was a p r o s p e ro u s
sta te , a n d P h ila d e lp h ia w as th e W o rk s h o p o f th e W o rld .
P e n n sy lv a n ia 's utilitie s also a ttra c te d c ap ital b e ca u se th e y w e re re co g n iz e d
as b e in g p r u d e n tly m a n a g e d a n d p ro fita b le . P e n ro se c lea rly s p o k e fo r th o se
w ho h a d in v e ste d in th e utilities w h e n h e said:
W hen we reflect upon the immense investm ent represented in generating
capacity operating today in the electric public utility systems in Pennsylvania, we
will appreciate why such a proposal must m erit the closest economic scrutiny.
This is self-evident because o f the intim ate relationship, in Pennsylvania as
elsewhere that exists between the financial stability o f the electric utilities and the
financial stability o f Industry, M anufacture, and indeed Business itself with the
Stale. You may be the judges as to w hether the proposal (I quote), "our service
com panies will be relieved o f the necessity for providing generating stations," is
to say the least startling!49
H e also a sk e d s h re w d ly if th e a u th o rs o f th e G ian t P o w e r p la n h a d c o n
sid e re d w h at m ig h t b e th e re a c tio n o f in d u stria l c o rp o ra tio n s th a t h a d
alre a d y in v e ste d heavily in s u p p ly in g th e coal b y -p ro d u c t m a rk e t th a t G ia n t
P o w er p la n ts w o u ld e n te r.
A f te r a tta c h in g th e label a n o th e r u to p ia " to G ia n t Pow er, P e n ro se e n d e d
his a d d r e s s by a s k in g th e e n g in e e rs to ta k e resp o n sib ility f o r th e f u tu r e o f
th e sta te o f P e n n sy lv a n ia by s e e in g to it th a t th e p u b lic shall know w hat
a re th e fa cts." T h e r e seem s to hav e b een n o d o u b t in his m in d th a t his
in fo rm e d analysis, ba se d as it was u p o n p r u d e n t e n g in e e rin g p ra c tic e a n d
so u n d e co n o m ic p rin c ip le s, p ro v id e d th o se "facts."
49 Ibid., p. 4.

310

n e t w o r k s o f

p o w e r

T h e h isto ry o l 'l h e G ia n t P o w e r p ro p o s a ls in th e P en n sy lv a n ia le g isla tu re

in v o lv e d c o m m itte e h e a r in g s a n d re fo r m u la tio n s . O n e m a jo r c h a n g e was
a r e tr e a t fro m th e initia l p o s itio n th a t g e n e ra tin g , tra n sm issio n , a n d d is
trib u tio n c o m p a n ie s s h o u ld b e s e p a ra te e n titie s. T h e fa te o f th e bill was
finally d e c id e d in J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a ry 1926 a t a jo in t h e a rin g h e ld by
th e C o m m itte e o n C o r p o r a tio n s o f th e S e n a te a n d th e M a n u f a c tu re r s C o m
m itte e o f t h e M ouse o f R e p re s e n ta tiv e s . A d v o c a te s a n d o p p o n e n ts o f G ia n t
P o w er w e re o n h a n d to te stify .51
T h e s tra te g y o f th e b ills o p p o n e n ts h a d b e e n in d ic a te d by P e n ro se ; o th e rs
o f fe r e d v a ria tio n s u p o n h is th e m e s . T o s u b s ta n tia te th e a r g u m e n t th a t
G ia n t P o w e r w as u n re a lis tic , ra d ic a l te c h n o lo g y , th r e e w ell-k n o w n p ro fe s
sio n a l e n g in e e rs , P ro fe s s o r A r t h u r E. K e n n e lly , P ro fe s s o r P aul M. L incoln,
a n d H a ro ld B uck, w e re c alled to te stify. T h e y h a d b e e n s e n t to th e h e a rin g
by th e A m e ric a n E n g in e e rin g C o u n c il at th e re q u e s t o f th e jo i n t c o m m itte e .
T h e th r e e said th a t th e y d id n o t re p r e s e n t th e c o u n c il b u t w ere o n h a n d
as e x p e r ts to o f f e r o p in io n s a n d p re s e n t facts. T h e ir facts a n d o p in io n s
t u r n e d o u t to b e ju s t a b o u t th e sa m e.
H a r o ld B u ck sp o k e first a n d s ta te d th e c o n s e n s u s .51 A c o n s u ltin g e n g i
n e e r fro m N ew Y o rk C ity, h e d e c la re d th a t h e r e p r e s e n te d n o o n e b u t
h im se lf. In th e p a st, h o w e v e r, h e h a d b e e n e m p lo y e d by th e G e n e ra l E lectric
C o m p a n y a n d h a d se rv e d as a n e le c tric a l e n g in e e r f o r th e N ia g a ra Falls
P o w er C o m p a n y b e fo re e n te r in g p riv a te p ra c tic e a n d e n g a g in g in th e d e
sig n a n d c o n s tru c tio n o f la r g e h y d ro e le c tric a n d p o w e r tra n s m is s io n sys
te m s th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y . E c h o in g P e n ro s e , B u ck to ld th e le g isla tu re
th a t to s u p p o r t G ia n t P o w e r w as to ta m p e r re ck lessly w ith a su ccessful
in d u s try , th e p u b lic utilities in P e n n sy lv a n ia . T h a t w h ich was s o u n d a b o u t
th e G ia n t P o w e r p la n was a lre a d y b e in g p u t in to p ra c tic e by th e utilities,
h e n o te d : in te rc o n n e c tio n fo r th e e x c h a n g e o f s u r p lu s p o w e r; eco n o m ica lly
p r u d e n t r u ra l e le c trific a tio n ; lo a d -fa c to r in c re a se s; a n d im p r o v e m e n ts in
th e e c o n o m ic s o f g e n e ra tio n . O th e r a sp e c ts o f G ia n t P o w e r te c h n o lo g y h a d
n o t b e e n a n d w o u ld n ot b e a d o p te d by utility e n g in e e r s b e c a u se , B uck
a r g u e d , th e y w e re p r e p o s te r o u s . H e c a lled th e le g isla to rs a tte n tio n to th e
elec trica l sy ste m s o f C a n a d a a n d G re a t B rita in as e x a m p le s o f th e b alefu l
in flu e n c e o f g o v e r n m e n t c o n tro l a n d r e g u la tio n . (O th e rs a t th a t tim e h e ld
u p th e pub licly o w n e d O n ta r io re g io n a l sy ste m as a m o d e l f o r th e U n ite d
S tate s to follow .) A fte r h e a r in g B u c k s re m a r k s , th e s p o k e s m a n f o r G ian t
P o w er a sk e d B uck if h e h a d e v e r a p p e a r e d as a n e x p e r t w itn ess in a p u b lic
c o n tro v e rs y o th e r th a n f o r a p riv a te c o m p a n y . B uck re c a lle d tw o su ch
o ccasions.
P ro fe sso r A r th u r K e n n e lly w as w ell k n o w n e v e n to la y m e n . H e h a d b een
a p rin c ip a l a ssista n t to E d iso n a t th e W est O r a n g e L a b o ra to ry f o r a b o u t
sev e n y e a rs a n d h a d se rv e d G e n e r a l E le ctric a n d o th e r c o m p a n ie s as a
c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r , re s id in g f o r a lim e in P h ila d e lp h ia . S u b se q u e n tly he
h a d b e c o m e p ro fe s s o r o f e lec trical e n g in e e r in g at th e M a ssac h u setts In sti
tu te o f T e c h n o lo g y a n d a t th e tim e o f th e h e a r in g h e w as a t H a rv a r d . A fte r
s e c o n d in g B u ck 's re m a rk s a n d a m p lify in g so m e o f th e m , K en n elly s o u n d e d

,u See Joint Hearing on Giant Power.

*' Ibid., pp. 64-74.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
a r e c u r r in g th e m e : In m y o p in io n th e p re s e n t system is w o rk in g w e ll."32
M e, to o , e x p re s s e d th e view th a t g o v e r n m e n t in te rf e re n c e r e ta r d e d th e
u tilitie s in d u s try a b ro a d ; h e fe a re d th a t in te rfe re n c e by th e sta te g o v e rn
m e n t in c o n tra s t to sla te re g u la tio n as g e n e ra lly p ra c tic e d w o u ld d ry u p
th e so u rc e s o f n e e d e d cap ita l.
P ro fe s s o r P a u l L in c o ln , d ire c to r o f th e S chool o f E lectrical E n g in e e rin g
at C o rn e ll, h a d e a r lie r w o rk e d fo r W e stin g h o u se a n d th e N ia g a ra Falls
P o w er C o m p a n y . H e r e p e a te d m a n y o f D ucks p ro n o u n c e m e n ts a n d w en t
o n to stre ss his c o n c e rn a b o u t th e stability o f a 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -v o lt tra n sm issio n
line c a r ry in g m o re th a n 125,000 kva. L ike B uck, h e u r g e d th e c o n tin u e d
tr a n s p o r t o f coal (e n e rg y ) by ra ilro a d to p o w e r p la n ts r a th e r th a n th e
tra n sm issio n o f ele ctric ity (e n e rg y ) fro m su c h p la n ts to th e lo ad via h ig h v o lta g e lin e s a c ro ss h u n d r e d s o f m iles. N o t on ly was rail m o re re lia b le b u t
it was m o re econom ical, h e testified. H e re fe rre d to high-caloric n o t b ro w n
coal. In c ro ss-e x a m in a tio n , L in co ln was a sk ed if h e h a d e v e r p r e p a r e d a
stu d y re c o m m e n d in g th e use o f la rg e m in e -m o u th p la n ts to tra n s m it p o w e r
fro m th e P e n n sy lv a n ia coal field s to th e in d u s tria l E ast. As w as e x p e c te d
in view o f his te stim o n y , L in co ln said n e v e r. C o u n se l fo r th e bill th e n laid
b e f o re th e c o m m itte e a s tu d y d o n e by L in co ln in 1919 in w hich h e a d v ise d
th a t th e r e w as n o e n g in e e r in g obstac le lo b u ild in g in th e P en n sy lv a n ia coal
fields a 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 -k w . p la n t c a p a b le o f 22 0 ,0 0 0 -v o ll tr a n sm issio n . T h e w itness
a d m itte d th a t h is m e m o ry was p o o r in th is in sta n c e ; h e also sa id th a t in
1919 h e h a d n o t k n o w n w h at h e kn e w in 1925 a b o u t th e sta bility p ro b le m .33
P r o p o n e n ts o f th e G ia n t P o w e r bill p re s e n te d n o e n g in e e rs fro m p riv a te
u tilitie s o r e le c tric a l m a n u fa c tu r e r s , n o e n g in e e rin g p ro fe sso rs, a n d only
o n e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r a sp ecialist in c o o lin g tow ers, w hich was still an
in s ig n ific a n t fie ld in A m e ric a . H o w e v e r, th e y d id h av e a n im p ressiv e w itness
in T . A. P a n te r, a ssista n t c h ie f e n g in e e r o f th e Los A n g e le s W a te r a n d
P o w e r B u r e a u , a m u n ic ip a lly o w n e d utility. S u p p ly in g th e city o f Los A n
g eles w ith a b o u t 70 p e r c e n t o f its total e n e rg y , th e b u re a u p u rc h a s e d a
s u b sta n tia l p o rtio n o f th is e n e rg y fro m th e p riv ate ly o w n e d S o u th e rn C a l
ifo rn ia E d iso n C o m p a n y s tra n sm issio n system . S o u th e r n C a lifo rn ia E dison
d re w m u c h o f th e p o w e r it sold to th e m u n ic ip a l utility fro m h y d ro e le c tric
p la n ts in th e S ie rra N e v ad as, 25 0 m iles aw ay. P a n te r testified th a t o n th e
basis o f his e x p e rie n c e w ith service fro m th is tra n sm issio n line, h e a n tic i
p a te d th e r e w o u ld be n o se rio u s d ifficu lties w ith G ia n t P o w e r tra n sm issio n .
H e also s ta te d , c o n tr a ry to L in co ln , th a t h e th o u g h t 125,000 kva. co u ld be
tr a n s m itte d w ith o u t stability p ro b le m s o n a 22 0 ,0 0 0 -v o lt lin e .3,1
In g e n e ra l, th e te stim o n y a n d cro ss-e x a m in a tio n at th e h e a rin g p r o
c e e d e d u n e m o tio n a lly a n d m alier-o f-fa cily . T h e e x c e p tio n was a n o ra tio n
g iv en by a m e m b e r o f th e U.S. C o n g re ss fo r m an y y ears, J a m e s F ran cis
B u rk e o f P ittsb u rg h . B u rk e b e g a n by say in g th a t a m o re d a n g e r o u s a n d
d e s tru c tiv e se t o f m e a su re s h a d n e v e r b ee n p re s e n te d to th e leg islatu re.
H e th e n w a rn e d th a t if th e le g isla tu re s h o u ld e v e r b e co m e su ffic ie n tly
socialistic to e n a c t G ia n t P o w er in to law, it w ould also h av e to p ro v id e a
" b u ria l plac e fo r th e 7 5 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 d o lla rs a lre a d y in vested in g o o d faith in
M Ibid., p. 81; Tor Kennedy's testimony in its entirety, sec ibid., pp. 79-83.
** Ibid., pp. 75-79.
M Ibid.. pp. 88-92.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

th e in d u s tr y . G ia n l P o w er, h e sa id , n o t o n ly sm e lle d o f socialism b u t was
p r e g n a n t w ith th e vicious e le m e n ts o f c o n fisc a tio n . It w as false b a it fo r
th e f a r m e r a n d w o u ld le a d to o n e - m a n c o n tro l o f th e vast in d u s try by th e
g o v e r n o r. H e c lo se d by ask in g , Is P e n n sy lv a n ia to lea d A m e ric a in follow
in g R ussia in to th e d ism a l sw a m p o f c o m m e rc ia l c h a o s a n d Financial d is
a ste r? A re we to fo rg e t o u r F ra n k lin s , o u r W e s tin g h o u se s, o u r E d isons,
o u r S te in m e tz e s, a n d all th e g e n iu se s w h o se n a m e s lig h t u p th e h o riz o n of
in d u s tria l p ro g r e s s ? " 35 (T h e fac t th a t S te in m e tz h a d r u n as th e Socialist
p a r ly s c a n d id a te f o r N ew Y o rk S ta te E n g in e e r se e m s n o t to h av e d is tu rb e d
B u rk e .)
It is d iffic u lt to u n d e r s ta n d w hy B u rk e w as c alled to a p p e a r b e fo re the
c o m m itte e his a p p e a l d if f e r e d so d ra m a tic a lly f ro m th e g e n e r a l te m p e r
o f th e h e a rin g . P e rh a p s th e a n s w e r lies in k n o w in g m o re a b o u t th e m e m b e rs
o f th e c o m m itte e . In a n y ca se , w h e th e r m o v e d by B u r k e , m o re re a so n e d
d is c o u r s e , o r o th e r c o n s id e ra tio n s , th e j o in t c o m m itte e re je c te d th e G iant
P o w e r le g isla tio n , re p o r tin g th e bills n eg a tiv e ly o n F e b ru a r y 8. T h e S e nate
s u b s e q u e n tly c o n c u r r e d ; th e H o u s e n e v e r b o th e r e d to r e p o r t.
T h e h isto ry o f G ia n t P o w e r is in stru c tiv e . A t issu e was th e a tte m p t by an
e x te r n a l f o rc e , th e P in c h o t a d m in is tra tio n in P e n n sy lv a n ia , to c h a n g e th e
d ire c tio n o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r in d u s try in
th e U n ite d S tates. T h e e f f o r t fa iled , b u t th e p r o p o n e n ts o f G ia n l P ow er
d o n o t see m to h a v e u n d e r s to o d th e d e e p e r re a s o n s w hy. P in c h o t b la m e d
th e p o w e r o f a g r e a t a n d g ro w in g m o n o p o ly m a s te r m in d e d by g ia n l fi
n a n c ia l in te re s ts ; C o o k e s h a re d th is view a n d also a ttr ib u te d th e fa ilu re to
th e c o n se rv a tism o f th e e n g in e e r in g e s ta b lis h m e n t, a n a ttitu d e h e h a d s tr u g
g le d a g a in st as a m e m b e r o f th e A m e ric a n S o ciety o f M e ch a n ic al E n g in e e rs.
B o th m e n g av e m o re c re d it to th e in f lu e n c e o f h u m a n will p e r h a p s they
w o u ld h a v e p r e f e r r e d to say h u m a n m a c h in a tio n s th a n to lo n g -ra n g e
tr e n d s o r fa cto rs.
T h e h is to r ia n c an fo cu s o n tr e n d s , fa c to rs, a n d th e m o m e n tu m o f a larg e
a n d g r o w in g in d u s try . P h ilip P. W ells, P in c h o ts d e p u ty a tto rn e y g e n e ra l,
w as n e a r e r to th e m a r k w h e n h e to ld th e j o in t c o m m itte e th a t in fact th e
u tilities o p p o s e d G ia n t P o w e r n o t o n a n e n g in e e r in g basis b u t b ec a u se of
th e re g u la tio n a n d th e p o o lin g a n d th e f a r m e r s bills.56 C h a r le s P e n ro se
a n d A r th u r K e n n e lly w e re m u c h c lo se r to th e ro o ts o f t h e o p p o s itio n w h e n
th e y c alled a tte n tio n to th e he av y in v e s tm e n t o f c a p ita l th a t h a d b e e n m a d e
in th e e x istin g te c h n o lo g y by th e u tilitie s a n d to th e p o ssibility th a t a sc h e m e
like G ia n t P o w e r m ig h t d riv e aw ay th e in v e sto rs w h o w e re fin a n c in g th e
o rd e r ly d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e in d u s tr y . T h e y w o u ld h a v e b e e n e v en n e a re r
th e m a rk if th e y h a d g o n e o n to say th a t G ia n l P o w er w o u ld sh ift th e
a u th o r ity a n d re sp o n sib ility o f p re s id in g o v e r th e g ro w th o f ele c tric light
a n d p o w e r sy stem s fro m th e e n g in e e rs , m a n a g e rs , a n d o w n e rs o f th e e x
istin g utilitie s to th e new m e n o f th e G ia n t P o w e r sy stem . P in c h o t a n d
C o o k e w e re n o t sim p ly p r o p o s in g a ra d ic a l te c h n o lo g y ; th e y w e re p ro p o s in g
ra d ic a l c h a n g e in th e d e e p e s t se n se o f th e w o rd . T h e y w e re ca llin g f o r a
s h ift in p o w e r, a n e c o n o m ic re v o lu tio n .

Ibid., pp. 54. 56, 59.

Ibid., p. 30.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
By th e m id -1 9 2 0 s th e s u p e r p o w e r a n d G ia n t P o w er m o v e m e n ts h a d losi
m o m e n tu m . T h e w a rtim e sp irit o f im p e ra tiv e in n o v a tio n h a d g iven way to
a m o re c o n se rv a tiv e a ttitu d e . A m e ric a s u tilities p r o c e e d e d w ith in te r c o n
n e c tio n , b u t n o t in a c c o rd a n c e w ith a m a ste r g o v e rn m e n t sc h e m e f o r a n
e n tir e sta le o r r e g io n . T h e vision o f p la n n e d social re v o lu tio n th r o u g h
tec h n o lo g y gav e way to th e lo n g -s ta n d in g c o n fid e n c e th a t p riv a te e n te r p r is e
a n d A m e ric a n te c h n o lo g ic a l g e n iu s w o u ld b rin g p ro fil a n d p ro g re ss.
T h e p la n fo r G ia n t P o w er in th e U n ite d S ta te s h a d p ro v id e d fo r g o v
e r n m e n t p la n n in g a n d c o n tro l at th e sta te level, a n d th e re s u ltin g ide o lo g ical
co n flict h a d b e e n b e tw e e n sta te g o v e rn m e n t a n d p riv a te e n te r p r is e . In
G e rm a n y a f te r th e w a r a n o th e r bo ld p la n f o r g o v e rn m e n t r e o rg a n iz a tio n
o f e le c tric su p p ly w as a d v a n c e d . T h e r e th e id e o logical c o n flict d e v e lo p e d
b e tw e e n th e c e n tra l a n d sla te g o v e rn m e n ts , n o t b etw e e n p riv a te a n d p u blic
p o w e r. T h e c e n tra l, s o c ia list-d o m in a te d g o v e r n m e n t p assed an e le c trifi
c atio n law in D e c e m b e r 1919, w h e n th e d is ru p tiv e , u n c o n v e n tio n a l, e x
tre m e e n v ir o n m e n t o f w a rtim e w as still m o tiv a tin g rad ica l ac tio n s. O n 8
A u g u s t 1919 th e R eich T r e a s u r y M in ister W ilhelm M a y e r h a d p re s e n te d
to th e G e rm a n N a tio n a l A ssem bly at W e im a r th e g o v e r n m e n ts p ro p o sa l
fo r e s ta b lis h in g a u n ifie d e le c tric su p p ly system fo r all o f G e rm a n y . M ay e r
m a d e his p ro p o s a l u n d e r th e g e n e r a l p ro v isio n o f th e S o cialization Law
p a sse d by th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly o n 23 M a rc h 1919. P a r a g ra p h s 2 a n d 4
o f th is law e m p o w e re d th e R eich g o v e rn m e n t to socialize, w ith c o m p e n
sa tio n , u n d e r ta k in g s th a t e x p lo ite d n a tu r a l re so u rc e s, e specially coal a n d
w a te r p o w e r, to d e v e lo p e n e r g y fro m th e m . T h e s e u n d e rta k in g s w ere lo
be in te g ra te d in to a n a tio n a l e c o n o m y .57
T h e R eich g o v e r n m e n t th o u g h t th a t a u n ifie d G e rm a n system o f su p p ly
w o u ld solve se v e ra l p re s s in g p ro b le m s. By in c re a se d utiliza tio n a n d e x
p a n sio n o f e x istin g c e n tra l G e rm a n bro w n -c o al a n d s o u th G e rm a n h y
d ro e le c tr ic p o w e r p la n ts, a n d th r o u g h a d d itio n a l c o n s tru c tio n o f th ese, th e
g o v e rn m e n t h o p e d to re liev e a p o stw a r coal s h o rta g e re s u ltin g fro m th e
loss o f h a rd -c o a l (Steinkohle) m in e s u n d e r th e te rm s o f th e T r e a ty o f V e r
sailles a n d fro m s h o r te r w o rk in g h o u rs a n d lo w e r p ro d u c tiv ity in th e m ines.
T h e g o v e r n m e n t, as n o te d , a lso fa ced th e p ro b le m o f f in d in g a m a rk e t fo r
th e la rg e -c a p a c ity p o w e r p la n ts th a t h a d b e e n bu ilt d u r in g th e w ar to m ee t
sp ecial w a rtim e m a n u f a c tu rin g n e e d s, su c h as a lu m in u m re fin in g a n d n i
tr o g e n fix a tio n . C o n s tru c tio n o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n sy stem s w ould
m a k e possib le in p e a c e tim e th e d is trib u tio n o f electricity fro m th e se very
la r g e p la n ts o v e r a w id e r m a rk e t a re a . A la rg e a re a o f d is trib u tio n w ould
also b rin g a d iv e rsifie d lo ad a n d th e essential h ig h load fa c to r fo r th e se
la rg e , c a p ita l-in te n siv e plan ts.
In te n t u p o n u tiliz in g th e bro w n -co a l d e p o sits o f G e rm a n y , th e g o v e rn -

57 T h e discussion o f llic 1919 proposal for the socialization o f electric supply in G ermany
is based on T reasu ry Minister Wilhclnt Mayer's address o f 8 August 1919; sce E. Ilcilfron,
cd., Die Deutsche Nalionalversammlung im Jahre 1919 [un</ / 920\. vol. 7 (Berlin; N orddeutsclic
Buchdruckerci utul Vcrlagsanstali. n.d.). pp. 509-21. T h e account of the effort to establish
an all-German system is based on Thom as I. Hughes, "Technology as a Force Tor Change
in History: T h e Effort lo Form a Unified Electric I'ower System in W eim ar Germ any," in
Induslrielles Syslem und politische Entwicklung in der Weimarer Republic, cd. H. Mommsen. D.
Pctzina. and B. W cisbrod (Diisschloi f: Droste. 197-1). pp. 153-66.

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m e n l. fo r re a so n s o f e c o n o m y , fa v o re d h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n su p p ly .
B ec au se it is h ig h in c a lo rific v alu e, h a r d , o r s to n e , co al th e p rin c ip a l
so u rc e o f th e rm a l e n e rg y u se d by G e r m a n p o w e r p la n ts b e fo re W o rld W ar
I is re la tiv e ly e c o n o m ic a l to tr a n s p o r t by ra ilro a d . F o r th is re a so n , h a rd coal ele c tric p o w e r p la n is in th e R u h r re g io n a n d e ls e w h e re w e re b uilt n e a r
u r b a n o r in d u s tria l c e n te rs w h e re th e d e m a n d f o r ele c tric ity w as c o n c e n
tra te d a n d heavy. By c o n tr a s t, b ro w n c o al, h a v in g a low c alo ric c o n te n t, is
u n e c o n o m ic a l to tr a n s p o r t. F o r th is re a so n , p o w e r p la n ts u sin g b ro w n coal
w ere b u ilt at th e m in e site a n d th e e n e r g y h a d to b e tra n s m itte d to u rb a n
c e n te rs via h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n lin e s.5
A s h o r ta g e o f h a r d coal, th e p ro b le m o f la rg e p o w e r p la n is d e p riv e d of
th e ir w a rtim e m a rk e ts , th e av a ila b ility o f b ro w n coal, a n d th e e x iste n c e of
w a te r-p o w e r re s o u rc e s in s o u th e r n G e rm a n y w e re so m e o f th e sp ecial c ir
c u m sta n c e s th a t s h a p e d th e R eich g o v e r n m e n ts p la n . T h e g e n e ra l ob je c
tives o f h ig h e r lo a d f a c to r a n d h a r m o n io u s o p tim iz a tio n o f v a rie d p la n t
c h a ra c te ristic s also w e re c o n d itio n in g fa c to rs. F o r in sta n c e , th e g o v e rn m e n t
a s s u re d so u th G e rm a n h y d ro e le c tric u tilitie s th a t in te rc o n n e c tio n w ith th e r
m al p la n ts e ls e w h e re in th e R eich w o u ld a s s u re a r e g u la r s u p p ly o f elec
tricity in th e s o u th d u r in g lim e s o f re la tiv e d r o u g h t. C o r re s p o n d in g ly ,
ele c tric ity g e n e r a te d by th e rm a l p la n ts in o th e r r e g io n s c o u ld be s u p p le
m e n te d by exce ss c h e a p h y d ro e le c tr ic s u p p ly a t th e p o in t o f o rig in . T h e
g o v e r n m e n ts p r o p o s a l w as p r e s e n te d as a h ig h ly ra tio n a l m e a n s o f using
G e r m a n re s o u rc e s to s u p p ly e le c tric ity e ffic ie n tly a n d c h e a p ly to all of
G e rm a n y .
T h e R eich s p la n fo r n a tio n a liz a iio n w as d e s c r ib e d as m o d e r a te a n d flex
ible. E m p h a sis was p la c e d o n th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a h ig h -v o lta g e n etw o rk
o f tra n sm issio n lin e s by th e R eich g o v e r n m e n t; all lin es a b o v e 5 0 ,0 0 0 volts
w o u ld be R e ic h -o w n e d . E lectric ity w o u ld b e fed in to th is a ll-G e rm a n pool,
o r n e tw o rk , by p o w e r p la n is th r o u g h o u t G e rm a n y . E le ctricity w o u ld be
d is trib u te d a t lo w e r vo ltag e s to local c e n te rs in all o f G e rm a n y a n d from
th e se to c o n s u m e rs u r b a n , in d u s tr ia l, r u r a l, a n d railw ay. T h e R eich w ould
g a in c e n tra liz e d c o n tr o l o v e r all m a jo r p o w e r p la n ts by a c q u irin g m a jo rity
stock in th e m o r by p u rc h a s in g th e m o u tr ig h t, b u t sla te a n d local g o v e r n
m e n ts w o u ld b e u r g e d to s h a r e in slock o w n e r s h ip as well. T h r o u g h c e n
tra liz e d c o n tro l, th e R eich w o u ld e x p a n d a n d in te rc o n n e c t in d iv id u a l p lan is
as well as e x istin g o r e n v isa g e d re g io n a l syste m s. In 1919 th e la tte r in c lu d e d
th e R h e in isc h -W e sifa lisc h e s E le k triz ila tsw e rk (R W E ) sy ste m , a m ix e d p ri
vate a n d lo c a l-g o v e rn m e n t e n te r p r is e ; E le k tro w e rk e A G (E W A G ), a Reich
system ; a n d th e p r o je c te d B a y e rn w e rk , a B a v a ria n s ta le e n te rp ris e . In his
a r g u m e n t b e fo re th e N a tio n a l A ssem b ly , T r e a s u r y M in iste r M a y e r e m
ph a siz e d th e R eich g o v e r n m e n ts d e s ire to s h a r e o w n e rs h ip w ith th e p ro
vincial g o v e r n m e n ts a n d to b e a d v ise d by th e m in fu lfillin g th e p la n . He
c o m p a r e d th e e le c trific a tio n p la n to th e p r o p o s a l by F rie d ric h L ist, a c e n
tu ry e a rlie r, fo r a u n ifie d railw ay sy stem in G e rm a n y ; M a y e r c o n fid e n tly
p re d ic te d th a t th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e p la n by th e N a tio n a l A ssem b ly a n d its
su cc essfu l fu lfillm e n t w o u ld d e m o n s tr a te to th e w o rld th e vitality o f the
' (real Britain. Foreign O llice and Ministry o f Economic W arfare. Economic Advisory
Branch. Economic Survey of Germany. Section D: Fuel. Power, and Public Utility Services (London.
IIMSO, 1944), p. 45.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
new G e rm a n y . T h e law p r o v id in g f o r th e soc ia liza tio n o f e le c tric ity was
e n a c te d o n 31 D e c e m b e r 1919.
T h e new law was n e v e r im p le m e n te d , h o w e v e r. A n a d v iso ry c o m m itte e
w as c h a rg e d w ith th e re s p o n sib ility o f c a rry in g o u t its p ro v isio n s by p r e
p a r in g d e ta ile d p la n s a n d p r o c e d u re s . T h e c o m m itte e , w h ich in c lu d e d
m e m b e rs f ro m th e R eich a n d sta te g o v e r n m e n ts , as w ell as fro m m ixeclo w n e rs h ip a n d p riv a te c o m p a n ie s , m e t w ith o u t p ra c tic a l re su lt. T h e in a c
tivity o f th e c o m m itte e f r u s tr a te d th e p la n s o f th e v a rio u s e le c tric su p p ly
u n d e r ta k in g s , f o r th e se , n o t k n o w in g w h a t c o u rs e o f a c tio n la te r m ig h t be
d e c id e d u p o n by th e c o m m itte e , w e re r e lu c ta n t to a ct a t all. U n d e r th e s e
c o n fu s e d c o n d itio n s , D r. A . J u liu s C u rliu s o f th e E c o n o m ic M in istry r e
s p o n d e d in 1926 to O s k a r v o n M ille rs su g g e stio n th a t th e R eich g o v e r n
m e n t a u th o r iz e a n d s u p p o r t th e p r e p a r a tio n o f a te c h n ic a l r e p o r t o n th e
p r e s e n t a n d f u tu r e c o n d itio n o f e le c tric su p p ly in G e rm a n y . V o n M iller
b e liev e d th a t a r e p o r t filled w ith in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e te c h n o lo g y a n d
e c o n o m ic s o f sy ste m a tic e le c tric su p p ly m ig h t p ro v e to b e a basis o n w hich
a u n ifie d e le c tric s u p p ly s tr u c tu r e c o u ld b e e r e c te d . A n e m in e n t B a v a ria n
e n g in e e r, v on M iller, w h o h a d su c ce ssfu lly p la n n e d r e g io n a l e le c tric su p p ly
sy stem s ( in c lu d in g th e B a y e rn w e rk in B av a ria ), h a d p ro v e n h im s e lf a d e p t
in fo r m u la tin g p la n s th a t r e s p o n d e d to th e p a r tic u la r in te re s ts o f p riv a te
a n d g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d utilitie s a n d to th e p rin c ip a l ob je ctiv es o f a u n ifie d
system .
V o n M ille rs r e p o r t, Gulachten iiber die Reichselektrizitatsversorgung, was
p u b lis h e d in 1930. It w as b a se d o n a n an aly sis a n d p ro je c tio n o f d e ta ile d
in f o rm a tio n h e h a d o b ta in e d by q u e s tio n n a ir e fro m G e r m a n e le c tric s u p p ly
u n d e r ta k in g s . V o n M ille r e n v isa g e d a h ig h -tra n s m is s io n rin g , o r R ingleitung, o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 -3 8 0 ,0 0 0 volts g a th e r in g a n d d is s e m in a tin g e le ctricity
th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y (see Figs. X I.7 a n d X I.8 ). T h e R in g leitu n g w o u ld
b rin g th e b e n e fits o f h ig h e r lo a d fa c to r, o p tim iz a tio n o f v a rie d p o w e r-p la n t
c h a ra c te ristic s, a n d c o o rd in a tio n th r o u g h c e n tra l c o n tro l. V o n M iller c ir
c u m sp e c tly a d v ise d th a t th e o b jec tiv e m ig h t b e ac h ie v e d in sev era l ways,
su c h as le g isla tio n o r v o lu n ta ry c o o p e ra tio n . H is r e p o r t, h o w e v er, b r o u g h t
n o p ra c tic a l re s u lt d u r in g th e W e im a r y e ars; his b io g r a p h e r w rite s th a t th e
r e g im e d id n o t h a v e th e p o w e r a n d w ill to o v e rc o m e th e o p p o s itio n to
it.59
O th e r e x p la n a tio n s w e re g iv e n fo r th e fa ilu re o f p la n s fo r a n a ll-G e rm a n
g rid , a n d th e y , to o , e m p h a s iz e d G e r m a n p a ro c h ia lism . In 1935 a p u b li
c a tio n o f th e W irts c h a fls g ru p p e E le k triz ita ts v e rs o rg u n g d e r R e ic h s g ru p p e
E n e rg ie w irts c h a ft d e r d e u ts c h e n W irlsc h a ft (E lectric S u p p ly S ectio n o f th e
G e r m a n E n e rg y G r o u p o f th e G e rm a n E c onom y) (W E V ) a s s e rte d th a t th e
fru itle ss e n d e a v o rs to fo rm a u n ifie d e le c tric s u p p ly system in G e rm a n y
c a m e to a n e n d o n ly in 1933 w ith th e triu m p h o f th e N a tio n a l Socialists, a
re g im e , th e W E V b e liev e d , w h ic h h a d th e s tr e n g th to o v e rc o m e p a r o c h i
alism , o r p a rtic u la ris m , a n d o th e r o b stru c tio n ist fa c to rs.60 M o re re c e n tly ,

W ilhelm L. Krisll. Der weiss-blaue Despot (M unich: Pflaum. n.d.), p. 274.

W irtsch a fu g ru p p c E leklriziiatsv crso rg u n g tier K eichsgruppc E ncrgiew irischafl tier
deutschen W irlschafl (WEV), Die Elektrititdlsiuirtschafl im deutschen Reich. 193J (Berlin, n.d.),
p. I I.

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NETW ORKS o f p o w e r

Figure X I.7. Oskar van Miller s proposed

220,000-volt grid system fo r Germany
From Oskar von Miller.
Rcirhsclcktri/.ilals-V crsorgiing (1930).
plan 21.

Figure XJ.8. F.stimated loads for summer and winter days in Bavaria (right bank of the Rhine). 1935: Cities (Stiidtc); rural districts
(Landbe/.irkc); industry (Industrie); railway (Bnlui). From Oskar von Miller, R cirhsclrktii/it;iis-V eisoigiing (1930), plan 2.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
a G e rm a n so u rc e a ttr ib u te d th e W e im a r R e p u b lic 's fa ilu r e to th e d iv e rse
c o n te n d in g in te re s ts o f a m id d le -c la ss sta te , a p a rtic u la ris m th a t w as su s
ta in e d by a c o m p le x e c o n o m ic s tr u c tu r e in v o lv in g p riv a te , c o u n ty , s ta te ,
a n d R eich o w n e rs h ip o f p o w e r p la n ts .61
D u rin g th e W e im a r p e rio d , th e relative im p o rta n c e o f g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d
a n d m ix e d g o v e r n m e n t- a n d p riv a te ly o w n e d p o w e r p la n ts g re w r a p id ly .
In 1928, 57.3 p e rc e n t o f G e rm a n y 's p o w e r-p la n t capacity was publicly o w n e d ;
2 8 .9 p e rc e n t w as c o n tro lle d by m ix e d g o v e rn m e n t- a n d p riv a te ly o w n e d
c o m p a n ie s ; a n d o n ly 13.8% w as p r iv a te ly o w n e d .62 T h e g o v e rn m e n t o w n e rs
in c lu d e d th e sla te s, cities, c o u n tie s , a n d th e R eich. P r o p o n e n ts o f a u n ifie d
system g e n e r a lly a g r e e d th a t th e n o n -R e ic h g o v e rn m e n t o w n e rs a n d th e
p riv a te c a p ita lists w e re a t th e ro o t o f th e p a rtic u la ris m th a t u n d e r m in e d
th e ir e ffo rts . A n A m e ric a n a u th o r ity also c o n c lu d e d th a t th is o w n e rs h ip
s tr u c tu r e , s u p p o r tiv e as it w as o f re g io n a lism , was a p rin c ip a l fa c to r b lo c k in g
th e f u lf illm e n t o f s u c h p la n s fo r u n ific a tio n as v on M ille rs.63 A s a c o n s u ltin g
e n g in e e r a n d a s a m e m b e r o f th e B a v a ria n p a rlia m e n t, O s k a r v on M iller
h a d s tr u g g le d o n b e h a lf o f la rg e , u n ifie d , e ffic ie n t sy ste m s o f su p p ly fo r
m a n y yea rs. D u r in g th a t tim e h e h a d b e c o m e in tim a te ly a c q u a in te d w ith
th e d iv e rs e in te re s ts th a t m ig h t be, o r f e a r e d th e y w o u ld be, a d v e rse ly
a ffe c te d by th e c r e a tio n o f a u n if ie d su p p ly sy ste m . W ritin g in 1926 o n th e
p ro b le m s o f t h e G e r m a n e le c tric su p p ly in d u s tr y , h e a r g u e d th a t a ra tio n a l
p la n fo r e ff ic ie n t s u p p ly to all a re a s o f G e rm a n y , r u r a l a n d u rb a n , in d u s tria l
a n d a g ric u ltu r a l, n e e d e d to b e c a rr ie d o u t irre s p e c tiv e o f th e in te re sts o f
v a rio u s po litica l p a r tie s , local g o v e rn m e n ts , a n d c o m p e tin g p riv a te e n te r
p rise s. U n d o u b te d ly , w h e n th in k in g as a n e n g in e e r , h e te n d e d to b e im
p a tie n t w ith th o s e w h o se g oal w as o th e r th a n efficien c y . V o n M iller, it
see m s, c o n s id e re d th e o b jec tiv e o f s u p p ly in g all o f G e r m a n y w ith low -cost,
e ffic ie n tly g e n e r a te d ele c tric ity to b e a ra tio n a l a n d n o n p o litic a l g o a l.64
D r. In g . O s k a r O liv e n , m e m b e r o f th e Vorstand (E x e cu tiv e C o m m itte e )
o f th e G e se llsc h a ft f u r e le k tris c h e U n te r n e h m u n g e n L u d w ig L ow e, A G ,
B e rlin , also a ttr ib u te d to n a rro w p o litic al in te re s ts th e o p p o s itio n to la rg e ,
u n if ie d sy stem s o f e le c tric su p p ly . O liv e n w as well k n o w n fo r his advocacy
o f a u n ifie d sy ste m th a t w o u ld e x te n d b e y o n d G e rm a n y to in c lu d e n e ig h
b o rin g E u r o p e a n c o u n trie s . In 1930 O liv e n b elie v ed th a t th e o p p o s itio n o f
locally o w n e d G e rm a n u tilities w as so g r e a t a n d th e ir p o litic al p o w e r in th e
W e im a r R e p u b lic w as so s tr o n g th a t th e b e st tactic fo r th o se , like h im se lf,
w h o a d v o c a te d la rg e , ra tio n a l sy ste m s was to seek, th r o u g h c o m p ro m ise s,
sm all, p ro g re s s iv e ste p s. O liv e n , to o , b e lie v ed th a t his g o al o f e fficie n cy was

01 See Helga N ussbaum , "V ersuche zur reichsgeselzliclicn Regclung d e r deulschen Elck(rizilatswirlschafl u n d zu ilircr U b crfu h ru n g in Rcicliseigenlum, 1909 bis 1914," in Jahrbueh
fiir Wirtschaftsgeschichte (B erlin, 1968), pi. 3, pp. 12 0 - 12 1, who d ie s Hans-Jonchim H ildebrand,
Wirtsehaftliche Energieversorgung (Leipzig: D culschcr V crlag fu r G rundstaffindustrie. 1965),
I: 45-49.
* Rol>ert A. Brady, The Rationalization Movement in German Industry (Berkeley: University
o f California Press, 1933). p. 214.
Ibid., p. 229.
"A u sfu h ru n g cn dcs Sachvcrslandigcn Dr. O skar von Miller Obcr die derzeil wichtigsten
Fragcn d e r EleklrizitStswirtschaft," in Ausschuss zur Untersuchung der Erzeugungs- und Absatibedingungen der deutschen Wirtschafl: Die deutsehe Elektrizitatswirtschafl. . . (Berlin: M itller, 1930)
p. 145.

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n o n p o lilic a l. F u r th e r m o r e , h e a s s u m e d th a t a te c h n o lo g y was p ro g ressiv e
if it c o n tr ib u te d lo la rg e -sca le e ffic ie n c y .65
T h e e le c tric su p p ly sy stem in th e sta te o f W iirlte m b e rg in 1928 m a n i
fe ste d th e c h a ra c te ristic s th a t u n d e r la y G e rm a n y s p a ro c h ia lism . T h e reg io n
was c h a r a c te r iz e d by n u m e r o u s d is trib u tio n sy stem s in close p ro x im ity . In
th e lo w la n d s, la rg e a n d sm a ll cities p r e d o m in a te d , a n d th e r e f o r e c o m m u n a l
(lo c a l-g o v e rn m e n t) sta tio n s o f v a rie d c h a ra c te ris tic s p re v a ile d . O v e rla n d
p o w e r s ta tio n s, h o w e v e r, s u p p lie d th e r u r a l re g io n s b e tw e e n th e s m all cities.
B ec au se o f th e a g ric u ltu r a l e c o n o m y a n d th e .absence o f heav y in d u stry
su ch as c h em ic al p la n ts, a w idely d is p e rs e d p o p u la tio n u se d electric ity in
su ch a way th a t th e lo a d fa c to r w as low in c o m p a ris o n to th e m o re heavily
in d u s tria liz e d re g io n s o f th e c o u n tr y . E ffo rts w e re m a d e to c o n so lid a te th e
d is trib u tio n sy ste m s o f t h e la rg e s ta tio n s a n d th e c o m m u n a l p o w e r sta tio n s,
b u t in th e la te tw e n tie s th e e le c tric su p p ly sy ste m in W iir tte m b e r g w as se h r
z e r s p lilte rt.66
T h e o w n e rs o f W iir tle m b c rg (a n d o th e r ) a u to n o m o u s u tilitie s, w h e th e r
lo c a l-g o v e rn m e n t o r p riv a te ly o w n e d , r e siste d ra tio n a l r e o rg a n iz a tio n b e
c au se th e y fo resa w v a rio u s c o n s e q u e n c e s th e p ro g re s s iv e e n g in e e r s h a d
o v e rlo o k e d .67 A s a r e s u lt o f c e n tra liz e d c o n tr o l, o w n e rs a n d m a n a g e rs of
e x istin g p o w e r p la n ts c o u ld a n tic ip a te a loss o f a u th o r ity . O w n e rs o f sm all
a n d in e ffic ie n t p o w e r p la n ts c o u ld re a so n a b ly e x p e c t th e ir p la n ts to be
re tir e d fro m serv ice , a s te p th a t w o u ld c a u se th e m a fin a n c ia l loss, loss of
a u th o rity , o r b o th . P e rso n s w ith v e sted in te re s ts in p o w e r p la n ts th a t had
a very h ig h lo a d fa c to r b e c a u se o f fo rtu ito u s local c irc u m s ta n c e s co u ld look
fo rw a rd to h a v in g to s h a r e th is a d v a n ta g e w ith p la n ts th a t w e re n o t so
f o rtu n a te . S im ilarly , p o w e r p la n ts th a t u tiliz e d e n e rg y w hich w as u n u su a lly
c o n v e n ie n t o r c h e a p w o u ld p ro b a b ly h a v e to su p p ly th is ve ry c h e a p po w er
to th e g e n e ra l system in o r d e r to lo w e r th e o v e ra ll costs o f d ra w in g p o w er
fro m th e sy ste m . T h e e n d re su lt w o u ld b e h ig h e r co sts fo r local cu sto m e rs,
w hose new r a te s w o u ld be d e te r m in e d by sy stem costs, n o t by th e costs o f
th e local s ta tio n . S im ilarly , th e sy stem w o u ld p ro b a b ly su p p ly p o w e r to
r u ra l re g io n s, w h e re p o w e r g e n e r a tio n w o u ld b e costly b e c a u se o f th e w idely
d is tr ib u te d lo a d ; in e ffe c t, th e la rg e u r b a n a n d in d u s tria l- a r e a s ta tio n s c o uld
e n d u p su b sid iz in g r u r a l c o n s u m e rs . T hese a re b u t a few o f th e c h a n g e s
th a t co u ld b e a n tic ip a te d ; th e se few , h o w e v e r, illu s tra te h ow th e ex istin g
electric al s u p p ly te c h n o lo g y was th e fo u n d a tio n fo r a h o st o f p o litic al an d
ec o n o m ic d e p e n d e n c ie s th a t w o u ld b e a lte re d by th e su b s titu tio n o f a new
te c h n o lo g ic a l fo u n d a tio n fo r th e e x istin g o n e . S u c h w as th e n a tu r e o f p a
ro c h ia lism .
C o n s id e ra tio n o f th e se veste d in te re s ts su g g e sts a g e n e ra liz a tio n a b o u t
th e n a tu r e o f te c h n o lo g y : e x istin g te c h n o lo g ie s g ive rise to b in d in g nuclei
fo r a h o st o f d e p e n d e n t p o litical a n d e c o n o m ic in te re sts. In te rw o v e n with
m Ausftihrungcn des Snclivcrsiiindigcn Dr. Oliven uber die Wirtschaftlichkeil de r deulschen
E lektriziiaisversnrgung." ibid.. p. I9.r>.
A usfulirungen des Sachverstandigen Dr. Sicgloch iiber die Eleklrizitatsversorgung des
Landes W urtlem berg," ibid.. pp. 373-75.
07T h e explanations for particularism a re derived by analogy Trom O skar von M illers
addresses in support o f the W alrhcnsecwcrk and U ayernwerk as printed in Stenographisches
HericlU fiber die Verhandlungen der Kammer der Reichsrate des bayerischen Landtages, 1908-18; a
copy o f this stenographic record is in the Bavarian Stale Librarv. Munich.

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W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
p o litical a n d e c o n o m ic in te re s ts o f p a r tic u la r k in d s, te c h n o lo g y is f a r fro m
n e u tr a l. L ike o th e r p o litical a n d e c o n o m ic fo rc es, it c an b e la b e le d as c o n
se rv a tiv e o r lib e ra l o r e v e n ra d ic a l. F u r th e r m o r e , a c u te p o litic ia n s, b u si
n e ssm e n , a n d o th e r d e c is io n -m a k e rs ca n se n se e v e n if th e y d o n o t a r tic
u la te th e ir p e rc e p tio n s th a t a c o n se rv a tiv e te c h n o lo g y will m a in ta in th e
e x istin g s tr u c tu r e s a n d tr e n d s a n d th a t lib e ral o n e s will b rin g c h a n g e s in
th e d ire c tio n o f so c ietal d e v e lo p m e n t. M an ifestly , n u m e r o u s p e r s o n s w ith
p o litical a n d e c o n o m ic p o w e r in th e W e im a r R e p u b lic fo re sa w th e c h a n g e s
th a t a u n ifie d ele c tric a l sy stem w o u ld b r in g a n d th e y o p p o s e d th e s e c h a n g e s
o n th e g r o u n d s o f th e ir p e rs o n a l o r c o r p o r a te in te re sts. T h e te c h n o lo g y
o f u n ifie d e le c tric su p p ly sy stem s w as by n o m e a n s a n e u tr a l te c h n o lo g y .
T h e d ice w ere lo a d e d in fa v o r o f R eich a u th o rity a n d a n a tio n a l e c o n o m y .
W o rld W a r 1 also s tim u la te d ra d ic a l th in k in g in B rita in a b o u t th e p e a c e
tim e re o rg a n iz a tio n o f e lec trica l su p p ly u n d e r g o v e r n m e n t d ire c tio n . T h e
B ritish h a d a n a d d e d in c e n tiv e fo r b o ld s c h e m e s b e c a u se m a n y b e liev e d
th a t th e ir su p p ly in d u s tr y w as b a c k w a rd c o m p a r e d to th e s u p p ly sy stem s
o f G e rm a n y a n d th e U n ite d S la te s. E ven b e fo r e th e w a r e n d e d , p a r lia
m e n ta r y c o m m itte e s b e g a n to p ro p o s e g u id e lin e s fo r p e a c e tim e ele ctric ity
s u p p ly . A M in istry o f R e c o n s tru c tio n c o m m itte e h e a d e d by L o r d H a ld a n e
(w ith c o n s id e ra b le in p u t fr o m C h a rle s M e rz) a n d tw o B o a r d o f T r a d e
c o m m itte e s, o n e h e a d e d by C h a rle s P a rso n s a n d th e o th e r by S ir A rc h ib a ld
W illiam son (w ith M e rz as a n in f lu e n tia l m e m b e r), m a d e sim ila r p ro p o s a ls
f o r th e re o rg a n iz a tio n o f B rita in s e le c tric su p p ly in d u s tr y .68
T h e H a ld a n e -M e r z R e p o r t to o k th e o ffe n siv e a g a in st p a ro c h ia l B ritish
in te re sts:
Parliam ent was apparently convinced that the generation and supply o f
electricity m ust be dealt with in a big way, though how im portant this would
become they perhaps hardly foresaw. T hey were, however, apparently afraid to
insist on the am algam ation o f the existing lighting enterprises which, as has been
shown, were and are still each limited to a few miles o f area instead o f covering,
as they should, a few counties.69
M erz a n d o th e r s b a ttlin g fo r re g io n a l s u p p ly h a d to fin d a m e a n s o f o v
e rc o m in g P a r lia m e n ts fe a r.
T h e r e p o r t d e m o n s tr a te d M e rz s skill in a p p e a lin g to B ritish p r id e .70
E x p e rie n c e h a d ta u g h t h im th a t re o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e e le c tric s u p p ly in
d u s try w as a politic al p ro b le m , so h e a p p e a le d to th e m o o d o f a p e o p le
c o n c e rn e d a b o u t n a tio n a l su rv iv a l. H e e q u a te d th e w a rtim e s tru g g le lo r
su rv iv al w ith th e s tru g g le th a t w o u ld ine v itab ly follow in p e a c e tim e th e
ce aseless s tru g g le to m a in la in in d u s tria l s u p re m a c y . T h e esse n c e o f his logic
G reat B ritain, Ministry o f Reconstruction. Reconstruction Com m ittee, Coal Conservation
Sub-Com m ittee, Interim Report on Electric Power Supply in Great Britain (L ondon: HMSO. 1918)
(h ereafter cited as H aldanc-M erz Report): G reat Britain, Board o f T rad e . Electric Power
Supply C om m ittee. Electric Power Supply (London: HMSO. 1918).
H aldane-M erz R eport, p. 15; italics added.
70 For a n o ther exam ple, see C harles II. Mcrz. "Electrical Power Distribution." Engineering
102 (1916): 26 2-63, w here he w rote: "Proceeding on these lines [high-voltage distribution
for the compact industrial districts o f England] we shall not be merely copying A merica or
G erm anywe shall be doing som ething th at is right for England because it is E ngland, because
England is radically d ifferen t from o th e r c ountries as regards the technical developm ent and
layout necessary to secure cheap power."

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

was syllogistic: th e w o rld 's le a d in g in d u s tria l p o w e r e x p lo its th e m o st a d
v a n ce d e n e rg y te c h n o lo g y ; th e m o st a d v a n c e d e n e rg y te c h n o lo g y is reg io n a l
electric ity su p p ly ; a n d th e r e f o r e , in o r d e r lo lea d , E n g la n d m u st a d o p t
re g io n a l su p p ly . T h e r e p o r t illu s tra te d a n d p r o v id e d e v id e n c e fo r this
a r g u m e n t by r e f e r r in g to th e h ig h e r level o f use o f e le c tric p o w e r p e r
w o rk e r in th e U n ite d S la te s; th e vital new in d u s tr ia l p ro c e sse s involving
elec tricity in N o rw ay , S w e d e n , a n d G e r m a n y ; a n d th e la rg e r su p p lie s of
h y d ro e le c tric ily a v aila b le lo o th e r in d u s tria l n a tio n s. T h e c o n c lu sio n to be
d ra w n w as o b v io u s: p a ro c h ia l in te r e s ts h a d to give way to n a tio n a l p rio r
itie s.71
F o r its p a rt, th e B o a rd o f T r a d e a p p o in te d C h a rle s P a rso n s, th e steam tu r b in e in v e n to r a n d m a n u f a c tu r e r , to h e a d its C o m m itte e o n E lectrical
T r a d e s a f te r th e W a r. T h e r e s p o n sib ility o f th is c o m m itte e was to re p o rt
o n th e sta te o f B rita in s e le ctrica l m a n u f a c tu r e r s a n d su p p ly u tilities. T h e
c o m m itte e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e b a c k w a rd sta te o f th e la tte r h a d c a u se d the
d e p re s s e d c o n d itio n o f th e fo r m e r. T h e P a rso n s c o m m itte e , like H a ld a n e
a n d M erz, view ed th e e le c tric s u p p ly in d u s tr y b o th th e utilitie s a n d the
m a n u f a c tu r e r s as a key to n a tio n a l s tr e n g th .72 A m a jo r re a so n fo r the
f a ilu re o f t h e B ritish su p p ly in d u s try to d e v e lo p as successfu lly as its A m e r
ican a n d G e r m a n c o u n te r p a r ts w as th o u g h t to b e v e sted in te re s ts a n d p o
litical c o n s tra in ts re s u ltin g fro m th e c o n v e n tio n a l c o n c e p tio n s o f public
p r iv ile g e " r e p r e s e n te d by P a rlia m e n t a n d th e local a u th o r itie s .73 T h e public
p riv ileg es to w h ich th e c o m m itte e r e f e r r e d in c lu d e d p ro te c tio n against
m o n o p o ly a n d a g a in st e n v iro n m e n ta l n u is a n c e a n d h a z a r d , su ch as o v e r
h e a d w ires. C o n s id e rin g b o th th e m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d s u p p ly e n d s o f the
in d u s try , th e c o m m itte e d e c la re d th a t th e w a r h a d d e m o n s tr a te d th a t n o th
in g less th a n th e w ell-b ein g o f th e e m p ir e d e p e n d e d o n th e large-scale
e m p lo y m e n t o f e le ctricity in in d u s tr ia l p r o d u c tio n . R e f e rrin g o fte n to G e r
m a n y as a m o d e l, th e c o m m itte e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e a b se n c e o f a close
a llian ce b e tw e e n B rita in 's in d u s tria l b a n k s a n d its la rg e -sc a le e le ctrica l m a n
u fa c tu re r s (a m a jo r e x p la n a tio n f o r th e a d v a n c e d s ta te o f e le c trific a tio n in
G e rm a n y ) h a d h a n d ic a p p e d th e e le c tric su p p ly in d u s tr y in B rita in .74
In 1917 th e W illiam so n c o m m itte e to o k h e e d a n d c o n c lu d e d th a t B rita in
n e e d e d to d o m o re th a n in te r c o n n e c t e x istin g utilities; it n e e d e d lo d e v elo p
a c o m p r e h e n s iv e sy stem fo r th e g e n e ra tio n o f e le c tric ity a n d th e r e f o r e to
r e o rg a n iz e th e e n tir e su p p ly sy ste m .75 T h e c o m m itte e ca lled f o r th e e sta b
lish m e n t o f d istric t e le c tric ity b o a rd s to c o n so lid a te e le c tric ity g e n e ra tio n
a n d p ro v id e re g io n a l tra n sm issio n by p u rc h a s in g th e m o st e ffic ie n t o f the
e x istin g p o w e r p la n ts a n d by c o n s tr u c tin g new la rg e -sca le p la n ts a n d highv o lta g e tra n sm issio n system s. D istrib u tio n was to be left lo th e existin g
u tilities, w h e th e r p riv a te ly o r pu b lic ly o w n e d . T h e b o a r d s w ere to be n o n
p ro fit, m ix e d -o w n e rs h ip c o rp o ra tio n s set u p o u ts id e th e civil se rv ice an d

71 I laldanc-M erz R eport, pp. 4, 7. and 8.

77 Grcal Britain. Board o f T rad e , D epartm ental C om m ittee. Report of the Departmental Com
mittee Appointed by the Board o f Trade to Consider the Position o f the Electrical Trades after the War
(London, IIMSO, 1918). p. 5.
75 Ibid.. p. 4.
^ Ibid., p. 7.
Board ol Trade, Electric Power Supply, p. I .

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W A R A N D A C Q U I R E D C H A R A C T E R IS T H C S
o w n e d in m o st cases by p u b lic b o d ies, su ch as local g o v e r n m e n ts , b u t also
by p riv a te e n te rp ris e s , s u c h as th e p riv a te p o w e r c o m p a n ie s .76 B rita in s six
h u n d r e d o r so e le c tric su p p ly u tilitie s w o u ld in tim e b e c o o r d in a te d , o r in
m a n y in sta n c e s e lim in a te d , by th e new d istric t system s. T h e c o m m itte e also
e n v isa g e d th e c r e a tio n o f a sm all b o a rd o f ele ctric ity c o m m issio n e rs to lak e
o v e r re g u la tio n o f th e su p p ly in d u s try f o r th e B o a rd o f T r a d e .
T h e re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f th e P a rso n s a n d W illiam so n c o m m itte e s , w hich
re p r e s e n te d a c ro ss sec tio n o f esta b lish e d p o litic al a n d in d u s tria l view s,
w e re n o t a c te d u p o n u n til a f te r th e sig n in g o f th e p e a c e in 1918. Peace,
h o w e v e r, b r o u g h t a m u lin g o f th e valu es th e e x ig e n c ie s o f w a r h a d stim
u la te d . V ested p r iv a te a n d p u b lic in te re s ts th a t h a d b e e n w illing to r e lin
q u ish a u th o r ity to th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t in th e in te r e s t o f c e n tr a l c o
o r d in a tio n lo o k e d o n c e a g a in to th e n u r t u r e o f p riv a te a n d local a u to n o m y .
E ven th o u g h th e s c h e m e s o f th e c e n tra l g o v e r n m e n t h a d o rig in a te d w ith
te c h n ic a l a n d m a n a g e ria l p ro fe ssio n a ls like C h a rle s M e rz a n d W illiam
M cL ella n in s h o r t, w ith p riv a te in d u s try in th e m in d s o f m a n y th e y now
r e p r e s e n te d g o v e r n m e n t in te r v e n tio n . O n e d is s e n te r fro m th e c h o r u s o f
c o m m itte e m e m b e rs c a llin g f o r d is tric t elec tricity b o a rd s a n tic ip a te d th e
c o n se rv a tiv e r e a c tio n to a ra d ic a l r e o rg a n iz a tio n o f B rita in s e le c tric su p p ly
in d u s try w h e n h e in siste d th a t s ta te c o n tro l w o u ld le a d to sta te m a n a g e m e n t,
a n d th a t sta le m a n a g e m e n t w as in h e re n tly u n s o u n d .77
T h e le g isla tio n th a t e m e r g e d in re s p o n s e to th e H a ld a n e -M e rz , P a rso n s,
a n d W illiam so n r e p o r ts r e p r e s e n te d a c o m p le x c o m p ro m is e b etw e e n in
n o v ativ e w a rtim e c o n c e p ts a n d p e a c e tim e re a c tio n . T h e E le ctricity S u p p ly
A ct o f 1919 le ft fu lfillm e n t o f th e g e n e r a l re o rg a n iz a tio n s c h e m e to vol
u n ta ry a c tio n o n th e p a r t o f e x istin g u tilitie s a n d to th e p o w e r o f p e rsu a sio n
th e ele c tric ity c o m m issio n e rs c o u ld b r in g to b e a r. T h e id ea o f d istric t elec
tricity b o a r d s to o k th e f o rm o f j o in t e le ctric ity a u th o ritie s (JE A s, a n o r
g a n iz a tio n a l c o n c e p t b o rro w e d in p a rt fro m G e rm a n p rac tice ). T h e s e c o u ld
b e esta b lish e d u n d e r th e 1919 law if a n d w h e n th e a u th o riz e d u n d e r ta k e r s
(p riv a te a n d p u b lic u tilities) in a d istric t c h o se to d o so. T h e u tilitie s w ithin
a d istric t c o u ld tu r n o v e r to th e J E A all o r a n y o n e o f th e p o w e rs th e u tilities
h e ld f o r s u p p ly in g elec tricity . F u r th e r m o r e , th e u tilities co u ld tr a n s f e r to
th e J E A th e ir p la n t, tra n sm issio n , a n d d is trib u tio n facilities. In sh o r t, th e
J E A w o u ld b e g iv e n th e re s p o n sib ility fo r c o o rd in a tin g a n d d e v e lo p in g th e
d is tric ts su p p ly o f elec tricity if th e e x istin g utilities so d e c id e d .78
O n th e n a tio n a l level, five elec tricity c o m m issio n e rs w ere to be a p p o in te d
by th e B o a rd o f T r a d e , th e g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r tm e n t th a t h a d re g u la te d
a n d a u th o riz e d elec tricity su p p ly sin c e th e 1880s. T h e E lectricity S u p p ly
A ct o f 1919 s la te d th a t th e elec tricity co m m issio n e rs s h o u ld ex e rc ise th e
po w e rs c o n f e r r e d u p o n th e m by th e law, b u t th a t th e y shall act u n d e r th e
g e n e r a l d ire c tio n s o f t h e B o a rd o f T r a d e ." S o m e r e f o r m e rs w ho a d v o c a te d
m o re rad ical r e o rg a n iz a tio n h a d w a n te d th e c o m m issio n e rs p la ce d u n d e r
th e ju ris d ic tio n o f a d e p a r tm e n t o th e r th a n th e B o a rd o f T r a d e , w ith w hich
th e h isto ry o f B rita in s elec tricity s u p p ly was closely asso ciate d . T h e g e n e ra l
c h a rg e g iv en th e c o m m issio n e rs was p ro m o tio n , re g u la tio n , a n d s u p e rv isio n
70 Manual), Electricity Before Nationalisation, pp. 65-66.
77 lliid., p. 66.
7* Electricity Supply Acl o f 1919, 9 Sc 10 Geo. 5. ch. 100, fi 6.

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o f th e s u p p ly o f e le c tric ity as p r o v id e d by th e se v e ra l e le c tric lig h tin g acts.
T h e law sp e c ifie d th a t th r e e o f th e c o m m issio n e rs sh o u ld b e fu ll-tim e o f
fic ers a n d th r e e s h o u ld b e se le c te d fo r th e ir p ra c tic a l, c o m m e rc ia l, an d
scie n tific k n o w le d g e .79
T h e th ir d m a jo r p ro v isio n o f th e 1919 ac t s tip u la te d th a t th e electricity
co m m issio n e rs c o u ld d e s ig n a te ele c tric ity d istric ts a f te r h o ld in g a local in
q u iry a n d p ro v id in g a m p le o p p o r tu n ity f o r ad v ice fro m a n d co n su lta tio n
w ith all p a rlie s c o n c e r n e d p u b lic , p riv a te , a n d la rg e c o n s u m e r. T h e in te n t
was to esta b lish s u p p ly re g io n s th a t h a d g o o d lo a d d iv e rsity , h ig h e r load
fa c to rs, a n e c o n o m ic m ix o f g e n e r a tin g sta tio n s, a n d a c o o r d in a te d a n d
ec o n o m ic a l sy stem o f tra n s m is s io n a n d d is tr ib u tio n . T h e s e re g io n s w ould
n o t b e c o e x te n siv e w ith e x is tin g e le c tric ity d istric ts. T h e ele ctric ity c o m
m issio n e rs w o u ld h a v e th e p o w e r to re q u ir e th a t utilitie s facilitate c o o rd i
n a tio n by s ta n d a r d iz in g th e ty p e o f c u r r e n t, fre q u e n c y , a n d vo ltag e they
u se d . T h e B o a rd o f T r a d e , h o w e v e r, co u ld e x e m p t utilitie s w h e n it d e cid ed
th a t c o m p lia n c e w ith su ch an o r d e r e n ta ile d u n re a s o n a b le e x p e n s e .80
E ven th o u g h th e 1919 leg islatio n le ft u ltim a te p o w e r o v e r th e u tilities in
th e h a n d s o f th e B o a rd o f T r a d e a n d its g e n e r a l m o d e w as v o lu n ta ry action
a n d p e r s u a s io n , th e re a c tio n a g a in st it w as im m e d ia te a n d s u b sta n tia l. T h e
lo c a l-g o v e rn m e n t utilitie s h a d h ab itu a lly o p p o s e d r e o rg a n iz a tio n p la n s th at
w o u ld c re a te e le ctric ity su p p ly o n a scale la r g e r th a n th e g e o g r a p h ic a l limits
o f th e ir p o litical a u th o rity . In th e case o f th e 1919 act, h o w e v e r, th e r e was
so m e a m b iv a le n c e a m o n g th e m . T h e y re a liz e d th a t a J E A c o u ld u s u r p the
p o w e r e n jo y e d by a n a u to n o m o u s utility ; o n th e o th e r h a n d , a JE A , if
c o n tro lle d by th e local a u th o r itie s in a d istric t, c o u ld f r u s tr a te th e rise of
p riv a te re g io n a l p o w e r c o m p a n ie s th a t h a d h ith e r to la n g u is h e d because
th e m u n ic ip a litie s re fu s e d to b u y p o w e r w h o le sa le fro m th e m a n d th e reb y
le ft th e m th e m o r e e x p e n siv e task o f s u p p ly in g th e less in d u s tria liz e d an d
less p o p u la te d d istric ts.
By th e m id -1 9 2 0 s th e o p tim ism e x p re s s e d in th e e a rly r e p o r ts o f the
elec tricity c o m m issio n e rs h a d g iv e n w ay to th e a d m issio n th a t th e ir e ffo rts
w e re m e e tin g w ith lim ite d success. I n te rm in a b le p u b lic in q u irie s a n d n e
g o tia tio n s a m o n g u n d e r ta k in g s , in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e 1919 a c ts insistence
o n p e rs u a s io n a n d v o lu n ta ry c o o p e ra tio n , w e re p a r t o f th e p ro b le m . U tility
e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e rs re siste d th e c lo sin g o f in e ffic ie n t s ta tio n s a n d th e
tr a n s f e r o f te c h n o lo g ic a l c o n tr o l o f jo in t e le ctric ity a u th o ritie s w h e n this
m e a n t loss o f a u th o r ity a n d s ta tu s. S m all c o m p a n ie s , b o th p u b lic a n d p ri
vate, esp e cia lly th o se a sso ciate d w ith a local g o v e rn m e n t je a lo u s ly p ro te c tin g
its a u to n o m y , f o u g h t a b s o r p tio n by la r g e r o n e s. M u n ic ip a l utilities c o n tin
u e d to re f u s e d to b u y b u lk o r w h o lesale p o w e r f ro m p riv a te p o w e r co m
p a n ie s. I n g e n io u s a r g u m e n ts w e re p re s e n te d to d e f e n d th e g e n e r a tio n o f
p o w e r w ith in sm all, lo c a l-g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d utilities. I t w as said th a t gov
e r n m e n ts co u ld b o rro w m o n e y at lo w e r in te re s t ra te s th a n p riv a te po w er
c o m p a n ie s c o u ld , a n d th a t th e y th e r e b y o ffse t th e te c h n o lo g ic a l e fficiencies
th e la rg e p o w e r c o m p a n ie s m ig h t claim . In g e n e r a l, [th e ] divisive te n d
en c ie s in h e r e n t in th e o w n e rs h ip s tr u c tu r e o f th e in d u s try h a d effectively
re a s s e rte d th e m se lv e s." 81
Ibid., 1.
m Ibid., 5 and 24.
81 H annah. Electricity Before Nationalisation, p. 8!>.

323

W A R A N D A C Q U IR E D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
T h e h isto ry o f e le c tric su p p ly in th e G r e a te r L a n c a sh ire a r e a a f te r W o rld
W a r I illu stra te s all th e in e rtia , divisive te n d e n c ie s , a n d p a ro c h ia lism th a t
f r u s tr a te d th e new ly a p p o in te d electric ity c o m m issio n e rs. A s in L o n d o n ,
e le c tric su p p ly in G r e a te r L a n c a s h ire w as n o to rio u sly fr a g m e n te d . L a rg e
a n d sm all m u n ic ip a litie s g u a r d e d th e ir a u to n o m y . T h e P o w e r S e c u ritie s
C o r p o r a tio n , a h o ld in g c o m p a n y , c o n tr o lle d th e b u lk s u p p lie r in th e a re a ,
th e L a n c a s h ir e P o w e r C o m p a n y . W a rtim e b r o u g h t so m e in te r c o n n e c tio n ,
a n d th e e n g in e e r s in th e a re a a g re e d in 1917 th a t c e n tr a l c o n tr o l a n d
p la n n in g fo r th e a r e a w e re n e e d e d . T h irty - fiv e s u p p ly a u th o r itie s , h o w e v e r,
r e je c te d th e e n g in e e r s p r o p o s a l b e c a u se m ix e d o w n e rs h ip w o u ld h a v e r e
su lte d . T h e a d v a n ta g e s o f m ix e d o w n e rs h ip as p ra c tic e d in G e rm a n y , es
p ecially by th e R h e in isc h -W e stfa lisc h e s E le k lriz ita tsw e rk , d id n o t o v e rr id e
B ritish o b je c tio n s. A fte r 1919 th e ele c tric ity c o m m issio n e rs a d v o c a te d a
jo in t ele c tric ity a u th o r ity f o r th e a re a , b u t th e u tilitie s re je c te d th e p ro p o sa l,
p r e f e r r in g to re m a in i n d e p e n d e n t. In th e e n d , o n ly a w eak a d v iso ry b o a rd
a n d p ie c e m e a l in te r c o n n e c tio n s w e re a c h ie v e d .82
T o o b s e rv e rs c o n s id e r in g th e lo n g h isto ry o f te n se a n d f r u s tr a tin g e ffo rts
to re o r g a n iz e B rita in s e le c tric su p p ly in d u s try , th e r e m a rk a b le tu r n o f
e v e n ts th a t le d to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e G rid in 1926 c a m e as a d istin c t
s u r p r is e . T h e first q u e s tio n th a t a rise s is, W h a t c o n flu e n c e o f tr e n d s a n d
e v e n ts c o u n te r e d th e e x istin g in e rtia a n d c h a n g e d th e c o u rs e o f d e v e lo p
m e n t o f e le c tric ity su p p ly in B rita in ? T h e q u e s tio n ta k e s o n a d d e d s ig n if
ic ance w h e n o n e re ca lls th a t m a n y p e rs o n s c o n s id e r e d re o rg a n iz a tio n o f
th is in d u s try to b e th e key to B rita in s re c o v e ry o f in d u s tria l s tr e n g th a n d
le a d e rs h ip . T h e sto ry o f th is r e o r g a n iz a tio n will b e to ld in th e follo w in g
c h a p te r.

"* Ibid.. p. 82.

CHAPTER

XII

Planned Systems

H t ra d ic a l c h a n g e in n e e d s a n d a ttitu d e s b r o u g h t by W o rld W ar I
s tim u la te d b o ld c o n c e p ts Tor p e a c e tim e p ro je c ts, b u t as ha s b e e n seen,
th e p o s tw a r r e tu r n to n o rm a lc y d a m p e n e d e n th u s ia s m f o r g o v e rn m e n ts p o n s o r e d te c h n o lo g y in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d te c h n o lo g y c o n tro lle d by
th e c e n tr a l g o v e r n m e n t in B rita in a n d G e r m a n y . P riv a te o w n e r s h ip in the
U n ite d S tates, p a ro c h ia l c o n tr o l in B rita in , a n d local o r re g io n a l d e v e lo p
m e n t in G e r m a n y re g a in e d th e ir p re w a r m o m e n tu m . T h e r e w e re new
te c h n o lo g ic a l o p p o r tu n itie s to u tilize, h o w e v e r, a n d th e m o re tra d itio n a l
o w n e rs a n d m a n a g e rs o f e le c tric s u p p ly fac ilities s o u g h t to d o so. As a
re su lt, in n o v a tio n s w e re m a d e , b u t in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d G e rm a n y the
c h a n g e s w ere less ra d ic a l th a n P in c h o t a n d C o o k e s G ia n t P o w e r p ro p o sa l
a n d G e r m a n y s S ocia liz atio n Law o f 1919. By c o n tra s t, in 1926 a m ajor
c h a n g e in d ire c tio n was b r o u g h t a b o u t in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o w e r s u p p ly
in B rita in .
T h e d e v e lo p m e n ts th a t to o k p lac e in e le c tric s u p p ly sy stem s in th e 1920s
a re c o m p a ra b le to th o se th a t o c c u rre d in ra ilw ay sy stem s in th e se c o n d h a lf
o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . M a jo r ra ilro a d sy stem s w e re th e n in te rc o n n e c te d
a n d s ta n d a rd iz e d w ith re sp e c t to g a u g e a n d e q u ip m e n t. As a re su lt, th e
m a jo r tra ffic c e n te r s a n d ro u te s o f re g io n a l a n d n a tio n a l sy ste m s w ere
id e n tifie d . T h e p rin c ip a l ro u te s w e re th e n u p g r a d e d , tra ff ic n e x u s a n d
sw itc h in g y a rd s w ere laid o u t, a n d th e tr u n k lin e s o f th e re g io n a l a n d
n a tio n a l sy ste m s w e re f u r th e r d e v e lo p e d .
T h e p o s t- W o rld W a r I ra tio n a liz a tio n o f ele c tric s u p p ly to o k m a n y form s,
b u t it is g e n e ra lly c a te g o riz e d as h a v in g b e e n e ith e r ev o lu tio n a ry o r p la n n e d .
In a s u b s e q u e n t se ctio n , c o n s id e r a tio n will b e giv e n to th e way in w hich
th e w ell-e stab lish e d , la rg e -a re a utilitie s w ith relativ ely lo n g h isto rie s evolved
in to re g io n a l sy ste m s in te g ra te d by h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n n e tw o rk s. In
th is se ctio n , e m p h a s is is p la c e d o n th e new sy stem s th a t w e re e stab lish e d
a c c o rd in g to m a s te r p la n s. T h e p u r p o s e o f th e s e n e w sy stem s w as to knit
to g e th e r , o n a re g io n a l scale, utilitie s th a t h a d fo rm e rly evo lv ed in d e p e n d
en tly . T h e p la n n e d n e tw o rk s, o r g rid s, u su ally to o k th e fo rm o f h ig h -v o ltag e
lines r in g in g a s u p p ly re g io n , o r p o ly g o n , th e se ctio n s o f w h ic h m e t at
m a jo r load c e n te rs. T h e y d if fe re d fro m th e ev o lv in g n e tw o rk s, w h ich , b e
ca u se o l th e g e n e ra lly less o rd e r ly c h a r a c te r o f h isto ric a l c h a n g e , usually

324

325

PL A N N E D SY STEM S
w ere m o r e c o m p le x in fo rm . T h e p la n n e d g rid s r e p r e s e n te d th e p o o lin g
o f e n e r g y fro m utilitie s th a t p re s e rv e d th e ir legal id e n titie s, p rim a rily as
d is trib u to rs o f th e p o o le d e n e rg y . In so m e in sta n c e s, a s e p a ra te c o r p o r a te
en tity o w n e d a n d m a n a g e d th e g rid ; in o th e rs , th e utilities p r e s id e d o v e r
th e g rid , o r p o o l, u sin g a c o m m itte e s tr u c tu r e . B ec au se th e p a r tic ip a tin g
utilitie s p re s e rv e d th e ir c o r p o r a te id e n titie s a n d b e c a u se th e y o fte n n e g o
tia te d d e c isio n s a b o u t th e o p e ra tio n o f th e p o w e r p o o l, s u c h g rid s w ere
a n a lo g o u s to c o n fe d e r a tio n s o f n a tio n -sta te s. U n d e r s o m e p la n s, th e utilities
o r p o w e r c o m p a n ie s fe d th e p o o l fro m th e ir o w n p o w e r p la n ts. U n d e r
o th e r s , th e g r id to o k p o w e r b o th fro m its o w n p la n ts a n d fro m th e p la n ts
o f p a r tic ip a tin g utilities. M ere w e will fo c u s o n th r e e v a ria tio n s u p o n th e
e sse n tial g rid , o r p o o l, c o n c e p t: th e P e n n s y lv a n ia -N e w J e r s e y I n te r c o n
n e c tio n (P N J), th e c e n te r o f w hich was P h ila d e lp h ia , P e n n sy lv a n ia ; th e
B a y e rn w e rk in B av aria; a n d th e N a tio n a l G rid in G r e a t B rita in . In th e case
o f b o th th e P e n n s y lv a n ia -N e w J e r s e y In te rc o n n e c tio n a n d th e B a y e rn w e rk ,
la rg e h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts fe d th e g r id s p o o l o f p o w e r. U tiliza tio n o f su c h
la rg e blocks o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r w as p a r t o f th e o rig in a l p la n fo r e ac h
o f th e se syste m s; in c o n tra s t, p e a c e tim e u tiliz a tio n o f th e g ia n t n e tw o rk s at
M uscle S h o a ls, A la b a m a , a n d G o lp a -Z sc h o rn e w itz w as a n a f te r th o u g h t.
T h e P N J w as c le a rly a m o r e c o n se rv a tiv e re s p o n s e to te c h n o lo g ic a l o p
p o r tu n itie s th a n G ia n t P o w er h a d b e e n . T h e h isto ry o f th e PN J po o l a n d
re la te d h y d ro e le c tr ic p o w e r p la n ts a lso d e m o n s tra te s th a t th e b u ild e rs o f
th e se g ia n t e le c tric p o w e r sy stem s fac ed o rg a n iz a tio n a l a n d fin an cial p r o b
lem s th a t d e m a n d e d so lu tio n s as o rig in a l as th e te c h n o lo g y itself, o r ev en
m o r e so. M a n a g e rs a n d fin a n c ia l e n tr e p r e n e u r s w o u ld m a k e c o m m itm e n ts
th a t w e re as b o ld as th o se m a d e by e n g in e e rs .
O n e su c h c o m m itm e n t w as m a d e o n 20 F e b ru a ry 1926, at a b o u t th e tim e
P in c h o l a n d C o o k e s G ia n t P o w e r p ro je c t was v o ted d o w n in th e P e n n sy l
vania le g isla tu re . T h e tim in g was n o t e n tire ly fo rtu ito u s . O n 20 F e b r u a ry
th e P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric C o m p a n y , lo n g a n a d v e rs a ry o f C o o k e s, o b ta in e d
a licen se fro m th e F e d e ra l P o w er C o m m issio n to b u ild a h y d ro e le c tric p la n t
o n th e S u s q u e h a n n a R iv er a t C o n o w in g o , M a ry la n d . T h e p la n t w as to
b e c o m e o n e o f a n u m b e r o f p la n ts th a t fed p o w e r to th e in te r c o n n e c te d
P e n n s y lv a n ia -N e w J e rs e y tra n sm issio n g rid . T h e sta te o f P en n sy lv a n ia h a d
lost th e o p p o r tu n ity to lead th e n a tio n in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g o v e rn m e n tsp o n s o re d e le c tric s u p p ly system s, b u t a p riv ately o w n e d P en n sy lv a n ia u til
ity d id ta k e th e le ad in d e v isin g a n in n o v a tiv e m o d e o f e x p lo itin g in te r
c o n n e c tio n a n d h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n . T h e FPC license a u th o riz e d th e
P h ila d e lp h ia p o w e r c o m p a n y to b u ild o n th e S u s q u e h a n n a R iv er at C o n
o w in g o th e n a tio n s s e c o n d -la rg e s t h y d ro e le c tric p ro je c t; th e c o n s tru c tio n
o f C o n o w in g o set th e s ta g e fo r th e fo rm a tio n , by in te rc o n n e c tio n , o f th e
n a tio n 's la rg e st p o w e r pool.
T h e C o n o w in g o p ro je c t p ro v id e d a m e a n s o f c o n tro llin g a n d u tiliz in g
th e fo rc es o f n a tu r e , w hich is th e tra d itio n a l fu n c tio n o f te c h n o lo g y . F o r
m o r e th a n h a lf a c e n tu ry , v a rio u s sc h em es h a d b e e n fo rm u la te d fo r h a r
n e ssin g th e S u s q u e h a n n a as it g ra d u a lly d r o p p e d a b o u t 150 fe el in th e last
tw e n ty -fiv e m iles b e fo re it e m p tie d in to th e h e a d o f th e C h e s a p e a k e B a y .1
C. W. Kellogg, "T he Conowingo I lyclro-FJcclric Project," Stone id Webster Jounw l, April
1926.

320

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

In 1912 th e P e n n sy lv a n ia W a te r 8c P o w e r C o m p a n y h a d e re c te d a hy
d ro e le c tric p la n t a t H o ltw o o d lo h a rn e s s 6 0 f e e l o f th e fall, b u t a n a n n u a l
p o w e r o u tp u t o f a b o u t 1 ,2 8 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 kw h. re m a in e d to b e d e v e lo p e d .
I f th e flow o f th e riv e r h a d b e e n r e g u la r , th e w a te r c o u ld h a v e b e en
re g u la rly d r a w n o f f to e n e rg y - in te n s iv e in d u s tr ie s a ttra c te d by c h e a p elec
tricity. T h e flow h a d b e e n r e c o r d e d fo r y e a rs, h o w e v e r, a n d se aso n a lly a n d
u n p r e d ic ta b ly it v a rie d g re a tly . A t th e tim e o f t h e fa m o u s J o h n s to w n flood
o f 1889, 7 5 0 ,0 0 0 se c.-ft. w e re m e a s u re d ; o n a n o th e r occ asio n , a low o f
2 ,2 0 0 se c.-ft. was r e c o rd e d . T h e se n a tu r a l v a ria tio n s s u g g e ste d th e n e e d
fo r a p o w e r sy stem th a t w o u ld c o n n e c t a h y d ro e le c tric p la n t at C o n o w in g o
w ith e x is tin g ste a m p la n ts. In lim e s o f low w a te r o r d ro u g h t, th e th e rm a l
p la n ts w o u ld c a rr y th e b ase lo a d , a n d C o n o w in g o w o u ld c a rry th e pe ak ;
in tim e s o f h ig h riv e r-flo w , th e base lo ad w o u ld b e t r a n s f e r r e d to C o n
o w in g o , a n d th e th e r m a l p la n ts w o u ld a b s o rb th e p e a k .
T h e P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric C o m p a n y , w hich in 1921 w as th e n a tio n 's sev
e n th - la rg e s t utility , p la n n e d lo fe e d th e p o w e r o f C o n o w in g o in to a g rid
fo rm e d by in te r c o n n e c tin g P h ila d e lp h ia E le ctric w ith tw o n e ig h b o rin g u til
ities. th e P u blic S erv ice E le ctric 8c G as C o m p a n y o f N ew J e r s e y a n d th e
P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y (PP8cL), w h ich o p e r a te d in c e n tra l
a n d e a s te r n P en n sy lv a n ia . N o t o n ly w o u ld th e m a rk e t fo r C o n o w in g o be
e x p a n d e d b u t th e d iv e rsity o f lo ad w ith in th e lo a d a re a w ith w h ic h it was
c o n n e c te d w o u ld in c re a se . (See Figs. X I I . 1 a n d X I I .2.) T h e te c h n o lo g y fo r
th e C o n o w in g o p la n t a n d th e in te r c o n n e c tio n sc h e m e w as availa b le ; th e
p ro je c t's p la n n e rs in tr o d u c e d m a n a g e m e n t a n d fin a n c ia l in n o v a tio n s to
n u r t u r e th e ir p a r tic u la r a d a p ta tio n o f th e tec h n o lo g y .
T h e in te rs ta te c h a r a c te r o f th e p ro je c t c o m p lic a te d th e p la n n in g , h ow
ev e r. T h e d a m a n d p o w e r p la n t w o u ld b e lo c a te d in M a ry la n d ; th e u p p e r
h a lf o f th e re s e rv o ir, in P e n n sy lv a n ia ; a n d th e tra n sm issio n sy stem , in
P e n n sy lv a n ia , N ew J e rs e y , a n d M a ry la n d . T h e d a m a n d p o w e r p la n t r e
q u ir e d a c tio n by th e p u b lic serv ice c o m m issio n s ( th e r e g u la to ry agen c ie s)
o f b o th M a ry la n d a n d P e n n sy lv a n ia . B e c a u se th e S u s q u e h a n n a R iv e r was
n a v ig ab le, th e h y d ro e le c tric in s ta lla tio n a lso n e e d e d a lice n se fro m th e
F e d e ra l P o w er C o m m issio n . T h e P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric C o m p a n y r e s p o n d e d
to th e r e g u la to r y a n d lic e n sin g c h a lle n g e by f o r m in g th e P h ila d e lp h ia Elec
tric P o w e r C o m p a n y , a P e n n sy lv a n ia c o r p o r a tio n , to h o ld title to th e P e n n
sylvania p r o p e r ty o u ts id e P h ila d e lp h ia E le c tric s d o m a in . T h e S u s q u e h a n n a
P o w er C o m p a n y , a s u b sid ia ry a n d a M a ry la n d c o r p o r a tio n , w o u ld h o ld
title to th e d a m , p o w e rh o u s e , a n d M a ry la n d p o rtio n s o f th e re s e rv o ir a n d
tra n sm issio n sy stem . B ec au se th e y w o u ld n o t su p p ly c o n s u m e rs direc tly ,
th e se p o w e r a n d tra n s m is s io n facilities w o u ld n o t b e su b je c t to sta te re g
u la tio n , as w e re th e u tilities.
T h e jo in t h e a r in g h e ld by th e P e n n sy lv a n ia a n d M a ry la n d p u b lic service
co m m issio n s a n d th e F e d e ra l P o w er C o m m issio n w as e v e n tfu l. O p p o n e n ts
o r C o n o w in g o fo c u se d o n th e fin a n c ia l a sp e c ts o f th e p ro je c t. M ost vocif
e ro u s w as T h o m a s E. M itten o f th e P h ila d e lp h ia R ap id T r a n s it C o m p a n y ,
a c o m p a n y th a t b o u g h t p o w e r fro m P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric. M itte n s law yer
c o n te n d e d th a t P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric h a d p a id a n e x o r b ita n t p ric e fo r th e
fra n c h is e o n th e S u s q u e h a n n a a n d th a t in te r e s t ra te s a n d o th e r c osts w ould
b u r d e n P h ila d e lp h ia E lec trics c u s to m e rs . M itte n in sisted th a t his p rim a ry
c o n c e rn w as to a v oid th e r e s u ltin g in c re a se in ra te s fo r his c o m p a n y a n d

327

P L A N N E D SY STEM S

CONOWINGO
CONOWINGO

H y d r o e l e c t r ic D e v e l o p m e n t
PHILADELPHIA ELECTRIC POWER CO.

Figure X ll.l. Transmission system, Conowingo Dam to Philadelphia. Note the Susquehanna River drainage area (u p per left). Courtesy of
Philadelphia Electric Co.

Figure X II.2. The Pennsylvania-New

Jersey Interconnection. Courtesy o f C. tV.
Watson, Philadelphia Electric Co.

328

N RTW ORKS OF PO W ER
o ilie r m a jo r c u s to m e rs ; o th e rs , h o w e v e r, a r g u e d th a t his ob jec tiv e was to
g a in c o n tro l o f P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric by d is c r e d itin g th e c o m p a n y s m a n
a g e m e n t. M itten d id solicit P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric v o tin g p ro x ie s fo r him self
a n d his asso ciates w hile P h ila d e lp h ia E le ctric w as u n d e r a tta c k .2 T h e a lle g ed
ta k e o v e r a tte m p t faile d . T h e C o n o w in g o p ro je c t w as s u p p o r te d by P hila
d e lp h ia E lectric's s to c k h o ld e rs a n d w as licen se d lo th e e x te n t n e ce ssa ry by
th e re g u la to r y ag e n c ie s, b u t M itte n s c h a rg e s re la tin g to " in te re s t ra te s a n d
allied m a ile rs w e re la rg e ly s u s ta in e d by th e C o m m issio n s.1'
D re x el a n d C o m p a n y , sto c k b r o k e r s o f P h ila d e lp h ia , th e n fo rm e d a sy n
d ic a te w ith B ro w n B ro th e rs a n d H a r ris , F o rb e s & C o m p a n y to m a rk e t th e
P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric P o w er C o m p a n y s b o n d s, w h ich w e re v a lu e d at $36
m illion. T h e a llo c a tio n o f th e s u b s id ia ry s p r e f e r r e d slock to P h ila d e lp h ia
E lectric s h a r e h o ld e r s ra ise d a n a d d itio n a l $ 1 2 m illio n . D rex e l a n d C o m
p a n y , h o w e v e r, h a d a c q u ir e d th e o p tio n o n th e C o n o w in g o p r o p e r ly s everal
y e ars b e fo r e tr a n s f e r r in g it to P h ila d e lp h ia E le ctric fo r fin a n cial c o n sid
era tio n s. C ritic s o f D rex e l a n d th e utility p o in te d o u t lh a l by a c tin g p r u
d e n tly a n d d ecisively, P h ila d e lp h ia E le ctric c o u ld h a v e a c q u ir e d th e o p tio n
d ire c tly . M itte n 's s u p p o r te r s m a d e th e to tally u n w a r r a n te d a lle g a tio n th a t
D re x e l h a d b rib e d a v ic e -p re s id e n t o f P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric to facilitate
D re x e ls in v o lv e m e n t in th e a c q u isitio n .'1
G iffo rd P in c h o t, w h o se G ia n t P o w e r p ro je c t h a d b e e n v o te d d o w n by
v ig o ro u s o p p o s itio n o f th e c o m p a n ie s " d a y s b e f o r e th is h e a r in g , a lso c h a l
le n g e d th e C o n o w in g o p ro je c t.5 H e fe a r e d th a t th e F e d e ra l P o w e r C o m
m ission w o u ld allow P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric to issu e b o n d s in ex c ess o f th e
n e t a m o u n t in v e ste d in th e p ro je c t. T h e n , h e b e lie v e d , th e c o m p a n y w ould
base its p ro fit a n d r e g u la te d ra te s o n a n in f la te d v a lu a tio n o f C o n o w in g o .
P in c h o t a lso o p p o s e d allo w in g c o n tro l o f th e p r o je c t by P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric
C o m p a n y o w n e d c o m m o n slock, fa v o rin g in ste a d c o n tr o l by th e n o n v o tin g
p r e f e r r e d sto c k h e ld by in v e sto rs. In a le tte r to th e F e d e ra l P o w er C o m
m ission h e s ta le d c a te g o ric a lly th a t v o tin g p o w e r a n d th e m a jo r in v e sto rs
risk s h o u ld n o t b e s e p a ra te d . T h e e x e c u tiv e s e c re ta ry o f th e F e d e ra l P ow er
C o m m issio n in f o r m e d P in c h o t o n 27 F e b ru a r y th a t his ag e n c y h a d re c
o m m e n d e d lim ita tio n o f th e to tal p a r o f se c u ritie s to th e a m o u n t o f th e
n e t in v e s tm e n t in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e p ro je c t a n d h a d d e n ie d th e is
su a n c e o r n o -p a r c o m m o n stock. P in c h o t ca lled th e d e c isio n a g re a t ste p
in p u b lic u tility r e g u la tio n fo r P e n n sy lv a n ia .r
W ith th e h e a r in g o v e r a n d th e p ro je c t lice n sed , th e e n g in e e r-m a n a g e r s
a t P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric m u s t h a v e b e e n re lie v e d to p ro c e e d b e y o n d w hat
th e y p e jo ra tiv e ly c alle d p o litics." As was c u s to m a ry f o r p riv a te utilities,
P h ila d e lp h ia E le ctric t u r n e d to c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs f o r assista n c e in carry in g o u t a p ro je c t th a t w as b e y o n d th e te c h n ic a l e x p e rtis e o f th e c o m p a n y .
S to n e & W e b ste r, th e B o sto n c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm , d e s ig n e d a n d
* Nicholas 11. W ainwriKhi. History of Philadelphia Electric Company. 1881-1961 (Philadelphia:
Philadelphia Plectrie Co., 1901). p. 175
1 1bid., p. 177.
1 1bid., p. 170.
' Pinrhoi and Federal Power Com mission rorrcs|M>ndencc. 13 February to 8 March I920.
p rinted in Report of the Giant Power Hoard to the Governor 0/ Pennsylvania. 7 December 1926
(H arrisburg, Pa., 1927), p. IS.
"Ib id ., pp. 10 0 - 1OS; quotation on p. I OS.

329

P L A N N E D SY STEM S
su p e rv is e d c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e h y d ro e le c tric facility, a n d D ay 8c Z im m e rm a n n , a n o th e r c o n s u ltin g firm , in sta lle d th e tra n sm issio n lines. T h e A r u n
d e l C o r p o r a tio n o f B a ltim o re c o n s tru c te d th e m a in b o d y o f th e solid c o n
c re te d a m . C o n s tru c tio n o f th e h y d ro e le c tric in sta lla tio n b e g a n in M a rch
1926; o n 1 M arc h 1928 p o w e r was tra n s m itte d to th e P ly m o u th M e e tin g
s u b s ta tio n n o r th w e s t o f P h ila d e lp h ia , a m a jo r facility in th e new p o w e r
pool.
T h e p rin c ip a l e n g in e e r fo r C o n o w in g o th e m a n w h o h a d e n th u s ia s ti
cally s p e a r h e a d e d th e u n d e r ta k in g w as W. C. L. E glin. A fte r stu d y in g
e n g in e e rin g in G lasg o w , in 1889 h e j o in e d th e P h ila d e lp h ia E d iso n C o m
p a n y , a p r e d e c e s s o r o f P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric. D e sc rib e d as testy , im p u lsiv e ,
a n d very s u r e o f h im se lf, E glin is r e m e m b e r e d as a n a g g re ssiv e , b rillia n t
w o rk e r" w h o m o d e rn iz e d a n d u n ifie d P h ila d e lp h ia E le c tric s sy ste m .7 As
ea rly as th e s p r in g o f 1922 h e u n d e r to o k p r e lim in a ry s tu d ie s a n d c o m
m issio n e d spe cia l r e p o r ts o n th e C o n o w in g o site. H e e n c o u r a g e d D rex e l
a n d C o m p a n y to la k e th e o p tio n o n th e fra n c h is e w h e n h is o w n c o m p a n y
d e c lin e d th e o ff e r . D u rin g th e c o n s tru c tio n p h a s e , as c h ie f e n g in e e r h e
c o o rd in a te d th e c o n tr a c to rs a n d p re sse d to k e e p th e w o rk o n sc h e d u le .
O n ly th r e e w eeks b e f o r e th e p ro je c t w as c o m p le te d , h o w e v e r, h e d ie d at
th e ag e o f fifty -sev e n . H a v in g b e g u n as a d y n a m o - te n d e r , h e w as vicep r e s id e n t a n d d ir e c to r o f P h ila d e lp h ia E le ctric a t th e lim e o f his d e a th .
C o n s tru c tio n o f th e C o n o w in g o p la n t was p r e s e n te d to th e p u b lic as a
h e ro ic m a n ife s ta tio n o f A m e ric a s p o w e rfu l b u ild in g in stin c ts a n d te c h
n o logical s tr e n g th (see Fig. X I I .3). T h e re m o v a l o f a ra ilro a d , th e r e r o u tin g
o f th e m a in B a ltim o re -to -P h ila d e lp h ia h ig h w a y a c ro ss th e c re st o f th e d a m ,
a n d th e d is p la c e m e n t o f th e v illage at C o n o w in g o c h a n g e s m a d e n e cessary
by th e d a m m in g o f th e S u s q u e h a n n a w e re m a jo r c h a lle n g e s. M o re o v e r,
a te m p o r a r y to w n h a d to b e b u ilt to h o u se th e th o u s a n d s o f c o n s tru c tio n
w o rk ers. P u blicity re le a se s b o a ste d th a t if set u p o n P en n sy lv a n ia A v e n u e
in W a sh in g to n , th e d a m w o u ld fill th e a v e n u e f ro m c u r b to c u rb , re a c h
th e h e ig h t o f a te n -s to ry o ffic e b u ild in g , a n d e x te n d fro m th e C a p ito l
g ro u n d s to th e R aleigh H o te l.8 T h e size o f th e p o w e r p la n t b u ild in g m atch e d
th a t o f th e E q u ita b le B u ild in g in N ew Y ork C ity, in w hich 15,000 p e rs o n s
w o rk e d ; th e tu rb in e s in th e p o w e r p la n t w e re th e la rg e st e v e r b u ilt. Even
P h ila d e lp h ia , th e n calle d th e W o rk s h o p o f th e W o rld , w o u ld h av e h a d a
h a r d tim e a b s o r b in g C o n o w in g o 's a n n u a l p o w e r o u tp u t.
C o n o w in g o w as c o m p a ra b le to th e w idely p u b licize d N ia g a ra Falls a n d
M uscle S h o als p ro je c ts (see T a b le X I I . 1), b u t it n e e d e d a re g io n a l lo ad a n d
a p o w e r p o o l. E glin u se d lo ad c u rv e s to m a k e th is p o in t. In th e first, w hich
was d r a w n fo r w in te r c o n d itio n s, th e c ro s s h a tc h e d a re a re p re s e n ts th e base
load C o n o w in g o w o u ld c a rry . T h e lo w e r load c u rv e , th e d e m a n d o f P h il
a d e lp h ia E lectric, clips below C o n o w in g o s cap a city in th e e a rly m o rn in g
h o u rs. T h u s , th e ca p ac ity o f C o n o w in g o in d ic a te d by d o u b le c r o s s h a tc h in g
w o u ld be lost. If, o n th e o th e r h a n d , C o n o w in g o w ere in te g ra te d in to a
p o w e r po o l (w hose lo ad c u rv e also is sh o w n ), th e n all o f C o n o w in g o s
ca p ac ity c o u ld be u se d . A n o th e r set o f load c u rv e s show s th e a d v a n ta g e s
o f in te rc o n n e c tio n d u r in g th e s u m m e r m o n th s, w h en , b e cau se o f slow er
7 W ainw right, Philadelphia Elrrtnr. p. <>!>.
" Kellogg, T h e Conow ingo l-lydro-Klectric Project." p. 2.

330

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

construction. 1927. Aerial photo by Victor Dollm. Courtesy of the F.lrulherian Mills Historical Library,

riv e r flow , C o n o w in g o w o u ld c a rry o n ly th e g r id s p e a k lo a d . E ven in the

m o n th s w h e n w a te r flow w as low, C o n o w in g o c o u ld be utiliz ed m o re fully
as p a rt o f a u tility p o o l th a n if it w e re o p e r a te d w ith o n ly a load from
P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric.!l
As n o te d , by m e a n s o f a h ig h -v o lta g e g rid , th e sy stem s o f P h ila d e lp h ia
Electric, P ublic S ervice E lectric & ('.as o f N ew J e rs e y , a n d P e n n sy lv a n ia
P o w er a n d L ight w e re in te rc o n n e c te d . In 1923, w h e n th e r e was m u c h talk
a b o u t s u p e r p o w e r a n d G ia n t P o w e r a n d a n " a tm o s p h e r e o f S la te a n d F e d
era l in v o lv e m e n t, " th e th r e e u tilities in itia te d p la n n in g f o r th e h o o k u p .
* W. C. L .liglin , "Symposium on Intrrco n n cclio n : Conow ingo Hydroelectric Project, will)
" " C om m ent on The O sgood R e p o rt.'" an outlined m em orandum in the Philadelphia
Electric Co. Archives, Philadelphia, Pa., p. I.

331

P L A N N E D SY STEM S
T able X II.I. C o n o w im .o in C omparison
Install,d
Plant

Own,,

N iagara Falls
Conow ingo
Muscle Shoals
1lollwood
Keokuk

Niagara Falls Power Co.

Philadelphia Klcctrir Power Co.
U nited Stales G overnm ent
Pennsylvania W ater Sc Power Co.
Mississippi River Power Co.
Canowingo

Area o f w atershed
Average river flow
Length o f dam
Area o f reservoir
H eight o f dam (river lied
to lop o f bridge)
C oncrete
Spillway lengih
Flood capacity
Initial installed capacity
N um ber o f units initially
Capacity o f each unit
Foundation

27,000
40,000
4.700
8,600
105

sq. mi.
c.f.s.
ft.
acres
ft.

660,000 cu. yd.

2.385 Ti.
880,000 c.r.s.
378.000 h.p.
7
54,000 h.p.
granite

452.500
378.000
260.000
158.000
150.000
M iurl, Sliwils
30.500
51.900
4.500
8.640
140

sq. mi
c.l.s.
ft.
acres
ft

1.350.000 cu. vd.

3.050 It.
950.000 r I s
260,000 h p
8
32,500 h.p
blue limestone

Source: Kellogg. T h e Conow ingo H ydro-Elerlric Projcci," pp. 7 and 9.

T h e y e m p lo y e d P r o fe s s o r M alcolm M a c L a re n o f P rin c e to n U n iv e rsity to

m a k e a stu d y o f lo a d d iv e rsity in th e a re a e ac h u tility se rv e d . M a c L a re n 's
fa v o ra b le r e p o r t le d th e th r e e c o m p a n ie s to fo rm a c o m m itte e to s tu d y
in te r c o n n e c tio n . T h e c o m m itte e issu e d its r e p o r t o n I A u g u st 1925, a n d
o n 16 S e p te m b e r 1927, w hile C o n o w in g o w as u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n , th e th r e e
c o m p a n ie s sig n e d a n a g r e e m e n t e sta b lish in g a new e n tity , th e PN J I n t e r
c o n n e c tio n . T h u s , th e w o rld 's la rg e st in te g r a te d , c e n tra lly c o n tr o lle d pool
o f ele c tric p o w e r (1.5 m illio n kw .) c a m e in to b e in g ."
T h e a g re e m e n t c alled f o r a r in g o f 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -v o lt t r u n k lines 2 1 0 m iles in
le n g th w ith tw o tra n sm issio n lin es f ro m e ac h p a rtic ip a n t's sy stem to th e
o th e r tw o. T h e tr u n k lin es w e re o f h ig h c ap a city , w hich d is tin g u is h e d th e
in te r c o n n e c tio n fro m th o se in w hich sm all lie lines on ly loosely c o n n e c te d
system s. C o n s tr u c tio n a n d costs w e re a p p o r tio n e d a m o n g th e u tilitie s. T h e
P ublic S e rv ic e E lec tric 8c G as C o m p a n y o f N ew J e rs e y c o n s tru c te d a sw itc h
in g s ta tio n at R o se la n d ; a 220-kv. line fro m R o selan d to B u sh k ill, P e n n
sy lvania; a n d a n o th e r fro m R o se la n d to th e P e n n sy lv a n ia -N e w J e rs e y line
n e a r L a m b e rlv ille . P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric b uilt a su b sta tio n at P ly m o u th
M e etin g , to w hich tra n sm issio n lin es fro m C o n o w in g o w e re e x te n d e d , a n d
a tr u n k lin e fro m P ly m o u th M e e tin g to T o w a m e n c in T o w n s h ip , P e n n sy l
v a n ia ; it also c o n s tru c te d a 220-kv. t r u n k line to L a m b e rtv ille to c o n n e c t
w ith P ublic S ervice. P en n sy lv a n ia P o w e r 8c L ight e re c te d a tr u n k line fro m
T o w a m e n c in T o w n s h ip to its S ie g frie d s u b sta tio n . A n e x istin g P e n n sy lv a n ia
P o w er 8c L ig h t tr u n k line e x te n d e d to B ushkill, th e site o f PP& L 's W allenp a u p a c k h y d ro e le c tric p la n t (see p p . 4 4 0 -4 1 below ). T h e rin g b e g a n serv ice
in 1930. T h e last leg, b etw e e n R o selan d a n d B u shkill, was d e la y e d by rig h tof-w ay d iffic u ltie s; th e P ly m o u th M e e tin g -S ic g frie d sec tio n , th e first to be
c o m p le te d , b e g a n o p e r a tin g o n 10 F e b ru a ry 1928.
11 Eglin, "Symposium on Interconnection. p. SHI.

332

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

P o w er fro m th e h y d ro e le c tric a n d th e r m a l g e n e ra tio n s ta tio n s o f th e
th r e e u tilitie s fed in to th e in te r c o n n e c tio n rin g at th e v a rio u s su b sta tio n s
(C o n o w in g o , fo r e x a m p le , a t P ly m o u th M e etin g ). T h e u tilities also look
b u lk p o w e r fro n t th e in te rc o n n e c tio n at th e su b sta tio n s; th e y a g re e d not
to la p th e r in g d ire c tly fo r c u s to m e rs . T h e a g r e e m e n t also ca lle d fo r th e
e x te n sio n o f th e P ly m o u th M e c lin g -T o w a m e n c in -S ie g fr ie d tr u n k line to
PP & L s F rackville su b s ta tio n , w h ich w o u ld m a k e it p o ssible fo r th e rin g to
d ra w p o w e r fro m th e th e rm a l sta tio n th a t w as p la n n e d a t th e coal m ines
n e a r S u n b u ry . T h e r in g a n d its c o n n e c tio n s th e r e f o r e c o m b in e d d iv e rse
b u t c o m p le m e n ta r y p o w e r s o u r c e s .12
L o a d d is p a tc h in g w as o f c e n tra l im p o rta n c e to th e p o w e r p o o l, as it h a d
b e e n to th e s e p a r a te u tilities e a r lie r. T h e D e p re ssio n f r u s tr a te d p la n s fo r
a PN J c o n tro l c e n te r at P P & L s S ie g frie d s u b s ta tio n , so P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric
d is p a tc h e d th e p o w e r g e n e r a te d by th e th r e e c o m p a n ie s . T h e c e n tra l, o r
P N J, d is p a tc h e r w as a u th o riz e d to d ir e c t th e th r e e u tility d is p a tc h e rs w hen
sw itc h in g was re q u ir e d . P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric k e p t lo ad re c o rd s a n d fro m
th is a n d o th e r in f o rm a tio n p re d ic te d lo a d v a ria tio n s. P re d ic tio n fa cilitate d
qu ick re s p o n s e s to c h a n g in g c o n d itio n s as w ell as o p tim u m u se o f th e ste am
a n d h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts fe e d in g in to th e tra n s m is s io n sy stem . O n ly th e
m o st a le r t a n d skille d lo ad d is p a tc h in g , E glin o b s e rv e d , "will re a liz e all ol
th e p o ssib le b e n e fits [fro m in te r c o n n e c tio n ] ." IH
T h e in te g ra te d a n d c e n tra lly c o n tro lle d PN J p o w e r p o o l d if f e r e d fro m
th e m e rg e rs a n d u tility h o ld in g -c o m p a n y s tr u c tu r e s th a t w ere th e n p ro lif
e ra tin g . In c o n c e p t, it c a n b e c o m p a r e d to th e c o n f e d e r a tio n s o f n in e te e n th c e n tu ry ra ilr o a d sy ste m s th a t w ere fo rm e d to facilita te c ro s s -c o u n try traffic
c o o p e ra tio n . T h e u tility m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e rs w h o o p e r a te d th e p o w e r
pool b e g a n to se e th e PN J as elec trica lly o n e c o m p a n y , b u t fin an cia lly a n d
o rg a n iz a tio n a lly a c o m m itte e o f p e e r s n e g o tia tin g p la n n in g a n d o p e r a
tio n s. M T h e PN J b r o u g h t th e e c o n o m ic b e n e fits o f a la rg e system a n d at
th e sa m e tim e p re s e rv e d th e u tilitie s c o r p o r a te id e n titie s.
O p e ra tio n s by c o m m itte e in tr o d u c e d p ro b le m s , b u t a c c o r d in g to utility
e x ec u tiv es fa m ilia r w ith th e h isto ry o f th e P N J, th e re c o rd h a s b e e n o n e
o f c o n stru c tiv e , realistic n e g o tia tio n s w ith in a b ro a d c o n te x t o f g e n e ra l
u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d tr u s t f o u n d e d o n p e r f o r m a n c e . T h is in te r p r e ta tio n has
b e e n s u s ta in e d by th e c o n tin u e d g ro w th o f (h e sy ste m , w h ich in 1956 was
re n a m e d th e P e n n sy lv an ia-N e w Jersc-y -M a ry la n d In te rc o n n e c tio n a n d which
in 1981 c o o rd in a te d th e b u lk p o w e r su p p ly o f e le v e n " in v e sto r-o w n e d elec
tric u tilitie s. W ith a c a p ac ity o f 4 5 ,6 9 3 ,2 0 0 kw ., th e p o o l c o m p ris e d ro u g h ly
8 p e rc e n t o f th e n a tio n s to ta l c ap a city in 1 9 7 5 .111
T h e g e n e ra l e c o n o m ic g u id e lin e s fo r o p e r a tin g th e in te rc o n n e c tio n w ere
17 Copy o f a greem ent e n tered into on Mi Septem ber MI27 by the Public Service Electric &
(.as Co., the Philadelphia Electric Co., a nd the Pennsylvania Power & l.igln Co. A copy showing
the changes that went into cllccl on I Ja n u ary 193 is on Ole in the Philadelphia Electric Co.
Archives.
Eglin, ''Sym posium on Interconnection.'' p. 377.
M Interview with l ed Feller and Charles W atson o f the Philadelphia Electric Co.. 18 May
1976.
Penusylvania-NrwJer\ry-Marylantl liilricuiiiirctivn. a booklet prep a re d by the m anagem ent
ol the pool (197b?); and m e m orandum n | W iliner Kleinbach. PJM m anager, 30 December

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
re latively easy to a rtic u la te . A m a jo r b e n e fit a ro s e f ro m lo a d d iv e rsity .
T h r o u g h o u t th e y e a r th e P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t C o m p a n y h a d p e a k
lo a d s in th e m o rn in g , fo r it s u p p lie d coal m in e s a n d o th e r in d u s trie s ; th e
o th e r tw o u tilitie s, th e se a b o a rd " c o m p a n ie s, e x p e rie n c e d th e ir la rg e st
lo a d s in th e e v e n in g . N o t o n ly d id th e d aily c u rv e d iff e r , b u t PP & L e x
p e rie n c e d its ye arly p e a k o n a n O c to b e r m o rn in g , w hile fo r th e o th e r tw o
utilities it c a m e o n a D e c e m b e r e v e n in g a t a b o u t 5 :0 0 p . m ., w h e n fa cto rie s
w e re still o p e ra tin g , lig h ts w e re c o m in g o n , a n d c o m m u te rs w e re o n th e ir
way. E ach d ay , th e r e f o r e , d iv e rsity in lo a d in g , o r in p e a k s, e n c o u r a g e d th e
e x c h a n g e o f p o w e r in o r d e r to m a x im iz e th e u se o f c ap a city . T h e s e a b o a rd
c o m p a n ie s c o u ld d is p a tc h less c a p ac ity d u r in g th e D e c e m b e r p e a k s, a n d
th e PP & L c o u ld use less to c o v e r O c to b e r m o rn in g s . D e sp ite th e e arly
e m p h a s is o n th e b e n e fits o f lo a d d iv ersity , h o w e v e r, th e o p e r a to r s o f th e
po o l so o n f o u n d th e b e n e fits a ris in g f ro m th e a p p lic a tio n o f p rin c ip le s of
e c o n o m ic m ix, o r th e e x c h a n g e o f e c o n o m ic p o w e r, to b e as o r m o r e
no ta b le .
T h e e q u ita b le a llo c a tio n o f in te rc o n n e c tio n b e n e fits a m o n g p o o l m e m
b e rs d e m a n d e d p a tie n c e a n d m u tu a l in te re s t. Im m e d ia te ly fo llo w in g the
sig n in g o f th e P N J a g r e e m e n t in S e p te m b e r 1927, e ac h u tility n a m e d o n e
re p r e s e n ta tiv e to a n o p e r a tin g c o m m itte e . Initially , th e c o m m itte e in c lu d e d
a g e n e ra l m a n a g e r fr o m P u b lic S erv ice E lec tric & G as, a n a ssista n t ch ief
e n g in e e r fro m P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric, a n d th e g e n e ra l s u p e r in te n d e n t fro m
P en n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t. In its m e e tin g s o v e r th e n e x t d e c a d e th e
c o m m itte e fo c u se d o n fo r e c a s tin g in te r c o n n e c tio n lo ad s a n d p la n n in g g e n
e ra tin g c ap a c ity a n d c o n s tr u c tio n .16 T h e n e g o tia to rs , o r p la n n in g e n g i
n e e rs , e sta b lish e d th e s c h e d u le d , o r p re d ic ta b le , d iv e rsity a n d d iscu ssed
th e re a c tio n to a n d u se o f c all, o r u n p re d ic ta b le , d iv e rsity . T h e y d e te r
m in e d w h a t c h a rg e s w o u ld b e m a d e fo r b u lk p o w e r e x c h a n g e s. T h e y also
a g r e e d to th e a llo c a tio n , o v e r a p e rio d o f yea rs, o f s c h e d u le d div ersity .
O n ly w ith th is k n o w le d g e co u ld th e in d iv id u a l u tilities p la n th e c o n s tru c tio n
o f new p la n ts to p r o v id e th e c ap acity e a c h n e e d e d to m e e t a n d m a in ta in a
re se rv e fo r relia b ility . C o m p ro m is e s b a se d o n m u tu a l in te r e s t w e re n e c
essary ; u n ila te ra l tactics co u ld h a v e re s u lte d , fo r in stan c e, in e a c h d e
m a n d in g p o w e r fr o m th e o th e rs to m e e t its o w n p e a k s a n d th e re b y a v oid
in v e stin g in new p la n ts. In s te a d , th e u tilities re lie d o n p re d ic ta b le d iv e rsity
a m o n g p o o l m e m b e rs . T h e p ric e c h a rg e d fo r b u lk p o w e r e x c h a n g e s was
set b o th to c o m p e n s a te th e u tility w hich h a d th e excess cap a city a n d to
p r o v id e sav in g s fo r th e u tility w hich d re w fro m th e in te rc o n n e c tio n to m e e t
its d e fic ie n c y . B e c a u se o f th e ir d if f e r e n t o p e r a tin g p rin c ip le s, th e u tilities
also h a d to a g r e e o n th e a m o u n t o f re se rv e ca p ac ity th a t was n e ce ssa ry to
e n s u r e th e re liab ility o f th e in te rc o n n e c tio n a n d o n th e c o s t-a c c o u n tin g
m e th o d s th a t w o u ld b e u sed to d e te r m in e th e p ric e o f p o w e r e x c h a n g e s.
T h e success o f th e o p e r a tin g c o m m itte e in so lv in g th e se a n d o th e r e x
tre m e ly c o m p le x p ro b le m s a n d in d e m o n s tra tin g th e e c o n o m ie s lo b e d e
riv ed fro m in te rc o n n e c tio n s e rv e d as a m o d e l fo r o th e r u tility c o n fe d e ra 10 Minuics o f ihe Im crconneclion O p erating Com mittee. 1927-56. and related c orresp o n d
ence, the Philadelphia Electric Co. Archives. I am indebted lo the m anagem ent o f Philadelphia
Electric, especially Mr. W ayne Aslley, vice-president, for the opportunity to consult these
minutes.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

lio n s a n d Tor c o o p e ra tio n a m o n g p e e rs in g e n e r a l.17 C o n te m p o ra rie s recall
th a t d u r in g th e e a rly y e a rs o f its o p e r a tio n , m a n a g e r s a n d e n g in e e rs fro m
th e w o rld o v e r c a m e to in sp e c t th e PN J g r i d . 18
T h e s e m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e r s a lso to o k n o te o f th e W a lch e n see w erk ,
E u r o p e s la rg e st h y d ro e le c tric p la n t, w h e n in 1924 it b e g a n to p o w e r th e
B a y e rn w e rk , th e G e rm a n tra n s m is s io n g rid , w h ic h , like th e P N J, was p r e
s id e d o v e r by a c o r p o r a te e n tity a n d in v o lv ed th e c o o p e ra tio n o f several
u tilities. T his d e v e lo p m e n t w as n o te w o r th y n o t o n ly b e c a u se th e te ch n o lo g y
in v o lv e d w as c o m p le x a n d a d v a n c e d b u t also b ec a u se a d e s tru c tiv e w a r h ad
o n ly r e c e n tly e n d e d a n d th e e ffe c ts o f d is ru p tiv e in fla tio n h a d j u s t b e g u n
to s u b sid e . It w as o f c o n s id e ra b le in te r e s t as w ell b e c a u se B a v aria, th e
p ro v in c e b e in g e le c trifie d , w as n o t a h ig h ly in d u s tria liz e d re g io n c o m p a re d
to th e R u h r, th e n o rth e a s t co ast o f E n g la n d , o r th e n o r th e a s te r n s e a b o a rd
o f th e U n ite d S tates. T he 1924 in te rc o n n e c tio n m a r k e d th e c u lm in a tio n
o f a ctiv ities a sso c ia te d w ith tw o p h a se s o f th e h isto ry o f e le c tric p ow er
sy stem s th e tim e o f in te n siv e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts a n d the
s u b s e q u e n t p e rio d o f th e p o w e r p o o l, o r g rid . T h e W a lc h e n se e w e rk pro ject
w as first c o n c e iv e d as p a r t o f a p la n to b rin g th e w a te r p o w e r o f th e B av arian
A lps to h eavily p o p u la te d in d u s tria l tr a n s p o r ta tio n c e n te rs like M u n ic h . It
c an th e r e f o r e b e c o m p a re d to th e e a r lie r p ro je c ts th a t c a rr ie d th e pow er
o f th e S ie rr a N e v a d a s to th e C a lifo rn ia co ast. T h e p la n to in te g ra te the
W a lc h e n se e w e rk in to th e B a y e rn w e rk , a re g io n a l tra n s m is s io n g rid , in o r
d e r to o b ta in a n e c o n o m ic m ix o f p o w e r s o u rc e s a n d a g o o d lo a d factor
r a n k s a lo n g s id e th e sim ila r p ro je c t, th e C o n o w in g o D a m a n d th e P e n n sy l
v a n ia -N e w J e r s e y In te rc o n n e c tio n . F u r th e r m o r e , b o th th e PN J a n d the
W a lc h e n se e w e rk -B a y e rn w e rk in te rc o n n e c tio n w e re p la n n e d re g io n a l e lec
trific a tio n p ro je c ts, n o t re g io n a l e le c trific a tio n sy ste m s th a t ev o lv e d o v e r a
lo n g p e r io d o f tim e , as was th e case in R h in e la n d -W e s tp h a lia , e a s te rn P e n n
sylvania, a n d o n th e n o rth e a s t coast o f E n g la n d (see C h a p te r X IV ).
T h e ro le th a t c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s a n d th e ir firm s p la y e d d u r in g th e e ra
o f p la n n e d re g io n a l e le c trific a tio n w as critical. By fo c u sin g o n th e activities
o f O s k a r von M iller, o n e c a n u n c o v e r th e c o m p le x o rig in s a n d h isto ry of
th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk -B a y e rn w c rk in te r c o n n e c tio n .19 L ike so m e o th e r le a d
in g c o n s u ltin g e le ctric al e n g in e e rs , v on M iller w as a n e n g in e e r-e n tre p r e n e u r. H is e x p e rie n c e a n d c o m p e te n c e e x te n d e d b e y o n d d e s ig n in g , d e v e l
o p in g , a n d c o n s tru c tin g d ev ices, m a c h in e s, a n d w o rk s. H e w as a n e x p e rt
17 See pp. 370-71 above for a general discussion o f the economic benefits o f interconnec
tionthe advantages that accrued to pow er pools and en terprises as a result o f m ergers or
acquisition.
'" L e tte r to the au th o r from M. D. Iloovcn. consulting engineer, Public Service Electric Sc
Gas Co., II February 1971. I am also indebted to Professor John Brainerd o f the Moore
School, University o f Pennsylvania, for inform ation about the early years o f the PennsylvaniaNew Jersey Interconnection. Bayla Singer o f the University o f Pennsylvania is com pleting a
dissertation on the history o f the Pennsylvania-N ew Jerscy -M aryland Interconnection (for
merly the PNJ).
B iographies o f O skar von Miller include W ilhelm L. Kristi, Der uieiss-blaue Despot (Munich:
Pfiaum, n.d.); W allhcr von Miller, Oskar von Miller: Nach Eigenen Aufzeichnungen, Reden und
Briefen (M unich: B ruckm ann, 1932); Ludwig N ockher. Oskar von Miller (Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1953); and T h eo d o re Hcuss, Oskar von Miller und der Weg der
Technik (M unich: Deutsches Museum. 1950). I am indebted to R udolf von Miller Tor the many
enlightening conversations I had with him ahout his lath er

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in s u c h e n d e a v o r s , b u t h e also p r e s id e d o v e r th e activities th a t b r o u g h t
th e m in to use ; h e was a n in n o v a to r as well as a n e n g in e e r. In o r d e r lo
in n o v a te , o r b rin g te c h n o lo g y in to u se, von M iller so lv ed m u ltifa c e te d p r o b
le m s in v o lv in g g e o g ra p h y , e c o n o m ics, politics, in stitu tio n s, social values,
a n d m a n y o th e r fa c to rs. T h e c h a r a c te r o f th e p ro b le m s v a rie d en d lessly .
T h u s , th e e x p re s s io n " e n g in e e r - e n tr e p r e n e u r is u se d to c h a ra c te riz e h im .
T h e h isto ry o f vo n M ille r's c o n n e c tio n w ith th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk a n d
B a y e rn w e rk p ro je c ts e x te n d s fro m 1903 to 1924. D u rin g p a r t o f th e se tw o
d e c a d e s , v on M ille r w as a n a p p o in te d m e m b e r o f th e B a v a ria n U p p e r
H o u se a n d a s ta le c o m m is s io n e r fo r e lec trica l d e v e lo p m e n t in th e p o s tW o rld W a r I B a v a ria n g o v e rn m e n t. H e f u n c tio n e d , th e r e f o r e , a t th e in
te rfa c e b e tw e e n te c h n o lo g y a n d politics, a h ig h ly a d v a n ta g e o u s p o sitio n f o r
a n e n tr e p r e n e u r o f la rg e -sc a le p ro je c ts. In th e se y ea rs, h e also m a n a g e d
a n e x p a n d in g c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g Firm th a t re c e iv e d a n u m b e r o f la rg e
e le c trific a tio n c o m m issio n s.20 I n v e n to r - e n tr e p r e n e u r s like T h o m a s E d iso n
w ere n e e d e d w h e n th e e sse n tia ls o f a n e le c tric lig h tin g sy stem w e re b e in g
in v e n te d a n d d e v e lo p e d ; in th e U n ite d S tates, m a n a g e r - e n tr e p r e n e u rs like
S a m u e l I n su ll p la y e d le a d in g ro le s a r o u n d th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu r y , w h e n
th e m a n a g e m e n t o f c o m p le x , in te g r a te d , c e n tra lly c o n tr o lle d u r b a n ele c tric
lig h t a n d p o w e r sy stem s w as th e c ru c ia l p ro b le m . V o n M iller, w ith his
e n c o m p a s s in g h e d g e h o g style, w as th e ir succ esso r.
B e ca u se o f h is b o ld a n d e ffe c tiv e ad v o cac y o f lo n g -d ista n c e p o w e r tr a n s
m ission a n d re g io n a l e le c trific a tio n , v on M iller h a d e a r n e d a n in te rn a tio n a l
r e p u ta tio n . B o r n in 1855, th e son o f F e rd in a n d v on M iller, f o u n d e r a n d
s c u lp to r fo r th e W itte lsb a c h d y n a sty o f B av a ria , O s k a r v on M ille r stu d ie d
civil e n g in e e r in g a t th e M u n ic h P o ly te c h n ik u m . H is first p ro fe ssio n a l p o
sitio n w as as a n a p p r e n tic e civil e n g in e e r in th e B a v a ria n sta te service, b u t
a visit to th e P a ris In te r n a tio n a l E lectrical E x h ib itio n in 1881 fire d his
im a g in a tio n , as it d id th a t o f so m a n y o th e rs , a n d p r e c ip ita te d a life lo n g
c o m m itm e n t to e le c tric a l e n g in e e rin g . W h e n h e w as o n ly tw en ty -sev e n , von
M iller p la y e d a le a d in g ro le in th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e M u n ich In te rn a tio n a l
E lec tric al E x h ib itio n , w hich w as m o d e le d a f te r th e o n e in Paris. H e d is
p la y e d a sp ec ial in te re s t by a r r a n g in g fo r M arc el D e p re z (1 8 4 3 -1 9 1 8 ), th e
F re n c h e lectric al in v e n to r a n d e n g in e e r, to d e m o n s tra te th e feasibility o f
lo n g -d ista n c e p o w e r tra n sm issio n . D e p re z , a p io n e e r in tra n sm issio n , u se d
1 ,5 0 0 -2 ,0 0 0 volts o f d ire c t c u r r e n t to tr a n s m it p o w e r fro m M iesbach o v e r
57 k ilo m e te rs to th e e x h ib itio n s G lass Palace in M u n ich . A t M icsbach a
1 .5 -h .p . s te a m e n g in e d r o v e a g e n e ra to r; a t M u n ich a .4 -h .p . G ra m m e
ele c tric m o to r d ro v e a p u m p to c r e a te a d ra m a tic w a te rfa ll.21 I f von M iller
a n d D e p r e z h a d b e e n ab le to d riv e th e g e n e r a to r a t M iesbach by w a te r
p o w e r, th e e x h ib it w o u ld h a v e b e e n e v en m o re strik in g w a te r p o w e r to
w a te r p o w e r by e lec trica l tra n sm issio n . S h o w in g re m a rk a b le p re sc ie n c e ,
von M iller jo in e d Em il R a th e n a u in 1883 in B erlin as a m a n a g e r o f th e
D e u tsc h e E d iso n -G e sellsch a fl (see p. 67 above). In 1890 h e r e tu r n e d to
"O n the history o f O skar von Miller's consulting engineering firm , sec Oskar von Miller:
lm Dierule der Energicwirtschaft (M unich: Ingen icu rb u ro O skar von Miller GMBH. 1955).
71 Offiiielter Bericht uber die im Koniglichen Glaspalaste zu Mtinchen 1882 . . . Internationale
Elektriuldts-Ausstellung, ed. W. von Bcclz. O. von Miller, and E. Pfeiffer (M unich: Autotypie
Vcrlag. 1882), csp. pp. 99-107.

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n e t w o r k s OK PO W ER

Figure XII 4. Oskm von M illn and

I'homas Edison. Courtesy ->/ M i l l vnil
Millri.

Figure XII. 5. Oskar von Miller.

Charcoal drawing by F. A. Kaulback,
1911. Courtesy of the Deutsches Museum,
Munich.

M u n ich to e stab lish his c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm , T e c h n is c h e s B ureau

O s k a r v on M iller. In 1891, o n th e oc ca sio n o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l Electrical
E x h ib itio n in F r a n k f o r t o n th e M ain , h e a g a in d e m o n s tr a te d his e n thusiastic
c o m m itm e n t to electric al p o w e r tra n sm issio n (see p. 131 above).
T h e M u n ich a n d F ra n k fo rt d e m o n s tta tio n s w e re p o in t-to -p o in t tra n s
m issions o f p o w er. V on M iller also to o k th e le ad in in tro d u c in g regional
e le c trific a tio n by m e a n s o f n e tw o rk , o r rin g , system s. B etw ee n 1910 and
1912 h e p la n n e d th e P falzw erk , a p o w e r c o m p a n y lh a l s u p p lie d electricity
th r o u g h o u t th e G e r m a n p ro v in c e o f th e P falz by m e a n s o f a 1 1 0 ,000-volt
system . A t th e h e a rt o f th e system was a new a n d la rg e c o a l-fire d g e n e ra tin g
sta tio n in llo m b u r g . E x istin g sm all g e n e ra tin g sta tio n s also fed in to the

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
tra n sm issio n sy ste m . T h e P falzw c rk A G was a n e a rly e x a m p le o f a m ix ed o w n e rs h ip , re g io n a l tra n s m is s io n system o r g a n iz e d a b o u t a la rg e , e ffic ie n t,
co a l-firc d p o w e r s ta tio n .22 T h e G e rm a n w o rd fo r th is ty p e o f sta tio n was
Uherlandzentrale.
W ith his e x p e rie n c e in p o w e r tra n sm issio n a n d re g io n a l e le c trific a tio n ,
von M ille r tu r n e d his a tte n tio n in 1910 to a p ro je c t h e h a d e n v isa g e d for
y e a rs d e v e lo p in g th e w a te r p o w e r o f th e B a v a ria n A lps. T h e p ro je c t d e
m a n d e d c o n s id e r a tio n o f n u m e r o u s fa c to rs a n d c o n tin g e n c ie s o th e r th a n
p u re ly te c h n ic a l o n e s. T h e m ost o b v io u s a n d p re s s in g w as th e g e o g ra p h ic a l
e n v ir o n m e n t. In 1903 von M iller h a d d e s c rib e d th e g e o g ra p h ic a l c o n
s tra in ts o f t h e re g io n .23 T he n o r th e r n s lo p e o f th e A lps, in c lu d in g th e p a rt
lo ca ted w ith in th e th e n K in g d o m o f B av aria, h a d f o r c e n tu r ie s p r o v id e d
a i-ih e -site w a te r p o w e r. F a st-flo w in g s tr e a m s a n d riv e rs r u s h e d d o w n th e
p re c ip ito u s in c lin e in to th e Isa r, D a n u b e , a n d o th e r G e r m a n riv e rs. W o o d e n
w a te r w h eels h o u s e d in m ill b u ild in g s s u p p lie d th e p o w e r to g r in d g ra in ,
p u sh bellow s, ra ise h a m m e rs , saw w o o d , a n d p e r f o r m o th e r tasks. T hese
p o w e r p la n ts, h o w e v e r, h a d to b e lo c a te d o n th e s tr e a m s th e m se lv e s, a n d
th e ir e n e r g y h a d to b e u se d th e re . W ritin g in 1903, a f te r e le c tric p o w e r
tra n sm issio n h a d b e e n p ro v e n , von M ille r p r o p o s e d tr a n s m ittin g th is p o w e r
lo sites w h e re in d u s tr y a n d p o p u la tio n w e re c o n c e n tra te d .
D ra w in g u p o n in fo rm a tio n g a th e r e d by th e B a v a ria n H y d ro te c h n ic a l
B u re a u , w hich h a d b e e n e sta b lish e d in 1899, von M iller p r e s e n te d a ta b u la r
a n d c a r to g r a p h ic an a ly sis o f a v aila b le w a te r p o w e r o n th e n o r th e r n slo p e
o f th e A lps. S p e c ifie d s tre tc h e s o f s tre a m s a n d riv e rs w e re m e a s u r e d fo r
fall in e le v a tio n ; th e a v e ra g e w a te r flow' was e sta b lish e d as p recisely as
po ssib le ; a n d f ro m th is a n d o th e r d a ta th e u sa b le w a te r p o w e r was e s ti
m a te d . F o r e x a m p le , a 3 5 - k ilo m e te r s tr e tc h o f t h e sm all riv e r L o isach, fro m
P a rle n k irc h e n to th e K o c h else e, fell 120 m e te rs; th e riv e rs a v e ra g e How
was 6 cu b ic m e te rs e a ch se c o n d ; th u s , a c c o r d in g to von M iller's ca lc u la tio n s,
its u sa b le w a te r p o w e r a m o u n te d to 7 ,7 0 0 h .p . T h e e stim a te w as q u a lifie d
a c c o r d in g lo se a so n a l c lim a te . As a p la n n in g d o c u m e n t, th e r e p o r t a n tic i
p a te d a tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y g e n re .
T h e m o st a ttr a c tiv e w a te r p o w e r site w as th e W a lc h e n se e . a n a tu r a l lake
w h o se su rf a c e w as 2 0 0 m e te r s ab o v e th e g re a t p la te a u e x te n d in g 6 0 kilo
m e te r s n o r th w a r d fro m th e A lps lo M u n ich . O n ly a ro ck wall s e p a r a te d
th e W a lc h e n se e fro m th e flat la n d ; th e b o tto m o f th e lake b e h in d this
n a tu ra l b a r r ie r r e a c h e d to th e level o f th e p la te a u . T h e situ a tio n in v ited
d e v e lo p m e n t, f o r a tu n n e l c o u ld b e d u g th r o u g h th e ro ck at a p o in t a sm all
d ista n c e below th e s u rfa c e , a n d la rg e p ip es, o r p e n sto c k s, c o u ld th e n c a rry
th e w a te r r u s h in g d o w n th e slo p e to tu rb in e s in a p o w e r h o u se n e stle d
a g a in st th e slo p e o n th e p la te a u . T o re p le n is h th e W a lch en se e, stre a m s
h ig h in th e A lp s c o u ld be p a rtia lly d iv e rte d . T o c o m p le te th e cycle, o n c e
th e w a te r p a sse d th r o u g h th e tu rb in e s , it c o u ld be fed in to th e K o chelsee,
w hich w as lo c a te d o n th e p la te a u n e a r B e n e d ik tb e u e rn , a n d fro m th e re
in to th e Is a r R iver, w hich r u s h e d a cro ss th e la n d to M u n ich a n d e v e n tu a lly
lo th e D a n u b e .
TiOskar von Miller: Im Dienste tier F.nergiemrtschaft, p. 13.
O skar von Miller. "Die W asserkriifie am N ordabhangc (lei Alpen." Zritsrhn/t drs Vereines
deutscher Ingenieure 47 (1903): 1002-8.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

O th e rs be sid es vo n M iller e n v isa g e d h a rn e s s in g th e W a lc h e n se e . In the
s u m m e r o f 1904 a civil e n g in e e r fr o m D a rm s ta d t, R u d o lf S ch m ic k , a n d a
Swiss e n g in e e r, J e a n ja q u e l, m a d e p ro p o s a ls . T h e s a m e y e a r a P ru ssian arm y
o ffic e r, M ajo r F e d o r M aria v o n D o n a t, a p p r o a c h e d th e B a v a ria n g o v e rn
m e n t w ith a n o th e r W a lc h e n se e p ro je c t. Possibly s tim u la te d by D o n a ts p ro
posal, th e B a v a ria n g o v e rn m e n t in 1 9 0 8 -9 s p o n s o re d a n in te r n a tio n a l com
p e titio n to fin d th e b e st way to u se th e W a lc h e n se e a n d still p re se rv e the
n a tu r a l b e a u ty o f th e r e g io n .24 T h r o u g h o u t th e h isto ry o f th e p ro je c t, the
B a v arian s sh o w e d h ig h ly se n sitiv e c o n c e rn f o r th e im p a c t o f tech n o lo g y on
th e la n d sc a p e .
O th e r g e o g ra p h ic a l c o n s tra in ts in c lu d e d p o p u la tio n se ttle m e n ts a n d the
lo c atio n o f in d u s trie s . T h e w a te r p o w e r sites o n th e n o r th e r n slo p e o f the
A lps w e re in s o u th e r n , o r U p p e r , B a v aria; th e h e a v ie st c o n c e n tra tio n s of
p o p u la tio n a n d in d u s try w e re n o r th w a r d , n o t o n ly in rela tiv ely nearby
M u n ich b u t also in th e m o r e d ista n t N iir n b e r g , A u g s b u r g , F iirth , E rlangen,
A s c h a ffe n b u rg . R e g e n s b u rg , W u rz b u rg , B a y r e u th , A n sb a c h , a n d B am
b e rg . T h e n o r th e r n re g io n d e p e n d e d o n coal. B e c a u se o f th e im m ense
w a te r p o w e r o f th e B a v a ria n A lps, v on M ille r a n d o th e r s rea lize d that
tra n sm issio n co u ld e x te n d to a n d b e y o n d M u n ic h , n o t o n ly to cities but to
ru ra l B a v aria, w h e re 75 p e rc e n t o f th e r e g io n s p o p u la tio n lived. O skar
von M iller in sisted th a t A lp in e w a te r p o w e r w as a r e s o u rc e fo r all Bavarians.
T h e b u r d e n o f h isto ry a lso h a d to b e w e ig h e d w h e n vo n M iller began
to p la n his c o m b in e d h y d ro e le c tric p la n t a n d re g io n a l g rid . T h e m akers
o f b lu e p rin ts c o u ld n o t b e g in w ith c le a n slate s. By 1914, fo r ex a m p le,
M u n ic h a lre a d y h a d e le c tric lig h t, p o w e r, a n d tra c tio n r e q u irin g u p to
19,000
kw. a t p e a k lo a d a n d 6 0 m illio n kw h. d u r in g th e y e a r.25 M oreover,
th e e lec tric lig h t a n d p o w e r u tilities s e rv in g M u n ic h a n d U p p e r Bavaria
h a d p lan s o f th e ir o w n f o r e x p a n d in g c a p ac ity . D iffe r e n t fre q u e n c ie s, volt
ages, a n d o th e r c h a ra c te ristic s a d d e d to th e c o m p le x ity a n d difficu lty of
p la n n in g a c o h e r e n t sy stem f o r all o f B a v a ria . W ith th e n e e d fo r s ta n d
a rd iz a tio n a n d c o o rd in a tio n in m in d , b u t b e f o re fin ally a d o p tin g a plan
fo r all o f B av aria, th e sta le , in 1913, in r e tu r n fo r th e u tilitie s' a cceptance
o f re g u la tio n a n d th e possibility o f e v e n tu a l a c q u isitio n by th e slate, began
m a k in g a g r e e m e n ts w ith la rg e u tilitie s to p ro v id e th e m w ith th e use o f slate
la n d fo r tra n sm issio n lin es a n d a sizable a r e a fo r ex clu siv e s u p p ly . T h is was
in te n d e d to e n c o u ra g e th e g ro w th o f th e la r g e c o m p a n ie s a n d to d isco u ra g e
p a ro c h ia lism .
V on M iller to o k in to a c c o u n t n o t o n ly g e o g ra p h y a n d th e legacy o f the
h isto ry o f th e e lec trica l su p p ly in d u s tr y in B a v a ria b u t also th e state o f
e x istin g te c h n o lo g y in th e in d u s tria l w o rld . C o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s like von
M iller u su ally d o n ot th e m se lv e s in v e n t a n d d e v e lo p te c h n o lo g y , b u t instead
74 Water Power Exploitation in Germa ny. Special Publication fo r the Session of the Second World
Power Conference, Berlin 1930. with the assistance o f the G overnm ent D epartm ents of the Reich
and the G erm an stales (Berlin: D cutschcr W asserwirtschafls- und W asserkraftverband E.V.,
1930), pp. 2 1 5-20; a nd I heo d o r Koehn, Ulrer einigc grosze E uropaische W asserkraftanlagen
und ihrc W irlschalllichc Bedeulung," Elektrotechnriche Zeitschrift 30 (1909): 966 IT.
These figures were calculated from data for the years 1913-16. See O skar von Miller.
Bayemwerk tu r emheitlichen Versorgung des rechtsrheinuchen Bayern mil Elektrizitat: Projekt Oskar
iton Miller, Februar 1918Erlduterungs-Bericht. appen d ix , item 12; copy in the library of the
Deutsches M useum. M unirh

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
d e p e n d o n m a n u f a c tu r e r s to fulfill d e sig n sp e cific atio n s. F u r th e r m o r e ,
la rg e p ro je c ts like th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk a n d th e B a y e rn w e rk a r e o f te n d e
s ig n e d to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e sta le o f th e a r t r a th e r th a n to a d v a n c e fa r
b e y o n d it. T h e c h a lle n g e fo r von M iller a n d th e o th e r p la n n e rs a n d d e
s ig n e rs o f th e B a v a ria n p ro je c t w as a r tf u lly to a d a p t a v aila b le in te rn a tio n a l
te c h n o lo g ie s to p a r tic u la r local c o n d itio n s. T h e y w e re, in s h o r t, in v o lv ed
in tr a n s f e r a n d a d a p ta tio n .
T h e p la n n in g a n d e x e c u tio n o f th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk a n d th e B a y e rn w e rk
a lso r e q u ir e d political sen sitiv ity a n d p o w e r. M any o f th e m a jo r h u r d le s to
b e s u r m o u n te d w e re p o litical a n d le gislative r a th e r t h a n te c h n ic a l in n a tu r e .
A f te r th e P rin c e R e g e n t n a m e d v on M iller to th e Reichsral, o r U p p e r H o u se ,
o f th e G e r m a n P a rlia m e n t in 1909, h e w as a b le to r e s p o n d to th e s e c h a l
le n g es. B e fo re m a n y o th e r e n g in e e rs a n d sc ie n tists (C h a rle s M erz h a d in
L o n d o n ), h e d is c o v e re d th a t la rg e -sc a le e n g in e e r in g w as a politic al m a tte r.
H e b e lie v ed th a t p ro je c ts th e size o f th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk a n d th e B a y e r n
w erk n e e d e d th e fin a n c ia l re s o u rc e s o f th e B a v a ria n g o v e r n m e n t a n d r e
q u ire d its le g isla tiv e a u th o rity . In th e Reichsrat his p ro fe s s io n a l c re d e n tia ls
g a v e a u th e n tic ity to his a r g u m e n ts . H is fo re n sic g ifts, p e rs o n a l m a g n e tis m ,
a n d d e c id e d ly B a v a ria n c h a ra c te ris tic s se rv e d him well in th e Reichsrat. E ven
to d a y , fo r m a n y B a v a ria n s h e still sym b o liz es tr a d itio n a l v alu es su c h as
g e n ia lity (Gemiitlichkeit), fam ily loyally, a n d love o f th e la n d . H is sp e e c h e s
a n d d e b a te s in th e Reichsrat a r e m o d e ls o f th e c le a r e x p o s itio n o f te c h n ic a l
su b je cts. T h e re c o rd su g g e sts th a t h e h im s e lf re m a in s a m o d e l o f th e p o
litically se n sitiv e a n d e ffe c tiv e e n g in e e r , c o m p a ra b le in m a n y w ays to his
E n g lish c o n te m p o r a r y C h a rle s M erz.
In 1909 se v e ra l im p o r ta n t m a tte rs p e r ta in in g to e lec trica l s u p p ly o c c u
p ie d th e B a v a ria n g o v e rn m e n t. T h e M in istry o f th e I n te r io r esta b lish e d a
B u re a u fo r th e U tiliz a tio n o f W a te r P o w e r a n d th e S u p p ly o f E lectricity,
a n d th e lo w e r h o u s e o f th e P a rlia m e n t a p p ro v e d in p rin c ip le th e c o n s tru c
tio n o f an e le c tric p o w e r c o m p a n y to e x p lo it th e W alc h e n se e . O n th e flo o r
o f th e u p p e r h o u se , v on M iller p la y e d a p r o m in e n t ro le in th e d e b a te th a t
d e v e lo p e d o v e r leg islatio n a r is in g fro m g o v e rn m e n t in v o lv e m e n t in th is
relativ e ly n ew field o f te c h n o lo g y . In 1910 h e m a d e se v e ra l a d d r e s s e s th a t
es ta b lish e d h is g e n e ra l a p p ro a c h n o t o n ly to w a te r p o w e r d e v e lo p m e n t b u t
also to th e g e n e r a l q u e s tio n o f th e s la te s ro le in ele ctric al su p p ly . Q u ick ly
h e ta c k le d th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk p ro b le m , f o r e v e n th o u g h th e p ro je c t h a d
b e e n a p p r o v e d in p rin c ip le , th e s ta te s p la n s w e re n e b u lo u s a n d th e goa h e a d h a d b e e n q u a lifie d by th e r e q u ir e m e n t th a t a m a r k e t b e id e n tifie d
fo r th e m o re th a n 5 0 ,0 0 0 h .p . w aitin g to b e ta p p e d a t th e W a lc h e n sce.
G iven B a v a ria s s ta g e o f in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t, so m e th o u g h t th a t th is
q u a lific a tio n w o u ld f r u s tr a te th e p ro je c t. V o n M ille rs stra te g y fo r th e W al
c h e n se e fo llo w ed th e p r e c e d e n t e s ta b lish e d w ith th e P fa lzw e rk : f e e d in g th e
im m e n se p o w e r fro m th e W a lc h e n se e p o w e r s ta tio n in to a re g io n a l n e t
w o rk , th e B a y e rn w e rk . T h e tra n sm issio n n e tw o rk w o u ld be s u p p lie d n o t
o n ly by th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk b u t a lso by o th e r la rg e a n d e ffic ie n t g e n e r a tin g
sta tio n s in B av a ria , fossil-fuel as well as h y d ro e le c tric . V o n M iller re a liz e d ,
h o w e v e r, th a t th e u n c o o rd in a te d d e v e lo p m e n t o f elec tric s u p p ly w o u ld
in c re a sin g ly th r e a te n c o h e re n t re g io n a l p la n n in g a n d p ro je c ts e v e n if th is
a p p ro a c h w ere finally a p p ro v e d by th e le g isla tu re . H e k new th a t local
g o v e rn m e n ts a n d p riv a te c o rp o r a tio n s w e re b u ild in g g e n e ra tin g p la n ts a n d

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
d is trib u tio n sy stem s w ith o u t c o n s id e r in g h ow th e se m ig h t re la te to a n o v e r
all p la n fo r B a v aria. Me a lso saw th e v a rio u s g o v e r n m e n t m in istrie s a d
v o c atin g co n flic tin g e n e rg y policies. T h e T r a n s p o r ta tio n M in istry w an ted
sta te o w n e r s h ip o f g e n e r a tin g s ta tio n s like th e W a lc h e n se e , b u t o n ly if th e y
w o u ld su p p ly e le c trifie d , sta le -o w n e d ra ilro a d s ; th e F in a n c e M in istry was
p la n n in g s te a m e le c tric s ta tio n s, w h ic h w o u ld b e r e d u n d a n t, von M iller
p o in te d o u t, w h e n W a lc h e n se e w as b u ilt; a n d th e M in istry o f I n te r io r in
te n d e d , w ith o u t c o n s id e rin g h ow th e se m ig h t r e la te to a g e n e ra l system of
s u p p ly , to g r a n t iso la te d c o n c e ssio n s fo r w a te r p o w e r d e v e lo p m e n t to p r i
vate e n te rp ris e s . V o n M ille r w a n te d a ra tio n a l, sy ste m a tic g o v e rn m e n t p o l
icy. H is s tra te g y w as to tra n s c e n d th e v a rio u s m in istrie s by re c o m m e n d in g
th e e sta b lis h m e n t o f a sin g le c e n tra liz e d a d m in is tr a tiv e o rg a n fo r B av a ria n
elec trica l s u p p ly .'iu
V o n M iller e v e n tu a lly p r e s e n te d a d e ta ile d p la n f o r u n ifie d electrical
s u p p ly in B a v a ria , b u t in th e m e a n tim e m e m b e rs o f th e le g is la tu re ra ised
m a n y o th e r q u e s tio n s a b o u t it a n d th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk . V o n M ille rs r e
sp o n se s fro m th e flo o r o f th e le g is la tu re a r e still r e le v a n t, fo r th e issues
p e rsist. T h e w id e -r a n g in g c h a ra c te r o f th e q u e s tio n s fro m th e leg islators
r e s u lte d fro m th e m a n y v este d in te re s ts a n d social, p o litic al, a n d eco n o m ic
p rin c ip le s in v o lv ed . S o m e m e m b e rs b e lie v e d th a t p riv a te e n te r p r is e , not
th e g o v e rn m e n t, sh o u ld fin a n c e , c o n s tru c t, a n d o p e r a te th e W a lc h en se e
p o w e r s ta tio n . O th e r s a r g u e d th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t s h o u ld o w n a n d o p e ra te
it, b u t o n ly if th e p o w e r g e n e r a te d w e re s u p p lie d ex clu siv ely to s ta te -o w n e d ,
e le c trifie d railw ays. V o n M illers a ttitu d e o n sta te in v o lv e m e n t w as p r a g
m atic a n d flex ib le : G o v e rn m e n t fu n d s s h o u ld b e in v e ste d in th e p ro ject,
at least to th e e x te n t th a t th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk g e n e r a te d p o w e r fo r go v
e rn m e n t-o w n e d railw ays, b u t c o n s tru c tio n a n d o p e r a tio n o f th e statio n
sh o u ld be c o n tra c te d to p riv a te c o m p a n ie s , fo r v on M iller k n e w fro m e x
p e r ie n c e th a t p riv a te m a n a g e m e n t w as e ffic ie n t.
V o n M iller f u r t h e r ra ise d th e level o f c o m p le x ity a n d s o p h istic a tio n of
th e d e b a te by s u g g e s tin g th a t e v e n th o u g h th e g e n e r a tin g facilities sh o u ld
b e o p e r a te d by a p riv a te ly o w n e d c o m p a n y , th e tra n sm issio n a n d sale o f
e lec tricity s h o u ld n e v e rth e le s s b e le ft in th e h a n d s o f th e B a v a ria n g o v e r n
m e n t. H e w a n te d to k e e p p r o fits fro m b e c o m in g th e so le d e te r m in a n t o f
d is trib u tio n a n d p ric e , fo r o th e r c rite r ia , esp e cially social o n e s, h e be lie v ed ,
s h o u ld o v e rr id e p r o f it. H e h a d in m in d s u b sid iz e d d is trib u tio n fo r e c o
n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t a n d o th e r social n e e d s. W h e n p r e s s e d , vo n M iller look
a c a te g o ric a l s ta n d o n th e g o v e r n m e n ts basic re s p o n sib ility f o r th e use o f
th e W alc h e n se e : It was a la rg e , sc a rc e , a n d n e a rly u n iq u e s la te re so u rc e ,
a n d n a tu r e s b o u n ty sh o u ld b e n e fit all o f (h e p e o p le . T h e u n d e v e lo p e d
re g io n , th e iso la ted f a rm e r, th e sm all a rtis a n , as w ell as h eavy in d u stry ,
sh o u ld b e n e lil Iro rn th e W a lc h e n se e , e v e n th o u g h h eavy in d u s tr y c o uld
m o re easily ju stify costly tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n facilities b eca u se o f
its h ig h a n d c o n c e n tr a te d level o f c o n s u m p tio n o f e le c tric ity .27
1 h e p ro sp e c t o r W a lc h e n sc e w e rk also ra ise d th e issu e o f e n v iro n m e n ta l
m Slrnographischrs Ilfriclit iibrr dir Vnbandlnngrn drr Kammrr drr Rrichsralr drs bayrrischrn
Landtag , IH Mnrcli 1(110, p. 123; .30 J u n e 1910. p. 314; and 9 August 1910, pp. 542-43.
I licsc references are lo die dates o f von Miller's addresses; the page num bers are for die
respective volumes in which die speeches app ear.
lh id 18 March 1910, p. 123; 31 May 1912, pp. 8 8 -8 9 ; 1.3 Ju n e 1914. pp. 322. 324.

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
ae sth e tic s o r a m e n itie s. T h e rise a n d fall o f th e W a lc h c n se e a c c o r d in g to
se a so n a n d d e m a n d f o r ele ctric ity m ig h t flo o d th e s h o re lin e v e g e ta tio n at
lim e s a n d lay b a re u n s ig h tly la k e s h o re s a t o th e rs . D e ep ly a tta c h e d to th e
A lp in e la n d , th e B a v a ria n s d id n o t lak e th is c o n s id e ra tio n lightly. V o n
M iller a n d o th e rs in v o lv ed in p la n n in g th e W alc h e n se e p ro je c t c o u n te r e d
w ith a n a g r e e m e n t to re stric t th e v a ria tio n o f w a te r level to sp e c ifie d lim its.
T h is re stric tio n w o u ld im p o se lim ita tio n s o n w a te r s to ra g e a n d p o w e r u ti
lizatio n . In B av a ria , h o w e v e r, tra d e - o f fs b e tw e en e n v iro n m e n t a n d e c o n
o m y w e re m a tte rs o f policy; e v e n th e 1909 in te r n a tio n a l c o m p e titio n fo r
d e sig n s fo r th e W a lc h e n se e h a d sp e c ifie d as a p rim e d e s id e r a tu m th e p r e s
e rv a tio n o f th e re g io n s n a iu ra l b e a u ty . V on M iller also a s s u re d th e m e m
b e rs o f P a rlia m e n t th a t th e levels o f th e stre a m s a n d riv e rs f e e d in g th e
W alc h e n se e w o u ld b e m a in ta in e d .
A rtists, esp e cially , fe a re d th a t th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk w o u ld m a r a b e a u tifu l
la n d sc a p e . V on M iller a r g u e d , h o w e v e r, th a t th e y s h o u ld b e m o re c o n
c e r n e d a b o u t th e p r o lif e r a tin g a u to m o b ile th a n a b o u t th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk .
A lre a d y , h e a ss e r te d , th e a u to h a d m a d e th e A lps sm o k y a n d noisy; f u r
th e r m o r e , h e in siste d , a u to m o b ile s, u n lik e p o w e r p la n ts, d id n o t c o n trib u te
to e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t. (In 1912 th e lu x u ry p a s s e n g e r a u to m o b ile n o t
th e tr u c k o r th e c o m m u te r s sm all c a r d o m in a te d th e sce n e.) E lectric m o
to rs a n d tr a in s p o w e re d by th e sm o k eless W a lc h e n se e w e rk w e re p re f e r a b le ,
h e in siste d , to c o a l-fire d ste a m e n g in e s a n d in te rn a l-c o m b u s tio n m o to rs.
E le c trific a tio n o f th e railw ays was a n o th e r issu e ra ise d d u r in g d isc u ssio n
o f th e W a lc h e n se e p ro je c t. S u p p ly o f ele ctric ity to th e railw ays in U p p e r
B av aria w as, fo r so m e , ju s tific a tio n fo r th e in v e stm e n t o f s ta te fu n d s in th e
W alc h e n se e w e rk . T h e railw ays o f B av a ria , s te a m -d riv e n a t th e tim e, w ere
sla te o w n e d a n d o p e r a te d . S in c e coal w as a sca rce re so u rc e , th e M in istry
o f T ra n s p o r ta tio n c o n s id e r e d W a lc h e n se e p o w e r d e sira b le o n e co n o m ic
g r o u n d s (w h ile coal w o u ld r e p la c e black). F u r th e r m o r e , S w itz e rla n d , Italy,
a n d o th e r p a r ts o f G e rm a n y h a d te ste d a n d p ro v e n railw ay e le c trific a tio n .
A n in te re s tin g co m p lic a tio n , h o w e v e r, w as th a t th e m ilitary o p p o s e d m a in
line ra ilw ay e le c trific a tio n in B a v a ria .28 It fe a re d th a t c o n c e n tr a tin g p o w e r
g e n e ra tio n in a sin g le p la n t, like th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk , r a th e r th a n w idely
d is p e r s in g it in m a n y lo co m o tiv es, w o u ld g re a tly h e ig h te n th e v u ln e ra b ility
o f vital tr a n s p o r ta tio n links.
R itte r v on M affei, a lo co m o tiv e b u ild e r w ith a se at in th e u p p e r h o u se
o f P a rlia m e n t, a r g u e d a g a in st th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk as
a so u rc e o f p o w e r fo r railw ay e le c trific a tio n . H e a c k n o w le d g e d th a t stea m
railw ays w e re b e in g e le c trifie d in th e U n ite d S tates, b u t h e a rg u e d th a t
A m e ric a c o u ld b e tte r a f fo rd m isca lcu latio n s th a n B a v aria co u ld . V on M iller,
w h o h a d m a d e a to u r o f te c h n o lo g y in A m e ric a a n d h a d follow ed closely
th e r a p id d e v e lo p m e n t o f electricity th e re , p o in te d o u t th a t A m e ric a was
in d u stria lly s tr o n g b ec au se sh e d id boldly ex p lo it h e r n a tu ra l re so u rc e s,
like th e w a te r p o w e r a t N ia g a ra (3 0 0 ,0 0 0 h .p . c o m p a r e d to th e 6 0 ,0 0 0 h.p .
a n tic ip a te d a t th e W alch e n see). " A m erica was n o t c r e a te d by G o d n o r
sim p ly by ste a m e n g in e s," von M iller q u ip p e d to his m o re co n se rv a tiv e
p e e rs .29
"Ibid., 9 August 1910, pp. 543-45; 31 M;iy 1912, p. 90.
m Ibid., 31 May 1912, pp. H9-90.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

D esp ite th e M in istry o f I n te r io r s u ltim a te ad v o c ac y o f a c o h e r e n t B a
v a ria n sy ste m b a se d o n v on M ille rs p ro p o s a ls , a n d d e s p ite th e le g is la tu re s
a p p ro v a l o f th e W a lc h e n se e p ro je c t in p rin c ip le , c o n s tru c tio n o n n e ith e r
th e s ta tio n n o r th e B a y e rn w e rk g r id b e g a n b e f o r e th e o u tb re a k o f W o rld
W a r I in 1914. V o n M ille rs f o r e b o d in g p r o v e d c o rr e c t; p riv a te e n te r p r is e
a n d local g o v e rn m e n t c o n tin u e d to b u ild sm a ll e le c tric a l su p p ly system s
a n d in so d o in g m a d e e v e n tu a l c o o rd in a tio n in c re a sin g ly d iffic u lt. D issen
sio n w ith in th e g o v e r n m e n t a n d in th e le g is la tu re f r u s tr a te d th e a d o p tio n
o f in te r im le g isla tio n s tr o n g e n o u g h to p r e v e n t tr o u b le s o m e v a ria tio n s in
th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f s u p p ly a n d a d u p lic a tio n o f facilities. D e sp ite passa g e
o f a 1913 law d e s ig n e d to re g u la te n a tu r a l m o n o p o lie s , d is o rd e r ly g ro w th
c o n tin u e d .30
T h e e x ig e n c ie s a n d trib u la tio n s o f w ar d id n o t c a u se v o n M iller to w aver
in his d e te r m in a tio n to o rg a n iz e B a v a ria n e le c tric su p p ly , h o w e v e r. H e
v o lu n te e re d his p ro fe s s io n a l se rv ic es fo r d e v e lo p in g d e ta ile d p la n s a n d
s p e c ific a tio n s fo r th e sy stem , s u b m ittin g th e p la n f o r th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk
in 1915 a n d th a t fo r th e B a y e rn w e rk in th e s p r in g o f 1918. H e e n v isa g e d
th e W a lc h e n s e e w e rk a n d B a y e rn w e rk as p ro je c ts to b e p u r s u e d a t w a rs
e n d , w h e n r e tu r n in g s o ld ie rs a n d r e le a s e d in d u s tr y c o u ld stim u la te eco
n o m ic re c o v e ry . V o n M ille rs vision a n d c o m m itm e n t tra n s c e n d e d im m e
d ia te c irc u m s ta n c e a n d d e m a n d . T h e p ro p o s a l h e a d d r e s s e d to t h e B a v a ria n
M in istry o f th e I n te r io r in O c to b e r 1915 re v e a le d a c o n tin u in g p re o c c u
p a tio n w ith th e u ltim a te g o al o f a u n ifie d B a v a ria n e le c tric su p p ly sy ste m .31
O n ly tw o o f t h e n in e se c tio n s o f th e W a lc h e n s e e w e rk p ro p o s a l d e a lt w ith
th e W a lc h e n se e p r o je c t p e r se; th e o th e r s p e r ta in e d to th e h y d ro e le c tric
p ro je c t as a c o m p o n e n t o f th e B a y e rn w e rk . T h e te c h n ic a l c h a r a c te r o f th e
in s ta lla tio n w as d e s c rib e d su ccin ctly : six 1 0 ,0 0 0 -h .p . tu rb in e s ; g e n e r a to rs
s u p p ly in g p o ly p h a s e c u r r e n t; a n e a rb y s w itc h - a n d - tr a n s f o r m e r h o u s e to
c a rry th e p o w e r to th e tra n s m is s io n lin es; a n d th e v a rio u s s tr u c tu r e s n e e d e d
to lead w a te r to a n d fro m th e g e n e r a tin g p la n t. T h e r e p o r t p ro v id e d d e
ta ile d in s tru c tio n f o r m a in ta in in g th e w a te r level o f th e W a lc h e n se e as well
as o f th e riv e rs a n d s tre a m s s u p p ly in g it. T h is r e q u ir e m e n t n e c e ssita te d
u s in g th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk d u r in g th e d a y , w h e n lo a d s p e a k e d , a n d c o n
se rv in g its s to re d w a te r d u r in g th e n ig h t h o u rs , w h e n d e m a n d fell. V on
M iller e n v isa g e d th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk as a p e a k -lo a d p la n t in th e u n ifie d
system ; h y d ro e le c tric a n d c o a l-fire d p la n ts e ls e w h e re in B av aria w ould
c a rry th e b ase lo a d .32 T h e o th e r h y d ro e le c tr ic sta tio n s, in c lu d in g lo w -h ea d ,
o r r u n n in g - w a te r , p la n ts , w o u ld b e b u ilt o n th e l s a r R iv er n e a r M u n ich .
D e sp ite th e d e v a s ta tin g w a r a n d all th e p r e o c c u p a tio n s a n d sh ifts in values
c o n s e q u e n t to it, O s k a r v on M ille r still m a n a g e d to b rin g th e B a v arian
P a rlia m e n t to c o n s id e r a n d a ct fav o ra b ly o n his p la n s. C o m p le te d in M arch
1918, th e B a y e rn w e rk p ro p o s a l w as a p p r o v e d by b o th h o u se s in J u n e , only
" I b i d ., 13 Ju n e 1914, pp. 322-24.
51 Vorschliige (Us Herrn Oskar von Miller in Miinrhrn iiber den Ausbau und die Verwertung der
Walclienseekraft an das llolie Kiinigl. llayer. Staalsministrrium des I m u m , Miinchen, den 9 Oktober
1915 (copy in ihe library o f the Deutsches M useum . Munich). T h e fifteen-page report is.
am ong o th er things, a treatise on the economics o f pow er systems. Sec also, O skar von Miller,
"Die V erw ertung d c r W alchcnsee-W asserkraft fiir ein H aycrnw crk." EUklroteehnischr Zeitsehrifl
37 (1916): 8 5 -8 9 , 102-5.
Vorscldiige Walchrnserkrafl, pp. 3-5 .

343

Figure XII,6.

PL A N N E D SY STEM S

Painting o f Walchensee and the power plant. 1924. Courtesy o f the Deutsches Museum. Munich.

a few m o n th s b e f o re th e a rm istic e .33 T h e B a y e rn w e rk was d e sc rib e d as a

re g io n a l g rid o f tra n sm issio n lines th a t w o u ld o p e ra te at 100,000 volts. Its
ju ris d ic tio n w o u ld e x te n d to (b u t w ould n o t in c lu d e) th e g e n e ra tin g p la n ts
a n d d is tr ib u tio n sy stem s o f c o n n e c te d u tilities, in c lu d in g th e W a lch en see w erk , w h ic h w as d e fin e d as a s e p a ra te e n tity o w n e d by th e B a v arian slate.
T h e e x istin g u tilities g e n e ra tin g a n d d is trib u tin g e lec tricity w e re vario u sly
o w n e d ; th e W a lc h e n se c w e rk w ould be th e la rg e st-ca p ac ity g e n e ra tin g fa
cility. S te p - u p tra n s fo rm e rs w o u ld raise th e v o ltages fro m th e level at th e
p o w e r p la n ts to tra n sm issio n v o ltage, a n d ste p -d o w n tra n s fo rm e rs at d is
tr ib u tio n p o in ts w o u ld lo w e r th e voltages to 4 0 ,0 0 0 -5 0 ,0 0 0 volts. In th e
first sta g e o f B a y e rn w e rk d e v e lo p m e n t, th e 100,000-volt tra n sm issio n lines
w o u ld e x te n d 1,020 k ilo m e te rs, a n d fo r 6 00 k ilo m e te rs w ould be d o u b le .
Von Miller, Bayernwerk: Erlautenmgs-Berichl; C. Zell. "1): H aycrnw rrk," Elekirotechnische
Zeitschrift 3<J (1918): 301-63.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure X II.7. A plan drawing o f the

Wnlchemrcwrrk. From Drime,
DcutschlancU G iosskrnfivcrsorgunn, p.
IIS .

Figure X II.8. Crass section o f the

Walchensee power plant. Courtesy of
Bayemwerk AC. Munich.

"ccooo'dl

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
In th e se c o n d sta g e , a t least 25 0 k ilo m e te rs o f tra n sm issio n lin e w o u ld be
a d d e d . W h e n c o m p le te , th e tra n sm issio n system w o u ld tak e (he fo rm o f a
rin g ; this, von M iller e x p la in e d , w o u ld e n s u re th a t d is trib u tio n c e n te rs
a lo n g it w ould rec eiv e s u p p ly fro m tw o s id e s .^ S u ch a n a rra n g e m e n t w o u ld
g re a tly in c re a se th e re lia b ility o f th e system a t a lim e w h en la rg e -a re a s u p p ly
sy stem s w ere still p r o n e to in stab ility a n d lig h tn in g d a m a g e .
In o r d e r to d e te r m in e th e o v era ll ca p ac ity o f th e sy ste m , von M iller h a d
to a n tic ip a te d e m a n d . B ec au se critics o f th e B a y e rn w e rk (a n d th e W al
c h e n se e w e rk ) h a d in sisted th a t th e m a rk e t fo r th e system w o u ld be in s u f
fic ie n t, h e re s o rte d to a d e ta ile d analysis, o r m o d e l, o f e c o n o m ic d e v e l
o p m e n t in B av a ria . T h e B a v a ria n D e p a r tm e n t fo r W a te rp o w e r U tiliz atio n
a n d E lectricity S u p p ly h e lp e d by c irc u la tin g a q u e s tio n n a ir e d e s ig n e d to
allow fo re c a stin g o f lo ad d e m a n d in v a rio u s se c to rs o f th e B a v a ria n e c o n
om y. V on M illers an alysis o f th is d a ta e n a b le d him to a n tic ip a te n o t o n ly
th e sy ste m s to tal lo a d b u t also th e m o st a p p r o p r ia te lo c atio n s fo r th e d is
trib u tio n p o in ts, o r lo ad c e n te r s , w h e re tr a n s f o r m e r s a n d sw itch e s w ould
c a rry th e elec tricity fro m th e tra n sm issio n r in g in to th e lo w e r-v o lta g e d is
tr ib u tio n sy stem s.35
V o n M iller also h a d to in te g ra te th e e x istin g e q u ip m e n t o f th e c o o p e r
a tin g u tilitie s in to th e o v era ll sy stem o f g e n e ra tio n , tra n sm issio n , a n d d is
tr ib u tio n . A s h e h a d a n tic ip a te d , th e p ro b le m h a d b e e n c o m p lic a te d by th e
c o n s tru c tio n o f d issim ila r local system s o f s u p p ly . L ike o th e r e n g in e e rs w ho
w ere in te g r a tin g sm all sy stem s in to la rg e r o n e s a f te r th e w ar, von M iller
u tilized c o u p lin g a p p a r a tu s , su ch as r o ta r y c o n v e rte rs (a.c.-d.c.). H e d id
n o t e lim in a te d iv e rsity by m a k in g a h o m o g e n iz e d system ; h e sy stem atically
m a in ta in e d a n d lin k e d d iv e rse e le m e n ts. W h e n d e c id in g w hich o f th e e x
istin g g e n e r a tin g p la n ts a n d d is tr ib u tio n lines to in c lu d e in th e g rid , h e
g e n e ra lly c h o se th e m o st e ffic ie n t o n es. A d a p ta b ility to th e B a y e rn w e rk
w o u ld b e th e g o v e rn in g c o n s id e ra tio n b e h in d an y d ec isio n to c o n s tru c t new
p la n ts a n d d is trib u tio n sy ste m s.36
In th e sec tio n o f h is p ro p o s a l r e g a r d in g th e c o r p o ra te s tr u c tu r e o f th e
B a y e rn w e rk , v on M ille r su g g e ste d a n o w n e rs h ip c o m p ro m ise . H e re c o m
m e n d e d a m ix e d - e n te r p r is e c o r p o ra tio n : 51 p e rc e n t o w n e rs h ip by th e s ta te
(B av aria) a n d 4 9 p e r c e n t o w n e rs h ip by th e v ario u s u tilities (local-g o v e rn m e n t a n d p riv a te ) th a t w e re to be in te g ra te d in to th e system . H e also
re c o m m e n d e d th a t th e s ta le o f B a v aria s h o u ld h av e
a m a jo rity o n th e
B a y e rn w e rk Aufsichlsrat (ad v iso ry co m m itte e ). S u ch a n o w n e rs h ip s tr u c tu r e
w o u ld , h e b e lie v e d , p ro v id e th e a d v a n ta g e s o f bu sin e ss, o r c o r p o ra te , o r
g a n iz a tio n a n d m a n a g e m e n t, a n d w o u ld also, th r o u g h g o v e rn m e n t in v o lv e
m e n t, p ro te c t th e g e n e ra l in te re sts o f th e p e o p le , especially th e in te re sts
o f B a v a ria n s living in ru ra l a re a s w h e re th e re was little e le ctricity o r w a te r
p o w e r. H e p re d ic te d th a t th e B a y e rn w e rk w ould be c o m p le te d w ith in tw o
o r th r e e y ea rs a f te r th e w ar a n d th a t it w ould p r o m o te p o stw a r e co n o m ic
d e v e lo p m e n t.37
In his re p o r t, von M iller r e ite ra te d th e ec o n o m ic p rin c ip le s o f la rg e ,
33 Von Miller, Bayemwerk: Erlauterunfp-Brricht, pp. 1-3. and appendix, items 6-9.
50 Ibid., p. 2, and a ppendix, items 1-5.
Ibid., p. 4, and a ppendix, items 10-11.
37 Ibid.. pp. 17-18.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

in te r c o n n e c te d system s. H e p re d ic te d th a t in te rc o n n e c tio n w o u ld p e rm it
h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts to c a rry 8 0 p e rc e n t, a n d s te a m p la n ts 2 0 p e rc e n t, o f
th e a n n u a l lo ad o n th e B a y e rn w e rk ; if th e sa m e p la n ts w ere n o t in te r c o n
n e c te d , th e s te a m p la n ts w o u ld h a v e lo c a r ry 4 0 - 4 5 p e r c e n t o f th e total.
In c o a l- p o o r B a v a ria th is w as a m a jo r c o n s id e ra tio n . V o n M iller also stre sse d
th a t in te rc o n n e c tio n w o u ld p e r m it ju d ic io u s u se , o r s c h e d u lin g , o f h y
d ro e le c tric p la n ts o n a d a ily a n d s e a so n a l basis, so th a t lo w -h e ad h y d r o
e le c tric p la n ts c o n n e c te d to th e g rid w o u ld c a rry a h ea v y lo a d w h e n riv ers
a n d s tre a m s r a n fu ll a n d a lig h t lo a d in w in te r w h e n sc a n t ra in fa ll a n d ice
p re v e n te d u tiliz a tio n . T h e W a lc h e n s e e -s to re d w a te r w o u ld b e u se d fo r p ea k
lo ad s. C o a l-fire d p la n ts c o n n e c te d to th e sy stem w o u ld b e d ra w n u p o n
h e avily w h e n th e lo w -h e a d , o r r u n n in g - w a te r, h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts a n d th e
W a lc h e n se e w e rk w e re s h o r t o f w a te r. In s u m m a r y , as v a ry in g c o n d itio n s
o f su p p ly a n d d e m a n d d ic ta te d , th e lo w -h e a d p la n ts w o u ld c a rry th e ba se
lo a d o f th e sy ste m , th e W a lc h e n se e w o u ld c a rry m o st o f th e p e a k loads,
a n d th e e ffic ie n t c o a l-fire d p la n ts w o u ld c a rr y th e r e m a in d e r . T h e savings
r e s u ltin g fro m th is ty p e o f lo ad m a n a g e m e n t w o u ld b e s u b s ta n tia l.38
In h is n in e te e n - p a g e r e p o r t, w h ich w as a c c o m p a n ie d by th ir ty -o n e p ag e s
o f h ighly d e ta ile d a n d in fo rm ativ e tables a n d g ra p h s, von M iller also p o in te d
o u t th a t th e su m o f th e p e a k lo a d s in th e sy stem w o u ld b e less th a n th e
su m o f th e p e a k lo ad s o f th e v a rio u s p a rtic ip a tin g p la n ts if th o se p la n ts
re m a in e d o u ts id e th e sy ste m . T h e re su lt w o u ld b e less in sta lle d ca p ac ity
a n d less n e e d fo r re s e rv e as w ell. S in c e th e ele c tric a l su p p ly in d u s try is a
c a p ita l-in te n siv e o n e , th is w o u ld m e a n a su b s ta n tia l r e d u c tio n in u n it costs.
T h e r e p o r t a lso s h o w e d th a t th e r u r a l a n d m o re n o r th e r ly re g io n s o f B a
varia w o u ld g e n e ra lly d e m a n d m o r e fr o m a n d su p p ly less to th e system
th a n M u n ic h a n d th e o th e r u r b a n a re a s w h e r e ele c tric a l su p p ly w as a lre a d y
w ell d e v e lo p e d . V o n M iller's c o m m itm e n t to r u r a l e le c trific a tio n , e v e n if it
m e a n t su b sid iz a tio n , w as o b v io u s.39
W ith in tw o w e ek s o f th e a rm istic e , v o n M ille r a n n o u n c e d th a t h e w as
p r e p a r e d to s u p e rv is e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk a n d th e B ay
e rn w e rk . H e in siste d th a t th e s e p ro je c ts n o t o n ly w o u ld p ro v id e w o rk fo r
r e tu r n in g so ld ie rs, b u t w o u ld also, a t a lim e o f social u n re s t, d r a w to g e th e r
v a rio u s classes in s u p p o r t o f a c o m m o n c o n s tru c tiv e e n d e a v o r. H e a d v e r
tised fo r w o rk e rs fo r th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk ; b e g a n to a sse m b le c o n s tru c tio n
e q u ip m e n t a t th e site; a n d s u p e rv is e d th e s ta r t o f c o n s tru c tio n by c o n tr a c
to rs a t th e W a lc h e n se e (sec Fig. X I 1.9). F o r th e B a y e rn w e rk , h e c o n c lu d e d
c o n tra c ts w ith ele c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r e r s fo r h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n tow
e rs; fin ish e d s u rv e y in g a n d m a d e d e ta ile d d ra w in g s; a n d p ro p o s e d p lan s
fo r th e h ig h -v o lta g e t r a n s f o r m e r s ta tio n s.'10
O n 22 J a n u a r y 1919 I n te r io r M in iste r E r h a r d A u e r o f B a v a ria s new
g o v e rn m e n t n a m e d v on M ille r th e Staatskommissar (stale c o m m issio n e r) fo r
th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk . B ec au se th e g o v e r n m e n t w as a r e p u b lic a n o n e , re
p la c in g th e W itte lsb ac h d y n a sty a n d th e c o n se rv a tiv e w a rtim e m in iste ria l
g o v e r n m e n t, v on M illers c o n se rv a tiv e f rie n d s a n d asso cia te s la m e n te d his
"Ib id .. pp. 5 -7 . and a ppendix, iicms 12-29.
"Ib id ., pp. 2. 8 -9 , and appen d ix , items I I. 12. 18. and 25.
<wKristi. Der weiss-blaue Despot, pp. 185. 198; F.lehtrotechnische Zeitschrift 40 (1919): 303; ibid.
41 (1920): 277.

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S

Figure X1I.9. Tratisporting a section of

penstock to the Walchensee power plant, 5
May 1924. Courtesy o f the Deutsches
Museum, Munich.

asso c iatio n w ith it.41 T h e new g o v e r n m e n ts ab ility to act d e cisively a n d

e x p e d itio u s ly in m a tte rs c o n c e rn in g th e B a y e rn w e rk a n d W a lc h e n se e w e rk ,
h o w e v e r, w as th e c r ite rio n by w hich von M iller, th e e n g in e e r, ju d g e d it.
H e h a d s u rv iv e d y e a rs o f d e la y c a u se d in p a r t by d iv id e d m in istrie s a n d
c o n flic tin g p a r lia m e n ta r y in te re sts. A g o v e r n m e n t th a t was a b le to e x e rc ise
p o w e r in s u p p o r t o f e n g in e e r in g p ro je c ts in a tim e o f social tu rb u le n c e a n d
e c o n o m ic c o n fu s io n was a n o b v io u s ally fo r vo n M iller.
V o n M ille r n e e d e d th e a u th o r ity o f his p o sitio n as c o m m is s io n e r in o r d e r
to o rg a n iz e a n d m a n a g e th e p ro je c ts. H e w as u n w illin g to e n tr u s t th e success
o f his h ig h ly te c h n ic a l e n te r p r is e s to th e a d v ice a n d d ire c tiv e s o f p e rs o n s
h e c o n sid e re d to be u n in fo rm e d politicians, b u re a u c ra ts, a n d hastily fo rm e d
c o m m itte e s a c tin g o n th e basis o f m a jo rity ru le . H is a p o litic al a ltitu d e a n d
p o licies elicite d critic ism a n d o p p o s itio n d u r in g his first y e a r as c o m m is
sio n e r. S o m e a r g u e d th a t th e sta le c o m m issio n e r a n d th e m a n a g e r o f th e
p ro je c ts s h o u ld n o t b e th e s a m e p e rs o n ; fo r e c o n o m ic a n d a e sth e tic re a so n s,
o th e r s p r o p o s e d d if f e r e n t r o u te s f o r th e tra n sm issio n lines; still o th e rs
b e liev e d vo n M ille r was to o c a u tio u s a n d e x tr a v a g a n t in th e m e a s u re s h e
to o k to e n s u r e th e relia b ility o f th e s ystem a n d th e la rg e g e n e r a tin g c ap a city
o f th e B a y e rn w e rk . A t th e s a m e tim e, th e r e w ere d ir e p re d ic tio n s o f fa ilu re
fo r th e c o m p le x p ro je c t. T h e r e w e re also th o se w ho b e lie v ed von M iller
was a c tin g w ith o u t a d e q u a te p ro fe ssio n a l c o n s u lta tio n a n d ad v ic e fro m
o th e r s .42
11 Kristi. Der weiss-lilaue Despot, p. 184; W. von Miller, Oskar von Miller, p. 94.
'IJ T o explain his policies, von Miller wrote a lengthy letter on 18 Novem ber 1919 to Minister
o f I n terio r Fritz lindrcs. T h e letter includes a sum m ary history of the two projects. It is quoted
at length in Kristi, Der weiss-btaue Despot, pp. l9.r>-99; see especially, pp. 195-96.

348

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

In von M ille r's o p in io n , m u c h o f th e c riticism w as u n in f o r m e d o r r e p
r e s e n te d th e view s o f p e r s o n s w ith spe cial in te r e s u . T o th o se w h o th o u g h t
him u n re s p o n s iv e to su g g e stio n s, h e p o in te d o u t th a t h e o f te n co n su lte d
tw o d is tin g u is h e d e le c tric a l e n g in e e r s , P ro fe sso rs H . P rin z a n d W a ld e m a r
P e te rso n . H e a s s u r e d th o s e w h o s u p p o r te d h im th a t fo rty y ears o f p r e s id in g
o v e r in n o v a tio n s h a d ta u g h t h im th a t d o u b u a n d c riticism w e re in e v itab le,
b u t th a t th e y u su a lly p ro v e d to b e e x a g g e r a te d . H e h a d fo u n d th a t, al
th o u g h u n f o r e s e e n d iffic u ltie s u su a lly a ro s e , th e e x p e rie n c e d in n o v a to r
g e n e ra lly re s p o n d e d r e s o u rc e fu lly .43 H e s h o u ld h a v e a d d e d th a t a n e n tr e
p r e n e u r w ith h is c o m m itm e n t a n d d o g g e d p e r s e v e ra n c e o fte n o u tla s te d an
o p p o s itio n th a t w as n o t w on o v e r by p e rs u a s io n o r o v e rw h e lm e d by m o
m e n tu m .
By th e e n d o f 1919, h o w e v e r, h a ra s s e d by h is o p p o n e n u a n d w itnessing
th e e ro s io n o f his a u th o rity , v on M iller was r e a d y to re sig n . H e d id n o t do
so, h o w e v e r, b e fo re c a llin g to th e g o v e r n m e n ts a tte n tio n his a c h ie v e m e n u
in th e face o f m a n ifo ld d iffic u ltie s. H e h a d e n g a g e d in m o n th -lo n g n e
g o tia tio n s o v e r c o n tr a c ts a n d ta r if fs ; b r o u g h t a b o u t a g re e m e n ts a m o n g such
d iv e rse in te r e s ts in e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r as th e sta te , cities, ru r a l g ov
e r n m e n ta l a u th o r itie s , a n d p riv a te e n te r p r is e ; a n d h e h a d m a in ta in e d the
s u p p o r t o f th e le g isla tu re . H e in fo rm e d th e m in is te r o f in te r io r th a t w ith o u t
p o w e r c o m m e n s u ra te w ith his re sp o n sib ility , h e w o u ld h av e to c o n sid e r
re s ig n a tio n .44
V o n M iller d id n o t re sig n p re c ip ita te ly . H e h e ld o n to his p o sitio n as
c o n s tru c tio n o n b o th p ro je c ts p ro g re s s e d , b u t in th e s p r in g o f 1921 h e
finally r e s ig n e d as sta te c o m m issio n e r. A n im m e d ia te c a u se fo r h is w ith
d ra w a l w as th e fa ilu re o f th e g o v e r n m e n t to s u p p o r t his p o sitio n in a
d is a g r e e m e n t w ith a c o n s o r tiu m o f B a v a ria n cities a n d se v e ra l la rg e p o w e r
utilitie s. R e p r e s e n tin g u r b a n , as c o n tra s te d to sta te , g o v e r n m e n t, th e c o n
s o rtiu m w a n te d th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk to b e a p a rt o f th e m ix e d -o w n e rs h ip
B a y e rn w e rk in ste a d o f b e in g p u re ly sta te o w n e d a n d c o n tr o lle d , as von
M iller h a d p la n n e d . V on M ille r c o u n te r e d by p ro p o s in g th a t th e B a y e rn
w erk , like th e W a lc h e n sc e w e rk , be solely s ta te o w n e d . T h e B a v a ria n g ov
e r n m e n t c o m p ro m is e d by fo rm in g th r e e c o r p o r a tio n s fo r e lectric al s u p p ly
in B av a ria : o n e f o r th e lo w -h e a d h y d ro e le c tr ic s ta tio n s o f th e m id d le Isa r
R iv er n e a r M u n ic h , a n o th e r fo r th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk , a n d a th ir d fo r th e
B a y e rn w e rk . F u r th e r m o r e , th e g o v e rn m e n t p r o v id e d th a t th e s e c o r p o r a
tio n s c o u ld ra ise f u n d s o n th e p u b lic m a r k e t.45
W h e n th e th r e e s ta te c o rp o ra tio n s w e re fo rm e d a n d th e new o rg a n iz a
tio n a l s tr u c tu r e , w ith its e x e c u tiv e a n d a d v iso ry c o m m itte e s, b e g a n o p e r
atin g , th e p o sitio n o f Staatskomm issar b e c a m e s u p e rflu o u s . T h e g o v e rn m e n t
h o p e d lo p la c a te v o n M iller by n a m in g h im lo v a rio u s a d v iso ry c o m m itte e s
a n d a p p o in tin g h im g e n e ra l a d v is e r o n e n e rg y policy. In M arc h 1923 h e
g av e u p ev e n th is p o st, h o w e v e r, w h e n th e g o v e rn m e n t allo w e d a n o th e r
u tility , th e G ro s s k ra f lw e r k F r a n k e n A G , to d e v e lo p h y d ro e le c tric ity in d e
p e n d e n tly in th e in d u stria lly a d v a n c e d re g io n a r o u n d N iir n b e r g . T h is
a g re e m e n t re m o v e d fro m th e B a y e rn w e rk a m a r k e t f o r elec tricity th a t
45 Kristi. Der weissblaue Despot, pp. 196. 198.
Von Miller lo M inister o f In terio r Fritz Forties. 18 Novem ber 1919 (see note 42 above).
" Kristi, Der weus-blnue Despot, pp. 206-10.

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S

w o u ld h av e r e la te d w ell to th e re st o f th e system a n d c o n trib u te d to its

ec o n o m ic s tr e n g th .,|6
Y et th e B a y e rn w e rk , th o u g h lim ited in sco p e , a n d th e asso ciate d W alch e n se e w e rk w e re c o m p le te d , a n d o n 26 J a n u a r y 1924 th e B a y e rn w e rk
b e g a n tra n s m ittin g p o w e r fro m th e W a lch e n see w erk (see Fig. X II. 10). Fifty
y e ars la te r, a p p ro x im a te ly h a lf th e electricity su p p lie d by u tilities in B a v aria
o r ig in a te d in th e B a y e rn w erk .
In e sta b lish in g th e W a lc h e n se e w e rk -B a y e rn w e rk system , von M iller d is
p lay e d r e m a rk a b le c o n c e p tu a l p o w ers, tec h n ic al c o m p e te n c e , a n d o r g a n i
zatio n al ability. H e also sh o w e d by his dec isio n s a n d policies th e m a n n e r
in w hich larg e-sca le a d v a n c e d tech n o lo g y c o u ld be in tro d u c e d in to a p r i
m a rily a g r ic u ltu ra l re g io n . C h a ra c te ristic o f his a p p ro a c h was a n a w a re n e ss
o f th e u n iq u e g e o g ra p h ic a l, political, eco n o m ic , a n d social fa cto rs th a t w ere
s h a p in g th e p a r tic u la r s itu a tio n s h e e n c o u n te re d in B avaria. H is w illingness
to re s p o n d c o n v in cin g ly to B a v arian s w ho fe a re d th e d e fa c in g o f th e la n d Elektrizitalswerke E.V., Llektriulat in Bayern, 1919-1969 (Munich: VBE, 1969), pp. 1617.

350

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
s ca p e is o n e e x a m p le o f his a w a re n e ss a n d flexibility. H is u n s h a k a b le c o n
viction th a t large-scale d e v e lo p m e n t o f w a te r p o w e r a n d system atic, p la n n ed ,
re g io n a l e le c trific a tio n w e re a p p r o p r ia te a n d im p e ra tiv e fo r B a v aria m a n
ife ste d his vision a n d his a w a re n e s s o f te c h n o lo g ic a l tre n d s . N o te sh o u ld
also b e ta k e n o f th e se n se o f tim in g a n d s itu a tio n h e e x h ib ite d as h e , a
p o litical r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e o ld r e g im e , se iz ed u p o n th e w illin g n e ss o f a
ra d ic a l p o stw a r re g im e to ac t d ra m a tic a lly in a tim e o f g r e a t c h a n g e , w h en
th e fo rc e s o f tr a d itio n a n d r o u tin e w e re w eak.
V o n M ille r is r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e relativ e ly r a r e e n g in e e r w h o is able
a n d w illing to b e c o m e d e e p ly in v o lv ed in p o litic s in o r d e r to p re s id e o v e r
c o m p le x c h a n g e . H e w as a n e n g in e e r - e n tr e p r e n e u r w h o to o k p a r t in th e
p o litica l p ro c e ss th a t d e te r m in e d th e fa te o f his p ro je c ts a n d w h o to o k into
a c c o u n t a n d p r o v id e d f o r th e fin a n c in g , o rg a n iz a tio n , a n d m a n a g e m e n t of
h is p ro je c ts. F u r th e r m o r e , h e a tte m p te d to s te e r a c o u rs e th r o u g h th e rocks
a n d sh o als o f th e b u re a u c r a tic sea a n d to sail by th e c h a n g in g w in d s of
p u b lic o p in io n . In o r d e r to e x p la in th e c o m in g o f a n a d v a n c e d sy stem of
te c h n o lo g y , o n e m u s t la k e in to a c c o u n t th e ro le o f in d iv id u a ls like O sk a r
v on M iller.
In 1926, o n ly a few y e a rs a f te r th e B a v a ria n s e sta b lish e d a tra n sm issio n
g rid , th e B ritish finally e n a c te d le g isla tio n e s ta b lis h in g a g r id a n d a m o re
u n ifie d sy stem o f s u p p ly . T h is a c h ie v e m e n t, in a c o u n try w h o se electric
s u p p ly h a d lo n g b e e n p a ro c h ia l, w as m o re po litica l th a n te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d
e c o n o m ic . N o in d iv id u a l p la y e d as sa lie n t a ro le as v on M iller h a d in B av aria,
b u t th e in flu e n c e o f C h a r le s M e rz w as su b sta n tia l. T h e c o n f lu e n c e o f ev e n ts
th a t b ro u g h t th e c h a n g e in o rg a n iz a tio n o f B rita in s e le c tric su p p ly in d u s try
c an be in te r p r e te d v a rio u sly , b u t th e n ow e n d e m ic B ritish c o n c e r n a b o u t
t h e loss o f n a tio n a l p re s tig e a n d p o w e r a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n th e m a jo r
u n d e r ly in g re a s o n fo r f o rm in g a c o n se n su s to b re a k th e c r u s t o f c o n se rv
atism . T h is c o n c e rn fig u re s p ro m in e n tly in G re a t B rita in 's n a tio n a l c o n
sc io u sn ess to d a y a n d w as e x p re s s e d , if less u rg e n tly , as e a rly as th e se c o n d
h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e a n x ie ty h a s o fte n r e s u lte d in a clash
o f o p in io n a n d a p a ra ly sis o f a c tio n , b u t in 1926 th e c o n se n su s w as th a t at
th e c o re o f th e p ro b le m lay th e f a ilu re o f th e c o u n tr y to d e v e lo p th e new est
of e n e r g y te c h n o lo g ie s. As a re s u lt, B r ita in s p o liticia n s g e n e ra lly a g r e e d
n o t o n ly a b o u t th e n a tu r e oT th e p r o b le m b u t a b o u t th e re m e d y as well.
F a ilu re to e le c trify in d u s tr y a n d tr a n s p o r ta tio n in th e a g e o f e le c trific a tio n
was se e n as a r o o t c a u se o f th e c o u n try 's fa ilin g in d u s tria l s tre n g th . Lowcost e n e rg y a n d th e m o re e ffic ie n t in d u s tr y th a t w o u ld follow u p o n th e
e sta b lis h m e n t o f la rg e -a r e a e le c tric su p p ly w e re c o n s id e re d th e so lu tio n s.
T h e fact th a t th e r e o rg a n iz a tio n o f B rita in s e le c tric s u p p ly d id n o t b rin g
a d ra m a tic re c o v e ry o f n a tio n a l s tr e n g th s h o u ld n o t o b s c u re th e c o m m it
m e n t th a t w as m a d e in th e 1920s to a p ro m is in g a n d u n tr ie d s o lu tio n .
L o o k in g a h e a d to p e a c e tim e policies, B rita in 's w a rtim e p a rlia m e n ta ry
c o m m itte e s h a d stre sse d th e n e e d f o r re f o r m , b u t th e ir re c o m m e n d a tio n s ,
w h e n e m b o d ie d in th e E lectric ity S u p p ly A ct o f 1919, h a d b e e n g rea tly
w e a k e n e d by th e re m o v a l o f c o m p u ls o ry p o w e rs fo r th e ele ctric ity co m
m issio n e rs a n d th e s u b s titu tio n o f v o lu n ta ry a c tio n a n d p e r s u a s io n (see pp .
3 2 1 - 2 2 ab o v e). I f th e e c o n o m ic situ a tio n in B rita in h a d n o t d e te r io ra te d
in th e p o litical a n d la b o r u n r e s t fo llo w in g th e w ar, m o d e s t re f o r m m ig h t
h av e b e e n to le ra te d , as m o d e s t c h a n g e h a d b e e n fo r d e c a d e s. B u t th e

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
c o u n try e m e rg e d fro m th e w ar w ith a d o m e stic a n d fo re ig n d e b t ilint was
e stim a te d to be te n tim es h ig h e r th a n th a t o f 1914; coal m in e rs stru c k in
1919, d is r u p tin g th e n a tio n 's basic e n e rg y s u p p ly ; a n ti in 1921 an u n e m
p lo y m e n t fig u re o f a lm o st a m illion led to p assag e o f th e E m e rg e n c y U n
e m p lo y m e n t A ct. A fte r th e L ib era l p a rty sp lit, th e L a b o u r p a rty bec am e
fo r th e first lim e th e m a jo r o p p o sitio n p a rly , a n d in 1924 R am say M ac
D o n a ld f o rm e d th e first l a b o u r ca b in e t. T h e C o n se rv a tiv e s r e tu r n e d to
p o w e r th e sa tn e y e a r u n d e r S tan ley B aldw in, but th e y h a d to c o n te n d w ith
th e g re a t g e n e r a l s trik e o f M ay 1926. It was B ald w in s g o v e r n m e n t th at
p r e s id e d o v e r p a ssa g e o f th e E lectricity S u p p ly Act o f 1926. This act r e
o rg a n iz e d B rita in 's e le c tric s u p p ly in d u stry .
T h e g o v e rn m e n t, a n d th e e n g in e e r s a n d in d u stria lists w ho a d v ise d it,
knew th a t th e p ro b le m o f b rin g in g a b o u t c h a n g e in th e e le c tric su p p ly
system was p rim a rily political. O n e o f B rita in 's le a d in g c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs
a n d a d v ise rs to th e g o v e rn m e n t o n th e re o rg a n iz a tio n o f e le c tric s u p p ly .
J. M. K e n n e d y , said th a t th e p la n n e d c h a n g e d o e s n ot c o n te m p la te th e
a d o p tio n o f a n y policy as re g a r d s g e n e ra tin g s ta tio n c o n s tru c tio n o r in te r
co n n e c tio n w hich has not b e e n in succ essfu l o p e r a tio n e ith e r in th is o r in
o th e r c o u n tr ie s .'17 By th e m id -1 9 2 0 s, th e in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity o f e le c
trical m a n u fa c tu re rs , e n g in e e r in g societies, a n d le a d in g in d iv id u a l e n g i
n e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs was so closely knit by p u b lic a tio n a n d p e rs o n a l c o m
m u n ic a tio n n e tw o rk s th a t th e p la n n e r s c o u ld a ssu m e th e av a ilability o f a
pool o f te c h n o lo g ie s fro m w hich to d ra w .
T o o rg a n iz e a c o m m u n ity o f c o m m o n in te re st in P a rlia m e n t was m o re
d iffic u lt. T h e m a jo r c irc u m sta n c e s fa v o rin g a d o p tio n a n d im p le m e n ta tio n
o f g o v e r n m e n t- s p o n s o re d re o rg a n iz a tio n was th e p re s e n c e o f a C o n s e rv
ative g o v e rn m e n t th a t fa v o re d it a n d a L a b o u r o p p o sitio n th a t s u p p o r te d
it as well. T h e C o n se rv a tiv e c o m m itm e n t was c o n d itio n e d by th e w idely
h e ld b e lie f th a t re o rg a n iz a tio n o f a le a d in g se c to r o f th e in d u s tria l eco n o m y
w o u ld e n h a n c e B r ita in s p o w e r elec tric , in d u s tria l, a n d in te r n a tio n a l. The
F e d e ra tio n o f B ritish In d u s trie s , w hich re p re s e n te d a b ro a d s a m p lin g o f
p riv a te e n te r p r is e , d e s e rte d th e rig id sta n ce o f o p p o sitio n to g o v e r n m e n t
in v o lv e m e n t in th e in d u s tria l e c o n o m y a n d se ttle d fo r to k e n a m e n d m e n ts
to th e e v e n tu a l elec tricity bill. A fte r initial re sista n ce , th e In s titu tio n o f
E lectrical E n g in e e r s also s u p p o r te d th e bill. T h e p u blicity given th e v ario u s
re p o rts o f p a rlia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e s in p o p u la r j o u r n a ls e m p h a siz e d th e
p ro m is e o f a la b o r-sa v in g e le ctric a g e a n d m a rsh a le d p u b lic s u p p o rt fo r
th e m e a su re s. T h e p re d ic tio n o f e n g in e e rs th a t th e re o rg a n iz a tio n w ould
re su lt in im m e n se e n e rg y sa vings fo r th e n a tio n a n d re s to re its in d u stria l
s tre n g th also in flu e n c e d p u b lic o p in io n ." The c o m m itte e r e p o rt o n w hich
th e 1926 ac t w as b ase d in c lu d e d , fo r e x a m p le , a tab le sh o w in g in sim p lifie d
fo rm th e c o n s u m p tio n p e r h e a d o f p o p u la tio n o f e le ctricity in v a rio u s
re g io n s o f t h e w o rld . G re a t B rita in fell a t th e e n d o f a list o f re g io n s, cities,
a n d c o u n tr ie s h e a d e d by C a lifo rn ia , C h ica g o , a n d C a n a d a a n d in c lu d in g

"J. M. K ennedy. lieport on the Operations of the Proposed Central Electricity Board, prepared
Tor the Ministry o r T ran sp o rt (June 1926). p. 8; copy in the Electricity Council Archives,
L ondon.
i" Leslie H annah, Electricity Before Nationalisation (Baltim ore: T h e Johns H opkins University
Press. 1979). pp. 96-97.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

T a s m a n ia , S h a n g h a i, a n d S y d n e y . F o rm e r c o lo n ie s a n d sm all c o u n trie s
se e m e d f a r b e lte r p r e p a r e d f o r th e e lectric al a g e th a n th e n a tio n th a t h a d
o n c e b e e n th e w o rld s u n d is p u te d in d u s tria l p o w e r. T h e a d v a n ta g e e n jo y e d
in sev era l o f th e s e re g io n s b e c a u se o f a b u n d a n t h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r was
n o t s tre s s e d .49
P rim e M in iste r B ald w in d e d ic a te d his e n e r g ie s to o r g a n iz in g s u p p o r t fo r
th e r e o r g a n iz a tio n p la n in P a rlia m e n t. H e c o u ld c o u n t o n L a b o u r s u p p o r t
b e c a u se m a n y o f th e L a b o u r ite s saw th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f re g io n a l s u p p ly
as a s te p to w a rd e v e n tu a l n a tio n a liz a tio n o f ele c tric s u p p ly . B ald w in n a m e d
L o rd W e ir o f E a stw o o d c h a ir m a n o f a c o m m itte e to c o n s id e r th e n a tio n a l
p ro b le m o f e le c tric s u p p ly a n d to re c o m m e n d leg isla tio n . W e ir, a p ro m in e n t
Scot in d u s tr ia lis t a n d h e a d o f a S co ttish e n g in e e r in g c o m p a n y , h a d m a d e
a n a m e fo r h im s e lf d u r in g W o rld W a r I as d ir e c to r g e n e ra l o f a irc ra ft
p ro d u c tio n a n d th e n as s e c re ta ry o f sta te fo r a ir. H e m a d e it c le a r th a t he
b e liev e d th e e le c tric s u p p ly in d u s try w as in n e e d o f r e o rg a n iz a tio n , a n d he
p r o m is e d to fo r m a c o m m itte e th a t w o u ld b e sm all a n d sp e e d y a n d th a t
w o u ld r e p o r t in fa v o r o f a new e le c tric a l e n e rg y policy in v o lv in g in its
a p p lic a tio n c o u ra g e a n d possibly a c o n s id e ra b le fin a n c ia l in v e s tm e n t.50
K n o w le d g e a b le a b o u t c o m m itte e te m p o r iz in g , W e ir a lso to ld B a ld w in th a t
h e s h o u ld n o t e x p e c t a r e p o r t th a t sim p ly f u r th e r e d d e v e lo p m e n t alo n g
e x istin g lines.
W h e n th e W e ir r e p o r t w as re le a se d in 1926, it se rv e d as th e d o c u m e n t
o f re f e r e n c e fo r r e fo rm a d v o c a te s. T h e c o n d itio n o f e le c tric s u p p ly in
B rita in was d e s c rib e d as ve ry d is q u ie tin g . B u t th e r e w as a re m e d y
in te rc o n n e c tio n n o t o n ly fo r th e la rg e a r e a s id e n tif ie d by th e legislatio n
o f 1919, b u t fo r th e a re a s b e tw e e n th e m ; in te r c o n n e c tio n w o u ld c re a te a
n a tio n a l sy stem . T h e W e ir c o m m itte e d is c o u n te d th e c o u n tr y s lack o f h y
d ro e le c tric ity sites a t a lim e w h e n w a te r p o w e r w as b e in g ra p id ly e x p lo ite d
a n d w idely c e le b ra te d th r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e w o rld , b e c a u se , it v e n tu re d ,
B rita in c o u ld e x p lo it coal, h a d th e a d v a n ta g e o f a h ig h level o f u rb a n iz a tio n ,
a n d h a d in close p ro x im ity in d u s tria l lo a d c e n te rs . G r e a t B rita in , W e irs
c o m m itte e re a s o n e d , "is in m a n y re s p e c ts an id e al e lectric al a re a , a n d is fa r
m o re co m p a ct th a n o th e r c o u n trie s.51 C o m m e n tin g u p o n th e re p o rt, C h a rles
M erz sa id , n o n p e jo ra tiv e ly , th a t B rita in 's g rid w o u ld b e m o re like a h ig h vo lta g e d is trib u tio n sy ste m th a n a tra n s m is s io n sy stem . H e w as u sin g th e
d istin c tio n c o m m o n ly m a d e b e tw e e n lo n g -d ista n c e tra n sm issio n a n d s h o rtd ista n c e d is trib u tio n . A s h e h a d said e a rlie r,
Proceeding on these lines [high-voltage distribution for the com pact industrial
districts o f England] we shall not be merely copying A merica o r G erm anywe
shall be doing som ething that is right for E ngland because it is England, because
England is radically different from o th e r countries as regards the technical
developm ent and layout necessary to secure cheap p ow er.^

w G reat B ritain, Ministry o f T ransp o rt, Report of the Committee Appointed to Review the National
Problem of the Supply o f Electrical Energy (L ondon: MMSO, 1926), p. 6. T h e com m ittee was
h eaded by Lord W eir o f Eastwood. H erea fter cited as the W eir Report.
W eir to W ilfred Ashley, I Decem ber 1924, quoted in H annah, Electricity Before Nation
alisation, p. 90.
81 Ministry o f T ran sp o rt, Review of the Supply o f Electrical Energy, p. 8.
M Charles H. Mcrz, "Electrical Power Distribution," Engineerine 102 (1916): 262-63.

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
In s u g g e stin g th a t a p r o u d n a tio n c o u ld m o v e fro m a b a c k w a rd sta tu s to
a n a d v a n c e d o n e w ith o u t sim p ly fo llo w in g th e le a d e rs, M erz e x h ib ite d
p sy c h ological a cuity.
T h e G rid w as th e esse n c e o f th e te c h n o lo g y p ro p o s e d by th e W e ir c o m
m itte e a n d its c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s . C h a rle s M erz ga v e th e new system this
n a m e a f te r o b s e rv in g th a t th e n e tw o rk o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lines
th a t w o u ld crisscro ss th e c o u n try s id e lo o k th e s h a p e o f a g r e a t g rid ir o n
im p o se d u p o n a m a p o f th e c o u n try . T h e g rid ir o n o f tra n sm issio n lines
w as to in te r c o n n e c t se le c te d s ta tio n s a n d to c o n n e c t w ith e x istin g a n d f u tu r e
d is trib u tio n system s. T h e G rid was p re s e n te d to th e p u b lic as a n a tio n a l
sy stem , b u t in fact it w as first o rg a n iz e d as a n u m b e r o f re g io n a l tr a n s
m ission sy stem s w ith, b e tw e e n th e system s, rela tiv ely sm all c o u p lin g tr a n s
m ission lin e s w h o se c e n tra l c o n tro ls w ere lo cated in re g io n a l h e a d q u a r te r s .
T h e b e n e fits th a t w e re e x p e c te d to a c c ru e w ere k n o w n in in d u s tr ia l
re g io n s o f th e w o rld w h e re la rg e -a re a su p p ly a lre a d y e x iste d . T h e W eir
c o m m itte e r e p o r t, w hich w as w ritte n fo r m e m b e rs o f P a rlia m e n t a n d fo r
in te r e s te d p e rs o n s w h o la ck e d tec h n ic a l tra in in g , s u m m a riz e d th e te ch n ica l
c o n s id e ra tio n s a s follow s: g e n e r a tio n in la rg e sta tio n s, f a v o u ra b ly s itu a te d
as re g a r d s fu el, w a te r a n d lo a d w ith u n its o f c o m p a ra tiv e ly la rg e ca p ac ity ;
th e m in im u m le g itim a te a m o u n t o f sta n d -b y p la n t; a n d th e h ig h e st o b
ta in a b le lo ad fa c to r, to s e c u re w hich s ta tio n s sh o u ld be in te r -c o n n e c te d w ith
o n e a n o th e r ." 53 A c c o rd in g to th e re p o r t, th e e x istin g lo a d fa c to r in B rita in
w as u n r e a s o n a b ly low . T h e ju x ta p o s itio n o f lo a d fa c to r a n d n a tio n a l
stre n g th sh o w e d th a t B rita in was n o lo n g e r in th e e ra o f J a m e s W a tt; it
h a d e n te r e d th e e r a o f C h a rle s M erz.
M erz w as a p rin c ip a l a d v is e r to th e W e ir c o m m itte e ; th e p ro m in e n c e
g iven in th e r e p o r t to th e te stim o n y o f S a m u e l In su ll, h e a d o f th e C h ica g o
e n te r p r is e C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n , w as n o t a n tic ip a te d . In su ll was cited
sev era l tim e s as a (if n o t th e ) le a d in g a u th o rity o n elec tric s u p p ly . L o rd
W e ir c h a ra c te riz e d h im as th e g r e a te s t a u th o r ity o n e le c tric ity .5,4 In su ll's
n a m e , p ro m in e n tly fe a tu r e d in th e r e p o r t, p ro v id e s a r e m in d e r th a t B rita in
w as lo o k in g to A m e ric a fo r te c h n o lo g ic a l le a d e rs h ip a n d th a t In su ll was an
u n u su a lly a rtic u la te , if s o m e tim e s co llo q u ial, sp o k e sm a n fo r th e c o n c e p ts
o f th e e lec trica l e ra . It sh o u ld a lso be rec a lle d th a t M erz a n d In su ll w ere
p e rs o n a l f r ie n d s a n d p ro fe ssio n a l associates w h o se ties c o n s titu te d a tech n o lo g y - tra n s fe r b rid g e . T h e W e ir r e p o r t q u o te s In s u lls s trik in g s ta te m e n t"
th a t th e o n ly lim it to th e a m o u n t o f b u sin ess [electric su p p ly ] . . . if th e
p r o p e r a m o u n t o f b ra in s is d e v o te d to th e e n g in e e rin g o f se lling th e e n
er g y , is th e a m o u n t o f cap ita l in v este d . In su ll h a d also to ld th e c o m m itte e
th a t a n y m a n w h o re fu se s it (in te rc o n n e c tio n ) a n d I will n o t e x c lu d e
E n g la n d d o e s n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e fu n d a m e n ta l ec o n o m ie s o f th e b u si
n e ss." 55 T h e B ritish in 1926 w e re n o t a v erse to le a r n in g th e b u sin ess o f
elec trica l te c h n o lo g y f ro m th e ir A m e ric a n co u sin s, a n d In su ll was e a sie r to
a c c e p t as a n a d v ise r b e c au se h e was B ritish -b o rn . T he fact th a t C h a rle s
M erz h a d o fte n se rv e d as a c o n s u lta n t to In su ll also b o o sted n a tio n a l p rid e .
W eir Report, p. 7.
M W cir to W ilfred Ashby, M.P., Weir C orrespondence (9/1). Churchill College Archive*.
C am bridge, England.
W eir Report, pp. 5 and 8.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
T h e E lec tricity S u p p ly A ct o f 1926, w h ich in c o rp o r a te d th e re c o m m e n
d a tio n s o f th e W e ir c o m m itte e a n d its te c h n ic a l ad v ise rs, re c e iv e d th e royal
a sse n t o n 15 D e c e m b e r 1926. T h e leg isla tio n p ro v id e d fo r th e c re a tio n of
a C e n tr a l E lec tricity B o a rd (C E B ) w ith e x e c u tiv e p o w e rs to c o n s tr u c t a n d
o p e r a te th e G rid . T h e e le c tric ity c o m m issio n e rs h a d a lre a d y b e g u n p la n
n in g a n d w e re to se rv e as ju r id ic a l a d v ise rs to th e C e n tra l E le ctricity B o a rd
in te c h n ic a l m a tte rs . T h e b o a rd c o n c e p t was m o r e o rig in a l th a n th e te c h
nical a sp e c ts o f th e G rid . A p u b lic c o rp o r a tio n th a t w as ab le to ra ise its ow n
f u n d s , th e C E B w as o r g a n iz e d a n d a d m in is te re d by g o v e r n m e n t-s a la rie d
m a n a g e r s a n d e n g in e e rs w h o w e re n o t p a r t o f t h e civil serv ice . T h e salaries
o f its le a d in g p e rs o n n e l w e re h ig h e r th a n th o se o f p e rs o n s w ith c o m p a ra b le
e x p e rie n c e a n d re sp o n sib ility in th e civil serv ice . T h e C E B w as e lig ib le for
fin a n c ia l g u a r a n te e s fr o m th e T r e a s u r y to aid it in ra is in g fu n d s , b u t these
c a m e fr o m th e sa le o f in te r e s t-b e a r in g , n o n v o lin g slock to th e p u b lic . T h e
C E B n e v e r u se d th e fin an cial g u a r a n te e , b u t ra is e d m o n e y e n tire ly o n its
o w n c re d it. T h e c h a irm a n a n d e ig h t b o a rd m e m b e r s w e re n a m e d by the
m in is te r o f tr a n s p o r t a n d w e re s u b je c t to d ism issal (also by th e m in is te r of
tr a n s p o r t) o n ly if a b s e n t fro m th e ir d u tie s f o r six m o n th s o r m o re . T h e ir
te r m s r a n g e d fro m five to te n ye ars. A s a c o r p o r a te b o d y , th e b o a rd ha d
th e s ta tu s o f a n a u th o r iz e d e le ctric al u n d e r ta k in g (u tility ) w h ic h o w n e d a n d
o p e r a te d th e G rid o n b e h a lf o f th e g o v e r n m e n t.5fi C o n se rv a tiv e s w e re s a t
isfied b e c a u se th e C E B w as n o t a n a tio n a liz e d a u th o r ity o r g o v e rn m e n t
d e p a r tm e n t, b u t a n o rg a n iz a tio n m a n a g e d by p ra c tic a l" m e n w h o w ere in
close to u c h w ith in d u s tr y . A lth o u g h th e c o n c e p t w as o rig in a l in m a n y r e
sp ec ts, it w as n o t as o rig in a l as so m e o f its p ro p o n e n ts a n d so m e h isto ria n s
b e liev e d . T h e p u b lic - c o rp o r a lio n c o n c e p t h a d b e e n e m b o d ie d in th e o r
g a n iz a tio n o f th e B a y e rn w e rk in B a v aria a n d in th e th e o ry o f G ia n t P ow er
d e f in e d by G o v e rn o r P in c h o t a n d M o rris C o o k e in P e n n sy lv a n ia (see p p .
3 3 4 - 5 0 a n d 2 9 7 - 3 1 2 a b ove).
In e ffe c t, th e c h a irm a n o f th e C E B b e c a m e th e m a n a g in g d ir e c to r o f th e
G rid . H is was th e o n ly fu ll-tim e p o sitio n o n th e b o a rd . T h e m in is te r o f
tr a n s p o r t c h o se as c h a ir m a n S ir A n d re w D u n c a n , a Scot a n d a m e m b e r o f
a firm o f in d u s tria l law yers. D u n c a n h a d a ttr a c te d p u b lic a tte n tio n as a
sk illed n e g o tia to r w h o w as k n ig h te d a f te r re so lv in g th e c oal d is p u te o f 1920.
F o rty -tw o y e ars o ld in 1926, D u n c a n h a d a r e p u ta tio n fo r C eltic c h a rm ,
ta ct, a n d p a tie n c e .57 F o r th e c h a irm a n o f th e C E B , th e se q u a litie s p ro v e d
m o re im p o r ta n t th a n in tim a te k n o w le d g e o f th e te c h n o lo g y o f la rg e -a re a
su p p ly . D u n c a n c h o se A rc h ib a ld P a g e as th e c h ie f e n g in e e r a n d g e n e ra l
m a n a g e r fo r th e C E B . P ag e h a d b e e n a n e le c tric ity c o m m is s io n e r b e fo r e
leav in g th a t p o st to b e c o m e g e n e ra l m a n a g e r o f th e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n
P o w er C o m p a n y , w h ich w as o r g a n iz e d to s u p p ly th e utilitie s o f e ast L o n d o n .
T w o s e n io r e n g in e e r s w e re n a m e d to assist h im : H a ro ld H o b so n , w h o h a d
w o rk e d f o r M e rz & M cL ellan ; a n d J o h n s to n e W rig h t, w h o h a d tra in e d
w ith th e N ew c astle u p o n T y n e E le ctric S u p p ly C o m p a n y (N E S C O ). T h e s e
th r e e e n g in e e r s re m a in e d w ith th e C E B u n til th e m id -1 9 4 0 s, a n d e ach
M G reat Britain. Ministry o f T rans|>ort, Memorandum on the Electricity (Supply) Bill, 1926 (16
Sc 17 G eo. 5. ch. 5 1) (L ondon: I1MSO, 1926). pp. 14; I l;inn;ih, Electncity Before Nationalisation.
pp. 100-101.
H annah, Electricity Before Nationalisation, p. 102.

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PL A N N E D SY STEM S
se rv e d a te r m as c h a irm a n . C h a rle s M erz h a d b e e n a likely c a n d id a te to
h e a d th e C E B , b u t h e w as c o n s id e r e d to o close to c o m m e rc ia l in te re s ts in
th e in d u s try , a n d J o h n S n ell, tec h n ic a l e x p e r t a n d h e a d o f th e e le c tric ity
c o m m issio n e rs, w a n te d to a d m in is te r th e G rid , b u t h e w as c o n s id e re d n o t
ta c tfu l e n o u g h as a n e g o tia to r. A c c o rd in g to his o w n te stim o n y , S a m u e l
In su ll h a d b e e n a sk e d by th e p rim e m in is te r to h e a d th e C E B , b u t h a d
r e f u s e d .50
T h e le g isla tio n p r o v id in g P ag e a n d his asso ciates w ith th e a u th o r ity to
re o rg a n iz e th e n a tio n 's e le c tric s u p p ly in d u s try re su lte d fro m in n o v a tio n s
in tro d u c e d by a c o m m itte e r e p r e s e n tin g m a n ifo ld in te re s ts . T h e te c h n o
logical a n d o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a n g e s b r o u g h t fo rth by th e 1926 a ct w e re
co m p le x a n d m a d e p a lp a b le th e m u ltitu d e o f p riv a te a n d c o r p o r a te in te r
ests r e p r e s e n te d in P a rlia m e n t. F u r th e r m o r e , n o t all o f th e s u b tle tie s o f
c o n c e rn co u ld b e m a d e e x p lic it in th e legislatio n a n d th e p ro c e d u re s d e riv e d
fro m it. T h e r e f o r e , j u d g m e n t a n d p olitical skill h a d to b e u se d to b r in g
a b o u t th e in te n d e d c h a n g e s.
T h e C e n tra ] E le ctric ity B o a rd , th e e le ctricity c o m m issio n e rs, a n d th e
a d v iso ry c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm s av o id e d th e te m p ta tio n o f a ssu m in g
th a t te c h n ic a l e x p e rtis e c o u ld solve th e p ro b le m s. T h e y re a liz e d th a t d e
cisions, in c o n tra s t to so lu tio n s to p ro b le m s, w e re n e e d e d ; o n e b est a n sw e r
was n o t to b e f o u n d . T h e ir a u th o rity , th e y also wisely a c k n o w le d g e d , was
lim ite d . P a g e, a n e x p e rie n c e d n e g o tia to r, u n d e rs to o d th a t p e rsu a siv e skill
was o f th e e sse n c e , f o r th e d e c isio n s th e b o a rd m e m b e rs h a d to m a k e
r e q u ir e d th a t th e y v e n tu r e b ey o n d th e lim its o f th e ir d e fin e d p o w e rs. In
sh o rt, P a g e a n d h is a sso c iates h a d to fu n c tio n as politic ian s as well as e n
g in e e rs.
T y p ic a l o f th e c h a lle n g e s th e b o a rd fa ce d a n d th e political tactics it e m
p lo y ed w e re th e d e c isio n s m a d e a b o u t " se le c te d statio n s. T h e law p ro v id e d
th a t, w ith th e a d v ic e o f th e elec tricity c o m m issio n e rs, th e C E B sh o u ld select
th e p o w e r sta tio n s to in c lu d e in th e G rid . Q u a n tita tiv e g u id e lin e s w e re to
b e a p p lie d . I f a n o p e r a tin g p o w e r s ta tio n g e n e ra te d elec tricity at a cost
g r e a te r th a n w h a t it w o u ld co st to p u r c h a s e p o w e r fro m th e G rid , this
s ta tio n w as n o t s e le c te d . T h e e stim a te d cost o f s u p p ly fro m th e p o w e r
s ta tio n was c a lc u la te d w ith o u t in c lu d in g ca p ita l costs, fo r th e se w e re s u n k ,
o r n o t s u b je c t to c h a n g e . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e c o m p a ra tiv e cost o f
elec tricity s u p p lie d fro m th e G rid in c lu d e d c ap ita l costs su ch as e x p e n d i
tu re s to b e m a d e in c o n s tru c tin g th e G rid . T h is fo rm u la fo r c a lc u la tio n ,
w hich in v o lv ed m o re c o m p le x itie s th a n th o se n o te d , m e a n t th a t th e o p
e ra tin g costs o f e x istin g sta tio n s w ere to b e c o m p a r e d to th e o p e r a lin g p lu s-c a p ita l costs o f th e G rid . T h e a p p ro a c h was c o m p re h e n s ib le . T h e
ele c tric s u p p ly in d u s try h a d g ro w n ra p id ly th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld b e ca u se
th e o p e ra lin g -p lu s -c a p ita l costs o f new tec h n o lo g y o fte n w e re less th a n th e
o p e r a tin g costs o f o ld te c h n o lo g y . F o r this re a so n , o ld p la n ts c o u ld o fte n
b e a b a n d o n e d b e fo re b e in g a m o rtiz e d .
P ag e a n d his a ssociates u n d e r s to o d , h o w e v er, th a t th e c ost c a lcu latio n s
failed to la k e in to a c c o u n t n o t o n ly a n u m b e r o f e c o n o m ic variab les b u t
n o n e c o n o m ic s u b sta n tiv e c o n sid e ra tio n s as well. P ow er s ta tio n o w n e rs in
siste d , fo r in sta n c e , th a t th ey in te n d e d to in tro d u c e te c h n o lo g y th a t w ould
58 F orresl M cDonald. Insull (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press. 1962). p. 276.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
d ra m a tic a lly lo w e r th e ir costs. In a d d itio n , th e o p e r a tin g a n d c a p ita l costs
o f t h e G rid w e re d e p e n d e n t u p o n u n p re d ic ta b le v a ria tio n s in m a te ria l a n d
la b o r p ric es. J u s t as im p o r ta n t w e re th e n o n e c o n o m ic fa c to rs th a t th e cal
c u la tio n s ig n o re d , b u t th a t P ag e , th e p o litic ia n , co u ld n o t. A m o n g th e se
was th e p r id e th e m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e rs a n d p riv a te a n d m u n ic ip a l o w n
e rs o f p o w e r p la n ts to o k in th e ir o r g a n iz a tio n s a n d tec h n o lo g y a n d in th e
a u th o rity th e y h e ld . T h is , as h a s b e e n se e n , w as a c o n s titu e n t o f p a r o c h i
alism . B e c a u se o f v e ste d in te re s ts , th e n , th e b o a rd se le c te d m o re sta tio n s
th a n th e W e ir c o m m itte e re c o m m e n d e d . T h e r e p o r t c alled fo r th e n u m b e r
o f se le c te d s ta tio n s to b e lim ite d to 6 0 ; th e ele c tric ity c o m m issio n e rs
id e n tif ie d 118; a n d th e C e n tra l E le ctric ity B o a rd d e s ig n a te d 140.59
As d e f in e d in th e E le ctric ity S u p p ly A ct o f 1926, th e r e la tio n s h ip b etw e e n
th e new C e n tra l E lectric ity B o a rd a n d its p re d e c e s s o rs , th e ele ctric ity c o m
m issio n e rs, w as c o m p le x a n d le ft m u c h to in te r p r e ta tio n a n d th e g u id e lin e s
o f e x p e rie n c e . T h e act ga v e th e e le c tric ity c o m m issio n e rs re sp o n sib ility fo r
in a u g u r a tin g p la n n in g fo r th e G rid b e c a u se th e y h a d h a d th e e x p e rie n c e
u n d e r th e a ct o f 1919 o f e n c o u r a g in g re g io n a l sc h e m e s. U ltim a te r e s p o n
sibility fo r o w n in g a n d o p e r a tin g th e G r id , h o w e v e r, w o u ld b e lo d g e d w ith
th e C E B . D u r in g p la n n in g a n d c o n s tru c tio n b o th th e e le ctric ity c o m m is
s io n e rs a n d th e C E B w o u ld h av e th e a u th o r ity to re ta in c o n s u ltin g e n g i
n e e rs . B rita in 's le a d in g c o n s u ltin g firm s M e rz 8c M cL e llan , K e n n e d y 8c
D o n k in , a n d H ig h fie ld 8c R o g e r S m ith w e re re ta in e d to ad v ise th e b o a rd
o n s u c h m a tte rs a s th e r o u tin g o f h ig h -v o lta g e lin e s a n d th e se le c tio n o f
p o w e r sta tio n s. A f te r th e G rid b e g a n o p e r a tin g , th e c o m m issio n e rs c o n tin
u e d to f u n c tio n as th e b o a r d s te c h n ic a l a d v ise rs a n d as a q u a si-ju rid ic a l
b o d y h e a r in g a p p e a ls fro m utilitie s a b o u t d e c isio n s o f th e C E B a n d o p
e ra tio n s o f th e G rid . T h e e le c tric ity c o m m issio n e rs, u n d e r th e g e n e ra l
d ire c tio n o f th e M in istry o f T r a n s p o r t, re m a in e d th e r e g u la to ry a u th o rity
f o r s u p p ly c o m p a n ie s , o r utilities, so th e C E B , as an a u th o riz e d s u p p lie r
o w n in g a n d o p e r a tin g th e G r id , w as su b je c t to th e c o m m is s io n e rs r e g u
la to ry d e c isio n s.90
A s is e x p e c te d in s itu a tio n s w h e re c o m p le x itie s, p r e s e n t a n d f u tu r e , d e fy
th e la y in g d o w n o f ru le s a n d p r o c e d u r e s , co n flic ts a ro s e b e tw e e n th e co m
m issio n e rs a n d th e b o a rd . L eslie H a n n a h , th e h is to ria n o f e lec tric s u p p ly
in B rita in , c o n c lu d e s th a t " th e r e w as ra re ly a n y g r e a t w a r m th in th e re la tio n s
b e tw e e n th e tw o b o d ie s [b o a rd a n d c o m m is s io n e rs ] ." 61 T h e e le ctric ity c o m
m issio n e rs, h e a d e d by th e e n g in e e r S ir J o h n S n ell, p r e f e r r e d te ch n ica lly
n e a t so lu tio n s; th e C E B o p te d f o r c h o ice s th a t w e re m o re h eavily w eig h ted
by relatively im p re cise ec o n o m ic c o n sid e ra tio n s a n d in flu e n c e d by th e vested
in te r e s ts w h o se c o o p e ra tio n w as so u g h t. Snell also h a d d if fe re n c e s w ith
H an n ah , Electricity Before Nationalisation, pp. 112-13.
0,1 An excellent analysis o f the functioning o f the C.EB and the commissioners is found in
a rep o rt Merz 8c McLcllan p rep a re d for C onsolidated Edison Co. o f New York. Report on
Electric Service in New York, London, Paris, and Berlin (L ondon: Merz 8c McLellan. 1937); I am
grateful to D orothy Ellison for calling this rep o rt to my attention. T h e plan for the G rid that
Merz 8c McLellan p rep a re d for the Ministry o f T ran sp o rt was entitled National Electricity
Supply: Technical Scheme (May 1926); J. M. K ennedys rep o rt for the same ministry was entitled
Report on the Operations o f the Proposed Central Electricity Board (June 1926); copies o f both are
in the Electricity Council Archives, London.
01 H annah, Electricity Before Nationalisation, p. 108.

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P L A N N E D SY STEM S
C h a rle s M erz. B o th m e n en jo y e d s u b sta n tia l p re s tig e in e n g in e e rin g circles,
so th e ir d iffe r e n c e s w ere n o t easily re so lv e d . S nell h a d se rv e d w ith d is
tin c tio n as a n e n g in e e r a f te r c o m p le tin g his stu d ie s a t K in g s C o lleg e , L o n
d o n . W h ile M e rz w as m a k in g his n a m e as a n a d v ise r to a n d d ir e c to r o f th e
p riv a te ly o w n e d N E S C O , S nell w as m a k in g his as a n e n g in e e r fo r m u n ic
ipally o w n e d utilitie s, in c lu d in g o n e o n th e n o rth e a s t c oast o f E n g la n d th a t
re m a in e d in d e p e n d e n t o f th e N E S C O n e tw o rk . Snell, h o w e v e r, s h u n n e d
th e p a ro c h ia l a tta c h m e n ts th a t fo s te re d sm all-scale s u p p ly a n d a d v o c a te d
la rg e -sc a le o p e ra tio n s fo r m u n ic ip a lly o w n e d u tilities.
T h e d if fe re n c e s b e tw e e n M e rz a n d Snell c a m e to a h e a d a f te r M erz s
co n s u ltin g firm a c c e p te d th e a ssig n m e n t fro m th e M in istry o f T r a n s p o r t
to a d v ise th e c o m m issio n e rs in in itia tin g p la n n in g fo r th e G rid . M erz 8c
M cL ellan was re sp o n sib le f o r p la n n in g sev e ral o f th e re g io n a l sy stem s th a t
w o u ld m a k e u p th e G rid . T h is re q u ire d th a t th e c o m p a n y c o n d u c t a su rv e y
to a sc e rta in th e o u tp u t a n d lo a d c u rv e s o f e x istin g u tilities. T h e c o n s u ltin g
e n g in e e r s a lso id e n tif ie d se le c te d p o w e r s ta tio n s a n d r e c o m m e n d e d tr a n s
m issio n -lin e ro u te s . M erz so o n d e c id e d , h o w ev e r, th a t th e g u id e lin e s Snell
h a d laid d o w n w o u ld re s u lt in a flaw ed p la n fo r th e C E B . A n tic ip a tin g th a t
th e C E B w o u ld call u p o n his f irm s se rvices d u r in g th e c o n s tru c tio n p h a se ,
M erz d e c id e d to w ith d ra w fro m th e p la n n in g in o r d e r to av o id b e in g in
th e p o sitio n to c a rry in g o u t a p la n w ith w hich h e d id n o t a g re e . Snell
c o m p la in e d th a t th e w o rk o f M erz 8c M cL ellan was m o v in g to o slow ly a n d
at to o g r e a t a n e x p e n s e c o m p a re d w ith th a t o f o th e r c o n su lta n ts. A fte r
sev e ral m e e tin g s, S nell a c c e p te d th e f irm s w ith d ra w a l. A c o m p ro m is e a l
low ed M e rz 8c M cL ellan e n g in e e rs to c o m p le te th e p la n n in g w hile w o rk in g
as in d iv id u a ls. S u b s e q u e n d y th e C E B d id re ta in M erz 8c M cL ellan as c o n
su ltin g e n g in e e rs , as h a s b e e n n o te d .62
T h e W e ir r e p o r t c o rre c tly p r e d ic te d th a t c o n s tru c tio n o f th e G rid w o u ld
n o t in volve u n p r e c e d e n te d tec h n o lo g y . B ritish e n g in e e r s h a d so lved m an y
o f th e m o st d iffic u lt tec h n ic a l p ro b le m s o f th e elec trica l e r a , b u t th e G rid
was a la rg e -a re a tra n sm issio n system th a t h a d b e e n in tro d u c e d e a r lie r e lse
w h e re . T h e 132,0 0 0 volts d e c id e d u p o n fo r tra n sm issio n was well below
th e 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 u se d in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d G e rm a n y by 1926, a n d th e
tra n sm issio n d ista n c e s w ere s h o rte r. T h u s , B rita in 's e n g in e e r s c o n c e n tra te d
o n a h o st o f rela tiv ely ro u tin e p ro b le m s th a t w e re c o m p lic a te d m o re by
th e ir n u m b e r , a lig h t sc h e d u le , a n d ec o n o m ic d im e n sio n s th a n by te ch n ic al
c h a lle n g e . T h e e co n o m ic asp e cts w e re o f th e k in d best c o n s id e re d by e n
g in e e rs like C h a rle s M erz a n d his c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rin g c o lle ag u es, w ho
w ere a c c u sto m e d to m a k in g d e cisio n s based o n a n o p tim u m m ix o f costs
a n d te c h n ic a l e fficiency.
S ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f v o lta g e, p h a se , a n d fre q u e n c y w as o n e o f th e eco n o m ic
a n d te c h n ic a l d e cisio n s G rid e n g in e e rs m a d e. S ta n d a rd iz a tio n was a n es
pecially m essy p ro b le m in B rita in b ec au se o f th e div e rsity e m b o d ie d in its
"C orrespondence in bound volume enlided "Electricity Supply Act (1926): M em oranda
and Im p o rtan t C orrespondence," Mcrz Sc McLellan Co. Archives, Ambcrley, Killingworth,
near Newcastle upon T yne, England. Sec especially J. Snell to Merz. 21 August 1926; Snell
to Merz, 29 March 1927; Mcrz to Snell. 30 March 1927; notes on a m eeting of Mcrz and
Snell, 5 Ju ly 1927; notes on an interview, Snell, Mcrz. McLcllan, and Leggai. 7 July 1927;
and m e m orandum Trom Leggai (or Merz Sc McLellan) to Merz. 14 July 1927. See also H annah.
Electricity Before Nationalisation, pp. 111-12.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

sm all-scale technology. S ta n d a rd iz a tio n o f electricity su p p ly was like a C hinese
b o x p ro b le m s w ith in p ro b le m s . O n th e level o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n ,
th e q u e s tio n o f v o lta g e a n d p h a s e was n o t c o m p lic a te d (in m u c h o f th e
c o u n try ) by e x istin g c o m m itm e n ts a n d e x ta n t e q u ip m e n t. M ost h ig h -v o lta g e
tra n sm issio n u tilize d new e q u ip m e n t. M o re o v e r, th e tra n s fo rm a tio n o f v o lt
ag es fro m g e n e r a tin g p la n ts to lo w -v o lla g e d is trib u tio n sy stem s w as a wellesta b lish e d p ra c tic e . T r a n s f o r m e r s c o u ld b e w ire d o n o n e sid e f o r local
co n d itio n s a n d o n th e o th e r fo r th e s ta n d a r d 132,0 0 0 volts d e c id e d u p o n
fo r th e m a in tra n s m is s io n lines. T h e t r a n s f o r m e r w as a c o u p lin g device
th a t p e r m itte d th e in te g ra tio n o f su b sy ste m s w ith d if f e r e n t v o ltag e c h a r
ac teristic s.
In 1926, c h o o s in g a s ta n d a r d ty p e o f c u r r e n t d id n o t p r e s e n t serio u s
p ro b le m s c ith e r , b e c a u se p o ly p h a se , o r th r e e - p h a s e a lte r n a tin g , c u r r e n t
h a d b e c o m e a w o rld s ta n d a r d lo r lig h tin g a n d p o w e r. D ire c t c u r r e n t s u r
vived in la rg e cities w h e re h ig h ly e ffic ie n t d ir e c t- c u r r e n t E d iso n statio n s
p re v a ile d u n til a f te r th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu r y , b u t it w as u n d e r s to o d th a t
th e tra n s itio n to p o ly p h a se c u r r e n t w o u ld b e m a d e . In th e m e a n tim e a n
o th e r c o u p lin g d e v ic e, th e r o ta ry c o n v e rte r (a.c .-d .c .), allo w ed th e d ire ctc u r r e n t a r e a s to b e fed by p o ly p h a se c u r r e n ts a n d e n c o m p a s s e d in system s
th a t w e re p rim a rily p o ly p h a se .
S ta n d a rd iz a tio n o f fre q u e n c y , h o w e v e r, w as n o t as re a d ily so lv ed , for
fr e q u e n c y c o n v e rte rs w e re n o t as e ffic ie n t a n d re lia b le as ro ta ry c o n v e rte rs.
T h e r e f o r e , e q u ip m e n t h a d to b e re w ire d if th e fre q u e n c y w as o th e r th a n
th e G r id s s ta n d a r d 50 cycles. T h is p ro b le m w as esp ec ia lly s e rio u s in the
n o r th e a s t c o asta l re g io n s u p p lie d by N E S C O , th e re g io n a l su p p ly utility
th a t h a d e x p a n d e d im p re ssiv ely u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f M e rz 8c M cL ellan.
N E S C O h a d p re v io u sly s ta n d a r d iz e d a t 4 0 cycles (see p p . 4 5 8 - 5 9 below ).
B e g in n in g in th e s p r in g o f 1927 a n d e n d in g in A u g u s t 1931, p la n s for
th e v a rio u s re g io n a l tra n sm issio n sy stem s th a t w o u ld to g e th e r c o n stitu te
th e N a tio n a l G rid w e re a d o p te d at th e ra te o f a b o u t tw o e a c h y e a r. C o n
s tru c tio n o f th e G r id e n d e d o n s c h e d u le in a b o u t six yea rs. In 1933 th e
C e n tr a l E lectric ity B o a rd b e g a n o p e r a tin g as a p o w e r tra n sm issio n utility
in c e n tra l S c o tla n d a n d e a s t- c e n tra l E n g la n d , a n d by 1936 th e G rid was in
full c o m m e rc ia l o p e r a tio n in all re g io n s e x c e p t th e n o rth e a s t co ast o f E n g
la n d , th e lo c a tio n o f N E S C O a n d th e m a jo r s ta n d a rd iz a tio n p ro b le m ; o p
e ra tio n s b e g a n th e r e in 1938 (see Figs. X I I . 11 a n d X I I . 12). T h e initially
p la n n e d G rid co st a p p r o x im a te ly 2 6 .7 m illio n . D u rin g th e six y ea rs o f its
c o n s tr u c tio n 150,0 0 0 io n s o f stee l w e re u se d , m ostly fo r 2 8 ,0 0 0 tra n sm issio n
to w e rs. T h e C r i d s o v e rh e a d lin es r e q u ir e d 12,000 to n s o f a lu m in u m a n d
2 0 0 ,0 0 0
p o rc e la in in s u la to rs . B ritish m a n u f a c tu r e r s w e re heavily e n g a g e d
in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f tr a n s f o r m e r s a n d s w itc h g e a r, m e te rin g , a n d c o n tro l
e q u ip m e n t. T h e e x p a n s io n o f e x istin g p o w e r s ta tio n s a n d th e c o n stru c tio n
o f new o n e s also k e p t tu r b in e a n d g e n e r a to r m a n u f a c tu r e r s bu sy a n d gave
th e m e x p e rie n c e th a t h a d fo rm e rly b e e n c o n c e n tra te d a m o n g th e A m erica n
a n d G e r m a n m a n u f a c tu r e r s .0' B o th th e c o n s tr u c tio n a n d th e o p e ra tio n o f
th e G rid s tim u la te d th e p o s l-W o rld W a r I ec o n o m y o f G re a t B ritain .
G reat B ritain, C entral Electricity Board, The Grid (booklet published by the CEB in
I946(?|), pp. 4 -7 . Charles I I. Merz described the Grid in "T h e N ational Scheme o f Electricity
Supply in G reat B ritain" (Paper read before the British Association for the A dvancem ent of
Science. South Africa, 1929): copy in the Merz & McLellan Co. Archives.

359

P L A N N E D SY STEM S

Figure XII. 11. S implified map o f

proposed English 132-kv. Grid, 1933.
Adapted from the CEB's A nnual R eport
1932.

Figure XI1.12. Superimposed map o f

Great Britain showing the British Grid to
be of no greater extent than California's
interconnected power network. From
Electrical W orld 82 (1923). 1036.

GREAT BRITAIN AND CALIFORNIA

T h e fo rm e r h a s 40.000,000 m ore I n h a b ita n ts th a n th e la tte r an d
co m p rises one o f th e g re a te s t In d u stria l d istric ts In th e w orld. Its
e le c tric a l o u tp u t, how ever. Is no la rg e r th a n C alifo rn ia's, and w hile
G r e a t B r ita in Is p la n n in g r e stric te d pow er d istric ts m ade up of
In terc o n n e cted sy ste m s C a lifo rn ia alren d y possesses a n Intercon
nec te d n e tw o rk s tr e tc h in g from one end of th e s ta te to the other.
T h e m a p s a re d ra w n to th e sam e scale.

A b e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c o m p le x n a tu r e o f th e G rid c an be d e riv e d

fro m c o n s id e ra tio n o f se v era l o f its c o n s titu e n t re g io n a l system s. In th e
L o n d o n a re a , th e G rid , like th e P e n n sy lv a n ia -N e w J e r s e y I n te rc o n n e c tio n
in th e U n ite d S ta tes, was a p o w e r pool (see p p . 3 2 5 -3 4 above). T h e C e n tra l
E lec tric ity B o a rd le ft u n c h a n g e d th e o w n e rs h ip o f th e se le c te d p riv a te
a n d lo ca l-a u lh o rity -o w n e d p o w e r s ta tio n s th e re , b ut took o v e r th e d ire c tio n
o f o p e r a tio n s a n d th e p la n n in g o f e x p a n sio n . T h e C E B also a ssu m e d p a y
m e n t o f t h e c a p ita l a n d o p e r a tin g costs o f th e se selec ted p la n ts. T h e e n tir e
elec trical o u tp u t o f th e sta tio n s was a t th e disp o sal o f th e G rid , a n d m ost
o f it was fed in to th e tra n sm issio n n etw o rk . T h e s u p p ly a u th o ritie s , o r
u tilities, th e n p u rc h a s e d fro m th e G rid all th e e lectricity th e y n e e d e d fo r
th e ir d is trib u tio n system s. T h e p ric e c h a rg e d by th e C E B r e p r e s e n te d th e
cost o f p r o d u c tio n a d ju s te d fo r load fa c to r p lu s an a d d itio n a l c h a r g e fo r

360

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e p ric e w as g u a r a n te e d to b e lo w e r th a n w o u ld b e in c u rre d

if th e se le c te d sta tio n g e n e r a te d fo r itself.

By th e lim e th e G rid b e g a n o p e r a tin g , th e r e w e re th ir te e n priv a tely
o w n e d c o m p a n ie s in th e c o u n ty o f L o n d o n . T h e J E A c o n c e p t th a t was
e sta b lish e d u n d e r th e E lectric ity S u p p ly A ct o f 1919 h a d e n c o u r a g e d c o n
so lid a tio n , b u t th e id e a d id n o t g a th e r m o m e n tu m u n til p a ssa g e o f th e 1926
act in a n tic ip a tio n o f th e G rid . All th ir te e n c o m p a n ie s w ere d is trib u to rs ,
b u t n in e h a d tu r n e d o v e r g e n e r a tio n to th e L o n d o n P o w e r C o m p a n y , th e
sto ck o f w h ic h th e y fully o w n e d . O f t h e o th e r fo u r , th e C ity C o m p a n y h a d
a m a jo r p o w e r p la n t at B a n k sid e , a n d th e C o u n ty o f L o n d o n C o m p a n y
h a d m a jo r p o w e r p la n ts a t B a rk in g A a n d B a rk in g B." C o n s o lid a tio n
h a d a lso o c c u r r e d o n th e d is trib u tio n sid e. Six o f th e c o m p a n ie s h a d plac ed
th e ir c o m m o n sto ck u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f a h o ld in g c o m p a n y , th e L o n d o n
A sso c ia ted E lec tricity U n d e rta k in g s . S ev e ral o th e r c o m p a n ie s h a d com e
u n d e r th e c o n tro l a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f th e M e tro p o lita n C o m p a n y a n d the
C o u n ty o f L o n d o n C o m p a n y . T h e p ric e s c h a rg e d c u s to m e rs by th e p riv a te
c o m p a n ie s v a rie d a n d a llo w e d fo r p r o fit, w h ich w as re g u la te d by th e ele c
tricity c o m m issio n e rs. L o n d o n s th irty -tw o lo c a l-a u th o rity -o w n e d utilities
re m a in e d c o m p le te ly i n d e p e n d e n t as d is tr ib u to r s o f e lec tricity , b u t in te rm s
o f g e n e r a tio n th e y w e re c o o rd in a te d by th e C e n tr a l E le ctricity B o a rd . All
se le c te d " p o w e r s ta tio n s, p riv a te o r lo c a l-a u th o rity -o w n e d , w e re d ire c te d
by th e b o a rd . O th e r sta tio n s m a d e a g r e e m e n ts w ith th e C E B a b o u t o p e r
atio n s; so m e , f o r in sta n c e , o p e r a te d as p e a k -lo a d p la n ts. In 1935 th e total
ca p a c ity o f a 50-cycle g e n e r a tin g p la n t in L o n d o n w as 2 ,3 1 3 ,0 0 0 kw. a n d
its o u tp u t was 4 ,4 1 8 m illio n kw h., 115 m illio n o f w h ic h w as fo r tra c tio n .64
T h e o p e r a tio n o f th e G rid c a n also b e e x a m in e d by c o n s id e rin g o n e o f
th e re g io n a l sc h e m e s. T h e s e v e n th , w h ich was a n n o u n c e d in 1930, p e r
ta in e d to s o u th w e s t E n g la n d a n d W ales. T h e re g io n h a d a p o p u la tio n o f
ab o u t six m illio n a n d a n a re a o f slig h tly o v e r 17,000 m iles. I n c lu d e d in it
w e re h ig h ly in d u s tr ia liz e d a re a s, m in e s, a n d s e a p o rts . B e fo re th e G rid was
es ta b lis h e d . 165 u tilitie s o w n e d 107 g e n e r a tin g sta tio n s. Six o f th e se statio n s
w e re c h o se n to b e c o m e p a r t o f th e G r id , a n d tw o n e w sta tio n s w e re c o n
s tru c te d . T h e C E B h a d th e a u th o rity to a r r a n g e f o r a utility in th e a re a o f
su p p ly to p ro v id e a new sta tio n . I f n o su c h a rr a n g e m e n t c o u ld b e m a d e ,
th e e le c tric ity c o m m issio n e rs co u ld a u th o r iz e th e C E B o r so m e o th e r c o m
p a n y o r p e rs o n to c o n s tru c t th e s ta tio n . T h e new sta tio n w o u ld th e n be
o p e r a te d a c c o rd in g to G rid p r o c e d u r e s .0 T w o o f th e se le c te d sta tio n s, o n e
a t B risto l a n d a n o th e r in S o u th W ales, w e re d e s ig n a te d as b a se-lo ad pla n ts.
T h e tra n s m is s io n sy stem fo r th e re g io n c o n siste d o f 6 2 3 m iles o f h ighv o lta g e c ab le a n d 25 tr a n s f o r m e r s ta tio n s. E re c tio n o f th e se s ta tio n s was
o p p o s e d o n a e s th e tic g r o u n d s by la n d e d sq u ir e s .00
In o p e r a tio n , th e G rid d id n ot by itse lf lastin g ly re su sc ita te th e B ritish
e c o n o m y , all th e b rig h t p r e d ic tio n s o f th e p a rlia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e s n o t
w ith sta n d in g . M o re -m u te d e x p e c ta tio n s w ere s ta le d as e a rly as 1927 ( a fte r
th e 1926 act h a d b e e n safely p a sse d ) by A rc h ib a ld P age. S e n sitiv e to th e
M Mcrz 8c McLcllan. Report on Electric Sendee. T h e description o f the L ondon G rid presented
here is based on this rep o rt (pp. 5 5-91). which descriltcs the situation a round 1936.
03 Electricity Act o f 1926, 6.
L. W. W. M orrow . "Great Britain Elen ri fir* " Flenrim l WnrU 06 flQSOt- 252-53

301

P L A N N E D SY STEM S
se lf-e stee m o f th e m a n a g e r s a n d e n g in e e rs o f e x istin g c o m p a n ie s, w hose
c o o p e ra tio n w as n e e d e d , P ag e d is c o u n te d th e m o re e x tr e m e s ta te m e n ts
m a d e e a rlie r a b o u t th e b a c k w a rd n e ss o f B rita in s ele c tric su p p ly in d u s try .
H e p o in te d o u t th a t B rita in h a d a w e ll-d ev e lo p ed gas in d u s tr y , w hose
serv ice r e d u c e d th e d e m a n d fo r electric lig h tin g , as well as a lo n g -e sta b
lish ed p ra c tic e o f u sin g ste a m p o w e r in in d u s try w ith o u t in te rv e n in g e le ctric
p o w e r tra n sm issio n . H e o b se rv e d th a t a lth o u g h th e B ritish s te a m p la n t
m ig h t b e less e ffic ie n t th a n its e le c tric c o u n te r p a r t, th e eco n o m ic s o f r e
p la c e m e n t d id n o t alw ays fa v o r c o n v e rsio n . P a g e also ra ise d d o u b ts a b o u t
th e sig n ific a n c e o f p e r c a p ita c o n s u m p tio n o f ele ctric ity , a sta tistic th e c o m
m itte e s p r o m o tin g th e G rid h a d stre sse d . H e said th a t p e r c a p ita c o n
s u m p tio n o f coal a n d oil m ig h t b e b e tte r in d ic a to rs o f in d u s tria l d e v e lo p
m e n t, fo r in B rita in th e c o n s u m p tio n o f coal su b s u m e d th e g e n e ra tio n of
m o st e le ctric ity a n d to o k in to a c c o u n t o th e r e n e rg y s u p p lie s, su c h as gas.
H e rig h tly p o in te d o u t th a t th e s h a re o f th e cost o f elec tricity th a t was
a ttrib u ta b le to d is tr ib u tio n , in c o n tra s t to tra n sm issio n , a m o u n te d to b e
tw e en 2 0 a n d 75 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l a c c o rd in g to lo ca tio n , a n d th a t d is
trib u tio n was in th e h a n d s o f th e u tilities. P ag e also c a u tio n e d th a t savings
fro m th e G rid w o u ld n o t be im p re ssiv e in a re a s w h e re m o d e r n p o w e r p la n ts
a lre a d y o p e r a te d . H e m ay h a v e m isled his a u d ie n c e , h o w e v e r, w h e n h e
said th a t le g isla tio n h a d n o t b e e n as re sp o n sib le f o r th e d e la y o f la rg e -a re a
s u p p ly in B rita in as th e riv alry b etw e e n la rg e u n d e rta k in g s a n d a n "ove rz e a lo u s d isp la y o f local p a trio tism by th e s m a lle r m u n ic ip a l u n d e r ta k in g s
h a d b e e n .67 T h e e a r lie r legislatio n in fact p ro te c te d th e p a ro c h ia lism .
E ven th o u g h th e G rid d id n o t r e v o lu tio n iz e B ritish in d u s try , b u t in ste a d
b r o u g h t c h a n g e s th a t w e re m o re in lin e w ith P a g e s re alistic a n tic ip a tio n s,
th e r e o rg a n iz a tio n o f B rita in 's e le ctricity s u p p ly d id re s u lt in n o ta b le
a c h ie v e m e n ts. B eca u se in te rc o n n e c tio n p e rm itte d th e use o f sm a lle r, r e
se rv e p la n ts, c a p ita l e x p e n d itu r e s w e re lo w er th a n if su p p ly h a d b e e n fro m
in d e p e n d e n t p la n ts. By 1938 th e C E B u sed a sa fely m a rg in o f a p p r o x i
m ate ly 10 p e r c e n t re s e rv e ca p ac ity c o m p a re d to th e 43 p e rc e n t e stim a te d
re s e rv e fo r 1925. A s a re su lt, th e C E B e stim a te d th a t 3 3 m illio n o f cap ita l
e x p e n d itu r e o n s p a re p la n ts was sa ved. It also e s tim a te d th a t in 1935,
o p e r a tin g costs fo r sp e c ifie d p o w e r sta tio n s w ere 11 p e rc e n t less th a n th e
co st o f r u n n in g th e s a m e s ta tio n s u n d e r in d e p e n d e n t o w n e rs h ip in 1932,
b e fo re th e G rid b e g a n o p e ra tio n s . D esp ite a p ric in g policy th a t by 1939
re s u lte d in a s u rp lu s o f a t least 2 .7 5 m illion (a fte r p a y in g in te re st o n
s e c u ritie s a n d p r o v id in g a sin k in g f u n d fo r th ese), th e C E B h a d re d u c e d
th e p ric e o f elec tricity in b u lk (at th e b u sb a rs, w h e re it was fe d in to th e
tra n sm isso n sy ste m ) to .3 4 d p e r u n it in 1939 c o m p a r e d to a cost o f 1.098d
in 1923. T h e cost o f e lec tricity was also re d u c e d in th e U n ite d S la te s a n d
G e rm a n y d u r in g th is p e rio d , b u t as h isto ria n Leslie H a n n a h c o n clu d e s,
It [reorganization and the Grid] was, on the whole, a happy experience and one
with which the industry could be well pleased. In the space o f fifteen years
between 1925 and 1940 the national grid system enabled the British supply
undertakings to overcome their previous lag in developm ent and inaugurate a
vigorous expansion o f sales based on low prices for the consum er. By the late

*7 Archibald Page, "In au g u ral Address." 1EE Journal 66 (1927): 1 - 1 1.

3G 2

N I-OTW O R K S O F P O W E R
I930s Britain's electricity consum ption p er head o f population equaled that in
countries with similar income levels.08
A n ev e n m o re im p re ssiv e tr ib u te is p a id to th e o r ig in a to rs a n d d e v e lo p e rs
oT t h e N a tio n a l G rid by th o s e w h o a re p e r s u a d e d th a t it w as a m a jo r re a so n
fo r th e clim b in th e 1930s o f B rita in s in d u s tr ia l e c o n o m y fro m th e low er
ra n k s a m o n g in d u s tria l n a tio n s to a p o sitio n b e h in d o n ly th e S oviet U n io n
a n d G e rm a n y in ra le o f g r o w th .09

""I.eslie H an n ah , "A Pioneer of 1uhlic E nterprise: T h e C entral Electricity Board and the
N ational (rid, 1927-1940," in Essays in llntish Business History, ed. Barry Supple (Oxford:
Claren d o n Press, 1977), pp. 2 2 4-25. In th is artirle , H annah rites D. A. Wilson. T he Strategy
ol Sales E xpansion in the British Electricity Supply In dustry Betw een the W ars," in Management
Strategy and Business Development, ed. Leslie H annah (L ondon: Macmillan Sc Co.. 1976); Harry
W. R ichardson, T h e New Industries Betw een the W ars," Oxford Economic Papers 12 (1961):
and idem, Economic Recovery in Britain. 1 912-19 (L ondon: W cidenfeld Sc Nirolson, 1967).
""I am indebted to Leslie H an n ah lor calling my a ttention to this argum ent.

CHAPTER

XIII

The Culture of
Regional Systems

u t p la n n e d p o w e r p o o ls a n d g rid s c o n s tru c te d in th e U n ite d States,

G e rm a n y , a n d E n g la n d h e ra ld e d th e e ra o f re g io n a l e le c tric su p p ly
system s, w hich lin k e d cities, to w n s, c o u n try s id e , a n d r e m o te in d u s tr ia l sites.
A lo n g sid e th e p la n n e d syste m s, su ch as th e B a y e rn w e rk a n d B r ita in s G rid ,
th e ev o lv in g sy stem s o f m o stly p riv a te ly o w n e d u tilities flo u ris h e d . As will
be s e e n in C h a p te r X IV , th e la tte r h a d a lo n g h isto ry a n d w ere c h a ra c te riz e d
by in c re m e n ta l g r o w th . In th e 1920s, h o w e v e r, e n g in e e r s , m a n a g e rs , a n d
fin a n c ie rs re a liz e d th a t a te c h n o lo g ic a l fo rm th e re g io n a l sy ste m h a d
fu lfille d in h e r e n t im p lic a tio n s a n d c o u ld b e c o n s id e re d co n c e p tu a lly m a
tu re . (A c tu a l g ro w th , o f c o u rs e , w o u ld c o n tin u e .) T h is re a liz a tio n w as m a n
ife ste d in th e e n g in e e r s ' a n d m a n a g e rs c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f u n d e rly in g
te ch n ic al a n d e c o n o m ic re la tio n s h ip s ; th e ir d e f t id e n tific a tio n o f critical
p ro b le m s a n d e ffic a c io u s s o lu tio n s; th e ir in tr o d u c tio n o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l
fo rm s th a t w e re well su ite d fo r e x p a n s io n ; a n d th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t o f o r
g a n iz e d k n o w le d g e (science o f te c h n o lo g y ) a b o u t re g io n a l p o w e r system s.
J u s t as th e th e u n iv e rsa l sy stem h a d g a th e re d m o m e n tu m in th e 1890s, so
re g io n a l sy stem s g a th e r e d m o m e n tu m a n d flo u ris h e d in th e 1920s. M o re
o v e r, j u s t as th e e a r lie r d isc u ssio n o f th e m o m e n tu m o f th e u n iv e rsa l system
s u g g e s te d th e c o n c e p t o f th e c u ltu r e o f te ch n o lo g ic al system s in th is case
th e v alu es, id eas, a n d in s titu tio n s th a t a ro se in re sp o n se to th e n e e d s a n d
o p p o r tu n itie s f o r g ro w th th a t w e re see n a n d d e fin e d by p ro fe ssio n a l e n
gin e ers, m an a g e rs, a n d system bu ild e rs so, loo, a c u ltu re o f regional p ow er
sy stem s is d isc e rn ib le . S u p p o rtiv e o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e tec h n ical c o re ,
th e se c o n te x tu a l e le m e n ts w e re th e m se lv e s sh a p e d by th e tec h n ic al c h a r
a cte ristic s o f th e e x p a n d in g p o w e r system s.
T h e te c h n ic a l c o re o f th e re g io n a l p o w e r system involved th e w id e sp re a d
use o f ste a m tu r b in e s in p o w e r p la n ts, w hich a f te r 1900 re s u lte d in th e
u n p r e c e d e n te d a n d u n e x p e c te d s p re a d o f p o w e r system s. S ta tio n e n g in e e rs
a n d m a n a g e rs o rig in a lly in tr o d u c e d ste am tu rb in e s to re p la c e th e m o n
s tro u sly la rg e re c ip ro c a tin g e n g in e s u sed in heavily p o p u la te d a re a s, w h e re
th e p ric e o f rea l e sta te was h ig h . T u r b in e s , ho w e v er, p ro v e d to be m o re
e ffic ie n t th a n re c ip ro c a tin g stea m e n g in e s, a n d th e y also lo w e re d in sta l
la tio n , o p e r a tin g , a n d la b o r costs. T h e la rgely u n fo re s e e n c o n s e q u e n c e o f
th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e tu rb in e was th e s h a r p ac c e le ra tio n o f th e q u e st fo r

non

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
lo ad s u ffic ie n t to fu lfill th e e c o n o m y -o f-sc a le p o te n tia l o f a la rg e , e fficien tly
lo a d e d tu rb in e . T h e tu rb in e s w e re , in e ffe c t, su p p ly in s e a rc h o f d e m a n d .
A su p e rfic ia l an a ly sis m ig h t p r e s e n t th e lo a d -se e k in g tu r b in e as a n in stan c e
o f te c h n o lo g ic a l d e te r m in is m , b u t c lo se r stu d y will show th a t th e fo rc e of
th e te c h n o lo g y w as c irc u m s c rib e d by a h o st o f n o n te c h n o lo g ic a l facto rs
w h ic h , to g e th e r w ith th e te c h n o lo g y , s h a p e d th e e v e n ts a n d tr e n d s th a t
fo llow ed th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e tu r b i n e . 1
T h e la rg e , lo a d -s e e k in g s te a m tu r b in e s fo u n d th e ir c o m p le m e n t in farflu n g h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n lin es w h ic h fo llo w ed th e p o p u la tio n sh ift
to th e s u b u rb s . I f th e tu r b in e was lo c a te d in an u r b a n c e n te r like C h ica g o ,
h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n lin es c a r rie d e le c tric ity o u t in to th e s u r r o u n d in g
r e g io n . I f th e tu r b in e w as lo c a te d a t a m in e m o u th o r b ro w n -c o a l pit,
tra n s m is s io n lin es s p r e a d th e p o w e r o v e r th e re g io n a n d d is trib u te d it to
in d u s trie s , tr a n s p o r ta tio n sy ste m s, c o m m e rc ia l e n te rp r is e s , a n d p r iv a te re s
id e n c e s. In th e 1920s a n d e a rly 1930s, w h e n re g io n a l sy stem s p ro life ra te d ,
v o lta g es o f 100,0 0 0 a n d h ig h e r b e c a m e s ta ie - o f- lh e -a rl, so tra n sm issio n
o v e r h u n d r e d s o f m iles b e c a m e e c o n o m ic a l, p a rtic u la r ly fo r h y d ro e le c tric
sy ste m s (see Fig. X I I I . 1 a n d T a b le X I I I . 1). F u r th e r m o r e , p o in t-to -p o in t
tra n s m is s io n s g re w in to n e tw o rk s , g rid s , o r rin g s as th e lo n g lin es w ere
p u n c tu a te d by m a jo r sw itc h in g sta tio n s w h e re o th e r g e n e r a tin g s ta tio n s fed
p o w e r in to th e sy ste m o r p o w e r f o r n e a rb y lo a d s w as ta k e n o u t.
E c o n o m ic c o n s id e ra tio n s p u s h e d th e in tr o d u c tio n o f l a r g e r tu rb in e s a n d
la r g e r, d iv e rs ifie d su p p ly a re a s. E le ctric s u p p ly w as ca p ita l-in te n siv e te c h
n o lo g y , a n d th e o v e r h e a d s te m m in g fro m c a p ita l co sts w as a su b sta n tia l
p a r t o f th e co st o f a u n it o f e le c tric p o w e r. A d v o c a te s o f la rg e , re g io n a l
sy ste m s a r g u e d th a t th e u n it cost o f g e n e ra tio n w as a n in v e rse fu n c tio n of
th e size o f th e tu rb in e s a n d g e n e ra to rs . T h e y a p p e a le d to th e lo n g -a c c e p te d
p r o p o s itio n th a t c a p ita l cost p e r u n it o f p o w e r g e n e r a te d d e c r e a s e d w ith
th e in c re a se o f th e ph y sic al size a n d c ap a c ity o f m a c h in e s. T h e re a so n fo r
th is d e c re a s e w as, in p a r t, a m a tte r o f g e o m e try , fo r h e a l a n d m ag n e tic field losses in c re a s e d w ith su rf a c e a r e a , a n d th e ra tio o f su rf a c e a re a to
c ap a city d e c re a s e d w ith th e in c re a s e in p h ysical size o f th e tu r b in e a n d
g e n e r a to r . O th e r s p o in te d o u t th a t th e la rg e , re g io n a l s tr u c tu r e im p ro v e d
a sy ste m s lo a d fa c to r. M o re o v e r, sin ce c a p ita l c h a rg e s w e re p a id o n a
sy ste m s full c a p a c ity , a h ig h e r lo ad f a c to r m e a n t a re d u c tio n in u n it cost.
T h e g ro w th o f re g io n a l sy ste m s n o t o n ly p r e s e n te d in te re s tin g te ch n ica l
p r o b le m s to e n g in e e rs b u t it a lso c h a lle n g e d m a n a g e rs a n d fin a n c ie rs. T e c h
nical, o r g a n iz a tio n a l, a n d fin a n c ia l in v e n tio n s re s u lte d . T h e tu r b in e , fo r
in sta n c e , p r o v e d to b e a n e n g in e th a t e n h a n c e d o r g a n iz a tio n a l g ro w th .
B e fo re W o rld W a r I, th e g e o g r a p h ic a l e x te n t o f m o st utilities d id n ot
p ro v id e a lo ad to m a tc h th e su p p ly p o te n tia l o f tu r b in e - d r iv e n c e n tra l
sta tio n s. U tilities h a d o b ta in e d th e ir fra n c h ise s, o r co n ce ssio n s, d u r in g an
e ra o f sm a ll-a re a , d ir e c t- c u r r e n t d is trib u tio n a n d re c ip ro c a tin g -s te a m -e n g in e g e n e ra tio n . W ith te c h n ic a l c h a n g e , th is o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e b e
c a m e o u tm o d e d , a n d u tilitie s b e g a n to re a c h o u t fo r new te rr ito ry a n d new
c u s to m e rs a n d to in v e n t new o r g a n iz a tio n a l s tru c tu re s . U n til th e G rid .
'T h o m a s P. H ughes, "T echnological H istory and T echnical Problems," in Science, Tech
nology, and the Human Prospect: Proceedings o f the Edison Centennial Symposium, ed. Chauncey
S tarr and Philip Ritterbush (New York: Pergam on Press, 1980), pp. 148-49.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S

Figure X III. J. Increase in transmission

voltages. From G iant Power Survey.
p. 27.

T able X III.I. T ransmissio n -Svstem M ileag e in th e U nited St a tes , 31 December 1932

Voltage
6,6 00-22,000
22,000-110,000
110,000-220,000
Not designated
T otal

Total System
Mileage

Percentage

83,995
124,466
27,665
15,282

33.41
49.51
11.00
6.08

251,408

100.00

Source: U.S.. Federal T ra d e Com mission, Utility Corporations (S. Doc. 92. 70th Cong., 1st
sess., 1928), P a n 72A (1935), p. 41.

E n g la n d was a n e x c e p tio n to th is tr e n d b e c a u se local g o v e r n m e n ts c o n fin e d

p o w e r sy stem s to th e ir ju r is d ic tio n .
T h e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e tu rb in e , w ith its h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lines,
g e n e ra te d u n p r e c e d e n te d ca p ita l r e q u ir e m e n ts , loo. D u r in g th e e ra o f E d i
so n , th e co st o f d is tr ib u tio n lin es a lm o st m a tc h e d th e cost o f g e n e r a tin g
e q u ip m e n t. In th e 1920s th e cost o f a h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n system was
la y e re d o n lo w -v o ltag e d is trib u tio n costs. T h e tra n sm issio n sy stem in c lu d e d
o v e rla n d steel tra n sm issio n to w ers, c o p p e r o r a lu m in u m lines w ith costly
in su la to rs, a n d a c o m p le x a rr a y o f lig h tn in g -p ro te c tio n a p p a r a tu s , circu it
b re a k e rs , sw itches, tra n s f o r m e r s , a n d s y n c h ro n o u s g e n e r a to r s . T h e cap ita l
d e m a n d s o f th e A m e ric a n u tilitie s d u r in g th e 1920s, w h en m a n y re g io n a l
sy stem s w ere u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n , e x c e e d e d th o se o f th e ra ilro a d s d u r in g
th e d e c a d e s o f th e ir m o st r a p id e x p a n sio n .2
C o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs also p la y ed a hig h ly im p o rta n t, th o u g h still larg ely
u n a c k n o w le d g e d , ro le in f u r th e r in g th e g ro w th o f re g io n a l system s. T h e
te c h n ic al, o rg a n iz a tio n a l, a n d fin an c ia l p ro b le m s in h e r e n t in re g io n a l sys* U.S., D epartm ent o f Com m erce, Bureau o f the Census, Historical Statistics of the United
States: Colonial Times to 1957 (W ashington. D.C.: CPO, 1960). pp. 432-33 (ser. 95) and p. 589
(scr. 146). See also Forrest McDonald, Let There Be Light: The Electric Utility Industry in Wisconsin,
1881-1955 (Madison. Wis.: T h e American History Research Center, 1957), pp. 186-87.

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n e t w o r k s o f

po w e r

le m s d e m a n d e d th e e n t r e p r e n e u r ia l sp irit, c o m p re h e n s iv e e x p e rie n c e , an d
ta le n t po ssessed by th e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm s a n d th e ir p rin c ip a ls.
W h e n p o litic al p ro b le m s e n te r e d th e m ix as a n im p o r ta n t c o m p o n e n t, th e
co n s u ltin g e n g in e e r s b ro a d view a n d cap a c ity fo r a m u ltifa c e te d re sp o n se
b e c a m e e v e n m o re im p o r ta n t. T h e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r a ssu m e d th e m a n tle
o f th e e n tr e p r e n e u r r e a d y to p re s id e o v e r te c h n ic a l c h a n g e in a co m p lex
e n v iro n m e n t. D e m o n stra tin g th e ir e n tre p re n e u ria l tale n ts im pressively, Merz
8c M cL ellan a n d th e firm o f O s k a r v on M iller r e s p o n d e d to th e politics
la d e n p r o b le m s o f p la n n e d g o v e r n m e n t g rid s ; in th e U n ite d S tales, co n
su ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm s like S to n e 8c W e b ste r a n d E le ctric B o n d 8c S h are,
w o u ld d e m o n s tr a te a m a ste rly ab ility to c o p e w ith th e h eav ily m a n a g e ria l
a n d fin a n c ial p ro b le m s th a t a r o s e in th e A m e ric a n e le c tric su p p ly system
in th e 1920s.
T h e re g io n a l sy stem s o f th e tw e n tie s c o n s titu te th e th ir d s ta g e in the
e v o lu tio n o f lig h t a n d p o w e r system s. T h e E d iso n d ir e c t- c u r r e n t system s
o f th e first s ta g e w e re c h a ra c te riz e d by h o m o g e n e ity o f su p p ly a n d load.
G e n e ra to rs a n d c o m p o n e n ts o f a sim ila r k in d w e re h o u s e d in a single
lo ca tio n . R e c ip ro c a tin g s te a m e n g in e s w e re u su a lly o f th e s a m e k in d o r had
th e s a m e c h a ra c te ris tic s h ig h o r low s p e e d , d ire c t o r be lt d riv e . T h e d is
trib u tio n sy stem to o k a s ta n d a r d v o lta g e fro m th e c e n tr a l s ta tio n a n d d e
liv e re d a s ta n d a r d v o lta g e to c o n s u m e rs . T h e lo ad o n th e sy stem w as alm ost
e n tir e ly in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s, th e m o to r b e in g a ra rity .
T h e sy stem s o f th e se c o n d p h a s e w e re m o r e h e te ro g e n e o u s . T h e y w ere
c h a ra c te r iz e d by th e c o n c e p t o f tra n s m is s io n a n d d is trib u tio n in tro d u c e d
as th e u n iv e rsa l sy ste m a t th e C h ic a g o e x p o s itio n o f 1893. G e n e ra to rs
w ith s u b sta n tia lly d if f e r e n t c h a ra c te ris tic s in d if f e r e n t p o w e r sta tio n s w ere
in te r c o n n e c te d . R e c ip ro c a tin g s te a m e n g in e s a n d s te a m tu rb in e s w e re o fte n
u se d in th e s a m e p o w e r s ta tio n . V a ry in g o u tp u ts fro m th e d if f e r e n t kinds
o f g e n e r a to r s (so m e a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t, so m e d ire c t) w e re c o m b in e d in a
sin g le tra n s m is s io n sy stem t h r o u g h th e u se o f c o u p le rs tr a n s f o r m e r s (in
c lu d in g S c o tt-c o n n e c te d tra n s fo rm e rs ) , s y n c h ro n o u s g e n e ra to r s , m o to r
g e n e ra to r s , fre q u e n c y c o n v e rte r s ; c o u p le rs a lso c o n n e c te d d if f e r e n t kinds
o f lo a d , lig h tin g a n d p o w e r (sta tio n a ry a n d tra c tio n ).
T h e re g io n a l sy stem s o f th e 1920s c an b e c a te g o riz e d as th e th ird stage
in th e e v o lu tio n o f e le c tric s u p p ly system s. A g a in , th e h a llm a rk is in cre ased
h e te r o g e n e ity . W h e re a s in th e u n iv e rsa l sy ste m o f th e se c o n d sta g e, d if
f e r e n t k in d s o f lo ad s w e re sy stem ically j o in e d a c c o r d in g to th e c o n c e p t o f
lo ad fa c to r, in th e th ir d sta g e , d if f e r e n t k in d s o r e n e rg y so u rc e s w ere
c o m b in e d a c c o rd in g to th e m o r e re c e n tly a rtic u la te d c o n c e p t o f e co n o m ic
m ix. T h e in tro d u c tio n o f t u r b in e s a n d h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n m a d e th e
th ir d s ta g e possib le, b u t th e y w ere n o t th e esse n c e o f it. T u r b in e s a n d highvo ltag e tra n sm issio n s tim u la te d th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f fa r- flu n g system s, a n d
th e s p r e a d of th e se w as so e x te n siv e as to in c lu d e n a tu r a l re so u rc e s o f
v a rio u s k in d s. T h e e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs o f utilitie s lo o k a d v a n ta g e o f
th e p re s e n c e o f su c h v a rie d e n e rg y s o u rc e s as h a r d coal, b itu m in o u s coal,
b ro w n c oal, h ig h - h e a d w a te r, a n d lo w -h e a d w a te r in th e ir su p p ly a re a s to
o b ta in a n e c o n o m ic m ix. T h e c ap a c ity to e n c o m p a ss c o m p le x ity h a d in
c re a se d .
T h e c o m b in a tio n of d iv e rs e e n e rg y so u rc e s in th e sy stem allo w ed fo r an
e c o n o m ic m ix , a te c h n ic a l-e c o n o m ic c o n c e p t o n th e s u p p ly s id e th a t was

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
c o m p a ra b le in im p o rta n c e to lo a d fa c to r o n th e load sid e. T h e o rig in s a n d
ev o lu tio n o f th e c o n c e p t a n d p ra c tic e a r e e x c e e d in g ly d iffic u lt to d o c u m e n t,
h o w e v e r. P ro b a b ly th e c o n c e p t fo llow ed th e p ra ctic e . H a v in g c o m b in e d ,
say, a co a l-fire d p la n t a n d a h y d ro e le c tric o n e fo r ob v io u s e c o n o m ic re a so n s,
en g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs resp o n sib le fo r system gro w th th e n th o u g h t th ro u g h
th e g e n e r a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e ir e m p iric a l p ro b e s. B e ca u se b o th G e rm a n y
a n d th e U n ite d S la te s h a d coal a n d w a te r p o w e r w ith in e c o n o m ic a l tr a n s
m issio n d is ta n c e , sy stem s o r g a n iz e d a c c o rd in g to th e p rin c ip le s o f eco n o m ic
m ix s p re a d ra p id ly in th e tw o c o u n trie s a f te r W o rld W a r I. In w a te r-p o w e rs h o r t E n g la n d , w a ste -h e a d p o w e r s ta tio n s w e re c o n n e c te d w ith c o a l-fire d
p la n ts, a v a ria tio n o n th e s a m e th e m e .
A n e c o n o m ic m ix is a n in te r c o n n e c tio n o f p o w e r p la n ts w h o se e n e rg y
so u rc e s a r e u tiliz e d c o m p le m e n ta rily . F o r e x a m p le , a n id eal e c o n o m ic m ix
w o u ld in c lu d e a n u r b a n p o w e r p la n t u sin g h a r d o r b itu m in o u s coal, a
lig n ite -fire d p la n t a t a n o p e n -p it site, a h ig h - h e a d h y d ro e le c tric p la n t d r a w
in g fro m a n a tu r a l la k e at h ig h e le v a tio n , a n d a lo w -h ea d p la n t u sin g th e
r u n n in g w a te r o f a riv e r. T h e s e m ig h t be s e p a ra te d f ro m o n e a n o th e r by
fifty to a h u n d r e d m iles, possibly m o re . T h e o p e ra tio n o f th e p la n ts w ould
be c a re fu lly s c h e d u le d to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e ir c o m p le m e n ta r y c h a r a c
teristics. T h e a d v a n ta g e s d e riv e d w e re m e a s u r e d by a n in c re a se in eco n o m y
a n d relia b ility ; th e m e a n s to a c h ie v e th e se w e re tec h n ic al.
S c h e d u lin g th e u se o f p o w e r p la n ts in a n id e al m ix was a c h a lle n g in g
a n d e x tre m e ly in te re s tin g p ro b le m fo r u tility e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e rs . At
th e ir d isp o sa l th e y o f te n h a d a v a rie ty o f r e sp o n se s to c h a n g in g , o r tr a n s ie n t,
n a tu r a l a n d m a n -m a d e e v en ts. T h e h ig h - h e a d h y d ro e le c tric p la n t c o u ld be
used sp a rin g ly , if a t all, f o r p e a k lo a d d u r in g th e w in te r free ze . T h e r u n o f-riv e r, o r lo w -h e a d , p la n t w as less u se fu l d u r in g p e r io d s o f d r o u g h t. T h e
h ig h -h e a d p la n t w as s c h e d u le d f o r m a x im u m u se d u r in g s p r in g th a w s; th e
r u n n in g -w a te r p la n t m ig h t b e fully u tilize d fo r base lo a d th e n to o . T h e
p la n t fire d by h a r d coal was s c h e d u le d fo r h eavy use d u r in g th e w in te r
fre e z e a n d p ro b a b ly d u r in g p e r io d s o f d r o u g h t, as was th e p la n t fire d by
b ro w n coal. U tiliza tio n o f b ro w n -, b itu m in o u s-, a n d h a rd -c o a l p la n ts d e
p e n d e d o n c o m p a ra tiv e fu el costs. S trik e s by h a rd -c o a l m in e rs o r a n in
c re a se in th e c ost o f rail tr a n s p o r t o f h a r d coal w o u ld in c re a se th e d e m a n d
fo r b ro w n coal, fo r in sta n c e . L a y e re d o n th e c h a lle n g e o f s c h e d u lin g th e
u tiliz a tio n o f n a tu r a l re so u rc e s eco n o m ic ally was th e p ro b le m o f e ffic ie n t
use o f th e p la n ts, w h o se o p e r a tin g costs v a rie d , in p a r t, a c c o rd in g to th e ir
ag e . In so m e a c tu a l system s, o ld th e r m a l p la n ts w e re u sed o n ly d u r in g tim es
o f p e a k d e m a n d a n d w h e n th e m o re eco n o m ica l u n its w e re b e in g serv ice d .
T h e e c o n o m ic -m ix system d e m a n d e d c o m p le x c o n tro ls f o r sc h e d u lin g
p o w e r p la n t u tiliz a tio n . In c re a sin g ly c o m p le x in fo rm a tio n n e tw o rk s a n d
re m o te c o n tro ls w ere n e e d e d in th e c o n tro l, o r d isp a tc h in g , c e n te r. T o
fac ilitate c o n tro l, e n g in e e rs a n d m a th e m a tic ia n s w ro te e q u a tio n s d e sc rib in g
th e esse n tia l p a ra m e te rs , varia b le s, a n d fu n c tio n s o f th e d if fe re n t p o w e r
system s, a n d th e y a tte m p te d to d e sig n a n a lo g c o m p u te r s to solve th e m ost
te d io u s o f th e se . In a d d itio n , load fo re c a stin g was h e lp fu l to d is p a tc h e rs
in s c h e d u lin g p o w e r p la n t use. L o a d fo re c a stin g re q u ir e d th e k e e p in g o f
h isto ric al re c o rd s , especially load c u rv e s, a n d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t c h a n g e s
in p o p u la tio n , tra n s p o rta tio n , in d u stria liz a tio n , a n d social p a tte rn s , a n d th e
w e a th e r. All o f th e se d ire c tly a ffe c te d th e m a g n itu d e , lo cation, a n d v a ria tio n

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

o f th e lo ad . U tilities w ith h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts in th e m ix also u se d historical
h y d ro g ra p h ic d a ta a n d k e p t a r u n n in g re c o rd o f ra in fa ll, sn ow fall, r u n
o ff, a n d o th e r r e le v a n t d e ta ils. T h e s e e x te n siv e d a ta - g a lh e r in g , re c o rd
k e e p in g , a n d d a ta -p r o c e s s in g a c tiv ities w e re c a rr ie d o u t as lo n g as th e ir
cost d id n o t e x c e e d th e b e n e fits m e a s u r e d by lo w e r o p e r a tin g ex p en se s,
b e tte r lo a d cu rv e s, a n d re liab ility o f se rvice.
T h e re g io n a l e le c tric p o w e r sy stem s tim u la te d u tility m a n a g e rs a n d e n
g in e e rs to th in k in te rm s th a t a r e now asso c ia te d w ith sy ste m s e n g in e e rin g
a n d in f o rm a tio n -a n d - c o n tr o l scien c e. E n g in e e rs in o th e r fields p e tro le u m
r e f in in g , f o r e x a m p le a lso w e re th in k in g sy stem atic ally , b u t elec trica l e n
g in e e rs m a d e th e m o re su b s ta n tia l c o n tr ib u tio n to sy ste m s e n g in e e rin g .
D e ca d es e a rlie r , th e m a n a g e rs a n d d e s ig n e r s o f railw ay sy stem s h a d e x
p e r ie n c e d th e p ro b le m s o f s c h e d u lin g tr a f fic w h e re a n d w h e n it was n e e d e d ,
sw itc h in g to m e e t th a t n e e d , a n d fo re c a s tin g lo a d s. P ro d u c tio n -lin e e n g i
n e e rs h a d c o n c e rn e d th e m se lv e s w ith ro u tin g a n d flow , b u t electric al e n
g in e e rs d e a lt w ith a sy ste m in w h ich s to ra g e w as u n c o m m o n s to ra g e b a t
te rie s w e re u se d s p a rin g ly a n d th e p ro d u c t flo w ed a t th e s p e e d o f light.
So c h a lle n g e d , th e elec trica l e n g in e e r s b e g a n w o rk in g o u t a science of
in f o r m a tio n a n d c o n tro l. In th e 1920s, e n g in e e r s in c re a sin g ly u se d co n c ep ts
su c h as " c o o r d in a tio n , in te g r a tio n , c o n tr o l, flo w , c o n c e n tra tio n ,
c en traliz atio n ," a n d ratio n aliz atio n . T h is is th e la n g u a g e o f system s. A m ong
th e s e c o n c e p ts , r a tio n a liz a tio n is o f u n u s u a l in te r e s t.3
R a tio n a liz a tio n w as m u c h d isc u sse d in th e 1920s. In G e rm a n y its p r o
p o n e n ts , b o th e x p e r t a n d p o p u la r , w e re u n u s u a lly a rtic u la te a n d e n th u
siastic. T h e y g a v e R ationalisierung v a rie d a n d c o m p le x d e fin itio n s . As a p
p lie d to in d u s try in g e n e ra l, th e c o n c e p t w as d e c id e d ly in flu e n c e d by
d e v e lo p m e n ts in e le c tric s u p p ly , a n d a sso c ia te d w ith it w e re th e te rm s used
by th e e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e r s w h o w e re b u ild in g re g io n a l e le c tric system s:
coordination, integration, stability, plan, order, control, a n d system T h e ra tio n
a liz a tio n m o v e m e n t in o ld e r in d u s tr ie s , su c h as coal a n d iro n , involved
re o rg a n iz a tio n o f b o th th e p h y sical p la n t a n d th e m a n a g e m e n t s tru c tu re .
T h is r e s u lte d in in c re a se d p la n t sp e c ia liz a tio n a n d th e a lig n m e n t o f te c h
nically re la te d specializing plants. B adly located a n d e q u ip p e d plants, mines,
a n d b u sin e sse s w e re c lo sed . M o re e ffic ie n t a n d la rg e r-sc a le te c h n o lo g y an d
m a n a g e m e n t m e th o d s w e re in tr o d u c e d . E n g in e e rs w h o h a d b e e n tra in e d
in scien tific an a ly sis a n d m a n a g e rs w h o w e re fa m ilia r w ith cost a cc o u n tin g ,
la b o r effic ie n c y , a n d ra tio n a l s c h e m e s o f o rg a n iz a tio n w ere e m p lo y e d .
S ta n d a r d iz a tio n a n d r e s e a r c h w ere e n c o u ra g e d . T h e ra tio n a liz e rs, w h e th e r
m a n a g e r s o r e n g in e e rs , w a n te d to e lim in a te m a te ria l w aste, m ec h an ical
fric tio n , a n d h u m a n c o n fu s io n . T h e m o st am b itio u s o f th e ra tio n aliz ers
in te n d e d to e x te n d th e ir sc o p e b e y o n d a sin g le p la n t, b u sin e ss, age n cy , o r

.4

O n the earlier developm ent o f inform ation-and-conirol systems see Stuart Bennett, A
History o f Control Engineering, 1 8 00-1930 (New York: Pcregrinus, 1979); O tto Mayr, Zur
Eruhgeschichle der Technisclien Regelungen (M unich: O lden b o u rg, 1969); a nd T hom as P. Hughes,
Elmer Sperry, Inventor and Engineer (Baltimore: T h e Jo h n s H opkins Press, 1971).
i Robert A. Brady has provided a deeply inform ed analysis o f rationalization in The Ra
tionalization Movement in German Industry: A Study in the Evolution of Economic Planning (Berkeley:
University o f California Press, 1933); sec especially his In troduction for a definition of the
term . See also Merle C. T u rn ey . " The Rationalization o f Electricity Supply in the United
States (Ph.D. diss.. University o f Illinois. 1937), esp. pp. 70-122.

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in d u s try to e n c o m p a ss th e e n tir e e c o n o m y . T h e y d ire c te d th e ir a tte n tio n
to th e in e ffic ie n c ie s o r o ld e r a n d h e a v ie r in d u s try , b u t th e y w ere in sp ire d
by th e ir c o lle a g u e s in th e new a n d h ig h te c h n o lo g y o f electric ity su p p ly .
R a tio n a liz a tio n was a g o v e rn in g s tra te g y f o r re g io n a l u tilities in th e 1920s.
It c a rr ie d m a n y sh a d e s o f m e a n in g , b u t g e n e ra lly it s ig n ifie d o b ta in in g th e
o p tim a l c o m b in a tio n o f e c o n o m ic g a in s w ith a m in im u m in p u t o f e c o n o m ic
re so u rc e s, in c lu d in g c a p ita l a n d la b o r. In p ra c tic e it b ro u g h t, a m o n g o th e r
p olicies, th e o p tim u m u tiliz a tio n o f av a ilab le g e n e r a tio n e q u ip m e n t. N ew
a n d m o re e ffic ie n t u n its c a r rie d s te a d y base lo ad s, w h ile th e o ld e r , less
e ffic ie n t u n its w e re b r o u g h t in to o p e r a tio n o n ly d u r in g p e a k lo ad s. O b so le te
g e n e r a tin g p la n ts w e re re m o v e d fro m serv ice a n d r e p la c e d by tr a n s f o r m e r
s u b s ta tio n s th a t d r e w p o w e r, via e x te n d e d tra n sm issio n lines, fro m la rg e ,
m o d e r n p la n ts. T h e la y o u t o f tra n sm issio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n n e tw o rk s was
c a re fu lly p la n n e d to o b ta in th e m o st a p p r o p r ia te e x istin g a n d f u tu r e loads.
E c o n o m ists a n d e n g in e e rs m a d e d e ta ile d stu d ie s to e n a b le th e m to c h o o se
b e tw e e n e x te n d in g tra n s m is s io n lines o r b u ild in g new p o w e r s ta tio n s to
su p p ly a re m o te lo a d . R a tio n a liz a tio n also ca lled fo r la b o r-sa v in g e q u ip m e n t
a n d e c o n o m ie s o f scale. B e ca u se th e level o f c a p ita l in v e s tm e n t was h ig h ,
in v e n tio n s a n d in n o v a tio n s r e s u ltin g in th e m o r e e ffic ie n t u se o f cap ita l
a n d la b o r w ere c u ltiv a te d . T h e g e n e r a l e n g in e e r in g a n d m a n a g e m e n t s tr a t
egy e m p h a s iz e d th e e c o n o m ic a l u se o f la rg e , c a p ita l-in te n siv e te c h n o lo g y .
T h e s p r e a d o f a sy stem a lso g a v e its o p e r a to r s th e o p p o r tu n ity to fulfill
f u r th e r p r in c ip le s o f lo ad fa c to r. E co n o m ic m ix was th e n e w e r c o n c e p t,
b u t lo ad fa c to r also p r o v id e d g u id a n c e in lo w e rin g costs. In th e 1920s,
e m p h a s is was p la c e d o n d e v e lo p in g , by m a k in g c o m p le m e n ta ry , a d iv ersity
o f lo ad in r u r a l a g r ic u ltu ra l a n d in d u s tr ia l activities su c h as m in in g . F ro m
an e c o n o m ic v ie w p o in t, h o w e v e r, th e iso la te d sm all fa rm r e m a in e d a n u n
a ttra c tiv e lo a d b e c a u se th e cost o f d is trib u tio n to a sin g le fa rm re q u ire d a
ca p ita l in v e s tm e n t th a t w as u n lik e ly to be r e p a id th r o u g h use. As so m e
p riv a te u tilitie s n o te d , in o r d e r fo r th e m to su p p ly iso lated fa rm s at a n
a f f o rd a b le p ric e , th e y w o u ld h a v e to c h a rg e o th e r c o n s u m e rs ra te s w hich
in e ffe c t w o u ld su b sid iz e th e f a rm e rs . T h e e le c trific a tio n o f r u ra l a re a s
w o u ld b e f u r t h e r s tim u la te d in th e 1930s, h o w e v er, by re g u la to ry r e q u ir e
m e n ts a n d by th e c o o p e r a tiv e v e n tu re s o f fa r m e rs b u y in g in b u lk fro m
p riv a te p o w e r c o m p a n ie s o r g o v e rn m e n t age n cies. O n th e o th e r h a n d ,
th r o u g h sa les c a m p a ig n s f o r h o m e a p p lia n c e s su ch as stoves a n d iro n s, th e
utilities e n c o u r a g e d in c re a s e d c o n s u m p tio n by sm all c o n s u m e rs in tow ns
a n d c itie s.5
T h e s p r e a d o f re g io n a l p o w e r system s stim u la te d e n g in e e rs a n d m a n
a g e rs to e x p lo it d iv e rsity a m o n g w idely s e p a ra te d c o m m u n itie s, o r lo a d
c e n te rs , in g e n io u sly . D iffe re n c e s in living a n d w o rk in g h ab its arisin g fro m
v a ria tio n s in th e lim e o f s u n r is e a n d su n se t, c o n tra sts in te m p e r a tu r e a n d
ra in fa ll in h ig h la n d a n d lo w lan d re g io n s ev en d iffe re n c e s in social c u s
to m s s te m m in g fro m v a rie d e th n ic c o m p o sitio n a n d h isto ry w ere used to
sh a p e th e lo a d c u rv e . In th e U n ite d S tate s a few u tilities c o u ld ta k e a d
*0(1 ru ral electrification in the U nited States, sec D. Clayton Brown. Electricity for Rural
America: The Fight fo r the REA (W estport, Conn.: G reenw ood Press, 1980). O n the prom otion
o f appliances to increase load in the 1920s and 1930s, sec txrslic H annah, Electricity Before
Nationalisation (Baltimore: The Jo h n s Hopkins University Press, 1979), pp. 186-212.

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v a n ta g e o f th e d if f e r e n c e in lim e z o n e w ith in o n e a re a o f su p p ly , fo r the
e ast s id e e x p e r ie n c e d th e la te a f te r n o o n p e a k lo ad a n h o u r e a r lie r th a n
th e w est. In G e rm a n y , a utility e x te n d in g fro m o n e h isto ric p ro v in c e to
a n o th e r c o m b in e d a d v a n ta g e o u s ly th e d iv e rs e d e m a n d th a t a ro s e from
d if f e r e n t re lig io u s h o lid a y s a n d o th e r p a tte r n s o f c u ltu r e in v o lv in g th e use
o f a p p r e c ia b le a m o u n ts o f e n e r g y . D iv ersity , h o w e v e r, w as fully exp lo ita b le
o n ly if p r e d ic ta b le .
T h e c o n c e p t o f re liab ility a n d re la te d re s e rv e c ap a city w as f u r th e r h o n e d
a n d a p p lie d by th e sy ste m b u ild e rs . A sy ste m w as ju d g e d re lia b le if the
re se rv e g e n e r a tin g c a p a c ity e q u a le d th e la rg e st likely fa ilu re in th e system ,
w h e th e r o f a g e n e r a tin g u n it o r a tra n sm issio n line. W h e re se v e ral system s
in te rc o n n e c te d w ith a lie lin e o f s u ffic ie n t c a p ac ity , th e in te rc o n n e c te d
system th e n n e e d e d to c a rr y a r e s e rv e c ap a city e q u a l to th e p ro b a b le h a za rd
in th e c o m b in a tio n . T h e a s s u m p tio n w as m a d e th a t o n ly o n e o f th e m ajor
h a z a rd s w o u ld o c c u r at o n e tim e w ith in th e in te rc o n n e c tio n . I f th re e in
d e p e n d e n t system s, fo r e x a m p le , e ach h a d a likely f a ilu re o f 100,000 kw.,
t h e ir re s e rv e w o u ld to ta l 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 kw. I n te r c o n n e c te d , th e y w o u ld c a rry a
c o m b in e d re s e rv e o f o n ly 1 00,000 kw. D u rin g p e rio d s w h e n a giv en sy stem s
u n its w e re s h u t d o w n fo r m a in te n a n c e w o rk , th e excess c ap a c ity o f the
o th e r sy ste m s w ith in th e in te rc o n n e c tio n w o u ld be d ra w n u p o n . S u ch o p
e r a tin g c o n c e p ts a n d p ro c e d u re s a r e r o u tin e to d a y , b u t in th e 1920s they
w ere ju s t b e in g in tr o d u c e d .6
P r a c titio n e rs o f re g io n a l system s te c h n o lo g y a rtic u la te d th e ir co n ce p ts
a n d s tra te g ie s d u r in g th e 1920s. T h e c o n c e p ts w e re m o re in clu siv e th a n
th o s e d e fin e d by S a m u e l I n su ll f o r C h ic a g o in a n e a r lie r e ra (see p p . 216
21 ab ove). T h e sy n th e sis o f d e sig n a n d o p e r a tin g p rin c ip le s e x p r e s s e d by
e le c tric a l e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs in n u m e r o u s te c h n ic a l a rtic le s a n d books
in th e U n ite d S ta te s, G e rm a n y , G re a t B rita in , a n d e ls e w h e re c a n b e briefly
su m m a r iz e d as follow s:
1. O b ta in in g e c o n o m ie s of scale w ith la rg e g e n e r a tin g u n its (stea m a n d
w a te r tu rb in e s );
2. M a ssin g th e g e n e r a tin g u n its n e a r load c e n te r s o r e c o n o m ic a l sou rc es
o f e n e rg y a n d n e a r c o o lin g w a te r (g ia n t p o w e r p la n ts);
3. T ra n s m ittin g electricity to load c e n te rs (high-voltage tra n sm issio n lines);
4. C u ltiv a tin g m ass c o n s u m p tio n by c h a r g in g low a n d d iff e r e n tia l ra tes
a n d a llo w in g s u p p ly to c re a te d e m a n d ;
5. In te r c o n n e c tin g p o w e r p la n ts to o p tim iz e th e ir d if f e r e n t c h a ra c te ris
tics;
6. In te r c o n n e c tin g lo a d s to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f d iv e rsity a n d th e re b y raise
lo a d a n d d e m a n d fa cto rs;
7. C e n tra liz in g c o n tro l o f in te rc o n n e c te d lo a d s a n d p o w e r p la n ts (estab
lish in g d is p a tc h in g , o r s y s te m -c o o rd in a tin g , c e n te rs);
8. F o re c a stin g lo ad re q u ire m e n ts in o r d e r to a ch ie v e o p tim u m o p e ra tio n s
w ith in th e in te rc o n n e c te d system ;

0 For an excellent description and analysis ol the o|>eration o r m odern pow er systems, see
Wallace E. Brand. "N ortheast Electric Bulk Power Supply," Public Utilities Fortnightly, 9 June
1966, pp. 6 5 -8 8 ; and W. C. Astley, "T he System," in Electric System Operation, ed. B. G. A.
Skrotzki (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954). pp. 1-54.

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9.
L o w e rin g in sta lle d a n d re s e rv e c ap a city a n d c o o rd in a tin g m a in te n a n c e
s h u td o w n s th r o u g h th e e x p lo ita tio n o f p o w e r p la n t in te rc o n n e c tio n s ;
10. A c c e p tin g g o v e r n m e n t r e g u la tio n in o r d e r to estab lish a n a tu ra l m o
n o p o ly ;
11. E a r n in g a r e g u la r a n d a d e q u a te r e tu r n o n in v e stm e n t in o r d e r to o b ta in
ca p ita l a t re a s o n a b le in te re s t.
T h e s e v a rio u s p o lic ies a n d te c h n o lo g ie s w ere in te r d e p e n d e n t in th e ir fu n c
tio n in g a n d effe c ts. In th e tw e n tie s all w e re c o n s id e re d to b e in te g ra l to
th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f o p tim u m lo a d f a c to r a n d e c o n o m ic m ix. N o t o n ly was
th e p h y sical te c h n o lo g y o f re g io n a l sy stem s c o m p le x , b u t th e th e o rie s of
sy stem m a n a g e m e n t th a t ev o lv ed w e re th e m o st so p h istic a te d in n o v a tio n
sin c e th e fo rm u la tio n o f c o m p le x r a ilro a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n c e p ts in th e
n in e te e n th c e n tu r y .7
T h e a rtic u la te d p rin c ip le s w e re g u id e lin e s f o r th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f low er
costs a n d g r e a te r reliab ility o f su p p ly , th e p rim a r y o b je ctiv es o f th e re g io n a lsy stem b u ild e rs . M ost o f t h e p riv a te a n d g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d utilitie s b u ild
in g re g io n a l sy stem s h e ld to th is g o al; th e p riv a te utilities e m b r o id e r e d it
by a d d in g th e p ro f it m o tiv e . N o t all u tilitie s s o u g h t to lo w e r costs, h o w e v e r.
F o r e x a m p le , sm a ll u r b a n u tilitie s w e re c o n te n t to o b ta in a r e tu r n o n th e ir
in v e stm e n t; lo w e rin g costs by in c re a s in g size a n d c o n s u m p tio n was n o t th e ir
goal. S m all m u n ic ip a l u tilities w e re also satisfie d to s u p p ly ele ctricity a t
p rice s th a t a s s u re d a lo a d a p p r o p r ia te to th e c ap acity o f th e p la n t, a n d to
e a r n r e tu r n s th a t w e re a c c e p ta b le to th e ta x p a y e rs ( r a te p a y e rs in B rita in ).
H a v in g d e f in e d o p e r a tin g c o n c e p ts a n d o b jectiv es, th e re g io n a l utility
b u ild e rs e v a lu a te d th e p e rf o r m a n c e o f th e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e sy stem th e
p o w e r s ta tio n s, su b s ta tio n s , tra n sm issio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n lines, etc. T h e
p hysical v a ria b le s o f e a c h c o m p o n e n t a f fe c tin g th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e
b u ild e rs o b je ctiv e s w e re q u a n tif ie d as costs, a n d th e system e n g in e e r s th e n
s o u g h t m e a n s to vary th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f a c o m p o n e n t in o r d e r to lo w er
costs. T h e e ffe c t o f a v a ria tio n o n th e o th e r c o m p o n e n ts a n d o n th e c o n
n e c to rs th e n h a d to b e a s c e rta in e d . F o r th is r e a s o n it w as d e s ira b le to m o d e l
o r to d e v e lo p e q u a tio n s fo r th e system . T h is s te p w as n o t d iffic u lt, fo r th e
e n g in e e r s w e re a c c u sto m e d to s ta lin g th e physical c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e
system q u a n tita tiv e ly , a n d cost .acc o u n ta n ts a n d m a n a g e rs c o u ld th e n tr a n s
late th e se c h a ra c te ris tic s a n d re la te d effic ien cy d a ta in to costs.
S u c h a n aly se s re v e a le d im b a la n c e s o r b o ttle n e c k s w ith in th e sy stem . T h e
im b a la n c e s w e re se e n as d ra g s o n th e m o v e m e n t o f th e syslem to w a rd its
goals, esp ec ia lly th o se o f lo w e r costs a n d la rg e r size. D e sirin g to re m o v e
a n im b a la n c e o r b o ttle n e c k , th e e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e rs th e n d e f in e d th e
r e v e rs e sa lie n t in th e syslem as a p ro b le m o r set o f p ro b le m s th a t, w h e n
so lv e d , w o u ld re m o v e th e im p e d im e n t. T h e s o lu tio n to th e p ro b le m fo r
o n e c o m p o n e n t o fte n r e v e rb e ra te d th r o u g h th e system c a u sin g im b a la n c e
in o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o r c o n n e c to rs (tra n sm issio n lines fo r in stan c e), a n d
th e se w e re th e n a tta c k e d as p ro b le m s.
C h a n g e s in o u ts id e fo rces su c h as d e m a n d a n d su p p ly also a ffe c te d th e
T hese principles w ere articulated by Samuel Instill, Charles Mcrz. and A. K oepchen. for
instance. T h eir articles, reports, and speeches have been cited thro u ghout this study. See also
T hom as P. H ughes, "Regional Technological Style." in Technology and Its Impact on Soriely:
Teknisha Mmeet Symposia No. I (Stockholm: Tekniska Musec!, 1970), p. 218.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

a c h ie v e m e n t o r sy stem o b je ctiv es. S ystem costs o fte n in c re a se d b ec au se o f
c h a n g e s in s u p p ly p ric e s o r b e c a u se o f c o n d itio n s , su c h as re g u la to ry re
q u ire m e n ts , o rig in a tin g o u ts id e th e sy stem a n d b e y o n d th e c o n tro l o f its
o p e ra to rs . T h e s e effe c ts w e re u su a lly localized w ith in p a rtic u la r system
c o m p o n e n ts o r c o n n e c tio n s , h o w e v e r, a n d th u s b e c a m e id e n tifia b le as p r o b
lem s. T h e so lu tio n s to th e se p ro b le m s in tu r n o fte n c a u se d im b a la n c e s an d
th e n e e d fo r f u r th e r c o rr e c tio n . As a re s u lt o f th e o n -g o in g p ro ce ss o f
e n g in e e rin g a n d cost an a ly sis a n d p r o b le m so lv in g , o r in v e n tio n a n d d e
v e lo p m e n t, th e re g io n a l sy stem u su ally r e m a in e d in a sta le o f dy n am ic
im b a la n c e . T h e c h a n g in g e n v ir o n m e n t a n d in te r n a l g ro w th p r e v e n te d th e
a c h ie v e m e n t o f a n o p tim a l d y n a m ic e q u ilib riu m . O n ly if th e system had
b e e n clo se d n o t in flu e n c e d by e x te r n a l fo rc e s m ig h t a n e q u ilib riu m have
b e e n a c h ie v e d o n c e g ro w th e n d e d .
S y stem im b a la n c e s c o n s titu te d re v e rs e salie n ts, a n d th e ir id e n tific a tio n
as critica l p ro b le m s o fte n led to te c h n ic a l s o lu tio n s (see p p . 1 4 -1 5 above).
M a n a g e rs a n d cost a c c o u n ta n ts tu r n e d to e n g in e e rs , in v e n to rs , a n d sci
e n tists fo r th e s e s o lu tio n s. R e v e rse sa lie n ts, critica l p ro b le m s , a n d so lu tio n s
w ere last c o n s id e re d in th is s tu d y in th e d isc u ssio n o f th e p e rio d o f tra n sitio n
fro m d ire c t c u r r e n t to a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t in th e late 1880s. B ec au se th e
critica l p ro b le m s o f th e d .c. system c o u ld n o t b e a d e q u a te ly so lv ed , th e
new , a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t system d e v e lo p e d o n th e basis o f a so lu tio n th at
c o u ld n o t b e e n c o m p a s s e d in th e o ld sy ste m . In c o n tra s t, d u r in g th e 1920s,
th e e r a o f th e m a tu r e re g io n a l sy stem , critical p ro b le m s w e re so lv ed w ithin
th e c o n te x t o f th e e x is tin g sy ste m , re v e rs e s a lie n ts w e re c o rr e c te d , a n d th e
s y ste m s m o m e n tu m w as m a in ta in e d . C o n tro v e rs ie s a ro s e a b o u t a lte rn a tiv e
so lu tio n s, a n d d if f e r e n t re g io n s in c o r p o r a te d te c h n o lo g ie s w ith d if fe re n t
c h a ra c te ristic s, b u t th e se d iffe re n c e s w e re n o t c o n s id e re d to b e so g re a t as
to h e r a ld th e e m e rg e n c e o f a new system .
T h e n a tu r e o f th e c ritic al p ro b le m s so lv ed by e n g in e e rs a n d in d u stria l
scien tists in th e 1920s c an b e in d ic a te d by c o n s id e ra tio n o f so m e o f th e
o u ts ta n d in g o n e s th a t w e re c o m m o n to th e U n ite d S ta le s, G e rm a n y , an d
G re a t B rita in . C o n tro l o f th e h e te r o g e n e o u s re g io n a l sy stem , w ith its div e rse
lo a d s a n d m ix e d e n e rg y so u rc e s, w as a n e m b ra c in g critic al p ro b le m . In
a d e q u a te c o n tr o l, o r fa ilu re to c o n tin u o u s ly m a tc h su p p ly to d e m a n d , re
su lte d in instab ility in th e sy stem , w h ic h m a n ife s te d its e lf as v a ria tio n s in
v o lta g e a n d f re q u e n c y . T h e d is p a tc h in g c e n te r was th e locus o f th e p ro b le m
a n d th e site o f th e so lu tio n . T he typical c o n tro l, o r d is p a tc h in g , c e n te r o f
th e 1920s d if f e r e d fro m th e c o n tro l ro o m o f a n u r b a n sy ste m o p e r a tin g a
d e c a d e e a r lie r (see Figs. X I 11.2 a n d X I11.3).8 T h e e a r lie r c e n te r m ig h t have
h a d a m a rb le -p a n e le d sw itc h b o a rd w ith a n o r n a m e n ta l iro n fra m e w o rk .
A tte n d a n ts m a n u a lly o p e r a te d sw itc h es m o u n te d d ire c tly o n th e b o a rd .
The e a r lie r c o n tr o l ro o m was p ro b a b ly lo ca te d in th e p o w e r h o u s e to allow
p e rs o n n e l d ire c t access to th e m a c h in e ry o p e ra to r s . C o n ta c t w ith o th e r
"T h is description is bused on G eorg von Siemens, History of the House of Siemens, trans. A.
F. Rodger, 2 vols. (Fricbiirg/M unich: Albcr. 1957), 2: 142-45. Sec also Frank Gillooly. "Rein
forcing System O p erato r s Memory." F.lertncnl Worlil 74 (1919): 347-50; and System Operation.
a pam phlet issued by the New York Edison and Allied C om panies in Ju ly 1927. I am indebted
to Ms. D orothy Ellison o f the C onsolidated Edison C om pany o r New York Tor information
on the history o f load dispatching at C onsolidated Edison and for the use o f several illustra-

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S

Figure X III. 2. Involution of the loaddispatching. or systems-operations, center of

Consolidated Edison o f New York: The
system operators board in 1902.
Generators, transmission and distribution
feeder lines, and ties between central
stations are diagrammed. Tags hung on
pegs indicate the state o f system components.
The first system operators board used by
Consolidated Edison was introduced in
1898, but no photo o f it survives. Courtesy
o f the Consolidated Edison Co. o f New
York.

Figure X III.3. Evolution o f load

dispatching: Consolidated Edisons semi
automatic system operators board, 1912.
Courtesy of the Consolidated Edison Co. of
New York.

p o w e r p la n ts w as by te le p h o n e . W ith th e a d v e n t o f th e h ig h -ira n sm issio n

v o ltages o f th e 1920s, c irc u it b re a k e rs a n d sw itches h a d to be lo c ated a sa fe
d ista n c e fro m th e c o n tro l ro o m o p e ra to rs , e ith e r in a n e ig h b o rin g ro o m
o r, b e tte r, in a n o p e n -a ir sw itch y a rd . T h e n , u sin g re m o te -c o n tro l elec tric
sig n a ls to e n e rg iz e e le c tro m a g n e ts o r sm all ele ctric m o to rs, th e c o n tro l ro o m
o p e ra te d th e o il-filled c irc u it b re a k e rs a n d sw itches. By te le p h o n e in s tru c
tio n , if th e r e w ere o p e r a to r s p re s e n t, th e d is p a tc h e r m a in ta in e d c o n tro l
o v e r circuit b re a k e rs a n d tu rb o g e n e ra to rs at locations tens o r even h u n d r e d s
o f m iles aw ay. T h e c e n tra l c o n tro l ro o m fo r th e system rec eiv ed te le g ra p h

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
sig n a ls fro m re m o le se n so rs in d ic a tin g th e sta le o f v a rio u s u n a tte n d e d un its
a n d s e n t sig n a ls to c o n tro l th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f th e se u n its. T h e c e n tra l
co n tro l ro o m re c e iv e d v o ltag e , a m p e ra g e , a n d f re q u e n c y re a d in g s an d
in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e ph y sic al sta le o f tu rb in e s , b o ile rs, d a m w ater-flow ,
c irc u it b re a k e r s , a n d sw itch es in th e fa r -flu n g tra n sm issio n n e tw o rk . L arge
elec trica l m a n u f a c tu r e r s a n d sm all c o m p a n ie s sp e c ia liz in g in in s tru m e n
ta tio n fo r in sta n c e , L e e d s 8c N o r th r u p in th e U n ite d S la te s d e v e lo p e d
tra n s m itte rs , re c e iv e rs, a n d d isp la y s to p r o v id e c e n tra l c o n tro l ro o m s w ith
in fo rm a tio n by te le m e te rin g .9 C o n tro l c e n te r s in tu r n c o n s tru c te d larg e
m o d e ls o f th e e v e r- c h a n g in g sy stem s. L ig h ts o n th e m o d e ls in d ic a te d w hich
tra n sm issio n lines, g e n e r a to rs , b u s b a rs, a n d tr a n s f o r m e r s w ere in u se; th e
lig h ts fo r clo se d sw itch e s w e re o n e c o lo r, th o se f o r o p e n sw itc h es a n o th e r.
S u r r o u n d e d by h is in s tru m e n ts a n d c o n tro ls , th e d is p a tc h e r b e c a m e a p o p
u la r sy m b o l o f h ig h tec h n o lo g y in th e tw e n tie s .10
S e rv in g as a re f e r e n c e fo r th e c o n tro l o f sy stem s, th e fr e q u e n c y m e te t
w as a n e x tr e m e ly im p o r ta n t in s tr u m e n t fo r th e d is p a tc h e r. F o r form erly
a u to n o m o u s sy ste m s to m e rg e o r fo r sy stem s to e x c h a n g e p o w e r by in te r
c o n n e c tio n , p re c ise s ta n d a rd iz a tio n a n d re g u la tio n o f fre q u e n c y was re
q u ire d . In th e U n ite d S tates, 6 0 cycles w as th e s ta n d a r d fr e q u e n c y fo r most
sy stem s; 5 0 cycles p re v a ile d in G e rm a n y ; a n d B rita in w as in th e p ro c e ss ol
a b a n d o n in g its p le th o ra o f v a ria tio n s a n d s e ttlin g o n 5 0 cycles. A system
c o n tro lle r k n ew th a t if th e fre q u e n c y o f th e sy stem v a rie d w ith in tolerable
lim its a r o u n d th e s ta n d a r d , th e su p p ly o f e n e r g y in to th e system w ould
e q u a l th e e n e r g y ta k e n by lo a d a n d losses. I f th e fre q u e n c y fell c o n sid erab ly ,
it w as his jo b to sig n al th e p o w e r sta tio n s to in c re a s e e n e rg y su p p ly by
fu e lin g b o ile rs m o re ra p id ly in th e r m a l p la n ts o r by in c r e a s in g w a te r flow
in h y d ra u lic in sta lla tio n s. I f th e fre q u e n c y ro se sig n ific a n tly , h e w o u ld call
fo r a d e c r e a s e in th e flow o f e n e r g y in to th e sy stem . T h e fr e q u e n c y m e te r
g av e a d ire c t re a d in g o f th e fre q u e n c y o f th e w aves o f a lte r n a tin g c u r re n t,
b u t m o re im p o rta n tly p ro v id e d a n in d ire c t in d ic a tio n o f th e sp e e d o f ro
ta tio n o f th e tu r b o g e n e r a to r s . T h e ro to rs o f th e g e n e r a to r s felt th e load
o n th e sy ste m in th e s tr e n g th o f th e m a g n e tic field w ith in a n d a g a in st w hich
th e y tu r n e d . T h e f re q u e n c y o f a p o w e r sy stem w as a n a lo g o u s to th e rev
o lu tio n s o f th e e a rly W all s te a m e n g in e s , th e g o v e r n o rs (c o n tro lle rs) of
w hich in c re a se d o r d e c re a s e d s te a m flow to m a in ta in a b a la n c e b etw een
e n e rg y in p u t a n d o u tp u t. In v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs d e s ig n e d au to m a tic
fe e d b a c k c o n tro ls , fo r fre q u e n c y r e g u la tio n a n d q u ic k r e s p o n s e w ere critical
p ro b le m s , b u t b e c a u se th e a u to m a te d sy ste m w as so c o m p lic a te d , m an u al
c o n tro l o f g e n e ra tio n w as th e g e n e ra l e x p e d ie n t in th e 1 9 2 0 s."
I h e fo cu s o n p ro b le m s o f sy stem c o n tro l is re v e a le d by th e list o f topics
d e a lt w ith in p a p e rs p u b lis h e d by th e A m e ric a n In s titu te o f E lectrical E n
g in e e rs fro m 1929 to 1934. T h e to p ics d if f e r e d ra d ic ally fro m th o se of
p a p e rs p u b lis h e d a g e n e r a tio n e a rlie r. O f th e tw e n ty -fo u r new topics in
tro d u c e d , m o re th a n h a ll p e r ta in e d to p o w e r sy stem s a n d tran sm issio n .

Leeds Sc N o rih ru p has deposited its papers in the archives of the E leuthcrian Mills
Historical Library in W ilmington (Creenvillc). Del.
"Similar control centers were developed (rom o th er industries. See, for exam ple, Eduard
Schmiiing, "Process C ontrol Rooms," IIA S t lirvirw 2-t (1974): 66-71.
" U ennetl, A llulory of Control Engineering, pp. 166-67. 171.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
T h o s e th a t w e re w ritte n a b o u t m o st fr e q u e n tly w e re in te r c o n n e c te d p o w e r
sy stem s a n d stab ility "; a u to m a tic sta tio n s, te le m e te rin g , a n d su p e rv iso ry
c o n tr o l ; A -C d is trib u tio n n e tw o rk s a n d re lay s ; a u to m a tic c o n tro l of
fre q u e n c y a n d v o lta g e re g u la tio n " ; " tr a n s fo rm e rs ta p c h a n g in g u n d e r
lo a d a n d s u r g e - p r o o f " ; m e rc u r y a rc re c tifie rs a n d in v e rte rs " ; "oil c irc u it
b r e a k e r s th e o r y , d e s ig n , a n d te s tin g ; " im p u ls e v o lta g e g e n e r a tio n ,
m e a s u r e m e n t, a n d te stin g " ; a n d new ty p e s o f fu ses, lig h tn in g a r re s te r s ,
p ro te c tiv e g a p s, a r c in g h o rn s , sw itc h g e a r, e tc . 12
T h e list o f su b jec ts also re v ea ls a n o th e r m a jo r critica l p r o b le m s a re a
p e r ta in in g to re g io n a l system s, in su la tio n . S u r g e - p r o o f tr a n s f o r m e r s , oilfilled c irc u it b re a k e rs , im p u lse v o ltage, a n d n ew ty p es o f fu se s a n d lig h tn in g
a r r e s te r s all r e la te to h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n a n d esp ec ia lly to th e in
su la tio n m a d e n e ce ssa ry by it. S u rg e s a r e h ig h , tra n s ie n t v o ltag e s c a u se d
by s h o r t c irc u its o r lig h tn in g ; c irc u it b re a k e rs p r e s e n t s e rio u s in su la tio n
p ro b le m s ; im p u lse vo ltag e s a re g e n e r a te d in e x p e rim e n ts to te st th e in
s u la tio n u se d in p o w e r sy stem s; a n d p ro te c tiv e g a p s a n d a rc in g h o r n s a re
d e s ig n e d to c a rry o ff, o r in te r r u p t, o v e rlo a d s c a u se d by lig h tn in g b e f o re
th e e x tr e m e o v e rlo a d d a m a g e s e q u ip m e n t; m e rc u r y a rc re c tifie rs p ro v id e
a m e a n s o f c o n v e r tin g a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t to d ire c t c u r r e n t in h ig h -v o lta g e ,
u n iv e rsa l system s. T h e s e w e re th e critic al e le ctrica l p ro b le m s o f th e ra p id ly
ev o lv in g re g io n a l system s.
T h e n e e d to d e v e lo p in su la tio n th a t w o u ld a d e q u a te ly p ro te c t e q u ip m e n t
a n d tra n sm issio n to w e rs fro m h ig h vo ltag e s, s u rg e s b r o u g h t o n by sh o rt
c irc u its, a n d th e tr a n s ie n t e x tr e m e s ca u se d by lig h tn in g w as so g e n e ra l th a t
elec trica l e n g in e e r s a n d sc ie n tists in th e 1920s a n a ly z e d , c a te g o riz e d , a n d
q u a n tifie d th e ir e x p e r ie n c e a n d e x p e rim e n ts to esta b lish a scien c e o f in
su la tio n . H o w a c a d e m ic s scientifically a p p r o a c h e d th e h ig h -v o lta g e p r o b
lem o f c o ro n a a b o u t th e t u r n o f th e c e n tu ry h a s a lre a d y b e e n e x p lo re d
(see p p . 1 5 8 -6 0 a b ove). In th e tw e n ties, so m e o f th e sa m e r e s e a rc h e r s a n d
m a n y o th e rs tu r n e d to th e s tu d y a n d d e sig n o f in su la tio n . P o rc e la in in
su la to rs o f c o m p le x d e sig n a n d u n u s u a l m a te ria l p r o p e rtie s w e re n e e d e d
to s u s p e n d th e tra n sm issio n lines fro m th e g re a t c ro ss-c o u n try to w ers;
b u sh in g s w e re n e e d e d to c a rry lin es in to tra n s f o r m e r s ; a n d circ u it b re a k e r s
h a d to b e a p p ro p ria te ly in s u la te d w ith oil. T h e s e w e re so m e o f th e specifics
th a t fell u n d e r th e g e n e ra l ru b r ic o f in s u la tio n .13 A s h a d b e e n th e ca se.w ith
in s tru m e n ts fo r system c o n tro l, so m e c o m p a n ie s, su ch as O h io B rass in th e
U n ite d S ta te s, sp e cializ ed in so lv in g th e c ritical p ro b le m s o f in su la tio n (see
Fig. X I I I . 7, p. 38 0 , b e lo w ).14
11Charles F. Scoll, "T h e Institute's First H alf Century," Electrical Engineering 53 (1934):
666. T h e critical problem s o f transmission were discussed in Frank Baum, Some Power
T ransm ission Economics," AIEE Proceedings 26 (1907): 743-57; P. W. Sothm an, Problems
o f H igh-T ension T ransm ission Lines," ibid. 33 (1914): 201-14; and P. Junkcrsfcld. "Distri
bution o f Electrical Energy: R eport o f the Sub-Com mittee on D istribution, ibid., pp. 2 3541.
G eorg Boll, "N alionale und internalionalc Verbundw irlschaft a u f Hoch- und Hochstsp a nnungslcilungcn," in Das Zeitalter der Elektriiitat (Frankfort on the Main: VDEW, 1967),
p. 78; and idem , Geschichte des Verbundbetriebes (Frankfort on the Main: VWEW, 1969), pp.
129-38.
14 I am indebted to Jo sep h T . Lusignan, form erly an engineer at the O hio Brass Com pany,
for calling my attention to the contributions o f A. O. Austin and O hio Brass to the developm ent
o f the m o d ern cap-and-pin suspension insulator for high-voltage transmission lines. A mong

370

F ig u re x in .4 . Network analyzer. 1937.

Courtesy of the Genera^ ElecMf Co^.

'

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

A re v e rse sa lie n t o f th e e v e r-e x p a n d in g , c o m p le x re g io n a l sy stem s was
th e in ab ility o f e n g in e e rs to p rec isely an a ly z e a n d d e fin e th e m w ith e q u a
tio n s th a t sh o w e d fu n c tio n a l re la tio n s h ip s . E ffo rts to w rite th e se e q u a tio n s
re s u lte d in c o m p lic a te d m a th e m a tic a l p ro b le m s , th e so lu tio n o f w hich was
te d io u s a n d tim e -c o n s u m in g , if n o t im p o ssib le. W ith o u t a p re c ise a n d clear
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e sy ste m s, e n g in e e rs h a d to re ly o n e m p iric a l, o r cuta n d -try , m e th o d s to im p ro v e sy stem p e rfo rm a n c e . E n g in e e rs w h o w ere
th o r o u g h ly tr a in e d in m a th e m a tic s d e fin e d th is re v e rs e sa lie n t as a p ro b le m
ca llin g fo r new m o d e s o f e q u a tio n so lv in g a n d m o re c o m p le x a n a lo g m odels
o f th e system s. In th e U n ite d S ta te s, e n g in e e rs a t W e s tin g h o u s e Electric
a n d G e n e r a l E le ctric a sse m b le d m in ia tu r e a n a lo g p o w e r sy stem s in o r d e r
to in v e stig a te th e stab ility p r o b le m (see Fig. X I 11.4). A t th e M assachusetts
In s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y , P ro f e s s o r V a n n e v a r B u sh ( 1 8 9 0 -1 9 7 4 ) o f th e elec
tric al e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t a n d tw o o f h is g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts , H a ro ld
H a z e n a n d H u g h S p e n c e r, also e m b a r k e d o n th e d e sig n o f a d evice to
sim u la te a c o m p le x p o w e r sy stem . T h e y u se d sm all tr a n s f o r m e r s as g e n
e r a to r s a n d m o to r s , v a ria b le re sisto rs as lo a d s, a n d a rtific ia l tra n sm issio n
lines. T h e s im u la to r h a d th r e e g e n e r a tin g sta tio n s, 2 0 0 m iles o f lin e , a n d
six lo a d c e n te r s e n c o m p a s s e d in a sp a c e o f 50 s q u a r e fe e t. D ra w in g on
ad v ic e fro m G e n e r a l E le ctric e n g in e e r s a n d o th e r s , th e M .I.T . g r o u p com p ie te d th e d ev ice , th e n e tw o rk a n a ly z e r , in 1929. D u r in g th e n e x t two
d e c a d e s n u m e r o u s u tilities a n d e le c tric m a n u f a c tu r e r s u se d th e an a ly z er
in so lv in g sy stem p ro b le m s . S im ila r d ev ices c alled n e tw o rk c a lc u la to rs a n d
a.c. c a lc u la tin g b o a rd s w ere b u ilt e ls e w h e r e .15
N e tw o rk a n a ly z e rs m a d e e x p e r im e n ta tio n p o ssib le by v a ry in g th e a r
ra n g e m e n t a n d size o f g e n e ra to rs, tra n sm issio n lines, a n d tra n s fo r m e r banks.
M e a s u rin g th e e ffe c ts o f v a ria tio n s in o n e o r se v e ral c o m p o n e n ts o n the
p e r f o r m a n c e o f o th e r c o m p o n e n ts , th e s e a n a ly z e rs te ste d th e sy ste m s sta
bility. T h e re su lts o b ta in e d o n ly a p p r o x im a te d th e re a l e v e n ts in th e fullscale sy ste m , h o w e v e r, fo r th e a c tu a l e v e n ts w e re lo o c o m p le x fo r exact
sim u la tio n .
E n g in e e rs a n d p h y sicists also w a n te d to b e a b le to w rite g e n e ra l system

the articles w ritten by A ustin a re Insulation o f Som e o f the H igher Voltage Lines" (Paper
presented at th e In tern atio n al H igh-T ension Congress. Paris. 18-27 Ju n e 1931); and "A
Laboratory for Making Lightning and O th e r T ests u p o n Full Sized Insulator Strings and
Tow ers" (Paper p resen ted at the In tern atio n al H igh T ension Congress. Paris, 6 -15 June
1929). O n the developm ent o f transm ission towers and suspension insulators, see also H. W.
Duck, "Some New M ethods in H igh-T ension Line C o n stru ctio n, A IEE Proceedings 26 (1907):
9 8 1 -87 ; and E. M. H ewlett, "A New T y p e o f Insulator for H igh-T ension T ransm ission Lines,"
ibid.. pp. 9 7 5-79.
ISI am indebted to Professor Karl W ildes o f the M .I.T .'s D epartm ent o f Electrical Engi
n eering for the inform ation on which this account o f the netw ork analyzer is based. Professor
W ildes is w riting a history o f the electrical engin eerin g d ep artm e n t at M .I.T. O ther sources
for the background and invention o f th e analyzers a re Charles L. Fortescue, "M ethod of
Sym metrical C oordinates A pplied to the Solution o f Polyphase N etworks," AIEE Transactions
37 (1918): 6 2 8 -71 6; th e p a p er by H. L. H azen, O. R. S ch u rig .an d M. L. G ardner, "Abridgm ent
o r 'T h e M .I.T. Network Analyzer.' " AIEE Journal 49 (1930): 872-75: H. A. T ravers and W.
W. Parker, "An A ltern atin g -C u rren t Calculating Board," The Electric Journal 27 (1930): 26670; an d Eric Gross, "N etw ork A nalyzer Facilities Keep Pace with Industry G row th, Electric
Light and Power 34 (1956): 82 -8 5 . T h e last-nam ed article lists the location and dale o f in
stallation o f forty netw ork analyzers betw een 1929 and 1956.

377

T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
e q u a tio n s a n d to solve th e s e in a re a so n a b le a m o u n t o f tim e . V a n n e v a r
B u sh s u m m a riz e d th e f ru s tr a tio n o f th o se w h o w e re a tte m p tin g to solve
e q u a tio n s fo r th e syslem :
Electrical engineering, for exam ple, having dealt with substantially linear
networks th ro u g h o u t the greater p art o f its history, is now rapidly introducing
into these m ethods elem ents the non-linearity o f which is their salient feature,
and is baffled by the mathem atics thus presented and requiring solution.
Mathematical physicists are continually being ham pered by the complexity
ra th e r than the profundity o f the equations."1
T h e in a b ility to a n a ly z e a d e q u a te ly , solve e q u a tio n s e x p e d itio u sly , a n d d e
sig n a n d p r e d ic t well was o b v io u sly th r e a te n in g to r e ta r d th e f u r t h e r d e
v e lo p m e n t o f re g io n a l system s.
B e tw e e n 1927 a n d 1931 B u sh a n d his asso ciate s a t M .l.T . in v e n te d a
c o n tin u o u s in te g r a p h f o r so lv in g se c o n d -d e g re e e q u a tio n s a n d th e d if f e r
e n tia l a n a ly z e r (a d e v ic e w ith m e c h a n ic a l c o m p o n e n ts a n d a n e le ctrica l
d riv e ) f o r so lv in g d iff e re n tia l e q u a tio n s . T h e d if fe re n tia l a n a ly z e r, a n a n
alo g d ev ice, n o t o n ly p r o v e d u s e fu l in so lv in g p o w e r sy stem p ro b le m s b u t
also s tim u la te d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g e n e ra l-p u r p o s e a n a lo g a n d d ig ita l
c o m p u te r s (see Figs. X I1 1.5 a n d X I1 1.6). In th e th irtie s, e n g in e e rs a t th e
U n iv e rsity o f P e n n sy lv a n ia b u ilt a d if fe re n tia l a n a ly z e r to h e lp solve system
stability p ro b le m s . D u r in g W o rld W a r II , physicists a n d e n g in e e rs th e r e
in v e n te d a n d b u ilt th e E N 1A C , th e w o rld s first g e n e ra l-p u r p o s e d ig ita l
c o m p u te r. T h e w o rk o n th e E N IA C w as in flu e n c e d by th e e a rlie r e x p e
rie n c e w ith th e d if f e r e n tia l a n a ly z e r .17
R e g io n a l sy ste m s p ro b le m so lv in g o c c u rr e d m ostly w ith in in stitu tio n a l
settin g s. In th e 1880s in d iv id u a l in v e n to rs h a d m a d e a n e ffe ctiv e c o n tri
b u tio n to th e e m e r g in g fie ld s o f te c h n o lo g y su c h as ele c tric su p p ly , b u t by
th e 1920s th e m a tu r e sy ste m s h a d a c c u m u la te d in stitu tio n s th a t te n d e d to
e x c lu d e in d iv id u a ls u n s u p p o r te d by collegial activity a n d e x p e n siv e e q u ip
m e n t d e s ig n e d sp e cifica lly to re s p o n d to th e p ro b le m s o f a w e ll-d e fin e d
syslem . D u rin g th e tw e n tie s, in v e n tio n , r e s e a rc h , a n d d e v e lo p m e n t c o n tin
u e d to b e c a rr ie d o u t in th e a c a d e m ic w o rld (as w o rk o n th e d iff e re n tia l
a n a ly z e r illu stra te s) a n d in th e la b o ra to rie s o f th e elec trica l m a n u f a c tu r
e r s . 18
T h e h ig h -v o lta g e la b o ra to rie s th a t flo u ris h e d in th e 1920s w e re a m o n g
th e n ew e st o f th e r e s e a rc h o rg a n iz a tio n s to fo rm close ties w ith th e re g io n a l
p o w e r system s. S e t u p by electric al m a n u fa c tu re rs , u n iv e rsitie s, a n d in18 V annevar Bush, T h e Differential Analyzer: A New Machine for Solving D ifferential
E quations," Franklin Institute Journal 212 (1931): 448.
l7See T h o m as P. H ughes. Eniac: Invention o f a Com puter," Technikgeschichte 42 (1975):
147-65; and H erm an G oldstinc, The Computer from Pascal to von Neuman (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1972).
10T h e discussion o f critical problem s has been limited in this section to the electrical syslem
p er sc, but engineers and inventors were also seeking solutions to critical problem s in turbines
and boilers for regional systems. T h ese are discussed by Donald A. Wilson in "T he Economic
Development o f the Electricity S upply Industry in G reat Britain, 1919-1939" (D. Phil., O xford
University, 1951), p. 234. Wilson provides an inform ed analysis o f British technical practices,
as c om pared to A m erican practices, in the field o r electricity supply. He concludes that British
technical decisions, although less impressive in isolation, were almost always a p propriate to
Britain's economic circumstances.

378
Figure X III.I. Vannrvar Bush (left) and
Harold llaien (second from right) at the
product inlegraph, a step in the
development of analog computers which
preceded the differential anatyier. Courtesy
o f the M .I.T. Museum and Historical
Collections. Cambridge, Mass.

Figure X III.6. Vannevar Bush unth the

differential analyzer completed in 1931.
Courtesy o f the M .I.T. Museum and
Historical Collections, Cambridge, Mass.

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

379

T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
d u s lr ia l asso ciatio n s, th e se la b o ra to rie s w e re p a r t o f th e lo n g - s ta n d in g tr e n d
th a t led e n g in e e r s w ith a scien tific a p p ro a c h a n d scien tists w ith in d u s tria l
in te re s ts to tu r n th e ir a tte n tio n to th e so lu tio n o f th e critica l p ro b le m s o f
ev o lv in g p o w e r a n d lig h t system s. T h e tr e n d w as easily d is c e rn ib le by th e
tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry , w h e n th e p ro b le m s o f p o ly p h a se sy stem s w e re b e in g
a d d re s s e d by e n g in e e rs w h o d re w o n elec trica l th e o ry , te ste d h y p o th e s e s
in la b o ra to ry a n d field e x p e r im e n ts , d e r iv e d q u a n tita tiv e e q u a tio n s , a n d
o b ta in e d d a ta e x p r e s s in g th e re la tio n s h ip s a m o n g c o m p le x fa c to rs in f lu
e n c in g th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f e le c tric system s.
In G e rm a n y in 1921, tw e n ty u tilities a n d te n m a n u f a c tu r in g firm s e s
ta b lish e d th e R e se a rc h C e n te r fo r H ig h V o lta g e A p p a ra tu s (S tu d ie n g e sellsch a ft f iir H o c h s ts p a n n u n g s a n la g e n E .V .) T h e c e n te r c o n c e n tr a te d o n
p r o b le m s a sso c ia te d w ith in su la tio n , lig h tn in g , s h o r t c irc u its, g r o u n d in g ,
elec trica l in te r f e r e n c e fro m h ig h v o lta g e tra n sm issio n w ith e le c tric c o m
m u n ic a tio n s, a n d ice a n d w in d lo a d in g o n tra n sm issio n to w e rs a n d lines.
T h r o u g h fu n d a m e n ta l re s e a rc h , scien tists a n d e n g in e e r s s o u g h t to u n d e r
sta n d th e p h e n o m e n a . T h e c e n te r also b e c a m e k n o w n f o r its d e v e lo p m e n t
o f m e a s u rin g d e v ic e s .19 M o re o v e r, A E G a n d S ie m e n s, th e G e rm a n m a n
u fa c tu re rs , e s ta b lis h e d facilities fo r in v e stig a tin g h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n
a n d fo r d e v e lo p in g sy stem a p p a r a tu s .20
In 1926 S ta n f o r d U n iv e rsity lo o k th e le ad a m o n g U .S . u n iv e rsitie s in
esta b lish in g a h ig h -v o lta g e la b o ra to ry . T h e u n iv e rs ity s lo c a tio n n o t fa r
s o u th o f S an F ran cisc o , C a lifo rn ia , h a d s tim u la te d th e g ro w th o f its e le ctric al
e n g in e e r in g a ctivities, a n d C a lif o r n ia s u tilities, w ith th e ir p io n e e rin g h ig h v o lta g e system s, h e lp e d s u p p o r t th e re s e a rc h p r o g ra m o f th e h ig h -v o lta g e
la b o ra to ry . H a r ris R y an , a n a c a d e m ic w h o h a d d o n e m a jo r re s e a r c h o n
h ig h -v o lta g e c o r o n a e ffe c ts (see p. 158 ab ove), h e a d e d th e la b o ra to ry , w hich
was la te r n a m e d fo r h im . In 1926 th e la b o r a to r y c o n c e n tra te d o n th e
c h a ra c te ristic s o f a ir as a h ig h -v o lta g e in s u la to r, oils as in s u la to rs in tr a n s
fo rm e rs a n d sw itch e s, a n d tra n sm issio n -lin e in su la to rs a n d in su la tio n m a
te ria ls w o rk in g a t 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 volts a n d u p w a rd . A n o th e r g o a l o f t h e S ta n fo r d
c e n te r w as to s tu d y th e n a tu r e o f lig h tn in g . A n a n te c e d e n t r e s e a r c h facility
a t th e u n iv e rsity h a d b r o u g h t c o lla b o ra tio n b e tw e e n e n g in e e r s f ro m th e
Pacific G as & E le ctric C o m p a n y a n d th e S o u th e rn C a lifo rn ia E d iso n C o m
p a n y a n d facu lty m e m b e rs o f S ta n f o r d s electric al e n g in e e r in g d e p a r tm e n t
in r e s e a rc h a n d e x p e r im e n ta tio n th a t c u lm in a te d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
in s u la to rs fo r th e s ta te s 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -v o ll tra n sm issio n lines, o n e fro m th e S ie r
ra s to S an F ra n cisc o a n d th e o th e r fro m th e S ie rra s to L os A n g e les. By
1929, g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts o n fellow ships also w e re e n g a g e d in th e S ta n fo r d
la b o r a to r y s p r o g r a m .21
O n e o f th e w o r ld s m o st h ig h ly pu b lic iz ed h ig h -v o lta g e la b o ra to rie s was
lo c a te d a t th e S c h e n e c ta d y p la n t o f G e n e ra l E lectric (w hich is n o t to he

10 Boll, "N ationale iind internalionalc V crbundw irtschafl," p. 78.

* Von Siemens, House o f Siemens. 2: 1 0 5 -1 1.
'T w o inform ation releases d ated Stanford University, 17 Septem ber 1926. and a report
on the laboratory's activities dated 15 February 1929, H arrisJ. Ryan Collection (SC 25, Misc.
Box 4), S tanford University Archives, Stanford, Calir. I am indebted to Professor H ugh II.
Skilling, fo rm er executive head o f Stanford's D epartm ent o f Electrical E ngineering, for in
form ation about lla r r i s j . Ryan and high-voltage research.

380

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

e X III.7. High-voltage laboratory oj the Ohio Insulator Co. (Ohio Ihass Co.): Outdoor impulse gaps (lef t an d right), test sertlon of 220-kiloansniLssion towers (left). Prom A. O. Austin, A Laboratory for Making Lightning" (paper presented at the International High Tension Congies
6 - /5 June 1929), p. 6.

c o n t u s e d w ith th e G e n e r a l E le c tr ic R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y ) . T h e p u b lic ity

p ro m o tin g p o p u la r c o n su m p tio n o f e le c tricity id e n tifie d th e fa m o u s C h a r le s
S ie in m c i z a s th e p r e s i d i n g g e n iu s o f th e h ig h - v o lt a g e fa c ility , b u t F . W .
P e e k , J r . , c a r r ie d o n r e s e a r c h lh a i n o t o n ly a t t r a c t e d th e a t te n tio n o f in
d u s t r ia l a n d a c a d e m ic e n g in e e r s b u t in f lu e n c e d th e d e s ig n o f G E s a p p a
r a tu s a s w e ll (s e e F ig . X I 1 1.8 ) . A s a c a s e h is t o r y . P e c k 's r e s e a r c h s h e d s lig h t

011

th e h ig h - v o lt a g e e x p e r im e n t a t i o n th at w a s d o n e f o r r e g io n a l p o w e r

s y s t e m s a s w e ll a s th e e v o lu tio n th at h a d ta k e n p la c e in th e r e la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n s c ie n c e a n d t e c h n o lo g y sin c e th e e a r ly y e a r s o f p o w e r tr a n sm is sio n
(s e e p p . 1 5 6 - 5 8 a b o v e ) .
P e c k , lik e R y a n , h a d a t t e n d e d a u n iv e r s it y th at in its e a r l y y e a r s w on
r e n o w n f o r its c o u r s e in e le c tr ic a l e n g in e e r i n g . H e g r a d u a t e d f r o m S t a n f o r d
w ith a n A .U . in e n g in e e r i n g in 1 9 0 5 . T h e h ig h ly i m p o r ta n t d e v e lo p m e n t s
in h ig h - v o lt a g e tr a n s m is s io n th at w e r e th e n ta k in g p la c e in C a li f o r n i a , a n d
(h a t u n d o u b t e d ly m a d e a s t r o n g i m p r e s s io n o n th e y o u n g s t u d e n t , h e lp
e x p la in P e e k 's c o m m it m e n t to th e f ie ld . H is f o r m a l e d u c a tio n w a s co m -

381

T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S

Figure XIU.8. F. W. Peek, Jr. (far

right, seated), with associates and visiting
scientists at GE's Pittsfield works, 12 April
1933. Courtesy o f the General Electric Co.,
Schenectady, N.Y.

p le te d s o m e y e a r s la t e r w h e n h e r e c e iv e d th e M .E .E . f r o m U n io n C o lle g e
w h ile w o r k i n g f o r th e G e n e r a l E le c tr ic C o m p a n y in S c h e n e c t a d y , N e w Y o r k .
P e e k jo i n e d G e n e r a l E le c tr ic in 1 9 0 5 , a n d e v e n t h o u g h th e i m p o r ta n c e
o f e n g in e e r i n g r e s e a r c h o n h ig h - v o lt a g e t r a n s m is s io n w a s o n ly b e g in n in g
to b e r e c o g n iz e d , h e f o u n d th e m e a n s to p u r s u e h is i n te r e s t, r ig g in g h is
f ir s t a p p a r a t u s in a n o ld b o x c a r in a r e m o te c o r n e r o f th e S c h e n e c t a d y
p l a n t . . . e x p e r im e n t in g , r e c o r d i n g , s t u d y in g , a n d r e b u i ld in g . In 19 0 9 h e
w a s o n e o f th e fir s t e n g in e e r s to jo i n C h a r le s S t e in m e t z s c o n s u lt in g e n
g in e e r i n g d e p a r t m e n t a t S c h e n e c t a d y . It a p p e a r s th a t h e w a s e n c o u r a g e d
b y S te in m e tz in th e h ig h - v o lt a g e r e s e a r c h , b u t w a s n o t u n d e r h is c lo se
s u p e r v is io n . A G E e n g in e e r , n o tin g th e d i f f ic u lt y o f a s s ig n in g c r e d it w h e n
c lo s e ly a s s o c ia t e d in v e s t ig a t o r s w o r k s im u lt a n e o u s ly o n s im ila r p r o b le m s ,
re c e n t ly o b s e r v e d th a t P e e k w a s an in d e p e n d e n t i n v e s tig a t o r w h o c a r r ie d
o n m u c h in h is o w n w a y , w o r k e d o u t h is c irc u it s (im p u ls e g e n e r a t o r s )
m o r e o r le ss in d e p e n d e n t l y , a lt h o u g h it w o u ld b e r e a s o n a b le to s u p p o s e
th a t S le in m e t z , a s h e a d o f th e la b o r a t o r y , w o u ld b e in f o r m e d a s to th e
w o r k P e e k a n d th e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f th e la b o r a t o r y w e r e p e r f o r m in g a n d
th e a p p a r a t u s th a t th e y w e r e u s i n g .22
P e e k g a in e d a su b s ta n tia l r e p u t a tio n f o r h is r e s e a r c h o n h ig h - v o lt a g e
p h e n o m e n a , e s p e c ia lly th e c o r o n a e f f e c t a n d lig h tn in g . T h e sc ie n tific c h a r W. W. Lewis t o j . H. H agcngulh, 16 May 1968 (a Icllcr loaned to the au th o r by Lewis).
T h e following pages on Peck are based in part on Thom as P. H ughes, "T he Science T ec h
nology Interaction: T h e Case o f High-Voltage Power T ransmission Systems." Technology and
Culture 17 (1976): 65l-5 9 .

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

a c te r o f his re s e a r c h is a tte s te d to by his p u b lic a tio n o f tw e n ty sc holarly
p a p e rs in A IE E Transactions b e tw e e n 1911 a n d 1931. T h e a rtic le s, especially
th e se rie s o f f o u r p a p e r s o n T h e E ffe c t o f T r a n s ie n t V o lta g e s o n D ielec
tric s, s e rio u sly q u e s tio n th e d o u b tf u l p r o p o s itio n th a t e n g in e e rs a n d Peek
was e m p lo y e d as a n e n g in e e r a n d w as so title d d o n o t p u b lish . P e ek also
w ro te a b o o k , w h ic h is still u s e d , e n title d Dielectric Phenomena in High-Voltage
Engineering .23
P e e k s e d u c a tio n a n d p u b lic a tio n s su g g e st th a t h is a p p r o a c h to e n g i
n e e r in g p r o b le m s w as sc ien tific. H o w e v e r, th e p r im a r y in flu e n c e o n his
ch o ic e o f p r o b le m s w as n o t sc ie n tific . F ro m his e x p e rie n c e P ee k b elieved
th a t e c o n o m ic s n o t scien c e c a lle d th e te c h n o lo g ic a l tu n e . T h e in c rea se s
in tra n s m is s io n v o lta g e s w e re d e c id e d u p o n , h e w ro te , " p u r e ly fro m th e
e c o n o m ic v ie w p o in t. T h e re a l a n d a n tic ip a te d d e m a n d fo r la rg e a m o u n ts
o f p o w e r at g r e a te r d is ta n c e s fro m m a jo r p o w e r sites d ic ta te d th e striv in g
fo r h ig h e r v o lta g es, a n d th e h ig h e r v o ltag e s b r o u g h t th e tec h n o lo g ica l
p r o b le m s , su c h as c o ro n a s. In his e a rly e n g in e e r in g r e s e a rc h P e e k fo cu sed
o n th e c o ro n a p ro b le m (see p p . 1 5 9 -6 0 ab o v e), b u t in a b o u t 1913 h is in te re s t
s h ifte d to th e e ffe c ts o f lig h tn in g u p o n h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n lin es a n d
h e c o n tin u e d to w o rk in th is fie ld u n til his u n tim e ly d e a th in a n au to m o b ile
a c c id e n t o n 2 6 J u ly 1933.
T h e availab ility o f a sc ie n tific in s tr u m e n t, a n im p u ls e g e n e r a to r , was a
m a jo r re a s o n w hy P e ek s h ifte d his a tte n tio n to lig h tn in g r a t h e r th a n to
a n o th e r re v e r s e sa lie n t in th e e x p a n d in g h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n fro n t.24
T h e m a c h in e was a v a ilab le b e c a u se P eek h a d d e s ig n e d a n d c o n s tr u c te d a
2 0 0 -k ilo v o lt im p u ls e g e n e r a to r to in v e stig a te c o ro n a s .25 In o r d e r to use th e
m a c h in e f o r lig h tn in g re se a rc h , h e first d e te r m in e d th e v o lta g e a n d wave
fo rm o f r e a l lig h tn in g (in c lin a tio n o f w ave fr o n t, tail, etc.). E sta b lish in g th e
c h a ra c te ris tic s o f lig h tn in g so th a t th e se c o u ld b e e x p re s s e d p re cise ly , even
q u a n tita tiv e ly , w as a r e s e a rc h p ro je c t th a t w o u ld c e rta in ly h a v e b e e n called
scien c e, e v e n n a tu r a l scien c e, if P e ek 's m o tiv e s h a d n o t b e e n a p p lic a tio n ,
o r th e s o lu tio n o f a te c h n o lo g ic a l p ro b le m .
P e e k s m o tiv e s w e re n o t th o s e o f p u r e scien c e, h o w e v e r. H is p rim a ry
re a s o n fo r in v e s tig a tin g th e n a tu r e o f lig h tn in g w as to c r e a te p re c ise sim
u la tio n s o f th e v a rio u s fo rm s o f it w ith th e im p u ls e g e n e r a to r . T h e s e sim
u la tio n s w e re n e e d e d to te st th e v a rio u s c o m p o n e n ts o f tra n sm issio n lines.
a , T h e fo u r lengthy p apers, all titled as above, a p p ea re d in A IEE Transactions 34 (1915):
1857-1909: 38 (1919): 1137-64; 42 (1923): 9 4 0 -4 7 ; and 49 (1930): 1456-69. T h e book was
published by M cGraw-Hill in 1915.
H It is also possible that Steinm ctz and the com pany's m anagem ent influenced Peck's choice
o f the lightning problem .
a i F. W. Peek, J r .. "Lighting. I," General Electric Review 32 (1929): 604; idem, "T he Effect
o f T ran sien t Voltages on Dielectrics," AIEE Transactions 34 (1915): 1857; idem, T h e Effect
o f T ran sie n t Voltages on Dielectrics. Ill," ibid. 42 (1923): 940. W. W. Lewis, also a General
Electric research en g in eer, writes that the 200-kv. tran sfo rm e r was used by Peek before he
published his 1911 pa p er "Law o f Corona and the Dielectric S trength o f Air. ibid. 30 (1911):
1889-1988. According to Lewis, the "so-called im pulse g en erato r consisted o f the same 200kv. tran sfo rm er used in the corona tests" (W. W. Lewis to J . H. H agenguth, 16 May 1968).
Ixwis's letter does not specify the m odifications that look place as the 200-kv. testing trans
fo rm er m etam orphosed into the im pulse g en erato r," but Peek's dating the introduction of
the im pulse g enerato r as "about 1913" ("Lightning. 1," p. 604) and Lewis's dating the first
use o f the tran sfo rm er as 1911 suggest such modifications.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
D u rin g tw o d e c a d e s o f lig h tn in g re s e a rc h , 1 9 1 3 -3 3 , Peek in c re a se d th e
p o w e r o f his im p u lse g e n e r a to r s to th e o r d e r o f a m illion kilow atts in o r d e r
to a p p r o x im a te vo ltag e a n d o th e r c o n d itio n s [re s u ltin g fro m lig h tn in g ]
th a t u su ally o c c u r o n tra n sm issio n lin e s.20 As a re su lt, h e te ste d full-scale
c o m p o n e n ts . P e ek a lso re lie d o n th e a c tio n o f n a tu r a l lig h tn in g o n o p e ra tin g
tra n sm issio n lines to p ro v id e d a ta , b u t th e n a tu r a l e v e n t w as n o t as m a
n i p u l a t e a tool as th e m a n - m a d e o n e .
In 1929 P ee k w ro te w ith o b v io u s satisfa ctio n th a t p r o g r e s s in o b ta in in g
k n o w le d g e o f lig h tn in g h a d b e e n so ra p id th a t th e su b ject m ay now be
said to b e o n a n e n g in e e rin g basis," th e in d ic a tio n o f th is b e in g th e e x p r e s
sio n o f lig h tn in g p h e n o m e n a q u a n tita tiv e ly in volts, a m p e re s , a n d u n its o f
tim e .27 F u r th e r m o r e , P eek sta te d th e follo w in g g e n e r a l c h a ra c te ris tic s o f
lig h tn in g : v o ltag e , o n th e o r d e r o f 100 m illio n ; c u r r e n t, o n th e o r d e r o f
1 00,000
a m p s; e n e r g y , o n th e o r d e r o f 4 kw h.; p o w e r, o n th e o r d e r o f a
th o u s a n d billion h .p .; tim e, o n th e o r d e r o f a few m ic ro se c o n d s; g r a d ie n t
at b re a k d o w n , 100 k.v. p e r fo o l; a n d th e c h a rg e fo rm e d by th e a c tio n o f
a ir c u r r e n ts o n r a in d r o p s .28 B e y o n d th is a n d o th e r q u a n tita tiv e d a ta . P e ek
p ic tu re d th e w ave sh a p e o f lig h tn in g o n a c a th o d e -ra y osc illo sc o p e , d e t e r
m in e d th e tim e r e q u ir e d f o r a c lo u d to d is c h a rg e , a n d fo u n d th e a tte n u a tio n
o f lig h tn in g w aves tra v e lin g o n a tr a n sm issio n lin e .29
A r m e d w ith in c re a s in g k n o w le d g e , P eek m a d e s u b tle a n d p e r s is te n t e f
fo rts to a p p ly it. In th e a p p lic a tio n , th e s c ie n c e -te c h n o lo g y r e la tio n s h ip is
sta rk ly re v e a le d . Initia lly , in his A IE E p a p e r o f 1915, P e ek d isc u sse d th e
g e n e r a l e ffe c ts o f tr a n s ie n t vo ltag e s o n d ie le ctric s, lig h tn in g b e in g o n ly a
spec ia l case o f t ra n s ie n t v o ltages, a n d in su la to rs a n d c o n d u c tin g lines b e in g
sp ecial cases o f c a p a c ito rs w ith a tm o s p h e ric dielec trics. T h e m a jo r fin d in g
a n n o u n c e d in th is p a p e r was th a t th e b e h a v io r o f d ie le c tric s w h e n s u b je c te d
to c o n tin u o u s ly a p p lie d a lte rn a tin g c u r r e n t d iffe r e d fro m th e ir b e h a v io r
w h e n e x p o s e d to tr a n s ie n t v o ltages, esp ec ia lly lig h tn in g . H e in tro d u c e d th e
te r m impulse ratio, w h ic h h e d e fin e d as th e ra tio o f th e im p u lse s p a rk o v e r
v o lta g e to th e c o n tin u o u s ly a p p lie d sp a rk o v e r v o lta g e. P eek h a d fo u n d th a t
s p a rk o v e r ac ro ss a n a ir g a p o v e r a n in s u la to r fo r e x a m p le o c c u rre d at
a lo w e r v o lta g e fo r th e c o n tin u o u sly a p p lie d , o r n o rm a l, h ig h v o ltag e th a n
fo r th e tra n s ie n t v o lta g e w ave. T h e im p o r ta n c e o f th is f in d in g e sp ecially
th e v alues o f th e im p u lse ra tio th a t P eek d e te r m in e d fo r d if f e r e n t tr a n s
m issio n -lin e c o m p o n e n ts was o b v io u s f o r th e d e sig n e n g in e e r a tte m p tin g
to p ro te c t th e lin e a g a in st tra n sie n ts.
W ith in a few y e a rs o f his d isc u ssio n o f th e laws g o v e r n in g th e r u p tu r e
o f d ie le c tric s by tra n s ie n t a n d n o n tr a n s ie n t voltages, Peek a d d re s s e d th e
q u e s tio n o f p ra c tic a l a p p lic a tio n s .90 H is re s e a rc h p e rm itte d h im to p ro v id e
fo r th e d e sig n e n g in e e r fo rm u la s a n d tab les p r e d ic tin g th e e ffe c ts o f lig h t
n in g v o ltag e s o n th e lig h tn in g - a r re s te r g a p s, in su la to rs, a n d b u sh in g s u sed
in tra n sm issio n lin es a n d tra n s fo rm e rs . H is s im u la te d lig h tn in g h a d p ro v e d
"Peek, T h e Effect o f T ran sien t Voltages on Dielectrics. III." p. 940.
Peek, L ightning. I," p. 002.
"Ibid.
,BF. W. Peck, Jr.. Lightning: Progress in L ightning Research in Field and Laboratory,
AIEE Trnnsacliotu 48 (1929): 436.
p. W. Peek, Jr., T h e Effect o f T ransient Voltages on Dielectrics," ibid. 38 (1919): 1137-

56.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
lh a l th e se c o m p o n e n ts w o u ld fail (p e rm it sp a r k o v e r) a t lo w e r vo ltag e s with
re g u la r c u r r e n ts th a n w ith tr a n s ie n t v o ltag e s s u c h as lig h tn in g . T h is in
fo rm a tio n was esp ec ia lly v a lu a b le to d e s ig n e rs o f lig h tn in g a r re s te r s , fo r
a n a r r e s te r th a t w o u ld g r o u n d d e s tru c tiv e re g u la r c u r r e n ts m ig h t fail to
d o so w ith tr a n s ie n ts . P e ek p r o v id e d d e ta ile d in fo r m a tio n o n a fa sc in a tin g
v a rie ty o f c o m p o n e n ts , su c h as d if f e r e n t fo rm s o f p ro te c tiv e lig h tn in g a r
re s te r s a n d c o m b in a tio n s o f fo rm s in v o lv in g s p h e re s , p o in ts, a n d h o rn s.
H e f o u n d lh a l s p h e r e s d is c h a r g e th e very s te e p w aves, th e h o r n s th e
m o d e r a te o n e s, a n d th e p o in ts c o n tin u o u s h ig h -f re q u e n c y w aves, o f sla n t
in g f r o n t a n d s ta tic .31
P ee k also s u p p lie d d e sig n d a ta fo r th e g r a d in g sh ie ld fo r in su la to rs,
tr a n s f o r m e r s , a n d tr a n s f o r m e r in su la tio n . A sy n th e sis o f his r e s e a rc h was
th e s ta te m e n t h e m a d e in 1929 o n lig h tn in g - p r o o f tra n sm issio n lin es a n d
th e c o o r d in a tio n o f lin e a n d t r a n s f o r m e r in s u la tio n .32 A lin e o f m o d e r a te
h e ig h t, h e c o n c lu d e d , p r o te c te d w ith g r o u n d w ires a n d p ro p e rly in su la te d
[u sin g his d a ta ], co u ld u su a lly b e m a d e lig h tn in g p r o o f a g a in s t in d u c e d
v o lta g es [ lig h tn in g ]. T h e e n g in e e r s se n se o f b a la n c e c a n also b e d is c e rn e d
in P e ek 's re c o m m e n d a tio n th a t in a n e n tir e tr a n s m is s io n sy stem th e tr a n s
f o r m e r in s u la tio n sh o u ld be slig h tly s tr o n g e r th a n th e b u s h in g fla sh o v er
v o lta g e, a n d th a t th is v o ltag e in tu r n s h o u ld b e h ig h e r th a n th e flash o v e r
v o lta g e o f t h e lin e in su la to rs. It is o b v io u sly n o t g o o d e n g in e e r in g to m ake
th e t r a n s f o r m e r (th e m o st e x p e n siv e ) th e w ea k e st lin k in th e in su la to r
c h a in ," h e s a id .33
P e e k s a rtic le s o n h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n a n d h is p a in s ta k in g a n d bold
e x p e r im e n ta tio n w e re re s p o n s e s to p r o b le m s th a t a ro s e as h ig h -v o lta g e
tra n sm issio n e v o lv ed . T h e r e is n o su b s ta n tia l e v id e n c e th a t scien tific d is
c o v e rie s s tim u la te d e n g in e e rs like P eek a n d R y an to e m b a rk o n th e ir in
v e stig atio n s. T h e s e m e n d e p e n d e d u p o n th e c o r p u s o f s cien c e, b u t science
was n o t a n im m e d ia te c a u se o f th e ir activity. H a v in g w o rk e d fo r larg e
in d u s tria l c o r p o r a tio n s lh a l w e re he av ily c o m m itte d by in v e s tm e n ts a n d
c o m p e te n c e to th e e x p a n s io n o f e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r sy stem s, especially
h ig h -v o lta g e tra n s m is s io n , Peek w as closely a ttu n e d to te c h n o lo g ic a l ev en ts.
T h e e v e n ts th a t p a r tic u la r ly in te re s te d h im w e re th o s e m a n if e s tin g re v e rse
sa lie n ts o n e x p a n d in g te c h n o lo g ic a l fro n ts.
T h e w o rk th a t P eek a c c o m p lish e d in v o lv ed a m e th o d th a t s h o u ld be
ca lled sc ien tific. T h e a u th o ritie s c ite d a n d th e p e rio d ic a ls fo r w hich he
w ro te r e p r e s e n te d o r g a n iz e d k n o w le d g e ; h e u se d a n d a tte m p te d to fo r
m u la te g e n e r a l s ta te m e n ts o r laws; m a th c m a lic s was a n a n aly tica l tool a n d
a la n g u a g e fo r h im ; h y p o th e s e s w e re fo rm u la te d ; a n d e x p e rim e n ts w ere
d e s ig n e d fo r th e la b o ra to ry o r in n a tu r e to lest th e s e h y p o th e se s. S u ch an
a p p ro a c h is u su ally lab e le d scien tific.
T e c h n o lo g y a n d in s titu tio n s su c h as h ig h -v o lta g e la b o ra to rie s te n d to
evolve to g e th e r. E d iso n a n d his asso ciate s fo rm e d a n u r b a n u tility at ab o u t
th e sa m e tim e th e y la u n c h e d th e ir r e s e a r c h -a n d - d e v e lo p m e n l p ro g r a m fo r
d e v e lo p in g an e le c tric lig h tin g sy ste m . W h e n th e u n iv e rsa l su p p ly system
was in tr o d u c e d , utilitie s m e ta m o r p h o s e d in to light a n d p o w e r c o m p a n ie s,
*' Ibid.. p. 1137.
Peek, Lightning: Progress in Research." pp. 4-17-48.
Ibid.. p. 447.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
a n d w h e n p o w e r tra n sm issio n b e c a m e feasible, new ly fo rm e d p o w e r c o m
p a n ie s p r e s id e d o v e r its d e v e lo p m e n t. R eg io n al p o w e r sy stem s also n e e d e d
n ew o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tru c tu r e s . T h u s , in a d d itio n to h ig h -v o lta g e la b o ra
to rie s, m u ltip u rp o s e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm s a n d a new g e n e ra tio n
o f h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s c am e in to b e in g . T h e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm
a n d th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y d id n o t su d d e n ly a p p e a r in th e 1920s, f o r e ac h
h a d a lo n g e r h isto ry , b u t th e y r e a c h e d fr u itio n th e n , as e v id e n c e d by d if
f e r e n tia tio n o f fo r m a n d fu n c tio n .
T he g ro w th o f o r g a n iz a tio n s th a t re la te d system ically to re g io n a l p o w e r
te c h n o lo g y a d d e d to th e m o m e n tu m o f th is te c h n o lo g y . L a rg e n u m b e r s of
in v e n to rs , e n g in e e rs , w o rk e rs, scien tists, m a n a g e r s , a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s w ith
e x p e rt k n o w le d g e o f, a n d v ested in te re s t in , th e te c h n o lo g y b e c a m e c o m
m itte d to its g ro w th . In m a n y cases th e new in s titu tio n s m e rg e d w ith th e
u tilitie s to f o rm a su p ra s y s tc m in c o r p o ra tin g te c h n o lo g ic a l, b u sin e ss, a n d
fin an c ia l c o m p o n e n ts . In o th e r cases, lo o se r ties w ere fo rm e d , b ut th e se
e n s u r e d th a t a h ig h -v o lta g e r e s e a rc h la b o ra to ry , f o r e x a m p le , w o u ld give
p rio rity to th e critical p ro b le m s o f a p a rtic u la r u tility o r th a t a c o n s u ltin g
e n g in e e r in g firm w o u ld b e re ta in e d fo r a n e x te n d e d p e rio d .
H is to ria n s o f scien c e a n d tec h n o lo g y h av e lo n g re c o g n iz e d th e im p o r
ta n c e o f re s e a r c h scien tists a n d in d u s tria l la b o ra to rie s in th e e v o lu tio n o f
e le c tric s u p p ly , b u t th e ro le o f th e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rin g firm has u sually
b e e n o v e rlo o k e d . T h e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs e m e rg e d in th e 1920s as e n
tr e p r e n e u r s o f re g io n a l system s, in te g r a tin g th e sy ste m s tec h n ic al, e c o
n o m ic , a n d politic al fa c to rs a n d p r e s id in g o v e r th e g ro w th pro cess. E arlie r,
th e ir f u n c tio n h a d b e e n to a d v ise u tilitie s a n d o th e rs w h o p u rc h a s e d e le c
tric al e q u ip m e n t a n d c o n s tru c te d facilities. In lim e , th e m o re su cc essful
c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs e sta b lish e d firm s a n d to o k o v e r fo r so m e u tilities
r e s p o n sib ility f o r d e s ig n in g a n d c o n s tr u c tin g p o w e r p lan ts. T h is was fa r
m o re e c o n o m ic a l fo r th e u tilities th a n m a in ta in in g a p e r m a n e n t s ta f f o f
e x p e rts o n la r g e -p la n t c o n s tru c tio n . T h e le a d in g c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rin g
firm s in G e rm a n y a n d E n g la n d fo r e x a m p le , th o se o f O s k a r von M iller
a n d M erz Sc M c L e llan a lso b e c a m e in v o lv e d in ad v isin g g o v e rn m e n t a u
th o ritie s o n e le c tric su p p ly m a tte r s b e c a u se in th e se c o u n trie s , in c o n tra s t
to th e U n ite d S ta te s, g o v e r n m e n t-o w n e d u tilities w ere c o m m o n . In th e
U n ite d S lates, w h e re g o v e r n m e n t was n o t a m a jo r s o u rc e o f fu n d s fo r th e
u tilitie s, c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm s fo u n d a n im p o rta n t ro le in assistin g
th e ir c lien ts w ith th e p r o b le m s o f fin a n c in g . A n d as su ch a d v a n ta g e s o f th e
la rg e -sc a le u tility as e c o n o m ie s o f scale in p u rc h a s in g a n d in su p p ly bec am e
c le a r, so m e o f th e le a d in g c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rin g firm s to o k o v e r th e m a n
a g e m e n t o f g ro u p s o f s m a lle r u tilities, th e re b y p assin g a lo n g to th e m so m e
o f th e b e n e fits o f larg e -sca le o p e ra tio n . In v o lv e d in th e d e sig n a n d c o n
s tru c tio n o f sy stem s a d a p te d to local c o n d itio n s, p r o v id in g m a n a g e m e n t,
c le a rin g aw ay p olitical ob stac les a n d lo b b y in g fo r leg islatio n , a n d o b ta in in g
fin a n c in g , th e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rin g firm s w e re im p re ssiv e in th e ro le o f
e n tr e p r e n e u r s p re s id in g o v e r te c h n o lo g ica l c h a n g e . O fte n th e ir e n t r e p r e
n e u ria l r e s o u rc e s w e re b r o u g h t to b e a r in p ro je cts th a t in size riv aled th e
m a jo r railw ay p ro je c ts o f th e late n in e te e n th c e n tu ry .M
For instance, in 1854 a total o f $10 million was invested in the W estern Railway or
M assachusetts. In I860, at least $30 million was invested in the New York C entral Railroad's

386

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

T h e f ir m o f O s k a r v o n M ille r p r e s i d e d o v e r th e p la n n in g a n d c o n s tr u c
tio n o f th e W a lc h e n s e e w e r k a n d th e B a y e r n w e r k in B a v a r i a , a n d th e M e rz

8c M c L e lla n f ir m to o k p a r t in th e p la n n in g o f th e B r i t i s h G r id . S u b s e q u e n t ly
(s e e p p . 4 4 3 - 6 0 b e lo w ) , M e r z & M c L e lla n to o k r e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r th e g r o w th
o f th e N e w c a s t le u p o n T y n e E le c t r ic S u p p ly C o m p a n y ( N E S C O ) , B r i t a in s
la r g e s t p r iv a t e ly o w n e d r e g io n a l u tility . H e r e , h o w e v e r , w e w ill fo c u s o n
th e h is t o r y o f a f ir m a n in s titu t io n r a t h e r th a n th e h is t o r y o f a p ro je c t.
T h e h is t o r y o f th e A m e r i c a n f ir m S t o n e 8c W e b s te r is o n e o f e v o lu t io n a n d
d i f f e r e n t ia t i o n o f f u n c t io n a n d is, t h e r e f o r e , a n e x a m p l e o f o r g a n i c g r o w th
c o m p a r a b l e to th a t o f th e u tilitie s it h e lp e d to d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t , fin a n c e ,
an d m an age.
C h a r le s S lo n e ( 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 4 1 ) a n d E d w in W e b s t e r ( 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 5 0 ) fo u n d e d
th e M a s s a c h u s e tts E le c t r ic a l E n g in e e r i n g C o m p a n y o f B o s t o n in 1 8 9 0 , o n ly
tw o y e a r s a f t e r g r a d u a t i n g f r o m th e M a s s a c h u s e tts In s t it u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y
a n d th e in s titu t e 's n e w ly e s t a b lis h e d c o u r s e o f s t u d y in e le c tr ic a l e n g in e e r
in g . T h e M a s s a c h u s e t t s E le c t r ic a l E n g in e e r i n g C o m p a n y th e n a m e w as
Figure XII I.9. Charles A. Slone (le!
uid Edwin S. Webster, 1888. Courtesy
the M .l.T. Museum and Historic
Collections, Cambridge, M a

c h a n g e d to S t o n e 8c W e b s te r in 1 8 9 3 w a s o n e o f th e e a r lie s t U .S . c o n

M ASSA C HU SETTS
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING CO

e q u i p m e n t in its s m a ll te s tin g la b o r a t o r y . In a le t t e r to p r o s p e c t iv e c lie n ts ,

s u lt in g e le c t r ic a l e n g in e e r i n g f ir m s . It o f f e r e d to a d v is e th o s e in t e n d in g to
in v e s t in th e n e w a n d r a p id ly d e v e lo p i n g f ie ld . It w a s r e a d y to d e s ig n ,
e s tim a t e , a n d s u p e r in t e n d c o n s t r u c t io n o f e le c tr ic lig h t a n d p o w e r p la n ts ;
it w a s a ls o p r e p a r e d to d e t e r m i n e th e e c o n o m y a n d e f f i c i e n c y o f e le c tr ic a l

LABOR ATORjV.

S E C O N D K 1 .0 0 H '
STONE Si WEBSTER.
O F F IC E :.
MANAGERS
4 PO SQUARE

Figure X1I1.I0. Slone Id Webster's f,rsl

office sign. Courtesy of Slone id Webster,
New York, N Y.

s i g n e d a s a lw a y s S t o n e 8c W e b s t e r ," th e y o u n g e n g in e e r s p r o m is e d to b r in g
to b e a r th e s c ie n t if ic k n o w l e d g e a n d p r a c tic a l e x p e r ie n c e , b o th o f th e
c o m p a n y a n d o f e x p e r ie n c e d e n g in e e r s in a ll b r a n c h e s o f th e p r o f e s s io n ." 35
In 1 8 9 0 , o n th e r e c o m m e n d a t io n o f P r e s id e n t F r a n c is A . W a lk e r a n d P r o
f e s s o r C h a r le s C r o s s o f M . I . T ., th e f ir m u n d e r t o o k its fir s t m a jo r p r o je c t:
to d e s ig n a n d c o n s t r u c t a 4 0 0 - h .p . h y d r o e le c t r i c p la n t a n d a s h o r t tr a n s
m iss io n a n d d i s t r ib u t io n s y s t e m f o r a N e w E n g la n d p a p e r m ill.
T h e p a n ic o f 1 8 9 3 d e e p ly in f lu e n c e d th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e f ir m . E a r lie r ,
d u r in g th e 1 8 8 0 s , th e e le c t r ic a l m a n u f a c t u r e r s , in c l u d in g E d is o n , T h o m s o n - H o u s l o n , a n d W e s t in g h o u s e , lo o k th e s e c u r it ie s o f th e n e w ly f o u n d e d
u tilitie s a s p a y m e n t f o r e q u i p m e n t a n d r ig h t s to u se th e p a te n t e d corn-

physical assets, an d by 1883 ilie toial investm ent in the com pany was close to S I50 million.
By 1873 the Pennsylvania Railroad system rep resen ted an investm ent o f $400 million. T hese
investm ents greatly im pressed co n tem p o raries and today im press historians studying the
m anagers an d financiers who w ere responsible for them . It should be noted, however, that
the cost o f the B ayernw crk, for which O skar von Miller's firm was consultant, was estimated
to be 32 million m arks, a n d that the cost o f the British G rid, for which Merz & McLellan and
several o th e r British firms served as design and construction consultants, was estim ated to be
250 million. For the cosi ol the Bayeruw crk, sec O skar von Miller, Bayemwerk tureinheitlichen
Versorgung des rechtsrheinisclien Bayern mil Elektriiitat: Projekt Oskar von Miller. Februar 1918:
Erlauterungsbericht (copy in th e D eutsches M useum . Munich). For the cost o f the G rid over a
fifteen-year p e rio d , see G reat B ritain, Ministry of T ran sp o rt. Report of Committee Appointed to
Review the National Problem of the Supply of Electrical Energy (L ondon: H MSO, 1926), p. 18. T he
inform ation on the railways is Dorn A lfred D. C h an d ler. J r .. and S tephen Salsbury, "T he
Railroads: In novators in M odern Business A dm inistration," in Bruce Mazlish, The Railroad
and the Space Program (Cam bridge, Mass.: M .l.T . Press, 1965), p. 129.
G eneral letter h eaded "D ear Sir," I Ja n u ary 1890. in the files o f Slone ic W ebster, New
York City (h erea fter cited as S&W files). 1 am indebted to G. F. O verton for guidance in using
these files and to the firm for perm ission to d o so.

387

T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
p o n e n ts o f ih e m a n u f a c tu r e r s system s. T h e new u tilities, m a n y o f th e m in
sm all tow ns, c o u ld se ld o m p e rs u a d e local in v e sto rs th a t th e ir se c u ritie s,
esp e cia lly th e c o m m o n slocks, w e re re a so n a b le risks. U n til th e fin an c ial
p a n ic o f 1893, th e flaw s in th e a r r a n g e m e n t b e tw e e n m a n u f a c tu r e r s a n d
u tilities w e re n o t fully re v e a le d . T h e p a n ic , h o w e v e r, c a u se d b a n k s to d e
m a n d p a y m e n t o n lo a n s m a d e to th e m a n u fa c tu re r s , w h o f o u n d it im p o s
sible to ra ise c a sh to m e e t th e d e m a n d s by m a r k e tin g th e utility c o m m o n
stock th e y h e ld .
U n d e r th e c irc u m sta n c e s, J . P. M o rg a n a n d o th e r fin a n c ie rs in te r e s te d
in th e utilities, th e lo a n s, a n d th e stock re s c u e d G e n e ra l E lec tric , new ly
f o r m e d by th e m e r g e r o f E d iso n a n d T h o m s o n -H o u s to n , by p a y in g cash
f o r th e utility slo c k s a n d e sta b lish in g a tr u s t, o r sy n d ic a te , to m a n a g e o r
d isp o se o f th e u tility p r o p e r ly a c q u ire d . A t th is sta g e , th e r e c e n tly f o rm e d
firm S to n e 8c W e b s te r b e c a m e in v o lv e d . T h e m a n a g e rs o f th e sy n d ic ate,
th e S tre e t R ailw ay 8c Illu m in a tin g P r o p e r tie s T r u s te e s , e n g a g e d th e y o u n g
p a r tn e r s , w h o h a d e x c e lle n t r e f e r e n c e s in B o sto n s fin a n c ia l a n d e n g i
n e e r in g c ircles, to a p p r a is e th e p r o p e r tie s a c q u ire d . As a re su lt, S to n e a n d
W e b ste r h a d a r e m a rk a b le le a r n in g e x p e rie n c e th a t h e lp e d d e fin e th e c h a r
a c te r o f th e ir c o m p a n y .
T h r o u g h an a ly sis o f th e utilities, S to n e 8c W e b ste r o b ta in e d a ric h sto re
o f in fo r m a tio n a b o u t th e u tility in d u s tr y , g a in in g in sig h ts in to its fin an cia l,
m a n a g e ria l, a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l p ro b le m s. F u r th e r m o r e , th e y d e v e lo p e d a
k e e n se n se o f h o w so m e o f th e o u ts ta n d in g p ro b le m s m ig h t b e solved.
M any so lu tio n s w e re o f a g e n e ra l k in d , b e in g a b s tra c te d fro m c o m m o n
c irc u m sta n c e s in th e v a rio u s utilitie s. T h e y a lso le a rn e d o f p ra c tic e s in o n e
c o m p a n y th a t c o u ld b e a p p lie d o r s h o u ld b e a v o id e d in a n o th e r . T h e
e x p e rie n c e o f S to n e 8c W e b s te r in 1893 m ig h t be c o m p a r e d to th e case
h isto ry a p p r o a c h u se d in b u sin e ss schools.
N o t o n ly w as S to n e 8c W e b s te rs e x p e rtis e as a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g
firm g re a tly e n h a n c e d by th is e x p e rie n c e , b u t th e p a r tn e r s in v e ste d p r o f
itably in th e u tilitie s th e y a n a ly z e d . A n a n e c d o te lo n g r e m e m b e re d a n d
o f te n to ld a t S to n e 8c W e b ste r c o n c e rn s o n e p r o p e r ty e x a m in e d d u r in g th e
p a n ic o f 1 893.36 R e c a llin g his visit to th e N ashville (T e n n e sse e ) L ig h t 8c
P o w e r C o m p a n y to e x a m in e th a t p ro p e rly , C h a rle s W e b ste r w ro te:
A fter visiting Nashville and exam ining the property and m aking a report, I
cam e to New York and Mr. J. P. M organ, Sr. asked me to tell him what I
thought o f the possibilities for the future developm ent o f that and oth er en te r
prises. I was enthusiastic about them and told him that I thought, if the assets
were carefully conserved and the property was wisely developed, it would result
in a great property. . . . He told me that, if I felt so confident about the future
o f these things, he thought 1 ought to buy them .37
S lo n e 8c W e b ste r b o rr o w e d th e m o n ey , b o u g h t c o n tro l fo r a few th o u s a n d
d o lla rs, " s tru g g le d w ith it, m a n a g e d it, a n d b u ilt it u p o v e r sev e ral years,
a n d so ld it fo r a p ro f it o f o v e r $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 .
R e o rg a n iz in g u tilities fo r b a n k e rs a n d o th e rs led to th e f ir m s a c q u irin g
fin an c ial in te re s ts in o th e r u tilities a n d to its in d e p e n d e n tly o f f e r in g re59 An unpublished 6-page typescript, M em orandum on E n trepreneur Business' o f Stone
Sc W ebster," S&W files. T his item was reputedly authored by Charles Slone.
37 Ibid.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

o r g a n iz a tio n o r c o n s u ltin g serv ice s to u tilitie s.38 O v e r th e n e x t d e c a d e S lo n e
8c W e b ste r d e v e lo p e d a s e t o f in te r r e la te d se rv ic es a n d in te re s ts . T h e s e
w e re in s titu tio n a liz e d in to a c o h e r e n t c o n c e p t a n d s tr u c tu r e th a t a n tic ip a te d
h o ld in g -co m p a n y fu n c tio n s usually associated with th e 1920s. By 1906 Stone
8c W e b s te r w as p ro v id in g c e n tra liz e d m a n a g e m e n t, e n g in e e r in g , a n d fi
n a n c ia l serv ice s to tw e n ty -e ig h t in d e p e n d e n t p o w e r, lig h t, gas, a n d tra c tio n
u tilities th r o u g h o u t th e U n ite d S ta le s. T h e firm h a d fin a n c ia l in te r e s t in
th e slo c k s o f t h e v a rio u s c o m p a n ie s , b u t e a c h c o m p a n y h a d its o w n office rs,
b o a rd o f d ire c to rs , a n d b a n k a c c o u n ts. T h e r e f o r e , S to n e 8c W e b s te r d id
n o t fu n c tio n as a h o ld in g c o m p a n y o r tr u s te e fo r th e c o m p a n ie s. It d id ,
h o w e v e r, e x e rc is e c o n s id e ra b le c o n tr o l o v e r th e p o lic ie s o f th e c o m p a n ie s.
S to n e & W e b s te r u su a lly n a m e d its e x e c u tiv e s as m a n a g e r s in c h a rg e of
th e u tilitie s it s e rv ic e d . T h e s e m a n a g e rs r e p o r te d to a S to n e 8c W e b ster
d istric t m a n a g e r a n d to a s p o n s o r in th e B o sto n o ffice . T h e r e w e re six
sp o n s o rs , a n d to g e th e r th e y c o n s titu te d th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e o f S tone
8c W e b ste r. C h a r le s S lo n e a n d E d w in W e b s te r d id n o t s p o n s o r p a rtic u la r
u tilities, b u t p ro v id e d a b ro a d o v e rs ig h t o f th e e n tir e b u sin e ss. T h e y called
th e m se lv e s th e firm . U n til W o rld W a r I, w h e n c irc u m s ta n c e s p la c e d Stone
in th e N e w Y o rk o ffic e a n d W e b s te r in B o sto n , th e y sa t a t d e sk s sid e by
sid e , c o n s u lte d e a c h o th e r a t th e e n d o f e a c h d a y a b o u t d e c isio n s m ade
a n d p e n d in g , a n d s ig n e d le tte rs a n d m e m o r a n d a as S lo n e 8c W e b s te r.
B e sid es th e ir lin e f u n c tio n in s u p e r v is in g th e m a n a g e rs in th e local u til
ities, th e m e m b e r s o f th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e h e a d e d th e s ta f f d e p a rtm e n ts
in th e B o sto n o ffic e . T h e p rin c ip a l d e p a r tm e n ts w ere : e n g in e e r in g , p u r
c h a sin g , a u d itin g , c o r p o r a tio n , statistica l, s e c u ritie s, a n d lib ra ry . O f th ese,
S to n e 8c W e b s te r c o n s id e re d its statistica l d e p a r tm e n t o n e o f th e u n iq u e ,
a n d a t th e sa m e lim e o n e oT th e m o st im p o r ta n t, f e a tu re s o f th e o rg a n i
z a tio n ." 39 E ach m o n th th e statistica l d e p a r tm e n t re c e iv e d tw o r e p o r ts fro m
th e m a n a g e d c o m p a n ie s . T h e first c o v e re d fin a n c e s, th e se c o n d th e o p
e r a tin g statistic s. W ith th e s e th e d e p a r tm e n t a n a ly z e d e a c h c o m p a n y s c o n
d itio n . G r a p h s a n d ta b le s w e re p r e p a r e d th a t n o t o n ly fa c ilita te d th e p r o
je c tio n o f tr e n d s b u t a lso a llo w ed c o m p a ris o n s o f e a c h c o m p a n y w ith its
p r io r re c o r d a n d w ith o th e r c o m p a n ie s . A m o n g th e m a n y statistic al stu d ie s
m a d e o v e r th e y e a rs w as o n e o n th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f s te a m - g e n e ra tin g
p o w e r p la n ts , a stu d y th a t re s u lte d in th e in c re a s e d s ta n d a rd iz a tio n o f
e q u ip m e n t a n d o p e r a tio n s as well as h ig h e r e fficien cie s. In a b o u t 1905 a
c o m p a ris o n o f p o w e r sta tio n p e r f o r m a n c e in m a n a g e d c o m p a n ie s re v ea le d
w ide v a ria tio n s in p ra c tic e a n d p e r f o r m a n c e . A s a re su lt, S to n e 8c W eb ster
a s sig n e d e x p e r ie n c e d o p e r a to r s to th e p o w e r p la n ts fo r a c o n sid e ra b le
le n g th o f tim e . C o m b u s tio n m e th o d s , m a in te n a n c e sc h e d u le s, a n d o th e r
o p e ra tio n s w e re r a tio n a liz e d , a n d sa v in g s o f 1 0 -4 0 p e rc e n t in o p e r a tin g
costs w e re a c h ie v e d as a c o n s e q u e n c e .'10 T h e statistic s d e p a r tm e n t was so
c e n tra l to th e S lo n e 8c W e b ste r sy stem th a t it h a d g e n e r a l re sp o n sib ility fo r

5" M em orandum by Charles Slone on llie early history o f Stone Sc W ebster, 30 December
1902, S&W files.
" ''T h e Stone Sc W ebster O rganization, and the Properties It M anages," Street Railway
Journal, 7 Ju ly 1906; rep rin t in the S&W files.
""Historical Notes." p rep a re d in April 1930 by I.. B. N ash. S&W files.

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TI-IIS C U L T U R E O F R E G I O N A L S Y S T E M S
tra in in g new m e n lo r m a n a g e ria l po sts in th e field a n d fo r d e p a r tm e n ta l
p o sitio n s in th e c e n tra l o ffice.
T h e e n g in e e rin g d e p a r tm e n t also k e p t d e ta ile d re c o rd s a n d d re w o n
th e se as it e n c o u ra g e d s ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f th e e q u ip m e n t u se d by th e m a n
a g e d c o m p a n ie s. S in ce th e re o r g a n iz a tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t p la n s d ra w n
u p by th e firm , th e s p o n so rs, a n d th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e o fte n c alled fo r
m o d e rn iz a tio n a n d e x p a n s io n to in c re a se th e p ro fita b ility o f th e v a rio u s
c o m p a n ie s, th e e n g in e e rin g d e p a r tm e n t p r e p a r e d p la n s fo r r e m o d e lin g
p o w e r h o u se s o r lay in g o u t new tra n sm issio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n system s.
C o n s tru c tio n m ig h t b e s u p e rv is e d by th e local c o m p a n y fro m B o sto n . S lo n e
8c W e b ste r, h o w e v e r, w as d e v e lo p in g its ow n c o n s tru c tio n facilities a n d
p e r s o n n e l as well.
S to n e & W e b ste r also in c re a se d th e m a rk e ta b ility o f its c lie n ts sec u ritie s.
At a lim e w h en th e e le c tric light a n d p o w e r u tilitie s w ere ra p id ly e x p a n d in g ,
fin a n c in g th is c a p ita l-in te n siv e in d u s tr y was a c ritical p ro b le m . T h e sm all
c o m p a n y fo u n d th e p ro b le m esp ec ia lly se v ere. If, h o w ev e r, it co u ld id e n tify
w ith S lo n e 8c W e b ste r, a n im m e d ia te a d v a n ta g e fo llow ed; fu r th e r m o r e , th e
S to n e 8c W e b ste r s e c u ritie s d e p a r tm e n t a cted as fiscal re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e
m a n a g e d c o m p a n ie s by p la c in g th e ir se cu rities. (S om e o f th e se c u ritie s w ere
p u rc h a s e d by S lo n e & W e b ste r, p ro b a b ly so m e in p a y m e n t fo r services.)
F o r m a n y y e a rs th e firm h a d r e lie d heavily u p o n L ee, H ig g in so n 8c C o m
p a n y o f B o sto n in m a rk e tin g th e se cu rities, so m u c h so th a t th e r e was
c o n c e rn th a t th e firm w o u ld sim p ly be th o u g h t o f as e n g in e e r in g co n su lta n ts
fo r th e B o sto n b r o k e ra g e h o u se . O v e r tim e , h o w ev e r. S to n e 8c W e b ste r
in c re a sin g ly p la c e d se c u ritie s in d e p e n d e n tly . T h e black b o o k c o n trib u te d
to th is o b je ctiv e. B e g u n in 1902 a n d c o n tin u e d u n til 1929, th is a n n u a l r e p o rt
c o v e re d th e o p e r a tio n s o f c o m p a n ie s u n d e r S to n e 8c W e b ste rs su p e rv isio n .
T h e "b lack b o o k c o n ta in e d a c o n d e n s e d s ta te m e n t o f o u ts ta n d in g se c u
ritie s, ra te o f d iv id e n d , e a rn in g s , a n d o th e r fin an c ia l in f o rm a tio n . T h e
e sta b lis h m e n t o f a p u b lic ity d e p a r tm e n t in 1903 also e n h a n c e d th e r e p u
ta tio n o f th e m a n a g e d c o m p a n ie s.
T he lib ra ry d e p a r tm e n t was n o t w ith o u t a n im p o rta n t ro le in th e o r
g a n iz a tio n as well. B e sid es s to rin g a n d re trie v in g a g re e m e n ts , c o n tra c ts,
re p o r ts , a n d sim ila r m a te ria l, it p r e p a r e d c u r r e n t lite r a tu r e sh e e ts" by
a b s tra c tin g a rtic le s in th e tec h n ic al a n d b u sin e ss lite ra tu r e th a t w ere o f
sp ecial in te r e s t to S to n e 8c W e b ste r p e rs o n n e l. " T h is serv ic e is n o t in te n d e d
to la k e th e p la ce o r p e rs o n a l re a d in g o f th e c u r r e n t lite ra tu re o n th e p a rt
o f in d iv id u a ls , h o w e v e r, a c o n te m p o r a ry c a u tio n e d .41 It was n o t p r e
s u m p tu o u s o f th e lib ra ria n to e x p e c t th e p e rs o n n e l to k e e p a b re a st o f th e
l ite ra tu r e , f o r by 1912 alm o st h a lf o f t h e firm 's 6 0 0 officials a n d e m p lo y e es
w e re c o lle g e g ra d u a te s , a n d o f th e se , close to 100 ca m e fro m th e M assa
c h u s e tts In s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y a n d 50 c am e fro m H a rv a rd U niversity.
S to n e 8c W e b ste r d e p a r tm e n ts m e ta m o rp h o s e d in to S to n e & W e b ste r
s u b sid ia rie s.42 In 1906 th e e n g in e e rin g d e p a rtm e n t in c o rp o ra te d u n d e r

"T h e Slone & W ebster O rganization." p. 13.

*The following description o f the Stone c W ebster organization is based on a reprint in
pam phlet form o f an article p rep ared by Electrical World for distribution at the National
Electric Light Association convention in Seattle. Wash.. 11- M Ju n e 1912; a ropy of the reprint
is in the S&W files.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

th e n a m e o f th e S lo n e 8c W e b s te r E n g in e e r in g C o r p o ra tio n . In 1907 th e
m a n a g e m e n t fu n c tio n p e r f o r m e d by th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e , sp o n so rs,
a n d v a rio u s d e p a r tm e n ts co a le sc e d in to th e S lo n e 8c W e b ste r M a n a g e m e n t
A ssociation, a c o r p o r a te o rg a n iz a tio n . T h e E n g in e e rin g C o rp o ra tio n broadly
e x te n d e d its r a n g e o f a ctiv ities. A m o n g its w o rk s d u r in g its first d e c a d e
w ere th e e x p a n s io n o f th e B o sto n E le v a te d R ailw ay C o m p a n y ; th e d e sig n
a n d c o n s tru c tio n o f th e d a m , p o w e r h o u s e , a n d tra n sm issio n lin es o f th e
M ississippi R iv e r P o w e r C o m p a n y a t K e o k u k , Io w a , o n e o f th e w o rld s
la rg e st h y d ro e le c tric in sta lla tio n s; a n d th e B ig C r e e k - to - L o s A n g e le s tr a n s
m issio n sy ste m . T h e firm also d e s ig n e d th e C o n o w in g o h y d ro e le c tric p ro j
ect. T h e se c u ritie s d e p a r tm e n t o f S to n e 8c W e b s te r m e r g e d w ith th e in
v e s tm e n t b a n k in g h o u s e o f B lo d g e t 8c C o m p a n y a n d lo o k c o r p o r a te fo rm
as S to n e 8c W e b s te r a n d B lo d g e l, In c. By th e e ve o f W o rld W a r I, th e
o v e ra ll o rg a n iz a tio n o f S to n e 8c W e b ste r, w ith its s u b sid ia rie s a n d m a n a g e d
c o m p a n ie s , h a d b e c o m e a sy slem o f m u tu a lly r e in fo rc in g c o m p o n e n ts . (See
Fig. X I 11.11.) It w as e n tire ly a p p r o p r ia te th a t th e o r g a n iz a tio n to o k as its
sy m b o l th e trisk e lio n d e s ig n e d by th e o r ig in a l p a r tn e r s . T h e sig n , w ith its
th r e e a rm s e n c lo se d in a tria n g le , r e p r e s e n te d th e in te r c o n n e c tio n o f fi
n a n c in g . e n g in e e r in g , a n d c o n s tr u c tio n .
D e sp ite th e p ro life ra tio n o f u tility h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s , S to n e 8c W eb ster,
w h ile p e r f o r m in g m o st o f th e fu n c tio n s o f a h o ld in g c o m p a n y , d e la y e d its
ow n tr a n s f o r m a tio n . T h e firs t s te p to w a rd b e c o m in g a h o ld in g c o m p a n y
was ta k e n in 1925 w h e n it p a rtic ip a te d in th e fo rm a tio n a n d fin a n c in g o f
th e E n g in e e r s P u b lic S e rv ice C o r p o r a tio n , w h ich a c q u ire d c o n tro l o f th e
V irg in ia R ailw ay & P o w e r C o m p a n y (la te r V irg in ia E lectric 8c P o w e r C o m
p a n y ) a n d a b o u t tw e n ty o th e r u tilitie s re c e iv in g m a n a g e m e n t serv ic es fro m
S to n e 8c W e b ste r. T h e new h o ld in g c o m p a n y p e r f o r m e d th e serv ice s S lo n e
& W e b ste r h a d f o r m e r ly p r o v id e d fo r th e a c q u ire d c o m p a n ie s. A c o m p a n y
o f fic e r e x p la in e d th e r e s o rt to th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y f o rm a s a w ay o f
a v o id in g a b s o r p tio n o f th e m a n a g e d c o m p a n ie s by o th e r ra p id ly s p re a d in g
h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s . In 1929 S to n e 8c W e b s te r b e c a m e S to n e 8c W eb ste r,
In c ., o f D e la w a re , a h o ld in g c o m p a n y f o r th e S to n e & W e b s te r g ro u p . By
a n e x c h a n g e o f sto c k , it a c q u ire d 9 0 p e r c e n t o f E n g in e e rs P u blic S ervice
C o r p o r a tio n , w hich by 1933 h a d in v e ste d $ 9 5 ,1 1 6 ,6 7 5 in six m a jo r g ro u p s
o f lig h t, p o w e r, a n d s tre e t railw ay c o m p a n ie s in f o u r te e n sta tes. S to n e 8c
W e b ste r, In c ., also h e ld th e S ie r ra Pacific E lectric C o m p a n y , a n o th e r su b
h o ld in g c o m p a n y . In a g g re g a te , th e S to n e 8c W e b ste r g r o u p by 1932 c o n
siste d o f f o r ty - th r e e c o m p a n ie s . In a d d itio n , it c o n tin u e d to m a n a g e co m
p a n ie s o u ts id e th e g r o u p . T h e g r o u p g e n e r a te d a little m o re th a n 2 p e rc e n t
o f th e e le c tric ity s u p p lie d by u tilitie s in th e U n ite d S ta tes.'13
T h e tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f S to n e 8c W e b ste r in to a h o ld in g c o m p a n y was
p a r t o f a t r e n d in th e e le c tric su p p ly in d u s tr y , a n d th e c o n s u ltin g e n g i
n e e r in g firm w as b u t o n e n u c le u s a r o u n d w h ich a h o ld in g c o m p a n y co u ld
fo rm . E v e n tu a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n in to a h o ld in g c o m p a n y w as n o m o re fo re
se e n by f o u n d e r s o f m a n y o f th e o th e r p r e d e c e s s o r o rg a n iz a tio n s th a n it
4 U.S.. Federal T ra d e Com mission, Utility Corporations (S. Doc. 92. 70lh Cong., 1st sess..
1928), Pari 66. (W ashington. D C.: GPO . 1934), pp. 564. 565, 661-63; idem , Electric Power
Industry: Control o f Power Companies. 69th Cong., 2d sess.. 1927. S. Doc. 213, pp. xxxiii. 17787 (h erea fter cited as S. Doc. 213 (19271).

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S

was by C h a rle s S to n e a n d E d w in W e b ste r. In th e 1920s, h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s

d o m in a te d th e p riv a te ly o w n e d e le c tric u tility in d u s try . T h e y g rew as th e
size o f all u tilitie s in c re a s e d .44 In 1914 e ig h ty -fiv e u tility c o rp o ra tio n s
so m e o f th e m h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s c o n tro lle d a b o u t 7 0 p e rc e n t o f th e total
in sta lle d c a p a c ity o f th e e n tir e p u b lic e le c tric u tility in d u s try ; o f th e se c o r
p o ra tio n s , th irty -fiv e c o n tr o lle d o n e -h a lf o f th is to ta l, six te e n c o n tro lle d
o n e - th ir d , a n d te n c o n tro lle d o n e - f o u r th .45 By 1924, h a v in g s u p e rim p o s e d
th e m se lv e s o n th e la rg e a n d sm all utilitie s, th e la rg e c o m p a n ie s th a t
d o m in a te d th e utility in d u s try h a d b e c o m e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s (see Fig.
X I I I . 12). In th a t y e a r, h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s c o n tro lle d tw o -th ird s o f th e g e n 44 Statistics on the grow th o f U.S. electric utilities a re contained in various governm ent
agency reports. O n e 1911 survey was lim ited to hydroelectric installations. T h e inform ation
fo r 1911 was published in U.S.. B ureau o f Corporations (predecessor to the Federal T rad e
Com mission), Water Power Development in the United States (W ashington, D.C.: G PO, 1912). On
the state o f the industry in 1914, see U.S., D epartm ent o f A griculture, Forestry Service,
Electric Power Development in the United Stales, 64lh Cong., 1st sess., 1916, S. Doc. 316. O n the
status o f holding com panies in 1924. sec S. Doc. 213 ( 1927), which became, in efTect, the first
volume o f U.S., Federal T rad e Com mission, Electric Power Industry: Supply of Electrical Equipment
and Competitive Conditions, 70th Cong., 1st sess., 1928, S. Doc. 46. a history o f the electrical
m anufacturers. For d ata on holding-coinpany activities in 1932, see U.S.. Federal T rad e
Com mission. Utility Corporations (S. Doc. 92. 70th Cong., 1st scss., 1928) (W ashington. D.C.:
G PO , 1928-35). T his m ultipart and mullivolume study has two sum m ary volumes, one on
utility p ropaganda and publicity (Pan 7 1A) and the o ther on holding com panies in general
(Part 72A). An index for the 95-volume study is given in P a ru 81A and 84D. An aperfu
sum m ary o f the state o f large corporations and holding com panies in the electric utility field
can be found in Part 72A, pp. 34-37.
45 Forestry Service, Electric Power Development, quoted in Federal T rad e Commission, Utility
Corporations, Part 72A (1935), p. 35.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure X III.12. Fields o f operation (counties) o f major U.S. electric utility holding companies, 1925. From U.S., Federal Trade Commission,
Utility C orporations, Fart 72A, p. 56.

e r a l i n g c a p a c it y o f th e i n d u s t r y ; s e v e n h o ld i n g - c o m p a n y g r o u p s c o n tr o lle d
4 0 p e r c e n t , a n d o t h e r h o ld i n g c o m p a n i e s c o n t r o lle d 2 5 p e r c e n t . W ith 1 3
p e r c e n t , th e h o ld i n g c o m p a n y f o r m e d b y G e n e r a l E le c t r ic , E le c tr ic B o n d
& S h a r e C o m p a n y , r a n k e d a s th e la r g e s t ; th e In s u ll g r o u p , M id d le W est
U t ilitie s C o m p a n y , h e ld b e tw e e n 8 a n d 9 p e r c e n t . F o r a n a tio n lo n g w a r n e d
to b e w a r y o f t r u s ts a n d m o n o p o lie s , th e s e w e r e p r o v o c a t iv e sta tistic s . B e
tw e e n

19 2 4 an d

1 9 3 2 th e G e n e r a l E le c tr ic g r o u p w a s r e o r g a n i z e d a n d a

n e w g ia n t , th e U n ite d C o r p o r a t i o n , w a s f o r m e d . H o ld in g - c o m p a n y d o m
in a tio n p e r s i s t e d , w ith s ix t e e n la r g e h o ld i n g - c o m p a n y g r o u p s c o n tr o llin g
m o r e th a n t h r e e - fo u r t h s o f th e p r iv a t e ly o w n e d i n d u s t r y . F o r all h o ld in g
c o m p a n ie s , th e e x t e n t o f c o n t r o l w a s o v e r 7 8 p e r c e n t .* 0
B e c a u s e o f a s e r ie s o f g o v e r n m e n t s t u d ie s in th e U n ite d S t a le s , th e a d
v e r s e p u b lic ity g iv e n th e h o ld in g c o m p a n i e s b y a d v o c a te s o f g o v e r n m e n t
o w n e r s h i p , a n d th e n o t o r ie t y s u r r o u n d i n g th e I n s u ll h o ld i n g c o m p a n y a l te r
its f in a n c ia l c o lla p s e in 1 9 3 2 a n d a f t e r its f o u n d e r s w e r e tr ie d f o r m a il f r a u d
in 1 9 3 4 , h o ld i n g c o m p a n ie s b e c a m e a m u c h - d is c u s s e d a n d m is u n d e r s to o d

<0 Federal T ra d e Com mission. Utility Corporations. Pari 72A. p. 37.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
asp e c t o f th e ele c tric u tility in d u s tr y .47 T h e m o u n tin g te n sio n c u lm in a te d
in 1935 w ith p a ssa g e o f th e P u blic U tility H o ld in g C o m p a n y A ct.
T h e r e w as m is u n d e r s ta n d in g a b o u t th e o rig in s a n d fu n c tio n o f th e e le c
tric-u tility h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s. P r o p o n e n ts a n d o p p o n e n ts d e b a te d th e a d
v a n ta g e s a n d d is a d v a n ta g e s o f th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y fo r th e c o n s u m e r.
B e ca u se th e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s c a m e to p u b lic a tte n tio n a i a lim e w h e n
in v e stm e n t in sto c k s in g e n e ra l a n d in u tility stocks in p a r tic u la r w as m o u n t
in g , th e p u b lic o fte n saw th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y as th e c r e a tu r e o f b a n k e rs
a n d sto c k b r o k e r s , n o t o f e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs . F u r th e r m o r e , th e pu b lic
asso c ia te d th e la r g e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s a n d tr u s ts o f th e p a st w ith fin an c ia l
w iz a rd ry o r sk u ld u g g e r y . T h e te c h n o lo g ic a l o rig in s a n d fu n c tio n s o f h o ld
in g c o m p a n ie s w e re f a r less s e n sa tio n a l a n d th u s w ere n o t d isc u sse d o r
u n d e rs to o d .
C o n tr a r y to p o p u la r o p in io n , th e o rig in s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f sev e ral
le a d in g e le c tric -u tility h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s a re to b e fo u n d ro o te d m o re
d e e p ly in te c h n o lo g y a n d m a n a g e m e n t h isto ry th a n in fin a n c e . C ap ita l
fo rm a tio n w as th e m a jo r p ro b le m o f th e la rg e u tilities to w hich th e h o ld in g
c o m p a n ie s r e s p o n d e d in th e 1920s, b u t th is n e e d fo r cap ita l a ro s e fro m
th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f large-scale technology. E n g in e ers a n d technically tra in e d
m a n a g e rs d o m in a te d th e e a rly h isto ry o f m a jo r h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s. S. Z.
M itchell o f E lec tric B o n d & S h a re , C h a rle s S lo n e a n d E d w in W e b ste r, H .
M. B yllesby o f H . M. B yllesby 8c C o m p a n y , a n d S a m u e l I n su ll all w ere
tra in e d as e n g in e e rs o r h a d e x te n siv e e x p e rie n c e in e n g in e e r in g a n d m a n
a g e m e n t b e fo r e h e a d in g h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s. In th e ir m a n a g e m e n t o f th e
h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s , th e se m e n in siste d o n th e in tr o d u c tio n o f sy stem s te c h
no lo g y a n d m a n a g e m e n t. In o r d e r to in tro d u c e c a p ita l-in te n siv e a n d larg e scale re g io n a l te c h n o lo g y , h o w e v e r, th e y h a d to f in d ways to Finance la rg e scale in v e stm e n ts.
T h e m a jo r h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s g re w la rg e by se rv in g a n d p re s id in g o v e r
th e m e r g e r o f sm all utilities. A s h a s b e e n se en , th e u rb a n u tility c o n so lid a te d
a n d s p r e a d o u t o v e r th e la rg e cities u n til it p r e v a ile d as a re g u la te d m o
n o p o ly . F ro m th is activity m a n y e c o n o m ie s a n d ra tio n a l s tru c tu re s p le a sin g
to th e e n g in e e r , th e m a n a g e r, th e in v e sto r a n d o fte n to th e c o n s u m e r
e m e rg e d . U n til th e a d v e n t o f e ffic ie n t, h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n a n d w a te r
a n d s te a m tu rb in e s , th e sm all cities, tow ns, a n d ru ra l a re a s w ere s u p p lie d
if a t all by u tilities la c k in g th e a d v a n ta g e s o f la rg e-sc ale , c e n tra liz e d te c h
no lo g y , m a n a g e m e n t, a n d f in a n c in g . T h e ir re latively in e x p e rie n c e d a n d
u n tr a in e d m a n a g e r s a n d e n g in e e rs u se d th e less a d v a n c e d tec h n o lo g y , fo r
in th e U n ite d S ta te s, m a n u fa c tu r e rs in v e sted th e ir in te llec tu a l a n d physical
re s o u rc e s in la rg e-sca le c h a lle n g e s.48 W ith th e a d v e n t o f tu rb in e s a n d h ig h v o lta g e tra n sm issio n , h o w e v e r, it b e c a m e possible fo r r e g io n a l system s to
in te g r a te sm a ll c o m m u n itie s a n d s u p p ly so m e o f th e ru r a l a re as. T h e h o ld
in g c o m p a n ie s th e n p ro v id e d th e se system s w ith c e n tra liz e d e n g in e e rin g ,

7 O n the history o f Insult's holding companies, see Forrest McDonald, Insull (Chicago:
University o f C hicago Press, 1962), pp. 237 ff.
"T h is im pression needs to be exam ined th rough research into the policy and product or
the m ajor m anufacturers. U nfortunately, H arold C. Passer's Electrical Manufacturers (Cam
bridge, Mass.: H arvard University Press. 1953) carr ies the history o f U.S. m anufaciurers only
o 1900.

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N E 7T W O R K S O F P O W E R
m a n a g e m e n t, a n d fin a n c in g .'19 T h e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s e ith e r m erg ed the
u tilities o r o rg a n iz e d th e sm a ll u tilitie s in to c o n f e d e r a tio n s re la te d by phys
ical o r fin a n cial in te r c o n n e c tio n s . A g o v e r n m e n t r e p o r t c o n c lu d e d that the
h o ld in g c o m p a n y 's fin a n c in g , e n g in e e r in g , a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f utilities
se rv in g sm all c o m m u n itie s w as p ro b a b ly th e c h ie f b e n e fit to be derived
fro m th is o rg a n iz a tio n a l c o n c e p t.50
W ith th e o n s la u g h t o f th e D e p re s s io n , th e d r o p in h o ld in g -c o m p a n y stock
values, a n d th e s p r e a d o f d issa tisfa c tio n a m o n g in v e sto rs in h o ld in g com
p a n ie s. h o w ev e r, d o u b ts in c re a s e d a b o u t th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e electricutility h o ld in g c o m p a n y . E n s u in g g o v e r n m e n t in v e stig a tio n s a n d reports
h e lp e d d e fin e th e fu n c tio n s o f t h e c o m p a n ie s as te c h n o lo g ic a l, m anagerial,
a n d fin an cia l, b u t a b u se s w e re f o u n d in th e f in a n c ia l activ itie s.51 T h e p rin
cipal b e n e fit a c c r u in g to th e o p e r a tin g c o m p a n ie s a n d to c o n su m e rs, if the
service was n o t a b u s e d , w as, in th e o p in io n o f th e F e d e ra l T r a d e C om
m ission, th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y s fin a n c in g o f th e g r o w th a n d im p ro v e m e n t
o f sm all, u n d e v e lo p e d o p e r a tin g utilitie s. A lso v iew ed positively was the
h o ld in g c o m p a n y s ro le in f a c ilita tin g in te rc o n n e c tio n a n d large-scale o u t
p u t. T h e h o ld in g c o m p a n y p r o v id e d th e sm all o p e r a tin g c o m p a n y with the
e x p e rts ' so lu tio n s to th e p ro b le m s o f g e n e r a tio n , tra n s m is s io n , d istrib u tio n ,
a n d u tiliz a tio n o f ele ctric ity . M o re o v e r, u n d e r th e a eg is o f th e holding
c o m p a n y , "se rv ic e w as im p ro v e d a n d e x te n d e d , c o n s u m p tio n increased,
a n d costs o f p r o d u c tio n w ere re d u c e d w ith a c o n s e q u e n t possibility of, and
te n d e n c y to w a rd , lo w e r ra le s, n o tw ith s ta n d in g a c c o m p a n y in g financial
p ra c tic e s w h ich h a d a n o p p o s ite te n d e n c y a s to r a te s .52
In th e o p in io n o f th e F e d e ra l T r a d e C o m m issio n , th e list o f practices
th a t h a d a n o p p o s ite te n d e n c y w as lo n g : th e p y r a m id o f u tilities form ed
by th e h ie ra rc h ic a l h o ld in g -c o m p a n y s tr u c tu r e o f te n in v o lv e d th e issuing
o f excessively s p e c u la tiv e se c u ritie s; th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y o f te n c h arged
excessive fees fo r c o n s u ltin g se rv ic es; th e w ritin g u p o f t h e va lu e s o f utility
se c u ritie s o f te n p lac ed p re s s u re o n th e u tilitie s to c h a r g e h ig h ra te s to obtain
a p ro fita b le r e tu r n ; by m e a n s o f s e c u rity -m a r k e t m a n ip u la tio n , utility se
cu ritie s w e re sold to th e p u b lic at h ig h ly in f la te d v a lu e s; th e org a n iz atio n al
a n d fin an c ia l s tr u c tu r e o f th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y fr e q u e n tly p e rm itte d a few
m e n w ith a sm all in v e s tm e n t to g a in p ra c tic a l c o n tro l o f im m e n se o p era
tions; a n d in te rs ta te c o n tr a c ts , o p e r a tio n s , a n d o th e r re la tio n sh ip s m ade
d iffic u lt th e c o n tro l o f h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s by s ta te r e g u la to ry com m issions.
Like so m a n y o th e r c o m p le x o rg a n iz a tio n s , h o w e v e r, th e h o ld in g com pany
c a n n o t b e a d e q u a te ly d e fin e d by a b s tra c tio n s o r c a te g o rie s o f advantages
a n d d isa d v a n ta g e s. T h e h isto ry o f se v e ra l o f th e m will re v e a l so m e o f the
co m p le x itie s a n d irre g u la ritie s o f th is o r g a n iz a tio n a l c o n s tru c t. In th e fol
lo w in g sectio n we will c o n s id e r th e E le ctric B o n d & S h a r e C om p an y , a
h o ld in g c o m p a n y esta b lish e d by a m a n u f a c tu r e r , a n d th e U n ite d Corpo" Federal T rad e Com mission. Utility Corporations, Pari 72A. p. 107.
1

60 Ibid.. pp. 834. 881.

*' T his sum m ary discussion o f the advantages and disadvantages o r holding companies is
rom i u . , pp. 831-82. T his d ocum ent, with its m any parts a nd volumes, resulted from a
Senate resolution calling Tor a consideration o r "the value o r d e trim ent to the public o f such
holding companies, ow ning the stock o r o therw ise controlling such public-utility corporations,
imm ediately o r remotely" (p. 831). and to r legislative recom m endations.
M Ibid.. p. 881.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
ra tio n , a h o ld in g c o m p a n y f o u n d e d by a n in v e stm e n t a n d b a n k in g c o n c e rn .
W e h a v e a lre a d y n o te d S to n e 8c W e b s te rs tr a n s f o r m a tio n fro m a c o n su ltin g
e n g in e e r in g firm in to a h o ld in g c o m p a n y . T h e Pacific G as 8c E lec tric C o m
p a n y (see p p . 2 7 6 - 8 0 ) a n d th e R h e in isc h -W e stfa lisc h e s E le k trizitiitsw e rk
(see p p . 4 2 3 -2 9 ) a r e e x a m p le s o f u tilitie s th a t b e c a m e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s
by a c q u irin g th e sto c k o f th e u tilities th e y a b s o rb e d . R e fe re n c e h a s b e e n
m a d e , as well, to S a m u e l In su lt's fo rm a tio n o f th e M id d le W est U tilities
C o m p a n y , w h ic h b e c a m e o n e o f th e la rg e st U .S. h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s .
1 h e h isto ry of E le ctric B o n d & S h a re is lin k e d w ith th e h isto ry o f G e n e ra l
E lec tric a n d th e c a r e e r o f S. Z. M itchell (1 8 6 2 -1 9 4 4 ). In th e 1920s M itchell
a n d S a m u e l In su ll w e re th e m o st w idely k n o w n h o ld in g -c o m p a n y e n t r e
p r e n e u r s . It is e s tim a te d th a t d u r in g th is p e rio d M itch e ll's c o m p a n y c o n
tro lle d m o re o f th e u tility b u sin e ss th a n In su ll's, fo r in 1924 E lec tric B o n d
8c S h a re c o n tr o lle d at least 10 p e rc e n t o f th e e n e r g y g e n e r a te d by th e
in d u stry , w hile ln su ll's M iddle W est U tilities C o m p a n y c o n tro lle d only a b o u t
8 p e r c e n t.33
T h e o r ig in s o f th e E lec tric B o n d 8c S h a r e C o m p a n y , w hich w as fo rm a lly
e sta b lish e d in 1905, c a n b e tr a c e d back to 1890. In th a t y e a r th e T h o m s o n H o u s to n E le ctric C o m p a n y , th e m a n u f a c tu r e r th a t in 1892 w o u ld m e rg e
w ith E d iso n G e n e ra l E le ctric to fo rm th e G e n e r a l E le ctric C o m p a n y , e s
ta b lish e d a s u b s id ia ry calle d th e U n ite d E lec tric S e c u ritie s C o m p a n y o f
B o sto n . T h e f u n c tio n o f th e new c o m p a n y w as to h e lp sm all, in d e p e n d e n t
e le c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r c o m p a n ie s fin a n c e th e p u rc h a s e o f g e n e r a to r s a n d
o th e r e q u ip m e n t m a n u f a c tu r e d by T h o m s o n -H o u s to n . Local so u rc e s o f
c a p ita l c o n s id e re d n e ith e r th e b o n d s n o r th e slocks o f th e sm all, o fte n
in d if fe re n tly r u n , e le c tric lig h t c o m p a n ie s to be a g o o d ris k .53 As a re su lt,
th e c o m p a n ie s c o u ld n o t e x p a n d in re s p o n s e to a m a rk e t th a t M itchell
c a lc u la te d w as g r o w in g at a ra te o f a b o u t 10 p e rc e n t a n n u a lly . T h e p ro b le m
was m o r e se rio u s f o r th e se sm all utilities th a n fo r m a n y sm all e n te rp ris e s
b e c a u se th e ir c a p ita l in v e s tm e n t in re la tio n to in c o m e w as u n u s u a lly h ig h ;
M itchell e s tim a te d th a t fo r th e se utilities it to o k a n in v e stm e n t o f fro m $4
to $ 6 to p r o d u c e a g ro ss a n n u a l r e v e n u e o f $ 1 .55
T h e U n ite d E lec tric S e c u ritie s C o m p a n y fin a n c e d T h o m s o n -H o u s lo n 's
sm all c u s to m e r s by ta k in g th e ir n o n m a rk e ta b le b o n d s a n d u sin g th e m as
c o lla te ra l fo r th e b o n d s issu e d by U n ite d E lec tric S e c u ritie s, w hich w e re
m a rk e ta b le b e c a u se o f th e c o m p a n y s size, m a n a g e m e n t, a n d r e la tio n s h ip
to T h o m s o n - H o u s to n .50 D e sp ite th e c o n sid e ra b le m a rk e t fo r th e se b o n d s
th a t d e v e lo p e d o v e r th e y e ars, h o w e v e r, th e p ro b le m o f fin a n c in g local
u tilities w as n o t so lv ed . T h e p a n ic o f 1893 saw m an y sm all u tilities sin k in to
b a n k ru p tc y , a n d th o s e th a t su rv iv e d fa ce d a n ev e n less re sp o n siv e in v e st
m e n t m a rk e t. E v e n in v e sto rs w h o h a d b e e n w illing to b u y th e b o n d s o f th e
sm a ll-to w n u tilities (if n o t th e sto ck ) insisted a f te r th e p a n ic th a t th e u tilities
ra ise m o r e c a p ita l by issu in g c o m m o n stock. In s h o rt, th e b o n d b u y e rs

S. Doc. 213 (1927). p. 41.

M Sidney A. Mitchell. 5. 7.. Mitchell and the Electrical Industry (Now York: Farrar, Straus &
C udahy. I960), p. 60 (h ereafter cited as S'. Z. Mitchell).
M itchell, in an address to the Association o f Edison Electric Illum inating C om panies in
1920, quo ted in S. Z. Mitchell, p. 118.
S. Doc. 213 (1927). p. 70.

390

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

d e m a n d e d m o re o w n e rs a n d fe w e r c re d ito rs . T h e y w a n te d th e capitalh u n g ry u tilities to c o v e r w ith m o r tg a g e se c u ritie s n o m o r e th a n o n e-hair
to tw o -th ird s o f th e cash cost o f th e p o w e r p la n t a n d o th e r facilities.'7
G e n e ra l E lectric, th e su c c e sso r to T h o m s o n -M o u s to n in 1893, in h erited
th e U n ite d E lectric S e c u ritie s C o m p a n y o f B o sto n a n d su b se q u e n tly form ed
th e E lectrical S e c u ritie s C o m p a n y o f N ew Y o rk p r im a rily to fulfill its bondp u r c h a s in g fu n c tio n . U n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f C h a rle s C o ffin (184 4 -1 9 2 6 ),
its r e s o u rc e fu l p r e s id e n t, G e n e r a l E lectric a d v is e d sm all utilitie s to sell m ore
ju n i o r se c u ritie s, o r sto c k , b u t fo u n d th a t m e re ly p o in tin g th e w ay was not
e ffe c tiv e ." 58 B ec au se G e n e ra l E lectric h a d a c q u ir e d o v e r th e years many
s h a re s o f u n m a rk e ta b le , sm a ll-u tility slo c k in p a y m e n t f o r e q u ip m e n t, it,
lo o , h a d a g e n e ra l in te re s t in so lv in g th e p r o b le m s o f th e u tilities. In 1905
a n in v e n tiv e so lu tio n c a m e o u t of d e lib e ra tio n s b e tw e e n C o ffin a n d M itch
e ll.50 M itchell w as c alled o n fo r a ssista n ce b e c a u se h e h a d b e e n d e a lin g with
sm all u tilities in th e N o rth w e st, c o m p a n ie s w h o se e le c tric serv ic e was poor
a n d w h o se fin an c ia l s tr u c tu r e s w e re c r u d e c o m p a n ie s th a t w ere, in the
v e r n a c u la r , "cats a n d d o g s .00
M itchell h a d p r e p a r e d fo r a c a r e e r in e n g in e e r in g a t th e U.S. Naval
A ca d e m y . F in d in g th e p ro sp e c ts o f th e n av y b le a k in 1885, ho w e v er, the
new ly co m m issio n e d M itchell re sig n e d a n d a c c e p te d e m p lo y m e n t w ith the
E d iso n C o m p a n y in N ew Y ork. E a rlie r, in 1883, h e h a d b e e n a ttra c te d to
e le ctric al e n g in e e r in g w hile in sta llin g in c a n d e s c e n t lig h tin g o n th e U.S.S.
T renton. M itchell w o rk e d a t th e E d iso n M a c h in e W o rk s, th e m a n u fa c tu r e r
o f d y n a m o s, a n d h e also h e lp e d to w ire th e d is tr ib u tio n sy stem o f th e Edison
E lec tric I llu m in a tin g C o m p a n y in N ew Y o rk C ity. W ith in a y e a r, how ever,
h e seize d th e o p p o r tu n ity to la k e o v e r th e e x clu siv e E d iso n a g en c y in the
N o rth w e s t a f te r H e n ry V illard , E d iso n 's fr ie n d a n d fin a n c ia l a d v iser, gave
it u p . F ro m 1885 to 1905 M itchell s o u g h t a n d f o u n d fin an cial backers,
o b ta in e d fra n c h ise s, in sta lled e q u ip m e n t, set u p o p e r a tin g a n d m a n a g e
m e n t p r o c e d u re s , a n d c u ltiv a te d th e g ro w th o r at le ast e n s u r e d th e su r
vival o f th e re g io n s sm all e le c tric lig h t u tilities. T h e call M itchell got from
C o ffin to d e lib e r a te a b o u t cats a n d d o g s" is th e r e f o r e u n d e rs ta n d a b le .01
T h e so lu tio n p ro p o s e d by M itchell a n d C o ffin was th e fo rm a tio n of th e
E lec tric B o n d 8c S h a r e C o m p a n y . T h e new c o m p a n y tu r n e d o v e r its slock
to G e n e ra l E lectric in e x c h a n g e fo r th e stocks o f p o w e r a n d light co m p a n ie s
h e ld by G e n e ra l E lectric h a v in g a p a r v a lu e o f $ 2 ,7 8 2 ,1 5 0 , b o n d s w ith a
p a r v alu e o f $ 1 ,4 7 6 ,0 0 0 , a n d $ 1 ,3 0 0 ,5 7 6 .9 0 in cash. E le ctric B o n d 8c S h a re
c o n v e rte d th e a c q u ire d se c u ritie s in to m a rk e ta b le assets by resu sc itatin g
a n d in v ig o ra tin g th e u tilities th a t h a d issu e d th e m . T h is was d o n e as had
b e e n th e case w ith S to n e 8c W e b ste r by p r o v id in g m a n a g e m e n t, en g i
n e e rin g , a n d fin an c ia l services. E lectric B o n d 8c S h a r e d id n ot p u rc h a se a
m a jo rity o f sto ck in th e clie n t c o m p a n ie s, b ut e x e rc ise d c o n tro l th ro u g h a
c o m b in a tio n of m e a n s, in c lu d in g m in o rity stock a n d c o n tra c tu a l, lee-based

" I b i d .. p. 71.
" Ibid., p. 9.3.
5 S. Z. Mitchell, p. 61.
Ibid.. pp. 61, 64.
" T his biographical sketch o f Mitchell is based on ibid.. pp. 19-12.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
serv ice s.02 In 1925 G e n e r a l E lec tric d iv e ste d itse lf o f d ir e c t c o n tro l o f B o n d
8c S h a re by d is tr ib u tin g th e c o m p a n y s sto ck to G E s to c k h o ld e rs .
S tre ssin g m a n a g e m e n t serv ic es, B o n d 8c S h a re in tro d u c e d a policy th a t
v a rie d f ro m S lo n e 8c W e b s te rs. B o n d 8c S h a re r e c o m m e n d e d th a t th e
d ire c to rs o f th e c lie n t c o m p a n y ele ct a B o n d 8c S h a re e x e c u tiv e as a n o n
sa la rie d o ffic e r o r m e m b e r o f its b o a rd . T h is o ffic e r like th e e x e c u tiv e s
s e rv in g o th e r clie n t utilitie s w o u ld r e m a in in B o n d 8c S h a r e s N ew Y o rk
o ffic e ; a B o n d & S h a re m a n w o u ld n o t b e n a m e d r e s id e n t m a n a g e r as was
c u s to m a ry w ith S lo n e 8c W e b s te r.63 F ro m its la rg e s ta f f o f m a n a g e rs a n d
a d v ise rs, B o n d 8c S h a re w o u ld , like S to n e 8c W e b ste r, d e s ig n a te a s p o n s o r
fo r e a c h c lie n t u tility. T h e s p o n s o r w o u ld visit, o b se rv e , in sp e c t, a n d c o r
r e s p o n d w ith th a t c o m p a n y . H e w o u ld a p p ly his g e n e ra l k n o w le d g e o f th e
u tility b u sin e ss to th e p ro b le m s a n d o p p o r tu n itie s o f th e sp ec ific u tility
c o m p a n y . F u r th e r m o r e , h e w o u ld h a v e a t h is d isp o sa l th e la rg e B o n d 8c
S h a re s ta f f o f sp ec ia lists in in s u ra n c e , tax e s, ra le s, p u b lic r e la tio n s , statistic s,
a n d o th e r m a n a g e m e n t fu n c tio n s. T h e c o n tr a c t a lso ca lle d f o r a s p o n s o r
e n g in e e r ; h e , lo o , w o u ld stay in f o r m e d by m e a n s o f visits a n d c o r r e s p o n d
en c e . B esid e s th e m a n a g e m e n t a n d e n g in e e r in g sp ec ia lists, th e r e w e re to
be s p o n s o r a c c o u n ta n ts in B o n d 8c S h a r e s N ew Y o rk o ffice . T h e p ro b le m s
th a t th e se s p o n s o rs a d d r e s s e d w e re e x p a n s io n o f th e b u sin e ss, utility in
te rc o n n e c tio n , ra te s, c a p ita l s tr u c tu r e , a n d fin a n c ia l p ro g r a m s .64
E lec tric B o n d 8c S h a re s o o n b e g a n o r g a n iz in g h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s to
c o n tro l th e c lie n t u tilitie s th r o u g h m a jo rity o w n e rs h ip o f t h e ir sto c k . B o n d
8c S h a re itse lf c o n tin u e d to av o id d ir e c t c o n tro l o f th e u tilitie s th r o u g h
o w n e rs h ip o f a m a jo rity o f th e ir s h a re s. It esta b lish e d a new c o n tr a c tu a l
r e la tio n s h ip w ith its h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s r a th e r th a n w ith th e o p e r a tin g
u tilities. By 1925 E le ctric B o n d & S h a re h e ld la rg e b locks o f v o tin g stock
in, a n d h a d v a rio u s se rv ic in g a r r a n g e m e n ts w ith , five h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s.
B e ca u se it d id n o t h a v e a m a jo rity sto ck in te r e s t in a n y o f th e se , h o w e v e r,
it c o n siste n tly m a in ta in e d th a t it w as n o t itse lf a utility h o ld in g co m p a n y .
T h e F e d e ra l T r a d e C o m m issio n a n d th e in v e s tm e n t w o rld g e n e ra lly ,
h o w e v e r, b e lie v e d th a t E le ctric B o n d 8c S h a re h e ld d e fa c to c o n tro l b e c a u se
th e o th e r s h a re s o f th e five c o m p a n ie s w e re w idely d is p e rs e d o r b locks o f
th e m w e re h e ld by frie n d ly a n d c o o p e ra tiv e b a n k in g in te re s ts .65
T h e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s o fte n a c q u ir e d th e ir c o n tro llin g sto ck in th e
o p e r a tin g c o m p a n ie s w h e n E lec tric B o n d 8c S h a re t u r n e d o v e r to th e h o ld
in g c o m p a n ie s u tility sto c k o b ta in e d by G e n e ra l E lectric in e x c h a n g e fo r
e q u ip m e n t. T h e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s a lso a c q u ire d u tility stock by p u r c h a s e ,
u sin g in c o m e f ro m th e sale o f h o ld in g -c o m p a n y sec u ritie s, o r by e x c h a n g e
o f th e s e se c u ritie s f o r o p e ra tin g -c o m p a n y s e c u ritie s.66 B e cau se S to n e 8c
Ibid., pp. 6 4 -6 5 ; S. Doc. 213 (1927), p. 73.
05 In 1906 Slone 8c W ebster nam ed local m anagers; see Street Railway Journal. 7 July 1906,
p. 2. In a service contract used in the 1930s, Stone 8c W ebster Service Corp. expressed readiness
to "recom m end" local executives (Stone 8c W ebster Form no. A706. S&W files).
94T h is analysis o f the Electric Bond 8c Share service is draw n Trom a 1929 contract reprinted
in Federal T ra d e Com mission. Utility Corporations, Part 72A, p. 672.
oojames C. Bonbrighl and G ard in er C. Means, The Holding Company: Its Public Significance
and Us Regulations (New York: McGraw-Hill. 1932), p. 104. Bonbright and Means drew upon
S. Doc. 213 (1927) in p rep arin g th eir study.
o" B onbright and Means, The Holding Company, p. 104.

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W e b ste r s o m e tim e s o b ta in e d sto ck in e x c h a n g e fo r its e n g in e e r in g an d
m a n a g e m e n t services, it se e m s likely th a t E le ctric B o n d 8c S h a re received
u tility s e c u ritie s in th is w ay as well.
D u rin g th e p e r io d o f ra p id e x p a n s io n o f re g io n a l utilitie s, E lectric B ond
8c S h a r e a n d th e r e la te d h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s e m p h a s iz e d c a p ita l fo rm a tio n
a n d fo u n d m e a n s by w hich th e utilities co u ld d isp o se o f th e ir d ifficu lt-lo m a rk e t ju n i o r se c u ritie s. S e e in g e v e ry c itiz en as a c u s to m e r, M itchell, who
was still h e a d o f E lec tric B o n d 8c S h a re , to ld u tilities th a t th e y n e e d e d $ 3 0 $ 8 0 f o r e a c h in d iv id u a l a d d e d to th e U .S. p o p u la tio n .07 T h e sta n d a rd
fin a n c ia l s tr u c tu r e d e s ig n e d by E lec tric B o n d 8c S h a re to m e e t th e financial
n e e d s o f th e u tility c o m p a n ie s c o n tro lle d by th e h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s called
fo r 6 0 p e rc e n t c a p ita liz a tio n th r o u g h th e sa le o f b o n d s to th e p u b lic, 2 0 25 p e rc e n t ca p ita liz a tio n th r o u g h th e sale o f p r e f e r r e d stock to th e public,
a n d 2 0 - 2 5 p e rc e n t c a p ita liz a tio n in c o m m o n slo ck th a t w as to lie ta k e n by
a h o ld in g c o m p a n y .08 F o r th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y , th e a d v a n ta g e o f keeping
th e a m o u n t o f c o m m o n (v o tin g o r c o n tro llin g ) sto c k low w as o b v io u s; c o n
tro l w o u ld b e less costly. F u r th e r m o r e , a s will b e e x p la in e d , th e a rr a n g e m e n t
c o u ld m e a n fo r th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y a h ig h r e tu r n o n in v e stm e n t. T h e
in v e n tiv e n e ss o f th e fin a n c ie rs w as c o m p a ra b le to th a t o f th e in v e n to rs and
e n g in e e rs w h o h a d d e s ig n e d th e te c h n o lo g ic a l s tr u c tu r e . F o llo w in g this
p la n . E le ctric B o n d 8c S h a re p a r tic ip a te d in th e policy m a k in g o f th e five
m a jo r h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s: th e A m e ric a n G as 8c E le ctric C o m p a n y (fo rm e d
in 1 906);09 th e A m e ric a n P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y (1 9 0 9 ); th e N ational
P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y (1 9 2 1 ); th e A m e ric a n 8c F o re ig n P o w e r C o m p a n y ,
In c . (1 9 2 3 ); a n d th e E lectric P o w e r 8c L ight C o r p o r a tio n (1 9 2 5 ).70 T h e
N a tio n a l P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y also h a d a m a jo r h o ld in g c o m p a n y as a
s u b sid ia ry th e L e h ig h P o w e r S e c u ritie s C o r p o r a tio n (see p p . 4 3 9 41 b e
low).
B e ca u se A m e ric a n P o w e r 8c L ig h t r e c e iv e d v a rio u s serv ic es fro m B ond
8c S h a re , its h isto ry is re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e c o n c e p ts a n d ac tio n s o f S. Z.
M itchell a n d h is a sso c iates. A m e ric a n P o w e r 8c L ig h t w as f o rm e d as a
h o ld in g c o m p a n y to fin a n c e tw o K an sas utility c o m p a n ie s th a t w ere too
sm all to in te r e s t in v e sto rs in th e ir s e n io r se c u ritie s a n d h a d n o m arkiet for
th e ir c o m m o n slo c k . T h e o w n e r o f th e tw o u tilitie s h a d a sk e d M itchell to
fo rm th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y to ta k e th e ir c o m m o n sh a re s. A m e ric a n P ow er
8c L ig h t th e n ra ise d th e m o n e y f o r th e stock by s e llin g its o w n securities.
S u b s e q u e n tly , th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y a c q u ire d o th e r u tilities in th e im m e
d ia te vicinity, a n d M itchell m e rg e d th e m in to th e K a n sa s G as 8c Electric
C o m p a n y , a utility th a t w as la rg e e n o u g h to in te r e s t in v e sto rs in its p re
f e r r e d sto ck a n d b o n d s. A m e ric a n P o w er 8c L ig h t c o n tro lle d th e K ansas
G as 8c E lectric C o m p a n y t h r o u g h c o m m o n stock, a n d th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y
e n te r e d in to th e c u s to m a ry c o n tr a c tu a l r e la tio n s h ip w ith E le ctric B o n d 8c
m S. Z. Mitchell, p. 118.
Federal T ra d e Com mission, Utility Corporations, P a n 72A, p. 87.
A merican Gas Sc Electric Co. o riginated before Bond Sc Share had built up its staff of
experts, so A m erican Gas Sc Electric supplied its own m anagers, engineers, and accountants
to the o p eratin g com panies whose com m on stock it held. A m erican Gas Sc Electric relied on
Bond Sc Share for financial services, however. In 1924, Bond Sc Share ow ned about 7 percent
o f the voting stock o r A merican Gas Sc Electric. Sec S. Doc. 213 (1927), p. 7.
70 Ibid.. d . xxxvii.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
S h a re . In 1910, d ire c te d by B o n d 8c S h a re , A m e ric a n P o w e r 8c L ig h t a c
q u ir e d p ro p e r tie s in W a s h in g to n a n d O re g o n . In s u b s e q u e n t y e a rs it o b
ta in e d c o n tro l o f o th e r g r o u p s o f c o m p a n ie s in T e x a s , M in n e so ta , F lo rid a ,
a n d N e b ra sk a . By 1924 th e o p e r a tin g c o m p a n ie s h e ld by A m e ric a n P o w er
8c L ig h t g e n e r a te d a b o u t 2.4 p e r c e n t o f th e to tal c o m m e rc ia l o u tp u t o f
ele c tric ity f o r th e e n tir e c o u n try .71
W h e n th e c o m p a n ie s a c q u ir e d w ere in th e sa m e g e o g r a p h ic a l a re a , as
was th e case in K an sas, th e y w e re u n ite d by tra n sm issio n lin es in to a c o n
tin u o u s sy ste m a n d w e re o fte n m e rg e d to f o rm la r g e r o p e r a tin g c o m p a n ie s.
A s a re su lt, sm all, in e ffic ie n t p la n ts c o u ld b e s h u t d o w n , lo a d fa c to r c o u ld
be im p ro v e d , v a rie d e n e rg y so u rc e s m ix e d , a n d d iv e rsity e x p lo ite d as th e y
h a d b e e n d u r in g th e e r a o f m e r g e r a n d c o n so lid a tio n . B u t M itchell w e n t
b e y o n d e x p lo ita tio n o f su p p ly a n d d iv e rsific a tio n o f lo a d to in tr o d u c e th e
d iv e rsity p rin c ip le o n a h ig h e r level o f a b s tra c tio n ; h e c alle d his id e a fi
n a n c ia l d iv e rs ity . B e c a u se o f th is a sp e c t o f th e ir policies, E lec tric B o n d 8c
S h a r e s h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s w e re c a te g o riz e d as th e d iv e rs ifie d in v e stm e n t
ty p e .72
T h e p rin c ip le o f f in a n c ia l d iv e rsity , as fu lfille d by th e A m e ric a n P ow er
& L ig h t C o m p a n y a n d o th e r B o n d 8c S h a re h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s, was e x
p la in e d by O w e n D. Y o u n g , h e a d o f G e n e ra l E lectric, as follow s:
If o ne owns a light a n d pow er plant in a single com m unity, his investm ent and
his earn in g pow er is [sic] subject to the risk o f that com m unity. Floods may come
and wipe it out; cyclones may hurl it down; crops may fail; business depressions
(here may be acute. T h e capital invested in that plant, if owned by a single man,
is subject to those contingencies. But if men com bined th eir investm ents in a
large n u m ber o f plants, widely diversified geographically, the floods will never
come to all at once; the failure o f crops will never come to all at once; a d epres
sion in business is unlikely to come to all at once, if the diversity is widely made.
T h ere fo re, a given investm ent in a g ro u p o f plants is m uch safer than an invest
m ent in a single plant o f similar am ount. Not only is the principal safer but the
continuity o f re tu rn is b etter insured.73
A c c o rd in g to Y o u n g a n d M itchell, n o t o n ly w e re th e risks s p re a d in th e
h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s so th a t th e in v e s to rs p rin c ip a l was sa fe r a n d th e c o n
tin u ity o f r e t u r n b e tte r, b u t th e r e tu r n m ig h t well b e m u c h la rg e r. M itchell
e x p la in e d th e c o n c e p t in a s im p lifie d e x a m p le . H e sa id t h a t $ 1 0 0 in v este d
by a h o ld in g c o m p a n y in th e c o m m o n stock o f a u tility sh o u ld b rin g a
r e tu r n o f $ 9 as a d iv id e n d o n th e u tility s c o m m o n stock. A ssu m in g th a t
th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y h a d ra ise d th e $ 1 0 0 by m a rk e tin g $ 6 0 o f its ow n
d e b e n tu r e s (n o n m o r tg a g e , o r c o lla te ra l, b o n d s), $ 2 0 o f its p r e f e r r e d stock,
a n d $ 2 0 o f c o m m o n stock o f its ow n , th e n o n th e d e b e n tu re s it w o u ld h av e
to pay 6 p e rc e n t ($ 3 .6 0 ) a n d o n th e p r e f e r r e d stock 7 p e rc e n t ($1.40),
w h ic h w o u ld le ave $4 fro m th e $ 9 e a r n e d o n th e u tility c o m m o n stock to
d e c la r e as a d iv id e n d o n th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y c o m m o n stock o r to be
in v e ste d in th e o p e r a tin g c o m p a n ie s. As M itchell o b se rv e d , F o r th a t p o s
sible 20 p e rc e n t r e tu r n th e h o ld in g co m p a n y c o m m o n stock s h o u ld be

71 Ibid.. pp. 9 3 -1 0 8 and xxix.

73 Federal T ra d e Commission, Utility Corporations, Pan 72A. p. 84.
75 Q uoted in S. Z. Mitchell, pp. 84-85.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

sa le a b le .7* H e m ig h t h a v e a d d e d th a t th e o rg a n iz e r s o f h o ld in g co m p an ies
w ere o fte n r e a d y to p u r c h a s e th e c o m m o n slock th e m se lv e s.
In a r e p o r t in 1927, a t th e h e ig h t o f th e h o ld in g -c o m p a n y e ra , th e F ederal
T r a d e C o m m issio n o b s e rv e d th a t p r o m o te r s o fte n re ta in e d o w n e rs h ip of
th e c o m m o n s h a r e s o f th e ir h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s a n d o b ta in e d ra te s o f re tu rn
ra n g in g fro m 19 p e rc e n t to 55 p e r c e n t.75 H ig h r e tu r n s c o u ld be achieved
by in c re a s in g th e p r o p o r tio n o f lo w -in te re st d e b e n tu r e s a n d p r e f e r r e d stock
a m o n g th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y 's s e c u ritie s. F o r in sta n c e , if th e h o ld in g c om
p a n y in th e e x a m p le a b o v e h a d in c r e a s e d its d e b e n tu r e s to 65 p e rc e n t and
its p r e f e r r e d sto c k to 25 p e r c e n t, th e r e tu r n o n th e $ 1 0 o f h o ld in g -c o m p a n y
c o m m o n stock w o u ld h av e b e e n 3 3 .5 p e r c e n t. S. Z. M itchell re c o g n iz e d the
p ossibility o f h ig h e v e n e x cessive r e tu r n s o n in v e s tm e n ts , b u t h e c h a r
ac te riz e d his ro le as th a t o f a re s o u r c e f u l fin a n c ie r o f u tility ex p a n sio n
r a th e r th a n a r e a p e r o f la rg e p ro fits.
M a n a g e m e n t, d e s ig n , a n d c o n s tru c tio n serv ice s w e re alw ays c e n tra l to
th e o r g a n iz a tio n s e re c te d by M itchell a n d by S lo n e 8c W e b ste r. A s fin a n cin g
in c re a se d in im p o rta n c e w ith th e s te a d y g r o w th o f th e ca p ital-in ten siv e
utility in d u s try , h o w e v e r, h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s w e re f o rm e d w h o se activities
w ere alm o st e n tire ly fin an c ia l. C h a r te r e d in 1929, th e U n ite d C o rp o ra tio n
w as th e c re a tio n o f th r e e in v e s tm e n t b a n k in g h o u s e s J . P. M o rg a n &
C o m p a n y , D re x el 8c C o m p a n y , a n d B o n b rig h t 8c C o m p a n y , In c .70 W ithin
a few years, th e in v e stm e n t b a n k e rs h a d p ra c tic a l c o n tr o l o f a n e tw o rk of
utilitie s e x te n d in g (w ith o n e m a jo r b re a k ) fro m th e G re a t L ak e s a n d the
St. L a w re n c e R iv e r to th e G u lf o f M exico. T h o s e w h o w e re in fo r m e d ab o u t
U n ite d C o rp o ra tio n la b eled th e c o n tr o l p ra c tic a l" b e c a u se U n ite d C o r
p o ra tio n o w n e d o n ly m in o rity stock in th e c o m p a n ie s in its g ro u p . M inority
c o n tro l p ro b a b ly w as c o n g e n ia l b e c a u se im m e n s e a m o u n ts o f c ap ital w ere
in v o lv e d a n d b e c a u se g o v e r n m e n t re g u la tio n a n d p u b lic a c c o u n tin g s eem ed
less likely if th e c o r p o r a tio n re m a in e d su p e rfic ia lly a n in v e s tm e n t c o m p a n y
r a th e r th a n legally a u tility h o ld in g c o m p a n y . F u r th e r m o r e , th e prestig e
o f th e th r e e b a n k in g h o u se s w as so g re a t a m o n g th e utilities, a n d the
in te rlo c k in g oT th e h o a rd s o f d ir e c to r s w as so e x te n siv e , th a t c o n tro l could
be e x e rc ise d w ith o u t m a jo rity h o ld in g s .77
In 1931 U n ite d C o r p o r a tio n v irtu a lly c o n tro lle d five m a jo r h o ld in g com
p a n ie s a n d , th r o u g h th e se , n u m e r o u s utilities. A m o n g th e h o ld in g co m
p a n ie s it c o n tr o lle d w as th e N ia g a ra H u d s o n P o w e r C o rp o r a tio n . U nlike
m an y o th e r h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s , w ith th e ir w idely d is p e rs e d p ro p e rtie s,
N ia g a ra H u d s o n c o n tro lle d utilitie s th a t w e re c o n tig u o u s a n d in te rc o n
n e c te d . O r g a n iz a tio n a lly , h o w e v e r, N ia g a ra H u d s o n w as a c o m p le x p y ra
m id ol s u b h o ld in g a n d o p e r a tin g c o m p a n ie s . A lso a p a r t o r th e U nited
C o rp o r a tio n a n d o rg a n iz a tio n a lly o n th e s a m e level as N ia g a ra H u d so n
was th e C o m m o n w e a lth 8c S o u th e r n C o r p o r a tio n , w hich h e ld utilities in
G e o rg ia , A la b a m a , a n d T e n n e sse e a n d w hich w as la te r in v o lv e d in a classic
77 Ibid., p. 80.
" S . Doc. 213 (1927). p. xxiv.
I his account ol Ilie U nited C orp. is draw n from llo nbrighl and Means, The Holding
Company, pp. 127-38; and from Federal T rad e Com mission. Utility Corporations. Pari 72A.
pp. 75-77 and 111-16.

17 Bonbright and Means, The Holding Company, p. 134.

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T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
s tru g g le w ith th e T e n n e s s e e V alley A u th o rity . T h e U n ite d G as I m p r o v e
m e n t C o m p a n y , in w hich U n ite d C o rp o r a tio n h e ld a 26.1 p e rc e n t in te re st
in 1931, was p ro b a b ly th e o ld e st u tility h o ld in g c o m p a n y in th e e le c tric
su p p ly field. O rig in a lly in c o rp o r a te d in P e n n sy lv a n ia in 1882 to in tr o d u c e
im p r o v e m e n ts in th e gas in d u s try , th e e n te r p r is e s o u g h t c o n tro l o f gas
c o m p a n ie s in o r d e r to esta b lish a m a rk e t fo r its p a te n te d m e th o d o f m a n
u fa c tu rin g w a te r gas. In lim e , ele ctric utilitie s w e re a d d e d to th e list o f
c o m p a n ie s c o n tro lle d by th e firm .
W ith its im m e n se h o ld in g s o f in te rc o n n e c te d o r likely to b e in te r c o n
n e c te d utilitie s in th e N o rth e a s t a n d S o u th e a s t, th e U n ite d C o r p o r a tio n s
sta tu s a p p r o a c h e d th a t o f th e s u p e r p o w e r sy stem m u c h ta lk e d a b o u t by
M o rris C o o k e a n d o th e r s im m e d ia te ly a f te r W o rld W a r I. A c c o rd in g to
r u m o r s in fin a n c ia l a n d e n g in e e rin g c ircles b e f o r e p assa g e o f th e P ublic
U tility H o ld in g C o m p a n y A ct o f 1935, th e in v e s tm e n t b a n k e r s w o u ld p r e
sid e o v e r th e p h y sical in te rc o n n e c tio n o f th e ir u tility e m p ir e .78 D e sp ite
o p p o s itio n a r is in g f ro m th e n a tu r a l p re fe re n c e o f u tility m a n a g e rs to m a in
ta in o p e r a tin g a u to n o m y in ste a d o f b e in g h o m o g e n iz e d in to a s u p e r im
p o se d sy stem , a n d d e s p ite o th e r m a n ife sta tio n s o f p a rtic u la ris m , th e ru m o rs
lo o k o n c r e d e n c e w ith th e fo rm a tio n o f th e P e n n s y lv a n ia -N e w J e r s e y I n
te r c o n n e c tio n , w h ic h in v o lv e d th e P h ila d e lp h ia E lectric C o m p a n y a n d th e
Pu b lic S erv ice E le ctric 8c G as C o m p a n y o f N ew J e rs e y , tw o o f th e la rg e st
utilitie s in th e U n ite d C o rp o r a tio n g r o u p (see p p . 3 3 1 -3 4 ab o v e ). F u r
th e r in g th e c o m p le x ity o f th e situ a tio n was th e fact th a t th e th ir d m e m b e r
o f th e P e n n s y lv a n ia -N e w J e r s e y In te rc o n n e c tio n , th e P en n sy lv a n ia P o w er
8c L ig h t C o m p a n y , w as in th e E le ctric B o n d 8c S h a r e g r o u p , w hich h a d
h a r m o n io u s r e la tio n s w ith th e U n ite d C o rp o r a tio n by v irtu e o f th e close
ties o f th e tw o s u p e r p o w e r h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s w ith th e in v e stm e n t b a n k in g
h o u se o f B o n b r ig h t 8c C o m p a n y a n d b e c a u se E le ctric B o n d 8c S h a re o w n e d
stock in so m e o f th e c o m p a n ie s o f th e U n ite d C o rp o ra tio n g r o u p . 79 A n
tic ip a tin g th e e m e rg e n c e o f a s u p e r p o w e r s y stem , so m e in v e sto rs a n d utility
co g n o sc e n ti to o k as a p o r te n t th e n a m e o f a n o th e r h o ld in g c o m p a n y , th e
A m e ric a n S u p e r p o w e r C o r p o ra tio n , w hich was fo r m e d by B o n b rig h t 8c
C o m p a n y a n d h a d close in v e stm e n t lies w ith th e U n ite d C o rp o r a tio n .
T h e o n s e t o f th e D e p re ssio n w re ck e d th e fra il p y ra m id a l s tr u c tu r e o f
several U.S. h o ld in g com p an ies, in clu d in g S am uel Insult's, a n d raised d o u b ts
a b o u t th e a d v a n ta g e s o f all o f th e m . T h e m o u n tin g d o u b ts c u lm in a te d in
1935 w ith passage o f th e Public U tility H o ld in g C o m p a n y Act, w hich sh a rp ly
c u rta ile d a n d re v e rs e d th e s p r e a d o f th e h o ld in g c o m p a n y by o u tla w in g
h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s w ith u tilities th a t w e re n o t physically (te ch n o lo g ically )
c o n n e c te d . T h e a n tic ip a te d rise o f s u p e r p o w e r h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s th a t
w o u ld p r e s id e o v e r re g io n a l sy stem s co v e rin g th e e n tire N o rth e a s t o r W est,
o r e v e n th e w h o le n a tio n , w as n o t to be. In s te a d , th e p riv a te u tilities a n d
th e fe d e ra l g o v e r n m e n t fo u n d th em selv es locked in a lo n g -te rm s tru g g le
fo r re g io n a l-sy ste m c o n tro l a n d o w n e rsh ip , a stru g g le m a n ife ste d in th e
fig h t o v e r T V A a n d in f ru s tr a te d e ffo rts to c re a te o th e r T V As. A m erica,
7" Q onbrighl anti Means d oubled that die physical integration would occur, because o f "the
petty jealousies o f local politics in New York City and Philadelphia and the rivalries between
New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania" (ibid., pp. 128-30).
7" Ibid.. p. 133.

402

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
like L o n d o n a n d E n g la n d as a w h o le d e c a d e s e a r lie r, saw te ch n ica l im pli
ca tio n s c o n tra d ic te d by w h a t L loyd G e o rg e la b e le d po litics.
In B rita in , h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s d o m in a te d th e p riv a te ly o w n e d secto r of
th e s u p p ly in d u s try , b u t c o m p a r e d to th e U n ite d S la te s, th is s e c to r h eld a
sm all p e r c e n ta g e o f th e n a tio n s g e n e r a tin g c a p a city , a n d th is sm all sector
w as in flu e n c e d by fo re ig n e n te r p r is e . A m e ric a n m a n u f a c tu r e r s h a d long
e x p o r te d e le ctric al m a c h in e ry to B rita in ; in th e 1920s, A m e ric a n ho ld in g
c o m p a n ie s e x p o r te d th e ir p ra c tic e s as well. S a m u e l In s u lls h o lding
c o m p a n y a c q u ire d in te r e s t in th e B ritish P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o r p o r a tio n , a
sm all B ritish h o ld in g c o m p a n y . A m u c h la rg e r in v o lv e m e n t by A m e rica n s
w as o b ta in e d th r o u g h th e G r e a te r L o n d o n a n d C o u n tie s T r u s t (G L C T ).
T h e U tilities P o w er 8c L ig h t C o r p o r a tio n o f C h ic a g o , a sm all U .S. ho ld in g
c o m p a n y th a t c o n tro lle d less th a n 1 p e r c e n t o f th e g e n e r a tin g ca p acity in
th e U n ite d S lates, o w n e d th e G L C T . G L C T 's c a p ita l, 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 in 1926 an d
4 0 0 ,0 0 0 in 1927, w as u se d to a c q u ire sm all B ritish u tilitie s w ith d istri
b u tio n sy stem s th a t c o u ld d r a w fro m th e G r id s tra n s m is s io n n e tw o rk . Most
o f th e c a p ita l c a m e fro m th e U n ite d S la te s, b u t to re lie v e so m e o f the
c o n c e r n a b o u t th e p e n e tr a tio n o f fo r e ig n c a p ita l, th e c o m p a n y n a m e d B rit
o n s as e x ec u tiv es. G L C T c o n c e n tr a te d its a c q u isitio n s e ffo rts in s o u th e rn ,
r u r a l E n g la n d a n d in 1928 a c q u ire d 95 p e r c e n t o f th e sh a re s o f E d m u n d so n s E lectric ity C o rp o r a tio n ; w ith tw e n ty -n in e u tilitie s, E d m u n d s o n s was
o n e o f B r ita in s la rg e st h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s. By th e e n d o f 1929 G L C T
c o n tro lle d fifty -f o u r u tilitie s, m o st o f w h ic h w e re r u r a l a n d sm all.
L ike th e A m e ric a n h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s , G L C T a n n o u n c e d p lan s to ra
tio n a liz e its h o ld in g s th r o u g h in te rc o n n e c tio n s a n d m a n a g e m e n t a n d fi
nan c ia l services. T h e s e e ff o r ts w e re f r u s tr a te d , h o w e v e r, first by th e d is
p e r s e d c h a r a c te r o f th e c o m p a n y s h o ld in g s a n d th e n by th e financial
d iffic u ltie s o f th e A m e ric a n o w n e rs in th e 1930s. T h e o w n e r s initially held
th e c o m m o n sto ck o f G L C T , o b ta in e d a h ig h r e tu r n o n th e ir in vestm ent,
as in th e U n ite d S ta te s, a n d lim ite d th e p a rtic ip a tio n o f B ritish capital to
fix e d in te re s t se c u ritie s. In th e th irtie s , h o w e v e r, th e A m e ric a n p are n t
c o m p a n y , U tilitie s P o w er 8c L ig h t, e x p e rie n c e d s e rio u s fin a n c ia l difficulties
a n d was n o lo n g e r ab le to fin a n c e its B ritish su b sid ia ry ; th u s , th ro u g h the
p u rc h a s e o f c o m m o n stock, B ritish c a p ita l b e g a n to d isp la c e A m erica n . In
1935 a B ritish c o n s o rtiu m , in c lu d in g L a z a rd s, th e B ritish m e r c h a n t bank,
to o k c o n tro l o f G L C T f ro m th e A m e ric a n s, liq u id a te d it, a n d established
E d m u n d s o n s , th e f o r m e r s u b h o ld in g c o m p a n y , as th e p a r e n t h o ld in g c o m
p a n y . E d m u n d s o n s th e n c o n tin u e d to ra tio n a liz e th e d is tr ib u tio n c o m p a
n ies it h e ld .80
T h e P o w e r S e c u ritie s C o r p o r a tio n , th e la rg e st o f th e B ritish -o w n e d h o ld
in g c o m p a n ie s in th e 1920s, w as h e a d e d by G e o rg e B a lfo u r, a c h am p io n
of h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s a n d la r g e -a re a su p p ly . A c o n se rv a tiv e m e m b e r o f
P a rlia m e n t a n d h e a d o f a u tility m a n a g e m e n t firm , B a lfo u r B ea tty , B a lfo u r
o rg a n iz e d th e P o w e r S e c u ritie s C o r p o r a tio n in 1922. H e b e c a m e c h a irm an
a n d o w n e r a lo n g w ith th r e e la rg e h e a v y -e q u ip m e n t m a n u fa c tu re rs , A rm
s tr o n g W h itw o rth , B abcock 8c W ilcox, a n d B ritish T h o m s o n - H o u s to n . T h e
new o rg a n iz a tio n lo o k o v e r all of B a lfo u r B e atty 's u tility in te re s ts a n d used
B a lfo u r B ea tty s c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e m e n t e x p e rtis e fo r them .
H an n ah . Electricity Before Nationalisation, pp. 227-34.

403

T H E C U L T U R E O F R E G IO N A L S Y S T E M S
T h e c o m b in a tio n o f e lec trica l m a n u f a c tu r e r a n d u tility h o ld in g c o m p a n y
w as a lre a d y well k n o w n in th e U n ite d S tate s. T h e P o w e r S e c u ritie s C o r
p o ra tio n b e c a m e th e la rg e st ele c tric -u tility h o ld in g c o m p a n y in B rita in .
F ro m th is b a se a n d w ith th is in te re s t, B a lfo u r f o u g h t th e im p le m e n ta tio n
o f th e E le ctric ity S u p p ly A ct o f 1919 a n d , e x c e p t w h e n legally r e q u ir e d to
d o so, o p p o s e d c o o p e ra tio n w ith th e elec tricity c o m m issio n e rs. H is s tro n g
voice a d d e d to th e d is s o n a n c e a m o n g p riv a te a n d p u b lic in te re s ts a n d
p r o p o n e n ts o f la rg e - a n d s m a ll-a re a su p p ly .81

Ibid.. pp. 71-73, 81.

CHAPTER

XIV

RWE, PP&L, and

NESCO: The Style of
Evolving Systems

e v o lu tio n o f th e re g io n a l sy stem s c o n s id e r e d h e r e w as a lo n g p ro c
ess c o m p a r e d to th e s h o r t g e s ta tio n p e rio d s o f th e p o s t-W o r ld W ar
I p la n n e d sy stem s d isc u sse d in C h a p te r X II. T h u s , th e ev o lv in g system s
w ere s h a p e d by fa c to rs a n d te c h n o lo g y fro m d if f e r e n t s ta g e s in th e history
o f e le c tric su p p ly system s. C o n s id e r , f o r e x a m p le , th e la stin g im p rin t ol
W o rld W a r I o n th e R h e in isc h -W e slfa lisc h e s E le k triz iia isw e rk (RW E) in
G e rm a n y ; th e tra c e s o f E d iso n d ir e c t- c u r r e n t u tilitie s th a t co u ld be fo u n d
in th e re g io n a l sy stem o f th e P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t C o m p a n y (PP&L)
in th e 1920s; a n d th e in flu e n c e o f th e E lec tric L ig h tin g A ct o f 1882 an d
th e p o w e r bills o f 1900 o n th e N e w ca stle u p o n T y n e E le ctric S u p p ly C o m
p a n y (N E S C O ) in E n g la n d .
M o re o v e r, re g io n a l sy ste m s e v o lv ed so c o m p le x ly th a t th e y a lm o st defy
c o h e re n t d e s c rip tio n . S o m e utilitie s e x p a n d e d by a c q u ir in g o th e r s a n d then
by te c h n o lo g ic a lly in te g r a tin g th e o rg a n iz a tio n a lly m e rg e d sy stem s so that
elec trica lly th e y fu n c tio n e d as o n e . S y stem s also e x p a n d e d th r o u g h in te r
c o n n e c tio n w ith o th e r u tilities. U su ally th e se sy ste m s w e re n o t in te g ra te d
elec trica lly a n d th e r e f o r e w e re n o t o p e r a te d fro m a s in g le c o n tro l ce n te r.
E ach u tility re ta in e d its c o r p o r a te id e n tity a n d n e g o tia te d c o n tra c ts fo r the
e x c h a n g e o f p o w e r o v e r h ig h -v o lta g e tie lines. T h e loosely c o n n e c te d sys
te m s w e re o fte n c alled in te r c o n n e c tio n s " in th e 1 9 2 0 s.1
T o le n d c o h e re n c e to th e d e s c rip tio n o f th r e e m a jo r ev o lv in g system s
R W E, N E S C O , a n d PP & L w ith o u t e lim in a tin g th e ir e sse n tia l diversity,
th e c o n c e p t o f re g io n a l style will b e e m p lo y e d . In g e n e ra l, th e regional
sy stem s o f th e in d u s tria l w o rld s h a r e d c ritic al te c h n ic a l p ro b le m s a n d em
b o d ie d s im ila r so lu tio n s. Yet th e r e w e re sp e cific d iffe re n c e s th a t im p a rte d
d istin c tiv e styles to th e s e system s.
he

'S am u el Insull, "Interco n n ectio n an d C onsolidation EITcct Vast Benefits to Consumer."

Electrical Worl/I 90 (1927): 1087-90; Alex Dow. "Interconnections," ibid. 89 (1927): 451-MiArticles by engineers and m anagers who led the way in interconnection can be found in the
"Symposium on I m et connection Proceedings, AIEE Transactions <17 (February 1928). Among
the articles a re W. E. Mitchell, "Progress and Problems . . . Interconnection in Southeastern
Stales," pp. 3 8 2-91; P. M. Downing. "Some Aspects o f Pacific Coast Interconnections." pp3 9 3-98: and I I. B. G ear, "Interco n n ectio n and Power D evelopment in C hicago and the Middle
West." pp. 3 99-404. T h ere is also a bibliography, pp. 4 05-8.

405

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
T h e sim ila ritie s c a n be p a rtia lly e x p la in e d by th e e x iste n c e o f a n in te r
n a tio n a l pool o f te c h n o lo g y fro m w hich th e in d u s tria l n a tio n s d re w . M a n
u f a c tu r e r s e n g a g e d in in te r n a tio n a l tr a d e , p a te n ts w ere g e n e ra lly licensed
fo r in te r n a tio n a l u se, scie n tific a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l lite r a tu re c irc u la te d to all
o f th e w o rld s c e n te rs o f le a rn in g , c o u rse s in e n g in e e rin g sch o o ls d e sc rib e d
a n d ra tio n a liz e d w o rld e x p e r ie n c e in elec trical te c h n o lo g y , a n d e n g in e e rs
a n d in v e n to rs m o v e d a n d c o n s u lte d easily a cro ss n a tio n a l b o u n d a rie s . T e c h
no lo g y tr a n s f e r w as n o t so m u c h fro m p o in t to p o in t o r plac e to place as
f ro m p la ce to p o o l to p lace. T he c o m m o n te c h n o lo g y o f th e pool was sh a p e d
to suit th e place.
T h e d iffe r e n c e s f o u n d in th e ev o lv in g r e g io n a l sy stem s th e e ssen ce o(
sty le s te m m e d m o stly fro m th e n o n te c h n o lo g ic a l fa c to rs o f th e c u ltu ra l
c o n te x t. T hese d iffe r e n c e s a n d th e ir c au se s n e e d to b e e m p h a siz e d b ecause
th e y a re o f te n o v e rlo o k e d in o u r e ra , w hich te n d s to a d v o c a te a su p e r io r,
a d v a n c e d te c h n o lo g y th e o n e b est w ay a way th a t tr a n s c e n d s re g io n al
a n d n a tio n a l d if f e r e n c e s .2 In 1909, C h a rle s M erz, th e e x p e rie n c e d B ritish
c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r , saw th e d if fe re n c e s in re g io n a l te c h n o lo g ie s a n d in
d ire c tly d e fin e d style as follow s: T h e p ro b le m o f p o w e r s u p p ly in any
d istric t is . . . c o m p le te ly g o v e rn e d by local c o n d itio n s ." 3 T e c h n o lo g ic a l style
can b e d e fin e d as th e te c h n ic a l c h a ra c te ristic s th a t give a m a c h in e , pro c ess,
dev ice , o r sy stem a d istin c tiv e q u a lity . O u t o f local c o n d itio n s co m es a
te c h n o lo g y in flu e n c e d by tim e a n d place, a te c h n o lo g y w ith a d istin c tiv e
style. T h e local c o n d itio n s e x te rn a l to th e te c h n o lo g y can b e d e f in e d as
c u ltu ra l fa c to rs: th e te c h n o lo g y th e y s h a p e , a c u ltu ra l a rtifa c t.4 A m o n g th e
c u ltu ra l fa c to rs a r e g e o g ra p h ic a l, ec o n o m ic , o rg a n iz a tio n a l, legislative, c o n
tin g e n t h isto ric a l, a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l co n d itio n s. E a rlie r in th is stu d y , th e
c o n tra s tin g h isto rie s o f e le c tric s u p p ly in L o n d o n , C h ica g o , a n d B e rlin
su g g e ste d th e c o n c e p t o f te c h n o lo g ic a l style a n d th e fo rc e o f c u ltu ra l factors.
T h e fa c to rs d o n o t o p e r a te d e te rm in istic a lly by s h a p in g th e te c h n o lo g y
t h r o u g h passiv e h u m a n a g e n ts in th e ro le o f c ra fts m a n , in v e n to r, e n g in e e r,
m a n a g e r , a n d fin a n c ie r: th e fa c to rs on ly p a rtia lly s h a p e te c h n o lo g y th ro u g h
th e m e d ia tin g a g e n c y o f in d iv id u a ls a n d g r o u p s . N a tu ra l g e o g ra p h ic a l fe a
tu re s , f o r e x a m p le , a r e a g iv e n , b u t e n g in e e rs a d a p t to, m o d ify , o r v ariously
use th e m by s e le c tin g o r in v e n tin g a n a p p r o p r ia te tec h n o lo g y . T h e fa cto rs
c o m p le x ly a n d syste m a tically in te ra c t w ith te c h n o lo g y a n d w ith o n e a n
o th e r . F u r th e r m o r e , th e y a n d th e re la tio n s h ip s a m o n g th e m c h a n g e as a
p o w e r system g ro w s.
O f th e c irc u m s ta n tia l fa c to rs th a t sh a p e th e style o f a re g io n a l system ,
g e o g r a p h y is th e m o st ob v io u sly in flu e n tia l. W h e n o n e d e fin e s g e o g ra p h y
as b o th n a tu ra l a n d h u m a n , as su ch lo ca tio n al c h a ra c te ristic s as c lim a te a n d
7 Thom as P. H ughes. "Regional Technological Style," in Technology and Its Impact on Society:
Teknisha M used Symposia No. I (Stockholm : T ekniska Mnscel. 1979). pp. 212-14. Several
sections in this c h ap te r arc draw n in part from a revision o f this essay.
5Charles II. Mcrz, "Power Supply and Its Effects on the Industries ol the North-East
Coast, Journal o f Iron and Steel Institute, Septem ber 1908. p. 4.
7 O n the style o f m aterial culture, see George Kubler, The Shape of Time: Remarks upon the
History o f Things (New H aven: Yale University Press, 1902), p. 129. For a study o f the varied
responses o f utilities to environm ental factors recently, see Marc J. Roberts and Jerem y S.
Dltihm. The Choices o f Rower: Utilities Face the Environmental Challenge (Cam bridge. Mass.:
H arvard University Press. 1981).

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
se a so n al v a ria tio n s in d a y lig h t, th e lo c a tio n a n d c h a r a c te r o f riv ers, lakes,
a n d seas, th e a v ailability o f m in e r a l d e p o s its , soil a n d v e g e ta tio n , elevations,
t r a n s p o r ta tio n , in d u s try , a n d d e m o g r a p h y , it b e c o m e s c le a r th a t it d e c id
e d ly sh a p e s th e c h a r a c te r o f e le c tric p o w e r syste m s. T h e g e o g ra p h ic a l in
flu e n c e is esp ec ia lly m a rk e d in th e ch o ic e o f e n e rg y so u rc e s m a d e by the
e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e r s o f sy stem s, as we h a v e a lre a d y o b se rv e d . T h is
in flu e n c e is also n o ta b le in th e lo n g -te r m c h a r a c te r o f th e lo a d c a rrie d by
a p o w e r sy stem .
G e o g r a p h y p a rtia lly d e te r m in e s b o th su p p ly a n d d e m a n d f o r a utility.
S u p p ly d e p e n d s o n th e availa b ility o f coal a n d o th e r fu e ls in a re g io n . T h e
i n f r a s tr u c tu r e o f th e r e g io n s tr a n s p o r ta tio n sy stem also b e c o m e s highly
re le v a n t. E lev a tio n s a n d p re c ip ita tio n a r e d e te r m in a n ts o f su p p ly from
h y d r o e le c tr ic facilities. U tility e n g in e e r s c a re fu lly m e a s u r e sn o w a n d ra in
fall to p re d ic t s p r in g th a w s. M o re o v e r, th e c ap a c ity o f a u tility to exploit
m in e ra ls a n d to u se th e p o te n tia l e n e r g y o f w a te r c h a n g e s w ith th e de v el
o p m e n t o f new te c h n o lo g y as th e sy stem b u ild e rs e x te n d th e ir n e tw o rk of
tra n s m is s io n lin es to a c q u ire a n e c o n o m ic m ix o f e n e rg y su p p lie s fo r the
system .
O n th e d e m a n d sid e, g e o g ra p h y , b ro a d ly d e f in e d , is a lso m a n ife ste d in
tr e n d s a n d cycles. T h e c h a r a c te r o f d e m a n d is s h a p e d by th e m ix o f m ining,
e le c trifie d tr a n s p o r ta tio n , in d u s try , c o m m e rc e , a n d a g r ic u ltu r e in th e re
g io n s e rv e d by th e u tility. D iffe re n t in d u s tr ie s lo a d th e utility in various
ways. A n e le c tro c h e m ic a l p la n t ta k e s a ste a d y lo a d th r o u g h o u t th e tw entyfo u r h o u r s o f a d a y ; a stee l m ill ca u se s a p e a k w h e n u s in g la r g e m o to rs in
its ro llin g m ill. A re g io n w ith e le c trifie d irrig a tio n p u m p s m a k e s a heavy
d e m a n d o n a s e a so n a l basis. W ith in th e r e g io n , th e lo c a tio n o f th e various
lo a d s, in c lu d in g th e p o p u la tio n , s h a p e s th e c h a r a c te r o f th e d is trib u tio n
a n d tra n s m is s io n n e tw o rk s o f th e p o w e r sy stem . U tility m a n a g e rs m a n ag e
o r m a n ip u la te th e lo a d by c h a rg in g d if f e r e n tia l ra te s a n d by ch o o sin g
c u s to m e rs in s o f a r as r e g u la tio n s allow .
E co n o m ic a n d g e o g ra p h ic a l fa c to rs a r e d iffic u lt to s e p a r a te in a n analysis
o f te c h n o lo g ic a l style. T he e n g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e r s o f e le c tric su p p ly sys
te m s o p e r a te d th e ir u tilities in a c c o r d a n c e w ith e c o n o m ic c o n c e p ts su ch as
lo ad fa c to r a n d e c o n o m ic m ix , b u t th e policy p rin c ip le s b a se d o n these
c o n c e p ts w e re in f lu e n c e d by re g io n a l g e o g ra p h y . T h e lo a d s a n d su p p lie s
o f e n e rg y w e re site sp ec ific fo r e a c h utility , so th e m a n a g e r o fte n h a d to
in v e n t m e a n s o f ra is in g th e lo a d f a c to r o r im p ro v in g th e e c o n o m ic m ix o f
e n e rg y so u rc e s. B e ca u se o f g e o g r a p h ic a l c irc u m s ta n c e s , th e h ig h e st achiev
ab le effic ie n c y in so m e o f th e b e s t-d e s ig n e d a n d - m a n a g e d u tility system s
was lo w e r th a n th e effic ie n c y o f sy ste m s th a t w e re less well r u n . S am u el
In su ll re c o g n iz e d th is w h e n h e p o in te d o u t th a t th e c o m b in a tio n o f c h e a p
p o w e r a n d n e a rb y ch e m ic a l lo ad a t N ia g a ra Falls r e s u lte d in a p e rfo rm a n c e
th a t c o u ld n o t b e m a tc h e d by a C h ic a g o utility.
T h e o rg a n iz a tio n a l fo rm o f a u tility a n d its style a r e in e x tric a b ly in te r
w oven. M a n a g e rs a n d fin a n c ie rs o rg a n iz e d a n d r e o rg a n iz e d utilities to
fac ilitate th e s te a d y e x p a n s io n im p licit in re g io n a l p o w e r tec h n o lo g y . R e
g io n al utilitie s in th e 1920s s h a r e d a c a p ita l-in te n siv e a n d ex p a n sio n istic
d riv e , b u t e a c h h a d its o w n p a r tic u la r o r g a n iz a tio n a l v a ria tio n . O n e clas
sificatio n o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l fo rm is o w n e rs h ip . In th e 1920s, m a n u f a c tu re rs ,
b a n k s, a n d p riv a te in v e sto rs o w n e d m a n y o f th e e v o lv in g re g io n a l utilities

407

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
in th e U n ite d S ta te s IM& L fo r e x a m p le . O w n e rs h ip was m ix e d p riv a te
a n d g o v e rn m e n t in so m e in sta n c e s in G e rm a n y ; R W E is an o u ts ta n d in g
e x a m p le . U ntil th e e sta b lish m e n t o f th e B ritish G rid , th e m a jo r e v o lving
re g io n a l sy stem in E n g la n d was th e p riv a te ly o w n e d N E S C O . C o n su ltin g
e n g in e e r in g firm s a n d h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s also gav e o rg a n iz a tio n a l fo rm to
th e re g io n a l u tilities, w hich th e n d iffe re n tia te d a n d d e f in e d th e ir ow n style.
As e a r lie r c h a p te r s o f th is stu d y h a v e sh o w n , th e ev o lu tio n a n d style of
re g io n a l utilities c a n n o t be a d e q u a te ly e x p la in e d w ith o u t r e f e re n c e to p o l
itics, esp e cia lly leg islatio n . L eg isla tio n m a n ife sts th e id eo lo g ic al, e co n o m ic ,
a n d social c h a r a c te r o f a c u ltu re . R eg io n al u tilitie s h a d r e p e a te d ly to a c q u ire
fra n c h ise s o r m o n o p o lie s in o r d e r to d e fin e th e ir s u p p ly a re a s. A hostile
le g isla tu re , in f lu e n c e d fo r in sta n c e by c o m p e tin g in te re sts, e ith e r p riv a te
o r g o v e rn m e n ta l, s o m e tim e s w ith h e ld th e p o w e rs n e e d e d by u tilities to
e re c t tra n sm issio n lin es o v e r th e c o u n try s id e . As a p ric e f o r rig h ts a n d
m o n o p o lie s, th e leg islativ e b o d ie s u su ally laid d o w n r e g u la tio n s g o v e rn in g
ra te s a n d c o n d itio n s o f su p p ly . T h e s e r e g u la tio n s w ere s o m e tim e s re s tric
tive a n d f r u s tr a te d in v e stm e n t a n d g ro w th ; o f te n th e y a p p e a r e d to be
fra m e d in a u tility 's ow n best in te re s ts a n d in d e e d th e y s o m e tim e s w ere
by pliab le le g islato rs. R e g u la tio n s, o r lack o f re g u la tio n , also s h a p e d style.
T h e m a p o f a n y re g io n a l system g ra p h ic a lly re p re s e n ts th e h isto ry o f le g
islation a n d r e g u la tio n .
H isto ry is o fte n p o p u la rly im a g in e d as th e sto ry o f su c h o b v io u s e v en ts
as w ars, re v o lu tio n s, a n d sh if tin g a lig n m e n ts o f political p o w e r. F ro m th e
p o in t o f view o f utility m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e r s , th e se h isto ric al c ir c u m
stan ces d e e p ly in flu e n c e th e c h a ra c te r o f p o w e r system s, b u t b e c a u se th e se
fo rc es a re u n p re d ic ta b le a n d b ey o n d th e ir c o n tro l, th e y a re c o n tin g e n t.
T h e utilitie s risk p re d ic tin g a n d p la n n in g f o r lo n g -ra n g e d e m o g ra p h ic a n d
e c o n o m ic tr e n d s o r p ro je c tio n s , b u t c a ta s tro p h ic histo rica l e v e n ts a re b e
y o n d ra tio n a l c a lc u la tio n . N e v e rth e le ss, th e y h e lp d e te r m in e th e te c h n o
logical style o f p o w e r sy stem s b e c a u se d if fe re n t u tilities in d iff e re n t re g io n s
a n d c o u n trie s feel th e e ffe c ts o f d iffe r e n t c o n tin g e n t circ u m sta n c e s. As
n o te d . W o rld W a r I vario u sly sh a p e d u tilitie s in G e rm a n y , B rita in , a n d th e
U n ite d S ta le s. O f th e ev o lv in g re g io n a l system s. R W E show s m ost o b viously
th e im m e d ia te a n d la stin g effe c ts o f th e w ar.
A lth o u g h utility m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e r s co u ld n o t c o n tro l c o n tin g e n t
e v e n ts su c h as w a rs a n d d e p re s s io n s , th e y n e v e rth e le ss so u g h t th r o u g h th e
o r g a n iz a tio n o f re g io n a l u tilities a n d th e ir re la te d tec h n ic al c h a ra c te ristic s
to e x te n d th e ir c o n tro l o v e r fa c to rs o u ts id e th e e lec tric su p p ly system . In
th e 1920s, esp e cially in G e rm a n y , th e y a tte m p te d a n d o fte n s u c c e e d e d in
tr a n s fo rm in g in flu e n c e s a n d fo rc es o n c e a p a r t o f th e sy stem 's e n v ir o n
m e n t by d e fin itio n , b e y o n d its c o n tro l in to a la rg e r system u n d e r c o n tro l
o f th e m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e rs . In s h o r t, th e e n v ir o n m e n t b e ca m e p a r t o f
th e sy stem . E x p a n d in g vertically to w a rd th e ir so u rc es o f e n e rg y , re g io n a l
utilities a c q u ire d h a rd - a n d so fl-coal m ines. T h e y also a c q u ire d th e tra n s
p o r ta tio n a n d m a te ria ls -h a n d lin g facilities th a t m o v ed th e coal to th e p o w e r
p lan ts. In a d d itio n , th e re g io n a l utilities e x c h a n g e d p o w e r w ith la rg e in
d u s trie s p o ssessin g iso lated , o r in d e p e n d e n t, p o w e r p lan ts. In o th e r cases,
in te rlo c k in g b o a rd s o f d ire c to rs v irtu a lly in te g r a te d re g io n a l u tilitie s a n d
th e ir m a jo r indu strial c o n sum ers. In add itio n to horizontal exp an sio n th ro u g h
m e rg e r , a v ertical e x te n sio n in to so u rce s ol s u p p ly a n d se ctio n s o f d e m a n d

408

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

w as m a d e / In th is way, sy stem b u ild e rs in te g ra te d ele c tric p o w e r system s
in to re g io n a l in d u s tr ia l sy ste m s. T h is p ro c e ss o f ve rtica l in te g ra tio n , o f
b e c o m in g a c o m p o n e n t in a r e g io n a l in d u s tria l sy stem , also in flu e n c e d the
r e g io n a l p o w e r s y s te m s style.
T h e r e w e re also s u p r a in d u s lr ia ! sy stem s, lo o se c o n f e d e ra tio n s in w hich
re g io n a l e le c tric sy stem s w e re lin k e d to o th e r in d u s tria l e n te r p r is e s n o t by
te c h n o lo g y b u t by su c h in flu e n c e c o u p le r s a s in te rlo c k in g b o a rd s o f d ire c
to rs a n d c a rte l a g re e m e n ts . F o r in s ta n c e , p o w e r utilitie s w e re loosely in
te r c o n n e c te d w ith e le c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r e r s th r o u g h o w n e rs h ip ties an d
c o m m o n b o a r d m e m b e rs . S u c h lo ose c o n n e c tio n s su b sta n tia lly in flu e n c e d
th e style o f u tilitie s b e c a u se a n e le c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r e r a n d u tility could
jo in tly p la n a n d d e s ig n e q u ip m e n t th a t w o u ld b e st su it th e c h a rac teristics
o f th e e le c tric s u p p ly sy ste m o r c o u ld m o d ify s u p p ly c h a ra c te ristic s to suit
a g iv e n lo ad .
T o sh o w th e c o n tr a s tin g sty le o f th e R W E , N E S C O , a n d PP & L system s,
a p r o f ile o f th e c h a ra c te ris tic s a n d h a llm a rk s o f ea c h will b e p re s e n te d (see
T a b le X IV . 1). A s u rv e y o f th e v a rio u s fa c to rs s h a p in g th e ir style will follow.
T h e in f lu e n c e o f th e s e fa c to rs d u r i n g th e tw e n tie s will b e e x a m in e d in
d e ta il. T h e first to b e d isc u sse d w as th e m o st c o m p le x o f t h e th r e e evolving
sy ste m s. In th e 1 920s th e R h e in isc h -W e stfa lisc h e s E le k triz ita tsw e rk AC
(R W E ), r a n k e d f ir s t in in s ta lle d c a p a c ity in G e r m a n y (see Fig. X IV . 1). It
o p e r a te d th e la rg e s t-c a p a c ity c o a l-fire d p o w e r p la n t in th e w o rld . In 1924
th e to ta l in s ta lle d c a p a c ity o f t h e u tility s g e n e r a tin g p la n ts w as 4 7 5 ,0 0 0 kw.
N o ta b ly , th e m a n a g e r s o f R W E h a d c o n c e n tr a te d 3 6 5 ,0 0 0 kw ., o r 76 p e r
c e n t o f th e to ta l, in tw o p la n ts , th e G o ld e n b e r g w e r k n e a r C o lo g n e a n d the
R e ish o lz n e a r D iis s e ld o rf. T h e G o ld e n b e r g p la n t, p la c e d in o p e ra tio n in
1914 a n d la te r n a m e d f o r its d e s ig n e r , fire d b ro w n co al ta k e n fro m a n ea rb y
o p e n m in e o w n e d by th e R o d d e r g r u b e A G . T h e h ig h -v o lta g e n e tw o rk , w ith
its 100,000- a n d 2 0 0,000-volt tran sm issio n lines, lin k ed th e g e n e r a tin g plants
a n d th e s y s te m s lo a d . In 1929 th e e x te n s io n o f a 22 0 -k v . lin e 2 5 0 k ilo m e te rs
s o u th w a r d fro m C o lo g n e to a h y d ro e le c tr ic p la n t in th e V o r a r lb e r g in th e
A lp s s u b s ta n tia lly a ff e c te d th e c h a r a c te r o f th e sy ste m . R W E th u s b egan
o p e r a tin g a n e c o n o m ic m ix o f e n e r g y b ro w n c o al, h a r d co a l, a n d th e w hite
c o al o f th e A lp s. T h e u tility m a d e m u c h o f its ab ility to e x c h a n g e po w er
b e tw e e n th e m in e - m o u th p la n ts o f th e C o lo g n e d is tr ic t, th e d e e p m in e s ol
t h e R u h r valley, a n d th e w a te r -p o w e r site s o f th e A lps. In J a n u a r y 1930
R W E p r o v id e d f u r t h e r flex ib ility to its sy stem by p la c in g in to o p e ra tio n
n e a r H e r d e c k e o n e o f th e e a rlie s t p u m p e d - s to r a g e p o w e r p la n ts , w hich it
n a m e d fo r th e p la n ts d e s ig n e r , A r t h u r K o e p c h e n /

All i ed I). C h a n d le r, J r ., ill The Visible H and: The Managerial Revolution in American Business
(C am bridge, Mass.: H arv ard U niversity Press. 1977). explores the increased capability of
m an ag ers to co o rd in a te an d c o n tro l m an u fa ctu rin g an d tran sp o rta tio n e n terprises as they
e x p an d e d by vertical in teg ratio n to acq u ire raw m aterial and distribution facilities. He does
n ot deal with electrical utilities.
" I am in d e b ted to Ed T o d d , a teach in g assistant at the U niversity o f Pennsylvania, for
research assistance on RW E's history. For sum m ary histories o f RWE, see Ernst Schmelchcr,
R W E, 1 8 9 8 -1 9 3 4 (Essen: RWE. 1954?): a n d Das R W E nach seinen Geschdftsberichten, 18981948 (Essen: RWF., 194R). T h e 1924 statistics for RWE a re from p. 38 o f the last-nam ed work.
O n RW E see also C am illo Asriel. Das RW E: Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Modemen Eleklnlitdtswirtschaft (Z urich: G irsb erg er, 1930); Eleclrotechnische Zeitschrifl 47 (1926): 6 5-67 and 104-

400

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Table X IV .1. Regional S tyle : T echnical Characteristics of Three Power Systems, c. 1924
Characteristic
Area
System Installed Capacity (year)
Rating o f T w o Largest Power Sta
tions (% o f system capacity)

Energy Sources
Cooling System
T ransm ission Voltages
Transm ission Frequency (cycles/
phase)
E ntrep ren e u r
Ow nership

Hheinisch-WestfUlriches
Eleklriiitdtswerk

Newcastle upon Tyne Electric

Supply Co.

Tennsytvania Power
Light Co.

17.500 sq. mi. (1930)

475,000 kw. (1924)
G oldenbcrgw crk (290.000
kw.) (61%) 1924
Rcisholz-Wcrk (75,000 kw.)
(15%)
lignite (open face) and hard
coal
cooling towers at C oldcnberg
66.000; 110.000; 220.000
50/3

1.400 sq. mi. (1924)

250,000 kw. (1924)
D unston (71.000 kw.) (28%)
1924
Carville " B ' (55,000 kw.)
(22%) 1924
hard coal and waste heal

c. 5.000 sq. mi. (1924)

200.000 kw. (1924)
H auto (70,000 kw.) (35%.)
1924
H arw ood (41,500 kw.) (21%)
1924
low-grade anthracite

river water
22.000; 66,000
40/3

river water
66,000; 220.000
60/3

Charles Merz
private shareholders

S. Z. Mitchell
holding com pany (private)

Hugo Stinnes
mixed: governm ent and pri
vate shareholders

Sources: Footnotes o f this chapter.

Figures are not available for ihe kw. capacity o f NESCO's N orth Tees C entral Staiion. In 1924 ii may have been larger than that o
Carville B."
8

T h e g e o g ra p h y o f th e R u h r r e g io n s h a p e d th e c h a r a c te r o f th e RW E
system . T h e R u h r h a d th e la rg e st h a rd -c o a l d e p o sits in G e rm a n y . D eep
h a rd -c o a l m in e s s u p p lie d fu e l fo r R W E p la n ts a n d u se d p o w e r fro m the
RW E sy stem fo r p u m p s a n d o th e r m e c h a n ic a l e q u ip m e n t. T h e first RW E
g e n e r a tin g p la n t w as c o m p le te d in 1900 a t th e site o f th e V icto ria M a thias
m in e in E ssen (see Fig. X IV .2). Less th a n 100 k ilo m e te rs fro m th e h e a rt
o f th e R u h r w e re th e relativ e ly u n e x p lo ite d b ro w n -c o al d e p o sits w est o f
C o lo g n e . A f te r W o rld W a r I th e se w ere in c re a sin g ly m in e d u sin g s trip , o r
o p e n -fa c e , te c h n o lo g y . M o re o v e r, w ith in e c o n o m ic al tra n s p o rta tio n r a n g e
o f th e coal m in e s w e re th e iro n -o re d e p o sits o f S w e d e n a n d S p a in ; th e
R h in e , its trib u ta rie s , a n d r e la te d ca n als m a d e p ossible th e im p o r ta tio n o f
iro n o re fr o m a b ro a d .
T h e p re s e n c e o f coal, th e p ro x im ity o f iro n o re , a n d th e availability o f
e c o n o m ic a l m e a n s o f tr a n s p o r ta tio n all c o n trib u te d to th e in d u stria liz a tio n
o f th e R u h r a n d lo w e r R h in e. T h e rise o f th e steel in d u s tr y lo c ate d m a jo r
p o w e r c o n s u m e rs in th e re g io n s u p p lie d by RW E. T h e K r u p p C o m p a n y
h a d its h e a d q u a r te r s in E ssen, as d id RW E. T h e e sta b lish m e n t o f heavych em ica l p la n ts a lo n g th e R h in e p r o v id e d R W E w ith o u ts ta n d in g ly fa v o r
ab le lo ad c h a ra c te ristic s. In su m , steel m a k in g , coal m in in g , h eavy e n g i
n e e rin g , a n d ch e m ic a l m a n u f a c tu r e tu r n e d cities a n d tow ns like E ssen a n d
G e ls e n k irc h e n in to d e n se ly p o p u la te d c e n te rs a n d a d d e d d iv e rsity to th e
utility s lo a d . S o m e o f th e la rg e st in d u stria l e s ta b lish m e n ts g e n e ra te d th e ir
o w n p o w e r in iso late d p la n is, b u t o v e r th e y e ars R W E s m a n a g e m e n t p e r
s u a d e d m a n y o f th e se to e x c h a n g e p o w e r w ith R W E o r e v e n b e c o m e c o m
p le te ly d e p e n d e n t o n its system . R W E g re w ra p id ly b e ca u se its e n g in e e rs
a n d m a n a g e rs in te g ra te d th e u tility in to th is s u p ra in d u s tria l system (see
Fig. X IV .3).

8; anti G erh ard Deline. Deutschlands Grosskraftversorgung (Berlin: Springer. 1928). O n the
economic geography and history o f the Ruhr, see N orm an J. G. Pounds. The lluhr (London:
Faber Sc Faber. 1952).

410

NETW ORKS OF PO W ER
M,o kWh

Figure X IV .I. Installed capacity (kilowatts) (left) and production (kilowatt-hours) (righl) o f RW E. 1900-1927. From Dehne. D eulschlands
C .rosskrafivcrsorgung. pp. 6 1-64.

R W E s m a n a g e r s a p p lie d (h e e c o n o m ic p r in c ip le s o f lo ad fa c to r an d
ec o n o m ic m ix to ex p lo it th e g e o g ra p h ic a l s itu a tio n , a n d th u s th e se p rin
cip le s m a d e th e ir d is tin g u is h in g m a rk o n th e utility 's style. A s e a rly as 1906,
su rv e y s o f th e d e v e lo p in g field o f c e n lra l- s ta tio n e le c tric a l su p p ly in G e r
m a n y sin g le d o u t R W E as a n o u ts ta n d in g e x a m p le o f s u p p ly a n d load
m a n a g e m e n t. A t th a t tim e , th e m a n a g e r s o f R W E w e re in te g ra tin g th e
fo rm e rly i n d e p e n d e n t, o r iso la te d , g e n e r a tin g p la n ts o f th e R u h r coal m in es
in to th e e m e r g in g R W E sy ste m . T h e m in e s d re w s u p p le m e n ta r y p o w e r
fro m th e R W E system d u r in g th e ir p e rio d o f hea v ie st d e m a n d , 6 a . m . to
2 r.M .; at o th e r tim es, th e m o re e ffic ie n t g e n e r a tin g p la n ts at th e m ines
fed th e ir exce ss p o w e r in to th e R W E sy ste m .7
The in te g ra tio n o f R W E in to a w id e s p re a d in d u s tria l sy stem a n d th e
a p p lic a tio n o f sy stem e c o n o m ic s re s u lte d in p a r t fro m th e in flu e n c e o r
H u g o S tin n e s a n d A u g u st T h y s s e n , w h o in 1902 a c q u ir e d c o n tr o l o f RW E
th r o u g h a c o n s o rtiu m . B e g in n in g as a n o w n e r o f coal m in e s, S tin n e s (1870
1924) b e c a m e o n e o f th e m ost r e s o u rc e fu l sy stem b u ild e rs in G e rm a n y , if
n o t in th e w o rld . T h e first o f R W E 's p o w e r p la n ts w as lo c a te d a t h is V ictoria

"Professor Baum ." "B cinage zur Frage tier K rafierzeugiing und K raftverw ertung auf
Bcrgw crken." Glueckauf 42 (1906): 1137-54: Electrical World 47 11906): 8 1 1.

41 1

T i l l ? S T Y L K O F IN V O L V IN G S Y S T F M S

M ath ias m in e in E ssen. S lin n e s c o n c e iv e d o f e lec tricity as a way of po o lin g

e n e rg y in to a g e n e ra lly u sa b le fo rm .8
As e a rly as 1902, S lin n e s, w ho b e c a m e c h a ir m a n o f R W E, asso ciated
h im s e lf w ith th e e c o n o m ic a n d te c h n ic a l p rin c ip le s o f su ch bo ld co n cep tu a liz e rs o f e le c tric p o w e r sy stem s as S a m u e l In su ll, w ho e n v isa g e d th e m ass
p ro d u c tio n a n d m a rk e tin g o f e n e rg y b e in g f u r th e r e d by ra tio n a liz a tio n ol
p ro d u c tio n facilities. As S tin n e s w ro te in th e utility's 1902 r e p o r t,
W e d o not c o n sid er it o u r goal to exp loit o u r m o nop oly in vario us districts by
lim ited ou tp ut at high p rices as is the practice with most local su p pliers, but
b elieve o u r resp on sib ility to o u rselve s an d o u r custom ers, especially die railroad s
an d in d ustry, is to su p p ly p ow er at (he lowest possible price an d in largest
possible qu an tities. T h r o u g h the ration al utilization o f g en era tin g plants and
distrib ution n etw ork, we shall reg u larly establish o u r rates on the basis o f
red u ced costs."

T h e o rg a n iz a tio n a l fo rm a n d o w n e rs h ip o f RW E ev o lved co m p le x ly .
W h e n S lin n e s set o u t to e stab lish a sin g le s u p p ly system fo r th e R u h r re g io n ,
th e c o m p a n y p r o c e e d e d to p u rc h a s e o th e r u tilities, priv a te ly a n d g o v e rn
m e n t o w n e d fo r in sta n c e , th e E le k trizita tsw erk B e rggeist AG in B iiih l
a n d th e B e rg ish e s E lc k lriz ita lsw e rk in S o lin g en in 1905. RW E n e g o tia te d
co o p e ra tiv e a r r a n g e m e n ts w ith local g o v e r n m e n ts th a t not on ly e n la rg e d
th e u tility s a re a o f su p p ly b u t also p ro v id e d e x p a n sio n cap ita l. F u r th e r
m o re , th e a r r a n g e m e n ts re s u lte d in R W E's sy stem atic in v o lv em en t w ith
c o n s u m e rs a n d u tility re g u la to rs . By 1910, c o m m u n itie s su ch as S o lin g e n ,
" Electrical World 19 (1907): 629.
VHWE GnehafLibrrithlrn. |>. 12; on Slinnes sc- G cil von Klass. Hugo Slinnrs (T iiliingrn:
Rainer W underlich. I9!>8).

412

n e t w o r k s

OF POW ER

Figure X IV .3. The RW E system. 1907.

From Dehnr. Dcutschlancls
C.rosskraftvcrsorgung, f>. 27.

R u h r o r t. a n d ih e d istric t o f Essen w e re p u r c h a s in g R W E slock a n d taking

elec tric s u p p ly fro m th e u tility. S to c k o w n e r s h ip b r o u g h t th e local g o v ern
m e n ts m e m b e rs h ip o n th e c o m p a n y s a d v iso ry c o m m itte e (b o a rd o f d irec
to rs). A t th a t lim e, local g o v e r n m e n ts h a d c o n s id e ra b le in flu e n c e in d e te r
m in in g th e policy o f th e m ix e d -o w n e rsh ip e n te rp ris e s th a t su p p lied electricity
to th e m .10 Political p o w e r a n d th e c o n s titu tio n a l a r r a n g e m e n ts o f th e local
g o v e r n m e n ts in th e a re a o f R W E su p p ly fa c ilita te d th e in te g r a tio n o f gov
e rn m e n t-o w n e d a n d p riv a te utilities a n d e n c o u r a g e d m ix e d ow n ersh ip ,
w hich was n o t th e case in e ith e r th e U n ite d S la te s o r E n g la n d . T h is factor
g re a tly a ffe c te d th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o lT h e R W E sy stem .
D u rin g th e first tw o d e c a d e s o f its e x iste n c e , R W E s p r e a d its a rea of
s u p p ly in to a r e g io n c e n te re d o n th e R u h r valley a n d e v o lv ed in to a m ixedo w n e rs h ip e n te r p r is e w ith a b o u t h a lf o f its sh a re s in th e h a n d s o f local
g o v e rn m e n ts a n d th e o th e r h a lf in th e h a n d s o f p riv a te inv e sto rs. N ego
tia tio n s b e tw e e n th e u tility a n d local g o v e rn m e n ts in th e P ru ssia n provinces
o f R h in e la n d a n d W e stp h a lia (w hich e n c o m p a s s e d th e R u h r reg io n ) w ere
fac ilitate d b e c a u se in d u s tr ia l le a d e rs , allie d w ith S lin n e s in m a tte rs p e r
ta in in g to coal, iro n , ste el, a n d c h e m ic a ls, w e re in flu e n tia l in local g o v ern
m e n t. T h e in g e n u ity a n d c o m p le x ity o f th e n e g o tia tio n s th a t culm in a te d
in th e m ix e d -o w n e r s h ip s tr u c tu r e is s u g g e s te d by a n e p is o d e inv o lv in g RWE
a n d th r e e utilities o w n e d by local g o v e rn m e n ts . T h e c o n f ro n ta tio n was
re so lv ed by n e g o tia tio n s d u r in g th e p e rio d 1 9 0 6 -8 . In 1906 R W E reached
o u t to w a rd th e city o f D o r tm u n d a n d its e n v ir o n s by b u ild in g a pow er
sta tio n to s u p p ly th e d istric t a n d o b ta in in g su p p ly c o n ce ssio n s. It offe red
to p u rc h a s e D o r tm u n d s c ity -o w n e d u tility , b u t th e city r e fu s e d a n d , su p
p o rte d by B e rlin b a n k s a n d th e e le c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r e r A llg e m e in e Elekim ila ts -G e s e lls c h a ft, e n la r g e d its o w n p la n t. T h e ex p a n sio n istic policy of
RW E w as f u r th e r f r u s tr a te d by tw o o th e r local g o v e r n m e n t utilities in the
re g io n , o n e b a se d at th e city o f B o c h u m a n d th e o th e r at H a g e n . A solution
10Elehtrotechnische ZeUschnft 30 (1900): 1226; 47 (1026)- 107- 29 (1908): 662; 31 (1910):
1262: 47 <19261: 106-7

413

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
to th e sta le m a te w as f o u n d w h e n S tin n e s a n d his asso cia te s a n d th e D o rt
m u n d u tility a g r e e d to f o rm a new u tility to ta k e o v e r th e R W E p o w e r
p la n t n e a r D o r tm u n d a n d th e c o n ce ssio n s R W E h a d re c e n tly a c q u ire d
th e r e ." B o th D o r tm u n d a n d R W E w o u ld o w n sto c k in th e ne w c o m p a n y .
T h e g ro w th o f R W E w as d e e p ly a ffe c te d by th e s e v e re stre sse s o f W o rld
W a r 1 a n d th e V ersa illes p e a c e s e ttle m e n t. T h e y e a r b e f o re th e c o n flic t
e r u p te d , R W E c o m p le te d a p o w e r sta tio n a t K n a p sa c k in th e b ro w n -c o a l
d is tric t so u th w e s t o f C o lo g n e . E q u ip p e d w ith tw o 15,000-kw . tu r b o g e n e r
a to rs , th e p la n t u se d b ro w n coal, o r lig n ite , ta k e n by th e o p e n -f a c e m e th o d
fr o m m in e s o w n e d by th e R o d d e r g r u b e A G , a m in in g c o m p a n y w ith w hich
R W E c o n c lu d e d a su p p ly c o n tra c t. T h is coal h a d o n ly o n e - f o u r th to o n e fifth th e c a lo ric v a lu e o f h a r d coal. D u rin g th e w ar, d e m a n d fo r e n e rg y
fro m th e w a r-s tim u la te d m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f a lu m in u m , n itra te s , c a rb id e , a n d
o th e r m a te ria ls c a u s e d R W E to e x p a n d its K n a p sa c k p la n t g re a tly . Six
15,000-kw . t u r b o g e n e r a to r s w e re a d d e d , a n d b e fo re h e d ie d in 1917, th e
e n g in e e r a n d d e s ig n e r o f th e sta tio n , B e r n h a r d G o ld e n b e r g , c o m m issio n e d
th e in sta lla tio n o f tw o 5 0 ,0 0 0 -k w . u n its, tu r b o g e n e r a to r s th a t w e re la rg e r
th a n a n y o th e r s in th e w o rld (see Fig. X IV .5). As a m e m o ria l, th e p o w e r
s ta tio n was la te r n a m e d f o r G o ld e n b e rg .
R W E c o n c e n tr a te d its c ap a c ity at th e G o ld e n b e rg w e rk b e c a u se o f th e
sav in g s th a t c o u ld b e re a liz e d in c o p p e r , tr a n s p o r ta tio n , a n d la b o r. T h e
very la rg e u n its u se d less c o p p e r th a n a n u m b e r o f sm all o n e s su p p ly in g
th e sa m e o u tp u t; m a te ria ls - h a n d lin g e q u ip m e n t m o v e d th e b ro w n coal to
th e p o w e r s ta tio n , th u s re lie v in g th e ra ilro a d s o f th e b u r d e n o f tr a n s p o r tin g
low -caloric fu el. E n d le ss c h a in s p u lle d w ag o n s, a n d g ra v ity b u ck e t-c o n v e y o rs r e d u c e d la b o r. F ro m 5 ,0 0 0 to 10,000 to n s o f lig n ite co u ld b e m o v ed
d aily. T ra n s m is s io n lin es c a rrie d 100,0 0 0 volts o f ele ctric ity to lo a d c e n te rs.
B e ca u se sitin g a t th e coal d e p o s its p re c lu d e d lo ca tio n o f th e p la n t n e a r a
n a tu r a l s o u r c e o f c o o lin g w a te r, a b a n k o f c o o lin g to w e rs w as b u ilt to serv ic e
th e tu r b in e c o n d e n s e r s .12
W h e n p e a c e c a m e , R W E c o n tin u e d to e x p a n d th e G o ld e n b e rg w e rk . T h e
T r e a ty o f V e rsa ille s s tr ip p e d G e rm a n y o f 4 0 p e r c e n t o f its p re w a r h a rd coal s u p p ly , a n d th e r e p a r a tio n s a g r e e m e n t ca lled fo r th e e x p o r t o f h a r d
coal. N o t o n ly R W E , b u t G e rm a n y s p u b lic utilitie s g e n e ra lly , s h ifte d to
b ro w n coal. In 1913, 23 p e r c e n t o f th e fu el b u r n e d was lig n ite; by 1922,
41 p e r c e n t was. In 1924 th e G o ld e n b e r g w e rk h a d a cap a city o f 2 9 0 ,0 0 0
kw ., o r 6 0 p e r c e n t o f th e to tal c ap a city in stalled by R W E (see Figs. X IV .6
a n d X I V .7 ).13
W h e n th e G e r m a n g o v e rn m e n t b e g a n e x p o rtin g h a r d coal to m e e t th e
r e p a r a tio n s d e m a n d s laid d o w n a t th e S p a C o n fe re n c e in 1920, R W E s
" Ibid. 27 (1905): 8 2 8 :2 5 Jahre Vereinigte Elektrizilalswerke Westfalen, !92 5-1950 (D ortm und:
VEW. 1950). pp. 12-13; Strom vcrsorgung dcs Rheinisch-Weslfalischen Industriebezirks,"
Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift 28 (1907): 243-^14.
12 D chnc. Deutschlands Grosskraflversorgung, pp. 57-59, 62; RW E Geschaflsberichlen, pp. 2 8 3 1; "R e p o n on Electric Power Supply Developments in Germ any: Zone o f British Occupation,
16 Ju ly 1919," Merz 8c McLellan "R e|x m s and Tests" (vol. 1/24. folio 29) Tyne and Wear
County Council Archives, Newcastle upo n T yne. England (no a u thor o f this typescript is
given); and Elektrotechnische Zeilsehrift 34 (1913): 1388; 38 (1917): 430-31; 41 (1920): 455; 43
(1922): 55.
D chnc, Deutschlands Grosskraftversorgung, pp. 50-51, 62; RW E Geschaftsberichten, p. 31.

4 14

N IST W O R K S O F POWIfil-C

h a rd -c o a l-fire d p la n ts failed to re ceiv e a n a d e q u a te su p p ly o f th e fuel. Evei

m o r e d e p e n d e n t o n its G o ld e n b e rg p la n t a n d th e n e a rb y su p p ly o f brow n
coal fro m th e V e re in ig te V ille a n d B e r r e n r a th m in e s o w n e d by th e B raunk o h le n - u n d B rik e tw e rk e R o d d e r g r u b e A G , R W E 's m a n a g e rs s o u g h t a s u re r
m e a n s o f g u a r a n te e in g su p p ly . T h e y b e liev e d th a t a c o n tra c tu a l re la tio n
sh ip w as n o t a d e q u a te fo r th e f u tu r e ; th e n e e d s o f th e G o ld e n b e rg w e rk
c o u ld n o t be sp e c ifie d o v e r a n u m b e r o f y e a rs, a n d R o d d e rg ru b e would
give p rio rity to th e d e m a n d fo r b r o w n -c o a l b r iq u e tte s . U n d e r th ese c ir
c u m sta n c e s, R W E n e g o tia te d an Interessengevieimchaft (" p o o lin g a g re e
m e n t) w ith R o d d e rg ru b e . S ig n e d in 1920, th e a g re e m e n t p re se rv e d the
legal in d e p e n d e n c e o f b o th p a rtie s, b u t t u r n e d o v e r th e m a n a g e m e n t of
R o d d e r g r u b e to RW E. T h e n in e ty -y e a r a g r e e m e n t also sp e cifie d how p ro f
its to th e tw o p a rtie s w o u ld b e p o o le d a n d d iv id e d a m o n g th e respective
s h a r e h o ld e rs . T h e new m a n a g e ria l a r r a n g e m e n t gav e p r io rity to su p p ly of
th e G o ld e n b e r g w e r k .14
W a n tin g to g u a r a n te e a s u p p ly o f h a r d coal fo r o th e r g e n e r a tin g stations
in so fa r as r e p a ra tio n s a n d g o v e rn m e n t a llo c a tio n s a llo w ed , R W E also n e
g o tia te d a sim ila r hileressengemeimchaft w ith th e s u p p lie rs o f its g e n e ra tin g
facilities in E ssen. In 1 9 2 1 -2 2 R W E f u r th e r e n s u r e d its c o n tro l o v e r the
h a rd -c o a l m in e s by a c q u irin g th e ir stock th r o u g h a n e x c h a n g e o f stock
m a d e p o ssib le by th e s u b sta n tia l in c re a se in R W E ca p ita l sh a re s. W ith its
e n e rg y base e sta b lish e d , R W E lo o k ed fo r w a rd to e x p a n d in g its supply
a r e a .15
I h e R W E R o d d e r g r u b e hileressengemeinschaft fa cilitated c o o p e ra tio n in
m a tte rs less o b v io u s th a n p ro fil a n d th e allo catio n o f b ro w n -c o al p ro d u c" Kiilm uht ZrituHg, 0 miri II .Sipicnilirr 1920.
" liW I\ (irsrhaflsbrrirlitrn. pp. S 0 -3 I.

415

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Figure X IV .6. Comparative costs o f

transporting hard coal (Sleinkohlc),
brown coal (Rohbraunkohle), and browncoal briquettes (B raunkohlenbrikcits).
From Dehne, D eutsclilands
C rosskrafiversorgung, p. 52.

Figure X IV .7. Percentage o f hard coal

(Sleinkohle), brown coal (B raunkohle),
and water power (Wasscr) in energy use of
public electric utilities in Germany. 1913
and 1922. From Dehne, D culschlands
G rosskraflvcrsorgung, p. 51.

lio n . Ii a lso f u r th e r e d c o o p e ra tiv e te c h n o lo g ic a l a r r a n g e m e n ts . B e c a u se th e

a g r e e m e n t e x te n d e d o v e r a p e rio d o f n in e ty y e a rs, c a p ita l c o u ld p r u d e n tly
b e in v e ste d in ph y sic al facilities th a t tie d th e p a r tn e r s to g e th e r. T h is m e a n t
th a t m o re m a te r ia ls -h a n d lin g e q u ip m e n t c o u ld b e c o n s tr u c te d to m o v e
b ro w n coal fro m th e o p e n - p it m in e to th e b ro w n -c o a l-c o n su m in g p o w e r
p la n t. In th e 1920s, o v e rsiz e d , d re d g e - lik e ste a m sh o v e ls re m o v e d th e o v
e r b u r d e n o f soil, a n d e n d le s s -c h a in c u lle rs r ip p e d aw ay th e b ro w n coal a n d
d u m p e d it in to c a rs d r a w n by e lec trica lly d riv e n c o g -w h e el loc o m o tiv e s
d ire c tly to th e p o w e r p la n t.16 (See Figs. X IV .8 - X IV .1 1 .)
H a v in g b e e n in e x iste n c e f o r a lm o st a q u a r te r o f a c e n tu ry , by 1920 R W E
h a d a n id e n tifia b le c h a r a c te r a n d a tra d itio n , o r m o m e n tu m . F ru g a l in its
use o f e n e rg y , ta k in g th e c r a f ts m a n s a n d e n g in e e r s p r id e in a h ig h level
o f te c h n ic a l effic ie n c y , e ffe c tiv e in ra isin g c a p ita l fo r e x p a n s io n , fle x ib le
a n d p r a g m a tic in its a sso c ia tio n s w ith p olitical a u th o ritie s , in n o v a tiv e in its
o r g a n iz a tio n o f m ix e d - o w n e rs h ip u tilities, c o m m ite d to th e m ass p ro d u c tio n
o f e n e rg y a n d to te rrito ria l e x p a n s io n , a n d s h a p e d by h isto rica l c o n tin
g e n cies, R W E h a d a rich e x p e r ie n c e fro m w h ich to fo r m u la te g e n e ra l policy
p rin c ip le s. R W E s m a n a g e rs a r tic u la te d a scien c e o f ec o n o m ic s a n d te c h
n o lo g y th a t w as p a rtic u la rly a p p lic a b le to RW E. T h e s e policies, a n d th e
te c h n o lo g ic a l d e c isio n s th a t s te m m e d fro m th e m , c an b e o b se rv e d in th e
h isto ry o f R W E in th e tw e n ties.
T h e policy o f m ass p r o d u c tio n a n d la rg e -a re a su p p ly , a sso ciated w ith
S tin n e s as e a rly as 1902 a n d called r a tio n a l" by h im , w as fin ely h o n e d
d u r in g tw o d e c a d e s o f g ro w th a n d was asso ciated w ith th e ra tio n a liz a tio n
m o v e m e n t th a t to o k p lac e b e tw e e n th e tw o w o rld w ars. T h e c o n c e p t, as
n o te d , w as g e n e ra lly a p p lie d to G e r m a n in d u s try in th e 1920s. A fte r W o rld
Geschdfls-Berichl . . . Braunkohlen-untl Briketwerhe Roddergrube Aktiengesellschaft in Briihl, 1927
and 1929; F. Iserm ann, "G ro ssrau m lo rd eru n g in Braunkohlen-T agebaubelricbcn mil Schraga ufzugen," Zeilschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure 72 (1928): 1256-62; and G eorg Klein,
Handbuch fiir den Deutsclien Braunkolilenbergbau (Halle: Knapp. 1935), 2: 760-62, 1113-21. I
am indebted to the Rhcinische B niunkohlenw crkc Akticngcscllsrhaft for these references.
See also Robert A. Brady. The Rationalization Movement in Getman Industry (Berkeley: University
o f California Press, 1933). p. 76.

410

N L <7rW O R K S O F P O W E R

Figure XIV.8. Brown-coal transportation

system, open-pit mining. 19J2. Courtesy o f
the Rheinhraun Archives, Pfaffendorf.
Germany.

Figure X IV.9. Brown-coal open-pil

mining, 1926, at the Vereinigte Ville mine.
Courtesy of the Rheinbraun Archives,
Pfaffendorf, Germany.

W a r I, th e policy o f ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d th e p rin c ip le s o f its a p p lic a tio n to

e le c tric su p p ly sy stem s w ere e x p o u n d e d by R W E 's m a n a g e m e n t. R a tio n
a lizatio n as d e fin e d a n d p ra c tic e d by R W E a n d p ra c tic e d by A m e ric an
u tilitie s d if f e r e d sig n ifica n tly fro m ra tio n a liz a tio n as d e fin e d by th e o ld e r,
la b o r-in te n siv e in d u s trie s in G e rm a n y su c h as m in in g a n d iro n a n d steel
p r o d u c tio n . U tilities like R W E w e re cap ita l in te n siv e a n d th e r e f o r e con-

417

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Figure X IV .10. Oprn-pit mining:

Brown-cool transportation system,
Vrrrtnigtr Ville mine, 1930. Courtesy of
the Rheinbraun Archives, Pfaffrndorjf,
Germany.

Figure X T V .lI. Brown-coal

transportation system, Vereinigte Ville mine,
1938. The group o f eight stacks with four
behind is the Goldenbergwerk. Courtesy of
Rheinische Braunkohlenwerke AG,
Cologne, Germany.

c e rn c d a b o u l sa v in g c a p ital. L a b o r was a relatively u n im p o r ta n t la c to r in

th e cost a c c o u n tin g o f elec tricity su p p lie rs. (T h e visitor to a m a m m o th
p o w e r p la n t w o u ld o b se rv e on ly a h a n d f u l o f w o rk e rs.) O n ly w h en th e
p r o d u c tio n o f h a r d a n d b ro w n coal was ta k e n in to a c c o u n t d id th e la b o r
fa c to r a ssu m e m a jo r im p o rta n c e , a n d th e utility e n g in e e r s w h o d e fin e d
ra tio n a liz a tio n fo c u sed o n cost a c c o u n tin g as it p e rta in e d to th e cap ita lin te n siv e te c h n o lo g y u n d e r th e ir c o n tro l not to th e p ro d u c tio n o f fuel.
In th e h ig h -te c h n o lo g y , c ap ita l-in te n siv e e lectric su p p ly in d u stry , ra tio n -

418

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

aliz alio n in v o lv ed a n e le g a n c e a n d p re c is io n o f c o n c e p t th a t w as u n k n o w n
in th e o ld e r, la b o r-in te n siv e in d u s trie s , w hich m ix e d T a y lo ris m a n d sim ple
m e c h a n iz a tio n in to an a m o r p h o u s c o n c e p t o f ra tio n a liz a tio n .
A. K o e p c h e n , th e e n g in e e r w h o in th e 1920s as a m e m b e r o f RW E's
m a n a g e m e n t c o m m itte e p la y e d a le a d in g ro le in th e f o rm u la tio n o f co m
p a n y policy, n o te d th a t e le c tric a l e n g in e e r s u n d e r s to o d r a tio n a liz a tio n es
pecially well. H e d e f in e d th e c o n c e p t as u sin g tec h n o lo g y to o b ta in th e
e c o n o m ic o p tim u m w ith a m in im u m o f r e s o u rc e s (Volksvermogen). H e b e
lieved th e e sse n c e o f ra tio n a liz a tio n to b e Verbundbetrieb, w h ic h h e d e fin e d
as th e c o o rd in a tio n o f in te r c o n n e c te d p o w e r p la n ts s u p p ly in g a la rg e area .
H e in c lu d e d in his d e fin itio n th e p o w e r p la n ts o f a sin g le u n d e r ta k in g as
well as th o s e b e lo n g in g to d if f e r e n t u tilities if th e y w e re in te rc o n n e c te d .
T h e g o a l o f ra tio n a liz a tio n w as c o o r d in a te d o p e r a tio n s .17
R W E Verbundbetrieb s tre s s e d n o t o n ly th e in te r c o n n e c tio n o f p o w e r p lants
b u t also a n e c o n o m ic m ix o f th e e n e rg y s o u rc e s u se d by th e in te rc o n n e c te d
p la n ts. As h a s b e e n n o te d , th e g e o g ra p h y o f th e R u h r re g io n p ro v id e d
R W E w ith th e o p p o r tu n ity to m ix b ro w n -c o a l a n d h a rd -c o a l g e n e ra tio n ;
th e n , d u r in g th e tw e n tie s, th e utility to o k th e su b s ta n tia l s te p o f in c o rp o
ra tin g w a te r p o w e r in to its e c o n o m ic m ix . P r io r to th is, R W E Verbundbetrieb
h a d c a lle d fo r b ro w n -c o a l p la n ts lo c a te d a t th e m in e s to c a r ry th e sy stem s
b a se lo a d b e c a u se th e ir y e a r - r o u n d g e n e r a tin g c o sts w e re th e low est in th e
m ix. a n d fo r th e h a rd -c o a l p la n ts to pick u p a n y lo a d th a t e x c e e d e d th e
G o ld e n b e r g s ta tio n s c ap a city . A f te r h y d ro e le c tric p la n ts w e re c o n n e c te d ,
R W E u se d th e o u tp u t o f th e r u n n in g -w a te r, o r lo w -h e a d , h y d ro e le c tric
p la n ts as it b e c a m e av a ilab le b e c a u se th e e n e rg y c o u ld n o t b e s to re d an d
b e c a u se th e c a p ita l costs o f th e s e p la n ts w e re low. T h e h ig h -h e a d p lan ts
w ith d a m s o r re s e rv o irs allo w e d e n e rg y to b e s to r e d in th e re se rv o irs, so
th e ir o u tp u t w as u se d se aso n a lly a c c o r d in g to su p p ly a n d d e m a n d .
In th e 1920s, r a tio n a liz a tio n as p ra c tic e d by K o e p c h e n a n d o th e r RW E
m a n a g e rs in v o lv e d lo a d m a n a g e m e n t as well as Verbundbetrieb. T h e c o m
p a n y p e r s u a d e d c h e m ic a l w o rk s in th e R u h r a n d a lo n g th e R h in e to a b a n
d o n th e ir iso la te d p la n ts a n d ta k e p o w e r f ro m R W E . C h e m ic a l lo a d s w ere
esp e cially so u g h t a f te r b e c a u se th e y u se d e le c tric ity fo r h e a t as well as fo r
elec tro ly sis. T h e s e ste a d y lo a d s, ta k in g c u r r e n t n ig h t a n d d a y , p ro v id e d a
n e a rly id e al lo a d fa c to r. T h e iro n a n d steel w o rk s o r th e R u h r r e g io n also
lo a d e d th e R W E sy stem e c o n o m ic a lly b e c a u se th e ro llin g m ills a n d electric
f u rn a c e s w e re la rg e , ste a d y c o n s u m e r s . F ro m its fo u n d in g , R W E h a d im
p r o v e d its lo a d fa c to r by s u p p ly in g e n e rg y fo r m in e p u m p s th a t cle are d
th e m in e s o f w a te r d u r in g th e n ig h t h o u r s ." 1 D u rin g W o rld W a r I, while
b u ild in g th e G o ld e n b e rg w e rk , R W E b o u g h t s h a re s in a c o m p a n y th a t p ro
d u c e d p o ta s h lye a n d so d a lye, a c o m p a n y th a t in tu r n b e c a m e a m ajo r
R W E c u s to m e r . R W E a lso s u p p lie d th e E rftw e rk e , a new ly co n stru c te d
a lu m in u m w o rk s w h ic h d u r in g a n d a f te r th e w a r was o n e o f th e u tility s
la rg e s t c o n s u m e rs . D y e w o rk s a n d m e ta llu rg ic a l p la n ts su c h as th e B ergische

17 A. K ocpchen, Das RWE in d e r d eutschen Eleklriziiatsw iusrhari" (Speech delivered in

the Mans d c r T cchnik in Essen on 28 March 1930). pp. 3 -5: copy in the library o r RWE
h ead q u arters. Essen. T h e speech was also published; see A. K oepchen. RW E Elrktrizilatswirtichafl (Essen: RWE. 1930). p. 10.
'* K oepchen. R W E Eh'ktriiitatswirtschaft. t>. 4.

419

T H E & TY LE O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
S ia h lin d u s trie L in d e n b c r g in R e m sc h e id a n d th e K re fe ld e r S ta h lw e rk also
b e c a m e m a jo r R W E c u sto m e rs.
In a w idely q u o te d talk g iv e n o n 28 M a rch 1930 in th e H a u s d e r T e c h n ic
in E ssen, K o e p c h e n c o m p a r e d th e e ffic ie n cy a n d re s u ltin g e c o n o m y o f th e
R W E sy stem w ith th e re su lts a c h ie v e d by o th e r u tilities o p e r a tin g in sm a lle r
s u p p ly a re a s a n d w ith a less e x te n siv e a n d d iv e rse m ix o f p o w e r p la n ts. H e
c h a ra c te riz e d R W E as a n o u ts ta n d in g e x a m p le o f ra tio n a liz a tio n , o r Verbundbetrieb, a n d h e a rtic u la te d th e p rin c ip le s o f th e policy. H e c o m p a re d
th e lo a d c u rv e s o f R W E , th e H a m b u r g u tility, a n d th e B erlin u tility (B EW A G ). W ith a b e tte r lo a d c u r v e a n d e c o n o m ic m ix o f g e n e r a tin g p la n ts,
R W E r e d u c e d th e costs to la rg e , in d u s tria l c o n s u m e rs below th e costs th e y
w o u ld in c u r in th e ir iso la te d p la n ts, th e r e b y b rin g in g in d u s trie s w ith g o o d
lo a d c h a ra c te ris tic s in to th e sy stem . T h is f u r th e r im p r o v e d R W E s lo a d
fa c to r a n d allo w e d th e u tility to re d u c e th e p ric e it c h a rg e d th e sm all,
co m m e rcial a n d resid e n tia l co n su m ers. K oep c h en ack n o w led g ed th a t RW E's
ex p a n sio n e lim in a ted th e au to n o m y o f th e utilities a n d isolated p o w er plants
th a t w e re in c o p o ra te d in to th e R W E sy stem , b u t h e a rg u e d th a t th e e c o
n o m ic s o f ra tio n a liz a tio n w o u ld p re v a il o v e r th e o b je c tio n s o f in d iv id u a ls
a n d sm all c o m p a n ie s d e s irin g to re m a in Eigener H err im H aus ( m a s te r in
o n e s o w n h o u s e ) .19
As d e s c rib e d by K o e p c h e n , Verbundbetrieb re se m b le s h o riz o n ta l b u sin ess
c o m b in a tio n . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r, a n im p o r ta n t d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n b u sin e ss
c o m b in a tio n s, s u c h as tru s ts a n d c a rte ls, a n d Verbundbetrieb. B u sin ess c o m
b in a tio n s a re c o m m o n ly fo rm e d f o r th e p u rp o s e o f c o n tro llin g o r r e g u
la tin g su p p ly , p ric e , a n d m a r k e tin g ; Verbundbetrieb is a c o m b in a tio n fo r th e
p u r p o s e o f in c re a s in g th e te c h n ic a l e fficie n cy o f p r o d u c tio n . Verbundbetrieb
is te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d p h ysical c o m b in a tio n . T e c h n o lo g ic a l c o m b in a tio n ,
h o w e v e r, is o f te n c o m p le m e n te d by a b u sin ess c o m b in a tio n . H e n c e we
a rriv e a t th e a sso c ia tio n o f Verbundbetrieb w ith b u sin ess c o m b in a tio n .
R W E Verbundbetrieb c o m b in e d s im ila r p r o d u c tio n u n its, g e n e r a tin g fa
cilities. R W E also e n te r e d in to te c h n o lo g ic a l c o m b in a tio n s c o m p a ra b le to
vertic al b u sin e ss c o m b in a tio n s. U n its a lo n g th e lin e o f p ro d u c tio n fro m
e n e rg y re s o u rc e s a n d raw m a te ria ls to fin ish e d p ro d u c ts a n d av a ilab le e n
erg y w e re c o m b in e d . T h e fo rm o f th e se v e rtica l co m b in a tio n s v a rie d , as
w ith h o riz o n ta l o n e s, fro m firm a n d fo rm a l a g re e m e n ts to loose a n d in
fo rm a l ties. M u c h as tra n sm issio n lines w e re th e tec h n o lo g ical c o n n e c to rs
fo r Verbundbetrieb, m a te ria ls -h a n d lin g a n d e n e rg y -c o n v e rsio n te c h n o lo g y
w e re th e lin k a g e s fo r v ertic al c o m b in a tio n . T h e b u sin e ss o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d
re la tio n s h ip s th a t w e re fo r m e d to m a n a g e th e v ertica l te ch n o lo g ic al c o m
b in a tio n s in c lu d e d lo n g -te rm c o n tra c tu a l re la tio n sh ip s su ch as th a t b etw e en
R o d d e r g r u b e a n d RW E.
T a k in g a d v a n ta g e o f th e G e r m a n g o v e rn m e n ts e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f Ver
bundbetrieb a n d th e legal sta tu s o f tru sts, ca rte ls, a n d o th e r fo rm s o f c o m
b in a tio n , R W E n o t o n ly e n te r e d in to tec h n o lo g ic al (o r lig lu -lin k a g e ) c o m
b in a tio n s b u t fo rm e d loose c o n f e d e r a tio n s as well. W hile th e se loose
co m b in a tio n s d id n o t involve physical te ch n o lo g y , th e y d id u su ally re lle c l
th e re la tio n s o f e n e r g y su p p ly a n d p ro d u c tio n f o r e x a m p le , th e re la tio n
sh ip b e tw e e n th e m a n u f a c tu r e r o f e lec trical e q u ip m e n t a n d th e u tility u sin g
'* Ibid., pp. 3-5.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

th e e q u ip m e n t. R W E s m a n a g e m e n t w as p r o n e to loose c o m b in a tio n s b e
c au se o f th e s y s te m -b u ild in g d r iv e o f th e u tility s fo u n d e r , H u g o S tin n es,
a n d his su c c e sso r in 1924 as h e a d o f R W E , A lb e rt V o g ler.
S tin n e s fa v o r e d v ertica l c o m b in a tio n a n d s o u g h t lin e a r a r ra n g e m e n ts
in v o lv in g ra w m a te ria l (su c h as co a l), m a n u f a c tu r e r s (su c h as ir o n a n d steel
m ills), a n d fin is h e d -g o o d s p r o d u c e r s (su ch as m a c h in e w orks). Im m e d ia te ly
fo llo w in g W o rld W a r I, h e p r e s id e d o v e r th e la rg e st c o m b in a tio n o f in
d u s tria l e n te r p r is e s yet fo r m e d in G e rm a n y , th e so -c alled S ie m c n s-R h e in E lb c -S c h u c k e rt U n io n , w h ich in c lu d e d co al, stee l, a n d e le c tric a l-m a c h in e
m a n u f a c tu r e . R W E c o o r d in a te d its p o licies w ith th e u n io n th r o u g h S tin n e s,
w h o lo o k e d u p o n e le c tric p o w e r tra n s m is s io n as th e e v e n tu a l p hysical, o r
te c h n o lo g ic a l, c o n n e c to r in th is c o m b in a tio n . T h e u n io n d id n o t survive
S tin n e s s d e a th , b u t its h isto ry s ta n d s as te stim o n y to his in stin c ts a n d p o l
icies. S tin n e s s p u b lic u tte r a n c e s su g g e st th a t h e vie w e d h is ra tio n a l in d u s
tria l c re a tio n s as s u b s titu te s fo r, a n d im p ro v e m e n ts u p o n , c e n tra liz e d gov
e r n m e n t socialism .
D e sp ite th e p la n n in g a n d o r d e r e d d e s ig n th a t w e re in h e r e n t in ra tio n
a liz a tio n , Verbundbelrieb, a n d c o m b in a tio n s , R W E , p a rtly in r e a c tio n against
p la n n in g o n th e n a tio n a l level a n d p a rtly o u t o f a c o m m itm e n t to the
p r a g m a tic a p p r o a c h , a d v o c a te d re g io n a l-sy ste m g r o w th by e v o lu tio n ra th e r
th a n by lo n g - te rm p la n n in g . A f te r m o re th a n tw e n ty -fiv e y e a rs o f o p e r a
tio n s. R W E k n ew its h isto ry a n d c h a ra c te ris tic s w ell e n o u g h to d e fin e its
p h ilo s o p h y o f g ro w th . In th e ir 1930/31 a n n u a l r e p o r t, R W E s m a n a g e rs
in siste d th a t lo n g -te r m p la n n in g fo rc e d u tilitie s in to a P ro c ru s te a n b e d th at
p r e v e n te d re s p o n s e to a n u n c e a s in g flu x o f o p p o r tu n itie s a n d c h a llen g e s.
P la n s, th e y a r g u e d , la k e in to a c c o u n t o n ly th e c irc u m s ta n c e s th a t exist o r
a re c o n c e iv a b le w h e n th e p la n s a r e fo rm a liz e d ; th e r e f o r e , th e y fail to p r o
v id e f o r th e te c h n o lo g y a n d c irc u m s ta n c e s o f th e f u tu r e . P lans, th e y c o n
c lu d e d , b e c o m e esp e cially c o n s tra in in g b lu e p rin ts in new , ra p id ly evolving
field s o f t e c h n o lo g y like e le c tric ity su p p ly . (R W E m a y h a v e h a d v on M illers
B a y e rn w e rk a n d p la n s f o r a n a ll-G e rm a n g rid in m in d .) D riv e n to e x p a n d
by th e ir e c o n o m ic m o tiv e s a n d by te c h n o lo g ic a l p o te n tia l, R W E s m a n a g e rs
fa v o re d in s te a d th e n a tu r a l c o u rs e o f d e v e lo p m e n t th r o u g h eco nom ically
p r u d e n t, s te p -b y -s te p re s p o n s e s to c o n c re te o p p o r tu n itie s .20
T h e e c o te c h n ic a l p rin c ip le s o f R W E (m o re g e n e ra lly te rm e d its style)
w e re e m b o d ie d in th e u tility 's te c h n o lo g y in th e 1920s. R W E s tec h n o lo g y
w as a c u ltu r a l a r tifa c t, a ph y sic al m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e u tility s stra te g y a n d
s tr u c tu r e . T o e n s u r e th a t th e te c h n o lo g y w as re p r e s e n ta tiv e , e n g in e e rin g
m a n a g e r s w e re n e e d e d w h o c o u ld in te g ra te politics, e co n o m ic s, a n d te ch
n o lo g y . In d ic a tiv e o f th is e m p h a s is w as th e e le v a tio n o f A r th u r K o e p c h en ,
f o r m u la to r o f ra tio n a liz a tio n c o n c e p ts, to th e p o sitio n o f p rin c ip a l m a n a g e r
fo llo w in g th e d e a th o f B e r n h a r d G o ld e n b c r g in 1917. A n e n g in e e r by
tra in in g , K o e p c h e n w as k n o w n fo r his o u ts ta n d in g m a n a g e r ia l abilities. H e
has b e e n c o m p a re d to E m il R a th c n a u , th e in n o v a tiv e fo u n d e r a n d m a n a g e r
o f A E G .21 K o ep c h en p re sid e d o v e r th e de sig n a n d co n stru c tio n o f a 220,000voll tra n s m is s io n line th a t R W E e x te n d e d o v e r 8 0 0 k ilo m e te rs fro m th e
m A nnual re p o rt for 1930/31. quo ted in RWF. Geschiiflsbenchlen. p. 50.
*' G eorg von Siem ens. Hislmy of Ilir House of Siemens, trans. A. F. Rodger. 2 vols. (Freiburg/
M unich: Alber. 1957). 2: I I I .

421

Figure XJV.12. Prof. Dr. Arthur

Koepchen. Courtesy o f the RheintschWestfalisches Elektriiitatswerk, Essen,
Germany.

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
b ro w n -co a l H elds a n d h a rd -c o a l m in e s o f n o r th e r n G e rm a n y to th e w a te r
p o w e r in th e so u th . T h is te ch n o lo g ic al p ro je c t e x e m p lifie s well R W E 's style
in th e tw en tie s. K o e p c h e n u n d o u b te d ly lo o k p a r t in f in d in g th e way to
fin a n c e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e lin e; h e also se em s to h av e m a d e th e d e cisio n
a b o u t its feasibility. In A p ril 1924, w ith E. H e n k e , a n o th e r m e m b e r o f th e
m a n a g e ria l c o m m itte e (Vorstand), K o e p c h e n visited th e U n ite d S ta te s to
stu d y h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n as well as U .S. m a n a g e m e n t a n d fin a n c e
p r o c e d u r e s .22 C a lifo rn ia h a d led th e way in h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n . S ev
e ra l y e a rs la te r, h o w e v e r, K o e p c h e n lo o k p a in s to p o in t o u t th a t a lth o u g h
C a lifo rn ia h a d tw o 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -v o lt lines b e fo re R W E b e g a n c o n s tru c tio n of
its g r e a t n o r th - s o u th tra n sm issio n line, th e C a lifo rn ia sy stem g r o u n d e d its
n e u tr a l, o r N u llfm n k t, a n d th e r e f o r e th e v o lta g e b e tw e e n lin e a n d e a r th was
o n ly 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -r- \ / 3 , o r 1 27,000 volts. T h e R W E lin e was n o t g r o u n d e d ,
b e ca u se th e p o st o ffic e a n d ra ilro a d s o b je c te d to in te rf e r e n c e w ith th e ir
te le g ra p h ic c o m m u n ic a tio n s .23
B o th in G e r m a n y a n d th e U n ite d S lates, th e u tilitie s tu r n e d to th e m a n
u f a c tu r e r s fo r d e ta ile d d e sig n s to fulfill g e n e ra l sp e c ifica tio n s. T h e R W E
tra n sm issio n lin e w as o n e o f th e m a jo r c o n tra c ts o f th e d e c a d e , so A E G ,
S ie m e n s-S c h u c k e rt, a n d F e lto n 8c G u ille a u m e c o m p e te d . R W E sp ec ified
h ollow s teel c o n d u c to r s a f te r K o e p c h e n d isc u sse d th e se w ith th e A m erican s.
S ie m e n s-S c h u c k e rt d re w u p o n th e d e sig n o f a hollow c able p a te n te d in
1919 by R u d e n b e rg , d e s ig n e d new s u sp e n sio n in su la to rs, a n d p la n n e d th e
c o n s tru c tio n ro u tin e . T h e hollow steel cable w as 6 0 p e rc e n t c h e a p e r th a n
solid c o p p e r cable. R W E a w a rd e d th r e e c o n tra c ts: 40 p e rc e n t o f th e le n g th
o f th e lin e to S ie m e n s-S c h u c k e rt a n d 30 p e rc e n t e a ch to A E G a n d F e lto n
8c G u ille a u m e p r o v id e d th a t e ac h u se d th e S ie m e n s-d e v e lo p e d cable. A n
o th e r p ro b le m so lv e d by th e m a n u f a c tu r e r s w as d e sig n o f o u tsiz e d sw itchg e a r a n d tr a n s f o r m e r s ; th e la tte r h a d to b e a d a p ta b le to rail tr a n s p o r t
d e s p ite th e ir w e ig h t o f 168 to n s .24
A n o th e r m a jo r R W E p ro je c t o f th e tw e n ties, a p u m p e d - s to ra g e p o w e r
p la n t, e x e m p lifie s th e m a n a g e m e n ts d r iv e to ra ise th e lo ad fa c to r a n d to
u tilize fully th e cap a c ity o f its e c o n o m ic m ix o f p o w e r p la n ts. T h e p la n t at
H e rd e c k e o n th e R u h r R iv e r b e g a n o p e ra tio n s o n 28 J a n u a r y 1930 (see
Fig. X IV . 13). It, a lo n g w ith th e 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -v o lt tra n sm issio n line, was th e m ost
im p re ssiv e o f R W E s tec h n o lo g ic a l a c h ie v e m e n ts in th e 1920s. T h e c o n c e p t
o f H e rd e c k e , la te r n a m e d th e K o e pchenw erk, was su m m a riz ed by K oepchen
as follow s:
T h e R W E , not w ish in g to con tinu ou sly install new sets in its th erm al p ow er
stations o n ly fo r the p u rp o se o f c o v erin g the short w in ter lightin g peaks, th ought
it advisable to u se the g en era tin g capacity available at no fu rth e r capital outlay
d u rin g the night d u e to the then sm aller load to p u m p w ater into an u p p er
reservoir. T h e p o w er fo r the night p u m p in g w ould originate in oth erw ise
u n d erlo a d ed th erm al stations, low-head hydrau lic plants, o r blast-furnace gas
p ow er stations. [D u rin g the da y the stored w ater w ould be released fro m the
rese rv o ir to d rive w ater tu rb ines an d g en erators to p ro vide pow er when n eed ed.)
T h e H e rd eck e p um p e d -sto ra ge p ow er station, the capital cost o f w hich p er

n R W E Gescheiftsberichten. p. 37.
n K ocpchcn, RW E Elektmitalswirtschaft. p. 9.
M Von Siemens, House o f Siemens, 2: 112-13.

422

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure XTV. 13. Koepchenwerk (earlirr

known tu Hrrdeeke). Courtesy of the
Rheinuch-Westfalisclies Elektriiilatswerk.
Essen, Germany.

kilow att was not h ig h er than that Tor a th erm al p o w er station o f sim ilar size,
show s that such a station is th o ro u g h ly ab le to pay fo r itself; m o re o ve r, this
sto rag e p o w er station , ap a rt fro m ach ie vin g its fun ction o f tra n sfo rm in g lowg ra d e p o w er into h ig h -grad e p ow er, m ay also be called on as an instantaneously
ef fective stan d -b y .2r'

T h e p u b lic g e n e ra lly a n d so m e te c h n ic a l p e rs o n s f o u n d a b s u r d th e n o tio n

o f p u m p in g w a te r u p to a re s e rv o ir fro m a riv e r a n d th e n le ttin g it ru n
d o w n to d riv e w a te r tu rb in e s . R W t s m a n a g e m e n t, well v e rse d in th e e co
n o m ic s o f Verbundbelrieb, w e n t a h e a d a n d c o n s tru c te d a facility th a t in 1930
d r e w as m u c h as 7 5 ,0 0 0 kw. fro m th e R W E system d u r in g p e rio d s o f low
lo a d a n d s u p p lie d as m u c h as 132,0 0 0 kw. a t tim e s o f p e a k lo ad (see Fig.
X IV . 14). T h e re s e rv o ir, e x c a v a te d o n a hill a b o u t 165 m e te r s a b o v e an
artific ia l lak e o n th e R u h r, s to re d 1.6 m illio n c u b ic m e te r s o f w a te r. T h e
lake, th e H e n g ste y se e , h a d b e e n b uilt by th e R u h r v e r b a n d , E ssen, to re d u c e
p o llu tio n in th e R u h r R iver. T h e R W E p o w e r p la n t h a d th r e e co m p le te
u n its in itia lly , e a c h c o n sistin g o f a F ra n c is tu r b in e , a c o m b in a tio n m o to rg e n e r a to r . a n d a p u m p . T h e m o lo r -g e n e ra to r s w e re r a te d a t 3 3 ,0 0 0 kw.
a t 3 3 0 r p m ; tw o w e re o f A E G m a n u f a c tu r e a n d tw o, S ie in e n s-S c h u c k e rt.
A t lim es o f low lo ad , th e m o to r-g c n e r a to rs f u n c tio n e d as m o to rs to d riv e
th e 3 3 ,0 0 0 -h .p . p u m p s th a i lifte d th e w a te r fro m th e H e n g sie y se e to th e
sto ra g e re s e rv o ir ; d u r in g lim es o f p e a k lo ad o n th e R W E system , they
fu n c tio n e d as g e n e r a to r s d r iv e n by th e w a te r tu rb in e s a t 3 0 0 r p m . T h e
w a te r flo w ed d o w n in fo u r p r e s s u r e p ip e s, o r p e n sto c k s, w h o se in n e r cross
sec tio n ta p e r e d fro m 3 .2 0 m e te r s a t th e valve c o n tro l h o u s e n e a r th e res
e rv o ir to 2 .5 5 m e te rs at th e p o w e r h o u se ; th e le n g th o f th e p ip e s was 292
** K oenchcn. RW E Elektriiitalswirtsrhafl. n. 7.

423

Figure XTV. 14. Inflow o f electrical

energy o f storage water pumps at Herdecke
power plant (shaded areas) and outflow
o f electrical energy from Herdeeke water
turbines (b) during a twenty-four-hour
period. From Koepchen, "Das R W E."

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
m e te rs. A fo u r th p u m p w as to b e a d d e d to c o m p le te th e p la n t's f o u r th
u n it. R W E e x p e c te d th e in sta lla tio n in full use to o p e r a te as a g e n e r a tin g
s ta tio n fo r 4.4 h o u r s in e a c h tw e n ty -fo u r, w hich w o u ld re su lt in a n o u tp u t
o f a b o u t 5 8 0 ,0 0 0 kw h. C o n s tru c tio n o f th e in sta lla tio n in v o lv e d u p to 2 ,0 0 0
w o rk e rs a n d lo o k tw o yea rs. R W E p la n n e d th e e n tir e layout w ith th e c o
o p e r a tio n a n d c o n s tru c tio n su p e rv isio n o f th e L a h m e y e r C o m p a n y , F ra n k
fo rt o n th e M ain. W h e n p u m p in g , th e H e r d e c k e p la n t was e x p e c te d "to
flatten e ssentially th e load cu rv e o f th e e n tire R W E system " (see Fig. X IV . 15).ar>
By th e e n d o f 1930, th e R W E system h a d a g e n e r a tin g c ap acity o f 8 0 0 ,0 0 0
kw ., 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 kw. o f w hich w e re c o n c e n tr a te d in th e G o ld e n b c rg w e rk , th e
la rg e st p o w e r p la n t in G e rm a n y . In o r d e r to ac h ie v e th e m ost ec o n o m ic
m ix o f g e n e r a tin g facilities in re s p o n s e to th e sy stem s ceaselessly v a ry in g
lo a d , th e in te rc o n n e c te d p o w e r p la n ts a n d lo ad n e e d e d to b e c e n tra lly
c o n tr o lle d a n d m o n ito re d . F o r th is p u rp o s e , R W E tie d to g e th e r its s p id e r
w eb o f tra n s m is s io n a n d d is trib u tio n lines a t B ra u w e ile r, in th e b ro w n -c o al
fie ld s w est o f C o lo g n e . T h e r e , in O c to b e r 1929, th e m a in sw itc h in g s ta tio n
o f th e sy stem b e g a n o p e r a tin g . Its c o n tro l p a n e ls in d ic a te d th e sta te o f th e
sy stem at v a rio u s p o in ts, a n d th e lo a d d is p a tc h e r s co u ld re m o te -c o n tro l th e
sw itch es a n d c irc u it b re a k e r s , c o n n e c tin g a n d d isc o n n e c tin g th e v a rio u s
g e n e r a tin g fa cilities (see Figs. X IV . 16 a n d X IV . 17). R W E s m a n a g e rs c o n
sid e re d th e B r a u w e ile r c o n tro l c e n te r to b e th e g re a te s t c o n c e n tra tio n o f
ele c tric p o w e r in th e w o rld .
T h e h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lin e e x te n d in g th r o u g h G e rm a n y was a
d r a m a tic a c h ie v e m e n t th 2 t r e c a lle d th e g re a t tr u n k -lin e railw ays o f th e
n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . P u m p in g w a te r u p h ill, th e H e r d e c k e p la n t was a w o n
d r o u s p a ra d o x to th e tec h n o lo g ic a lly naive. A n d th e B ra u w e ile r sw itch in g
sta tio n sy m b o liz ed th e p o w e r c o n c e n tra tio n s th a t w e re p o ssible in th e tw e n
tie th c e n tu ry . N e v e rth e le ss, th e m o st c o m p le x p ro b le m s o f th e se te c h n o
logical p ro je c ts w e re p o litical. T h e h isto ry o f th e c o n tin u o u s e x p a n s io n o f
th e su p p ly te r r ito r y o f R W E is o n e o f p olitical stru g g le , as c an be see n in
th e fo llo w in g n a r ra tiv e a c c o u n t o f th e th ru s ts a n d c o u n te r th r u s ts m a d e ,
th e g ro u n d g a in e d a n d th e c o m p ro m ise s n e g o tia te d .
O n o n e level th e c o m p e titio n fo r e n e rg y so u rc e s a n d m a r k e t involved
c o m p e titio n a m o n g u tility h o ld in g -c o m p a n ie s a n d a m o n g utilities. B e n e a th
th e s u rfa c e , h o w e v e r, th e s tru g g le w as o n e fo r p o w e r political, n o t te c h
n o lo g ica l a m o n g g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s . R e p re s e n tin g local g o v e r n
m e n ts a n d p riv a te s h a r e h o ld e rs , R W E c o m p e te d fo r te r rito ry w ith iw o
o th e r larg e utilities, th e Preussische Elektrizitats AG (P reussenelektra), ow ned
by th e s ta te o f P ru ssia, a n d E le k tro w e rk e A G (E W A G ), c o n tro lle d by th e
R eich , o r c e n tra l, g o v e r n m e n t. A t sla k e was c o n tro l o f G e r m a n y s ele ctric
s u p p ly n o t o n ly d o m in a n c e o f th e e lec tric s u p p ly in d u s try b u t th e a sso
c ia te d p olitical a u th o r ity a n d e c o n o m ic p o w e r o f vario u s levels o f g o v e r n
m e n t. T h e in te r e s u re p r e s e n te d by RW E w ere th e m ost c o m p lic a te d . Local
g o v e rn m e n ts, m ostly in th e R hin e la n d a n d in cluding th e R u h r, voted RWF.'s
c o n tr o llin g slo ck ; b u t p riv a te in te re sts, b a n k s a n d in d u stria l e n te rp ris e s ,
m RWE. Pumpspeicherwerk Herdecke a.d. Ruhr (Essen: RWE. n.d. [ 1930?)). a Iwoklct in the
RWE Archives. Essen: quote front K ocpchen, RW E Elektriulatsunrtschaft. p. 7. See also A.
K oepehcn. "W arutn Pum pspcicherw crkc?" (n .d ). an essay in the RWE Archives (archive no.
XXI l/l 11/20). Essen, G erm any: and "BescitiBunK tier Spilrenlast," Deutsche AUgememe Zeitung,

424

Figure X IV .I5 . Representative load

curves (c. 1930) fo r RW E. the public
utility in Hamburg, and that in Berlin
(Bewag). From Koepchen, "Das R W E ."

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
also h a d su b s ta n tia l o w n e r s h ip a n d in flu e n c e in th e c o m p a n y . T o c o m p li
c a te m a tte r s f u r th e r , th e s la te o f P ru ssia a lso h e ld m in o rity s h a re s in th e
c o m p a n y .27 T h e r e f o r e , R W E r e p r e s e n te d local g o v e rn m e n t, p riv a te e n
te r p ris e , a n d c e n tra l g o v e r n m e n t. S o m e local g o v e r n m e n t a u th o ritie s w ere
h o stile to R W E , h o w e v e r, b e c a u se it d e p r iv e d th e m o f th e u ltim a te au th o rity
to m a n a g e th e ir p u b lic u tilitie s.2"
E arly in th e 1920s R W E b e g a n its c o n c e n tra te d m o v e s o u th e a s tw a rd to
w a ter-p o w er sites in th e A lps. It a c q u ire d tra n sm issio n -lin e rig h ts a n d pow ere x c h a n g e in te rc o n n e c tio n s by b u y in g c o n tro llin g sto ck s in th e E lek trizitatsA c tie n g e se llsc h a ft v o rm . W . L a h m e y e r 8c C o m p a n y . T h is c o m p a n y h a d
b e e n th e p rin c ip a l s to c k h o ld e r in R W E fro m its f o u n d in g u n til 1902, w hen
H u g o S lin n e s a n d A u g u s t T h y s s e n b o u g h t th e c o n tr o llin g s h a re s. S u b se
q u e n tly , L a h m e y e r, w hich w as h e a d q u a r te r e d in F r a n k f o r t o n th e M ain,
so ld its e le c tric a l m a n u f a c tu r in g facilities to A E G a n d c o n c e n tr a te d on
c o n s tr u c tin g a n d o p e r a tin g p o w e r p la n ts a n d tra n s m is s io n system s. L a h
m e y e r w as esp e cia lly ac tive in h y d r o e le c tric system s. A m o n g th e su b sid iary
u tilitie s it c o n tr o lle d as a h o ld in g c o m p a n y w e re th e M a in k ra ftw e rk e AG,
w h ich s u p p lie d te r r ito r y o n th e rig h t b a n k o f th e R h in e ; th e K ra ftw e rk
A ltw im te m b e r g A G , w hich fro m a h y d r o e le c tr ic in sta lla tio n o n th e N eckar
R iv er n e a r H e ilb ro n n s u p p lie d th e re g io n s o f S tu ttg a r t; a n d th e LechE le k triz ita ts w e rk e A G in A u g s b u rg , w hich o p e r a te d th e la rg e st d istrib u tio n
sy ste m in B a v a ria . T o a c q u ire c o n tro llin g in te re s t in L a h m e y e r a n d its
s u b s id ia rie s , R W E h a d to d e a l w ith th e E le k tr o b a n k (la te r E le k tro w a lt) in
Z u ric h , S w itz e rla n d , a c o m p a n y th a t fin a n c e d e le c tric a l u n d e r ta k in g s an d
o w n e d s h a r e s in L a h m e y e r.29
T h e m o v e s o u th w a rd to w a rd th e S a a r la n d also in v o lv ed th e p ie ce m e al
a c q u isitio n o f c o n tro llin g in te r e s t in utilities. R W E a c q u ire d s h a r e s in u n
d e rta k in g s s u p p ly in g cities, to w n s, a n d r u r a l d istric ts p re lim in a ry to a r
r a n g in g sy stem in te r c o n n e c tio n s a n d e x te n s io n s o f h ig h -v o lta g e lines. T h e
u tilities w ith w h ic h R W E m a d e su ch a r r a n g e m e n ts in c lu d e d th o se w ith
h e a d q u a r te r s a t B ad K re u z n a c h , M e ise n h e im , K o b le n z, W o rm s, I d a r, a n d
T r ie r . T h e s e w e re m o stly in R h in e la n d -P a la tin a te . T h e S a a rla n d , w ith its
h a rd -c o a l m in e s, d id n o t re v e rt to G e r m a n y u n til th e p le b iscite o f 1935,
b u t a n tic ip a tin g th e u n io n . R W E e x te n d e d its h ig h -v o lta g e p o w e r lines in to
th e re g io n a n d in te rc o n n e c te d a lo n g th e way w ith w a te r-p o w e r sta tio n s on
th e M oselle a n d its tr ib u ta r ie s .30
D u rin g its e x p a n s io n , R W E e n c o u n te r e d th e w id e s p re a d e le c tric su p p ly
sy stem o f th e s ta te o f P ru ssia . In th e vicinity o f F r a n k f o r t o n th e M ain.
P ru ssia h a d a c q u ire d a p o w e r sta tio n a n d w a n te d to su p p ly th e city. B ecause
R W E c o n s id e re d th e a re a to b e in its s p h e r e o f in te r e s t, it o p p o s e d th e
m o v e. A n tic ip a tin g th a t R W E m ig h t a tte m p t to f r u s tr a te n e g o tia tio n s with
th e city, th e P ru ssia n g o v e r n m e n t w ith h e ld th e rig h t o f way R W E n e e d e d
to cro ss th e M ain R iv e r a n d m o v e s o u th w a r d w ith its h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sElehtrolechnische Zeitschrifl 45 (1925): I 168.
"W ilhelm T reu e , "Die Elckiri/.iiaiswiitscliari als G rundlage dc r A uiarkiew irlschall und
die Frage d e r Siclicrlicit d c r E lckm zitulsvcrsorgung in W cMdcul.ichland," in Wirtschaft und
Rustling am Vorabend des 2. Weltkiieges, ed. F. Furstm eier and II. E. Volkm ann (Diisscldorf:
Droslc, 1975). p. 138.
m RW E Oeschaflsberichten, p. 33.
,0 T rcu c . "Elekiri/.iiaisw inschari." p. 136.

425

T I-IE S T Y L E O F E V O L V I N G S Y S T E M S

Figure X IV. 16. Schematic o f the R W E high-voltage transmission

network. From Koepchen, Das R W E ."

Figure X IV .17. R W E high-voltage transmission network. From

Koepchen. "Das R W E."

m issio n system . R W E c o m p la in e d a b o u t a sta te g o v e r n m e n ts u sin g its legal

a u th o rity to fa v o r its o w n u tility in te re sts o v e r th o se o f a c o m p e tito r, b ut
R W E h a d m a d e u se o f t h e legal a u th o rity o f th e local g o v e rn m e n ts a m o n g
its s h a r e h o ld e r s to a c q u ire f ra n c h ise s a n d rig h ts o f way. In 1927 P russia
a n d R W E n e g o tia te d a d e m a rc a tio n tre a ty th a t cam e to be kn o w n as th e
Elehtrojrieden ("electrical peac e). W estern G erm a n y was d efin e d as th e sp h e re
o f in flu e n c e o f RW E, a n d th e a re a fro m th e N o rth Sea coast alo n g th e
W eser R iv er to F r a n k fo r t o n th e M ain was d e sig n a te d th e s p h e r e o f in te re st
o f P ru ssia. T h e p e a c e was se e n as a n in te rv a l in th e lo n g -te rm stru g g le fo r
c o n tro l o f ele ctric al su p p ly in G e rm a n y .31
P ru ssia g o t its s u p p ly c o n tra c t w ith th e F r a n k fo rt utility, a n d R W E cro ssed
th e M ain. R W E th e n p ro c e e d e d to re a c h an a g re e m e n t in th e p ro v in c e o f
B a d e n to e x te n d its m a jo r h ig h -v o ltag e tran sm issio n line (2 2 0 ,0 0 0 volts) to
R h e in a u o n th e N e c k a r R iver. T h e r e a n in te rc o n n e c tio n was m a d e w ith
Ibid.

420

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
th e su p p ly n e tw o rk o f th e B a d e n w e rk , w h ic h d re w u p o n w a te r-p o w e r sta
tio n s 011 th e u p p e r R h in e a n d in S w itz e rla n d . In th is w ay R W E 's c o al-fired
p la n ts a n d th e A lp in e w a te r-p o w e r p la n ts co u ld e x c h a n g e e n e rg y e c o n o m
ically. R W E s e v e n tu a l g o a l w as to e x te n d its 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -v o ll tra n sm issio n line
( th ro u g h a g r e e m e n ts w ith W iirlte m b e rg u tilities) d ire c tly to th e A lp in e
w a te r-p o w e r sites o f th e V o ra rlb e r g d is tric t o f A u stria . In th e m e a n tim e ,
R W E a n d th e B a y e rn w e rk a g r e e d to in te rc o n n e c t sy stem s, th e re b y m ix in g
e n e rg y fro m th e b ro w n -c o a l field s o f th e R h in e la n d a n d th e w a te r-p o w e r
sta tio n s o f th e B a v a ria n A lp s.32
T h e n e g o tia te d p e a c e , o r d e m a rc a tio n tr e a ty , o f 1927 also reso lv ed som e
d if fe re n c e s c o n c e r n in g R W E s w e ste rn te rr ito r y . T h e e n e r g y in v o lv e d in
th is in s ta n c e was b ro w n coal. T h e P ru ssia n g o v e rn m e n t h a d p u rc h a s e d the
B ra u n k o h le n - ln d u s tr ie A G ( Z u k u n f l), w hich m in e d b ro w n coal a n d s u p
p lie d e le c tric a l e n e r g y in th e vicinity o f A a c h e n , less th a n 125 kilo m e te rs
fro m th e R u h r valley, th e h e a r t o f th e R W E s y stem . R W E p e r s u a d e d Prussia
to g ive u p its in te r e s t in th e Z u k u n f l by tu r n in g o v e r to P ru ssia its sh ares
in b ro w n -c o a l fie ld s in th e B ra u n s c h w e ig a r e a in c e n tra l G e rm a n y . RW E
also a c q u ir e d by a g r e e m e n t a n in te r c o n n e c tio n o f its sy stem w ith th e e lec
tric a l su p p ly sy ste m s o f th e b ro w n -c o a l a re a o f c e n tra l G e r m a n y .33
A s o b s e rv e d in th is stu d y , th e te c h n o lo g ic a l lin k a g e s o f te n n e e d e d in sti
tu tio n a l c o n te x ts . T h e p o litical s tru g g le s s u r r o u n d in g th e 22 0 ,0 0 0 -v o lt
tra n s m is s io n lin e w e re m ir r o r e d in o r g a n iz a tio n a l fo rm s. N o ta b le a m o n g
th e se w as th e W e s td e u ls c h e E le k triz ita tsw irtsc h a ft A G , w h ic h p ro v id e d for
c o o p e r a tio n a m o n g th e w est G e r m a n u tilities lie d to o n e a n o th e r by the
tr a n s m is s io n lin e (see Fig. X IV . 18). R W E a n d th e V e re in ig te E le k triz iiaisw e rk e W e stfa le n , G m b H , D o r tm u n d ; th e K o m m u n a le s E lek triz itatsw e rk
M a rk A G , H e g e n ; th e B r a u n k o h le n - ln d u s tr ie A G (Z u k u n ft" ), E schw eiler;
th e M a in k r a ftw e rk e A G , F ra n k fu rt-H o c h s t; th e B a d isc h e L a n d e se le k triz ila tsv e rso rg u n g A G (B a d en w e rk ), K arlsru h e; th e H essische E ise n b ah n AG,
D a r m s ta d t; a n d th e E le k triz ita tsw e rk R h e in h e ssc n A G , W o rm s, p a rtic i
p a te d in th e o rg a n iz a tio n , e a ch h o ld in g 10 p e r c e n t o f th e W e std e u tsc h e
s h a r e s e x c e p t th e last tw o, w h ich s h a r e d a 10 p e rc e n t h o ld in g . T h e re
m a in in g 3 0 p e r c e n t o f th e sh a re s w ere re s e rv e d fo r W iir lte m b e r g a n d
P a la tin a te utilities, logical ch o ice s fo r e x p a n s io n b e c a u se o f th e ir p ro x im ity
to th e tra n s m is s io n line.
T h e W e s td e u ls c h e E le k triz ila tsw irtsc h a ft was in p a r t a r e s p o n s e to th o se
w h o in siste d th a t all G e rm a n u tilitie s sh o u ld be tie d to g e th e r te ch n o lo g ica lly
a n d a d m in is tra tiv e ly . O s k a r v on M ille rs p la n o f 1930 w as a n e x p re ssio n
o f th is c o n v ic tio n (see p. 31 5 ). R W E b e liev e d th a t m o r e flex ib le a n d p ra g
m atic r e s p o n s e s w e re possib le w ith in a loosely s tr u c tu r e d a sso c ia tio n such
as th e W e s ld e u ts c h e E le k lriz ita ts w in s c h a fl. T h r o u g h it th e a sso c ia te d u til
ities c o u ld f u r t h e r th e te c h n o lo g y o f in te rc o n n e c tio n a n d th e r e b y ra tio n
alize th e ir c o m m o n in te re st in an e n e r g y m ix a n d e c o n o m ic a l lo a d d iv ersity
o v e r a la rg e re g io n o f G e rm a n y .3'1T h e W e s td e u ls c h e E le k triz ita tsw irlsc h a ft
w as a n in s titu tio n a l e x p re s s io n o f Verbxmdbetrieb. It w as also re p re s e n ta tiv e
o f R W E s e m p iric a l a n d e v o lu tio n a ry style.
** RW E Gesclidflsberiehlrn, p. 42; selections from the m utual report Tor I92.r>/2ti.
Ibid., p. 45 (a .selection from the annual report for 1920/27).
, '1 Ibid.. pp. 49-50.

427

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Figure XTV.18. Coupled systems o f the

Westdeulsche Elektrizitatswirtsehaft AG.
From Korfichen, ",Das R W E."

East o f th e 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 -v o lt R W E tra n sm issio n line, R W E s m ost p o w e rfu l

c o m p e tito rs also p ro je c te d a tra n sm issio n line to c o n n e c t th e b ro w n coal
o f th e n o r th w ith th e w a te r p o w e r o f th e so u th . L ike RW E, th e c o m p e titio n
s o u g h t a n e c o n o m ic m ix in w hich th e s o u th e rn u tilities w ould su p p ly in
e x p e n siv e p o w e r w h e n w a te r w as a b u n d a n t, especially in la te s p rin g a n d
ea rly s u m m e r, a n d th e c o a l-fire d p la n ts o f th e n o rth w ould w h ee l p o w e r
so u th in th e w in te r, w h en snow a n d ice lo w ere d th e level o f th e A lp in e
lakes. O n 16 M ay 1928 th e E le k tro w e rk e A G , th e P re u ssisch e E lek triz itats
A G , a n d th e B a y e rn w e rk f o rm e d th e A c tien g e se llsch a ft f u r d e u ts c h e Elektriz ita isw irisc h a fl (G e rm a n E lectricity C o m p a n y ) to c o n n e c t H a m b u r g with
th e B av arian A lps, w h e re O s k a r von M iller's W a lch e n seew e rk w ould feed
in to th e system . A lo n g th e way, a 2 20,000-volt c o n n e c tio n was m a d e w ith
th e E W A G sy stem o f c e n tra l G e rm a n y , w hich in c lu d e d th e G o lp a-Z sch o rncw itz b ro w n -co a l p la n t built in W orld W ar I .,r>
dri-h ard Delinc. Interconnection in G e r m a n y Electrical World 92 (1928): 878-79.

428

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

S u c h c o m p e titio n w as n o t o n ly te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d p o litic al; it w as fin a n cia l
as well. T o c o m p e te fo r s u c h p ro je c ts as lo n g -d ista n c e tra n sm issio n lines,
th e G e r m a n u tilitie s re s o u rc e fu lly d re w f ro m b o th p riv a te a n d g o v e rn m e n i
so u rc e s o f c a p ita l. R W E in c re a s e d its s h a re s a n d so ld th e m to p riv a te in v es
to rs a n d local g o v e r n m e n ts . P a ra d o x ic a lly , th e P ru ssia n g o v e rn m e n t b o u g h t
R W E s h a re s as well. In a d d itio n , R W E o b ta in e d lo n g -te rm lo an s fro m U .S.
b a n k in g h o u se s, w h ich in th e tw e n tie s w e re esp ec ia lly in te r e s te d in G e rm a n
in v e stm e n ts.
R W E a n d th e o th e r la rg e G e r m a n u tilitie s w e re u n u s u a lly hea v ily c a p i
talized e n te rp rise s. By fo cusing o n electrical m a n u fa c tu re rs, histo ria n s o ften
o v e rlo o k th e le a d in g ro le e le c tric u tilitie s p la y e d in th e G e r m a n eco n o m y .
In 1927 th e m o st h eavily c a p ita liz e d e le c tric utility in G e r m a n y w as RW E,
w h o se slo ck a m o u n te d to 155 m illio n re ic h s m a rk s ($ 3 7 m illio n ); th e stock
o f A E G , th e m o st h eavily c a p ita liz e d e le ctric al m a n u f a c tu r e r , to ta le d 186
m illio n re ic h s m a r k s (I'M m illion). T h e assets o f all th e G e r m a n electric
u tilities c o m b in e d a m o u n te d to m o re th a n th e c o m b in e d assets o f th e ele c
trica l m a n u f a c tu r e r s .1*6 By 1930, R W E s slock to ta le d 2 4 3 m illio n re ic h s
m a rk s, w h ile th e s h a r e c a p ita l o f th e la rg e s t G e r m a n b a n k th e m e rg e d
D e u ts c h e B a n k a n d D is k o n to -G e se llsc h a ft was 2 85 m illio n re ic h sm a rk s.
A su b s ta n tia l s h a r e o f th e fin a n c in g fo r R W E e x p a n s io n c a m e fro m the
N a tio n a l C ity B a n k o f N ew Y o rk . In 1925 N a tio n a l C ity lo a n e d th e utility
$ 1 0 m illio n ; in 1927, $ 1 5 m illio n ; a n d in b o th 1928 a n d 1930, $ 2 0 m illion.
In 1931. $ 7 .5 m illio n m o re w as lo a n e d . C o n v e n e d in to re ic h s m a rk s , the
lo an s th r o u g h 1930 a m o u n te d to 2 7 3 m illio n R M , w h ich w as 3 0 m illion
RM m o re th a n th e v a lu e o f R W E s h a re s as o f 3 0 J u n e 1 9 3 1.37 T h e stock
o f R W E h a d to b e in c re a se d n o t o n ly to p ro v id e f o r th e a c q u isitio n o f o th e r
u tilities b u t also b e c a u se th e lo an s fro m th e N a tio n a l C ity B a n k c a rr ie d th e
o p tio n to b u y th e utility 's slock. T h r o u g h o u t th e d e c a d e o f h ea v y f in a n c in g
a n d la rg e in c re a se s in th e n u m b e r o f sto ck sh a re s , th e local g o v e rn m e n ts
o f G e rm a n y n e v e r th e le s s re ta in e d th e m a jo rity o f R W E s v o tin g sto c k .38
T h e fin a n c ia l p ro b le m s o f R W E d if f e r e d m a rk e d ly fro m th o s e o f th e
P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t C o m p a n y , a c o m p a ra b le re g io n a l u tility in th e
U n ite d S ta te s, b u t in te rm s o f te c h n ic a l c h a ra c te ristic s, th e tw o sy stem s w ere
n o ta b ly alik e in th e 1920s. T h e sim ila ritie s o f th e se tw o u tilitie s a r e a ttrib
u ta b le in la rg e p a rt to th e in te r n a tio n a l p o o l o f te c h n o lo g y fro m w hich
b o th d re w a n d to th e c o m m o n c h a r a c te r o f th e g e o g r a p h y b o th h u m a n
a n d n a tu r a l o f th e re g io n s th e y s u p p lie d . T h e i r d iff e r e n c e s ste m m e d
la rg ely fro m th e c o n tr a s tin g p o litics, e c o n o m ic s, h isto ry , a n d o rg a n iz a tio n a l
fo rm s o f th e re g io n s in w h ic h th e y ev o lv ed .
A c o n tr a s t in sty le is s u g g e s te d by a c o m p a ris o n o f th e basic c h a ra c te ristic s
o f th e tw o sy ste m s (see T a b le X IV . I, p. 4 0 9 ).3,1 B o th R W E a n d PP& L used
,n G erh ard D chnc, G erm an Electrical In dustry Capitalized al $1,000,000, ibid., pp. 96667.
R W E Geschaftsberichlen, p. 52.
s" Ibid.. pp. 34. 35, 52.
Statistics Tor the Pennsylvania Power & Light Co. are taken from its publication Penn
sylvania Power Id Light Company. 8 vols. in 9 (Allentown. Pa.. 1940?). Volume I is entitled Origin
and Development of the Company; volume 2, Corporate History o f the Company; and volume 3.
Origin and Development o f Predecessor Companies. T hese th ree volumes are especially helplul to
the historian. All volumes will h e reafter be cited as PPldL History. 1 am indebted to Mr. G eoree

420

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
m in e -m o u ih p la n ts; P P & L b u r n e d lo w -g ra d e a n th ra c ite th a t c o u ld n o t be
e c o n o m ically tr a n s p o r te d to th e m a rk e t, a n d R W E b u r n e d low -caloric lig
n ite . T h e tw o utilitie s o p e r a te d a t d if f e r e n t fre q u e n c ie s, h o w e v e r; R W E at
5 0 cycles, PP & L a t 6 0 cycles. B o th u tilities tr a n s m itte d at 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 volts, a n d
b o th w o u ld in a few y e ars re a c h o u t to w a te r-p o w e r sites to im p ro v e th e
e c o n o m ic m ix o f th e ir e n e r g y so u rces. O n th e o th e r h a n d , R W E w as a
m ix e d p riv a te a n d g o v e r n m e n t-o w n e d u tility, w hile PP & L w as a p riv ate
h o ld in g c o m p a n y .
C o n s id e ra tio n o f fifty y e a rs o f PP & L s h isto ry will re v ea l m o re o f th e
c h a ra c te ristic s th e style o f a re g io n a l utility. T h a t h isto ry will a lso p r o
v id e a n o th e r e x a m p le o f th e w ay in w hich c o n te x t b o th re g io n a l a n d
n a tio n a l sh a p e s a n e v o lv in g system . E specially n o ta b le is th e fact th a t
P P & L e v o lv e d , as d id I n s u lls C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n in C h ic ag o , in the
re la tiv e a b se n c e o f g o v e rn m e n t re g u la tio n . A lso im p o r ta n t w as th e s tro n g
d riv e fo r g e o g ra p h ic a l e x p a n s io n th a t p re v a ile d in th e A m e ric a n c o n te x t
(see Fig. 1.4, p p . 1 0 -1 3 ).
P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t, like R W E , su p p lie d a p r e d o m in a n tly in
d u s tria l lo a d in a c o a l-m in in g a n d ste e l-p ro d u c in g re g io n . By 1930, 70
p e r c e n t o f its o u tp u t ( k ilo w a tt-h o u rs) w e n t to in d u s tria l c u sto m e rs. O f th e
p o w e r s u p p lie d to in d u s try , a d is p r o p o r tio n a te a m o u n t (45 p e rc e n t) w ent
to coal m in in g . (S ee Figs. X IV . 19 a n d X IV .20.) PP & L s la rg e st sin g le in
d u s tria l c u s to m e r w as th e B e th le h e m p la n t o f th e B e th le h e m S teel C o r
p o ra tio n , th e s e c o n d -la rg e s t stee l c o m p a n y in th e U n ite d States.'0
P P & L s c o a l-m in in g a n d heav y in d u s tr ia l lo a d was c o n c e n tra te d in th e
L e h ig h valley o f P e n n sy lv a n ia , w hich was, o n a s m a lle r in d u s tria l scale, like
th e R u h r valley in G e rm a n y . In a d d itio n to th e B e th le h e m Steel C o rp o
ra tio n , sm a lle r ir o n - a n d ste e l-re la te d e n te rp ris e s w e re situ a te d in th e valley,
w h ic h e x te n d e d in to th e la rg e , a n th ra c ite c o a l-m in in g re g io n o f n o r th
e a s te r n P e n n sy lv a n ia . A lle n to w n , w ith a p o p u la tio n o f a b o u t 9 0 ,0 0 0 , was
th e la rg e st city in P P & L s te rrito ry , a n d B e th le h e m , a few m iles d ista n t,
h a d a p o p u la tio n o f 6 0 ,0 0 0 . A lso c o n c e n tr a te d in th e valley w ere th e ce m e n t
in d u s try , slate q u a rrie s , a n d silk m a n u fa c tu re rs . T o th e n o rth w e st, ab o u t
5 0 m iles f ro m A lle n to w n , w e re th e a n th r a c ite fields, th e n a tio n s c e n te r fo r
th e m in in g o f th is h a r d , h ig h -c a lo ric coal. T h e P en n sy lv an ia P o w er & L ig h t
C o m p a n y also s u p p lie d th e a g ric u ltu r a l a n d sm a ll-in d u stry d istric t in th e
v alley o f th e S u s q u e h a n n a R iv er n o r th o f H a r ris b u rg , th e s ta te c ap ita l, th e
p o p u la tio n o f w h ic h was a b o u t 8 0 ,0 0 0 . In B rita in , N E S C O s e rv e d a re g io n
th a t n u r t u r e d a d is p r o p o r tio n a te s h a r e o f th e n a tio n s m in in g a n d in d u stry .
W h ile less o u ts ta n d in g th a n N E S C O in th e n a tio n a l c o n te x t, th e re g io n
se rv e d by PP & L w as n o ta b le f o r in c lu d in g be tw e en o n e -th ird a n d o n e -h a lf
o f t h e in d u s try , as m e a s u re d by w age e a rn e r s a n d p a y ro ll, in a sta te w hose
in d u s tria l o u tp u t r a n k e d se c o n d in th e n a tio n .41 T o th e s o u th a n d ea st o f
V anderslicc, vice-presidcni and com ptroller o f PP&L. for the loan o f volumes 1-3. T h e PPfdL
History was p rep ared as required by the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission and the
Federal Power Commission.
w P P U L History. I: 132, 165.
This estim ate o f PP&L's supply o f the stale's industry is based on statistics for the twentyeight counties in which PP&L o perated. PP&L served only twelve or the twenty-eight counties
in th eir entirety, a large part o f eight counties, and small portions o f eight others. Ibid.. p.
I M.

430

NETW O RK S OF POW ER

Figure XTV.I9. The Pennsylvania Power id Light Co.'s total load.

1921-39. From PP&L History, I: 133.

Figure X IV .20. The industrial load o f Pennsylvania Power id Light.

1926-39. From PP&L H istory, I: 165.

P e n n s y lv a n ia s c a p ita l was L a n c a s te r C o u n ty , o n e o f th e f o re m o s t a g ric u l

tu ra l re g io n s in th e U n ite d S ta le s a n d p a r t o f th e a re a PP & L se rv e d . T h e
c o u n ty w as k n o w n n o t o n ly f o r th e ric h n e ss o f its soil b u t also fo r th e
assid u ity o f th e A m ish p e o p le , w h o w e re s u p e r io r fa rm e rs . ( T h e P e n n sy l
v a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t C o m p a n y e n c o u n te r e d in th e A m ish p e o p le a n u n
u su a l p ro b le m , h o w e v e r, f o r th e y r e f u s e d , b e c a u se o f th e ir d e te r m in a tio n
to a v o id d e p e n d e n c e o n la rg e -sc a le te c h n o lo g ic a l system s, to use e lectricity.)
T h e h isto ry o f PP & L se rv e s w ell as a n e x a m p le o f th e w id e sp re a d a n d
lo n g -te r m p ro c e ss o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l m e r g e r a n d c o n so lid a tio n th a t h as c h a r
ac te riz e d th e h isto ry o f ele c tric ity s u p p ly in th e U n ite d S la te s (see Fig.
X IV .2 1 ). As in th e c ase o f m a n y o th e r U .S . re g io n a l utilitie s, P P & L s b u si
ness h isto ry c u lm in a te d in th e 1920s w ith th e c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e m e rg e r
m o v e m e n t, th e f o rm a tio n o f a h o ld in g -c o m p a n y p y r a m id e m b ra c in g th e
c o m p a n y , its p re d e c e s s o r c o m p a n ie s , a n d o th e r la rg e re g io n a l system s. T h e
h isto ry o f P P& L is esp ecially in te r e s tin g b e c a u se its b e g in n in g s a r e asso
c ia te d w ith se v e ra l o f th e e a rlie st E d iso n u tilities. T h e u ltim a te c o n so lid a tio n
was c a rrie d o u t u n d e r th e a u sp ic e s o f th e E le ctric B o n d & S h a re C o m p a n y ,
th e e n g in e e rin g , m a n a g e m e n t, a n d fin a n cial e n te r p r is e th a t o rig in a te d in
th e a ctivities o f th e E d iso n -b a se d G e n e r a l E lectric C o m p a n y .

431

T H E & TY LE O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Figure X IV. 21. Integration o f utilities

(power supply groups) through new
organizational forms and holding
companies. Note that in 1905 the merger
trend accelerated. From II&rL
History, I: 61.

T h e E dison Electric Illu m in a tin g C o m p an y o f S u n b u ry was o n e o f PP& Ls

n o ta b le p re d e c e s s o r c o m p a n ie s. A t S u n b u r y in 1883 T h o m a s E d iso n a n d
his asso cia te s in tr o d u c e d th e th re e -w ire system o f d is trib u tio n in re sp o n se
to o n e o f th e m o st p r e s s in g c ritical p ro b le m s o f th e E d iso n system . T h e
E d iso n ch e m ic a l m e te r fo r m e a s u rin g th e c o n s u m p tio n o f elec tricity o n th e
c u s to m e rs p re m ise s also w as tr ie d o u t th e re . T h e S u n b u ry p ro je c t, ac
c o r d in g to th e E d iso n r e p re s e n ta tiv e s w ho o rg a n iz e d it, rev ita liz ed T h o m a s
E d iso n 's d ra stic a lly w a n in g fo rtu n e s .
A c c o rd in g to s ta n d a r d h isto rie s o f th e E d ison e n te rp ris e s , S u n b u r y p r o
vid ed E d iso n w ith th e o p p o r tu n ity to try o u t ce n tra l-sta tio n in c a n d e sc e n t
lig h tin g in sm all cities a n d tow ns. E d iso n ca lle d th e se V illage sta tio n s."
C o n s u m e rs w ere m o re w idely d is p e rs e d th e r e th a n in cities like N ew Y ork,
b u t th e th re e -w ire system re d u c e d d is trib u tio n costs by allo w in g th e v oltage
to b e ra ise d to 22 0 . By c o n n e c tin g lam p s ac ross a n o u ts id e a n d in sid e
(n e u tr a l) w ire , 110 volts c o u ld be su p p lie d to th e cu sto m e rs. (Sec p p . 8 3 84 f o r a d isc u ssio n o f th e th re e -w ire te c h n o lo g y .) E d ison e sta b lish e d a n d
fin a n c e d th e T h o m a s A. E d iso n C o n s tru c tio n D e p a rtm e n t to bu ild V illage
s ta tio n s w h e n th e fin a n cial b ack ers o f th e p a r e n t E dison E lectric L ight
C o m p a n y fa iled to s u p p o r t his sm all-city v e n tu re s .-l2 B e fo re it was a b so rb e d
in th e fall o f 1884 by th e E d iso n C o m p a n y fo r Iso lated L ig h tin g , th e E d iso n
C o n s tru c tio n D e p a rtm e n t in stalled c e n tra l sta tio n s in n e arly tw en ty tow ns.
Five o f th e se w ere p re d e c e s s o r c o m p a n ie s o f P en n sy lv an ia P o w e r & L ight.
P h ilip B. S haw o f W illiam sp o rt, P enn sy lv an ia , th e sta le o f P en n sy lv an ia's
re p r e s e n ta tiv e , o r m a n a g e r , fo r th e E dison E lectric L ig h t C o m p a n y , ob H arold C. Passer. The Electrical Manufacturers, 1875-1900 (Cambridge, Mass : H arvard
University Press, 1953). p. 99.

432

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

la in e d fu n d in g locally a n d o r g a n iz e d ele c tric lig h tin g c o m p a n ie s a t W il
lia m sp o rt, S h a m o k in , S u n b u ry , M o u n t C a rm e l, a n d H a z le to n , P e n n sy lv a
nia. T h e five sm all to w n s w e re s itu a te d in th e a n th r a c ite coal field s b e tw ee n
th e S u s q u e h a n n a a n d L e h ig h riv e rs (e x c e p t fo r W illia m sp o rt, w hich was
lo c a te d o n th e S u s q u e h a n n a f a r th e r n o r th ). S haw o b ta in e d le tte r s p a te n t,
o r legal a u th o riz a tio n fo r th e c o m p a n ie s , b e tw e e n th e fall o f 1882 a n d th e
fall o f 1883.43 H is re c o lle c tio n s o f th e sy ste m s s u b s e q u e n t h isto ry d if fe r
fro m s ta n d a r d E d iso n h isto rie s. S h a w re c a lle d th a t in th e fall o f 1882 fo r m e r
T h o m a s E d iso n b o o s te rs h a d b e c o m e c ritic s a n d th a t J . P. M o rg a n , in S haw 's
p re s e n c e , [h a d ] c la sse d M r. E d iso n as a n im p o s to r , a fa k ir a n d a c h a rla ta n
b e c a u se o f p r o b le m s a n d d e la y s in c o n s tru c tio n o f th e P e a rl S tre e t s ta tio n
in N ew Y o rk C ity. S h a w b e lie v e d th a t E d is o n s vision o f g ia n t castles h a d
c ru m b le d in to m ic ro sc o p ic u n its a n d th a t E d iso n h a d b e c o m e a p e rs is te n t
p e ssim ist.44 S h a w s a c c o u n t th e n n o te d h is u r g in g th e d e s p o n d e n t E d ison
to try h is sy stem in sm all to w n s, w h e re gas lig h t w as e x p e n s iv e a n d coal
in e x p e n s iv e , r a t h e r th a n in th e la rg e cities. E d iso n th e n n a m e d S haw th e
E d iso n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e fo r P e n n sy lv a n ia a f te r S h a w d e s c rib e d his p r io r e x
p e r ie n c e as p r o m o te r o f p a te n te d dev ices. S haw ra ise d c ash f ro m p e rso n s
in W illia m sp o rt a n d e lse w h e re in th e re g io n ; a r r a n g e d fo r th e E d iso n
C o n s tr u c tio n D e p a r tm e n t to b u ild th e p la n ts; a n d n e g o tia te d th e e x c h a n g e
o f ca sh a n d th e slo ck o f th e local c o m p a n ie s fo r a n E d iso n lice n se a n d
e q u ip m e n t fro m th e E d iso n E le ctric L ig h t C o m p a n y , w hich h e ld th e E d ison
p a te n ts .45 A fte r c o n s tr u c tio n b e g a n o n th e p la n ts in S u n b u r y a n d th e o th e r
to w n s, a w ild ru s h f o r p a r e n t c o m p a n y sto c k e n s u e d , a n d th e stock w ith
a p a r v a lu e o f $ 1 0 0 sk y ro c k e te d to $ 4 4 0 0 p e r s h a r e . T h e r e f o r e , it w as n o
id le g u e ss, S h a w v e n tu r e d , to a ssu m e th a t to P e n n sy lv a n ia , a n d p a rtic u la rly
to th e to w n s a b o v e m e n tio n e d , b e lo n g s th e c re d it a n d d is tin c tio n o f h a v in g
re s c u e d fro m to ta l s u b m e r g e n c e th e g re a te s t in d u s try e v e r c o n c e iv e d ." 46
By d r a w in g o n e a r lie r e x p e r ie n c e w ith a n a b o v e -g ro u n d tra n sm issio n
sy stem th a t h a d b e e n f u n d e d o n a sm all scale by th e E d iso n E le ctric L ight
C o m p a n y a t R oselle, N ew J e rs e y , in 1882, E d iso n d e s ig n e d th e c e n tra lsta tio n a n d d is trib u tio n sy stem fo r S u n b u ry .47 ( T h e th r e e - w ire sy stem was
n o t u se d in Roselle, how ever.) E dison sent W. S. A n d re w s a n d F ran k S p ra g u e
to S u n b u r y to s u p e r in te n d c o n s tr u c tio n a n d to tra in local m e n d u r in g
c o n s tru c tio n to o p e r a te th e E d iso n E lectric Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y . W ith
th o u s a n d s o f s p e c ta to rs o n h a n d , E d iso n in a u g u r a te d th e sy ste m o n 4 J u ly
1883 in a to w n n u m b e r in g n o m o re th a n 6 ,0 0 0 p e o p le . A n u m b e r o f

T h e five utilities ultimately became part o f Pennsylvania Power & Light. Shaw also
established a com pany at Bellefontc, Pa. See "M em orandum Data for use by the Publicity
Division o f the Franklin Institute o f Pennsylvania." U nsigned, but auth o re d by Shaw, this
m em o (on file at the Franklin Institute Museum Archives. Philadelphia. Pa.) was probably
w ritten d u rin g the early 1930s when the o riginal dynam os anti steam engines from the Edison
station at Sun b u ry w ere on loan to the Franklin Institute. I am indebted to A nne Millbrooke
for calling my a ttention to this docum ent and Tor permission to refer to he r unpublished
research p ap er. "Electricity in Central-E astern Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Power Sc Light
C om pany and Its Predecessors," d one at the University o f Pennsylvania in the fall o f 1976.
44 Shaw, "M em orandum ."
" Edison Electric Light Co., Hullrtm, S eptem ber 1883, pp. 46-48.
4nShaw, "M em orandum ."
47 Edison Electric Light Co.. Rulletin, Septem ber 1883, p. 47.

433

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
c o m m e r c ia l b u ild in g s a n d b o u s e s w e r e lit, in c lu d in g th e C ity H o te l. T h e
c e n tr a l sta tio n w a s a s m a ll w o o d e n s t r u c t u r e h o u s in g a B a b c o c k a n d W ilc o x
b o ile r a n d tw o L " ty p e E d is o n g e n e r a t o r s b e lte d to h ig h - s p e e d A r m in g t o n

8c S im s s t e a m e n g in e s (s e e F ig . X I V .2 2 ) . T h e sy ste m h a d a c a p a c ity o f al>oui

s ix h u n d r e d fif t y 1 0 - c .p . i n c a n d e s c e n t la m p s."18 W ith te c h n ic a l a d v ic e a n d
e q u ip m e n t f r o m th e p a r e n t E d is o n c o m p a n y c o n tin u in g to b e g iv e n in
e x c h a n g e f o r b o n d s a n d sto c k , S u n b u r y e x p a n d e d a n d by 188H s e r v e d
m o r e th a n a h u n d r e d c u s to m e r s a n d a b o u t 1 , 2 0 0 la m p s .'10 T h e c o m p a n y
w a s r e o r g a n i z e d a n d i n v o lv e d in m e r g e r s s e v e r a l tim e s b e tw e e n 18 8 8 a n d
1 9 1 1 , w h e n it w a s a b s o r b e d b y th e N o r t h u m b e r la n d C o u n t y G a s 8c E le c tric
C o m p a n y a n d lo st its c o r p o r a t e id e n tity . N o r t h u m b e r la n d w as la te r a c
q u ir e d b y P e n n s y lv a n ia P o w e r 8c L i g h t . '0
S m a ll u tilitie s w ith E d is o n lic e n se s, lik e th e u tilitie s e s ta b lis h e d b y S h a w ,
b e g a n o p e r a t in g in o t h e r p a r t s o f e a s te r n a n d n o r t h e a s t e r n P e n n s y lv a n ia
Figure X IV .22. Edison direct-current,
three-wire-distribution central station in
Sunbury, Pa. Courtesy o f the Edison
Archives, Edison Natioiml Historic Site,
West Orange, N.J.

a n d e v e n t u a lly w e r e i n t e g r a t e d in to a r e g io n a l sy ste m b y th e P e n n s y lv a n ia
P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y . T h o m a s E d is o n a n d th e E d is o n E le c tr ic L ig h t
C o m p a n y lo o k slo c k f r o m th e s e c o m p a n ie s in p a r tia l e x c h a n g e f o r e q u i p
m e n t a n d a d v ic e . T h u s b e g a n a lo n g h is t o r y o f m a n u f a c t u r e r in f lu e n c e in
u tility o p e r a t io n . T h e lo a d c a r r ie d in th e e a r ly sta tio n s w a s m o stly in
c a n d e s c e n t lig h t in g s u p p l e m e n t e d in s o m e c a s e s b y a c o m p le m e n t a r y a rc lig h t in g p la n t m a d e u p o f e q u ip m e n t f r o m

o n e o f th e e a r ly a r c - lig lu

m a n u fa c tu r e r s T h o m s o n - H o u s t o n , E x c e ls io r , B r u s h , U n ite d

S ta t e s ,

A m e r i c a n , S c h u y l e r , S p e r r y , a n d W e st o n , f o r e x a m p l e . A p o o r lo a d fa c to r
r e s u lt in g f r o m th e a b s e n c e o f lo a d o t h e r th a n lig h tin g a n d a h ig h p e a k
d u r in g th e e v e n in g h o u r s w e a k e n e d th e sm a ll u tilitie s, h o w e v e r . T h e ir
p e r ilo u s s itu a tio n d e t e r i o r a t e d f u r t h e r w h e n th e b a ttle o f th e s y s t e m s "
m a n if e s t e d it s e lf o n th e lo c a l le v e l in th e la te r 18 8 0 s w ith th e a p p e a r a n c e
o f c o m p e t in g , a lt e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t lig h tin g sta tio n s u s in g W e s t in g h o u s e ,
T h o m s o n - H o u s t o n , a n d o t h e r n o n - E d is o n e q u ip m e n t. T h e c o m p e tit io n
f r o m a lt e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t s t a tio n s in sm a ll to w n s w a s e s p e c ia lly s h a r p f o r
d i r e c t - c u r r e n t u tilitie s b e c a u s e th e c o m p e t it o r s a .c . d is t rib u tio n at 1,0 0 0
v o lts o r m o r e in c r e a s e d th e a r e a o f e c o n o m ic a l s e rv ic e . T h e a.c . u tilitie s
a ls o h e ld a n a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e a r c - lig h t in g a n d a lte r n a t in g - c u r r e n t , in
c a n d e s c e n t s y s t e m s w e r e c o m p a tib le (b o th u se d h ig h v o lt a g e s) . B y 19 0 0 th e
e r a o f d u p lic a t io n o f f a c ilitie s a n d c o m p e tit io n h a d b r o u g h t th e e s ta b lis h
m e n t o f n o le ss th a n s i x t y - f o u r d i f f e r e n t c o m p a n ie s s e r v i n g e ig lu y - e ig h t
c o m m u n itie s in th e r e g io n th a t w a s la te r to b e s e r v e d b y th e P e n n s y lv a n ia
P o w e r & L i g h t C o m p a n y . T h e te c h n ic a l c h a ra c te r is tic s o f th e se sy ste m s
Inform ation on the early history o f the Edison Electric Illum inating Co. o f Sunbury can
be found in the Pennsylvania Power Sc Light Co. Papers at the Eleutherian Mills Historical
Library in W ilmington (Greenville), Del. (h ereafter cited as PP&L Papers). T hese papers
include financial records, such as ledgers and journals, and formal records, such as minute
books, o f the predecessor com panies of PP&L, which was form ed in 1920. For instance,
am ong the papers a rc a photostatic copy o r the first Minute Book and the original of the
second Minute Book o f the Stinbury company. I am indebted to Dr. Richmond Williams and
Mr. H ugh Gibb for guidance in the use o r these papers. Sec also W. S. Andrews. "1 lie Story
o f Sunbury Station," Popular Electricity 3 (1910): 391-93; H arry L. and Samuel K cefrr. " In
stallation in Sunbury o r First T h ree W ire System," Sunbury Daily Item, 25 May 1916
Millbrookc, "Electricity in C entral-Eastern Pennsylvania," p. 15.
T h e com petition am ong electric utilities in Simbury from 1900 to 1911 is succinctly
chronicled in PPfdL History, 3: 30-32.

434

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

v a rie d w idely in level o f v o lta g e a n d f re q u e n c y as well as in ty p e o f c u r r e n t.51
T h e situ a tio n w as p a ro c h ia l.
F ro m a b o u t 1895 to 1910 th e e ffe c ts o f th e b a ttle o f th e sy stem s a t
te n u a te d w ith th e re s o lu tio n m a d e possib le by c o u p le rs , b u t th e e le c trifi
c a tio n o f s tre e tc a rs a n d th e e x p lo ita tio n o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r b r o u g h t
a d d itio n a l c h a lle n g e s fo r th e utilities. S o m e tra n s it c o m p a n ie s u se d p o w er
fro m e x is tin g u tilities, b u t o th e r s b u ilt th e ir ow n p o w e r p la n ts. T h e ex istin g
u tilities c o u ld h a v e s u p p lie d th e s tre e tc a r c o m p a n ie s e ith e r by a d d in g d.c.
e q u ip m e n t o r by u s in g c o n v e rte rs if th e ir g e n e r a to r s w e re th e a.c. type,
b u t th e tra n s it c o m p a n ie s , b e lie v in g th a t th e tra n s it lo ad w as su ffic ie n t o r
th a t it c o u ld b e s u p p le m e n te d by o b ta in in g th e ir o w n fra n c h ise s to su p p ly
lig h tin g , p u r s u e d th e ir g o a ls in d e p e n d e n tly . P o w er c o m p a n ie s w ith h y
d r o e le c tric s ta tio n s also c o m p e te d w ith th e e x istin g lig h tin g c o m p a n ie s by
o b ta in in g d is tr ib u tio n rig h ts in ste a d o f se llin g p o w e r w h o lesale to th e u til
ities. T h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts in P e n n sy lv a n ia re fle c te d w h a t w as h a p p e n in g
th r o u g h o u t th e utility in d u s tr y .5'2 A s u m m a ry o f th e h isto ry o f several
u tilitie s in n o r th e a s te r n P e n n sy lv a n ia la te r P P & L s te r r ito r y is in m a n y
w ays r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e s e tr e n d s (see Fig. X IV .23).
O r g a n iz e d in 1886, th e E d iso n E le ctric Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y o f L a n
c a ste r, P e n n sy lv a n ia , a d a p te d to c h a n g e w h e n in 1892 it in sta lle d a s e p a ra te
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t d is tr ib u tio n sy ste m . N e v e rth e le ss, th e b a ttle o f th e sys
te m s m a d e its w ay to L a n c a s te r in 1893 w h e n W e s tin g h o u s e in te re sts
e s ta b lis h e d a se c o n d u tility , th e C itize n s E lec tric L ig h t, H e a t & P o w er C o m
p a n y , in th is sm all city. T h e tw o c o m p a n ie s c o m p e te d fo r a b o u t tw o y e ars
u n til th e E d iso n C o m p a n y b o u g h t th e C itiz e n s C o m p a n y , a b a n d o n e d th e
less e ffic ie n t, E d iso n g e n e r a tin g p la n t, a n d m o v e d so m e e q u ip m e n t to th e
n e w e r p o w e r p la n t a c q u ir e d in th e p u rc h a s e . T h e rise o f h y d ro e le c tric iiy
th e n h a d local r e p e rc u s s io n s as a new c o m p a n y , th e L a n c a s te r E lec tric L ight,
H e a t & P o w e r C o m p a n y , in c o r p o r a te d in 1897, s u p p lie d L a n c a ste r fro m
th r e e a.c. h y d r o e le c tric p la n ts a lo n g C o n e s to g a C re e k . T h e c o m p e titio n so
re d u c e d p ric e s th a t th e E d iso n C o m p a n y was u n a b le to d e c la re d iv id e n d s
fo r se v e ra l y e a rs. In 1902, h o w e v e r, th e E d iso n C o m p a n y a g re e d to la k e
o v e r th e e n tir e p o w e r p ro d u c tio n o f th e h y d ro e le c tr ic c o m p a n y a n d its
d is trib u tio n fac ilities in L a n c a s te r, th e re b y in itia tin g a p ro c e ss o f in te g ra
tio n . T h e in te g r a tio n o f th e rm a l a n d h y d ro e le c tric facilities in tu r n led to
th e in s titu tio n o f a lo a d d is p a tc h e r to m a n a g e th e d iv e rs e p o w e r su p p lie s
to a ch iev e o p tim a l e c o n o m ie s.
T h e e a rly h isto ry o f e le c tric s u p p ly in L a n c a ste r d if f e r e d in o n e resp e ct
fro m u tility -in d u s lry tre n d s ; a tra n sit c o m p a n y d id n o t c o m p lic a te a n d
stim u la te d ev e lo p m e n ts. E lsew here in ea ste rn Pennsylvania, h ow ever, transit
c o m p a n ie s d id s h a p e h isto ry . In A lle n to w n , a sm all city in th e L e h ig h valley,
51 Ibid.. 1: 5-6 .
Uiiliiy industry tren d s am ong h u n d red s o f small utilities in the U nited Stales a re defined
and described by Forrest M cDonald in Let There lie Light: The Utility Industry in Wisconsin.
I 8 8 I - I 9 S } (M adison. Wis.: T h e A merican History Research C enter. 1957). McDonald pro
vides an overview for the d ifferent phases o f utility history in Wisconsin on pp. 3 -32, 10325, 181-201, and 299-3 2 2 . T h o m as C. Marlin also provides overviews o f trends in U.S..
D epartm ent o f C om m erce. b u rea u o f the Census, Special Reports of Central Electric Light and
Power Stations (W ashington, D.C.: CTO , selected years). See, for exam ple, the Report for 1907
(published in 1910), pp. 9 6 -123; and the Report for 1912 (published in 1915), pp. 111-76.

435

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Figure XIV. 23. Corporate history o f the

Pennsylvania Power fcf Light Co. From
PP&L History, 2. xviit.

a lig h tin g c o m p a n y was e s ta b lish e d in th e 1880s. A b o u t 1890, w h e n the

p o te n tia l lo a d o f th e A lle n to w n E lectric L ig h t & P o w er C o m p a n y e x c e e d e d
th e c o m p a n y s ab ility to fin a n c e th e a d d itio n a l p la n t, th e In d u s tria l Im
p ro v e m e n t C o m p a n y o f B o sto n a r r a n g e d fo r th e A lle n to w n & B e th le h e m
R a p id T r a n s it C o m p a n y , w hich was a lre a d y o p e ra tin g a tra n s it n e tw o rk
a n d a p o w e r p la n t, to la k e o v e r th e c o m m o n sto c k o f th e A lle n to w n E lectric
L ig h t & P o w e r C o m p a n y a n d to e n la rg e its g e n e r a tin g p la n t to serv e b o th
th e tra n s it n e tw o rk a n d th e d is trib u tio n system o f th e A llen to w n P ow er
C o m p a n y . In 1903 th e situ a tio n was f u r th e r ra tio n a liz e d w h en a new c o m
p a n y , th e L e h ig h V alley T ra n s it C o m p a n y , a c q u ire d th e A lle n to w n 8c B e th
le h e m R ap id T r a n s it C o m p a n y a n d th e A lle n to w n E lectric L ight 8c P ow er
C o m p a n y . In 1913, th e L eh ig h V alley T r a n s it C o m p a n y m e rg e d a n d c o n
so lid a te d th e A llen to w n E lectric L ight 8c P ow er C o m p a n y a n d a n u m b e r
o f sm all p r o p e r tie s it h a d a c q u ire d in to th e L eh ig h V alley Light 8c P ow er
C o m p a n y , a p rin c ip a l p re d e c e s s o r o f PP& L .53
A n o th e r s ta g e in th e p r e h is to ry o f th e PP& L b e g an w ith th e in tro d u c tio n
o f th e tu r b in e a n d h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n . T h e new tech n o lo g y .stim u
late d in te g r a tio n in n o r th e a s te r n P en n sy lv an ia as it h ad in th e re g io n s
s e rv e d by R W E a n d N E S C O . T h e relatively sh o rt h isto ry o f th e H a rw o o d
E lectric P o w e r C o m p a n y , a p re d e c e s s o r o f th e P en n sylvania P ow er & Light
C o m p a n y , p ro v id e s a n e x a m p le o f th e p ro cess o f in te g ra tio n a n d th e fo r
m a tio n o f d istric t system s. In 1907, th e o p e r a to r o f an a n th ra c ite m ine,
C alvin P a rd e e , fin a n c e d a n d o rg a n iz e d th e H a rw o o d E lectric P ow er C o m
p a n y . T h e c o m p a n y was d e sig n e d to p re s id e o v e r a m in e -m o u th p o w e r
s ta tio n in th e a n th ra c ite -m in in g distric t n e a r th e sm all tow n o f H a zleto n
P P V I. History. 3: 2-G.

430

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
in n o r th e a s te r n P e n n sy lv a n ia . M in e -m o u lh p la n ts w e re n o t n ew ; R W E s
first p la n t w as b u ilt a t th e V ic to ria M a th ias m in e in E ssen. P a rd e e tr a n s
f e r r e d se v e ra l sm all tu r b o g e n e r a to r s a n d th e stock o f th e H a rw o o d C oal
C o m p a n y to c a p ita liz e th e new c o m p a n y . T h e te m p o ra ry p la n t h a d tw o
3 00-kw . W e s tin g h o u s e - P a rs o n s m a c h in e s a n d o n e 500-kw . G e n e ra l E lectric
tu r b o g e n e r a to r , b u t by 1913 its c a p a c ity h a d rise n to 12,000 kw. a n d th e
p la n t h a d a c h ie v e d th e s ta tu s o f a d istric t sta tio n . T h e p la n t sto o d a lo n g sid e
a la rg e coal b r e a k e r , w h e re c h u n k s o f coal f ro m th e m in e w ere b ro k e n
d o w n , c le a n e d , g r a d e d , a n d s o rte d a c c o rd in g to size. T h e p o w e r p la n t's
ca p a c ity e x c e e d e d th e m in in g a n d in d u s tria l lo a d in th e fra n c h is e a re a o f
th e new c o m p a n y , so, by sto c k p u rc h a s e a n d m e r g e r, P a rd e e a c q u ire d th e
t e r r ito r y o f th e C o n s u m e rs E le ctric L ig h t 8c P o w e r C o m p a n y o f H a z le to n ,
w h ic h h a d b e e n f o r m e d in 1906 to a c q u ire c h a r te r rig h ts to d is tr ib u te
e le c tric ity in H a z le to n . U sin g p o w e r f ro m th e H a rw o o d p la n t, th e C o n
s u m e r s C o m p a n y r e n d e r e d serv ic e m o re e c o n o m ic a lly th a n a n o ld e r c o m
p e tito r, th e H a z le to n E le ctric L ig h t & P o w e r C o m p a n y , th e su c c e sso r to
th e E d iso n C o m p a n y e sta b lish e d by P h ilip B. S haw in 1883. B e ca u se o f its
a n tiq u a te d e q u ip m e n t, so m e o f it th e E d iso n d ir e c t- c u r r e n t ty p e , th e H a
zle to n C o m p a n y w as u n a b le to c o m p e te a n d so ld o u t to P a r d e e in 1 9 I 2 .54
In 1913 th e L e h ig h C oal 8c N a v ig a tio n C o m p a n y w h ic h is n o t to be
c o n fu s e d w ith th e L e h ig h V alley L ig h t 8c P o w e r C o m p a n y c o n s tru c te d
a n o th e r d is tr ic t sta tio n e q u ip p e d w ith t u r b o g e n e r a to r s o n ly 10 m iles fro m
H a rw o o d , a t H a u to . O n e o r th e n a tio n s o ld e st in d u s tria l c o rp o r a tio n s , th e
L e h ig h C o al 8c N a v ig a tio n C o m p a n y h a d b e e n f o u n d e d in 1822 to e x p lo it
th e a n th r a c ite field s a n d to b u ild a c a n a l sy ste m to tr a n s p o r t th e a n th ra c ite
o u t o f n o r th e a s te r n P e n n sy lv a n ia to th e P h ila d e lp h ia p o r t a n d m a rk e t. O v e r
t h e y e a rs th e c o m p a n y h a d a c q u ir e d e x te n siv e coal fie ld s a n d re la te d m a n
u f a c tu r in g a n d tr a n s p o r ta tio n facilities, esp e cially in th e L e h ig h valley.55
Its a b ility to m o v e c a p ita l fro m m in in g to tr a n s p o r ta tio n a n d th e n to elec tric
p o w e r m a d e it a h ig h ly a d a p ta b le e n e rg y a n d in v e s tm e n t e n te rp ris e . T h e
c o m p a n y h a d in c o r p o r a te d th e L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E lec tric C o m p a n y in
1912 fo r th e p rim a r y p u r p o s e o f s u p p ly in g ele c tric ity to its coal m in e s in
C a rb o n C o u n ty , to c e m e n t m ills in th e L e h ig h valley, a n d to th e B e th le h e m
S te el C o m p a n y in B e th le h e m , a b o u t 30 m iles fro m H a u to , w h e re th e new
p o w e r p la n t w as to b e s itu a te d .56 T h e initial e q u ip m e n t a t th e H a u to in
s ta lla tio n c o n siste d o f th r e e 10,000-kw . G e n e ra l E lectric tu rb o g e n e r a to rs .
T h e H a u lo p o w e r p la n t w as also a m in e -m o u th in sta lla tio n .
In 1913 th e L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E le ctric C o m p a n y c o n tin u e d th e tre n d
to w a rd o r g a n iz a tio n a l in te g r a tio n by p u r c h a s in g fro m A lfre d D. P a rd e e
c o n tr o llin g slo ck in th e H a rw o o d E le ctric C o m p a n y (fo rm e rly th e H a rw o o d
E lec tric P o w e r C o m p a n y ), a n d th e n in 1915 m a in ta in e d a te c h n ic a l tr e n d
by in te r c o n n e c tin g its H a u to p la n t w ith th e H a rw o o d p la n t. T h e a g re e m e n t
b e tw e e n th e L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E lec tric C o m p a n y a n d (h e H a rw o o d C oin-

Ibid., I: 12.
81II. Benjamin Powell, Philadelphia's First Fuel Crim (University Park: Pennsylvania Slale
University Press, 1978), pp. 82-84.
,n T lic m erg er and consolidation agreem en t by which llie Lehigh Navigation Electric Co.
was Conned was d ated 23 Decem ber 1912. See M inute Book. I^ h ig h Navigation Electric Co.,
27 Ju ly 1913 to 30 Ju ly 1919. item 7019. PP&L Papers.

437

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
p a n y , w hich re ta in e d its c o r p o ra te id e n tity d e s p ite L eh ig h o w n e rsh ip , in
c lu d e d a c o m p le x a n d re s o u rc e fu l a r ra n g e m e n t f o r p o w e r e x c h a n g e .37 T h e
te ch n ica l m e r g e r w as m a d e p ossible by th e use o f a c o u p le r in th e fo rm of
a 6,000-kw . 25/60-cycle fre q u e n c y c h a n g e r. T h e s h o r t fo rm m e r g e r act of
1876 o f P en n sy lv an ia, w hich p e rm itte d o n e c o m p a n y to sell its fra n c h ise s
a n d its p ro p e r ty to a n o th e r , fac ilitated th is a n d sim ila r m e r g e rs .58
By 1917 th e L e h ig h C o m p a n y h a d b u ilt u p d e m a n d to a c o n n e c te d load
o f 2 4 ,1 0 0 kw ., b u t it was p re d o m in a n tly a larg e, in d u s tria l-c u s to m e r load.
It h a d on ly 112 c u s to m e rs a n d 63 p e rc e n t o f th e p o w e r it d e liv e re d was
u sed by five c e m e n t c o m p a n ie s. T o m e e t d e m a n d , th e c o m p a n y p erio d ically
b o rro w e d m o n e y (u n til its d e b t was o v e r a m illion d o lla rs) fro m th e L e h ig h
C oal 8c N a v ig a tio n C o m p a n y to fin a n c e c o n s tru c tio n o f p o w e r p la n ts a n d
tra n sm issio n a n d d is trib u tio n lines. T h e fin an c ia l tra n sa c tio n s w e re facili
ta te d by S. D. W a r rin e r, w ho was p r e s id e n t o f b o th c o m p a n ie s.
T h e d e c isio n -m a k in g p ro c e ss a n d th e m o d e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t a d o p te d
fo r th e L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E le ctric C o m p a n y c h a n g e d , h o w e v er, in th e fall
o f 1917. S. Z. M itchell, p re s id e n t o f E lectric B o n d 8c S h a re , was p r e s e n t at
th e L e h ig h C o m p a n y s b o a r d o f d ir e c to r s m e e tin g o n 12 S e p te m b e r 1917.
D u rin g th e m e e tin g , se v e ra l m e m b e rs o f th e b o a rd re sig n e d a n d new on e s,
in c lu d in g M itch e ll, w e re n a m e d . T h e m in u te s laconically sta te th a t su b se
q u e n t to his e le c tio n , M itchell to o k p a rt in th e p ro c e e d in g s. H e n o t only
lo o k p a rt, h e b e c a m e th e e n g in e e r o f c h a n g e . T h e n c e f o r th , E lectric B o n d
& S h a re , t h r o u g h its h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s, d e te rm in e d th e policy o f th e
L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E le ctric C o m p a n y a n d m u c h o f th e u tility b u siness in
e a s te rn P e n n sy lv a n ia .59
M itchell a n d S. D. W a r r in e r a tte n d e d th e b o a rd m e e tin g s o f th e L eh ig h
C o m p a n y t h r o u g h o u t 1918, b u t n o t u n til J u ly 1919 w as th e im p e n d in g
tra n s fo r m a tio n in c o m p a n y o rg a n iz a tio n re v e a le d . T h e m in u te s o f th e Ju ly
29 m e e tin g in c lu d e a s ta te m e n t o f b u sin ess a n d tec h n o lo g ic al policy th a t
was u se d by h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s to ju s tify th e tra n s fo r m a tio n o f th e e lectric
su p p ly in d u s try t h r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try . T h e policy was in v en tiv e ; a t least
f o r a lim e, it so lv e d a c ritical p ro b le m o f ele ctric s u p p ly th a t was c o m p a ra b le
in se rio u sn e ss to th e tec h n o lo g ica l p ro b le m s E d iso n solved w h en h e in tro
d u c e d th e h ig h -re sista n c e lam p . F o u r d e c a d e s e a rlie r, th e c ritic al-p ro b lem
so lv e r (E d iso n ) w as a t M en lo P a rk ; in 1919 h e (M itchell) w o rk ed o u t o f th e
N ew Y o rk o ffice s o f E lectric B o n d 8c S h a re . A p p ro p ria te ly , E d iso n , th e
i n v e n to r - e n tr e p r e n e u r , a n d M itchell, th e fin a n c ie r, p re sid e d o v e r d iffe re n t
p h a se s o f th e h isto ry o f elec tric s u p p ly system s (see p p . 1 4 -1 7 above).
T h e u su ally m a tte r-o f-fa c t m in u te s e x p la in e d th a t th e L e h ig h N av ig atio n
E lectric C o m p a n y c o u ld a c q u ire o n re a so n a b le te rm s th e fu n d s n e e d e d to
p ro v id e th e serv ice d e m a n d e d o f it only if a m e rg e r was o rg a n iz e d a n d th e
c o m b in e d p r o p e r tie s p le d g e d as se cu rity , a n d only if th e c o m b in e d c o m
p a n ie s in c re a se d th e ir e a r n in g s th r o u g h th e ra tio n a liz a tio n o f tec h n o lo g y
a n d e c o n o m ie s o f scale. T h e p a rtic u la r m e rg e r th e b o a rd h a d in m in d was
" M e e tin g o f the Board o r Directors. 23 Ju n e 1915, M inute Book. Lehigh Navigation
Electric Co.. ibid.
This short history o r the Lehigh Navigation Electric Co. is based on PPll. History. I:
15-16 and 2: v-vi.
"Meeting o r the Board o f Directors. l2 S cp lcm b cr 1917. Minute Book. Lehigh Navigation
Electric Co., item 7019. PPHcL Papers.

438

Figure X IV .24.

N 1 3 T W O R K S O F P U W liH

Achieving an economic m u of power Uotiom to meet vniying demanti. From PP&L History. / : 191.

th a i o f th e L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E lec tric C o m p a n y a n d th e L e h ig h V alley

L ig h t 8c P o w e r C o m p a n y , th e la tte r h a v in g b e e n fo rm e d in 1913 by th e
L e h ig h V alley T r a n s it C o m p a n y fro m sm all utilitie s in th e A lle n to w n a n d
B e th le h e m a r e a .fi0
T he tw o c o m p a n ie s m e rg e d a n d c o n s o lid a te d in July 1919 to fo rm T h e "
[a d d itio n o f th e d e f in ite a rtic le c o n s titu te d th e o n ly c h a n g e in n a m e ] L e h ig h
V alley L ig h t 8c P o w e r C o m p a n y . T h e stock tra n s a c tio n s in v o lv ed in th e
m e r g e r s u g g e st th e n a tu r e o f th e fin a n c ia l a n d b u sin e ss r e o rg a n iz a tio n th a t
to o k pla ce. T h e co m p le x ity o f th e tra n s a c tio n s su g g e sts w hy m a n y utility
h e a d s a t th e lim e w e re k n o w n m o re f o r th e ir fin an c ial in g e n u ity th a n fo r
th e ir ability to solve te c h n o lo g ic a l a n d m a n a g e ria l p ro b le m s. T h e o ld L e
h ig h V alley L ig h t & P o w e r C o m p a n y h a d c o m m o n stock o u ts ta n d in g
a m o u n tin g to $64 1,700, a n d fo r this th e new co m p an y e x c h a n g e d $1,500,000
o f p r e f e r r e d sto ck . T h e L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E lectric C o m p a n y s $ 3 ,0 3 7 ,0 0 0
o f c o m m o n slo c k w as e x c h a n g e d Tor $ 2 ,1 7 8 ,7 0 0 o f th e n e w c o m p a n y s
c o m m o n slo ck . T h e $ 3 ,6 7 8 ,7 0 0 o f o u is la n d in g c o m m o n stock o f th e two
o ld c o m p a n ie s , th e n , w as e x c h a n g e d fo r $ 3 ,6 7 8 ,7 0 0 o f stock o f th e new
(so m e p r e f e r r e d , so m e c o m m o n ). S h a r e fo r s h a re , th e n e w p r e f e r r e d stock
w as v a lu e d less h ig h ly th a n th e c o m m o n stock o f L e h ig h V alley L ight 8c
P o w er, w hile th e new c o m m o n sto ck w as v a lu e d m o re h ig h ly th a n th e old
MeciiiiR o f llie Hoard o f D irectors, 29 July 1919, ibid.

439

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
c o m m o n stock o f th e L e h ig h N a v ig a tio n E lectric C o m p a n y . T h e " L eh ig h
V alley L ig h t 8c P o w er C o m p a n y th u s h a d a u th o riz e d c o m m o n sto ck valued
a t $ 4 ,1 5 0 ,0 0 0 a n d p r e f e r r e d sto ck v a lu e d a t $ 1 ,7 0 0 ,0 0 0 , w hich in c o m b i
n a tio n e q u a le d th e a u th o riz e d c o m m o n sto ck o f th e tw o o ld c o m p an ies,
T h e o ld c o m p a n ie s h a d n o t listed p r e f e r r e d stock. T h e ir b o n d e d in d e b t
e d n e ss a m o u n te d to $ 6 1 9 ,5 0 0 (L V L & P) a n d $ 3 ,9 0 9 ,0 0 0 (L N E C ).01
W ith in a m o n th a f te r th e sla te o f P e n n sy lv an ia issu ed le tte rs p a te n t es
ta b lish in g th e new c o m p a n y , th e c o m p a n y s b o a rd o f d ir e c to rs d iscu ssed
th e ra isin g o f $3 m illio n to c a rry o u t th e te c h n o lo g ic al ste p s it th o u g h t
n e ce ssa ry to m e e t d e m a n d . A d d itio n a l cap a city was p la n n e d fo r th e H a u to
a n d A lle n to w n p la n ts, a n d new tra n sm issio n lines w ere to b e c o n s tru c te d
a n d o ld o n e s ra ise d fro m 22 kv. to 66 kv. In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e se c h a n g e s,
o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e e n la rg e d sy ste m , su ch as sw itches a n d tra n s
fo rm e rs , w e re to be a d d e d o r re p la c e d . T h e in te rre la tio n s h ip o f fin a n cia l
a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l so lu tio n s w as c le a r.62
T h e e le c tio n o f S. Z. M itchell to th e b o a r d o f d ire c to rs o f th e L eh ig h
V alley N a v ig a tio n E lectric C o m p a n y h a d s ig n a le d th e in v o lv e m e n t o f E lec
tric B o n d 8c S h a re . In 1920 th e in flu e n c e o f th is c o rp o ra tio n b ec a m e m o re
ex p licit w h en th e L e h ig h P o w e r S e cu rities C o rp o r a tio n , a h o ld in g c o m p a n y
asso c iated w ith E lec tric B o n d 8c S h a re , to o k o v e r re g io n a l s u p p ly in n o r th
e aste rn Pennsylvania.63 T h is follow ed th e e stab lish m en t by f u r th e r m e rg e r
a n d c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e P en n sy lv a n ia P o w er 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y o f A lle n
to w n , P en n sy lv a n ia . T h e new f o rm a tio n w as fo rm a lly d iscu ssed a t a m e e tin g
o f th e b o a r d o f T h e " L e h ig h V alley L ig h t 8c P o w e r C o m p a n y o n 17 A pril
1920. T h e h o ld in g -c o m p a n y ra tio n a le w as s ta te d ex plicitly in th e m in u te s,
u n d o u b te d ly f o r th e h isto ric al re c o rd , f o r th o se p re s e n t w ere well ac
q u a in te d w ith it.
It is the con sen su s o f op in ion that th ro ug h m e rg er an d consolidation o f this
com p an y with such com p anies [several o th er n eigh borin g utilities] on an
eq uitab le basis, a m uch g re ate r flexibility in fin an cin g can be ob tain ed, which
w ould be distinctly to the ad van tag e o f each com p any, an d especially to the
ad va n tag e o f the public in the territory served by each com p any, as it would
facilitate the possibility o f p ro vid in g a basis fo r the n ecessary p ro p e rty
exten sion s an d de ve lop m e n ts.64

A g ain , stock tra n sa c tio n s c h a ra c te riz e d th e c o n so lid a tio n a n d m e r g e r

a g r e e m e n t.05 T h e six o p e r a tin g u tility c o m p a n ie s th a t w e re d ra w n in (b e
sid es T h e " L V L & P) w ere th e N o rth e rn C e n tra l G as C o m p a n y , th e C o
lu m b ia 8c M o n to u r E lectric C o m p a n y , th e S chuylkill G as 8c E lectric C o m
pany, th e Pennsylvania L ighting C om pany, th e H arw ood Electric C om p an y .
61Jo in t A greem ent o f 23 July 1919. Minute Book o f "T he" Lehigh Valley Light Sc Power
Co., item 2352, PP&L Papers.
"'M e etin g o f the Board o f Directors. I O ctober 1919. ibid.
Lehigh Power Securities Corp. was identified as one o f five holding com panies under
the substantial o r com plete control o f Electric Bond Sc Share in 1933. After 1928 it was a
subsidiary o f the N ational Power Sc Light Co., ano th er holding company form ed in 1921 and
controlled by Electric Bond Sc Share. Sec U.S.. Federal T rad e Commission, Utility Corporations,
Pari 72A (W ashington. D.C.: CPO . 1934), p. 616.
64 M eeting o f the Board o f Directors. 17 April 1920, Minute Book of "T he" Lehigh Valley
Light Sc Power Co., item 2352, PP&L Papers.
** loint A greem ent o f Consolidation and M erger, 12 April 1920, ibid.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
a n d th e N o r th u m b e r la n d C o u n ty G as 8c E lec tric C o m p a n y . A lso n a m e d
w as a n o th e r , n o n o p e r a tin g , P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y , w hich
h a d b e e n f o rm e d e a r lie r sim p ly to h o ld th e n a m e . All th e c o m p a n ie s w ere
te rrito ria lly c o n tig u o u s . T h e N o r th u m b e r la n d C o m p a n y c o u n te d a m o n g
its p re d e c e s s o r c o m p a n ie s th e E d iso n E lectric I llu m in a tin g C o m p a n y of
S u n b u r y , th e th re e -w ire -s ta lio n c o m p a n y esta b lish e d in 1883; a n d a m o n g
th e a n te c e d e n ts o f th e P e n n sy lv a n ia L ig h tin g C o m p a n y w as th e E d ison
Electric Illu m in a tin g C o m p a n y o f S h am o k in , w hich h a d b een fo rm e d u n d e r
th e s a m e a u sp ic e s as th e S u n b u r y c o m p a n y . T h e lin e o f d e v e lo p m e n t fro m
th e E d iso n E lec tric L ig h t C o m p a n y , w h ich lice n sed th e se tw o, to E lectric
B o n d 8c S h a re w as lo n g , c o m p le x , b u t c o n tin u o u s .
E ach o f th e c o m p a n ie s in v o lv e d re c e iv e d in e x c h a n g e fo r its stock the
p r e f e r r e d c u m u la tiv e slo c k o f th e P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y .
T h e L e h ig h V alley T r a n s it C o m p a n y a lso re c e iv e d PP & L p r e f e r r e d c u
m u la tiv e sto ck in e x c h a n g e fo r th e s a m e n u m b e r o f p r e f e r r e d s h a re s of
T h e L e h ig h V alley L ig h t & P o w e r C o m p a n y it h a d h e ld . T h e e x c h a n g e s
to o k th e m a jo rity o f th e 3 5 ,0 0 0 c u m u la tiv e p r e f e r r e d s h a re s a u th o riz e d by
th e new c o m p a n y , b u t le ft 6 5 ,0 0 0 sh a r e s o f n o n c u m u la liv e p r e f e r r e d stock
a n d 3 1 0 .0 0 0 sh a re s o f c o m m o n sto c k , all o f w hich w e n t to th e h o ld in g
c o m p a n y , th e L eh ig h P ow er Securities C o rp o ra tio n . T h e P ennsylvania Pow er
& L ig h t C o m p a n y (L e h ig h P o w e r S e c u ritie s C o rp o ra tio n ) co u ld th e n sell
sto ck s a n d b o n d s to th e p u b lic , b u t k e e p c o n tr o l o f th e v o tin g c o m m o n
sto c k in its o w n o r o th e r frie n d ly h a n d s.
T h e P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t C o m p a n y c o n tin u e d to e x p a n d its te r
rito ry by m e r g e r a n d c o n so lid a tio n , p rin c ip a lly in 1923, 1928, a n d 1930.
In 1923 th e L e h ig h P o w e r S e c u ritie s C o r p o r a tio n a c q u ire d fo r PP & L th e
slo c k o f five utilitie s. T h ir ty - f o u r m o r e c o m p a n ie s o p e r a tin g in , o r a d ja c e n t
to , th e re g io n se rv ic e d by PP & L w e re m e r g e d w ith it in 1928. In 1930
L e h ig h P o w e r S e c u ritie s b r o u g h t tw e n ty -o n e m o re u tilities in to th e sys
te m .66 W ith th e fin a n c ia l flexibility a n d re s o u rc e s a c q u ire d , th e te c h n o lo g y
o f th e sy ste m w as ra tio n a liz e d a n d e x p a n d e d . F u r th e r a d d itio n s w e re m a d e
to th e H a r w o o d , H a u to , a n d A lle n to w n s te a m s ta tio n s, a n d in 1924 c o n
s tru c tio n w as b e g u n o n th e 4 0 ,0 0 0 -k w . W a lle n p a u p a c k h y d ro e le c tric s ta tio n
(Fig. X I V .25). T h e h y d ro e le c tric sta tio n c a rrie d th e sy ste m 's p e a k lo a d s
a n d b r o u g h t m o re e ffic ie n t a n d e c o n o m ic a l u tiliz a tio n o f th e s te a m p la n ts.
In 1925 th e c o m p a n y f u r t h e r e x p a n d e d th e ca p ac ity o f its ste a m sta tio n at
P in e G ro v e , w h ich h a d b e e n a c q u ir e d by m e rg e r, a n d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith
th e S c ra n to n E lec tric C o m p a n y b u ilt fo r b ase-lo a d o p e r a tio n a 100,000-kw .
sta tio n o f u n u s u a lly h ig h ec o n o m y .
H u n d r e d s o f m iles o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n lin e s w ere a d d e d to th e
sy ste m , b u t th e m o st te c h n o lo g ic a lly in n o v a tiv e p ro je c t w as th e 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 volt in te rc o n n e c tio n o f th e P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w er & L ig h t C o m p a n y s p la n ts
w ith th o s e o f th e P h ila d e lp h ia E lec tric C o m p a n y a n d th e P ublic Service
E le ctric & G a s C o m p a n y o f N ew J e r s e y (see p p . 3 3 1 - 3 2 ab ove). T h e load
d iv e rsity o f f e r e d by P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t c o m p le m e n te d especially
well th e lo a d s o f th e o th e r tw o, m o re u r b a n utilities, fo r th e ir p e a k lo a d s
c a m e in th e la te a f te r n o o n , w hile th e p e a k o f PP& L , p rim a rily an in d u s tria l
lo a d , c a m e in th e m o r n in g s . T h e th r e e c o m p a n ie s th u s e x c h a n g e d p o w e r.
M PP(L Histon. I: 27-38.

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T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Figure X IV. 25. Wallenpa upach

hydroelectric station. From PP&L History.

T h e L e h ig h P o w e r S e c u ritie s C o r p o ra tio n h a d b e c o m e a su b sid ia ry of

th e N a tio n a l P o w e r & L ig h t C o m p a n y in 1921. It was o n e o f th e m ajo r
h o ld in g c o m p a n ie s c o n tr o lle d by E lectric B o n d 8c S h a re . T h e r e f o r e , th e
P en n sy lv a n ia P o w e r 8c L ig h t C o m p a n y to o k e n g in e e rin g , c o n stru c tio n ,
m a n a g e m e n t, a n d fin a n cial services fro m so m e p a r t o f th e N atio n al P ow er
8c L ig h t C o m p a n y g r o u p o r d ire c tly fro m E lectric B o n d & S h a re . In 1933,
fo r e x a m p le , PP & L w as listed as p a y in g th e la rg e st a m o u n t o f all th e re la te d
u tilitie s to E lec tric B o n d & S h a re fo r su p e rv iso ry , o r m a n a g e m e n t, services
($ 3 5 3 ,1 5 2 ). It also p a id fo r e n g in e e rin g a n d a u d itin g serv ice s.07
T h e system b u ild e rs o f th e h o ld in g -c o m p a n y e ra re d e fin e d load d iv ersity
to in c lu d e in v e s tm e n t d iv e rsity . M itchell re p e a te d ly s p o k e o f th e a d v a n ta g e s
o f s p r e a d in g in v e stm e n ts, o r risk s, so th a t th e loss o f lo ad b e ca u se o f a
d e p re s s e d ec o n o m y r e s u ltin g fro m a n o ra n g e -c r o p fa ilu re in th e te rr ito r y
o f a F lo rid a o p e r a tin g c o m p a n y w o u ld be c o m p e n s a te d fo r by a b u m p e r
cr o p in th e te r r ito r y o f a n o th e r o p e r a tin g c o m p a n y o w n ed by th e h o ld in g
c o m p a n y .68 H e a d d e d th a t " th e p rin c ip le o f la rg e v o lu m e a n d d iv e rsifi
ca tio n as a p p lie d to v a rio u s risks in o r d e r to stabilize re su lts th ro u g h th e
law o f a v e ra g e s h a s b e e n follow ed f o r o v e r 2 00 yea rs by th e g re a t in su ra n c e
co m p a n ie s o f th e w o rld .69 PP& L s system b u ild e rs e x p re sse d a variatio n
o n th is th e m e by c o n te n d in g th a t th e ir e n e rg y system a llow ed risks to he
d iv e rsifie d a n d s p re a d in th e ir re g io n in su c h a way as to m a in ta in th e
ec o n o m ic h e a lth o f th e r e g io n . T h e ir case in p o in t was th e a n th ra c ite in
d u stry .
Federal T ra d e Commission, Utility Corporations, Pari 25, pp. 460-63.
""Sidney A. Milchcll, S. Z. Mitchell and the Electrical Industry (New York: F arrar. Straus &
Cudahy. I960), p. 88.
U.S., Federal T rad e Commission. Electric Power Industry: Supply of Electrical Equipment and
Comhelitive Conditions. 70lh Cong., Isl scss., 1928, S. Doc. 46, p. 172.

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T h e a n n u a l p r o d u c tio n o f a n th r a c ite coal r e a c h e d its p e a k in P e n n sy l
v a n ia in 1917. T h e c a u se o f th e s u b s e q u e n t d e c lin e was c o m p le x a n d in
v olved th e u se o f o th e r fu els as w ell as in c re a se d o p e r a tin g costs in th e
a n th r a c ite field s b e c a u s e o f th e d e p le tio n o f th e m o st accessible se am s in
d e p o s its w o rk e d sin c e th e 1850s. By 1930 th e a n n u a l p ro d u c tio n h a d fallen
ste a d ily to 7 0 m illio n s h o r t to n s fro m th e 100 m illio n to n s p r o d u c e d in
1917. D e sp ite th is, th r o u g h a b a n d o n m e n t o f iso la te d p la n ts a n d e le c trifi
c a tio n oT m a c h in e r y a n d p r o d u c tio n p ro c e sse s, th e a n th r a c ite in d u s try in
c re a s e d its u se o f P P & L e le c tric ity u n til 1936, w h e n a g ra d u a l d e c lin e set
in. H o w e v e r, th e in c re a s e in e le c trific a tio n w as n o t th e p o in t P P & L s m a n
a g e rs w a n te d to m a k e a b o u t th e e c o n o m ic a d v a n ta g e s o f re g io n a l e le c tri
ficatio n . In th e ir a d v o c ac y o f re g io n a l su p p ly th e y stre sse d th e ability of
th e in te g r a te d u tility to s h ift e n e rg y s u p p ly fr o m d istric ts o f rela tiv ely e c o
n o m ic d e c lin e to re g io n s o f e c o n o m ic p o te n tia l m o re specifically., fro m
d istric ts w h e r e co al se a m s w e re n e a r e x h a u s tio n to d is ta n t o n e s as yet
u n e x p lo ite d . E v en m o re to th e p o in t w as th e ab ility o f th e re g io n a l utility
to s h ift e n e rg y fro m d e c lin in g in d u s trie s to th r iv in g o n e s. F o r in sta n c e , th e
a n n u a l p r o d u c tio n o f P o rtla n d c e m e n t in th e c o m p a n y s te r r ito r y d o u b le d
b e tw e e n 1918 a n d 1927, y e a rs o f s h a r p d e c lin e in th e p r o d u c tio n o f a n
th ra c ite . F u r th e r m o r e , th e c e m e n t in d u s tr y w as a n esp e cially d e s ir a b le c u s
to m e r b e c a u se o f its fa v o ra b le lo ad c u rv e .
PP& L built u p a n in d u stria l sales d e p a rtm e n t to stim u la te technical ch a nges
a n d e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d th is in tu r n b r o u g h t in c re a s e d e lec tricity
c o n s u m p tio n a n d im p ro v e d lo a d -c u rv e c h a ra c te ris tic s .70 T h e su ccess o f this
d e p a r tm e n t d e p e n d e d to n o s m all e x te n t o n th e ra te s th e c o m p a n y c h a r g e d ,
fo r th e y w e re lo w e r f o r th e la r g e r in d u s tria l c o n s u m e rs th a n fo r re sid e n tia l
a n d fa rm c o n su m e rs. In 1930, fo r in stance, w hile th e in d u stria l load a m o u n te d
to 70 p e r c e n t o f th e sy ste m s to ta l, th e r e v e n u e fro m th a t lo a d w as o n ly 40
p e r c e n t o f t h e to ta l re v e n u e e a r n e d fro m th e sale o f elec tricity . In th e sam e
y e a r, w h ile th e r e s id e n tia l a n d fa rm c u s to m e rs u se d o n ly 9 p e rc e n t o f th e
k ilo w a tt-h o u rs so ld , th e ir s h a r e o f th e to ta l re v e n u e f ro m sales was 28
p e r c e n t.71 D is a p p o in te d in th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f th e p r iv a te u tilitie s, p r o
p o n e n ts o f r u r a l e le c trific a tio n p o in te d o u t th e se statistics.
In th e y e a rs im m e d ia te ly fo llo w in g its o rg a n iz a tio n in 1920, PP & L fe a re d
th a t th e p re s s u re s o f c o n tin g e n t c irc u m s ta n c e s w o u ld g e l b e y o n d its c o n tro l.
T h e s e p r e s s u r e s r e s u lte d f ro m a c o n ju n c tu r e o f fa c to rs a n d e v e n ts th a t c a n
b e tra c e d to th e w a rtim e e x p e rie n c e s a n d politic al tr e n d s d isc u sse d in this
stu d y in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e G rid in B rita in , th e B a y e rn w e rk in G e rm a n y ,
a n d th e G ia n t P o w e r p la n t in th e U n ite d S lates. G ia n t P o w er co u ld h av e
im p in g e d d ire c tly o n PP& L , fo r it w as d e s ig n e d to ra tio n a liz e p ro d u c tio n
a n d d is trib u tio n in P e n n sy lv a n ia a n d to e m p h a s iz e r u r a l e le c trific a tio n .
In th e politic al a r e n a , th e p riv a te ly o w n e d utilities effe ctiv e ly resisted
G ia n t P o w e r. T h e y a rg u e d th a t th e ir policies w o u ld a c h ie v e, by m o r e p ra c
tical m e a n s, fu lfillm e n t o f th e g o als e m b o d ie d in th e G ia n t P o w e r p la n .
T h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e P e n n s y lv a n ia -N e w J e rs e y In te r c o n n e c tio n by
P e n n sy lv a n ia P o w e r & L ig h t a n d tw o n e ig h b o rin g u tilities was su b se q u e n tly
o f fe r e d as e v id e n c e o f th e s e p ra c tic a l m e a n s o f ra tio n a liz a tio n . PP & L also
PP(dL History, I: 163-74.
71 Ibid., pp. 132-36.

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T I-IE S T Y L E O F E V O L V I N G S Y S T E M S
p o in te d to th e p ro g r e s s th a t h a d b e e n m a d e in ru r a l e le c trific a tio n since
1926. T h e n u m b e r o f fa rm c u s to m e rs h a d g ro w n fro m 3 ,1 1 6 in 1926 to
2 5 ,5 1 9 by 1939. T h e c o m p a n y e stim a te d th a t in 1939, 57 p e rc e n t o f th e
to tal n u m b e r o f fa rm s in th e c o m p a n y 's te rr ito ry w e re c o n n e c te d a n d th a t
serv ice w as av ailab le f ro m e x istin g lines to 6 6 p e r c e n t o f th e se . In th e U n ite d
S la te s as a w h o le, o n ly 28 p e rc e n t o f th e fa rm s w e re re c e iv in g e lectric
service.
T h e c o m p a n y to o k a le a d in g p a r t in f o r m u la tin g a p la n fo r r u r a l elec
trific a tio n in P en n sy lv a n ia . E m b o d ie d in G e n e ra l O r d e r no . 28 o f th e s ta le s
P u blic S erv ice C o m m issio n , th e p la n was w o rk e d o u t by th e c o m m issio n in
c o o p e ra tio n w ith c o m m itte e s a p p o in te d by th e P en n sy lv a n ia E lectric A s
so ciatio n (an a sso cia tio n o f e le c tric u tilities), a n d th e P en n sy lv a n ia S ta te
C o u n c il o f F a rm O rg a n iz a tio n s . T h e P e n n sy lv an ia E le ctric A sso c iatio n h a d
o p p o s e d G ia n t P o w er. G e n e ra l O r d e r no. 28 r e q u ire d th a t th e fa r m e r pay
a p o rtio n o f th e c ost o f th e e x te n s io n o f se rv ic e to h im , a s te p th a t was
fa v o re d by th e p riv a te utilities a n d o p p o s e d by le a d in g a d v o c a te s o f s u b
sid ize d r u r a l ele c trific a tio n . O r d e r no . 28 also c r e a te d th e J o in t C o m m itte e
o n R u ra l E le c trific a tio n . C o n sistin g o f n in e fa rm r e p re s e n ta tiv e s a n d sev e n
sp o k e sm e n fo r th e utilitie s, th e c o m m itte e h e lp e d w o rk o u t c o o p e ra tiv e
a r r a n g e m e n ts b e tw e e n fa rm e rs a n d th e utilitie s.72 T h is te n sio n b etw e en
th e p riv a te u tilities a n d a d v o c a te s o f g o v e rn m e n t s u p p o r t fo r ru ra l elec
trific a tio n m ay h a v e c o n trib u te d to th e s h a r p u p sw in g in th e n u m b e r o f
PP & L s fa rm c u s to m e rs in 1936, th e sa m e y e a r th a t th e U.S. g o v e rn m e n t
e sta b lish e d th e R u ra l E le c trific a tio n A d m in istra tio n , a n a g e n cy th a t was
a u th o riz e d to m a k e lo a n s to c o o p e ra tiv e s a n d to fa rm e rs fo r ru r a l e le c tri
fication.
I f a slid e sh o w in g a n e x tre m e ly la rg e te r rito ry c o v e re d by w idely d is
p e r s e d p o w e r p la n ts, e a c h ra d ia tin g a re latively sm a ll-are a n e tw o rk o f tr a n s
m issio n lin e s a n d d is p la y in g in te rc o n n e c tio n s a m o n g th e se localized su b
sy stem s, w e re p ro je c te d o n a s c re e n , an e x p e rie n c e d utility e n g in e e r o f th e
1920s w o u ld h a v e little tr o u b le id e n tify in g th e system as b e in g c h a ra c te ristic
o f P P & L s style. I f a n o th e r slid e sh o w ed a n e x tre m e ly la rg e p o w e r p la n t
lo c a te d a t a n o p e n - fa c e lig n ite m in e , a n e a rb y b a n k o f co o lin g to w ers, a n d
a g re a t tra n sm issio n lin e e x te n d in g so u th w a rd to stre a m s fed by m e ltin g
snow , a n e n g in e e r o f th e 1920s w ould h av e little d ifficu lty id e n tify in g th e
style as R W E s. I f still a n o th e r slid e sh o w ed a la rg e system w ith a s u rp risin g ly
low tra n s m is s io n vo lta g e a n d a n irre g u la rly r o u te d tra n sm issio n n e tw o rk
c o n n e c tin g h a rd -c o a l a n d w a s le -h e a t-g e n e ra lin g p lan ts, th e electrical e n
g in e e r o r m a n a g e r w o u ld know it was N E S C O . I f h e w e re sh o w n m o re
artifa c ts N E S C O s tu rb in e s fo r e x a m p le id e n tific a tio n w ould be ev en less
d iffic u lt. N E S C O , like R W E a n d PP& L, h a d a c h a ra c te ristic style.
T h e n o rth e a s t c o ast o f E n g la n d was in d u stria l like th e R u h r a n d L eh ig h
valleys, b u t th e re g io n a l system o p e ra te d th e re by th e N ew castle u p o n T y n e
E lectric S u p p ly C o m p a n y (N E S C O ) was sm aller. N e v erth eless, it sto o d o u t
as a n e x c e p tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t in B rita in b e fo re th e c o n stru c tio n o f th e
n a tio n a l G rid . By m e a n s o f a n e tw o rk o f tra n sm issio n lines, N E S C O in th e
1920s s u p p lie d a s ta n d a rd iz e d th r e e - p h a s e c u r r e n t a t 40 cycles to a 1,4007:1 D. Claylon Brown. Electricity fo r Rural America: The Fight for the REA (W eslporl, Conn.:
G reenw ood Press, 1980), pp. 29-31.

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
s q u a re -m ile a re a in th e re g io n o f N ew c astle u p o n T y n e . T h e sy ste m s h ig h
est tra n s m is s io n v o lta g e was o n ly 6 6 ,0 0 0 volts, c o m p a r e d to th e 2 2 0 ,0 0 0
volts u sed by R W E a n d PP& L. In 1924, N E S C O s installed capacity a m o u n te d
to a b o u t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 kw. a n d its a n n u a l su p p ly w as a b o u t o n e -e ig h th o f th e
to ta l e le c tric ity so ld in G r e a t B r ita in (see T a b le X I V .I , p. 40 9 ). N E S C O s
n a m e w as la te r c h a n g e d to N o rth E a s te rn E le ctric S u p p ly C o m p a n y , b u t
th e o rig in a l n a m e will b e u se d h e re .
T h e n o r th e a s t c o a sta l sy stem o f N E S C O d e p e n d e d o n tw o k in d s o f e n
e rg y , h a r d coal a n d w aste h e a t. In 1924, 5 0 p e r c e n t o f its p o w e r w as
c o n c e n tr a te d in tw o s ta tio n s (C arv ille B", 22 p e rc e n t a n d D u n s to n , 28
p e rc e n t). T h o u g h th e d o z e n o r so w a ste -h e a t p la n ts p r o v id e d m u c h less
ca p a c ity th a n th e h a rd -c o a l p la n ts, th e y w e re n o ta b le b e c a u se th e y u se d
w aste h e a l fro m blast fu rn a c e s a n d coke ovens. T h e large, coal-fired N E SC O
sta tio n s C a rv ille B ", D u n s to n , a n d N o rth I'ee s w e re s itu a te d o n , a n d
c o o le d by, riv e rs. A lth o u g h th e se c o a l-fire d p la n ts w e re s m a lle r th a n th e
m o n s tr o u s G o ld e n b e rg w e rk a n d d id n o t h a v e o r n e e d th e h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d
c o a l-h a n d lin g sy stem o f th e G e rm a n m in e -m o u th s ta tio n , th e y w e re m o r e
a d v a n c e d in b o ile r a n d tu r b in e d e sig n .
N E S C O 's r e g io n a l style c o n tra s te d re m a r k a b ly w ith th e c h a r a c te r o f u til
ities e ls e w h e re in E n g la n d . N o t o n ly d id N E S C O 's u r b a n c o m p e tito r s e lse
w h e re sell fa r fe w e r u n its b u t th e y o p e r a te d a t a sig n ific a n tly lo w e r load
fa c to r. In 1918 N E S C O so ld 5 7 8 ,4 1 6 ,8 4 0 u n its ; th e M a n c h e s te r C o r p o
ra tio n so ld o n ly 1 8 4 ,6 7 5 ,1 9 0 . M a n c h e s te r ra n se c o n d to N E S C O in te rm s
o f lo a d fa c to r as w ell; th e f o r m e r a c h ie v e d o n ly 32.4 p e rc e n t, w hile th e
la tte r re a c h e d 5 6 p e r c e n t. A fte r M a n c h e s te r, th e S h e ffie ld a n d B irm in g h a m
c o r p o r a tio n s , o r local g o v e r n m e n ts , w e re th e la rg e st s u p p lie r s in E n g la n d .73
All w e re la r g e r u r b a n d istric ts th a n N ew ca stle b u t h a d s m a lle r su p p ly sys
te m s. F u r th e r e x p la n a tio n s fo r th e c o n tra s tin g h is to ry o f e le c tric su p p ly in
N ew c astle a n d in u r b a n in d u s tria l c e n te rs like M a n c h e s te r a n d L iv erp o o l
will b e f o u n d in th e c ities politica l, e c o n o m ic , a n d social h isto rie s.
P hysical a n d in d u s tr ia l g e o g r a p h y e x p la in s m a n y o f N E S C O s c h a r a c
te ristic s. N e w ca stle , a n u r b a n p o rt in N o r th u m b e r la n d , th e n o rth e a s te rn m o st c o u n ty o f E n g la n d , s ta n d s o n th e n o r th e r n b a n k o f th e T y n e , a b o u t
8 m iles fr o m its m o u th at th e N o rth Sea. In th e ea rly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry ,
th e tid a l riv e r c a r r ie d m a n y sh ip s to N ew ca stle (in 1911 a city o f m o r e th a n
2 0 0 ,0 0 0 in h a b ita n ts ) a n d o th e r d e n se ly p o p u la te d m a n u f a c tu r in g tow ns
a lo n g its b a n k s (see Fig. X I V .26). In th e vicinity th e r e w e re im m e n se sto re s
o f b itu m in o u s co a l, w h ich w as m in e d a n d e x p o r te d as well as c o n su m e d
by in d u s try in th e re g io n . A lo n g th e n o r th e r n b a n k o f th e T y n e sto o d such
in d u s tria l e n te r p r is e s as A r m s tro n g , W h itw o rth & C o m p a n y , as well as th e
s h ip y a rd s o f S w a n , H u n te r , a n d W ig h a m R ic h a rd so n & C o m p a n y . T h e
t u r b in e - m a n u f a c tu r in g e n te r p r is e o f C h a rle s P a rso n s was s itu a te d a d ja c e n t
to N E S C O s C a rv ille A p o w e r sta tio n . Blast f u rn a c e s, e n g in e e r in g w orks,
c h e m ic a l p la n ts , a n d b ric k a n d tile a d d e d to th e in d u s tria l activity o f th e
T h c in form ation for L ancashire is from G reat Britain, Ministry of Reconstruction, Re
construction Com m ittee, Coal C onservation Sub-Com m ittee, Interim Report on Electric Power
Supply in Great llritain (London: 1IMSO. 10 1B), pp. 12-13. T h e inform ation for the other
cities is from a m e m o ran d u m filed in Electricity (Supply) Bill," item 36 in the C. H. Merz
lockbox, Merz & McLcllan Co. Archives, Ambcrley, Killingworth. near Newcastle upon Tyne.
E ngland. I am indebted to |o h n M. B u rn ett o f NESCO for 1924 NESCO statistics.

Figure X IV.26.

The Tyneside industrial district supplied by NE5C 0, 1911. Courtesy of NESCO, Newcastle upon Tyne. England.

440
Figure X IV .27. Characteristics o f
VESCO, c. 1923. Courtesy o f NESCO,
Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
C O M P A N Y

L I M I T E D

H O W T H E CO ST IS M A D E UP.
Furl accounts for nearly rwo-filths of the
total cost of production, and salaries and

H O W T H E PO W ER IS USED.
Less than one thirtieth part is used for
ordinary lighting and domestic purposes,
nearly one half in collieries, and iron
mines, and a quarter in shipyards, er
ing and other woriis.

H O W T H E C A P IT A L IS
EMPLOYED.
Over three-fifths of the total capital is
spent in connection with collieries,
shipyards, engineering works, etc., and
nrarly one-quarter for ordinary lighting
and domestic supplies.

re g io n . O n th e e v e o f W o rld W a r 1, N E S C O s u p p lie d a re g io n th a t h a d
5.1 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n , m in e d 19.6 p e r c e n t o f th e coal, m a d e 36.5
p e r c e n t o f th e c o k e , m in e d 3 7 .5 p e r c e n t o f th e iro n o re , p r o d u c e d 37.7
p e r c e n t o f th e p ig iro n , a n d b u ilt 51 p e rc e n t o f th e m e rc h a n t sh ip s in th e
U n ite d K in g d o m .7,1 In th e m id -tw e n tie s, a lm o st h a lf o f N E S C O 's o u tp u t
was u se d in coal a n d iro n m in e s; o n e - q u a r te r was c o n s u m e d by s h ip b u ild
in g , h e av y m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d o th e r w o rk s; c h em ic al p la n ts u se d ab o u t
o n e - te n th ; a n d th e r e m a in d e r s u p p lie d railw ays a n d tra m w ay s, b u lk c o n
su m e rs , a n d o r d in a r y lig h tin g a n d d o m e stic a p p lia n c e s (see Fig. X IV .27).
By itself, h o w e v e r, g e o g r a p h y is n o t a su ffic ie n t e x p la n a tio n fo r th e d if
fe re n c e s b e tw e e n N E S C O a n d o th e r E n glish u tilitie s su p p ly in g in d u stria l
d istricts.
11 T h e population figure is for 11)11; the o th e r statistics a rc for 1913. See A. R. Sloan,
"Fuel Economy on the N orth-East Coast as a Result o f Electric Power Supply" (Paper read
before th e 1916 m eeting o f the British Association for the A dvancem ent o f Science, Newcastle
upo n T yne, 5 - 9 Sepiem lter 1916), p. 2; rep rin te d in Engineering 102 (1916); 293-94.

447

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
T h e success o f ih e N e w castle u p o n T y n e (la te r N o rth E a ste rn ) E lectric
S u p p ly C o m p a n y in fo rm in g a r e g io n a l su p p ly system c an be e x p la in e d in
p a r t by p o litical fac to rs. A se rie s o f v ictories in P a rlia m e n t b r o u g h t th e
su p p ly c o m p a n y th e le gislative a u th o r ity it n e e d e d to e x p a n d its su p p ly
a re a . T h e v ic to rie s w e re a ch ie v e d o n v a rio u s occa sio n s in c o m p e titio n w ith
th e N e w castle 8c D istric t C o m p a n y , a rival u tility s u p p ly in g th e city, a n d
la te r w ith se v era l p o w e r c o m p a n ie s th a t in te n d e d to su p p ly e lec tricity in
b u lk to th e a re a . As a re su lt, th e p riv a te ly o w n e d N E S C O g rew in m u c h
th e way th a t utilities e x p a n d e d in G e rm a n y a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s, w h e re
political p o w e r a n d leg islatio n w ere , resp ectiv e ly , s u p p o rtiv e a n d s u b s e r
v ien t. P ara d o x ic a lly , th e legislative c o n te x t w ith in w hich N E S C O e x p a n d e d
w as th e sa m e as th a t f o r o th e r E n g lish u tilities: a se rie s o f p a rlia m e n ta r y
ele c tric lig h t a n d p o w e r laws a n d bills. N E S C O , h o w e v e r, u se d th e se laws
to e n h a n c e r a th e r th a n f r u s tr a te g ro w th . T h e u tility's h isto ry , th e n , is tes
tim o n y to th e fact th a t le g islatio n is n o t a su ffic ie n t e x p la n a tio n f o r th e
r e ta rd a tio n o f g ro w th o f th e B ritish su p p ly in d u s try . A su rv e y o f th e g ro w th
o f N E S C O in th e p o litical c o n te x t show s how th e laws w e re u se d .
N E S C O o b ta in e d p ro v isio n a l o r d e r s a u th o riz in g it to s u p p ly N ew castle
in 1889 a f te r th e 1888 a m e n d m e n ts to th e E lectric L ig h tin g Act o f 1882
w ere p a sse d . A t a b o u t th e sa m e tim e, C h a rle s A . P a rso n s, th e tu rb in e
m a n u f a c tu r e r w h o h a d a n e n g in e e rin g w orks situ a te d in th e N ew castle
a re a , s ta r te d a rival e le c tric s u p p ly utility, th e N ew castle 8c D istrict C o m
p a n y . T h e tw o su p p ly c o m p a n ie s a g re e d to d iv id e th e city o f N ew castle
b e tw e e n th e m ; N E S C O w o u ld su p p ly th e a re a n o r th o f th e riv er, th e N ew
ca stle 8c D istrict C o m p a n y th e a re a s o u th o f it. T h e tw o c o m p a n ie s also
c o o p e r a te d b u t fa iled in a n e f f o r t to p re v e n t th e N ew castle C o rp o ra tio n ,
th e local g o v e rn m e n t, fro m o b ta in in g p a rlia m e n ta r y a u th o riz a tio n to p r o
vide ele c tric tra m w a y s in N ew castle.
T h e e x p a n s io n o f N E S C O w as fa cilitated by P a rlia m e n ts d ec isio n , fo l
lo w in g t h e r e c o m m e n d a tio n s o f th e C ro ss c o m m itte e in 1898 a n d th e K itson
c o m m itte e in 1900, to e n a c t p o w e r bills e n a b lin g c o m p a n ie s to s u p p ly bulk
p o w e r o v e r la rg e a re a s. M ost E n glish p o w e r c o m p a n ie s d id n o t flo u rish ,
h o w e v e r, b e c a u se th e e n a b lin g bills p ro h ib ite d su p p ly by a p o w e r co m p a n y
to d istric ts th a t a lre a d y h a d an a u th o riz e d d is trib u to r u n less th e d is tr ib u to r
a g r e e d . M o re o v e r, p o w e rfu l u rb a n political in te re sts c a u se d P a rlia m e n t to
e x c lu d e su p p ly w ith in cities fro m th e p o w e r bills. N E S C O , ho w ev e r, m a n
a g e d to av o id th e se re stric tio n s. C h a rle s H . M erz no te s in his re co llections
th a t S ir J a m e s K itso n , h e a d o f th e p a rlia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e th a t review ed
th e p o w e r bills, w as a d ir e c to r o f th e N o rth -E a s te rn Railw ay.75 (T h is
in te re s t in th e e c o n o m y o f th e re g io n m ay have led K itson to s u p p o r t its
e le c trific a tio n .) B o th N E S C O a n d th e T y n e s id e E lectric C o m p a n y , a p o w e r
c o m p a n y fo rm e d by P a rso n s, a p p lie d fo r p o w er bills to s u p p ly th e T y n e sid e
" T h e early history o f NESCO is given in Jam es R. Beard, "NESCO in the Very Early
Days. Nesco Magazine, no. I (n.d.); the quote is from p. 7 (copy in the Merz Sc McLcllan Co.
Archives). Beard, a p a rtn e r in Merz Sc McLcllan, had access to and quotes from J. T heodore
Mcrz's "Reminiscences and Charles Mcrzs "Notes." both o f which are on Tile in the Merz Sc
McLcllan Co. Archives. Beard also presented "T h eir AchievementO u r Heritage." an ad
dress to the N orth-E astern Centre, Institution o r Electrical Engineers, 14 December 1959
(copy in Merz Sc McLcllan Co. Archives). In addition, there is a succinct history ol NESCO
in Ministry o f Reconstruction. Interim Report on Electric Power Supply in Great Britain, app. D.

'M H

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
re g io n . O n th is o c ca sio n (1 9 0 0 ), as o n m a n y o th e rs . C h a rle s M e rz p ro v e d
to h e a n e ffe c tiv e e x p e r t w itn e ss b e fo re a p a rlia m e n ta ry c o m m itte e . N E S C O
e m p h a s iz e d th a t as a r e s u lt o f a n a g r e e m e n t w ith th e W a lk e r 8c W allsend
G as C o m p a n y , w h ich h a d c o m m is s io n e d a p o w e r sta tio n w ith C h a rle s M erz
as a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r , it a lre a d y h a d a p o w e r sta tio n su p p ly in g th e a re a
n o r th o f th e T y n e R iver. N E S C O d e f e a te d th e P a rso n s bill, p u l th ro u g h
its o w n , a n d to o k o v e r th e g as c o m p a n y s p o w e r s ta tio n .
C h a rle s M e rz th e n c o n tin u e d to c a rr y o u t his p la n s fo r la rg e -a re a (ev en
tu a lly re g io n a l) p o w e r s u p p ly . In 1902 N E S C O s e c u r e d p a ssa g e o f a n o th e r
p a r lia m e n ta r y p o w e r bill a u th o r iz in g e x te n s io n o f su p p ly n o r th o f N ew
ca stle in to th e c o a l- m in in g a r e a o f N o r th u m b e r la n d . A rival sc h e m e o f
P a rso n s's N ew c astle 8c D istric t C o m p a n y w as d e f e a te d . In 1904 N E S C O
re a c h e d a n a g r e e m e n t w ith th e D u rh a m P o w e r C o m p a n y to th e so u th to
su p p ly it w ith e le c tric ity in b u lk a n d th e n lo o k o v e r th e c o m p a n y by stock
p u rc h a s e . In 1906 N E S C O a c q u ire d c o n tro l o f th e N o r th e r n C o u n tie s
[P o w e r) C o m p a n y . N E S C O w as th e n a b le to raise th e c a p ita l n e e d e d to
d e v e lo p th e s u p p ly a re a s o f th e p o w e r c o m p a n ie s it a c q u ire d , m o n e y th e
c o m p a n ie s in d iv id u a lly h a d b e e n u n su c c e ssfu l in ra isin g e a r lie r .7fi

F igure X IV .28. J. Theodore M en . From

Rowland. Progress in Power, facing p. 1.

N E S C O s su c ce sse s in o b ta in in g p a rlia m e n ta r y a u th o r ity to e x p a n d its

sy ste m also d e p e n d e d o n th e e n g in e e r in g , b u sin e ss, a n d fin a n c ia l n e tw o rk
o f J . T h e o d o r e M erz a n d his so n , C h a rle s . T h e n e tw o rk w as m a d e u p of
r e la tiv e s, Q u a k e r s , a n d b u sin e ss a n d p ro fe s s io n a l a ssociates. J . T h e o d o r e
M e rz s w ife w as a Q u a k e r ; h e r b r o th e r , J o h n W ig h a m R ic h a rd s o n , was a
T y n e s id e s h ip b u ild e r (S w an, H u n te r , a n d W ig h a m R ic h a rd so n 8c C o m
p a n y ), a n d h e r sis te r m a r r ie d R. S p e n c e W a tso n , a so lic ito r w ith a Q u a k e r
b a c k g r o u n d a n d a le a d e r o f th e L ib e ra l p a rty in th e T y n e s id e re g io n . T h e
M e rz fam ily a lso asso c ia te d w ith le a d in g T y n e s id e in d u s tria l, e n g in e e rin g ,
a n d s c ie n tific f ig u re s b e c a u se o f J . T h e o d o r e M e rz s e d u c a tio n a n d tra in in g .
O f G e rm a n b a c k g r o u n d , J . T h e o d o r e s f a th e r w as b o rn in M a n c h e s te r b u t
re tu r n e d to G e r m a n y to live in th e u n iv e rsity to w n o f G iessen . J . T h e o d o r e
a tte n d e d th e u n iv e rs itie s o f G iessen a n d G o ttin g e n , c o n c e n tr a tin g his s tu d
ies in c h e m is try a n d c h e m ic a l e n g in e e rin g . H e r e tu r n e d to B rita in in 1868,
h o w e v e r, a n d s e ttle d n e a r N ew c astle, w h e re h e w o rk e d fo r a ch e m ica l
m a n u f a c tu r e r . H e f o u n d e d th e N ew c astle E le ctric S u p p ly C o m p a n y in 1889
a n d s e rv e d as its c h a irm a n f ro m 1901 to 1917. In a d d itio n , h e w as a d ir e c to r
o f B ritish T h o m s o n - H o u s to n , th e e lectric al m a n u f a c tu r e r , a n d , m ost r e
m a rk a b ly , th e a u th o r o f o n e o f th e m a jo r sch o la rly stu d ie s o f his tim e, th e
fo u r- v o lu m e History o f F.uropean Thought in the Nineteenth C entury.1'
T h e s e a sso c ia tio n s w ith sc ien ce, e n g in e e rin g , b u sin ess, a n d p olitics w e re
f u r th e r e n r ic h e d by ). T h e o d o r e M e rz's sc h o larly ac tivities a n d by th e
T o r this history o f NESCO and the Hrm o f Merz Sc M cl.cllan, I am indebted to Dr.
Richard A. More and Ms. Kathleen Brantley ol M er/ Sc McLellan. Dr. More, ol the technical
and scientific staff, and Ms. Brantley, librarian, a rran g e d for me to use the historical records
held by Merr. & M cl.cllan at the firm 's principal offices in A mberley. Killingworth. near
Newcastle u p o n T y u e, England. T h ey also directed me to the extensive collection of M er/ Sc
McLcllan records now deposited in the T yne and W ear County Council Archives. Newcastle
upon T yne.
77J o h n Rowland, Progres.i in Power: The C.imtnbutwn of Charles M en and His Associates to Sixty
Years o f Electnral Development, IS 9 9 -I9 S 9 (London: N ewman Neame, I960), pp. 11-14. T his
is a privately p rin lrd history authorized by Merz Sc McLellan.

440

Figure X IV .29. Charles M en.

Frontispiece from Rowland, Progress in

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
lite ra ry a n d h isto ric al in te re sts o f R. S p e n c e W atso n , a re c o g n iz e d a u th o rity
o n th e h isto ry o f th e N ew castle r e g io n . T h r o u g h his fa th e r a n d R. S p e n c e
W a tso n , C h a rle s M e rz m e t le a d in g B ritish a n d E u ro p e a n in te lle c tu a ls a n d
p o litician s. T h e circle o f in flu e n c e was f u r th e r w id e n e d by th e access th e
M erz fam ily h a d to le a d in g L o n d o n h a n k in g fig u re s su c h as L e o n a rd C u n liffe o f C u n liffe B ro th e rs . T h e s e asso ciatio n s h e lp e d p r e p a r e C h a rle s M erz
to fu n c tio n as a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r , ro les in w hich a n
ability to re la te to th e w o rld s o f e n g in e e rin g , politics, a n d fin an c ia l p o w er
w as nec essary . O s k a r von M iller, th e le a d in g G e rm a n c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r ,
h a d s im ila r a sso ciatio n s b e c a u se o f his fa m ily s p ro m in e n t p o sitio n in B a
v a ria n society.
T h e M erz fam ily, th e ir rela tiv es, a n d th e ir a ssociates w ere close be ca u se
N ew castle a n d T y n e s id e c o n s titu te d " s o m e w h a t o f a n iso la ted u n it b o th
c u ltu ra lly a n d in d u stria lly fro m th e re st o f E n g la n d .78 T h e le a d e rs o f th is
in d u s tria l c o m m u n ity u se d th e ir political a n d fin an c ial p o w e r to s u p p o r t
th e p riv a te ly o w n e d N E S C O w hile m o st o th e r u r b a n c e n te rs, e x c lu d in g
L o n d o n , p ro m o te d g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d ele ctric su p p ly . E ven N E S C O s im
m e d ia te rival, th e N e w c astle 8c D istrict C o m p a n y , was a p riv a te e n te rp ris e .
As C h a rle s M erz p o in te d o u t o n n u m e ro u s occasions, sm all-scale, m ostly
g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d su p p ly co m p an ies elsew here in E n g la n d in c u rre d h ig h e r
costs a n d re a liz e d lo w e r p e r c a p ita c o n s u m p tio n .
T h e o r g a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e o f N E S C O was u n u s u a l b ec au se o f th e
u tility s in v o lv e d r e la tio n s h ip w ith a c o n su ltin g e n g in e e rin g firm . T h is , too,
sh o u ld be ta k e n in to a c c o u n t in e x p la in in g N E S C O s style. O th e r u tilities
C h ic a g o 's C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n f o r in stan ce r e g u la rly u se d o n e c o n
s u ltin g firm ( S a rg e a n t 8c L u n d y in th is case), b u t th e re la tio n sh ip be tw ee n
N E S C O a n d M erz 8c M cL ellan w as so close th a t th e first was ra re ly sp o k e n
o r w ritte n a b o u t in iso la tio n fro m th e o th e r. N E S C O p ro v id e d electricity
to th e n o r th e a s t c o a st o f E n g la n d , b u t c o n te m p o ra rie s a ttrib u te d th e g ro w th
o f ele c tric su p p ly in th e r e g io n to C h a rle s M erz a n d to M erz & M cL cllan.
T h e p o w e r sta tio n s o f N E S C O a ttra c te d w o rld -w id e a tte n tio n , b u t they
w ere d e s ig n e d a n d c o n s tru c te d by M erz 8c M cL ellan. N E S C O h a d its ow n
b o a rd o f d ir e c to r s a n d m a n a g e r s m e n o f r e p u ta tio n su ch as R. P. S lo a n
b u t C h a rle s M erz , n o t S lo an o r th e o th e r c o m p a n y h e a d s, was kn o w n as
th e re g io n a l e n t r e p r e n e u r in th e w o rld o f ele ctric su p p ly . Even h isto ries
o f N E S C O give M erz, r a th e r th a n c o m p a n y m a n a g e rs a n d e n g in e e rs, th e
p r o m in e n t p la c e .79
T h e o rg a n ic re la tio n s h ip th a t e x iste d betw e en N E S C O a n d M erz 8c
M cL ellan c a n b e se e n in a su rv e y o r th e ir histo ry a n d p a rtic u la rly o f th e
c a re e r o f C h a rle s M e rz (1 8 7 4 -1 9 4 0 ). In 1889 M erz was loo y o u n g to tak e
p a r t in th e ro u n d in g o f N E S C O by his la th e r, J . T h e o d o r e M erz; his u n cle,
R. S p e n c e W a tso n ; a n d six o th e rs. C h a rle s a tte n d e d B o o lh a m S chool in
Y ork a n d A rm s tr o n g C o lleg e in N ew castle, b u t lie d id n ot c o m p le te th e
c o u rse o f stu d y at A rm s tro n g . H e a p p re n tic e d a t P an d o n D en e , th e first
o f N E S C O s g e n e ra tin g s ta tio n s. H e also a p p re n tic e d w ith R obey o f L incoln
o n h ig h -sp e e d e n g in e s a n d w ith B ritish T h o m s o n -H o u s to n . A fte r a p p r e n Heard, "T h eir A chievementO u r Heritage."
"See, for exam ple. Heard's "T h eir AchievementO u r Heritage" and "NLSCO ii
Karlv Davit."

450

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

Figure XIV. 30. Transmission anil

distribution system o f NESCO, 1 911,
('.ourlesx of NESCO, Newcastle upon Tyne,
England.

NORTH E A S f CO \ S l
POWER SYSTEM

5r*> r

\y r
A -

lic e sh ip , h e jo in e d B T M a n d b e c a m e m a n a g e r a n d e n g in e e r o f its e lec tric

su p p ly utility a t C r o y d o n . A lso fo r B T I I, h e su p e rv is e d c o n s tru c tio n o f a n
e le c tric p la n t fo r tra m w a y s a n d lig h tin g at C o rk , w h e re h e m e t W illiam
M cL ellan , w h o la te r b e c a m e his p a r tn e r in th e c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r in g firm
M erz & M c L e lla n .H0
J . M. B urnell. "C harles II. Mcrz, 1874-1940," Papers Presented at the Fourth Weekend
Meeting on the Histoiy of Electrical Engineering. Durham, 2 -4 July 1976 (L ondon: Institution of
blectrical Knginecrs, n.d.), pp. 24-35.

451

T I IK S T Y L K O F E V O L V I N G S Y S T E M S

J . T h e o d o r e a n d C h a rle s M erz d re w to g e th e r in th e ir w o rk w h en in 1899

C h a rle s w as a sk e d by th e W a lk e r 8c W a llse n d G as C o m p a n y to s u p e r in te n d
c o n s tru c tio n o f a n e le c tric p o w e r p la n t to s u p p ly p o w e r to in d u s try o n th e
T y n e s id e . C h a rle s s u n c le , J o h n W ig h am R ic h a rd so n , was a d ire c to r for
W a lk e r 8c W a llse n d . C h a rle s was e v e n tu a lly o ff e r e d a jo b as e n g in e e r fo r
th e c o m p a n y , b u t h e r e fu s e d , p r e f e r r in g to e stab lish his ow n c o n su ltin g
e n g in e e rin g firm so th a t h e m ig h t p la n , d e sig n , a n d su p e rv ise c o n stru c tio n
fo r a n u m b e r o f clie n ts in a d d itio n to W a lk e r & W a llsend. T h e N e p tu n e
B a n k p o w e r s ta tio n th a t w as b u ilt fo r W a lk e r 8c W allsend was th e first
th re e - p h a s e s u p p ly u tility in E n g la n d a n d a ttra c te d c o n sid e ra b le p ro fe s
sio n a l a tte n tio n .81 N o less a scien tific fig u re th a n L o rd K elvin p e r fo rm e d
th e o p e n in g c e r e m o n y o n 18 J u n e 1901. K elvin h a d b e e n a n ad v o c a te o f
d ir e c t c u r r e n t.
E stab lish e d in N ew castle, a d v ise r to a p o w e r co m p a n y , a n d close o n c e
ag a in to N E S C O a n d his fa th e r, C h a rle s M erz c o n c e p tu a liz e d a te c h n o lo g
ical a n d e c o n o m ic stra te g y th a t b e c am e his h a llm a rk . As n o te d , N E S C O
s o o n p u rc h a s e d th e e lectric su p p ly bu sin e ss o f th e W a lk e r G as C o m p a n y
a n d e m b a rk e d , w ith C h a rle s's a n d his f a th e r s g u id a n c e , o n a n inn o v ativ e
policy o f d e v e lo p in g a r e g io n a l p o w e r c o m p a n y in stea d o f sim ply a n u rb a n
u tility. C h a rle s th e n ask e d th e S co tsm a n W illiam M cL ellan to jo in him .
M cL ellan, w h o w as tw o m o n th s y o u n g e r th a n C h a rle s M erz, ha d c o m p le te d
th e e n g in e e rin g c o u rs e a t L iv e rp o o l U n iversity a n d w o rk ed fo r th e e lectrical
m a n u f a c tu r e r S ie m e n s B r o th e rs o f E n g lan d .
T h e d e ta ils o f M erz a n d M cL ellan's early pla n s have su rv iv e d a n d give
a r a r e g lim p se o f th e o rig in s o f a c o n su ltin g e n g in e e rin g firm . In 1900 th e
y o u n g m e n c o rr e s p o n d e d a lte r M erz ask ed M cL ellan to jo in him in th e
v e n tu re . M cL ellan was c a re fu l to stress th a t lie in no way w a n te d to tra d e
on his f rie n d s h ip ; h e p r e f e r r e d th a t a businesslike a rra n g e m e n t be n ego1,1 Beard, "T h eir A chievementO u r IlerilaRe. p. 11.

452

Figure X/V.52. William McLrllan. From

Howland. Progress in Power, facing p. I.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

lia tc d . M e rz said th a l sin c e h e d id n o t in te n d to give all o f his lim e to
N ew c astle p ro je c ts, M cL ella n s h o u ld b e c o m e th e re s id e n t m a n a g e r th e re .
T h e tw o m e n in fo rm a lly a g r e e d th a t M cL ellan sh o u ld rec eiv e a m o n th ly
sa la ry a m o u n tin g to 3 0 0 p e r a n n u m , a n a d d itio n a l 2 0 0 a t th e e n d o f th e
y e a r, a n d o n e - q u a r te r o f th e f ir m s n e t p ro fits e ac h y e ar. M c rz s 1 ,0 0 0
sa la ry w o u ld b e d e d u c te d in d e te r m in in g th e n e t. (M erz w as a t lib erty , so
lo n g as h e d id n o t u se th e N e w c astle sta ff, to ta k e c o n s u ltin g w o rk else
w h e re .) B o th m e n also w a n te d to tu r n b ack in to th e c o n s u ltin g b u sin e ss
th r e e - q u a r te r s o f th e s h a re e a c h to o k fro m th e n e t p ro fits.
T h e y e s tim a te d th a t d u r in g th e first tw o y e a rs th e f ir m s in c o m e w ould
b e as follow s: N e p tu n e B a n k p o w e r sta tio n f o r W a lk e r 8c W a llse n d G as
C o m p a n y , 7 ,5 0 0 o n a 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 p ro je c t; u n d e r g r o u n d tra n sm issio n /d is
trib u tio n ca b le fo r N E S C O , 5 ,0 0 0 o n a 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p ro je c t; a n d a tram w a y s
p ro je c t, 2 ,0 0 0 o n 4 0 ,0 0 0 , fo r a to ta l o f 1 4 ,5 0 0 in c o n s u ltin g fees. T h e y
also e s tim a te d th a t a n n u a l e x p e n s e s fo r th e ir firm w o u ld a m o u n t to th e
1 ,5 0 0 sa la ry f o r th e tw o o f th e m , 3 5 0 fo r tra v e l e x p e n s e s , a n d 1 ,8 5 0
fo r o ffic e e x p e n s e s . S in c e th e e x p e n s e s f o r tw o y e a rs a m o u n te d to 7 ,4 0 0
a n d sin c e th e y h a d a lre a d y s p e n t 1 ,4 0 0 fo r th e ir o ffic e, th e tw o m e n
e x p e c te d a n e t g a in o f 5 ,7 0 0 in th e first tw o y e a rs, o f w h ich C h a rle s M e rzs
s h a re w o u ld a m o u n t to 4 ,275 a n d W illiam M cL ellans 1,425. T h e y p la n n e d
to re in v e s t as a g r e e d .82
In th e ir o ffic e s th e y p la n n e d to h a v e tw o sa la rie d e m p lo y e e s (p ro b a b ly
e n g in e e rs ) a n d a c h ie f d r a f ts m a n , w h o se a n n u a l sa la ry w o u ld b e 2 0 0 , th e
s a m e as th e e n g in e e r s . A lso o n h a n d w o u ld b e th r e e a ssista n t d r a f ts m e n ,
th r e e ju n io r assistants, fo u r typists, a n d tw o office boys. T h e M erz 8c M cLellan
s ta f f w o u ld in tim e c o o p e r a te closely w ith th e s ta f f o f N E S C O . By 1913
th e s ta f f o f M erz 8c M cL ellan h a d g ro w n to s e v e n ty -th re e a n d th e c o m p a n y
h a d o p e n e d a L o n d o n o ffic e o n V icto ria S tre e t, tra d itio n a lly th e d istrict
w h e re e n g in e e r s h a d th e ir o ffice s. A n o ffice in L o n d o n fac ilita te d p a rlia
m e n ta ry associations, testim o n y b e fo re p a rlia m e n ta ry co m m ittees, a n d w ork
in th e C o m m o n w e a lth .
C h a rle s M e rz tra v e le d th r o u g h o u t th e w o rld fo r M erz 8c M cL ellan. In
1901 a n d a g a in in 1906 h e v isited th e U n ite d S ta le s, w h e re h e m e t S a m u e l
In su ll. A clo se p ro fe s s io n a l a n d b u sin e ss r e la tio n s h ip d e v e lo p e d b etw e e n
th e tw o, su rv iv in g e v e n In su lt's fin a n c ia l c o lla p se a n d p u b lic d isg ra c e fol
lo w in g his in d ic tm e n t o n c h a rg e s o f f r a u d u le n t p ra c tic e s as a h o ld in g c o m p a n y e n t r e p r e n e u r , c h a rg e s o f w hich h e w as ev e n tu a lly d e c la re d in
n o c e n t. M erz o rg a n iz e d a p r iv a te lu n c h e o n fo r th e fa llen g ia n t" a t th e
R e fo rm C lu b , a n a c tio n by w hich In su ll w as m u c h m o v e d ." 83 O n sev e ral
o c ca sio n s M erz 8c M cL ellan also se rv e d as a c o n s u ltin g firm fo r C o m m o n
w ea lth E d iso n , esp e cially o n s te a m tu r b in e p la n ts a n d o n g e n e ra l d e v e l
o p m e n t m a tte rs .8'1 M erz , P a rso n s, a n d In su ll w o rk e d to g e th e r in 1912 w h e n
"J McLcllan to Mcrz, 4 A ugust 1900, and cl raft o f an ag reem ent (n.d.). C. H. Merz lockbox,
M crz 8c McLcllan Co. Archives.
" Rowland, Progress in Power, p. 76.
" Sec, for instance, Merz 8c Mcl.ellan, "Com m onw ealth Edison C om pany and Associated
C om panies: Report on the Present and Fu tu re Development o f the Electrical System," Merz
8c McLellan Papers (vol. 1/1.8. Folio 29), T y n e and W ear County Council Archives. T h e Tirni
also p rep a re d a m ajor study o f the u rban utilities o f L ondon, New York, and Paris, am ong
others, for th e C onsolidated Edison Co. o f New York; see C hapter X II, note 60, above.

453

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
In s u lls C o m m o n w e a lth E d iso n C o m p a n y o r d e r e d a 25,0 0 0 -k w . u n it, th e n
th e la rg e st in th e w o rld . M erz also o b se rv e d e n g in e e rin g prac tices, p r e p a r e d
re p o rts , a n d o r g a n iz e d c o n s tru c tio n p ro je c ts in A u stra lia . A rg e n tin a , S o u th
A lric a , In d ia , a n d in A m e ric a n a n d B ritish cities o th e r th a n C h ic a g o a n d
N ew castle u p o n T y n e . H e b e c a m e a n a g e n t o f te c h n o lo g y tr a n s f e r o n a
g r a n d scale, ta k in g w ith him th e e x p e rie n c e h e g a in e d in b u ild in g th e
N E S C O system o n th e n o rth e a s t co ast o f E n g la n d a n d b r in g in g back stateo f -th e -a rt id eas Iro m th e re st o f th e w o rld . Me also asso ciate d w ith o th e r
le a d e rs in e lec trica l e n g in e e rin g a n d m a n a g e m e n t, su ch as G e o rg K lingenb e rg o f A E G . N o h isto ry o f te c h n o lo g y tr a n s f e r w o u ld be c o m p le te w ith o u t
c o n s id e ra tio n o f c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e rs like M erz.
W e h a v e a lr e a d y n o te d in th is stu d y M e rz s e ffe ctiv e n ess as a p a rlia m e n
ta ry w itness o n b e h a lf o f p o w e r bills, his c o n trib u tio n s to th e c re a tio n o f
th e G rid , a n d h is le a d in g ro le d u r in g W o rld W a r I as a m e m b e r o f p a r lia
m e n ta ry c o m m ite e s p la n n in g th e re o rg a n iz a tio n o f e lec tric s u p p ly in E n g
la n d a f te r th e w a r (see p p . 3 1 9 -2 1 ab ove). H e was b e lieved by m a n y to be
th e m o st e ffe c tiv e e x p e r t w itn ess in th e e n g in e e rin g w o rld . In p re s e n tin g
his cases h e u se d h ig h ly im a g in a tiv e statistical tables, g ra p h s , a n d c h a rts
p r e p a r e d by h is firm . In W o rld W a r I h e also se rv e d as a m e m b e r o f th e
A d m ira lty s c o m m itte e o n a n tis u b m a rin e w a rfa re a n d th e n as d ir e c to r o f
e x p e rim e n ts a n d r e s e a rc h fo r th e A d m ira lty , a po sitio n th a t was u sed to
d ra w s cien tists a n d e n g in e e rs in to w a rtim e re se a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. T h u s
M erz w as a p io n e e r in th e tr e n d th a t w o u ld c u lm in a te in th e fo rg in g o f
th e sc ien tific, e n g in e e rin g , a n d m ilita ry e sta b lish m e n t th a t p e rfo rm e d so
effe ctiv e ly in W o rld W a r I I .85 In 1940 M erz s L o n d o n h o m e was h it by a
b o m b a n d h e a n d his tw o c h ild r e n w ere killed; his w ife su rv iv e d .
C h a rle s M erz a r tic u la te d a n d d isse m in a te d th e e c o n o m ic a n d te c h n o lo g
ical p rin c ip le s o f re g io n a l system s. H e to o k in to a c c o u n t th e tec h n o lo g ica l
a n d e c o n o m ic g iv en s a n d f o rg e d stra te g y a n d tactics fo r N E S C O . In so
d o in g , h e jo in e d th e ra n k s o f su c h m e n as S am u e l In su il, H u g o S tin n e s,
O s k a r v o n M iller, A. K o e p c h e n , C h a rle s S to n e , E dw in W e b ster, a n d S. Z.
M itchell. E ach o f fe r e d a p a r tic u la r e m p h a sis in his p u b lic a tio n s a n d w orks.
M erz stre sse d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h ighly e ffic ie n t s te a m -tu rb in e p o w e r
pla n ts to s u p p ly la rg e in d u s tria l c o n s u m e rs a n d tra c tio n . In 1904, w ith
W illiam M cL ellan, h e p u b lish e d a p a p e r o n th e d e sig n o f p o w e r statio n s
th a t b ecam e a n au th o rita tiv e sta te m e n t a m o n g e n gineers. M erz an d M cLellan
fo re saw in 1904 th a t
large pow er schemes will probably eventually consist o f a network of
transmission cables, substations and distribution cables, supplying all I lie power
requirem ents o f a neighborhood and draw ing a supply from m ore than one
pow er station, the latter being located where electricity is to be obtained most
cheaply Trom e ither coal or waste products."'1
T h e y th e n w e n t o n to d iscu ss th e a d v a n ta g e s a n d d isa d v a n ta g e s o f steam
" For correspondence and o th e r material about Mcrz's relationship with Sir Eric Geddes,
first lord o f the Admiralty d u rin g W orld W ar I and later minister or transport, see item 36
in the C. I I. Merz lockbox. Merz Sc McLellan Co. Archives. Leslie H annah, in Electricity Before
NalionalLialion (Baltimore: T h e Jo h n s Hopkins University Press. 1979). and Jo h n Rowland,
in Progress and Power, also discuss Merz's government service.
Charles II. Merz a nd William McLcllan. "Power Station D esign,"Journal of the Proceedings
o f the Institution o f Electrical Engineers 33 ( 1904): 4: reprint in the Mcrz Sc McLcllan Co. Archives.

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

tu rb in e s , a q u e s tio n th a t w as q u ite n ew to m o st o f th e e n g in e e r in g w o rld .
T h e first ste a m tu r b in e s h a d b e e n in tr o d u c e d in a p u b lic u tility in 1890 at
th e F o rth B a n k s s ta tio n o f C h a r le s P a r s o n s s N ew c astle 8c D istrict C o m p a n y ,
b u t th e s e w e re sm all, 75-kw . u n its. O th e r in s ta lla tio n s h a d follow ed in
E n g la n d , b u t a siz ab le , 1,00 0 -k w . u n it d id n o t re s u lt u n til 1900, in E lb e rfe ld ,
G e rm a n y . M erz 8c M c L e lla n s e a rly in te re s t in tu rb in e s is b e lte r u n d e rs to o d
w h e n o n e n o te s th a t th e tu r b in e s in sta lle d in E n g la n d w e re m a d e by C h a rle s
P a rso n s, w h o se e n g in e e r in g w o rk s w e re lo c a te d at T y n e s id e . M e rz a n d
M cE ellan f o u n d o p in io n still d iv id e d o n th e a d v a n ta g e s a n d d isa d v a n ta g e s
o f th e tu r b in e as c o m p a r e d to th e re c ip ro c a tin g e n g in e , b u t th e y p o in te d
o u t th a t in n o v a tiv e in s ta lla tio n s w e re u n d e r way, in c lu d in g C o m m o n w e a lth
E d is o n s in sta lla tio n a t Fisk S tr e e t in C h ic a g o . T h e y c re d ite d P a rso n s w ith
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e tu r b in e , s u g g e s tin g th a t D e L av a ls tu r b in e w as so
h ig h -s p e e d th a t it was p ra c tic a l o n ly in sm all sizes.
In th e 1904 a rtic le a n d la te r essays M e rz stre sse d th e re g io n a l c h a ra c te r
o f te c h n o lo g y .87 B e c a u se o f his fa m ilia rity w ith te c h n o lo g y t h r o u g h o u t th e
w o rld , h e re a liz e d th a t a u n iv e rsa l b e st w ay d id n o t e xist; in ste a d , a variety
o f styles p re v a ile d . H e b elie v ed th a t local c o n d itio n s c o m p le te ly g o v e rn e d
p o w e r s u p p ly w ith in a re g io n . T h e r e f o r e , h e c h o se to w rite a b o u t th e
re la tiv e a d v a n ta g e s o f h ig h - a n d lo w -sp e ed re c ip ro c a tin g e n g in e s fo r d riv
in g g e n e r a to r s , n o tin g th a t th e h ig h -s p e e d e n g in e h a d ta k e n ro o t o n ly in
B rita in . M erz also d isc u sse d th e d if fe re n c e s in sy ste m f re q u e n c y e n c o u n
te r e d : 25 cycles in th e M id la n d s o f E n g la n d a n d w e s te rn S c o tla n d ; 4 0 cycles
o n th e n o r th e a s t c o a st o f E n g la n d ; 5 0 cycles in L a n c a s h ire a n d Y o rk sh ire ;
50 cycles in F ra n c e a n d G e rm a n y ; 4 0 cycles in Italy ; 25 a n d 6 0 cycles in
th e U n ite d S ta te s; a n d 5 0 a n d 6 0 cycles in J a p a n . (J a p a n c o u ld d ra w on
b o th E u r o p e a n a n d A m e ric a n te c h n o lo g y .) H e w e n t o n to o b se rv e th a t
d if f e r e n t e n e r g y s o u rc e s c o u ld b e e x p lo ite d a d v a n ta g e o u s ly in d iff e r e n t
re g io n s. H e w as p a rtic u la rly in te re s te d in his o w n r e g io n s u se o f w aste h e a t
fro m c o k e o v e n s a n d blast fu rn a c e s . In 1924 h e e x p la in e d w hy, c o m p a re d
to th e r e s t o f th e w o rld , re la tiv ely low vo lta g es w e re u se d fo r tra n sm issio n
in E n g la n d . E n g la n d w as a n a g e d a n d s e ttle d n a tio n w h e re la n d o w n e rs
e n jo y in g tr a d itio n a l r ig h ts o b s tru c te d th e g r a n tin g o f w ayleaves th a t w ould
m a k e fe asib le e x te n d e d h ig h -v o lta g e p o in t-to - p o in t tra n sm issio n . F u r th e r
m o re , E n g la n d w as d e n s e ly s e ttle d , in d u stria lly d e v e lo p e d , a n d h a d n u
m e ro u s coal field s; h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n like th a t u se d in C a lifo rn ia
w as n o t n e e d e d . T h e B ritish e r e c te d in e x p e n siv e w o o d e n p o le s to follow
th e ir r e g u la r b o u n d a r ie s o f th e la n d , "w h ich d o n o t follow s tra ig h t lines
b u t a r e th e r e s u lt o f g r a d u a l g ro w th fro m a n a lm o st im m e m o ria l p a s t.88
T h e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n th is p a tte r n a n d th e w ide o p e n sp a ce s in m u c h o f
th e U n ite d S la te s w as d ra m a tic .
1,7 Mcrz published a n u m b er o f articles and p resented a nu m ber o f talks, reprints o f which
arc in th e Mcrz Sc McLcllan Co. Archives. A m ong them a rc Charles Merz and William
McLcllan, "Pow er Station Design"; Merz, "Pow er Supply and Its Effects on the Industries o f
th e N orth-East Coast"; Charles I I. Merz, "Electric Power Distribution" (Paper read before
the A nnual M eeting o f the British Association for the A dvancem ent o f Science. Newcastle
u po n T y n e, 5 -9 Sep tem b er 1919, and published in Engineering 102 11916): 262-63): and
C harles H. Merz, "T h e Transm ission and Distribution o f Electrical Energy" (Talk given at
the First W orld Power C onference. L ondon. 1924).
""M erz. T h e Transm ission and D istribution o f Electrical Energy," p. 9.

455

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
II w o u ld b e in te re s tin g to k now th e e x te n t to w hich th e a u th o r o f The
History o f European Thought in the Nineteenth Century sh a p e d th e c o n c e p ts of
his so n . J . M. B u r n e tt o f M erz 8c M cL ellan believes th a t "it was p ro b a b ly
J . T h e o d o r e r a th e r th a n his so n w ho first co n ceiv ed o f a re g io n a l su p p ly
sy stem , th e first in B rita in .89 L ittle e v id e n c e o f J . T h e o d o r e M erz's in flu
e n c e in e le ctric al m a tte rs is ava ila b le , h o w ev e r. H is m e m o o f O c to b e r 1898
e n title d " O n th e P re se n t P o sition a n d th e F u r th e r D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e
N ew ca stle E lec tric S u p p ly S ta tio n is a n e x c e p tio n . H e p re fa c e d his re m a rk s
by sa y in g th a t h e d id n o t c o n s id e r h im se lf a n e x p e rt o n elec trical su p p ly
b u t th a t h e h a d ta lk e d to m a n y e x p e r ts a n d was a n in te llig e n t c o m p ile r.
H e a r g u e d th a t N E S C O s system was o u t o f d a te b ec au se th e s ta tio n was
sm all a n d s u p p lie d lig h t to o n ly a sm all a re a o f th e city. Its sin g le-p h ase
a lte r n a tin g - c u r r e n t d is trib u tio n h a d b e e n o u tm o d e d by p o ly p h a se d is tri
b u tio n . M o re im p o r ta n t, th e c o m p a n y n e e d e d to b u ild a la rg e sta tio n on
th e T y n e R iv er, w h e re c o n d e n s in g w a te r was p le n tifu l, a n d o u ts id e the
city, w h e re la n d w as in e x p e n siv e a n d sm o k e w o u ld n o t c a u se a nu isa n ce .
T h e s ta tio n w o u ld su p p ly in d u s tria l a n d d e n se ly se ttle d r e sid e n tia l areas
p rim a rily . J . T h e o d o r e re c o m m e n d e d a n e x p e n d itu r e o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 fo r the
sta tio n a n d s u g g e s te d w ays o f r a isin g th e m o n e y .90
T h e M erz es c o o r d in a te d te c h n o lo g y , ec o n o m ics, a n d th e ir social n etw o rk .
W hile loca l-g o v ern m en t-o w n ed electric su p p ly u n d e rta k in g s elsew here w ere
e x tre m e ly se n sitiv e to th e d e m a n d f o r electric ity m a d e by ta x p a y e rs o r
ra te p a y e rs , N E S C O c o n c e n tra te d o n th e in d u stria l p o w e r lo a d , m u c h o f
w hich w as c o n tro lle d by th e M e rz e s Q u a k e r kin o r frie n d s. A fte r 1900
N E S C O s lo a d b e c a m e in c re a sin g ly in d u s tria l, a n d by th e 1920s, n o m o re
th a n 10 p e r c e n t o f th e lo ad c o u ld be a ttr ib u te d to o rd in a ry lig h tin g a n d
d o m e stic a p p lia n c e s. C h a rle s M e rz u se d th e s ta ff o f his c o n su ltin g e n g i
n e e rin g firm to sell N E S C O p o w e r to local in d u strie s a n d th e n th e firm
a c te d as a c o n s u lta n t in th e d e sig n o f th e e q u ip m e n t a n d installa tio n fo r
th e se c u s to m e rs . M erz & M c L e lla n s d esig n s nicely in te g ra te d s u p p ly a n d
d e m a n d . It is n o t s u r p r is in g to f in d a m o n g th e m a jo r c u sto m e rs o f N E S C O
in 1910 A rm stro n g , W h itw o rth & C o m p an y a n d Swan, H u n te r, a n d W igham
R ic h a rd so n 8c C o m p a n y , th e d ir e c to rs a n d m a n a g e rs o f w hich w ere e ith e r
re la te d to o r closely asso c ia te d w ith th e M erzes socially a n d in v ario u s
in d u s tr ia l activ itie s.91 S ir A n d re w N oble, c h a irm a n o f A rm s tro n g , W h it
w o rth 8c C o m p a n y , fo r in sta n c e , was a n in te re ste d p a rtic ip a n t in C h a rle s
M e rz s e f f o r t to o rg a n iz e e le c tric su p p ly in L o n d o n (see p. 2 49 above). T h e
M e rz e s ties w ith th e s h ip b u ild in g firm o f S w an, H u n te r , a n d W igham
R ic h a rd s o n h a v e b e e n n o te d .
As a c o n s u ltin g e n g in e e r fo r N E S C O , C h a rle s M erz p ro v id e d m in es a n d
in d u s try w ith d e sig n s th a t r e o rg a n iz e d p ro d u c tio n o n th e n o rth e a st coast
o f E n g la n d . H e ad v ise d th e p o te n tia l c u s to m e r in d eta il ab o u t th e way in
w hich ele c tric m o to rs co u ld be u se d to re p la c e stea m e n g in e s a n d how th e
w o rk p la c e c o u ld b e re o rg a n iz e d b e c au se in d iv id u a l electric m o to r d riv e
p e rm itte d m o re fre e d o m o f lo cation th a n d id m a ch in es d riv e n by steam

8UB urnell, C harles II. Merz." p. 24.

WIA copy o f ilie mem o is on file in the Mcrz Sc McLellan Co. Archives.
Bl Eneinrerinir, c. 1910-11: reprint in the Metz Sc Mcl.ell.in Co. Archives.

450

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
e n g in e s , w ith ilie ir c o u n te r s h a f t a n d b e lt-tra n s m is s io n .92 M erz recalls th a t
o n c e th e ir bias in fa v o r o f s te a m w as o v e rc o m e , th e e n g in e e rs a n d sh ip
b u ild e rs o f T y n e s id e f o u n d th e n ew p o w e r h ig h ly a d a p ta b le , a n d th a t w ith in
a few y e a rs th e y w e re u s in g f a r m o re p o w e r in th e f o rm o f e le ctric ity th a n
th e y h a d e m p lo y e d e a r lie r in th e fo rm o f ste a m .98
P o w e r sta tio n s d e s ig n e d a n d b u ilt by M e rz 8c M c L ellan fo r N E S C O e m
b o d ie d th e p a r tn e r s view s o n th e p rim a c y o f in d u s tr ia l lo a d , ec o n o m y o f
scale, a n d tu r b in e e ffic ie n c y . T h e N e p tu n e B a n k s ta tio n , w h ic h w as c o m
m issio n e d in 1901, w as th e first sta tio n d e s ig n e d by M e rz 8c M cL ellan fo r
th e N ew castle re g io n . O rig in a lly e q u ip p e d w ith m a rin e r e c ip r o c a tin g e n
g in es b u ilt by J o h n W ig h a m R ic h a rd s o n s c o m p a n y , th e N e p tu n e B a n k
s ta tio n w as e x p a n d e d s e v e ra l y e a rs la te r fo llo w in g th e in tr o d u c tio n o f a
1,500-kw . tu r b in e u n it, th e la rg e s t b u ilt by P a rso n s u p to th a t lim e . M erz
h a d v isited th e n e a rb y P a rso n s w o rk s, w hich N E S C O s u p p lie d w ith e le c
tricity , to in sp e c t th e p r e c e d e n t- s e ttin g E lb e rfe ld tu r b in e s w hile th e y w ere
b e in g b u ilt.94 T h e N e p tu n e B a n k lu r b o a lle r n a to r w as th e first la rg e u n it
to g e n e r a te th r e e - p h a s e p o w e r.95 T h e sta tio n s u p p lie d a u n iv e rsa l system
p r o v id in g th r e e - p h a s e a n d d ire c t c u r r e n t a t d if f e r e n t vo lta g es. T h e Elec
trician d e s c rib e d it as th e first utility in th e U n ite d K in g d o m to su p p ly
e le c tric p o w e r in b u lk .98
T w o y e a rs a f te r th e c o m m issio n in g o f th e N e p tu n e B a n k s ta tio n , th e
d e m a n d o n N E S C O h a d b e c o m e so g r e a t th a t in 1904 th e c o m p a n y b e g a n
c o n s tru c tio n o f th e C a rv ille s ta tio n , w hich w as th e first la rg e g e n e r a tin g
sta tio n o f th e m o d e r n ty p e in th e w o rld .97 T h e s ta tio n e m b o d ie d p rin c ip le s
e n u n c ia te d by M erz a n d M cL ellan in th e ir p a p e r o f 1904. A m o n g th e se
w as th e c o m p le te u n it sy stem , w h ic h m e a n t, in e ffe c t, d iv id in g th e sta tio n
in to a n u m b e r o f a u to n o m o u s g e n e r a tin g system s. T h e g e n e r a tin g u n its
w e re e n tire ly tu rb in e - d r iv e n ; tw o h a d a n o u tp u t o f 3 ,5 0 0 kw. a n d tw o
p ro d u c e d 1,500 kw. T h e la rg e u n its w e re m o re th a n d o u b le th e cap acity
o f a n y tu r b in e s th a t h a d b e e n b u ilt u p to th a t lim e . M erz a n d M cL ellan
w e re n o w fu lly c o m m itte d to tu rb in e s , d e s p ite so m e e a rly o p e r a tin g p r o b
lem s a t th e N e p tu n e B a n k sta tio n .
In 1910 N E S C O o p e n e d a n o th e r s ta tio n at D u n s to n w ith th r e e t u r
b in e s to ta lin g a b o u t 3 0 ,0 0 0 kw. T h e s e tu r b in e s h a d b e e n b u ilt by B ro w n
B o v e ri o f S w itz e rla n d a n d A E G o f G e rm a n y . T h e n e x t m a jo r tec h n o lo g ic a l
a d v a n c e , h o w e v e r, c a m e in 1916 w ith th e c o m m issio n in g o f a se c o n d s ta tio n
at C a rv ille . F o r m a n y y e a rs C a rv ille " B (Fig. X IV .33) h e ld th e re c o rd as

'"'M em o ran d u m o f C. II. Mcrz in R. I*. Sloan o f NF.SCO, O cloltcr I105, Folder 29, C. H.
Mcrz lockbox. Merz Sc McLellnn Co. Archives.
" 'b e a r d , "NF.SCO in ihe Early Days, p. <i. Heard is <|unting from C. II. Mcrz's N otes.
"''C h arles II. Merz. "A utobiography," c h ap te r entitled "Cork," p. 15. Merz Sc McLellan
Co. Archives.
"'H e a rd , T h eir A chievem entO u r H eritage," p. 11.
''"E lectric Power Supply at Newcastle-on Tyne." The Electrician 47 (1901): 319-27; copy
in Mcrz Sc McLcllan Co. Archives.
" I.. C orani. "Hrilish Power Stations: Plant Closed Down" (a Mcrz Sc McLcllan m anuscript
booklet providing technical d ata on NESCO stations designed by the Urn) from 1904 to 1927).
Merz Sc McLcllan Co. Archives: Heard. Their A chievem entO ur H eritage." p. 14.

457

Figure X IV .33.

T 1 IE S T Y L E O P E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S

Carville "B" power station. Courtesy o f NESCO. Newcastle upon Tyne. England.

th e m o st e c o n o m ic a l p o w e r s ta tio n in th e w o rld .98 A n u n p r e c e d e n te d ly

h ig h s te a m p re s s u r e o f 2 5 0 psi at a te m p e r a tu r e o f 650F was used in th e
s ta tio n s five P a rso n s 1 1,000-kw . tu r b o a lte rn a to rs . T h e in cre ase in th e rm a l
efficien c y b r o u g h t a b o u t by ra isin g p re s s u r e a n d te m p e ra tu r e bec am e o n e
o f th e c ritical p ro b le m s o f th e 1920s. M erz 8c M cLellan a d d e d to th e
m o m e n tu m o f th e tr e n d by u sin g 4 5 0 psi a n d 700F a t N o rth T e e s, th e
n e x t s ta tio n it d e s ig n e d fo r N E S C O . N o rth T e e s h a d M e tro p o lita n V ickers
20,0 0 0 -k w . tu r b o a lle rn a to rs . B e g u n d u r in g th e w a r a n d c o m p le te d in 1921,
th e N o r th T e c s sta tio n w on su c h a r e p u ta tio n th a t a n e c d o te s a re still told
o f th e ru se s trie d by A m e ric a n e n g in e e rs w a n tin g to inspect it d e sp ite
w a rtim e s e c u rity reg u la tio n s. In 1922, W. S. M o n ro e o f th e C h ica g o c o n
su ltin g firm o f S a rg e n t 8c L u n d y d e sc rib e d N o rth T e e s as th e m ost a d v a n c e d
p o w e r s ta tio n in th e w o rld . C o n tin u in g his to u r o f E u ro p e a n p o w er statio n s,
M o n ro e w as p a rtic u la rly e a g e r to discuss h ig h -p re s s u re a n d h ig h -te m p e ra tu r e d e sig n w ith o u r a sso c iates M erz 8c M cL ellan. (H e fo u n d th e m ost
im p o rta n t p o w e r s ta tio n in E u ro p e a fte r N o rth fe e s to be th e new G cn n Uciii-tl. "T h eir A chievementO u r Heritage." p. 15.

458

Figure XIV. 34.

NETW ORKS OF POW ER

NESCO's transmission and distribution system, c. 1923. Courtesy of NESCO, Newcastle upon Tyne, England

v illiers sta tio n o f L 'U n io n d E le c tric ile in P aris, a s ta tio n th a t h a d b e e n

d e s ig n e d by E rn e s t M e r rie r .)w
T h e y e a r 1926 a n d e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e G rid b ro u g h t a d r a m a tic c h a n g e
in th e o r ie n ta tio n o f N E S C O a n d M erz 8c M c L e lla n , fo r th e y w e re fo rce d
to r e th in k th e ir p la n s fo r re g io n a l e le c trific a tio n in th e c o n te x t o f a n a tio n a l
n e tw o rk . T h e m ost im m e d ia te a n d d iffic u lt p r o b le m f o r N E S C O was th e
c h a n g e in fre q u e n c y . It w as a n e sp ec ially v e x in g p r o b le m b e c a u se M erz
a n d h is asso c ia te s h a d d e s ig n e d a n in te g r a te d , s ta n d a rd iz e d -fr e q u e n c y r e
g io n a l s u p p ly sy ste m th a t w as u n iq u e a m o n g E n g la n d s u tilitie s. A fte r 1926,
iro n ic a lly , th e sy s te m s 40-cycle f re q u e n c y w as d e fin e d as n o n s ta n d a r d . T h e
e a r lie r p ro c e ss o f in te g r a tio n by m e a n s o f h ig h -v o lta g e tra n sm issio n , c e n
tra liz a tio n o f c o n tro l, a n d s ta n d a rd iz a tio n h a d ta k e n m o re th a n a d e c a d e ,
b u t w ith th e c o m in g o f th e G r id , th is r e m a rk a b le a c h ie v e m e n t b e c a m e a
1,4 0 0 -m ile in c o n siste n c y .
T h e C e n tr a l E lec tricity B o a rd d e c id e d o n th e u n ifo rm th re e -p h a s e 50cycle s ta n d a r d in ste a d o f N E S C O s 4 0 cycles b e c a u se 5 0 cycles was th e

UM"R eport o f W. W. M onroe o f Sargent 8c Lundy to Sam uel Instill on T rip to England and
France, 19 J u n e 1922," Mcrz 8c McLcllan Reports and T ests" (vol. I /I .31, Folio 21, Doc. #
35/109), T y n e and W ear C ounty Council Archives. O n NESCO pow er stations in the 1920s,
see also N.E.S. Co., Ltd., Electricity Supply on the North-East Coast (1924?), pp. 5 -6 , 28 (a booklet
p ublished by NESCO); "T h e N orth T ees Power Station," Engineering 117 (1924); 753-55 and
118 (1924); 5 7 -5 9 (rep rin t in Merz 8c McLcllan Com pany Archives).

459

T H E S T Y L E O F E V O L V IN G S Y S T E M S
E u ro p e a n s ta n d a r d (e x c e p t in Italy); b e ca u se m ost o f th e ex istin g B ritish
p o ly p h a se p o w e r p la n ts o u ts id e N E S C O o p e ra te d at 50 cycles; a n d be ca u se
B ritish m a n u f a c tu r e r s w a n te d a m a rk e t o u ts id e E n g la n d fa r th e e q u ip m e n t
th e y w o u ld d e s ig n a n d su p p ly in q u a n tity fo r th e G r id .10'' T h e d ec isio n
e n ta ile d se rio u s c o n s e q u e n c e s , fo r it in v o lv e d c o n v e rsio n o f h u n d r e d s ol
tu r b o g e n e r a to r s , h u n d r e d s o r th o u s a n d s o f m o to rs, a n d a lm ost h a l f a m il
lion c o n s u m e rs f ro m o th e r fre q u e n c ie s.
In th e 1926 le g isla tio n a n e f f o r t was m a d e to so fte n th e blow fo r N E S C O
a n d its c u s to m e rs by p ro v id in g fo r a g o v e r n m e n t lo an to acco m p lish th e
c o n v e rs io n . T h e e n tir e e le c tric s u p p ly in d u s try w o u ld s h a re th e re p a y m e n t
cost; e a c h utility , o r a u th o r iz e d u n d e r ta k in g , w o u ld be re q u ir e d to m ake
a n a n n u a l p a y m e n t o v e r fo rty y e ars o n th e basis o f its re v e n u e s. P ro je ctio n s
a n d a n a ly se s e s tim a te d th e to ta l cost o f fre q u e n c y c o n v e rsio n to b e 10.5
m illio n . D e ta ile d s tu d ie s , h o w e v e r, re v e a le d a fa r g r e a te r p ro b le m th a n th e
o n e f o r w h ic h P a r lia m e n t p ro v id e d . By 1930 th e estim a te fo r th e c o n v e rsio n
in n o r th e a s t E n g la n d a lo n e a m o u n te d to a g ro ss o f 9 m illion. B ecause ol
th e e s c a la tio n , a c tio n w as d e la y e d a n d a lte rn a tiv e s to in te g r a tin g th e a lre a d y
w e ll-in te g ra te d n o r th e a s t in to th e la r g e n a tio n a l system w e re e x p lo re d .
E lec trica l s u p p lie r s a n d th e la rg e in d u s tr ia l c o n s u m e rs in M crz's n o r th
e a st o p p o s e d th e c h a n g e o v e r fo r a n u m b e r o f reaso n s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t
h a d a r r a n g e d f u n d in g fo r th e c o n v e rsio n , b u t h a d n o t p r o v id e d c o m p e n
s a tio n f o r th e d is r u p tio n o f e q u ip m e n t a n d facilities w hile th e w ork was
u n d e r w ay. M o re o v e r, th e n o r th e a s t sy stem h a d a h ig h lo ad fa cto r, a n d
th e a r g u m e n t c o u ld b e m a d e th a t in c re a se d ec o n o m ie s re s u ltin g fro m in
c o r p o r a tio n in to a la r g e r sy stem w o u ld b e sm all, if a ny. In a re p o r t on
s ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f fre q u e n c y p r e p a r e d by N E S C O a n d asso ciate d c o m
p a n ie s, a m e m b e r o f th e M e rz 8c M cL ellan firm a d v ise d th e C e n tra l Elec
tricity G e n e r a tin g B o a rd n o t to p r o c e e d w ith c o n v e r s io n .101
E v en ts o n a la r g e r scale, h o w e v e r, re lie v e d th e te n sio n . A fte r th e C e n tra l
E lectric ity B o a rd f o u n d th a t th e c h o ic e w as b e tw e e n co n v e rsio n o r iso lation
o f th e n o r th e a s t co a sta l re g io n , it p e titio n e d th e g o v e rn m e n t to allocate
se v e ra l m illio n p o u n d s in u n e m p lo y m e n t g r a n ts to th e p ro je c t. This w ould
a t least m e a n th a t th e c o u n tr y s s u p p lie rs w o u ld n o t be b u r d e n e d by an
in to le ra b le d e b t. T h e in d u s tria l n o rth e a s t was fe elin g th e d e p re s s io n , a n d
th e c h a n g e o v e r w as se e n as a p alliativ e , h ig h ly ra tio n a l, a n d in th e lo n g
r u n a n e c o n o m ic a lly d e s ira b le p ro je c t. T h e f u n d s w ere a p p r o p r ia te d .
C o n f r o n te d by th e p r o b le m s o f c o n v e rsio n a n d th e loss o f a u to n o m y
t h r o u g h in c lu sio n in th e G rid , th e d e s ig n e rs a n d o p e ra to r s o f N E S C O co u ld
still lo o k b a c k o n a n u n u s u a lly in te r e s tin g a n d , f o r E n g la n d , p a ra d o x ic a l
h isto ry . F ro m a h isto ric a l p e rsp e c tiv e , th e p rin c ip a l e x p la n a tio n fo r th e
e v o lu tio n o f N E S C O in to a re g io n a l system was political a n d social. T h e
g e o g r a p h ic a l, e c o n o m ic , a n d o r g a n iz a tio n a l fa c to rs w e re fav o rab le, b u t th a t
c o m b in a tio n (w ith m in o r v a ria tio n s) co u ld be fo u n d e lse w h e re in E n g la n d .
100 Mcrz, "Electric Power D istribution," pp. 262-03.
1(11 T h e cost o f frequency standardization was estim ated in M inutes o f (lie C entral Electricity
B oard. 10 Ja n u a ry 1930, "Standardization o f Frequency"; and Merz & McLellan. Refmrt on
the Standardization o f Frequency on the System of the Newcastle upon Tyne Electric Supply Company,
Ltd., and Associated Companies (January 1928); both in the Electricity Council Archives, Izm don.
Sec also G reat Britain, Ministry o f T ran s|x irt, Refiorl of the Committee Appointed to Revieui the
National Problem o f the Supply o f Electrical Energy (London: 1IMSO. 1926).

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NETW O RK S OF POW ER
W h a i was u n iq u e in th e N e w ca stle a n d T y n e s id e re g io n w as th e ability o f
th e M erz.es a n d th e ir a sso ciates to p u l a sid e th e fr u s tr a tin g c o n tra d ic tio n s
th a t w e re e x ta n t e ls e w h e r e in E n g la n d . In L o n d o n , th e c o n flic t b e tw e en
th e p a rlie s f a v o rin g th e c en tra liz .a tio n o f L o n d o n s g o v e rn m e n t a n d th o se
a d v o c a tin g its d e c e n tr a liz a tio n sty m ie d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a c e n tra liz e d
L o n d o n p o w e r s y stem . In th e la rg e u r b a n -in d u s tr ia l c e n te rs o f th e M id la n d s
a n d th e L iv e rp o o l-M a n c h e s te r re g io n , th e fo rce s o f m u n ic ip a l socialism
c o n te n d e d w ith th o s e o f p r iv a te o w n e rs h ip , a n d as a re su lt, th e g o v e rn m e n to w n e d u tilitie s w e re c o n fin e d m o stly to th e p o litical ju ris d ic tio n o f th e
m u n ic ip a lity , a n d th e p r iv a te p o w e r c o m p a n ie s , w ith th e ir fra n c h ise s for
la rg e a re a s , w e re d e n ie d access to th e u r b a n d istric ts. N E S C O , by c o n tra st,
w as a p riv a te ly o w n e d u r b a n utility th a t m e ta m o r p h o s e d in to a p riv ately
o w n e d p o w e r c o m p a n y th a t c ro sse d th e p a ro c h ia l p o litic al b o u n d a r ie s . T h e
e x p la n a tio n lies to a la rg e e x te n t in th e politic al, fin a n c ia l, a n d in d u stria l
n e tw o rk , o r c o m m u n ity , p re s id e d o v e r, o r p a rtic ip a te d in , by th e kin a n d
f r ie n d s o f th e Q u a k e r M e rze s. T h is social a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l n e tw o rk te n d e d
to se e p o w e r b o th po litica l a n d e le c tric as th e G e rm a n s a n d A m erica n s
saw it: as a m e a n s to te c h n o lo g ic a l e n d s.

CHAPTER

XV

Epilogue

his stu d y e n d s w ith th e y e a r 1930. T h e re g io n a l p o w e r system s, in

c lu d in g th o s e o w n e d by p riv a te u tilities, g o v e r n m e n t ag encies, a n d

m ixed p riv ate a n d g o v e rn m e n t e n te rp rise s, h ad m a tu re d . A fte r 1930, changes
in th e se sy ste m s b e c a m e less q u a lita tiv e a n d m o re r e g u la r a n d p re d ic ta b le .
T h e r e a d e r w h o is d is a p p o in te d th a t th e stu d y d o e s n o t e x te n d to th e
p re s e n t s h o u ld c o n s id e r th a t th e analysis o f a c o h e re n t, fo rm a tiv e p e rio d
in th e h isto ry o f p o w e r system s is likely to b e m o re m e a n in g fu l th a n an
e ffo rt to e x te n d th e stu d y to a so-called p re s e n t, w hich is p ast by th e lim e
th e s tu d y is p u b lis h e d .
T h e m o d e l o f s ystem fo rm a tio n a n d g ro w th used as th e m o d e o f o r g a n
iz atio n fo r th is s tu d y allo w e d th e a u th o r to d e v e lo p a n d c o o rd in a te a n u m
b e r o f su b th e m e s . T h e s e m ay p ro v e re le v a n t n o t only to th e h isto ry o f
p o w e r sy ste m s b u t to h isto ry fo cu se d o n te ch n o lo g y g e n erally . T h e subth e m e s w e re in m o st in sta n c e s re la te d to q u e stio n s o fte n ask ed a b o u t te c h
no lo g ica l sy stem s a n d a b o u t th e h isto ry o f tec h n o lo g y in g e n e ra l. F o r in
sta n c e , th e n a tu r e o f th e in v en tiv e act was e x p lo re d u n d e r th e r u b ric o f
in v e n tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. O f special in te re st in this re g a r d was th e c re a
tivity o f T h o m a s E d iso n th e m otiv atio n s, m e th o d s, a n d sociological c ir
c u m sta n c e s p e rta in in g to his in v e n tio n o f a system . A lso im p o rta n t w ere
th e c o n tr ib u tio n s m a d e by E d iso n s co -w o rk e rs. E d iso n was seen in v e n tin g
by a n a lo g y a n d o rg a n iz in g his c o -w o rk ers a n d his la b o ra to ry facilities as a
m ir r o r im a g e o f th e system b e in g in v e n te d . T h e te c h n o lo g y -tra n sfe r stage
o f th e h isto ry ra ise d q u e stio n s ab o u t a d a p ta tio n . T h e E dison d ire c t-c u rre n t
system w as in v e n te d a n d d e v e lo p e d fo r a specific a re a o f N ew Y ork City;
in o r d e r f o r it to b e tra n s f e r r e d to o th e r places a n d societal c o n te x ts, such
as L o n d o n a n d B erlin , c h a n g e s h a d to be m a d e in th e system . B ecause
fa ilu re in tec h n o lo g ical e n d e a v o rs is so ra re ly d iscu ssed a n d beca u se it
rev e als im p o r ta n t a n d so m e tim e s in tra c ta b le p ro b le m s, a tte n tio n was d i
re c te d to fa ilu re s re s u ltin g fro m in a p p r o p ria te tec h n o lo g y tra n s fe r, e sp e
cially in L o n d o n .
H isto ria n s a r e now in te re s te d in th e in te ra c tio n o f tec h n o lo g y a n d p o l
itics. In th is s tu d y th e in te ra c tio n was e x p lo re d in th e c o n te x t o f th r e e m a jo r
W e ste rn in d u s tria l cities. In C hicago, tec h n o lo g y d o m in a te d politics; in
L o n d o n , th e re v e rse was tru e ; a n d in p re W orld W a r I B erlin th e r e was
401

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NETW ORKS OF POW ER

c o o rd in a tio n o f political a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l p o w e r. T h e re v e rse s a lie n tcritical p ro b le m s a n aly sis o f te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e p ro v id e d a n o p p o r tu n ity
to d iscu ss th e m e c h a n is m , o r in te r n a l d y n a m ic , o f te c h n o lo g ic a l e v o lu tio n .
T h e n a tu r e o f th e r e s o lu tio n o f th e c o n flic t th a t d e v e lo p e d in th e 1890s
b e tw e e n te c h n o lo g ic a l sy stem s p e r m itte d e x p lo ra tio n o f th e a r t o f c o m
p ro m is e a n d n o n v io le n t c h a n g e . T h e c o n flic t also re v e a le d th a t te ch n ica l
p ro b le m s a r e s o m e tim e s in e sse n c e in s titu tio n a l a n d v a lu e co n flic ts. A n
o th e r s u b th e m e a rtic u la te d w ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e o v e r a r c h in g m o d e l
w as te c h n o lo g y as a n im p r o v e r o n n a tu r a l c irc u m sta n c e s. N a tu ra l re so u rc e s
in th e S ie rr a s o f C a lif o rn ia w e re se e n b e in g tra n s f o r m e d in to ec o n o m ic
g o o d s by e n g in e e r s a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s u sin g h ig h -v o lta g e tr a n sm issio n .
O n e q u e s tio n Is te c h n o lo g y a u to n o m o u s ? w as th e th e m e o f C h a p te r
X I, W a r a n d A c q u ir e d C h a ra c te r is tic s , b u t it w as e x p lo re d th r o u g h o u t
th e s tu d y . T o d r a w to g e th e r th e v a rio u s th r e a d s a n d to e x p lo r e a n d p ro p o s e
at le ast a p a rtia l a n s w e r to th e q u e s tio n o f a u to n o m y , we m u st c o n s id e r th e
in te r n a l te c h n ic a l fo rc e s th a t fa c ilita te d g ro w th as well as th e e x te rn a l,
n o n te c h n ic a l, c u ltu ra l fo rc e s th a t h e lp e d s h a p e th e e le c tric su p p ly system s.
T h r o u g h o u t th is s tu d y it h a s b e e n n e c e ssa ry to re a c h o u t b e y o n d th e te c h
n o lo g y , o u ts id e th e h isto ry o f te c h n ic a l th in g s , to e x p la in th e style o f th e
v a rio u s sy ste m s, so o b v io u sly th e te c h n o lo g ic a l sy stem s w e re n o t sim plistically a u to n o m o u s , o r f re e o f th e in f lu e n c e o f n o n te c h n ic a l fa cto rs. T h e
ev o lv in g p o w e r sy stem s w e re n o t, m e ta p h o ric a lly s p e a k in g , d riv e rle ss ve
h icles c a r r y in g so ciety to d e s tin a tio n s u n k n o w n a n d p e r h a p s u n d e s ir e d .
T h e sy ste m s d id , h o w e v e r, h a v e a n in te rn a l d riv e a n d a n in c re a s in g m o
m e n tu m . T h e c o n tin u o u s e m e rg e n c e o f re v e rs e sa lie n ts a n d th e o n g o in g
so lu tio n o f critica l p r o b le m s by in v e n to rs , e n g in e e r s , a n d e n tr e p r e n e u r s
p r o v id e d th is. T h e e x te rn a l, c u ltu r a l fa c to rs th a t g av e c o n tro l a n d d ire c tio n
w e re sy ste m a tic a lly s u m m a riz e d in C h a p te r X IV . T h e style o f e ac h system
was f o u n d to b e b a se d o n e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l d riv e a n d d e c isio n s, ec o n o m ic
p rin c ip le s , leg islativ e c o n s tr a in ts o r s u p p o r ts , in s titu tio n a l s tru c tu re s , h is
to ric a l c o n tin g e n c ie s , a n d g e o g ra p h ic a l fa c to rs, b o th h u m a n a n d n a tu ra l.
All b u t th e n a tu r a l g e o g r a p h ic a l fa c to rs in v o lv e d th e a c tio n s o f society,
w h ich w e re s o m e tim e s p u r p o s e f u l, so m e tim e s in a d v e r te n t.
T h e c u ltu r a l fo rc e s in flu e n c in g th e sy stem s s te m m e d fro m th e so cieties
w ith in w h ic h th e sy stem s g re w . T h e s e so cie ties w e re o f v a rio u s k in d s ac
c o r d in g to tim e a n d pla ce . T h e e a rly sy stem s w e re su b je c t m o stly to u rb a n
in flu e n c e s. In th e 1920s th e in flu e n c e s s te m m e d fro m re g io n a l c irc u m
sta n c e s a n d th e social o r g a n iz a tio n s asso c ia te d w ith th e m fo r in sta n c e ,
sla te s in th e U n ite d S ta le s, c o u n tie s in E n g la n d , a n d p ro v in c e s in G e rm a n y .
As w as e x p la in e d in C h a p te r X I I I , th e c u ltu ra l fo rc es v a rie d f ro m society
to so ciety, b u t t h e r e w e re also fo rc e s th a t tr a n s c e n d e d local o r re g io n a l
c h a ra c te ristic s. T h e s e w e re m o stly e c o n o m ic in n a tu r e . T h e s e e c o n o m ic
fo rc e s in tu r n m a n if e s te d th e valu es th a t tra n s c e n d e d lim e a n d plac e a n d
p e r ta in e d to W e ste rn so ciety, o r at least to th e U n ite d S la tes, G e rm a n y ,
a n d E n g la n d . T h e v a lu e s w e re th o se o f a c o st-a c c o u n tin g , ca p italistic civ
ilization.
I f a w o u ld -b e D arw in o r th e te c h n o lo g ic a l w o rld is lo o k in g f o r laws
a n a lo g o u s to th e e n v iro n m e n ta l fo rc e s th a t o p e r a te in th e w o rld o f n a tu r a l
se le c tio n , th e e c o n o m ic p rin c ip le s o f lo ad fa c to r a n d e c o n o m ic m ix a re
likely c a n d id a te s . In th e h isto ry o f su p p ly sy ste m s, th e se e m b o d ie d th e

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E P IL O G U E
valu es o f a c u ltu r e th a t w as cap ita listic, a c u ltu re w h e re in te re st o n cap ita l
w as c a lc u la te d to a sc e rta in th e cost o f g o o d s a n d services. B e cause electric
p o w e r sy ste m s w e re c ap ita l in te n siv e , in te re st was o f p a ra m o u n t im p o r
ta n c e . T h e cost o f ca p ital was c alcu lated by th e u tilities o p e ra tin g ele ctric
p o w e r sy stem s irre sp e c tiv e o f th e fo rm o f o w n e rsh ip p riv a te , p u blic, o r
m ix e d p riv a te a n d p u blic. In a c u ltu re th a t d id n o t calcu late ca p ital cost
th e m ed iev a l W e ste rn civilization f o r in sta n c e ele ctric lig h t a n d p o w e r
sy stem s w o u ld h a v e g ro w n d iffe re n tly .
O w n e rs a n d m a n a g e r s o f u tilities, u n lik e th e o w n e rs a n d m a n a g e rs o f
ra ilro a d s , ste el m ills, a u to m o b ile facto ries, a n d m a n y o th e r larg e-sc ale te c h
n o lo g ical e n te rp ris e s , w ere n o t d iv e r te d by h a ra ssin g la b o r p ro b le m s fro m
a close an a ly sis o f, a n d e m p h a sis o n , ca p ital cost. In th e so u rc e s p e rta in in g
to th e p ro b le m s o f th e ele c tric p o w e r system s, ra re ly was m o re th a n a
p a ssin g re fe r e n c e to la b o r costs e n c o u n te r e d . In s te a d , th e e m p h a sis was
o n lo a d fa c to r. L o a d f a c to r s tr u c tu r e d th e d e c isio n -m a k in g e n v iro n m e n t.
P ro b a b ly f o r th is re a so n th e u tility e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e rs w ere th e first
to clea rly a r tic u la te a n d th o ro u g h ly e x p lo it th e im p lic atio n s o f load factor.
T h e ra ilr o a d s h a d a lo a d -fa c to r p ro b le m in th e ir n e e d to utilize rollin g
slo c k m o r e fully, b u t lo a d f a c to r was a c o n c e p t a rtic u la te d by th e e lectric
p o w e r u tilities.
H ow d id close a tte n tio n to lo a d fa c to r ca u se system g ro w th ? T h e e ssence
o f th e a n s w e r is d iv e rsity , th e d iv e rsity o f h u m a n g e o g ra p h y , w hich is o fte n
a c o rr e la te o f th e size o f a n a re a . As th is stu d y has sh o w n , utility m a n a g e rs
like In su ll stro v e in a p u rp o s e f u l way to e x p a n d th e te rr ito r y o f th e ir
utilities. T h e o b jectiv e was n o t sim p ly size, as c ru d e e x p la n a tio n s fo r th e
la rg e scale o f m o d e r n te c h n o lo g y a n d bu sin e ss insist, b u t e x p a n sio n to
en c o m p a ss th e d iv e rsity o f lo a d s th a t b r o u g h t a fu lle r ro u n d -th e -c lo c k
u tiliza tio n o f g e n e r a tin g e q u ip m e n t. A utility m a n a g e r w ith a p eak load
c a u se d by r u s h - h o u r use o f e le c trifie d stre e tc a rs so o n le a rn e d th a t it was
no t in his in te re s t sim p ly to e x p a n d th e tra c tio n load. In ste a d , th e utility
re a c h e d o u t like a tre e in a d a r k fo re st s tre tc h in g its lim bs in to th e s u sta in in g
s u n lig h t. W h e n su s te n a n c e fo r th e lo a d -h u n g ry utility with a tra c tio n peak
was th e n ig h t-s h ift o p e ra tio n o f a c h em ic al p la n t, th e sy stem s d is trib u tio n
lines r e a c h e d o u t in th a t d ire c tio n . System b u ild e rs knew th a t th e d iversity
o f lo ad th a t allo w e d load m a n a g e m e n t, a re s u ltin g im p ro v e m e n t in load
fa c to r, a n d a lo w e rin g o f u n it c ap ita l cost was likely to be fo u n d in a large
g e o g ra p h ic a l a r e a w h e re th e p o p u la tio n e n g a g e d in a w ide variety ol e n
e rg y -c o n s u m in g activities. T h is stu d y has m a d e this c lear in a n u m b e r o f
insta n ce s.
E c o n o m ic m ix a lso e n h a n c e d system e x p a n sio n . T h is was e x p la in e d u sing
e x a m p le s like th e s p re a d o f th e h ig h -v o ltag e tra n sm issio n lines o f RW E,
th e R u h r-b a s e d utility, in to th e lig n ite fields a r o u n d C o lo g n e a n d th e w a te r
p o w e r re g io n s o f th e A lps. P ow er p lan ts in th ese d iv erse re g io n s c o m p le
m e n te d e a ch o th e r eco n o m ic ally . A gain, e x p a n sio n was n ot sim ply an a g
gressiv e d riv e f o r u n d iff e r e n tia te d size; it was a p u rp o se fu l m ove to low er
th e c ost o f e n e rg y . W h e re a s lo a d -fa c to r c o n sid e ra tio n s led utilities to e xploit
th e d iv ersity o f h u m a n g e o g ra p h y , eco n o m ic m ix d ic tated e x p a n sio n to
ex p lo it th e d iv ersity o f n a tu ra l g eo g ra p h y . The im p e rativ e s o l fuel ec onom y
a n d load fa c to r o f te n in te ra c te d b ecause load d iversity was e n c o u n te re d
alo n g th e tra n sm issio n lines e x te n d in g to new sou rce s ol e n e rg y .

404

NETW O RK S OF POW ER
T h e d e c isio n s th a t w e re m a d e to im p ro v e lo ad fa c to r a n d e co n o m ic m ix
s h a p e d th e g ro w in g e le c tric s u p p ly sy ste m s in th e ir co st-a c c o u n tin g se ttin g s.
O n ly ra re ly w e re th e s e p rin c ip le s v io la te d , e ith e r by p riv a te u n d e rta k in g s
o r g o v e r n m e n t- o w n e d utilities. L o n d o n w as a salien t e x c e p tio n . L o n d o n s
local g o v e r n m e n t a n d th e fo rc e s it r e p r e s e n te d w e re succ essfu l in c o n ta in
in g e le c tric u tilitie s w ith in th e b o u n d a rie s o f lo c a l-g o v e rn m e n l ju r is d ic tio n
a n d th e r e b y re s tric te d th e m to sm all-sca le te c h n o lo g y a n d lim ited d iv ersity .
T h is w as th e p ric e , lite ra lly a n d fig u ra tiv e ly , th a t L o n d o n e rs p a id fo r p la c
in g a h ig h e r v a lu e o n th e tr a d itio n a l p o w e r o f local g o v e rn m e n t th a n o n
th e lo w e r c ost o f e le c tric p o w e r.
T h e m a n a g e rs , e n g in e e rs , a n d o w n e rs w h o a p p lie d th e p rin c ip le s o f load
fa c to r a n d e c o n o m ic m ix w e re also m o tiv a te d by th e co n v ictio n th a t e ach
c u s to m e r s h o u ld a t least pay th e cost o f t h e e lec tricity d e liv e re d . T h e m e th
o d s o f c a lc u la tin g th is c o st w e re c o m p le x , b u t w ith r a r e e x c e p tio n th e
v a ria tio n s in p r ic e fo r p e a k lo a d a n d low lo a d , as well as fo r sm all a n d large
c u s to m e r s , w e re n o t in te n d e d to su b sid ize. W h e n G if fo r d P in c h o t a n d
M o rris C o o k e a r g u e d th a t th e sm all r u r a l c o n s u m e r s h o u ld b e su b sid iz ed ,
th e p riv a te u tilitie s o b je c te d . S u c h a policy w as c o n s id e re d by th e m to be
a m a tte r o f social re f o r m , n o t th e b u sin e ss o f p r iv a te e n te r p r is e . O s k a r von
M ille r in B a v a ria a d v o c a te d s u p p ly in g all o f th e p e o p le w ith th e ben efits
o f e le c tric ity , n o t o n ly th o s e w h o w e re ab le to p ay. G e n e ra lly , ho w ev er,
b e f o r e 1930, s u p p ly w as lim ite d to th o se w h o c o u ld a f f o r d to pay. T h e
o w n e rs a n d m a n a g e r s o f utilities, w h e th e r g o v e r n m e n t o r p riv a te , usually
v ie w ed a n y o th e r p olicy as u n e c o n o m ic a l a n d irra tio n a l.
A s a re s u lt o f th e e m p h a s is o n e c o n o m ic fa c to rs, d e c isio n m a k in g in th e
utility in d u s tr y w as relativ e ly s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d c o m p a r e d to w h a t it w o u ld
h a v e b e e n if e n g in e e r s a n d m a n a g e r s h a d felt o b lig e d o r in d e e d h a d b e e n
o b lig a te d to fu lfill social n e e d s d e s p ite costs. In th e fifty -y e a r h isto ry o f
e le c tric p o w e r sy ste m s c o n s id e re d h e re , in f lu e n tia l voices d id n o t call fo r
th e c ro ss-su b sid iz e d su p p ly o f lig h t to h o sp ita ls, p ris o n s , a n d o th e r p u b lic w e lfa re in s titu tio n s ; th e a r g u m e n t w as n o t m a d e th a t th e s tr e e ts a n d h o u se s
o f th e slu m s s h o u ld b e lit first b e c a u se lig h tin g w o u ld h av e a m o re d r a m a tic
im p a c t o n th e q u a lity o f life th e r e ; a n d d e m a n d s th a t e le c tric ity b e u se d
first in w o rk p la c e s w h e re th e ph y sic al b u r d e n s w e re h e av y w e re n o t e x
p re s s e d . I f th e s e social v alu es h a d b e e n s tre sse d , th e d e c is io n -m a k in g p r o c
ess w o u ld h a v e b e e n m o r e c o m p le x a n d e le c tric p o w e r sy ste m s w o u ld h av e
d e v e lo p e d d if f e r e n t s h a p e s. In esse n c e , th e m a p o f s u p p ly w o u ld n o t h av e
b e e n a m a p o f tr a n s m is s io n a n d d is trib u tio n to in d u s tr y , tra c tio n , a n d th e
e c o n o m ic classes a b le to p a y fo r lu x u ry lig h tin g . E le ctric p o w e r system s
b e f o r e 1930 w e re m o stly a rtifa c ts th a t m a n ife s te d c u ltu r e .
In th e d e c a d e a l t e r 1930, in te re s t in in tr o d u c in g a m o re c o m p le x set o f
v a lu e s in to th e d e s ig n o f e le c tric p o w e r sy stem s in c re a se d . In th e U n ite d
S ta te s, p la n n e r s o f th e T e n n e s s e e V alley A u th o r ity stre s s e d th a t th e T V A
system w o u ld n o t sim p ly su p p ly e le c tric p o w e r; it w o u ld also e n d e a v o r to
m e e t su c h social o b jec tiv es as p ro v id in g lab o r-sa v in g a p p lia n c e s f o r a d e
p re s s e d r u r a l p o p u la tio n a n d m a k in g th e riv e rs o f a n e co n o m ica lly b a c k
w a rd re g io n n a v ig a b le . O th e r social obje ctiv es in c lu d e d soil re c la m a tio n
th r o u g h th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f fe rtiliz e rs (u sin g c h e a p electric ity ) a n d th e
p re v e n tio n o f soil e ro s io n th r o u g h th e c o n tro l o f flo o d w a te rs a n d ru n o ff.
In E n g la n d , fo llo w in g th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e N a tio n a l G rid , th e r e was

405

E P IL O G U E
in c re a se d e m p h a sis o n su p p ly in g th e n e e d s o f th e less a f flu e n t classes by
m e a n s o f, fo r e x a m p le , th e w id e sp re a d sale a n d use o f e le ctric h e a te rs. As
a m a tte r o f fact, by m e a n s o f a g g re ssiv e sales a n d fa v o ra b le p ric in g , electric
h e a tin g was c u ltiv a te d to su c h a n e x te n t th a t th e sy stem s load cu rv es w ere
g re a tly d is to r te d .
E c o n o m ics was n o t a n a b so lu te d e te r m in a n t o f th e g ro w th a n d sh a p e o f
ele c tric p o w e r sy ste m s b e fo re 1930, a p p lic a tio n o f th e p rin c ip le s o f load
fa c to r, e c o n o m ic m ix, a n d p ric in g o n th e basis o f cost n o tw ith sta n d in g .
T h e r e w ere e x c e p tio n s, as ha s b e e n n o te d . A lso, th e r e w ere in n u m e ra b le
v a ria tio n s in th e way in w hich eco n o m ic p rin c ip le s w ere a p p lie d . T h e r e f o r e ,
th e e c o n o m ic fa c to r sh o u ld b e c o n s id e re d d e te rm in istic r a th e r th a n d e te r
m in in g , a n d th e re s u lt a so ft d e te rm in is m . D u rin g th e h a lf-c e n tu ry o f
h isto ry c o n s id e re d h e re , th e so ft d e te rm in is m o f eco n o m ic s was re in fo rc e d
by a n o th e r d e te rm in is tic in flu e n c e . As th e p o w e r s y stem s g re w in size, they
g a th e r e d m o m e n tu m . As was p o in te d o u t in a n u m b e r o f se ctions o f this
stu d y , p o w e r sy stem s e n c o m p a sse d a te ch n ica l c o re o f c o m p o n e n ts as well
as in s titu tio n a l c o m p o n e n ts , m o st n o tab ly u tilities. O ccasionally, re g u la to ry
a n d la w -m a k in g b o d ie s w e re su b ject to th e c o n tro l o f th e system b u ild e rs
a n d m a n a g e rs a n d th u s b e c a m e p a r t o f th e system . In a d d itio n , electrical
m a n u f a c tu r in g e n te r p r is e s w ere sy stem atically r e la te d to th e utilities. Even
edu c atio n a l in stitu tio n s w ere c o o rd in ated . Such en c o m passing system s should
be lab e le d so c io te c h n ic a l system s r a th e r th a n te ch n o lo g ic al system s. T h e s e
so c io tech n ic al sy stem s h a d h ig h m o m e n tu m , fo rc e, a n d d ire c tio n beca u se
o f th e ir in stitu tio n a lly s tr u c tu r e d n a tu re , heavy cap ita l in v estm en ts, s u p
p o rtiv e le g isla tio n , a n d th e c o m m itm e n t o f k now -how a n d e x p e rie n c e . T h is
m o m e n tu m w as a c o n se rv a tiv e fo rc e re a c tin g a g a in st a b r u p t c h a n g e s in th e
lin e o f d e v e lo p m e n t. B e ca u se o f th e co n se rv a tiv e m o m e n tu m , rare ly w ere
radical in ventions, technical o r social, in tro d u ced . Radical innovations w ould
h a v e c h a n g e d th e ra te a n d d ire c tio n o f g ro w th . A fte r th e b a ttle o f th e
c u r r e n ts , th e sy ste m b u ild e rs e ffo rts w ere usually d ire c te d to in c rea sin g
th e size o f sy stem s in c re m e n ta lly , b u t n o t to c h a n g in g th e ir d ire c tio n to
fulfill rad ic ally d if f e r e n t e c o n o m ic o r social goals.
In su m , it is d iffic u lt to c h a n g e th e d ire c tio n o f la rg e electric p o w er
sy stem s a n d p e r h a p s th a t o f la rg e so cio tech n ical system s in g e n e ra l b ut
su ch sy stem s a r e n o t a u to n o m o u s . T h o s e w ho seek to c o n tro l a n d d ire ct
th e m m u s t a c k n o w le d g e th e fact th a t system s a re evolving c u ltu ra l a rtifacts
r a th e r th a n iso la ted te ch n o lo g ie s. As c u ltu ra l a rtifac ts, th ey reflec t th e past
as w ell as th e p re s e n t. A tte m p tin g to re fo rm te ch n o lo g y w ith o u t system
atically ta k in g in to a c c o u n t th e s h a p in g co n te x t a n d th e intricacies o f in
te r n a l d y n a m ic s m a y well b e fu tile. I f only th e tech n ical c o m p o n e n ts ol a
sy stem a re c h a n g e d , th e y m ay s n a p b ack in to t h e ir e a rlie r sh a p e like ch a rg e d
p a rtic le s in a s tro n g e le c tro m a g n e tic field. T h e field also m u st be a tte n d e d
to; valu es m ay n e e d to b e c h a n g e d , in stitu tio n s re fo rm e d , o r legislation
recast.

Index

Administrative C ounty o f London and

District Electric Power Co.. 251-55
Allentown Electric Light ft Power Co.,
435
Allgemeine Elektrizitais-Gesellschafi
(AEG), 51. 76, 177, 183; cancels Sie
mens agreem ent, 126; critical problem s
of, 161; in Fran k fo rt exhibition, 132
33: laboratory of. 379; m arket position
of, 178-81; an d N em st p atent rights,
166; p aten t ag reem en t of, 168; and
RWE contract, 421; a n d stan d ard fre
quencies. 129; technological style of, 77;
a nd three-phase system with induction
m otor, 119; turbines of, 195
Allis-Chalm ers M anufacturing Co., 268
A lternating c u rren t. See D eptford central
station; Power, transmission of; Sys
tems, altern atin g -cu rren t; T ran sfo rm er
A merican Cyanam id Co., 287
A merican Engineering Council, 310
A merican Institute o f Electrical Engineers
(AIEE), 157, 172-74, 374; Transactions
of. 173-74
A merican Power Sc Light Co., 398-99
A merican Society o f Mechanical Engi
neers (ASME), 300
A merican S uperpow er C orp., 401
Amish people, 430
A ndrews, W. S., 432
Anglo-Am erican Brush Electric Light
Corp., 57, 61, 62
A nnan, J o h n , 250
A nthony, William A., 146, 147
A ppliances, domestic, 223
Arc lamps, 8 6-87
A rm strong, W hitworth Sc Co.. 455
Artifact, cultural, 405, 420
A rundel Corp., 329
A uer, E rhard, 346
A uer Gcscllschaft, 168
Autonomy, technological. See Technology,
autonom y of
Ayrton. H eu h a , 150
Ayrton. William E., 146, 150, 159

Bailey, Jo sh u a, 71
Baldwin. Stanley, 351, 352
Balfour, G eorge, 402 -3
Balfour, G erald. 233
Banks, 176; financing o f light and power
systems by, 67, 68, 180-81
Baring Bros., 253
B aruch, B ern ard , 291
Batchelor. C harles. 23, 51
"Battle o f the systems (battle o f the cu r
rents"), 106-7, 120-21, 126-27, 130,
135, 4 3 3-34
Baum , Frank, 280
Bavaria, G erm any: Ministry o f Finance of.
340; Ministry o f In terio r of. 340, 342;
Ministry o f T ransp o rtatio n of, 340, 3 4 1
Bavarian D epartm ent for W aterpow er
Utilization an d Electricity Supply, 345
Bavarian H ydrotechnical B ureau, 337
Bay C ounties Power Co., 274-75
Baycrnw erk, 314, 325, 334, 339, 342^15,
346, 426, 427
Beggs, Jo h n , 183
B ehrens, Peter, 180
Bclfield, Reginald, 104
Bell, Louis, 151
Bergishes Elektrizitatswerk, 411
Bcrgm ann, Sigm und, 39
Berlin, G erm any: characteristics of. ) 75
77; com parison of, with Chicago and
London, 257-61; transportation system
of, 181
Bcrlin-C harlottenburg Technische Hochschule, 143, 145
Berliner Elekiricitais-W erke (BEW). 76.
177; com pared with o th er utilities, 183
84; negotiations of, with city o f Berjin.
186-89; takeover of, by city o f Berlin.
198-200; technological style of, 77; uni
versal supply system of, 192-97
B ethlehem Steel Corp., 429
B irm ingham C orp., 444
Blankenberg, R udolph, 300
B lithy, O tto Titus, 9 5-96
Blood, J o h n , 151

Board o f T rad e , United Kingdom, 230;

C om m ittee on Electrical T rades after
the W ar, 320; and interconnection of
utilities, 290; and m ovement for munic
ipal socialism, 59-60; and regulation of
electric supply, 321-22
Boehm, Ludwig, 23
B olton, W erner von, and tantalum lamp,
166-68
B onbright Sc Co., Inc., 400. 401
Bond Sc Share. See Electric Bond Sc Share
Co.
Bradley. C. S., 118, 121
Bramwell, Frederick J.. 54. 60, 63
B raunkohlen-Industrie AG. See Zukunfl"
B raunkohlenw erke Golpa-Jessnilz AG,
288
Brauweiler control center, 423
British Electric Light Co., 62
British G eneral Electric Co. (GEC), 233
British Grid, 325, 353-62. 458
British Power Sc Light Corp., 402
British Thom son-H ouston (BTH ), 232,
249
British W estinghouse, 232
Brown, Charles Eugene Lancelot, 111,
131, 133. 137
Brown, H arold, 108-9
Brown, Boveri Sc Co., I l l , 179
Brown Bros., 328
Brush Electric Light Co.. 62, 84
Buck. H arold. 310
Buffalo General Electric Co.. 125
Burke, Jam es Francis. 311-12
Bush, V annevar. 376, 377
Byllcsby. H enry M 102, 104. 119. 393;
and recognition o f William Stanley's
work. 102. 104
California, characteristics o f 265-67
California Gas Sc Electric Co. (CG&E). 276
C. Sc E. Fein. 82
Capital. 365, 389. 398. 416-17. 463
Carm an, G eorge, 23
Carm an. William. 23

468
Carville "B" sialion, 444. 4 5 6-57
C ataract C onstruction Co.. and Niagara
pow er project, 137
C entral California Electric Co.. 276
Central Electricity Board (CEB). 3 5 4-56.
358, 3 5 9-60, 361, 458
C entral Institution. 144. Set also Central
T echnical College
Central T echnical College, 154, 155-57
C ham berlain, Jo se p h , presid en t o f Board
of T ra d e (U.K .). 59
C haring Cross Electric Supply Co.. 236
Chelsea Electricity Supply Co., 85
Chesney. C. C.. 274
Chicago, Illinois: characteristics of, 2 0 1 -2 ;
c om pared with London and Berlin,
257-61
Chicago Edison Co., 2 02-4
Chicago exposition (1893), 122. 125, 208
Citizens Electric Light. H eat 8c Power Co..
434
City and G uilds o f London Institute for
the A dvancem ent o f Technical Educa
tion. 144
City of London Electric L ighting Co., 236
C laudius. Dr. H erm an n . 23
Coal: an th racite. 429, 442; h a rd , 4 13-14,
444; lignite. 314, 413
C off.n, C harles. 166. 2 1 1. 270. 396
Colchester plan, 85
Colgate. Rom ulus Riggs. 270-74
Colgate pow er plant, 270, 27 2 -7 4
Colum bia 8c M o n to u r Electric Co., 439
Com m ittee on Electrical T rad e s a fter the
W ar (U.K .), 319, 320, 321
C om m onw ealth 8c S o u th ern C orp., 400
C om m onw ealth Edison Co., 201, 206,
208; and the Electric Shop. 22 3 -2 4 ;
and industrial load, 223; load factor of,
2 18 -2 1 ; an d traction load, 2 2 2 -2 3 ; u n i
versal system of. 212
Com pagnie continenialc. 68
Conow ingo pow er project, 325-31
Conservative party (U.K .), 351
C onsolidated Edison Co. See Edison Elec
tric Illum inating Co. o f New York
C onsulting engineers, 171, 33 4 -3 5 , 449.
See also Day 8c Z im m erm ann; McLellan.
W illiam; Merz, C harles; Miller, O skar
von; Steinm ctz, Charles; Stone, C harles
A; W ebster, Edwin S.
C onsum ers Electric Light 8c Power Co..
436
Cooke, M orris Llewellyn. 296, 299-3 00 ,
307, 312; on by-product recovery, 3 0 5 6; and G iant Power. 2 9 7-303; versus
P hiladelphia Electric Co., 3 0 0 -3 0 1 ; and
rural electrification, 30 7 -8 , 464
C oolidge, William D., 168
Cooling tow ers, 306-7
C ornell University, 146, 152-53, 155
Corona effect, 159-60, 162, 381-82
County o f London Co., 360
County o f London Electric L ighting Co.,
236
Critical problcm (s). 80. 161. 371 -7 7 ; a.c.

IN D E X
m oto r as, 109; d.c. transm ission as, 83;
h igh-resistance filam ent as. 34; and re
verse salients, 14, 22. 462. See also Re
verse salients
C rocker, Francis. 82, 173
C ro m p ton , Rookes E. B., 58, 8 1 -8 2 , 129,
218
Cross, Charles. 145. 147, 386
C unliffc, L eonard, 449
C unliffe, W aller, 253
C u rren t. See Power, transm ission of; Sys
tems, altern a tin g -cu rren t, d irect-cu r
r en t. and polyphase
Curtis. Charles, 82
C urtius. A. Ju liu s, 315

D arm stadt Technische Hoclischule, 145,

155-57
Day 8c Z im m erm ann. consulting en g i
neers. 329
D epression, in B ritain, 61, 6 2 -6 3
D eprez. M arcel. I I I . 131, 264, 335
D ep tfo rd cen tral station. 2 3 8 -4 1 , 2 4 3-47
Deri, Max. 9 5 -9 6
d e Sabla. E ugene J Jr., 2 7 0 -7 4 , 276
D eutsche Bank. 180
D eutsche Edison Gesellschafl fur
ang ew an d te Electricitat (G erm an Edison
Co. for A pplied Electricity) (DEC), 51.
6 7 -7 1 , 177. 183, 185-86, 335; a g ree
m ent of. with city o f Berlin, 72; loosens
ties with Edison, 7 3 -7 5 ; p atent ex
change a g reem en t of. 126; reorganized.
76
Dick. K err 8c Co.. 232
Dickson. W. K. L., 27
D iehl, Philip. 82
D ifferential analyzer, 377
Direct c u rren t. See Power, transm ission of;
Systems, direct-cu rren t
D istribution, parallel. 31, 32. 33, 38
D iversity: financial. 399; load (see Load.
diversity of)
Dolivo-Dobrowolsky. Michael Osipowitch
von, I I I , 131; and Frankfort exhibi
tion, 131; and th ree-p h ase system in
G erm any, 119
D onat, Fedor Maria von, 338
D o rtm u n d . G erm any. 41 2 -1 3
Drelutrom. See M otor, polyphase; Systems,
polyphase
Drcxcl, M organ and Co.. 30, 47, 4 8 -5 0
Drcxcl 8c Co.. 328, 400
D rum . Frank. 278
D uncan, A ndrew , 354
D uncan. Louis. 146, 147^18, 157, 173
D unston pow er station, 444, 456
D urham Power Co.. 448

Ealing Local Board pow er station, 237

Econom ic factors, 2 8 -2 9 , 370 -71 , 464. See
also Econom ic mix; Insull, Samuel, con
cepts of, 2 1 6 -2 0 ; Load, diversity of;
Load factor

Econom ic mix. 346, 366-67, 406, 418,

463
Edison, T h o m as Alva: and "the battle of
th e systems," 108-9; creativity of, 461;
and critical problem s, identification of.
80; an d d.c. g enerator, 3 7-38, 81;
D eptford station, visit to, 242; develops
h igh-resistance filam ent, 32-37; dis
p utes of, with T h eo d o re Puskas and
G eorge G o uraud, 48-50; and economic
factors, 2 8 -29, 36, 38. 40; gives up e n
terprises, 125; and incandescent light,
3 1 -3 2 , 51; as invc ntor-e ntreprene ur,
18-19; as inventor o f systems, 20-23,
81; an d Jo ule 's law, 36; legend of, 27;
organizes m anufacturing com panies.
3 8 -4 0 ; an d M enlo Park com m unity, 27;
a n d Muscle Shoals, 294; on Niagara
project. 137; and O hm 's law, 36; paral
lel d istrib ution system of, 32, 41-43;
a n d Pearl Street station, construction of.
4045; and problem identification, 1920; an d reverse salient-critical problem s
m eth o d , 2 2 -23; and S unbury project,
431; an d three-w ire system, 8384; and
voltage regulation, 42-4 3 ; w ork habits
of, 2 6 -2 7 . See also names of Edison compaEdison 8c Swan U nited Electric Light Co..
Ltd.. 62
E dison Co. for Isolated L ighting, 431
Edison Electric Illum inating Co. of Lan
caster, 434
Edison Electric Illum inating Co. of New
York, 18. 39
Edison Electric Light Co., New York. 23,
39, 4546
Edison Electric Light Co. o f Sunbury.
431. 432
Edison Electric T u b e Co., 39
Edison G eneral Electric Co.. 77, 107, 125;
m erges with T hom son-H ouston, 77.
126. 163
Edison M achine W orks, 39
E d m undsons Electricity C orp., 402
E ducation, technical, 142-56. See also
Electrical eng ineering; E ngineering
schools an d colleges
E dw ards and N orm andy patent (British,
no. 4,611 o f 1878). 9 2-93
Eglin, W. C. L.. 329
E. I I. Rollins & Sons. 274
Eickemeyer. Rudolf. 164
Eickcmeycr 8c O slcrheld Co., 163
Electrical Engineer. 174
Electrical engineering: acadmic d e p art
m ents an d courses o f instruction in,
144-47, 151-56; professors of, 147-50
"Electrical lag." in B ritain, 62-64. 65-66.
144, 31 9 -20, 350-53. See also L ondon,
d evelopm ent o f electric supply in
Electrical Securities Co., 270
Electrical World, 173
Electric Bond 8c S hare Co., 392-99; and
T h e" Lehigh Valley Light 8c Power
Co.. 439: and PP&L, 430. 441

460
Electrician, 174
Electricity Supply Act o r 1919 (U.K.),
321-22, 350
Electricity Supply Act o f 1926 (U.K.), 351,
354, 356
Electric L ighting Act o f 1882 (U.K .), 8 7 88. 230: effect of. on electrical industry,
60 -6 6
Electric Lighting Act o f 1888 (U.K.), 64,
230, 2 3 7-38
Electric Power D evelopm ent Co., 250
Electric Securities Co. o f New York, 396
Electrification: o f railways, 341, 446-47;
o f transit systems, 181-82, 188, 189-91,
2 01-2, 2 2 1-23, 232, 252, 434-35
rural, 464; and Bayernw erk, 346; and
PP&L, 44243; and Giant Power, 308
urban, 182. See also Berlin, Germ any;
Chicago. Illinois; Industrialization, and
electrification
Electrocution, 108-9
Elektriziiais-Aciiengesellschafi vorni. W.
Lahm eyer 8c Co., 424
Elektrizitatswerk Berggeist AG, 4 1 1
Elektrobank, 424
Elektrotechnische Gesellschaft, 174
E lektrotechnischer Verein zu Berlin, 174
Eleklrolechnische Zeitschrift, 174
Elektrowatt. See Elektrobank
Elekirow erke Aktiengesellschaft (EWAG),
288-89, 295, 314, 423, 427
Engineer, 174
Eng in eer-en trep ren eu rs, 350
Engineering, 174
Engineering schools and colleges. 142-56
Engineers. See C onsulting engineers
Engineers Public Service C orp., 390
English Electric Light Co., Ltd., 54, 62
ENIAC, 377
Fabbri, Egisto P., 30
Fabbri 8c C hauncey o f New York, 49
Fabian Society, 255
Falconer. Jam es, 250
Farm er, Moses G., 32
Federal Power Com mission (U.S.), 325;
and PNJ hearing, 326, 328
Federal T rad e Commission (U.S.), 394
Federation o f British Industries, 351
Felton 8c G uilleaum e, 421
Ferguson, Louis, 209, 2 11
Ferranti, Sebastian Ziani de, 237; and
D eptford project, 238-39, 241, 243-47;
as m an u factu rer and en g in eer for Sir
Coutts Lindsay 8c Co., 97 -9 8 ; in patent
dispute with G aulard and Gibbs, 92, 98;
technology of. replaces Edison's, 65
Ferraris, Galileo, 110; and a.c. m otor,
109; and idea o f rotating magnetic
field, 117-18
Filament, incandescent, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37.
See also Lam p, incandescent
Finsbury Technical College, 144
Fisk Street power station, 209, 212-14
Fleming, Jo h n A mbrose, 246; analyzes
cost o f Holborn Viaduct station, 57

IN D E X
Folsom pow er plant, 2 6 8-69
Forbes, G eorge, 128
Forbes, Jam es Slaat, 62. 63
Force, Martin, 23
Ford, H enry, a n d Muscle Shoals, 293-95
Forth Banks station, 454
F rankfort on the Main International Elec
trical Exhibition (1891), 131-35, 247;
and "the battle o f the systems," 130;
d e m onstration o f transmission at, 129
Frequency, efforts to standardize, 127-29,
358, 458 -59
Frequency converter, 121-22

Ganz 8c Co.. 91, 239; develops commercial

tran sfo rm er, 9 6 -9 7 ; and G aulard and
Gibbss system, 95
Gaslight, price of, com pared to electric
light, 64, 77
G aulard, Lucien: death of, 94; d em o n
strations by, at public exhibitions, 9 3 94, 97; invention by, assessed, 95; in
patent disputes, 92 -9 4 ; and solution o f
transm ission an d distribution problem s,
86 -8 7 ; tran sfo rm e r of, 87-91
G eb ru d er Sulzbach, 67
G eneral Electric Co., 163, 268, 395; ana
log pow er systems of, 376; acquires
Bradley paten ts an d facilities, 121; and
critical problem s. 161; and Electrical Se
curities Co. o f New York, 396; form a
tion of, 126; h olding company of, 392;
and N iagara pow er station, 139; in
panic o f 1893, 38 6-87; p atent agree
m ent of. 126, 168-69; patent strategies
of, 166; research laboratories of, 16466, 168-71, 3 7 9-80; and Charles Stcinmetz, 163-64
G enerating plants, isolated, 223, 229
G enerator: Bradley, 118; Edison e x p eri
m ental, 37 -3 8 : Edison type-H , 70; Haselw ander. 118; Ju m b o , 55, 73; slowspeed G erm an. 81, 82; Tesla. 117
G erdicn, H ans, 172
G erm an G eneral Electric. See Allgemeine
Electrizitats-Gescllschafi (AEG)
G erm an grid, 314-15, 317-18
Gcscllschaft fu r elektrische U nternehm ungen Ludwig Lowe. AG, 317
G iant Power, 297-300, 3 05-9, 313; legis
lative history of, 310-12; plan for, 30 3 4; and PP&L, 442
Giant Power Board, 3 01-3
Gibbs, Jo h n D. See G aulard, Lucien
G oldenberg, B ern h ard , 413. 420
G oldcnbergw erk, 408, 413-14, 423
G olpa-Zschorncwiiz pow er station, 28 8 89, 295, 427
G om pcrs, Samuel, 301
G ordon. T. E. H.. 58. 92. 235
G ou rau d , G eorge, as Edison representa
tive. 48 -5 0
G overnm ent ow nership. See Utilities, gov
ern m en t ow nership o f
G ram m e, Zcnobe T heophile, 87

G rashof, Franz, and engineering curricula

in Germ any, 143
G reater L ondon and Counties T rust
(GLCT), 402
G reat W estern Power Co.. 279, 280
G reen, N orvin, 172
Grid (power pool), 325, 334, 353. See also
Bayernw erk; British G rid; German
grid; Giant Power; Pennsylvania-New
Jersey Interconnection (PNJ); Super
power
Gridlcy, A rnold, 291
G riffin, Stockton, 23
G rosskrafiwcrk Franken AG. 348
G rosvenor Gallery central station. 97. 244
H abcr-Bosch process, 287
H aid, D. A., 23
H aldane, Lord, 290, 319
H aldane-M erz R eport, 319-20, 321
Halsey 8c Co.. 276
H am b u rg er Eleklricilatswcrke, 183
H am m er, William J., 23, 52; and conflict
with Emil R athenau, 73-74; joins Rathenau, 69; as liaison betw een Rathenau
and Edison, 70
H arris, Forbes 8c Co.. 328
H arrison Street central station, 208, 214
Harw ood Electric Co., 436-37, 439. See
also H arw ood Electric Power Co.
H arw ood Electric Power Co., 435
H arw ood station, 440
H aselw ander, Friedrich August, 118, 121
H auto station, 440
Hazen, H arold, 376
Hazleton Electric Light 8c Power Co.. 436
Hefner-Alteneck, Friedrich von, 81
Helios. 82
Helmholtz, H erm ann von, 178
H enke, E.. 421
Herdecke. See Koepchenwerk
H ering, Carl, 173
Herschell, Lord Farrer, ruling of. on
G aulard 8c Gibbs vs. Lindsay 8c Fer
ranti, 92-93
Hick, Hargreaves 8c Co., Ltd.. 242
Highficld 8c Roger Smith. 356
High-voltage research: F. W. Peek.Jr.'s,
380-84: H arris J. Ryan's. 158-60;
Charles F. Scotts and Ralph Mcrshon's.
161-63: Charles Stcinmetz's, 171. See
also Research laboratory, high-voltage
experim entation in
Hippie, Jam es. 71
H.
M. Byllcsby 8c Co., 393
Hobson, Harold, 354
H offm ann, Karl, 81
Holborn Viaduct central station, 54-57
H olding company, 226. 390-95. 401.
402-3, 439. See also Electric Bond 8c
Share Co.; Stone 8c W ebster Co.;
United Corp.
H opkinson, John. 146, 246; analyzes cost
o f H olborn Viaduct station. 57: invents
three-wire system, 84

470
I louston. Edwin J.. 173
H ubbard. Preston J., 294
Huber-W crdtm illcr. l. E., 131
1liin lin g d n n , H arry E., 281
llvdroclcctric pow er. 264: in California,
26 5-68, 2 7 8-80, 281, 284: in southeast
ern U nited States, 265. See also Conow ingo project: K oepchcnw erk; Niagara
Falls pow er station: V orarlberg, A us
tria: W alchcnsecw crk: W allenpaupack
I Ivd ro -E lcttrir Power Cnm niission o f O n
tario. 265
I. G. Farben Co.. 306
Illinois Public Utility Com mission, 207
Illinois Public Utility In fo rm atio n C om
m ittee. 207
Im perial College o f Science and T ec h n o l
ogy, 144
Im pulse gen erato rs. 381, 3 8 2-83
Inco rp o rated Association o f Electric
Power C om panies, 290
Inco rp o rated M unicipal Electrical Assoc.,
290
Industrialization, and electrification. 175,
176-77, 2 0 1 -2 . 223. 2 2 4-25, 231. 2 5 0 51
Industrial revolution. 175
Inform ation, and control, 368, 37 3 -7 5
Institution o f Electrical Engineers (IEE),
174. 233. 234, 291
Insulation, high-voltage, 375
Insull, Sam uel, 250: as adviser to W eir
Com m ittee, 353; assesses London pow er
system, 228; bank ru p tcy of, 2034; on
BEW, 182; and CEB, 355; and Chicago
Edison. 202; and C om m onw ealth Edi
son Co., 2 0 1 -1 2 ; concepts of. 2 1 6 -2 0 ;
a nd Edison, 203; h olding com panies of.
226, 392. 393; on m an ag em en t o f
pow er load, 2 1 7 -2 1 : and Charles Mcrz,
4 5 2 -5 3 : and Middle W est Utilities Co.,
395; politics of. 2 0 4 -7 ; and Stale C o u n
cil o f Defense, 207; an d steam turbines,
2 0 9 -1 2 : an d substation concept, 208; as
systems c o n cep tu alizes 21 6 -1 7 , 2 2 5-26;
testim ony of. before London County
C ouncil. 223; and traction load, 2 2 2 -2 3
Interconnection (Verbundbetrieb), 4 1 8 -2 0
International electrical exhibitions: Chi
cago (1893), 122. 125 .2 0 8 ; Frankfort
on the Main (1891), 129-35, 247; L on
d o n (1882), 5 2 -5 3 ; M unich (1882), 335;
Paris (1881), 66. 335
Invention and developm ent, 20 -2 2 . 461;
collaborative, 23. 2 5 -2 8 ; sim ultaneity
of. 109-1 I. See also Dolivo-Dobrowolsky,
M.; Edison, T h o m as A.; Fcrraris. Gali
leo; G aulard, Lucicn; H opkinson. J o h n ;
Stanley, William; T esla, Nikola
I nven to r-cn trc p re n eu rs, 18-19
I. P. M orris Co., 268
jablochkoff. Paul, 87. 92
lackson. D ugald C 146. 148. 149: as con

IN D E X
sultant to Philadelphia Electric Co., 300;
publications of, 157
Jacob L andau, 67
Jch l, Francis, on T h o m a s Edison and
Francis U pton, 2 5 -2 6
Jo h n so n , Edw ard l-L, 23; as Edison's re p
resentative in L ondon, 52, 84; and Elec
tric L ighting Act o f 1882, 60
joint Com m ittee on Rural Electrification,
443
Jo u le s law, in E disons work, 3437
Jo u rn als, professional, 157-58, 173-74,
3 7 4-75
J. P. M organ Sc Co., an d U nited Corp.,
400
Kansas Gas 8c Electric Co., 398
K app, G isbert, 145, 149-50
Kelly, J o h n F.. 274
Kelvin, L ord (William T ho m so n ), 451
K ennedy. A. B. W 234
K ennedy, J. M.. 351
K ennedy Sc D onkin, 356
K ennelly. A rth u r E., 173, 312; electrocu
tion ex perim en ts of, 108; testim ony of,
on G iant Power bill, 310-11
Kitson. Sir Jam es, 230, 447
Kittler, E rasm us. 145. 148-49, 155-56
K lingenberg, G eorg. 182, 197-98, 199,
257. 288; assesses L ondon electric su p
ply system. 2 2 8 -2 9
K napsack, 288. See also G oldenbergw erk
K ocpchen, A rth u r, 408; as m anager o f
RWE, 4 2 0 -2 1 ; and rationalization, 418,
419
K oepchenw erk, 42 1 -2 3
Kraftw erke A ltw urttem berg AG, 424
K reusi, Jo h n , 23
K ru p p Co.. 409
L abor, in capital-intensive technology,
4 1 7 -1 8
Laboratory research. See Research labora
tory
L abour party (U.K), 351, 352
Lalim cycr, W ilhelm. 82, 121
Lam m c, Benjam in, 139
Lam p, incandescent, 8 2 -8 3 , 193-95; Edi
son, 3 2 -3 7 ; N crnst, 166; tantalum , 168;
tu n g sten an d m olybdenum . 168; Welsbach, 168-69
L ancashire Power Co., 323
Lancaster Electric Light. I leal Sc Power
Co.. 434
l.anc-Fox, St. G eorge, 62
L angm uir, Irving, 168
Laval. Carl G. P. de. 195
Lawson, Jo h n , 23
Lazards Bank. 402
l.cch-Elcklrizitaisw crke AG. 424
Lee, llig g in so n Sc Co.. 389
Leeds Sc N o rlh ru p , 374
Legislation, regulatory: in Berlin, 72. 176,
184-86, 187-89; in Britain, 5 8 -5 9 , BO6 1 . 63. 64. 66. 8 7 -8 8 , 96, 230, 4 4 7-18:
in Chicago. 206. 208; in L ondon. 230.

238. 2 4 1 -12, 248-49, 256-57, 260; in

New York Slate and Virginia, 108
Lehigh Coal Sc Navigation Co.. 436
Lehigh N avigation Electric Co.. 436-39
L ehigh Power Securities C orp., 439-4 I
Lehigh valley. Pennsylvania, 429
Lehigh Valley Light Sc Power Co.. 435,
4 3 8 -3 9
Lighting, 174
Lincoln, Paul M., testim ony of. on Giant
Power bill. 310, 311
Lindsay, Sir C outis. 239-40
Liverm ore, H oratio Gates, 269
L iverm ore, H oratio P., 270
Lloyd G eorge, David. 251, 254
Load: diversity of, 217-18, 333, 369, 441
463; pow er and light, in Berlin, 73; ,
in Chicago, 225-26; , in L ondon.
2 3 1 -3 2
Load d ispatching. 2 14-15, 332, 372, 423
Load factor, 218-21, 353, 369, 406. 410,
4 1 8 -1 9 , 4 21 -2 2 , 440, 444, 462-63
Local G overnm ent Act o f 1888 (U.K.).
229
L ondon, E ngland: characteristics of, 22730, 231; com pared with Chicago and
Berlin, 2 5 7 -6 1 ; developm ent o f electric
supply in, 2 27-28, 233. 255-61; efforts
to in tro d u ce large-area supply in, 233;
, by S. Z. d e F erranti, 237-47; . by
C harles Merz. 249-54; , thro u g h the
G rid. 3 5 9 -60
L o ndon Associated Electricity U ndertak
ings, 360
L on d o n City a n d G uilds C entral T echni
cal College, 154. See also C entral T ec h
nical College
L ondon County Council (LCC). 228, 23637. 248, 253-54, 256; bill o f 254-55
L ondon Electric Supply Corp., 64. 238.
24 0 -4 2
London In ternational Electric Exhibition
(Crystal Palace) (1882). 52-53
London Power Co., 360
Los Angeles. C alifornia, a queduct system
of. 281
Los A ngeles W ater and Power Bureau,
311
Lowrcy. G rosvenor P.: as business adviset
to Edison, 2 9-31, 38; prom otes Edison
en terp rises abroad, 4 7-50
Lubbock, Jo h n , 54
M acLaren, Malcolm, 331
M cLellan, William: and Charles Merz,
450, 4 5 1 -52; a nd interconnection of
utilities, 291; in W orld W ar I, 290
M ainkraftw erke AG. 424
Malden Electric Co., 292
M anagem ent services, 388-89. 397
M anchester C orp.. 444
M anchester Square station. 236
M anufacturers, electrical. 38-40, 177,
17 8-79, 2 32-33, 433. See also names of
companies
M arindin. F. A.. 238

471
M arindin C om m ittee, 238, 241-42, 247
M arkgrafenstrasse central station, 73, 186
M artin, Jo h n , 2 7 0-71, 2 7 2-74, 276
M aschinenfabrik O erlikon, 131; in Frank
fort exhibition, 133
M assachusetts Electrical Engineering Co.
of Boston, 386. See also Stone 8c Webs
ter Co.
M assachusetts Institute o f T echnology
(M .I.T.). 144, 14546, 155-57; electrical
en gineering at, 151-53; netw ork a n a
lyzer of. 3 7 6-77
M aterials handling, 43, 413, 4 1 5 -1 6
M ather, T 154
Mauerstrasse central station, 73, 183
Maxim, H iram , 100
Mayer, Wilhelm, 313, 314
Menlo Park laboratory, 2 3-25. See also
Edison, T hom as Alva
M erger: o f m anufacturers, 163-64; of
utilities, 276, 430, 431, 440
M ershon, Ralph, 161-63
Merz. C harles H.. 237, 249-50, 449-51;
assesses London electric supply system,
228; and British G rid, 350, 352-53,
355; in conflict with Jo h n Snell, 357; as
e x p ert parliam entary witness, 453; and
William McLellan, 4 5 1-52; and
NESCO. 448: an d politics, 20 4 -5 ; and
pow er bill, 2 5 1-56; and regional ch ar
acter o f technology, 454; and reo rg an i
zation o f electric supply, 319-20; and
stan d ard cycles, 129; on technological
style, 405; in W orld W ar I, 290
Merz, J o h n T h eo d o re . 248, 249, 250,
448-49, 451; influence of, on son, 455
Merz & McLellan. 249, 256, 356, 357,
452; as consulting engin eerin g firm,
385, 386; an d the G rid, 4 5 8-59; and
NESCO. 449; and turbines, 453-54
M etropolitan Supply Co.. 235, 360
Middle West Utilities Co.. 204, 392. 402
Miesbach, Germ any, 335
Miller. O skar von, 264, 334-37, 464: as
consulting engineer, 385, 386; at Frank
fort exhibition, 131; and interconnec
tion o f utilities, 317; at Paris exhibition,
51, 66; and Emil R athenau, 67; rep o rt
of. on G erm an electric supply, 315. See
also Bayernw erk; W alchenseewerk
Ministry o f Reconstruction, U nited King
dom . See H aldane-M erz Report
Minshall, T . H ., 251, 253
Mitchell. S. Z., 393, 395, 396; on diversity
principle, 399; and Lehigh Navigation
Electric Co., 437, 439
Mitten. T hom as E., 326-28
Moabit pow er station, 195
M om entum , technological, 15-16. 140-41
465
Monroe, W. S., 457
M organ. A rth u r E.. 301
M organ, J. P.. 387
Morrill Act o f 1862 (U.S.). and e ngineer
ing education, 143
Motor: direct-current, 82; polyphase.

IN D E X
1 0 9 -1 1. 4 5 5-56. See also Dolivo-Dobrowolsky, M.; Industrialization, and elec
trification; Load, pow er and light;
Power, stationary; Tesla, Nikola
M unich Intern atio n al Electrical Exhibition
(1882), 335
Municipal socialism, in Britain, 59-60,
255, 261
M urray, William S., 296, 297
Muscle Shoals hydroelectric plant, 287,
29 3-95
Nashville Light 8c Power Co., 387
N ational-Bank fu r D eutschland, 67
National City Bank o f New York, 428
N ational Civic Federation, 207
National Defense Act o f 1916 (U.S.), 287,
293
National Electric Light Assoc. (NELA),
174, 207
N ational Power 8c Light Co., 441
N ational Socialists (National Socialist G er
man W orkers' party), 315
N ep tu n e Bank c entral station, 451, 456
N ernst, W alther, 166
Network analyzer, 376
Nevada City plant, 271
Newcastle 8c District Co., 447
Newcastle Corp., 447
Newcastle u pon T y n e Electric Supply Co.
(NESCO), 249, 290, 357, 358, 448; and
characteristics o f region, 445-46; and
the G rid, 4 5 8 -5 9 ; an d industrial pow er
load, 455; organizational stru ctu re of,
449; an d politics. 4 4 7-48; technological
style of, 404, 407
N iagara Falls pow er project, 135-39
N iagara Falls pow er station, 135, 137-39,
2 64-65
N iagara H udson Power C orp., 400
Noble, Sir A nthony, 250
N orris, H enry, 154
N orthcote, A. S., 250
N orth E astern Electric Supply Co. See
Newcastle upo n T y n e Electric Supply
Co.
N o rth ern Central Gas Co., 439
N orth T ees pow er station, 444, 457
N o rth u m b erlan d C ounty Gas 8c Electric
Co.. 440
N. W. H arris 8c Co.. 274
O akland Gas Light 8c H eat Co., 276
O akland T ran sit Co., 274
O b ersp ree pow er station, 192
O gden Gas Co. case, 206
O hio Brass Co., 268, 375
O h m s law, in Edison's work. 34-37
Oliven, O skar, 3 1 7-18
Operator, 173
Operator and Electrical World, 173
Pacific Gas 8c Electric Co., 276-80. 379
Pacific Gas 8c Electric Investment Co., 277
Pacific Light 8c Power Co.. 281

Page. Archibald, 354, 355-56, 360-61

Page, Charles G rafton, 86
Pantaleoni, Guido, 102
Pantcr, T . A., testimony of, for Giant
Power bill, 311
Parallel distribution. See Distribution, par
allel
Pardee, Calvin, 435
Paris International Electrical Exhibition
(1881), 66, 335
Parochialism: o f local authorities in Lon
don, 233-34, 248-19, 253-54: and util
ity grow th, 318, 323, 324, 338
Parsons, Charles, 319; as head o f C om
mittee on Electrical T rades a fter the
W ar, 320; and Newcastle 8c District Co.,
447; and steam turbines, 2 1 1, 454
Parsons Co., 232
Parsons Com mittee. See Com m ittee on
Electrical T rade s a fter the War
Passavant, Dr. H erm an, 200
Patents, 84, 91-93, 94; Edison, 32. 67, 68.
71, 83; Edwards and Norm andy, 92;
Gaulard and Gibbs, 91-92; Haselwander. 118; Jablochkorf, 92; Tesla, 115
Pearl Street central station, 40-45, 81. See
also Edison, T hom as Alva
Peck, Charles F., and financial backing foi
Nikola Tesla. 115
Peek. F. W.. J r., 380-84
Pelton, Lester, 263
Pelton Co.. 268
Pennsylvania Electric Association, 298,
443
Pennsylvania Lighting Co., 439, 440
Pennsylvania-N ew Jersey Interconnection
(PNJ), 3 2 5 ,3 3 1 -3 4 . 401,440
Pennsylvania Power 8c Light Co. (PPScL),
326, 330, 440; com pared with RWE,
428-29; and Electric Bond 8c Share Co.,
401; and rural electrification, 442-43;
technological style of. 404. 407
Pennsylvania State Council o f Farm O r
ganizations, 443
Pennsylvania W ater 8c Power Co.. 326
Penrose. Charles, 308-9, 312
Peoples Gas Light 8c Coke Co.. 206
Perry. Jo h n , 150
Peterson, W aldcmar. 348
Petroleum , as pow er-plant fuel, 278
Pfalzwerk AG. 336-37
Philadelphia Electric Co., 299; and Conowingo project, 325-31; versus Cooke,
300-301; as PNJ dispatcher. 332. See
also Pennsylvania-New Jersey Intercon
nection
Philadelphia Electric Power Co.. 326
Philadelphia Rapid Transit Co., 326-28
Physikalisch-Tcchnische Reichsansiali. 178
Piesterilz, G ermany, 288-89
Pinchot, Gifford, 296. 301. 312. 464; and
Conowingo project. 328; and Giant
Power. 297-98. 301-5
Pine Grove power station, 440
Politics, and technology. 318-20. 352-53,
447-48. 461

472

IN D E X

Q uarry Street station, 212, 214

Reverse salients, 14, 22, 7 9 -8 0 , 83, 85 -8 6 ,

9 0 -9 1 , 109, 37 1 -7 2 , 462. See also C riti
cal problem (s)
Rheinisch-W esilalischcs Elektriziiaiswcrk
AG (RW E), 288, 314; characteristics of,
40 8 -9 ; co m p ared with PP&L. 4 2 8-29;
in com petition with P reussenelcktra and
EWAG. 4 2 3 -2 8 ; expansion of, 4 2 4-26;
financing of, 428; interconnects with
B ayernw erk, 426; rationalization of,
41 8 -1 9 ; and R o d d erg ru b e agreem en t,
41 4 -1 5 ; technological style of. 404, 407;
220,000-volt transm ission line of, 4 2 0 21, 42 4 -2 7
Rice. Edwin W., a n d GE Research Labo
ratory. 165, 166
R ichardson. G. B.. 250
Richardson, J o h n W igham . 448, 451
Roberts. E. P.. 146
R o d d e rg ru b e AG. 413; and RWE a g ree
m ent, 4 1 4 -1 5
Roosevelt, T h eo d o re , 301
Rotary con v erters, as system couplers,
121. 2 0 8 -9 . 345
R iihm korff. H einrich Daniel, 86
R u h r region. G erm any. 409
R um m elsburg pow er station, 197
Rural electrification. See Electrification,
ru ral
Rural Electrification A dm inistration
(U.S.). 308, 443
Ryan, H arris J., 146, 148, 153-54, 379,
384; an d high-voltage phen o m en a,
159-60; publications of, 158

Railways, electrification of, 341, 4 4 6-47.

See also T ran sit systems
Rathenau, Emil. 200; an d Edison system.
67, 70; and th e m arket, 179; at Paris
exhibition, 51. 66
Rathenau. W alther, 179-80
Rationalization IRalionalisierung), 324;
th ro u g h interconnection (Verbundbe
trieb). 418; A rth u r K oepchen's views on,
418. 419; o f regional systems, 368 -6 9 ;
by H ugo Slinnes, 4 1 1
Regional systems. See Systems, regional;
T u rb in e, steam
Reich (G erm an), and national grid, 3 1 3 15. 319
Reisholz c entral station, 408
Reliability, o f electric system, 370
Research and d evelopm ent, 19-20; by e n
gin eerin g professors, 156-60; by m a n u
factu rers' engineers, 162-64. 5 also
Research laboratory, invention and d e
velopm ent in
Research C e n te r for H igh Voltage A p pa
ratus. 379
Research laboratory: Edison's, 2 3 -2 5 ;
G eneral Electric's, 164-71; high-voltage
exp erim en tatio n in, 3 7 7-80; invention
and developm ent in, 160; Siemens &
Halske's, 172; William Stanley's, 103
R euleaux, Franz, 143
Revere S u burban Gas Sc Electric Co.. 292

Sacram en to Electric Gas & Railway Co..

276
Sacram en to Pow er & Light Co.. 270
St. Jam es & Pall Mall Co., 235
St. M arylebone cen tral station, 235
Salem Electric L ighting Co., 292
San Francisco Gas & Electric Co., 276
Sardinia Street cen tral station, 235
Sarg en t. Frank, 209, 211
Sch iffbauerd am m c entral station, 186
Schm idt, A lbert, 139; as assistant to Ni
kola T esla. 120
Science, electrical e n g in eerin g as. 14243.
156-57. See also Electrical engin eerin g
Scientific m ethod: F. W. Peek, Jr.'s, S S I84; H arris J. Ryan's, 158-60
Scott, C harles F 120, 139, 158-59, 16163. 173
Shallcn b erg er, O liver B., 139
Shaw. Philip B.. 4 3 1 -3 2
Sheffield C o rp .. 444
Shoreditch c entral station, 237
Sibley College o f M echanical Engineering
and the Mechanical Arts, 152-53. See
also Cornell University
Siemens, W ern er von, 177; at Paris ex h i
bition, 66; and technical education,
144-45
Siem ens, W ilhelm von, 166; and threewire d istribution, 84
Siem ens & Halske Co., 66, 177; ag re e

Polyphase cu rren t. See Power, transm is

sion of: Systems, polyphase
Pope, Franklin L., 104
Power
stationary: in Berlin, 189-92; in Chi
cago. 223, 224; in L ondon, 231. See also
Industrialization, and electrification
transm ission of: a ltern atin g -cu rren t
(single-phase). 9 3 -9 4 , 95, 2 4 3 -4 4 ; d i
rect-curren t, 83, 8 5 -8 6 , 91, 131; poly
phase, 129-30. 131, 133-35
Power com panies: British, 23 0 -3 1 , 248,
447-48. See also names of companies
Power Securities C o rp .. 323, 4 0 2 -3
Preece, William, 54, 64
Preussische Eleklrizitats AG (Prcussenelektra). 423. 427
Prinz, H .. 348
Professionalization, 141-42. See also Socie
ties, professional
Public Service Com mission o f Pennsylva
nia. 300; and G iant Power. 302. 303
Public Service Co. o f N o rth ern Illinois.
226
Public Service C orp. o f Illinois, 204
Public Service Electric Sc Gas Co. o f New
Jersey. 326, 330. See also PennsylvaniaNew Jersey Interconnection
Public Utility H olding C om pany Act o f
1935 (U.S.). 393. 401
Puskas. T h eo d o re , as Edison rep rese n ta
tive, 4 8 -5 0

m ent of, with G erm an Edison, 68; labo

ratory research of, 166, 172, 379; pat
e n t a g reem ent of, 126, 168-69; Siemens
(U.K.). 232
Siem ens-Rhein-Elbe-Schuckert U nion, 420
Siem ens-Schuckert Co., 179; and RWE
contract, 421
Sierra & San Francisco Co., 281
Single-phase curren t. See A lternating cu r
ren t; Power, transm ission of; Systems,
altern atin g -cu rrent
Sir C outts Lindsay and Co., 97; and Gaulard and Gibbs, 92, 98
Slaby, A dolf, 145, 149
Sloan, R. P., 449
Snell, Jo h n . 355-57
Socialization Law (G erm any), 313
Social netw ork, Merz family as, 455
Socite elcctrique Edison, 67
Societies, professional, 172-74, 177
Society o f T eleg rap h E ngineers (U.K.),
174
S o n n em an n . L eopold, 131
S o u th ern California E dison Co., 281, 311,
379
S p an d au erstrasse c entral station, 77
Spencer, H ug h. 376
Sperry. E lm er, 163
Sp rag u e, Frank J.: and criticism o f Edi
son, 27; and d.c. m otors, 82; at Paris
exhibition. 51; at Sunbury project, 432:
and three-w ire system, 84
Siadiische E lektriziiats-W crke (StEW). 72,
183. 200; and Edison. 73-75
S tan d a rd Electric Co., 276
Stan d ard ization. See Frequency, efforts to
standardize
Stan fo rd University, 379
Stanley, W illiam, 271; and G aulard and
Gibbs tran sfo rm e r, 98-1 0 0 ; and G reat
B arrin g to n, Mass.. laboratory. 1034; at
Swan Electric Co., 100; at W estinghouse
Co., 101
Stanley Electric M a nufacturing Co., 120,
268, 271
Statistics: Sam uel Insull's use of, 225-26;
Charles M crzs use of. 251
Sicinm etz, C harles, 163-64, 173; and GE
consulting e n gineering dep artm e n t,
171; and F. W. Peck. J r .. 381
S tephan, H einrich von, 174
Stillwell. Lewis B.; 139
Stim son. H enry L., 301
Slinnes. H ugo. 4 10-11. 420, 424; and ra
tionalization, 415
Stockbrokers, financing o f utilities by, 57,
6 1 -6 2 , 63. 240, 274, 276-77. See also
D rexel, M organ and Co.; Electric Bond
& Sh are Co.; Halsey & Co.; Stone &
W ebster Co.
Slone. C harles A., 386-88. 393
Stone & W ebster, Inc.. 390
Stone & W ebster and Blodget, Inc., 390
Stone & W ebster Co.. 328. 386-90
Slone & W ebster E ngineering C orp., 390
Stone & W ebster M anagem ent Assoc., 390

473
Storage battery, 85
Streetcar, electrification of. See T ransit
systems, electrification o f
Street Railway Sc Illum inating Properties
T rustees. 387
Studicngesellschaft fu r H ochstspannungsanlagen E.V. See Research C en ter for
High Voltage A pparatus
Style. See T echnological style
Sunbury, Pennsylvania, 4 3 1-33
Superpow er, 2 9 6-97
Swan, Joseph: and carbon-filam ent lamp,
2 1-22; and Edison patents, 71; and
Electric L ighting Act o f 1882, 58
Swan, H u n te r, an d W igliam Richardson Sc
Co., 455
Swan Electric Light Co.. 62
Swinburne, Jam es, 233
Systems, 5 -6 , 7-17, 368; a ltern atin g -cu r
rent (single-phase), 86, 87. 8 8 -9 0 ; d i
rect-current. 81, 2 3 4 -3 5 ; economic and
technological, 28 -2 9 ; Edison's invention
and developm ent of, 18-23, 31 -3 7 ; ex
pansion o r grow th of, 463; Samuel In
sult's concepts of, 204, 216-17; poly
phase. 113, 117, 120, 126, 14041, ISO51. 197, 451; regional. 352-53, 363-65,
370-71, 45 3 -5 4 : sociotechnical, 465;
trust and cartel as, 4 1 9 -2 0 ; universal
electric supply. 122-25, 186, 208, 212,
214. 247. 248. 262; vertical production
and. 4 0 7 -8 , 419, 420
Taylor, Frederick, 300
Technical education. See Education, tech
nical
Technische Hochschulen (technical h igher
schools). See Engineering schools and
colleges
Technological style: o f regional systems,
352-53, 404, 405, 454, 462; and techni
cal characteristics, 40 8 -9 . See also Allgemeine Elektrizitats-Gcsellschaft; Edison.
T hom as Alva; Ferranti, Sebastian Ziani
de; Newcastle u pon T yne Electric S u p
ply Co.; Pennsylvania Power Sc Light
Co.; Rhcinisch-W cstlalisches Elektrizitatswerk AG
Technology: autonom y of, 4 6 2-65; in
capitalistic society, 463: as cultural arti
fact, 405, 420; and economics (see Eco
nomic factors); factors shaping, 4 05-7,
464; laws influencing, 462 (see also Poli
tics, and technology); and science (see
Science, electrical engin eerin g as; Scien
tific m ethod). See also W ar. and technol

ogy

Technology transfer, 47. 49, 50. 65, 66,

77. 405, 451-52, 461
Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review,
174
T elluride, Colorado, transmission, 162-63
Tennessee Valley A uthority (TVA). 295,
401; and social objectives, 464
Tesla, Nikola, 112: and criticism o f Edi
son, 27; at Edison's Machine Works,

IN D E X
113-14; at French Edison Electric Light
Co.. 1 13; invents polyphase m otor and
system, 1 1 1 ,1 1 2 -1 7 ; as professional in
ventor, 114; uses rotating magnetic
field, 1 16-17; and W estinghousc Co.,
119
Tesla Electric Light Sc M anufacturing Co.,
114
T h o m as A. Edison C onstruction D epart
m ent. 431, 432
T h o m p son . Sylvanus P., 130, 146, 233
T h o m so n , Elihu, 141
T h o m so n -H o u sto n Electrical M anufactur
ing Co.: and the battle o f the systems,"
107; m erges with Edison G eneral Elec
tric Co., 77, 163; and polyphase system,
120; and U nited Electric Securities Co.
o f Boston, 395
T hree-w ire system, 8 3 -8 4 , 431-32
T hyssen, A ugust, 410
T ran sfo rm er. See B lilhy, O tto T .; Deri,
Max; Ferranii, Sebastian Ziani de; Gaulard , Lucien; Stanley, William; Zipernowski, C harles
T ransit systems, electrification of, 434-35;
in Berlin, 181-82, 188, 189-91; in Chi
cago. 201 -2, 22 1-23; in L ondon. 232,
252
T ransm ission. See Power, transmission
of
high-voltage, 26 2 -6 3 , 280-84. See also
Bay Counties Power Co.; Bayernwerk;
British G rid; Fran k fo rt on the Main In
ternational Electrical Exhibition (1891);
G iant Power; M unich International
Electrical E xhibition (1882); Pennsylva
nia-N ew Jersey Interconnection; Power,
transm ission of; Superpow er; and names
o f regional utilities
T reaty o f Versailles. 413
T u rb in e, steam : in Berlin, 195-97; in
Chicago. 209 -1 2 ; in L ondon, 235-36;
and regional systems, 363-65. 453-54
T u rb in e, water, 263
Tyneside Electric Co., 447

Union Elcktrizitais-Gesellschaft, 178

Union Switch Sc Signal Co., 100
U nited Corp.. 392, 394. 400-401
U nited Electric Securities Co., 395
United Gas Sc Electric Co.. 276
U nited Gas Im provem ent Co., 401
University o f Pennsylvania, 377
U pton, Francis, 23; as co nceptualizes 2 5 26; designs g en erato r, 37, 81; and Edi
son, 26 -2 7 ; and Jo u le's law, 36; and
O hm 's law, 36; and H enry Villard, 76
U rban electrification. See Electrification,
urban
U.S. Electric Lighting Co., 100
Utilities: international com parison of,
197-98. 225, 228-29, 247, 257, 259-61;
small-scale, in L ondon, 234-37
governm ent ow nership of: in G ermany.
198-200. 314-15, 317, 339-40. 345,

412; in U nited Kingdom, 59. 60. 23637, 255, 260. See also British G rid; Giant
Power; Municipal socialism
Utilities Power Sc Light Corp. o f Chicago.
402

Values, and pow er systems, 464-65

Van Depoele, Charles J.. 163
V erband Dcutscher Elcktroicchniker, 174,
177
Villard, H enry, 45, 75-76; negotiations
of, with Drcxcl, M organ and Co.. 77;
and reorganization o f Edison en ter
prises, 77
Vogler, Albert, 420
Voltage: regulation and control of, 42-43;
220, introduction of, 193
von Maffei, Ritter, 34 I
V orarlberg, Austria, 426

W alchensee, Bavaria, 337, 34 I

W alchenseewerk, 334, 339-42, 346, 427.
See also Baycrnwerk
W alker, Francis A., 386
W alker & Wallsend Gas Co.. 448, 451
W allenpaupack power station, 440
W antage. Lord (Robert Jam es Lindsay).
239-40
W ar. and technology, 16-17, 285-90. 296.
324
War Industries Board (U.S.). 292
W arriner, S. D., 437
W atson, Robert Spence. 250. 448, 449
W ebster, Edwin S., 386-88, 393
W eimar Republic. 317, 319
Weir. Lord, 352
W eir Report, 352-53. 356
Wells. Philip P.. 301, 312
Welsbach, Carl A uer von, and osmiumfilament lamp, 168
W enstrom, Jonas. 111
W estdeutsche Eleklrizitatswirtschaft AG.
426
Wesiinghouse. George: and alternating
cu rren t, 104; and G aulard and Gibbs
transform ers, 102; and Niagara project.
137; and William Stanley's inventions,
100, 103-4
Westinghouse, H. H., 100
W esiinghouse Air Brake Co., 100
Westinghouse Co., 101. 110. 239. 268; de
signs analog power systems. 376; in "the
battle o f the systems." 107; at Chicago
exposition o f 1893, 122: and critical
problems. 161; and Ncrnst patent. 166:
and Niagara power station, 139; patentexchange agreem ent of. 126; and poly
phase motor, 117. 119; standardizes
frequencies, 126
W estm inster A quarium exhibition, 88. 89.
90
W estm inster Electric Supply Corp.. Ltd.,
234
Weston, Edward, 100

474
W heeler. Schuyler Slants, 82
W hile. William Allen. 301
W hitney. Willis R., 168
Wilkens, Gustav, 200
Willcsdcn central station, 236
W illiamson, Sir A rchibald, 319
W illiamson C om m ittee, 319, 320-21
W irtschafisgruppe E lektrizitatsversorgung

IN D E X
d c r R eichsgruppe K nergiewirischaft d e r
d eu tsch en W irtschaft (WEV), 315
Wise, J. H., 280
W. L ahm cyer & Co.. 118
W right, A rth u r, m eterin g system devel
o ped by. 220
W right, Jo h n sto n e . 354
W iim em b crg . G erm any, 318

Y crkes, Charles T yson, 206, 221

Young, O w en D.. 399
Yuba Power Co., 272
Yuba pow er plant, 271-72

Zipcrnow ski, Charles, 9 5-96

"Z ukunft," 426

Awarded the Dexter Prize by the Society fo r the History o f Technology

A n e x c it in g , m a jo r c o n trib u tio n to th e fie ld o f h isto ry, for it e s ta b lis h e s v e ry c o n v in c in g ly that
th e grow th o f . . . p o w e r n etw o rk s is a s in tr in s ic to an d c h a ra c te r is tic o f m o d em so c ie ty a s the
g ro w th o f m a n o ria lis m w a s to m e d ie v a l s o c ie ty . A m erican H istorical Review
A u n iq u e c o m p a ra tiv e h isto ry o f th e ev o lu tio n o f m o d ern e le c tr ic p o w er s y s t e m s , Networks o f

Power not o n ly p ro v id e s an a c c u r a te re p re se n ta tio n o f la r g e - s c a le te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e b ut a lso

d e m o n str a te s that te ch n o lo g y i t s e lf c an n o t b e u n d ersto o d or d ir e c te d u n le s s p la c e d in a c u ltu ra l
c o n te x t. F o r T h o m a s H u g h e s , both th e in v e n tio n o f th e s im p le s t d e v ic e s (lik e th e lig h tb u lb
itse lf) an d th e e x e c u tio n o f th e g ra n d e st s c h e m e s (su c h a s h a rn e s s in g th e w a te r p o w er o f the
B a v a r ia n A lp s ) fit into an o v e r a r c h in g m o d el o f te c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t. H is n a r ra tiv e is an
a b s o rb in g a c c o u n t o f th e c r e a t iv e g e n iu s , sc ie n tific a c h ie v e m e n ts , e n g in e e r in g c a p a b ilit ie s ,
m a n a g e ria l s k i ll s , an d e n tr e p r e n e u r ia l r is k s b e h in d on e o f th e m ost c o m m o n p la c e a m e n itie s o f
th e m o d e m a g e .
T h a t a r a n g e o f h ist o r ia n s not s p e c i a l i s t s in th e h isto ry o f te ch n o lo g y , a s w e ll a s th o se w ho a r e ,
w ill fin d th is b ook im p o s s ib le to ig n o re , is a m e a su r e o f th e in te rp r e tiv e c h a lle n g e that T h o m a s
H u g h e s h a s th row n ou t to th e h ist o r ia n s o f tw o c o n tin e n ts an d b e y o n d . T h e d is c u s s io n o f
e le c t r ic p o w e r s y s t e m s w ill n e v e r b e th e sa m e a g a in . B u t it o ffe r s m o re th an th at. T h e q u a lity
o f p ro d u c tio n is im p e c c a b le an d th e m a n y illu s tra tio n s a r e c h o se n to g iv e a n u n m is t a k a b ly
a u th e n tic s e n s e o f th e p e r io d . T h e v e r y a tm o s p h e re o f th e p io n e e r in g u tilitie s a n d th e e a rly
e le c t r ic a l e n g in e e r in g p ro fe ss io n p e r m e a te s a w ork o f s c h o la r s h ip th at is n o le s s p a th b r e a k in g
in its fie ld th an th ey in th e ir s . /sis
H ow th e W est w a s w ir e d . Times Literary Supplem ent
T h o m a s P . H u g h e s is p ro fe ss o r o f th e h isto ry o f m o d e m s c ie n c e an d te c h n o lo g y at th e U n iv e r
s ity o f P e n n s y lv a n ia an d a m e m b e r o f th e A m e ric a n A c a d e m y o f A r ts an d S c ie n c e s . H is b o o k s
in c lu d e C h a n g in g A ttitu d e s tow ard A m erican Technology an d E lm er Sperry, Inventor a n d

Engineer.

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