1 VECTOR ALGEBRA 1 INTRODUCTION In the stady of physics and engineering, we encounter many ‘important sant which can be described by the specfatlon of their mage alone in terms of some approprisie onl Ter exe ample, th volume ofa cubv can be danced bythe umber of eabie inches or cube centimeters, and the temperature at partial ime fa day canbe descr by giving the number of degrees ona Fah feohait sale or 9 Centigrade ale Such quonties characterized by the fact that they have mogrtade only ae called scalar quai Satar quantities are represented by real numbers, and they are also fale Sains On the er hand, there are many aher phil {quantities such as displacement, force, veloc, and acceleration Sthich cannot be described bythe specication oftheir mage Sie, Thew guontiies post» nol only magnitade but a dre: thom so that a omplete desrption of any such quantity mst specify these two paces f information. “Thaw when a weatherman reports the wind veloty on a partculr day, he species nol only the speed ff the ovnd (magnitude of the wind vel), But ssp the dreton from which the wind is Bowing. Such quant characterized by having magnitude and dvecton are called vest quant, ist te tse real numbers or salary to represent and ma plate scalar quanities, <9 sme use the mathematical ens called ecors to represent and manipulate vector quanti. Thus, 3 Sense, vectors can be thought of a generale nubs. The study tthe repreentaian oF vectors the agers and cles of Weer, logether with some of thet” various. applications comsttute the subject mater of vector analysis 2 Chapter 1 Scslars and vectors are ray sficen 0 teat the elas of quate thal are of Interest in physi engineering and applied Mathematics Infact, there are quantities‘ a mote completed Sirochre whote descpton equrcs more than kownekedge of & "gitude anda direction. For example, to describe a quantity such fs siress we need fo give a force (escribed by 9 veto) anid 3Surace fn which the fore arts Such a quonily ean he described and eepre- Sented ony by the more sophisticated mathematical entity called {Grace As we shall so ner acalrs and’ weciorysresetualyspeial ‘anes of tensors. This fin accord ith an important characteristic of tmatheratics in which concep «move general nature do neorpo Tate as petcular caves thine from which the concept originated in the tine place. For the must pat inthis book we shal study vector an ten sors inthe familiar two and three-dimensinal Euclidean space, Although in many instances the once and results we tin can bbe immediatly extended to Ngher ditensonal spaces, we shall do ‘only in few eases In order to distinguish vectors fom scalars, we will se Bok faced leery AB, = &.h to denote vectors and lowercase eters, AB a, by yu damote sear or real rumors Tenors ‘wil be represented by thee 9 aed components 12. DEFINITION OFA VECTOR {A sector may te defined in exentily thre illerent ways: gsometricly analytically, and avomaticly. The germetie defini fon af 9 vector makes use ofthe notion of 9 lect ine spn fran arom A line segment determined by ‘two points P and Q is Sid tobe divected fone ofthe pis say Ps cated asthe rita print and the wher, Q. the terminal pin. The deste tne Segment so otsined than dente’ By PQ an ts represented trophy by drawing an arrow Irom P 40 © (Fg. 11) We denote {he length of MQ by IAQ |. Two dzeted Line segs PQ a RS ae sald to be ual and we welle PQ= RS Il they have the some Erg and the same direction. Graphically this means tht the roses representing XQ and RS ve pare, have the same ength Sd age penting i the ame det, ‘Geometrically, thn, a weet is defined asthe colton ofall siete line segments vars having the some length andre on Gueh a eoletion fy as called an equivalence cls of ciectedVector Algebra a ya Fig 11. Directed line segments, line segments and any two members ofthe class are sat be fsuivaknt) The common Tengih of the aroma represents the Imoghitade of the vectra the artowhead indiats the direction fr the vet Further, forthe purpose nf representation, any ane af the ars in the walction can bs wet represent the vecte For example, the callin of aerows shown in Rg. 11 defines vector ‘A ad anyone of the aos cat be ued Uo represen the vector A. {Under ths definton the algebraic operations on vectors are nto Shue ant sti grometrily, making maximum use f ou {onetia intuition One advange ofthis approwch ia thal does Fot require the introduction of an” particular coordinate stam Sd, ene, one ean concentrate on he nie vector relation However thi approach is raher cumbersome and Inefient for Computational purposes Tn the analyte approach, a vector in tree dimensional space Is defined as an oxered triple of rel pumbers fa, 93,34] relative 03 riven coordinate system. The real numbers ay, 934, 9P calle he components of the veclor. As we shall ee laler once a coordinate System is itroduce, these components aise naturally from the isometric deseripton of 9 vector Likewise, n the two-timensonal Space the syplane, 9 vestor is define ae an ordered pi of ‘meet [yg] Algebraic operations om vectors ae then per 4 Chapter 1 foctnsd through the component of he veto, By far this approach te'the moet convenient for theoreia| and computational. considers fons, and itis the approach that we will adopt in Ine book However it should be hep! in mind thatthe components of vector are" dependent on the coordinate syste used. This means tht ‘whenever sve change she caoniinate syste Ia our discussion, the Components of the vector wil change although. the vector itl Femme the some Tor exmple, the components of 9 veetor ithe ‘india! coordinate sytem wil be diffrent tom Il components Uf the sphercal coordinate sytem. ‘Lasly the axiomatic pnt of view treats a veto sply aan undefined entity ofan abstact algebra syste called 9 linen vector pace In such system, the vectors are required to satiny certain {Booms with respect to toe spebrte operations Wht ae undefined oncopis As we sll se ney the et of ao fo a linear Vector space ate pracsely the properties sated by vectors with respect (0 tee vector operations Gf hditon and tulilcaton by seals a ‘developed by ether the geometric orth analyte approach Tnthis chapter. we shall develop the algebra Of vectors on the bss othe analyte definition of 3 vecion” We hall ua dete line Segments or arrows to represent vecors geometclly and t give igeemetric interpretations of ur cells Accordingly, we ase 9 continate system in our three dimension space AW costomary, Swe attume 2 righ-handed recangular cartesian coordinate system (yr2). The stident may recall that such a coordinate system con S58 of thee straight les that are perpendicular to each other at 3 Common point O, calle the trig (Fgh 2). The ines are designate Yo) Letenandet *(o) Righthanded Fig. 12 Rectangular catsiancooedinate system.Vector Algebra 5 4s they and 2coordinate axes, and a defirite diction on each {sis s chasn ay the positive direction. The coordinate system i then aah fo be righthand ifthe so-called ‘ighthand Ful holds that if the index finger and the center finger Of the right Rand are mae to point along the positive x and anes, respectively, the Thumb pals along the postive zaxis Uf we delete the 22x 06 ‘obtain the corresponding cartesian cordiate system in two ime Sonal space, known as the xyplane. We now define a Ihe dimen. ‘Sonal vestor with respect to a ightshanded cartesian sardine system Definition 1. A three-dimensional vector A i an ordered triple of real numbers ay, 35. sein 3 fy .a3, 941 43 called the first comporent 33 the second component, and 33 the thd component of the vector ’Avecor whose components are all zero called the zero vector and is denoted by dy thats, C= (0,0) 0, The negative of ‘vector Ay denoted by - Ars defined a5 the vector whose compe Tere ree ond open oe ae Soe a Detntion 2 The magne ofa vcr A =f 2525 sencsity TA iste el umber ed by Wiedateaieat an Wis cer that [A 20 and that [Al = 0 ifand only iA IA| = Ire call he vecor A. avunit vest inthe soqul, uns ated aherase, we shall astm our vector Wo be non er. 13 GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR Let A =[a,-33,93) Bea given vector an let P be the point with the coordinates 2, 3,35. Let us examine the direst Kine "segment or srrow that drawn from the origin tothe point P35 6 Chapter 1 shown in Fig. 13. From the figure we see that the length ofthe row bequal to ays apt as 32 which tthe maga ofthe vector Aas defined in (1.1) The ditetion of the aeow OP can be described analytially by the thee numbers cos «, 08, ad 08 falled the direction cosines of the directed line sogment. “The anges 1% andy, known 28 the direction angles, are the angles made by the’ alee ine segment OP with Ihe pomive x, and ced rate ake, respectively Now trom Fig 13, i i clear that ews: cost omy 02) ial a’ ial Thus the direction cosines of OPare proportional t the compo: rants ofthe vector In ths manner, the kngth and ection te rected ine segment OP correspond to the magnitide and dire tion of the vector A Yrom this thesion Telos thal every three dlmensional wctor fr asnociaed with 9 point in space Cone ‘ery, every pont in space determines 9 three dimensunal eco ‘hose components are the coordinates 1 the paint The sme True of two dimensional vectors and the pint in the xyplane ‘Notice that by (11) the dvecton costes (1.2) sali the impor. fia} ayay ig. 13 Geometric representation of a vector,‘Vector Algebra 7 cota reco py eosty #1 03) fay/IAlay/IAL.95/1AU1 is a unit vector This limplics that every none’ vector can be converted into & unit weetor The proces of converting a nonzero vector into 3 unt Yesor is kaswn ar the normalizton process A vector Out as teen converted into 9 unit vector is sito have been noemaliz, ‘We should pont et hat the representation of 9 west By a lected ine segment des not depend on the inal pot om ‘which the iret ine segment drawn. In other words 9 weston {ar also be rapeseed by an srw drown from an airy pot ia spice ene oa the ne gh or age a the some dineton asthe vector "or exampse consider the vector Ars[ojdy-aq] hich represented geomcrally bythe arrow OP leg. 13. Let Qbe anatieary pot with the coordinates. Yor 279) a8 It be the point with the cardinates (y+ 3.35 #925 24), s8¢ Fig, 14 Then the insted ine amet dren from the point @ tothe point also represents geometrically the vector A, Thus the vector Fig. 14 Representation ofa vector from an arbitrary point ‘ Chapter 1 This follows immediately frm the fact that the directed line 6 ment QR (FR 18) and the directed line segment OP (Fig, 13) have these length an he wae deco cone,” segment PQ represents a vector A, where PQ Is drawn from the paint P tothe point Q whose coordinates are (24) aNd (Yar 2), respectively, then the components of the vector Aare given vy EMM RENE MEE an Similarly, in the xy:plane (8 two dimensional spac), 9 vector 4] canbe represented geometrically by a dieted line see ‘ment OP drawn from the origin tothe point P with the coordinates (aye) as shown in Fie 5. The direction of the vector is uniquely Aefned by the angle ® = arctan (ay [Wis eae tt ay=[Al cos, age [Al sine 0s) where [Al (az +a? ° a Fig. 15- Vector in the plane.Vector Algebra ° ‘Example 1. Find the components and the magnitude of the vector A hts presente by the rete line segment PQ, where P22 andQ Ch had Solution: Ls 3,95 denote the omponents of A. By (4) 4p asta Henge, (1) AL 164s 3242272 29 Example 2 Find the direction cosine of diets line se sent which represen the vest A = [2.21 Solution: ‘The mage ofthe vector equal to [Alf zen = 3 Henee, by (12), the direction cosines of directed fine segment representing the vecor are Example 3. IF A = [3 what isthe length and the ditction of an arroutwhich represents the vector? Salute ‘The gol an arrow representing the vette is ‘equal tothe magaitad of Ihe vector which i ven By [Alsons y= vI0 The direction is determined by the angle ® «arctan (3/1) « 10849" rmessured counterclockwise tm the posive sani. Example 4A vector Ais sepresented by the dicted tine segment PO, where PG, 3) and Q: (1-2 Find the compe- fnis and the magnitude of the vector the diection eines Of The fe tegen and the anit veto et the ste dvction aa A. Solutions Let A= [oy>93, 4) By (hs) we have ape de2= 3, age G)aa, ayededed 0 Chapter 1 Hence, [A | =((3P + (42+ E12 = vt ond, by (12), eos Si, cos LM, cosy= ttt Thus w= [3/91 -1/V1, VV] is the ait wetor i the same tirecion at A. 1a EXERCISES In each of Problems 1 through 6 find the components and the magnitude of the wector tht is represented By the. deed. ne Segment PQ” whose intial pola P an terminal point Q are given, P42), Qh Pra) O:@3. Pit, 62-3) , P P (1,2) 02-13). B48, 020,23), 00.3, 6.10, Per In each of Problems 7 thro 13, find the coordinates of the tow point Por the the terminal point Q'of PQ whic represents the given vector TR ASDVIaL Qs, 13, TI A= [4,-2.2] find the direction cosines of an arrow represen ting the vector 15, Repeal Panties 14 for A «(1,-3.2 16 traplane vector’ Ais reprncntd by an arrow whe length it 5 units and whase dlaston i defined by @ = 150°, find the ‘ompenents of the vector 17, Rewind sbloeing inthe southwesterly destion at 15 mph, Fina the x- and the y-component ofthe wird veloc.Vector Algebra a 1 Show that the direction cosines defined by equation (1.2) sats the meaton cos costs coety = 1 19. tf A= [2-1-2 find the unit vector that points in he same “diction a Ar” in the oppenite direction tA. How many Sestors ave therein ether clieton? an. An aircaft token off tors on airport at the sir speed of Too mpi at an angle of feito of 1S deg.” How big fom the ground and how far fom the arport (om the ground) i the birt I in afr take? LM ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION We now begin the study of the various algebraic operations which can be performed on vectors, Fst we introguce the nation ‘of equality between two vectors n Chapter 1 Definition 1. The vectors A = [ay 83,24] andB =Py,barby] ae said t be equal, writen A =B, if and only ay=by, apeba, ayeby 09 Clealy, to vectors that ae equal can Be represented geomet cally ther by 2 single cested line segment or by two directed line Seyments ornating from two dstinet points and having the same Tength andthe same dzeton (ose Fi.) ‘We now introduce the concept of vecior addition, Definition 2. The sur of two vectors A =[sy, 2,45) and B= Byrby Baledenotedby AB, i the vector Aw B= faye By ape bye ays ba 02) proper of rel uber that adlion of velo aie he cm utative law Abe Bea os And he ssccitve I sD ALB 0% for any vectors A,B,C. Further, for every vector A we have Avorn a0) ond As(ayeo any A student who has been exposed to the concept of 3 group it modern algebra will undoubtediy rengnise thatthe properties (1.8) through (L11) are precisely the sxeme satisfied bythe elements of a Commutative group ‘th respect 10 the Binary aperation "+ For This reason we sy thatthe se of vectors forms 9 commutative ‘group wih respect to the operation of veto addition: Tha cone Stues part of the characterization ofa iar Weer spaceVector Algebra 6 Using the idea ofthe negative of vector we can intaice the operation of subtraction or the ciference Between fwo vectors We ‘Eline the dileence AB of two sectors Ana B to be the sum of the vects A and =B. That AP A [o94795] 294 B= By byl, then ALB AG CB) Doy-bap-byemty] (2) ‘The aditon and subtraction of vectors defined above can be emanated goomelcally sing vec line tpyrents OF aro¥s For conveninte we show thi for vectors in the sy-pane. Refer Fig to Fi 17, lt the artuws QP and OQeepresent the vectors A= [ayray) and © [BL eespectivly, 39 determined bythe pins P and Q. Now consider the paaelogram OPRQ with OP and OO as {wo of Its sides" SInce opposite sides of paalcogram ate equa in Ienath and ate paral fllows that OP™= QR and OQ- PRR Hence QRalso represents the vest Aan Rasa eprewits the vector B» Moreover, since OA = 21, OB=by, we seat OC = OA OB #3, +y. Likewins, since OD "by, OE =, we have OF = OD) F seg RC By 354) Fig. 17 Parlelogram law ofadation of vectors u Chapter 1 + OE=b;+ay Hence, the point ha the coordinates (9 +9). 1) and, therfore, the arn OR represents the vector sum A+ B Because ORs the diagonal ofthe pralllogram formed by the ve salle te puaflagram law af ation “The subtraction of fw vectors is ilsiated geometrically Fig. 18. Notice than the poraleogram formed by the geometric ‘eciors, one ofthe dlgonale represent the sun of the velar, ‘oh the oer represents the diference Next we induce the operation of mllpcaion of vectors by rel numbers oracaas Definition 3. Let be a ral number and et A= [9.25/94 bea vector The product of and A, denmtedy nr A, the westor ‘tned by mA =Imay-m rr] (as) The vector m Ais sometimes called 9 scalar multiple ofthe vcctor A. This term should ot be confused sth the sale product laf two vectors, which san eaielyaiferent operation (Sx 1). ‘Geometry, PQ represents a vector Aid Bm A, then R Fig. 8 Difference af two vector.Vector Algebra as Fig. 19 Scalar multiples of a vector, ‘an arrow representing the vector B wil have length east Jn | times the lenges of FQ: Hil point inthe same ieeston as AQ ins positue andi the peste direction fs nega, 38 shawn In Fig. 19. vom the defn (1.93) andthe Keen proper- tice of rel numer I esl vei that foray veces AB td Tor any scalars ms we have m(oay= cum ay mao) mA cas) (moma, wea oan) HALEA (19) These properties together with thowe ist in (1.8) through (2.11) onsnte the axiom that are atic. by the sements of 9 hear Sector space with respect 1 the twa Bins opera "addon {na "upton by sclas'" An element of nach 9 space i hen lle 2 vector Having introduced the concepts of aditon and selar mult: PMicstion of vector we now obeerve tat every vector As [edgy 24) canbe writen 36 6 Chapter 1 aye 92-991 [5.0.01 (0.29/01 + (0,035) 218,00) + ap0.1,0) + 100.1) Since each uf the vectors [0 0} (10) ae 0 0, 1 as agit gual to 1, they are unit vectors. We denote these unt wets by 1 rk respectively thus, 111.00, j=10.1,0) =10.011 cs) Henceforth we write every vector A = 4,4, 2] inthe form cas) nd cl (1.19) an analytic representation of the vector A “The set of vectors} ale the natal Bans fr the throe dimensional vector space. Geometrically the unt Vectors 8, Kare represented by arrows of unit length ang the positee cote dinate aes a shown in Fig. 1.10. Assuming thatthe components of the vector areal postive, We notice thatthe vectors 9,1, 93). Fig. 110 Analytic representation of vectorVeetor Algebra ” are parallel to the ceordinate aes and they form the edges of ‘esiingular parailpiped of which "A the diagonal Let P be a point with the coordinates fy 2). We cll the vector Rani sy} +2k ihe postion vector of the point Geomete ‘ally, the postion vecor of a point 1s the direct line segment Sawn trom the rg tthe pnt Example 1. Let A =1-2)+ 2k and tineae combination “2A B and (1/2)0 = 2B, ‘Solutions We have 21+ Se Find the 2A4 B= 20 -2) +2) 214.9-5k Seok ak (1/2828 = (1124-2) + 24)-20 + 4) Taya Example 2 Let A = otis 3), B =i Find the salesman such that © Solutions We have mls 3) ea) 2 Bei San af = 2b 3 Equting the corresponding components, we obtain the system oF sustions| sim ote 22, dee for the salrs m and m. Solving form and m, we ind mt nd = 3. Thus (2)A+ wee Example 3. Let A,B and C be tree distinct points ono straight line and It A, Bard Cdenote thar respective postion vector relive to 9 fed point © (Fgc11) I Cas the midpoint of the line Segment AB, show that C=(A» B)/2. Solution: in Fg 1-1 we note that the arow AB cepeesents the vecwor B=. Since Ci Ihe midpoint of the ie segment AB, i 18 Chapter 1 Fig 111 Position vectorof the midpoint of line segment. fotlows that the arrow AC represents the wecor (B A)/2. By the law ef verte addon, we Kiow that OC OA AG. Thus we hve C=A's BoA}? = (Ae BY Physical Applications As mentioned previously, physical quantities that Rave both smaghitude and direcion are fepreseniod and. studed ‘by ing Wectrs Inthe follwing examples we consider some. pic) ‘Problem fo trate the apphestions of vector Example 4 Suppose ship A is cruising inthe easterly dee ton a he speed of 1S /he whe hip Bs spoeding at 30 kn) he fn the northeast direction, Assuming that both ships started om the same pine athe same Hime find the ete t whieh the to shi ie separning ‘Solutio Taking the sani in the esserly direction and they: axis in the nmthery direction (ig 1.12), we se that the velocity of the ship A represented by the vector A's 15 and the velty of the ship Bby the vector B= 30(08 45% + in 455) = 15720 +)» B= 15y2(0+)) As I5) Shp A Fig. 112, Rate of displacement between two ships “The displacement f the ship Brea to the ship Ais represented by the vector D= B ~A. Hence the rate st which ihe ships ae sepoe ‘Bung egal to the ante of the depacement vector D. Since (A SIS2- 1 13}, i Flows hat |(va- P4202 = 15(5-22)!2 = 221 hehe Example A bad weighing 100 kis suspended fram to ropes. av shown in Fg. 1.13. ind the tension in the pes ‘Sutin Lt the tension inthe ropes be denoted by Fy =a yj and F=jo bah The weight of the boxy epresented by The vector W =-100), From elementary mechanics, since the sytem is Insulin, the sum ofall the fosen nmat be explo er Thin Fhe F+W (ay + bik + (aye by 100) = 0 Ths pls ay eb 0, 20 Chapter 1 F, 2b +b) Fae we 100) v Fig. 13 Tension in ropes fom which a weights suspended. Hence; == by and age by = 100, By symmetry, we know that [Fal =IFaL- which implies that ay = by. Therefor ay=by= 80 Since a, {F645 and a= [Fy [sn 43, follows that [y= iF '0y2 an a,2-by = S0. Thus F, = 501+ J) and Fp= 5044 +). Notice that Fy + Fy 10 Example 6 An aircraft fs cruising at an alr sposd of 25072 mph in the northeast direction. Wa wind of 25 mph i blowing from the mem (end uhat is the effective speed othe aircraft reatve to the ground? in what diction i the Scalt beaded 3 result of the twin? Assume that al motions are taking pce In 3 plane ‘olution there was no tailwind, the aieraft wou resin ‘on its original course flying in the northeast direction. As a result [ofthe fawind, the aterat Is also moving toward the east at 25 mph Thus the eflectve vlc ofthe array the sum of.‘ecor Algebra a crulsing velocity and the tallwind velocity: Let A denote the vel. Sy ofthe srrat and let W denote the velsty of the faving Referring to ig 114, we ne that A= 250/000 455 4 sn 459) = 2500-6), W 6254 Henge the efetve veloty ofthe aircraft is V = As We 27516250) and the effective sped i [V | =1275)2+ 250]! = 25 ¥221 mph, The direction in which the arrat headed given By the angle VeALW Oo Weasi Fig. 114 Effective velocity of an alreraft with llwind 12 EXERCISES 1. Prove the properties (1.8) through (1.1) of veto ation. 2 Prove the properties (114) though (117) of scalar mulipeae Bea se vw. Chapter 1 WA = 24-5 + 3k and Bk + 2f Ae tnd (0) 20+ (8) 3A +28, ( [A+ 8) @) 1A-B] Wa tej and Bai 9} = Syd 6) 68-20, (2) 2038.) [218 BD]. @) [AL 1B Was 3i-Jak_ and Be 2i find the vestorX s0 TPA 1+ 2k and B= 21+ j, find the vector X 50 that Let A = 3-j + tkand B=25 +k C= 41-25 + 7k. find the esis mand e30that C= 1A 8B Thas 69s Gand Bode $M Cam 19- fing the seals rand so that © =n =. Waste] 3k Boj ok C20 kang he 2k find thewcalars a, Dyande so that D aA + BB eC. Repeat Problem 9 Wf A 221s} ak Bal +2}-3k C=2-3) sk and D = 3-6) te Shoe that 0) |A* B]=|A| + [8], 0) A -B] = |B D}/2. Ths indkatcs a point commun to the ne set AC pons A,B). and D ae coplanar ‘Now (0A = )/4 denote a point on AC which dis the ine segment the so 123. Oth he hand (B 1 BY dene the midpoint of BD.Vector Algebra 2 Fig-148 Coplanar points EXERCISES Prove that if the midpoints of the consecutive sides of a ‘quadniteral are ined by line segment then he ening ‘qusdriseral wa poral ipras. LECE-Q. and I be the respective midpoit of the sides AB, BC, find CR of a trang ABC. Show thot the qundintera APOR 13's paralsogram Prive thatthe ne segment olnng the midpoins of wo sds of rng ara Ya eg hal the Show that the line segment joining the midpoint of the two onepoalel sides of ispestid Hregual in ength to hal The ‘Sum ofthe length ofthe parallel sides and fs paral to them, Show that the line which joins one vertex oa parallogram i the madpoet of an opponte side ined the Gna Lata, Be, and Danse the poston vectors of the points A, 1G and Dy mapetvely eth to a reference pon. It BA's 21D.-C) show thatthe line sepments AD and BC (estended i pecesary) meetin # pom sehich tesees these Mines Py Chapter 1 2 The points P and Q divide the sides AC and BC of tangle AC" inthe rato h/{= A) and k(t hy reap PQ ‘RAB fur some salar show that heen 4 TRAD and AC represent the vectors A and B, especie Sch that [As [Bic Show tha «pnt Pi on the Dacor of ihe ange CAB ad only ther ev scalar such ap Tae) 9. Stow Mot the Tne spments which jon the midpoint of the ppc sero quate ont exch aber, 10, Cansiders tangle ABC. Let D bea pont between A nd B Sed It E bea pts beeen Ba ech nig the es of ihe tangle in'he rato 21 ind the ao in which te point STinerton of AE and CD dere ne epee 11, TetDand te pits the ies AC ond Boh angle ssh thatthe line segment Dis paral eo AB the ine sme TE and BD mes point H show thal he ine CP aes AB 12, line trom a wertex of ange Bets he oppose els Sec by a sar te ug fom she vertex In what tat ee Iter nc tect the oppone ier 13, Lawaarmcos, €-00, and O and = ifm <@ Tien veetrs are sald to be paral i and only the angle Between them i Dor e- On the other hand two vector ae ssi fo Se tho iovol or perpendicar i and tly ifthe angle between thr i 3/2 ee concepts are of course geometrically evident ‘Now It A and ® be fer vaciors represented by the arrows OA and OF (hig. 12, By the paralelogram low of vector addon, Wwe Kove that BA represents the vector AB. Applying the nw of eines to the tangle OAB, we find Fig 1.20, ‘The scalar product of two vector.Vector Algebra a where isthe angle Belen A and Bin term ofthe magnitude of| the vectors A, Band AB, this becomes AL |Blane 2 ‘On the other han by the properties of salar pad we have JACBP =(A-BYA-B)= AAA 423) Comparing (122) and (128), we cbtaln IB m8 <0 IA fos <0 Fig. 121 Component of a vector aloag another vector 2 Chapter 1 AB = [Al [Bese aay) “Tha the scalar produel of wo vector i equal to the product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the ange Between then, Wwe exnine the plone formed by the vests and B in Fig. 121, we se thatthe quantity Boos is simply the orthogonal pajeton of the magnitude of B onto the vecor A,” We cal it the Eumponent of Balong Ar itis positive aro, oF negative according a5 028 <2/2,0 = ,0rs/2 <0 Likewise, the quantity [A [cost E called the component of A slong the vector B, Thus te salar Droduct of A ane B may also be stated asthe predct of [A and fhe component of B along A. o the prc ot [B] and the compo ent of Aang. rom (128) se obtain a formula for calculating the angle bet ween te vecony, namely cos = A°B/AB) 025 Bvample 1, Let A= 25-j + and B = 1 + 2)-2k Find the component of A along Band the component of Bing. ‘olution: By definition the component of A slong Bis given by [A cos 8, By (124) his equal [Aeon = ABB) since AB 20) 1+ 12) 2, || it follows that 1A [cos = ABB] =-2/3, Simuloly, since || =¥6, the component of B along A is given by [Blemst) asbeeayhy > abe by Subscripts 23 at a‘Vector Algebra » ‘A more convenkent formula forthe cross product (126) which makes suc of the nation sf 2 determinant of @ main ie given in G29. For the sake of thaw who may aot be Tamar wth the greet a mak ans determinant we presen Bey the be Matrices and Determinants We use capita eters A,B... to denote matrices and (A oF det at denote the determinant of mat A Definition 2/212 (eed to by two) matrix A isan ary of (eal) umber 9, ayrby.b writen a5 ‘ fe S| The mumbers ay,ay ar called the elements ofthe fist row and by bythe ements of the second row. On the fer hand, the numbers ay bare called the cements of the fs column, and ay the ee> ents of the second coh, The determinant of a 2x2-melrx A, denoted by |A, i rel uber defined by the forma ra aban, an “Tis cae a determinant of the second oder. Tor samp #22)-19)=1 0) -200)=3 144) -20) 0 Chapter 1 From the definition (127), it seal sen that if we inte change the tows or the columns of teal, he determinant of the resulting matrix changes sign. For example, if we interchange the rows, we sce that by by a agby-2ebae ty oe iterchange the columns, we obtain [Next we define 933 mate Aas an army of ne mambers apbye, 2 1.23) wten as Aa} by by by “The numbers are again arranged in tree cows ad these columns. "The determinant ofa 3x. matix h defined in terms of determinants of the second onder ant iven By the formal (28) es be)-albey bs) ray ya-b) “This called a determinant ofthe third onderVector Algebra a Without some mnemonic device, formula (1.28) would be datncut memorize. The flew remember here is thatthe nigh hand side of (128) consist of the algbrae sum of products of clement a, (153) of the ist row and the determinant af a 2x 2 atic obsined when the ckments of the fit row and the ele ments of the sth column (he column in which a es ae deleted ‘The signs of the terms alternate beginning with > plus sin in the fis tem. Thus, the second arder dlerminan! inthe second term fom the righchand sie of (128) the determinant of the resulting Second column are deed by be by With the formula (1.2) we say thatthe determinant is given by expamion by the elements of the fit row The ascond Crer ‘kterminant appearing in (1-28) togeher with the algebra sigh ae tolled the soars of the clement in the fist row. That the determinants Ib, ‘| I: 4 are the cofactor ofthe elements 83.95, respectively Tor example es oJ Toa leaf? fal! seals 8] 20-8)-(0-12)698-0)+2 02 oat tas 2 Chapter 1 10-4)-0+ 20042) Just the the second order determinant, the determinant of 2 3 1.3. mali alo changes sign erhenever any two rows oe any wo columns of the matey ave ierchanged. WE kave ths tothe reader to veri For example, if we Interchange the fist-and the third Clumns of the last example above, wwe ott aoe: 20 10 n PSfalstfelse pols 212-9) 0+ (3y4-10 ‘Other important properties of determinants are given in the exer Formula for the Vector Product A xB [Now let us tur to the definition of vestor product From the formulas (126) ad (127) we nerve tha AB = (gb, ayb3H + (04-9) 0h «P= a2bK “Reb beh Ref hs 3) a3 ay 29) by bs by For ample if A= 21+) 4 3k and Bei-2} + thenVector Algebra a From the definition of vector patti an be easly shown that for any vec A,B, Cand for any seal the flowing properties hol (@) AxB=-(6xa) (b) AX@sC=(axB)s (A 39) (3) mone B)o(A}xB A sonB) (@ AxA=O ‘These properties correspond to those listed In equation (121) for the scalar prt. Unie the sear penduct, however, (13a) implies that vector product not commutative. This property means that the vector Ax B and BA are cual In magnitude but oppose in fietion. Thus the order ofthe focar ins Wetor produl makes & literene. Ths property should be kept Ia mind a hls may’ well be the students frst encounter with an eperation bearing the name of product” which ia pot commute Property (1.30) says that fe foes product of & vector with itact recite inthe era vector even though the vector tlh may fot be the zero vet This que in contrat to the scalar peoduct fa vector with el, tha ASA = [Ay eich sero sand only WA the 200 vecoe Geometric Interpretation af AxB (5 ease of he sala radu he weston pres A 8B also tas an important goonetrc leerpetlion Fist, we show t the vecor AB orthogonal to bolt the veces A and By from the definition of scalar produc, we see that, Wd ay) + ago, ao) af AAs sny=0 “ Chapter 1 and similarly, Be(A xB) = 0. Thus A.B is arthogal ta both the ‘ects A and B. Further wien the wectrs ae Teprnened rome: tecally by arows, the deccuon of the weer A xB ote To the tren of Aad By the right-hand ule (9, 124). ‘That tthe index finger of the ight hand’ poms along the veclor A. and the enter finger poins along the vecorB, ther the thu points inthe Secon st A'xB (assuming tht the thom i perpendiealar wo the two fingers). IF the vectors A and Bare orthogonal tat Is A'B=0, {hen the vector A,B, A nB, in tha order Torn 2 right-handed ie ple of vettors that are mutually orthogonal. Foe the unit vectors bj hit follows that ixi-o, injeks hich of course can alk te verified direst fom the formula (1.29, 'Next, we consider the magnitude of the vector AB. For this purpose, we need the following ident JAXBP = /AP/BP (a Be a3) ‘This identity canbe established dec xpresions by showing that thet Ian (oby-apa? + (Py oF of- 9p)? IAP IBP- 8 BP =(ap+ abe agiOzenze Dd Cos ab op sad re indeed equa. (See aio Example 5, Sec. 19) Now let denote the angle between A and B, and kt us waite A°B = [A Bloc, ‘Then the Meniy (11) becomes [AxBP =|? [BC cod) = [ABP in oom which we bainVector Algebra s BA Fig. 124. Geometric interpretation ofthe vector product. (AxB|=1A)[B| sino 032) ‘This gives the magnitude ofthe vector A xB. Example 2. Find all the unt vecors that are orthogonal to the vectors A143) and Ba2t-3) + Solution: We brow tht the vector ARBe (+2) -WxQ1-2} += 3-6 'octhogonal the vectors Aan BL By aormalizing this, we obtain the unt vectors | Ge 2s Brample 3. Let A=1+2)-3k and B=SI-J + 2k. Find AxxBeand verily the formula (132), Solution: By (129) we have “alah 6 Chapter 1 1-14) -7% [axel =[t+ canes (mat? = Therefore m Since 4, (Bl =I (24 20) = vie and AB = 18) +2¢1) + (32=-5, wetind 0 =A B//AI|B) =5/14 Hence sine =[1-cost9p=[1-25/ 196)" amie andso |A/IBI sino vn (srayvtayvira 14) 4 we wish ta ven Referring to Figure 1.24, we ae that |B sn 8 represents the alkiude of the paralictgram formed Hy the vetoes A and By and TAI represents base Since the are of 9 parallelogram is equal the product ofits Base an its altitude, flows fom (132) tat the taghahade of the vecor Ax Brepresens numerically Uw area ofthe parallelogram formed by the vector A and B. This has an tnpoeant somatic applestion at we hal ee later. Th Sec ie saw that two nonzero vectors A and Bare ortho goal if and only if A"B =@. If the vectors are parallel so thatthe Engle between them is ether 0 ors hen t Flows fom (1-2) that JAB] [AB] sind = 0. This implies tat Ax =<, the zero vector. Conversely, if AxB 0, then |AxB}=0. Since A 0 we infer from (1.22) that sin 8 =0. Henced = Oe =» which ‘means thatthe vectors are paral e state this result 2 theo 20, “Theorem 1. Two nonzero vectors A and Bae parle if and only AxB =O, Example Let A's 35+ 3) 6k and Bei-2)+ 2k Find the area ofthe range lormed by the vetors A, B, and AB. ‘Solution. For any vers And B, we know that [A x Bl‘Vector Algebra © represents the area ofthe parallelogram formed by the vectors A nd 6. Since the area of the angie formed by the vec A, Band ‘A=B isone half that of the parallelogram (F128) follows that area of tangle = (12) 48] Now AW = (5 2) 6) (6-2) 2k) = 81-12) [axe] =? + cae (AMT and Hence the area of the Wang is 2V17 square unis Fig. 125 Area of triangle formed by the veclors A,B and AB. Fxample 5. find the area of the tangle with vertices atthe points Poh, 3), (1 3,2, a Rey 12. ‘Solution: Let A‘and B. denote the wesors represented by the rected line segments PQ and PR respectively. Then i‘ -214)-k and 8 Taking the cross product of these vectors, we find Axe. -a1-ay ake i a “ Chapter 1 Since [A.B] = 403, the ares of he tangle 203 aquare nits, Some Applications of the Vector Product ‘Asan example ofthe use af vector prey let consider the motion of pote P tals revolving aan angular speedo about a Fae at (hg 126) By convention the angular veloc ofthe par tile, whichis 9 vector quant, s epreente bya vector w whose ‘magnitude is equal to wand whose direction ss along the axis of rotation as determined by the eighhand rule (Let dhe fingers! the Fight hand point i Oye restion af rotation. Then. w pots sn the and ‘axes, espectvly. Equivalently, the dieton of 2 ine canal be ‘eseibed by a vector tt which the ine paral in which eae, the st Chapter 1 components of the vector Becomes the direction umber of the line” So suppose we wish to find an equation ofa line that pace ‘through the point Py Oy YZ) and parallel 16 the vector Al= a aprayk Let Rex y} 2k denote the position vector ofan ebro point P92) on the ine (Fig. 128). HER, =F Yad {yk denotes the postion vector ofthe pint Py, then the vector R = ys paral tothe wetor A. Hence there exis a ealar# such that R-R,=1A. ‘Thus the poston vector Rof an astitary point om the line b given by RERHA, (xetex) 038) This isa vector equation ofthe ine. ‘Te scart called parame- ter. A the parameter range fom == 10 = the weet Races the line foo one end to the Ger with F = 0 coresponding 1 the point Py “Te obtain the equation of the tne In cartesian coordinates, 3 2 a5 we know itin analy geometry, we equate the eoresponding Fig. 128 Equation of tineVector Algebra 8 components ofthe vectors (1:35). We obtain NeXt Hye Yeyyt Haye 2ezgttay (meter) (136) These are called the parametric equations of the He If we sims rate the parameter! from the equations (1.36) we colin the sy Imrie form ofthe equation ef the Tine as We point out that equation (1.37) can also be derived fom nother vector equation of th line, namely Whe equation (RRA 028) [Notice thatthe numbers yaa, 5apFearing in equation (1.36) and (1.7) are the components ofthe vector A. They are called the Sdrecton numbers of the ne. Notice aso that any vector paral to ‘Atay be used in pce of Ain {035}. This mana that any numbers Proportions #0). 8). Sy maya He used 39 rection sumbers of Example 1. Find a vector equation of the line posing through the points Pe (2, 1)and’Q: (3. 1 What ae the corresponding Paster equations and the equations in symmetic frm? ‘olution: We noe tat the ine para othe vector =H) + (== 28 3) eterna By he diet line segment PQ. Let Ry = 1-3} 4 and let R=xi+ yj 2k denote the ponlton vector of an arbitrary point (2) onthe ine Then By (1:35) we Rave Re RIA, so +1ee 3) rears (aan k By equating the corresponding compnents of the vector equation, 86 Chapter 1 ‘we cain the poremetrc equations xele2, yedest, 221 Gweten) By climinaing the parameter f, we obtain the equation in symme= tee foe Go mizey sala, 221 ‘The ine Hes om the plane # Example 2 Find the parametric equations of the fine that passes throug the point I 32) and is perpendicular fo the vee fom A 2 3+ dj +k ond Bai +2) ‘Solution Since the line ls perpendicular tothe estos A and 'B, ins parallel othe vector prot oF Aand B. Since Ay 3 21 f+ 2k 3 follows thatthe parmetic equations ofthe Ine are Lat, yar, 2em (wet en) Example 3. Find the point of inferction of the 160 tines fined by he vector equations Rye injrak reopen) Gacten) Ris HeHeket Cir ¥ 2k) Cacite a) and determine the angle between them ‘Solution: We peed fo find 4 value of the parameter & and 3 value othe parimetr * Sach that Ry" Rp: Ih sah vale es then the lines do nol interect. Now equaling the coerespanding components of the equation Ry = Ry, weft Datedeh, cteteaeme, ger eteaVector Algebra 2 Solving for and we find fect a the pin (20,3) "The angle beteen he lines is equal tothe angle between the two vectors to which the lines are cespectvey parallel. Brom the ‘ects equations of the ines, we se hat hes vo Vetoes are and ¢*= 1. Thus the lines inter= Ayrisiek and Ap=-i+3)+2% LetO denote the angle between these vectors. Since AyAg=4, 1Ay! =8,and Ag! =i wwe find 6060 Ay: Aa / Ag 1 Aa! =4/(03 9) 4/02 Hence the angle between the lines is equal 0 8 = arccos 4/42) = st ‘Now suppose we wish to find the distance from a point P(x, 4. 2110 a line detined by the vector equation (1.35). Using vector ‘method, this problem, which otherwise would involve long and {ealous computations, can be easily tackied a follows. Referring 1 Fig. 129, wesce thatthe distance @ of the point P fom the line i Poo yi) Fig129_ Distance of point fom line. s Chapter 1 sen by d= [P,P [sin 8, where 8 is the angle between the given Tie and the directed line segment PyP. Notice that P, can be chosen 2 ny point on the gen Se the ie pr he we IPP 0, then we have FQ) + Go singe LPs Inj + Least Fy Gi sine + (1 Bint Beowe Vector Funetions of One Vasile ” and et Foray] 111? ast int Int 180-8) -Gom ) nah = (in co9 t+ (hint = (0, there is a aumber 8 > 0 Vector Functions of One Viable a such that [RD-Al ce whenever 0 [ttf <8 es “Ths definiton is analogous to the cotesponling definition of limit fora scalar function, "Note, however, that @28) refers to the imaghitade ofthe wector Ft) A, wheres in the mae ane refers {othe absolute value of the difrence between the salar function Band ts limit Geometrically, the deinton implies thot relative to 9 Fed point O the terminal pont of the geometric vector (les Inside’ the sphere of radius ¢ and center a the terminal point of A Whenever [t= yl <9 (Fig 22) In terms of components iF F)= f(t) L+ fs0)}+ EdD kand A = ag) + ay then (27) equivalent to fim Gea (#123) 29) fim GOH + FANE ADK sak 0) Imaal Fig, 22. Limit of Ft) ast tends tot2 Chapter 2 Ht and only f 9) hol. As ares of this, many ofthe properties fit fe salar futons sls hold for vector unions." We late these properties asa thecre “Theorem 1. Let F and G be vector functions and fa salar function witha comawi interval of definition. Suppose that lim FO=A, tim Gt) Sy, My where A and Bare constant vests and 2 scala. Then we have @) tin Fs GL = AB hm FO aya ae en © fim, FONGI= AB tm, ORO) ema ‘These properties ean, af course, be prove from the definition (a7) and (28) or mone easly by expresing the vector Functions In {erm of the components ard then using the equivlent definition 29), Continuous Vector Factions Definition 2. A vector functlon F i salt be continuous at 8 point ty im is iterva of definition Hf and ony fier FO = FO) en) 1 (212) bs forall points in ty interval inition, then F is sad 1o be continuous in tater. follows for (2.10) that @ vector function is sontlounds in-an mera Wand only is Components ate continues in hat Interv.” Moreover, from Thess fem I, wee That FG and are continoous in 9 common ile Vector Functions of One Variable ® ‘al of definition, then so are the functions F+ G F-G Fx Gand AE Example 1. The foloing vector funtions are continous in the ingested ners (0) FO)=Asintt + Boost oetc2e, And 8 ane cansant ©) GYAN nj sek so 6) Myretsnitetingy wermdth, (20 Derivative of Vector Functions Definton 3. Let F bea vst function defined in ab. The Aervative of Fata point tn fab, dented by Ft) is defined as the ea provide the it exists IF Fens oral tin (a), thee we say {hot F i ifferemabe in (8 In terms of components, 17 F(D = f+ Ej +f then (2.13) may be writen as feed gtean-1f0 Fee tig [SAND ean ae = sgt ano Therefor, i the components ff have a8 all ierentisie, then we Fe AOE BEDE HO ey "hus a vector function Fs eifrentiable i an interval and onya Chapter 2 its components are alk itferetabe in that interval. Since a salar function fe continuous whenever ti dfereiiabl, i fellows th F(t) continuous in ite Interval of deinton whenever F{Q) exists in that ster, “The rules for diferenating vector functions are snvar to those for scalar fantions. We ste these rules ae a theorem Theorem 2 Let FG, and h be differenable functions in (a, 1). Ther inthe some infra we have (@) FO Gor = FO + Ge ©) NORE = HORE) + MOF aay ©) REGO = Fercn HFew) ©) FOG = FO ) 10. Let i) afcos ut + sin wtj) + Bk (O21 <2a/ay, where a, band w are postive constans. Show that Fsoisfies Theo Vector Functions of One Variable ° MH Let FWD 23s 214+ a(t + cos 24 asin tk ate) Find the dorivaive of [FGF te Fy = Bie ink eo) He aed Show that the angle betwcen F@) and F() independent of 13, Let FQ) =Ac® + Be" where A and Bate constant nonzero estirs and is = alae. Shove tht Fi) sais the equation FQ) -«? FU) 0. 114 11-RQ) ia veto function which fy twice differentiable, show thot TRO A FCOP = FO) xB. 15, LEU () be a uileretiable vector fnton, and et FQ) = [FQ]. Show that FU FQ) = POOF. 16 HGH) = FY FI PA, show that GU) = FOF FG) xP) V7 Lt F() = comuti+ sn tj (=25/0}. Show that FG) satis the equation FQ) + wF() = 16 LEVFI)=A s BIG), where A and B are constant vectors and f a flee diferente salar uncton. Show that FQ) x EQ) 19 Let RQ) =A cos ot + B sin wt whore A, B, are constant, Show that RQ) x Rit) = 0A xB. . 20. Let et)" RIY/TREDL. Show hat exe = (R xdRY|RIE 21, Show that # RC) SR) 0, ther RU) hss 2 onstant direction. 32. Show that I Fil)“ waF() and GQ) =wxG) fora teh, thm (Ee) x Gy) = w TFA) GU, here wa conte 24 SPACE CURVES AND TANGENT VECTORS ‘The su of curves_and surfaces in space spreatyfitated by the use of vector enculnBegning inthis selon we cons ‘tr seme nthe Bose gem propria of space curvin ad thle Spplcains inthe study of cuvilnear motsChapter 2 Equations of Space Curves ‘We recall that a curve in space may be defined a 2st of points (% y-2) determined by three euntone ofthe form Nex. yey, 2220) 16) The functions x), y(t), and 20) are assumed to be continuous fuse- ‘ions ofthe real vanable tin some interval [ab] As in the case of {the equation of 9 straight ine the equations 216) ae alles parame ‘ee ations of the curve, and ti called the parameter To obtain 3 ‘vector equation forthe curve, we consider the position vector Ri) of ach pont om the curve simresponding to the parameter Since the mponunts of R() ae prevasy the coordinates the point fellows that RW=AErVjFADK, (azteb) IT) the vestor equation of 3 space curve a west funstion of 3 Fig. 23, Aapace curve ‘Vector Functions of One Variable » real variable t defined in some inerval at Conversely, suppose Ri) 9 vector function that is defined and continuous in fab Hf we regard RQ) as the psition vector of 3 Bin foe each [ab then at ranges ver [8 8] the set of pints stermined by Re) describes a curve In space (Fig 2.3) Therefore, us ea scalar funtion of one vara, y «fe (C6 x eu) may be cepresentes graphically by 9 plane curve, soa vetor funtion R = Ri) (@ «= 9) of 3 single variable may’ be represented [raphy bya space curve. Of curse, i'z = 0 ideally then RQ) {hi yt) represents curve on the ay-plane By elim parame trom the equations xx) y= yf my Be pl Stain am equation ofthe curve in the form y= Ter example, the veto fanction RU)=(Leacesthe (I sasingy, (Oxt<2n) seprsents a cre of rave» and center a the point (1) (Fig 24 Ife write the equation tn the foe +1) afeos t+ sin t)) Roe Re) ve see that the pasion wetor of each point nthe cise isthe ‘ctor um of the potion vector Ry ofthe center of the cle (ela tive tothe ongin) andthe poston vector RQ) ofthe point relative Fig, 24 Vectorequation ofa cle.” Chapter 2 to the centr ofthe cice. By eliminating the parameter rom the Parametric equations xeltacut — yeteasine @ste2—) we obtain (oP eq-aF aa? ‘whichis the standard esuation ofthe cece fn cartesian coor Orientation of Space Curves curve that is cepresented In parametric o vector equation ‘canbe given one of te posible drctions with espect othe pars tmeterinnaturel way, Phere fs the direction a wich the eure s traced asthe parameter tineeases fem a obi he interval sts Bits customary to alts direction the piv direction on he urve the opposte direction is then called the negative section Curve on which eirection hasbeen designated aut toe ‘reste. Graphics, ve denote the orientation of curve by an Sttowhead onthe curve. This for example, the cen Fg 4 has ‘Zounterclockwise orientation This mean thatthe posi dire thn is counterclockwise which ithe direction in which the cre is traced set ineeanes rom 0 #02 ‘We should point ou ese thatthe parametric epresentaton of ‘space carve iso unue. Thi meane that tis poste, we 60 ‘elite to change te parnmeter tin G6) or @ to anoter parte meter ays by sting t=) where fis any differentiable Function Such that #90, without changing the carve self The condition Fe enauce th existence ofthe terse netion ffs that he ‘oeespondence between the two parmeters sand tsone-toone: If Fisanincreaingfuncion ofthat, > 0, then under the change of Parameters the sriginal sentation 0 the curve is preserved. On the ‘ther Rand fF the orientation a the curve wi be reversed. For ‘example, sfwe act t= sash equation for he cece shown Fig the orenaton ofthe circle Becomes ck. ‘Tangent Vector on a Space Curve ‘We now consider the geomet significance ofthe derivative ‘Vector Functions of One Variable oo lof vector function with expect tothe curveit represents. Let C be Space curve represonted bythe equation Mie Diez 19) ssh he orton a) and) ae continously ieee Rw yyy = tim ARQ) GR gi a a1) where we have set AR) = Rt+ AY) Ri). By assumption, his limit tists. Let Psd Q denote the points on the curve whone positon ‘ectrs ate pve by RQ) ad RE» a¥), respectvely Fig 25). Then, Esa 0 the point Q tends tothe point Palong the curve and the line passing tifough P and Q approaches a liniting positon a P ‘which is the poston ofthe tangent ie to the curve Se Hence, the limit, the vector represented by the derivative (219) (assuming (oe Oj is tangent to he curve af P and point in the (positive) fisection in whch te curve is traced as increnses cee Fig. 25) ‘Thus the derivative ofa vector lunction seated fo the notion of ig, 25. Thetangent vector.2 Chapter 2 tangency asin the cae ofa lar function ‘We call the wetorreprescnted by JR) /a a tangent vector wo the curve atthe point P corresponding toa value of the parameter & ‘The vector BO RO! ay in called the uni tangent vector. tena of Ss component this Uni tangent vector Is ver By NOUV OI 20K he e2y Vxatsyors20y Knowing the langent veeoe at 9 point of curve, is then easy to weit down the equation ofthe tangent ine Lo the curve at that Point by the metho Se. 8. In fat if the vale oF the parae meter that corresponds 0 the pont Py on the curve then a vector equation forthe tangent line at Ps given by Ra PRM R, ) (see Fig. 26), where RY denotes the positon weer of an arbiteary Pt the tangent Une. ‘The corresponding parametric equation MaRS A RUQM YEN ANGI 225 21 where xy My) pega yl enm 0 ‘Solution’ The parametric ssuatons ofthe curve are given by int, 2=b4, (20) Vector Functions of One Variable %s So Pas fooste ssnPt ea? we age that te curve le onthe lateral surface of circular einer “oundiate 2 increases since b> Therefore ast increases, the carve Spits upward around the ylinder in the counterlackwise dec: ian am vowed from nlp the postive v-ai (ip 28) The curve Called circular hel JA ange tr to hese foray sae of >= 0) gn Fig. 28. A circular els9% Chapter 2 RW) =-asin +a cost ek “To obtain the unit tangent vector, ee normalize R() by dWviding i by ltsmagnitude, namely, 'R(Q)| =(@2 + b2)/2, Hence we have asin ti cost) +k Veen ‘ ‘We close this secton with few remarks concerning the types outa hal dealing inn this bok. We yt ce curve represented by RQ) t= smoot # Rt) has cor ‘Whousdeswative in obj such hat RW #8, Coometcally. us freon that a each pon on the curve thee is a amgue lange Seto hich urns continuously as moves along he eure with The parameter Examples of smoot curves ae nes, eees, para bolas spits and helles. We say that aspace curve ls plecewse smooth i (has piece continuous non-ero derivative in {By Tae meane that the interval [x 8am be cides into sine Vis a= fyztycnn-<'y=b ach ihat in each ofthe subintervals th-1 21m RU has continuous derivative dterent fom and thatthe left-hand and right-hand limits of Ri) att = exist {Gump discontinuity). Ths a piecewise smooth curves composed St pieces of curves each of which ssmooth, Focexampl. theses ‘oF rectangle connitute» piecewise smooth (closed) curve ‘We sty thata curve defined by Re) a tsb, s cose if Ra) = R(y). If nadaiton, each point onthe curve corresponds to one and ‘nly on vale of the parameter ® other than te aanat=b), thew thee called mumps curve Roughly pei ime ple clove curve sone that docs not crs el. Unies othvae [ited, all curves acuased in hinbook re asusied fo Be prcemise Smooth and all losed curves are asumed simple 25 ARC LENGTH AS A PARAMETER Let bea smooth space curve represented by RE) =i yO oz (astsb) ex ‘Vector Functions of One Variable ” Denote by st) the are length of the curve from the point sone: ponding fo 7 a toa point coresponding to artery vale oft (Fig 29). "Then, a6 shown in elementary cleat, the ae length is fpven by the intel Sere’ 19 = [eo ye ree ax Since the integrand in (223) i presnely the magritude of Ria | snl, 29 7 “This given us the relationship between the ate kngth sof the curve land the parameter) By the Fundamental Theorem of calcu follows that ey -[fo)>0 225 Thus the are length. isan increasing function ofthe parame Equation 225) impls that @y-le[-2-4 Henge i 3 define the vest ferential AR By’ the equation AR = Gi say) edek then we have = oRat ab dy dat a2) The ferential ds called the clement of ae length8 Chapter 2 Fig, 29 Arclength ofa curve. “The study of the various properties ofa space curve is greatly faci tate sehen the curve fs represented by paramris equations whose parameter the ar lengtns of the curve measure from some Ine {at point on the curves indeed, Hf we take ane end ofthe curve 86 the nil point(s = 0), then each pie Pan the curve is unigly etemined by the ar length of the curve measured frm the ni point Wo he post B Wilh lengths 9 parame, we ime ely see rem (225) that Hence the veclor AR()/ds sa uit tangent vector. Therefore when 5 curve fs represented by an equation Re RG) with ite ae feng | Dene L, ssa parameter the unit fngent vector is ue ARs) ae ex) ‘Vector Functions of One \ariable » For example the vector equation RQ) = rleastis slaty, ete) represents cle of ras with enter athe origin, The tangent ‘eon ven by Ry s0 that |RY)|= Therefore, by 224) the ae length ofthe cele lrenponng ta avai ots pen By fron, Oster Hence, wo replace by s/t, we aban the equation in thecost Ro) reo 94 + sin 6/01 vith the arc length, s «24 as.a parameter The unt tangent west n gven by RG) =-sin(o/NLFeosi6/0) Example 1. Find the ar length ofthe curve represented by RU)=eHeortiesintj), Ozten) ‘Whats the parametric equation in terms of its ae length? Solutions We have Rid = east -sin i ein t 60s so that In) =ae ‘Hence by 224) the are length ofthe curve se fora = 201)100 Chapter 2 The arc length from the ial pont (1,0) (t= 0) to an arbitrary pin (abirry le of 1 onthe curve veh by fre 208 Hence f we wish to represent he curve inter of vareengsh 8 parameter, we have to expres the parameter in ferme of eae lengths Insther words, we need ovale fr tin terms rom eins st Ris) = (6/V2 6 1c /¥2 + 1H + sn [ls /92 6 N19 Example 2 Represent the fix Ri} =afcosti + sn tj) + bik, oz tes sae engi asa parame Solution’ ‘We have RU) = asin + cont) bk sothat [RUD] «126 B4F2 Hence se flea PN Replacing ¢ by 3/la? 8 in te vector equation of the hin we blsn the desired equation, In genera it elem very difficult lo obtain the ae length sin terms parameter inthe sense thatthe integra (224) may nok lays be expressible by cemetary functions. And even when this Is posse, may sill be dificult fo salve fe tin terns of The nice of ‘using arc length as the parameter bs, however, very onwensent inthe theoretical develpment of geometric properties ‘of curves as we shall ee Inthe nxt ston, ‘Vector Functions of One Varable ra 23. EXERCISES 1. Oblain the representation ofthe spiral Repacoostis sine) (820) fn terms of the new paramere, where x= dad sow that the ockntaton ofthe curve fs preserved (Obtain anatherrepresentatinn of the ctv ROHR PR Gao In terms of the parameter where 10 the erentato ofthe curve? a. Show that the curve defined by <8 What happens RU) =aeost + Sint) +a) sin Dk (=O) is plane curve. (Hint Show that His the intersection of a ‘linger an plane) 44. Show that the curve detined by RW WeostL +sintj +k) (20) Fis om a ume, This curve fs aed conical heli In each of Problems 5 through 10, describe the curve repre sented by R(t), and find the unt tangent vector to the curve 9 the point coresponding 10 the van vale ib 5 R()=Hostl = sine) (20) t= a6 & RG)- aconti vba}, 9 and Bare constants (Ot < 2a 2 Rete DH ot) nop t02 Festa ilk wat ca sen (sage dhe 40 seca adyt ss To Mysetieedp reek toy IT. Butunin ie angi fe cove repre by Ri}-eteuti sant k) 20) ay function of L Express the equation uf the curve in terms1 Chapter 2 ofthe are length 12 Determine thea eng of he curve represented by TRA) =teowtd ssn tk) We) sa function oft 18, Reprewnl the curve defined by TR) = int -Tcos + Gos te tsin gj + (C/I xO) Sin tens ofthe are nth of the curve 14. andthe length ofthe curve defined by RQ) =siatT + tj + (l= cost forOate ae 15, Tin dhe length of the cisula bec R)=alcont = sin) + b0K. from t= Oto t= 2 16, Find the expresion of the ar length ds forthe curve given in {@) Problem 3, @) Problem & 17. Let C be a carve in the ay-pane represented in polar eon rates bythe equation F=A®) (earoont, yersind) where fis 2 continusly diferentable Fnction. Show that 68 = [F40) + 0H 126. SIMPLE GEOMETRY OF CURVES We consider a space curve that is parametried by R » Ro were detente length of the curve, Oz z L_ We dasumne tha RG) has continoous derivatives up to the second order inthe inter val (0,1) As we saw in the preceding section, the unit tangent ‘corto the curve given by t= URG)/ eh. Nov et eit how the unit vector t changes as it moves along the curve. Since tae “onstant magnitude only ite rection can change. The rate of tN change is messured by the devalive dhfdxSce the magpitude of Us conetan we know fom Theoreny 3 (S623) that tang dt dare orthogonal hence, ta Curvature and Principal Normal Vector I dt/ds <0, then #6 9 unstant vector anes not change in roghitude and dirction hence, the curve is stright ne. the ther hand, t/ds-0, we can rite Vector Functions of One Variable us, Seo esomes oa») where a2 ut vector inthe sane direction ay tds and ene, Crthogonal to. He follows fom @38) that 7 x-(o] om oe | Ne) iis) toa The quay (0 defined by (229) called the curzature ‘ofthe curve at the pont corresponding othe parameters. kis 3 messure ofthe ate al which he unt tangent tector t changes is rection ata point, lange vl of a» point imple that the curve “Sarpy curved” af that poi, whereas 3 small value of means that the curve almost “straight, Thus for 9 steaght line x ips we have bmerved abv Wher 0,1 reciprocal p= scaled the radius of cure tare. This i te rads of the ce, called the cee of creature, that bet fis the curve at the pin! determined by “The unit welor mdeines by (230) eal the prineple nor ‘mat vector tothe curve atthe point sorexponding 0 the parser the cemer of the ire of Curvature ties on the tine sng tNe Pringipal normal veto Tn order to get an tea of the direction of a the cure lets cvamine geometrically the definion of dt/ds, namely, So n S Retrsng Fig, 210, we mice that when ds =O the weston = Ais as)= ts) i decd toward the concave side ofthe curve. Since [A820 the same i treo the iit of &/ As a8 Ae en over, Foe [AS £0, the vector AE Is diected toward the converse of the curves Iowa since 8s « 0, he weet AU pols in the opus drewos Chapter 2 ig. 210. The principal nomal vector, tion to 8 and sos the Limit 4/8 se Fig. 210 and also Example 5) "Therefore, a each point on the curve, the prisipl norma We. {ar pains toward the caeave side ofthe curve Example 1. Consider the srl of rads » decribed by Ris) = c08(6/a)5 + sin 6/a)f) Wese2a) We haves) = RI) == sin (0/8) conn shat 9)» (afc (91-879) Since ts) am , we deduce that x = 1/0 and n =-c08 (6/4 Sin(s/3}). Clesryn==RIs)/3, which shows tht the principal no tal ede pons toward the cen a shown in Fig, 211-1 flows thatthe eile of curvature coincides withthe cre sel Vector Functions of One Variable 108 Fig 211 The vectors ¢ and onacitle (Osculating Plane andthe Binormal Vector We cbnerve that a cach point on a core, the tuo unit vests ‘and determine a plane sootaining tat point This plane i keno othe acting poe tthe plane thal bt fis the curve that poi ad thus clans Ihe eile Gf eurvatre. For 3 plane Sutve (oo saght line), he osculting plane cincdes with the Plane on which IE curve ti In peneal however the cating Fig. 222 Oscuating planes106 Chapter 2 plane varies from point Wo pont on the curve as shown in Fg. 212. Since tand wae orthogonal unit vectors, follows that [B|= tem] 2 Moreover, toc Bf erthoponal to lath the vectors andy fs orthoganal tothe esculatng pane. We eal fhe umit wectorB the Dinormat vector tthe curve: From the definton of cas product, It follows thatthe three vectors tab, in that oder, ema ight handed tile of orthonormal ects varying im direction Frm pint to paint on the curve. The vecton ae sometimes referred to Sea moving trihedral (Fg, 2.3), Tor the plane curve ia Example 1, we observe that sin (9) 4 eon (6/a)} and mis) ts 9/9} 4m (6/3). Hence the binormal vector Bs 8 given by is) tpt) ok ‘whichis indeed orthogonal to the xy-plane on which the cise es Fig. 249, The moving tibedsa. Some Important Formulas When 9 curve is ropresented by R-= Ri) where an abitary poramter Ho unt tangent vector € given by) “RY TRU) By the chain vue he Gevauve of © wih respect are length 8s Vector Functions of One arable aw nat tds ast v0) vat “RW Boe ex) Thus the vector tt) has the same direction a6 6) and, therefore, the principal mena vector ey also be given by the format aye £0 0 eo Th shows thatthe formula 20) for he pci oral er ‘so ar wha rama edn Spy cave Frame dein 0) ofthe cave we en ex na or = ROL 23) Another form forthe curvature, which may sometimes be more ‘convenient tows, gen By (ee Problem 10) IreOxRW) < : Rwl ex Example 2 Determine the curvature, the princlpal normal tnd the birt vector forthe circular Heli Ry oot sin) sete 20) Solution: Since Rl) «alsin i+ co 8) + Ble, we have RW) _-asintlyacstj+bk *0 = Tea > vee Taking the derivative, we find conth-asin tj veee ae18 Chapter 2 and so [€()| = 32+ 8372 Hence by (233) we cbain wt =a/002 83) “Ths the heli has» constant curvature a to be expected. By (230) we ind =-costi -sint) hich is direct toward the ans (2-ai) ofthe hols. Taking the Cross product of tand'n, we cetain the binoral veckr bj ok sasint acest ® Fig. 214A moving tihedral ona bets ‘Vector Functions of One Variable 109 | Dein ti-boos tj + ak ‘The tribe (¢,m.B) om the helo are shown in Fig 214 Curvature for Plane Curve Consider & curve in the ayeplane. Since tis 2 unit vector, we may wet itn the for 169 = caso t+ sin 8094 where at) denotes the angle of inctination of the tangent vestor at the point coresponding tot (Fig. 215) Then, dflerntaing with respect tot we btn #0) = Faint + casey pm Hence |e(0) [0], that [E()| 62 measure of he abwote Fig. 215 «(t= [dwd0| ona plane curveno Chapter 2 ‘value ofthe rate of change ofthe angle of inclination of the tangent vector 1 7 » 0 then i) i nereasng with ¢ an Renee the prin pal normal vector given by (= -sin()4 + om (9. 8) <0 50 that 8 Is decreasing witht then according © (230) we have mt) Sin (cos 8) In ether cae, ve se that mis dected toward the cancave side of the curve sine BY 5) the avatar x gen by «= JOVI 40d _ do oo 2% 8 wen abd ta vo-|st Thus for a plane curve the curvature & a mesture of the absolute value ofthe rate of change of the angle of ciation of the tne sent vector, with respec 0 are length ample 3, Find the curvature ofthe curve represented by RQ) al(t-sin i+ (L-cosdj] Oste2n, a> 0 Solution: We use the formula (2.4) First, we have RQ) «af()- cos) sn Ro) = dfs tt cost so that oe RRQ) =falr-eosy) asinr “Therefore IRQ xRE)| = lost-1) and so, by @258), we ind Vector Functions of One Variable m 2 Feeo Iw >” Ba Ut-esija 2a EXERCISES sch of Problems 1 tough 5, find the (2) curvature, () principal noemal vec, and (@) the Binal vector of the space Sirve reprented by the piven verte equation, 1 RG) =hs sD} ¥Bck oO), 2 Rijecantivesdintjrcth (120), 3. Riystowti stant) tk (te) 4 ORe)scmh tie sin bee C20), SR) afsint-teot)s + costs tsin)j +8/2K (120), Bi the radius of curvature of the cue described by R()scosti esint} scostk (ate In) fn determine the cener ofthe cise of curvature when #6 7. Bind the center and the radius of the cite of curvature of the nve described R(t)= (U> wntjd = (2 cost) «Asin Q/2)k when t= 9/2, Find the curvatuve af the curve deserted by Riy=ctivetp sath (ta) 9. In cath cae find an exaton of the esculating plane the given curve ot the indested point {5) the cuve given in Problem 2 at t= 9/4 (2) the curve given in Problem 3 at t= = 1a, Lethe curve € be represented by RQ) (a2 2b) where RO) Is twice continanusly diferentable Show thatthe curvature may be gen by xy = BORO! Ieor (Hine: Difeeniate Rt) = (65) with respect tos and use 25))Chapter 2 Refers to Problem 10, show that also wetwotumoxerl ire? [Hint: Differentiate t= RY()/ |R'Q)| and use (2.33)] WCudgintee dosed ee Reet (oa tif oman Plo 1 ec oyo-woyel tee? yor 01H.€ maby =f), owt lee a+r Let C bea plane curve described by Rs) = m6) + ys). where denotes ae length Show that Mo) xt ey) and ni =-YOIX)I fers 2 Probl 10 shuw tat Band mare pen by more feos] ROAR ORE xi _ ROXRORRW rox w Re ‘Vector Functions of One Nariable a 27 TORSION AND FRENEESERRET FORMULAS ‘We have seen that the curvature of a curve t related 4 the rate of change of the unit tangent vector ss it melon the Curve There is anther property of 9 eurve, called toon, that felted to the rate_at_which the binormal vector b changes Ks Girton at aves song, the curee withthe ober two unit ve toms tand n. This rate ot change s measured by the derivative {Sb/ds. Now since B- hay constant magnitade, we know that bss Sonhogona to By dferentiaing the equation Bt = yee abla since Br dtds=brkn = in view of 228). Thereforg the west 136/ds i cethogonal both Bat WW dbase, then bf a constant vector and hence the curve tsa plane curve. On the uther hand f dbids-e then because Is ‘orthogonal to € and bit spore tothe prinipal poral vector Bo =n a5 “The scalar factor (6) scl the torsion of the curve at the point tovreaponding to the parameter The fran of curve 8 ease fre of the ale at which the bingemal vector othe excuting plane fotntes about the tangent vec a8 It moves along the curve The fegatve nn in (238) is introduced a0" tat the frson wil come Sut pontive when the rghtanded tape tn, rotates in eght= handed sense about the fngent vectors it eves in the pie direction on the curve Tust asthe curvature ofa taht line is zer, we deduce fom (@an)than the torsion of 3 plane curve Pr Equations (228) and (235) are the results of diferentiating. the unit vectors and sith respect tar length To complete the ano Iyse of the orthonormal act of vectors (rb), we mw comer the dematwe of mince m=bxt, we have ano yy st am espe itne Chapter 2 Using 28 and 2.35), this bacomes ds fe ennts bane since nxt #-band ban=-t Therefore, collecting our rest, we Ive the system of equations a as an a xteeh a2) ab & stifled by the unt weclors t,he These equations ane known 38 the FreneSerrt formulas. They play a ceil role inthe study of ferent geometry of curves When the curve fs represented by RQ) where | is any pore: mete, 9 convenient formula Tor the foro Ix given by ROR ORG) aye ORO KORO! en It we substitute (234 forthe curvature x, (297) besomen aR. RO) w= : Roar) ay “To derive the formula (237), we note that fy ooRES ge RO = Ge at Sat Vector Pantin of One Vaal ns woe Ba) ven(Q) oa ® woe a eal cet tad | dh de dt? ye na(dl) core) doh, (oe where we have repeatedly used the formulss 2.36). Taking the cross Daiductot Rand Re we oan rome «cern ee Taking the dot product af this expression with" noting that is Cath nan we etn : (a) ROR OR OR from which (2.37) follows in eve of 25) Example 1. Determine the torsion of the helix decribed in Example 3 Sec 26 Solution: From Example 2, Sec, 26, we have ey = baintl boost) + ak6 Chapter 2 and as 2 Sima) ¥ ab _ ddl _ bootie bain dads ae se ae int. Therefore the torsion ofthe heli as which 6 a conslnt. ‘This means that the osculating plane rotates ‘Sockwie about the tangent vector ata uniform rate a lit up fhe el. The suent should very tat beets MMtecoat} _ de eee Example 2. Determine the tomion of the surve represented by RQ) =a(l-sint)t +a cast) +bEk (820) where a and bare postive constants ‘Solution: We use the formula (2.38) to deteemine the torsion Diterentating,R tree tines, Hn RQ) a(t cond + asinty + bie RI wa sintivacosty Re) = scent asinty ‘Vector Functions of One Variable ur Hence ijk a(l-eost) gaint & RORY abeasti + absint) + a4 e08t- 1) IR) ART(OI? = 9262 6 at oont- 1? since RUHR RG = oat 1 fotos from (2:38) that » * Featost-p? 25. EXERCISES In each of Problems 7 though §, determine the torsion of the siven curve The curve described in Problem 1, Exercise 24. ‘The curve described in Problem 2, Exercise 24. ‘The curve decribed in Prubiem 3, Exerse 24 ‘The cure described in Problem 4, Exercise 24 ‘The curve described In Problem 5, Exerie 24. Fin the torsion of the curve desebed By peeps Re)=t 2B] + BIER (820) where is. 3 postive constant Shove thatthe forston ofthe curve described by RU=tederaieeenk — (20)us Chapter 2 A Let Che a curve represented by Rit} where R(t) ss thre times ‘ontinuoly difleremiable te t='0. Show tht the tron at ‘ny. point given By ROR ORY) ROAR! were the numerator denotes the salir triple product of RY Rand R™ (Hint Difeente R') and te the Frene Seret formula) 9. Show that i Cis represented by Rls) where denotes ar lengthen ORERG) Rw 6) 10. Find the curvature and the larson for the curve © represent y Re BBE] EBLE (U0) 11. Wte the FrenetSeret formulas for the curve RQ) =(sint- tos + owt tsin js AK (120) 12 Wate the Frnet-Seret formulas for the curve RG =sinti otf s-ewyk (120) 128. APPLICATIONS TO CURVILINEAR MOTIONS: ‘Let R(t) dente the postion veto of 9 moving particle at time « eatve toa rectangular coordinate system, AN ¢ vate over 3 tme Interval the porte traces at a carve is space. This curve i called ‘he path or trajectory of the pote (Fig 216). We shal show tht the physical concepts of vec, speed, and acceleration of the [IME can be defined ia ero of the derivatives the postion ‘estor Ri) Fig, 216 Curvilinear motion of «partic Velocity Vector ‘Suppose that a particles at pont P at ime t and ata pont Q a time tts Then. a8 shown in Fig 216, AR = REE + AD) RO) Tepresens ‘the displacement of the particle from P 0 Q during the tie interval AL The iatantaneous velocity of the parce al Hoe tehich we denote by) defined as the nt ios aR, taro a= wos, ity os We call the vector function (239) simply the veocy uf the particle ime {Thus the time derivative ofthe postion vector af mo¥= ing porte represents the well ofthe particle ‘Now kets. denote the distance taveed By the parts aang its path By the chain ule we have0 Chapter 2 AR _ dR ds ao eat ae “ we ew) whee ts the unit tangent vector tothe taelory of the pace ‘Th shows that the velty vector wi det long the tangent ecto iat the veloc wer i angel fo te pth of mtn. Morven Nom aR) as wn = woot =| = em swe #68 tal the magide of he velosy vor eepresents the Tate of change ota length with reaps ome, hich presly the te a wich the pace awry ang pth. Te sear ip cae te sped of he parte fine URI) =e ye +2 eB) tenth velo 0) 6 siventy ve) = Bot Boye Moe ex) so tha the speed at Kime ts as vey= bears ye? ze? = ot ea Acceleration Vector 20 =o) Mo 7 : In ters of ts components, the acceleration vector Is piven by a, [oe Vector Functions of One Variable m so that its magnitudes ay = tay = Ve@yoree? 246) Unlike the velocity vector the acceleration vector isnot tangential tothe path of motion Infact we shal show later that at) can be ‘ipresied aoa linear combination of the tangent vectort and the Principal normal vesioem Example 1. Consider the motion of a particle described by Re) ~a(cos ett +sinatp, t 20 where a and «are constants, Find the velocity sped, and accele- ‘Rtlon af he paite asa function of time Wst20. ‘Solution’ I'welet © at denote te polar angle which the po sition vector Rmakes withthe axis, we ste that ast increases the fl is moving counterclockwise round the origin onthe cle dius a" The veloc vectors given BY v= RU #206 sin at +cos or) sothar the speed is w= Iwi = 20 hich is constant. The salar called the angular speed ofthe par- Hele, expressed In either revelutios of radians per unit me. te the Zate a which the particle fevalves around the origin on the cece "The corresponding acceleration vector i given by AG) = ¥(0) = a0%{con ath + sin at) == RC) wich also has constant magnitude lft) = 0 This shows that he Sccelecation vector is opposite in dicection tothe position vector” fence Is directed toware the origin as shown in Fig 2.17. This Acceleration s called the centripetal or normal acceleration,ma he SS Hig, 217. Circular motion Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration We now show thatthe acceleration vest can be expressed a8 sum of tro vectors ne paral ta the uni Tangent vector andthe ‘ther pacallel tthe principal norman. In view of (20) we ae that a can be writen 3 ado. attaa?, a8 se altar = ala] © Since dtids=rn and v = ds his bosoms va rd ‘ ew ‘Thus we have raved the acceleration vector athe sun of twa atiogonal vectors one of moqtude Vector Functions of One Variable ms ae av a eae) directed slong the tangent vector and the other of magnitude ew) directed slong the principal normal vector, 38 shown in Fig. 218 The sales 248) and (240) ore called the angel an he normal components of the aceeration, respectively I Is leary that Pe faPe agent es) Fig. 218 Tangential and nonal components of sceleration,a Chapter 2 From the formulas (248) and (249), we see that i partie is roving around a curve at coralant speed (9 = const), the lagen tal component ofthe acceleration ts zeo 0 tha the oly acceler tion isthe normal aceleration face Example I) On the other hand, ifthe parce r moving slong 2 stalght fine oo thatthe curvature ‘xt, then the only acceleration preset isthe tangent] accelrae fiom’ ‘These are of course inutvely evident Example 2 Consider the motion ofa particle described by RU) (sint-teostpie ost tsinj (26) Find the velocity the acceleration, and the tangential and normal ‘components af the acceleration. “lution The velocity is given by MQ) = RUD® tint tj so thal the speed is ee) = fe Vasinnte gece? +t “The acceleration is given by at) = (sine + teas ) Ls (east-tsia)) and ts magnitude is a= Vint eteasd)s Gost-tsiny = Ute By (2.48) the tangential component of the aseleration fea ar hence, by (2.50) the normal component Is gven by Vector Functions of One Variable ns Example 3. The postion vector ofa particle at time tis by Rib RQ) alt) = where (is the acceleration, show that the motian takes place ona plane ‘Solution its sufiient to show thatthe torsion ofthe taes- tocy ofthe panicle is 27 since it implies that he trajectory Is plane curve Now, by assumption, we have a) xa) = RU) = RD Ditlecentiting this, we find RW) XR EROERY =O RO ARW Ry xR) “Toking the dot product ofthe last equation with RY(), we obtain ROR WRG = ROAR RW 90 By (237), follows that «= 0; henoe, the trajectory His on pane ‘An Energy Theorem in Mechanics ‘We conclude this section with the derivation ofan important theorem i mechanics, Let m denote the mass of a partici fn io Hon whose position vector given by Ri). According to Newton's Second law of motion, the force F acting on the partite atime 15 venby F< matt) aR ay ty =m 3 ast) et zm “Thus the force and the aceeration have the same direction. Now AG Ho) Giviol= Soo-veus Chapter 2 we haveby 251) Fee) ex) ‘The quantity (1/2}m2%) in @250) is kown a8 the kinetic energy ofthe particle at tne tH Ty and Ty denote the knee ence fay of the particle a time t, and f(y « respectively, then from {252) the change in kinetic energy ding he time inter yy is sven by Tye Ty= (1/2392) = m2 firma I {avin a) "iss krone a the energy theorem i) mechanics. For instance, fet’ m denote the mas of the partic in Example 1. Since the acceleration is given by 2 » aR), the force ating on the pate i equal to B= -mePR. Thin force i irc toward the enter ofthe circle path and ef clled the centripetal fore. The force -E whichis died sway from the center called the ete fnfugal force, This he fore that tends othr a ar of track tenes it makes 3 turn or changes ils direction. The Kinetic energy the particle t given by T=(/2) m (00? which i constant. Thus a particle in circular muon at constant an ular spoud «has estan energy: 26 EXERCISES In each of Problemy 1 Uough 5 the position vectur RQ) of 3 roving parle a time t is given. Determine the Velo, speed, Sind acceleration of the patel the incite Sims ‘Vector Functions of One Variable wm 1 Ry = 34 3} 2k a Rit)= agin tt} + aco), = na Rij cteotistsintjr Pky tom Rijzar compl vain} sacostk, tea! Rid) ceauhtetnd econ tain} + sinh te tes Consider the snlion of pace the Beli RUt)=acosuti asin ot) + bate (0) wheze 3,8 nd ware constants 1a) Show thatthe velocty and aceeraton both have constant Imogqitude {ey Show that the veloity and acceleration ae orthogonal {6} Expres the aceleration in terrae of the principal rma vector to the curve “The motion ofa particle in space is describe by the equation RW) ssintj+(-cmyk 20) Find the normal and tangents! components of the acceler Hon Expres the acceleration intra Of t and “The motion ofa particle in space is described by the equation RE)= (C4 SiON H + cow j+Hens/2)K 20) Find the acceleration and express i terms oft and 2 parle moves in pace acording tthe eauation RUy=a(lFeosyisasint| +e (120) Fin the tangential and normal components of the acer “The position vector of «moving pate ks given by RU) =a(l Heosi pasinijeall rami (120) (@)_ Show thatthe path of emotion is an elise, an find the Ssuaton the plan on which the clipe es (0) What ave tle tangential snd normal components of the ' parc is moving anvund a iste such hat ts tance 5 in foot roma fixed pont on the cle ven by sf) =us Chapter 2 where & iste a seconds. Ifthe magnitude ofthe acclera- Sons (t+ 4172 /seq find (a) the tangential ana normal omponents ofthe asciraton. (b) the rauis oF the seco 12. The postion vector moving particles piven by Rl) =A cost + Bain at were A Band o are constants. (a) Find the velocity ofthe Darile:(b)Show tha the acceleration divested toward the erin 13, Show that fa particle moves in space with constant speed, ‘hen the acceleration vector orthogonal tthe Velo) vec- 14, Show thatthe velocity and acceleration of moving particle $ave constant magnitude, then ts path has constant curvature 15. ‘Show shat the force aciagon a paticle a al tes ortho" {onal tothe direction af maton, then the speed Is constant 16, Thepostion vector ofa moving particle i given by R), (a) show tht ROQsa £0 ian only WRigiay = A, where Risa constant vector and ¥ anda. denote te velocity and ‘acceleration vectors, respectively (8) Show that FRY = A then the pate les ona plane 29° CURVILINEAR MOTION IN FOLAR COORDINATES For particle whone motion takes place ona plane, ts je: tory Sdedibed bythe equation °° RW (LENO — (220) ey wit spect oa ectangular catesan coordinate sytem, Some: Mines however, ro moreconeerien fo std) the motion isin pole carats ther nce cordate fate, {re coders approach and aeive he creaponding for For the velosty an acceleration. oe Since ie crtesoncoordiates (yy are elated to the polar coordina, by the equations sino £058, y ‘VesorFuneins of One vrable wm oo WAY o Fig, 219 The nit wectons and yin polar coordinates wwe may express 254) in polar coordinates as RW (oo) «sn 5) = et{@0) 235) (01h) = eosin sn 8} ese) ‘The quantities) and 8) denote the radial distance and the pola Angle he prtele atime Fig 29). This clear that uf 2 unit Nécr and has the same dnscton as the positon vector R. By Theorem 3 (See 23) follows that iio sinvie cosy es) is orth to ‘The vector (257) nals 2 unit vector a it Pons inthe dirston of insreasing se. Figs 219, Further, ye Fereninting 27 find10 Chapter 2 ay ass “The formulas (2.57) and (258) imply tha the process of ilfereti Ting either one of the ust vedio ty Ory equivalent to eoatng that vector through AP inthe countercockwise dirstion, As we shall se i this cussion, the unit vectors yan wy lay the same important roe in polar comdinates av the unt veto fan j ‘afedan coordinate ‘Let us now determine the expressions forthe velocity and the scelration Of 3 moving particle deseribed by (255) in plae cord fen Since ino function of tie ar the plrameter 20 the unit ‘est uy Hence By the shain rule, we have aR ary |, go Oa att ag dt hich, in view of (257), booms oR or : vy = Rata ora, 259) This is the Fema for the velocity i polar cordinates. We see from 2.59) tha the veloiy Vs De vector sum of bh erthogonal vectors, one parallel to uy and the her pall uy. The salar factors dr and 8 in (259) are called the ada and the tans ‘verse empunent of the veh, spectively Gee Fi 220, Since wy andy are orthogonal it vector, follows that (Ca) snd so the apd it given by v2 casa + eee)” ew) Vector Functions of One Variable m Fig, 220, Velocity vectorin polar coordinates. the parte is moving around a cic with center athe oi fain then r= sonst, and r/dt =O. In such acne, te vloly (258) reduces simply tv (0 /dtuy The salar quantity w= at ts ofcourse, the angulae yee {ir nblain am expremion forthe acceleration, we differentiate (250) and use the rbtions 2.57) ane (258). We find dey, dean ty {ee {ey} ala Ths the aceteralon vectra eee It Fa compo ent (P= #9 and tansverse component (8 + 2°), 3s shown in est)a Chapter 2 2 ow Fig. 221. Acceleration vector in polar coordinates. fg. 221, Vale he vey et Rewer te aceon ee liga ape tngel neha avn ea SGN EL Sevan huss a se Cone ‘eieaton is moving ound il ot ner sed a yatta orn fa Sn ee Batic aired (2) o whichis the normal acceleration obtained in Example 1, Se. 28 Example 1. A particles moving fom the center tothe rim along a spoke of wiel thts rotating ata constant angular speed ‘a: I postion vecioris givenby IUQ)= tay Find the velocity and the aceleraion ofthe particle a8 function of ime Solution: By dierensating the vector function R. see obtain ‘Vector Functions of One Viable the velosty a, 30 “ wo = mt gl ewe Soe “The velocity is componed ofthe velacty ofthe particle relative to the wheel and the addition velocity 1(40/dHy due to the rotation ofthe wheel By diferentatng v, we obtain the acceleration ede (st) aw a? Ua) op ay (), 2fa()s "he Corin acceleration is ven by. 28 ay which points in the rection of eotaton. The tere (d/l viously the enti otal acceleration directed toward he canter of the whee Keplers Law on Planetary Mation uation (26) fads 0 an important result when the mation is such that the acceleration rad ha Ty when the Iraavere Compaen ofthe asclraton van Ths the cae With road to the muton ofthe planets around the sun, Heve we derive the Stu Kepler sect lw on plantar ston Te aw sas that he poston veo nm the sum 9 plane sweep Ou are a Eonstai ate In clber words a he planet moves around the sun, iit vector seep ou equ ae during an oa inka ot ‘Let us ansume that the mas ofthe suns M and the mass of 2 planet ism, Let Ruy denote the postion vector from the sm to the plana, and et F denote the gravitatlonal force with which the planet i atracted w the sun (Pigs 222). According to Newton'sa Chapter 2 Orbit of planet sun Fig. 222 Planetary mation. univer! Law of gravitation, we have Mm where G i the gravitational constant. By Newtons second ln of| ‘notion this force equal tothe mas ofthe planet es Ra acel- fatlon a thts, F=-ma. Hence we dice which is dial acceleration dir tard the sun (ecause ofthe Fegative sgn). ince Rand a are parle i follows that Rxa =O From Example 3, Sec 28, we conclude tha the ut a the planet beso 3 plane ‘Now It A() denote the aren swept out by the pstion weer ‘ofthe planet fom a cetsn time t= to subsequent Smet (we Fig 220), and let, and denote the corresponding polar anges. From ementary canis, we know that Vector Functions of One Variable ns any fee ‘The rate of change ofthis aes i gen by wet? [ [aa] <1 28 “20 \Jo yt 2" at Since the acceleration of the planet is adil, the transversal com ponent ofits acclration vanishes Hence fom (261) we have heath aes)-« hich itis ak 20 NO LPM» const whlch says thatthe area swept out by the positon vector of the pla: met changes at constant rte. This Kepler second law of plane inry motton In each of Problems 1 through 6, the postion vector of a moving parse ts gven Find the velocity ant aeeleraion of the Parte at time tan point tthe Cris asceleraton, sry 1. RQ) =coshut (ost + sin], @pastve constant 2 R()=Heowtl + sin a), w > 0 constant BRQderiiteos sti vain Spy where n= acm 3H, a> 0Chapter 2 RQ) =it) uy, wheter RQ) = Qcon ot + sn otf), where) = a/{1 + om a0. Ri) saneontt saint) where fl) 90/120» coe a> 8 Tet RG) =r, ExprewdR a hn ters of the unt vectors aeaees (1 ssn, O21 A portcle moves on a plane with constant angular speed nut the origin the accekeraton Incesses a 9 rte propor tonal 1 the eect ty) find the tanacere component BRIA) Shove that ia = 3 ‘h person weighing 16 No walks atte rate of 2 see toward the edge of a merry-go-round that fr tating with neta ngpat speed of 2/9 rade. Find the ential and the ‘Gholi (bcos experienced bythe ran when bef from the From foemule (22), deduce that the force acting on the poet ‘le of mas a has two component, F along ar fy aL ‘Thus show thatthe metion of the particle governed by the uations ada ana (2 y= mar (0) From Bg (i) of Problem 10, show that re [meat] The quantity md /dt)& called the angular momentum of the parte, (©). Hence, ifthe force acting on the partis s always parle {2 the radial vecar uy show Thal the angular momen it ‘Vector Functions of One Variable 7 12 A particle rotating counterclockwise around the ign of the as-plane with angular speed G@) If we =wkdenotes the angular velit, show that vy =RIW) =w xR, where Ri) = (©) Show that a=W RU) -wA RC, where W Is the angular (6) Thus ceduce that the angular velocity is constant, he ccleration consists only of the normal acceleration. or 210 CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES. In studying motions ia space i is oftentines more convenient to ane namestenian coordinate systems, The fw mest widely tse ordinate spats a this hind ae the cylindrical and the spherical “Sondiatespstems tn this section we derive the expresstne forthe ‘eloity and the aceeration in thas twa coordi Sytem (Cyindrieal Coordinates ‘The equations relating the rectangular coordinates (4 y, 2) and the elindral coordinates (8,2) ofa point are given by Xero, yersing, 222 where £20,060.¢2n, << 2 0 with constant ngulor spe ot = x ras. Find the velo ofthe por Tcl and the distance fansamed sn mete) it has traveled at t= 3 sc. (Assume the postive axis 0 be pointed downetard) 2 tee fling boy starting trom rest 0, 1) sen owen 9 Fecuonles circular Mais RQ) = 2606944 a8inj + BOK EO, a,b > 0 atthe speed v = Vout, where gf the gravitational Deccan (32 8 2 Se 8}. (0) Bind @ a a function af tire #0. Note tat (br me tae rave th aly ang the he 3 21S, (Assume the pve zs tbe pointed downer) 3 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS In his chapter, we shall study the different cleus of seaar and vector flee We shall genetline the ea of 3 derivative 10 {hat ofa directional derivative and consider the vars spatial Yates {t hange eich lend tothe important concepts ofthe et of 8 Solar Held and the divergence nd the cr! el a vector fel. "hese Concepis have significant applications In Both geometrical and phy= Sea situations 32 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS Let D be a domain inthe the-tnensonal space, an et be» scala function defined in DT al each punt Pw) in Dt Sighs 2 Unique real number fy 2) for KP) for Brevity) which the vie of #3 that pant -The dom D,togeer with the sores ponding values of rat each point in Deal a selarhal The Function ¥ is said to define the ssaar fils nD” Ofenimes, howe Sply tented withthe scalar function. "Thy for example, i a ach point of hy atmosphere there aust reat number TP) which represents the temperature a1 then Tis ese fd (a nlsd 4 kemperature field) Other examples of salar fils ae the ‘Senay of arin the ampere the prev i 9 By of Hk a the gravitational potential in space ‘Occasionally we so coneaer sale Gls a ple. Sach fild is of eoure, defined by scala function a Uw independent anle somewhat sophiscared tag rather Inerigus Chapter 3 example ofa two-dimensional scalar field Is that of 9 "mine fil” ‘Axe knoe, amine fe refers to a Body eater or 8 pice of land ‘rhere tries are placed af eandomly chew points Such a fad can be dtined anally by auton having te value 1 at cach point ‘here therein mine snd ern everywhere ese, The Feld Of ‘Gn the other hand, if at each pont P of» domain D there is assigned a unique vector F(P) ten the domain together withthe Concaponding veciors at eat point coratiutes a vector Geld. The ‘esto funcuon Fis said to define the vector el in D. In this, Context we ae thats vector fanton of real variable defines 2 ve. tor fick am ierval Av inthe cine of scalar ld 9 vector fed {sequently identified withthe vector function defining the fl Tras Tor example, i at cach point P of the atmosphere we assign vector w(P) which represents the wind velocity at & thn v defines @ ‘ecto ld frown se the velo fel. Other examples of wextor Fields ore he electric feud surrounding 2 power Wansmison line, the magnetic fled around a magne! ba the velocy field of 3 fd In motion, and the gravialtonal el surrounding the eae "A ectr fled tay be described geaphcally By drawing the eres that represent the vectors each pot tn the domain. As an fxample, the velocity field define by F=yt/Qe4y3} + 62 +) cm the nprplane haw the graphic repreetation show ia fig, 21 for prints iyng on the cies of radh and 2. The fei represents a tational flow abot the origins Mapprcaimates, for example, the ‘elrty Fel of water draining ina Bah. Tet define a aclar fed ina domain D. The tof pois in D at whieh # assumes the same valve wil, in genera. dessribe 9 face in space. Such asurace scaled 9 level surface ff and as hg equation fy y,2) = forsome consiantc. For aample, P= 1M then the level sraces are cancetrc spheres defined by 32 1 22C" in many physical pralems, the lve surface ae only Called by speeal names depending on the nature ofthe scalar ted Sete! by For nntanee it denen the temperature or presen the atmosphere, then the coresponing level surat ar know st Ismherral oF Isa surfaces. ff denotes the grovatlonal poten Fentol about the earthy then the level suefocen are calle equpeten tol surfaces ‘These concepts are of great importance i metcorlogy nd phic. Inthe two-dimuraknal case, the set of pois at which a scalar field 1 has the same value describes plane curve called a evel Ditfeental Calculus of Fields us — ve Al ig. 1 Rotating velocity fel carve ora contost_ I has the representation féxy) = & fn many applications it sometimes necessary Uo consider level curves 09 2 level surace of 9 seas field) for example suppose Hy, 2) repre sens the presnire field of the atmaophere where. denntes the Situde in "some sable scale The bari surtaces &ffeya) =€ cnshts of pints inthe stmasphere where the presse equal to fhe corstnd cif we at 7" kin he equation of an ware mira, ive thon cbtan a contour onthe surface defined by fy K) = This represents the contour of constant pressure at the allude £ =k ‘Ths contour fe known ay a Ssobar i meteorology and it appears ‘prominently in all weather maps Example 1. Dicupe the lve surfaces forthe scale fick etme by Tx 2) = e+ y+ 2 Shae he Level surface fore = 1 Sd the cntour at 2 = 12 Solution: The kvl surfaces are defined by 22 + y+ which 2 fay’ of lic paroled with verges om the z-ms Fove'= The elite paroled has vertex at (00,1) as shown180 Chapter 3 Fig, 32. The cantar at 2 = 1/2 isan lips whowe equation is e+ Fig, 32. Acontour ona level surace, Like vector functions ofa single wel variable, 9 vector field F an aho be expres! aalytilly ithe oem Foo y2)= Po y2ll+Qhe yall + Rou yink —— Where FQ, and R are sale feds defined inthe same domain D. “Those salar elds are called the components of the vector Held F By performing the operations on the component, the usual Opere tors of vector algeber can be applied to vector feds in exaclly the same way it was done in Chapter 2 for vector functions of a single arable "Indeed, suppose sry 2)» Dis yo = Qi, 92 + RO 9 Bheand Glu y,2)= Uik yall» Ve so2 + Wey 2)k ate wo vector Feld and salar fd all defined inthe same domain Then Differential Calculus of Fields 1st we have DF + Gyey.2)= [ao y2} + Us yal + [Os 2)» Ving = Ry) * WO 92 (08X32) = x32) Po 92 + QO ys Rts 92 (8) (FG, 2) = Ply 21Uea 3) + Oe yaIVG 92) + Roy Winy2) 62 i i x Paya) Qeyz) Riese) Line Viuse Woy) GH) €xGpmy-2) ‘The sum F + G and the products FF and FXG are again vector fits, wheres the dot product Gin a waar el "The moto sf thgnality 3nd linear dependence can abo be ‘extended to vector fe n 9 srightorward manner Thum ee Stipes the two veclor fide Fand G ave otnogonal in Die and nly WF G=0 ently nD Te bone concepts of iit and continuly can aso be cated ‘over dtl to veto fs. Suppose Fa vector fel tind 9 omain D and Aisa constant vector. Let Ry denote the postion ctor fa point (49% MD Then we say tat Tim Flsys2)= A 0) ROR, IF for any number «0 hore sa number 3 > Osc that [yale A Lee whenever |R=Rg| =D. In this dein, 6 ot required that F be fefned atthe point ts 92) isle The inequality [R-R,| «is equivalent to (ngs Oya lena182 Chapter 3 which describes the interior of sphere of ead 8 and centr a fy Jot) Ts, geomet, the definition (2) means tha for every fe O there spre about (ky yp 2) of rad ® such tha foreach point (sy 2) iside the sphere the magnitude of the diffrence between Fly 2) and A is less tha Tn terms of components i Fe Fiie Pj 4 Fk and A sa + aij +e, the deft (33) ips that lim F632) (922) Hy Yur 64 forin23 The folowing theorem can be eally established from the defi- ‘Theorem 1. LetF and G be vector elds such that lim Fouyr2)sA and ROR, “Then we have G) tin Fy.) Gayzil= AB ROR, ©) tm mF .2) =m RR, (tn Fon y2) Gy) = A RR, (tm Ry 2)xGaya) = ARB R=>R, (im Trey = 1al R->R, Thus, for ecample, = 4) + 2K and G= ny + yz) ck lim Foyy2rG ye) ey 02) Differential Calculus of Fields 1s slim yy +259) ey) 12-1) A vector fled F is sid to be continuous a pit Joe) At and only f lim Fey) (9-2) By eJur4) Fyn te os ‘The definion quires that the function F must be defined 3 Yq. %)- FF x continuous at e8ch point of domain D, then we m3) that Fs continuous in D. From (34) follows that a vector fed F bb continonus im Dif and only each of iv cmponent scm ‘hao in, om Theorem 1, owe sse that fF and G are continuous in a domain D, then so are the sum 4 G, the scolar mulliple RE, the seal proigct PG, andthe cows peodct Fa 31. EXERCISES For cach ofthe given sear fl shtch the evel surface, corresponding the given valueof the constant : pay : ae SWORDS Bt hted ote eee foreach f the given salar fic sketch the contour fy) <6 coresonding tthe given value ofthe constant © 5 tguyde ay godt 2 © tepete’ eon 3012 3 Wayne ardan (yay c= fey)= Sooy, €=001 Skech the sobs on the babar sueface the alitudes 2 1/251, 3/214 Chapter 3 9, Sketch the iba onthe bare surface = x22)! al the alitudes 21/313) 10. Sheen te thers thee sae 3-20397 corresponding z= 12 11, Stetolne vette ld define by ech ofthe folowing (Foxy (Pe xley () Feyicae WR este tak 12 Let Fe Asiny + Boose, where A=ts} and vatunte each he flowing tim Fy ti 1Fey OAR) Ope galePls Okman © San 1 Let Pexcosah + xsingj+yk, Evaluate 9 tay © ayn se2ny? (&) Stow that hana constant magpie on he elder Su yitat, where a haconsont - {0 Show that ae /ox, oy AF ae mutually hoon M4 Tet F cuinxts cosys+inzk (2x0}and G=econyt Sain) fad (@) P+ @) PG) FAG Ws Ld Feckeiesl ening) ok and G e¥casz] + eFsinz] ok 16) Show that F and G are orthogonal fr al (32. {6} Show that he vector eld Fat parle teayplane 33 DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR FIELD Lae scalar il define in 2 domain D, and suppose that 4 diferentiabie Ia D. We koww thatthe fist paral donates t/a, aay and ie of represen the ate of change off mg he ® yeand z coordinae axes respectively. In many appears, ten ncesary 10 know the rate of change of in am abirary dies on Thi ees rice general isp of 3 erative Kn 8 Ditfeental Calculus of Fields 188 “The definiion of a divectional derivative is very much the the detiniion of am ordinary dersative in aifrental calculus Let Ry denote the poston vector of set yyy 2) im domain fad It the uit vector We cost comp coer. spesiy a dreston at Py (Fig. 33}. We note that pnts on the tne segment sing trom, in the dreston oF w ae ven by AeA tSeONMt, Y=¥y 486081, aye S6osy 69 where the parameter » denotes the distance ofthe pain fm Py We deine fre derive of Fat Pin the direction of the vector Him) =) an Fixes) HO) =foy teem, yy teosB asco) G8) the the definition (37) becomes Ho 491-8) _ yoy [Nove sifereitng (8) with respect ts and then sting » = 8, we 60 = Mes Megs egg From (8) we find186 Chapter 3 Fig.33 Directional derivative. Bc con, Y em a 258 Thus the directional derivative of fat, in the direction of the ves: tor w is given by the formala op ya x, am, Hed = Rejana + enanp + Ye,rom7 as) When 2 0,f)=-/2, andy =-/2,s0 that a5, we see at (69) reduces to a(0,/0n. Smlily, when w= and Wk 9) es (ay onc a) 2a, respectively. ‘Thus the partial derive lives off ave actually drectlonal derivatives in the postive disction ‘ofthe coordinate a4 Example 1, Rid the dictions derivative of = 224 ay + y2 ath .3) inthe diectom of he vstor A= 1-2} +e Solution: We have Differential Calculus of Fields as sothatat (1,-1.2) Since |A| =3,aunit vector inthe ect of As Hence by (9) we have us. a, ea Ma a.2) = x) + 83) a8) = 5 vauaple 2. What the directional derivative of fy) = #2 nya 1) inthe dietion of the line making 30 with the positive wai? Solution: Ar (11) we have A, 1/22 and atl, ay=3 unt vector inthe dirston ofthe given ine has the fem w= con 304 + sn 200} ‘Hence, he dicctonal dervative sequal 4s : a aay 2eon30" esnin 30? 2 3 6 2 ‘We observe thatthe function defined in (88) actualy the valve off at points on the fine segment from and extending in the direction ofthe unit vector w. Suppose we now replace the line Segment by 9 srmooth curve C passing nus Pet the curve Be represented by the vcior sation Re) is) ¢ YJ #26) where» dents are length of the curve, Then om € the function £158 Chapter 3 sssumes the valve (9) =F B09, oh) iterating this with expect 40s, we find by the chai re so tons Meg Kent ow Example 2. Find the tangential derivative of = xy on the cine fe= onented counterclockwise Solution: A vector squatin that ents the cece in the connteroctvine dreton ven by RG)=acostivasinty (0) Hence the unit tangent vecte fo the eee RO sin th + cont Slee : that cos = = sin tan co = Therefore, by (10) the fan- (pita derivative of onthe circle given By igen fe [Note that if we express £38 a funetion as on the ce (6 = 8) we have 2 in af) om (ala) = a? 4 sn 2I6/) Diffeentiat Calculus of Fields a9 Ditorentning this with repost We find Ais ds = aco? (6/2) a e082(6/0)-sin2s/a)}= O2-y2 la hich agrees with the previous nul 32 EXERCISES In gach of Problems 1 hough 8 flsd the directional derivative of the yiven sala fll atthe given pont inthe diecton of the iiven vector 1 Opel) An bef : Pye Gs A ot ony, 5; 4 Sey nye Ge A 24 3 ay bye tis. (heel): Aett ef 2k & fouyeal yet, (2.0)2 A a1 +3) 2k 2 Ning yen 58/4); Ah 3-2 8 Weeeyea), Ba) Askafk % Show that the drectona davative of a scalar Bld fs, y) In the dirstion ofa ine making an angle sith the positive ‘ais soem by ce ample) oa Pee So - Keren + Heysina Determine the value of for whlch dds i maximum ond {termine that masanuin ale. (Ne that te pit fined) 10, Apply the result of Problem 9 40 find te mrimum value of The directional derivative of fy) = n/Q + J) at the point (I, 1), and determine the value of & in which the maximum Save ecu 11, Repeat Problem 10 for (9) = 32-ay +2 12 The function thas at (1) 3 directional derivative equal to ¥2 inthe direction toward (3, nd VIO inthe deco loward (0,2) Find the value of o/h and ay at (1-1). Determine10 Chapter 3 the derivative off at (1) nthe retin toward 2 3) 13. Find the tangential derivative off 9) =)? -e*Iny at 9,2) onthecume ns 2tont, y= fsine (ie Oy 14. Find the Langental dervaive a Hy 9) = 2+ ay + Pal any point on the curve RU)=H8 6 (P1435 2, 15. Let Fea nonconstant salar field that s twice emily titerentable on the xyplane. {@)_ Show thatthe tangential derivative off zero on the Sve described by tr9) = where c 9 constant (©) Show tot the direction im which the directional derivative (fF ismaximum i orthogonal othe curve M9) = 6 16 Find the tangential derwatve of Hy, 2) Seay 8 at (3, 1.n/3) onthenaln x=2sint y22e080 2-120), 17. Find he tangential ereative of x 2) “8 onthe curve R()= t= tle F) = 2th when = 1 34 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD Let be a scalar fd dined ina domsin D, and supe that £ ts dfereniale in. We have seen that the dtetonal derivative (FF a pont Pin the direction ofa unit vector = os cos is piven by costs Pe ee Soy = Horna s Moronp s Xmonr 01 ani foi. %@i.%O% ar ‘whose components ave the partial deevatives of fat then the ex pression (B11) simply the Got pout of grad f() and what, Shey» geceern — Differential Calculus of Fields 1 ‘The vector fel, grad fis called the gradient of the scalar eld tis tne oF he basic concepts fe weet analy that of re npr tance in application “The rodent of scalar eld fi also commonly writen as Ws, where W denotes the vector diferentia operator vate ay dond ag) gees arg In other word, rad can be interpreted a the el f applying the Aferemat operator V 1o The operator V plays a sila role in Sector analyte a the operator De dd in aul Inde, using the perator V together with the familie rules on diferentaten, ‘we cin canly stash the following properties ‘Theorem 1. Let and be calor els whieh ae diferent be na comain D. ‘Then see have GRE w+ UE (Wie =eVE, where € bs any constant es) (Vig) =" g+g¥F (@) VU/g)= UE - VNR, provided gO in D. For example, to prove pact (9), we proced a follows: vue) ewe) Lore 3] 2B oak] ifs oh] ea all fee sage] fish of es] = 1¥g egy The operator has many other aplication, and we shall come cost them ia aur discussion ater1a Chapter 3 Geometric Properties of Grad f We now turn our attention to some geometric properin of the gradient. Supoose that VP) 0 and lt # denote the angle be tween 6%) and the unit vector w. The, from the geomet prop- sty of salar product re have Soy-voye= seated “ive ea ‘This shows thatthe crstional derivative of sal Held Fata point Prin the dvechon cf ¢ uri vecor ui simply Ihe Component of he pradint vector VF(P)atPalong u. This component is postive oF negative according as 0 0 epthat pote then the densty pis ciminishing, which ‘cans that he fad fs expanding On the other hand iat FeO ‘eit 9/2 0 then the deri ineceasng bch ean tat the lid is Being compressed. Ii the flow Is seady, thatthe den-m Chapter 3 sity does mt change ith Hn, then (321) becomes ave) ox) the uid incompressible, that Is p= cons, of whieh water isa fai expe then (21) simplifies es 025) “Therefore, for an incompressible Hui flow without source OF sink the divergence of veloty Field vanishen Equation (323) own as the condition of Incompressibiiiy Th te case of electesatic Hes, the sources and sinks are ele tric charges Ifa single electric charge of magtude qh appropriate tin for example, coulomb lasted atthe eg then te ce Trost fed aa ein (9,2) given by (asume vacua me dum) vere R isthe position vecor of the pint ( 2) and = [RI This fan be waitten a6 B= (q7Fuy, where uy = Ries a Unit vet By lire ferentiation, we find lsh aap Loe 0 that ares Aly ob] tat there evs Freon 9 sich that NMloy gy Y= By pt Wp yay) ean Where fare defined in a reghborhoed ofthe polat (yu UP) determined rom (35) by the poi (KS 29_ MOneone in that neighborhood f, and al) have continuo Hirst Sia tives far which Anya) oo aay au yey) a (uy, Wa, uy) The functions 6g and define the inverse transformation of (335) Its important to ote that the Jacbians (6.36) and (238) sais the rela ee Prem 4), Ditfeential Calculus of Fields 1 Hoyeguy) aera, Moya) "ay Sys) 7 oe [Now tt P be any pint nD with the coordinates (sy 2 and let te numbers yyy Be determined by (335). We cal the oe dee tpl af numbers (yy U9) the eurinear suoedinate ofthe Point The equations given in (235) are called the coordinate Ffamtcrmation, and they are sti to define 9 curvinea coobinate system in Dit aloes fans (338) thatthe Jason of 3 connate TNanstormatiom isthe Feiprocl of the Jocatinn fis verse, Example 1. Consider the transformation fom the rectangular gen rte yo ane the pcre (0) reivay pears X= arin? ise ¥ aye [vas © ithe unique angle @.< 0 2x such that on = x/VG2+ 9) tnd sin W=y/NGe + yA). The transformation t dtined fr all (9) ‘excep al (00) where ol defined. The Jacbian ofthis transfor inate is given by ay aire) | ees? vate? | 9) ' Hens, excep at the org, the Bgwenby nsformaton has on inverse, andi X= reost, yeesing This inverse transformation i defined, awever far all 8) By diet calulaton, we indee Chapter 3 ate y | cosa -rsinw ace) "| sind rease leis cer th 6.0) 969) _ Hey) a8) in acond with (3). Coordinate Surfaces and Coordinate Curves syster Torn Geometic point of view Suppose Py a poi in space with curvilinear coondinates (uu ul) as defined by te coordinate transformation (835). Then the equations atone Pe teeye)=u, eiwyz=uy G0) define three surfaces in space cach of which passes dvough the Point P (Fig, 39). These nuracescormpond a the have coordinate Planes x= xy ¥'* Yoo? % n the cartesian coordinate system, where li Yu 2) ae the cartesian coondiates of P Recall hat bythe tans formation (38), we have Uh = 4 Yo 4). = 12-3. Accordingly, we cal the thre suraces described by (40) the coordinate surfaces Intersectng at the point Ry The curves of Ineretion of hese wurdinate surfaces corespond t the coorinate anes in cartesian coordinates Thus, for eample, the surfaces 492) = up and fh 2) sinters in the curve on which only the sxrdinat ly the uycurve, The uy and uycurves are defined similarly and they are shown in ig. 39. Using the inverse transformation (837), the postion vector of point in curiliner coordinates now fas the represenston Differential Calculus of Fields rt abe ya Rly gt) Hapa Bly pA ‘hy gw ean west uy=ey and uy= cy where Gare constants then the re sling vector Tustin Ruy cy) represents the wpcuve in which the two coordinate surfaces os 92) = ey e2) =e Ineree, (On this curve uy the paramste I follows that the derivative Ru represents the targent vector t this curve. Likewise, we have aR au, and aR/au representing the tangent vectors 10 the Ue and ugcurves respectively (see Fig. 39) Since the determinant of 2 matrix fs the same ay the deter rant of franape, it follows frm the dfinton ofthe facia (236) and that of Ihe scala triple produt that10 chapter 3 fis9¢2) aR aR aR = ato y ay a0" oa Hance, at each pint where (242) isnot ze the thre tangent ves ters aR a ai Ry te eoorinate curves are eae independent ond thas form Bas. Every vettor or vector td at ach pont can then be represented in term of this Bais Unke the tint Sectors f joke however this ew Hans varies frm poet Poin i space. For thn reason We eal Ry AR AR) local bas, ‘Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates and Are Length Henceforth, we assume thatthe cuordinats ay are 0 labeled thatthe Base vectors oR /auy, AR ay, uy» in that order forma righhanded triple. This implies ha the Jacobian ts, 2)/ ‘yg ty) postive ina domain” D® ofthe lp tn pase 1 curvilinear coordinate system defined bY (235) oF (337) Is ssid tr be orthogonal ita cach pot the bane vectors A / Rig, Ria are mata orthogonal. his means that although | the vectors may vary in magnitude and dinstion fram point 10 Bint they remain orthogonal teach ether each. points When {hi the ene the forms for the gradient the divegence, a the cut appear very much Ike het representations retangulr Cartesian crdinate sytem We shall derive these representtons Inthe next section. Ax we shall ace the plat cordiaten In wo ‘dimensions and the cylindrical and spherital coordinates In three ‘imensrns a7e all othagonal cornea coordinate ystems "We conclude this section by dering the formu Yor are length in a cutiinear coordinate system. Let Ruy us, Ue) Bnew the poston vctor ofa point in curlincarscondinates. Then by {efmiton and By the chin Tle, we have 8) “The quien may be verte in the marx orm (ay) =| 8 be Be 68) Bn fe Be [Be Be Be Thi oe the tif pc hep oh cae Brora yes uns tect on so thn a ace nite { where y= [aR f= 1,2, 3 tn this ease forma (345) simples to the fren a2 = (hyduy P+ (rag hydy? (40) “This eedues to the familiar form d= Es dy? 4 de i rela ler camesan eoorinatn, Example 2 The tansormation relating the cylindrical coord: rates «2 19 the rectangular cvtsan coordinates, y 6 define by the equations1 Chapter 3 “The transformation i defined for al 2) exept for pints om the axis wher is not defined By the same caeuaton an Example Tne tnd ay 20.82) |e a a0] 1 peg) “|i ay ae [8 oot ‘The inverse transformation Is given by x= rom, y=esn®, 222 The coordinate suraces inertia & Point (hy Y 2) ste sis ofa eylinder of rags r= ving 2h wth ais along the ais, a plane containing the z-oxs ard making an angle Oy 6" Pr) = fin}(yQ 4) withthe wz coordinate plane, and the plane x= 2, The tsrnnate curves comprise of ccle and tt straight Snes i Showa in Fig. 310. “The perition vector in eylingeal coordinates assures the form R(0,2)=Fombtersingj 42k 1 that the tangent vest to the caedinae curves are aR a these vectors are mutually orthogonal forall = 0 and @. Therefore, the eyindreal coordinate system an orthogonal curvilinear eae Enon of these intgrsis, owwever, they are generally converted am ny ing opens where te ntgrton or this reason the student i presumed to be aleeady familiar With the usual definiion of ordinary stage and multiple integrals as Wl arith the techniques for evalaaling such negra