REDOX REACTIONS

The cell contains machinery to oxidize energy-providing macromolecules, such as

carbohydrates.
Every redox reaction has two subsets ; one being an oxidation and the other a
reduction.
For example, removal of hydrogen from a substrate is called oxidation reaction.
The donation of hydrogen to an acceptor is known as reduction.
During the transit of hydrogen, energy exchange take place to phosphorylate ADP to
ATP.
A reducing agent is a substance that can furnish an electron to be oxidized :
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e-

In the above equation, Fe3+ also act as an oxidizing agent since it accept electrons.
The same principles is used by organic compound which can accept or furnish
electrons.
The tendency to furnish or accept electrons is based on their reduction potential,
represented by EO.

OXIDATION-REDUCTION POTENTIAL

The efficiency of oxidizing agents depends upon their affinity for electrons.
Efficiency of reducing agents depend on how quickly they can release their electrons.
So they must have a high electron transfer potential.
NADH is a strong reducing agent as compared to water which has a low transfer
potential.
The affinity of a substance for electrons can be measured by voltmeter which
measures the redox potential (oxidation-reduction potential).
Consider the equation is :
H+ + e-

1
2

H2

The proton is consumed. Its potential will vary with pH.

The redox potential of compound is a measure of the readiness with which electrons
will pass from a reductant to an oxidant.
The electrical work done by electrons during the transfer is equal to the free energy
change of the reaction.

ROLE OF ATP

ATP molecule basically functions as the power source for the cell.

The acronym ATP stands for adenine triphosphate, which is just a description of the
molecules chemical component, an adenine attached to a ribose sugar and three
phosphate group.
The most important is about the phosphates, the groups of phosphorus and oxygen
which have the ability to store large amount of chemical energy in their bonds, and
release that energy under controlled conditions.
The more phosphates, the more energy that can be stored.
ATP is constantly being generated and broken down inside the body, and it appears in
miscellaneous roles in various biological systems, but it most prominent within the
metabolic system.

THERMODYNAMICS.

A thermodynamic system is a part of the universe, and is usually well defined by a

boundary.
If matter can pass through the boundary, the system is open and if it cannot it is a
closed system.
A closed system can have only energy exchanges while an open system can exchange
both matter and energy.
If a boundary does not permit the flow of heat, the process occurring in the system is
called adiabatic.
A system operating at constant temperature is said to be an isothermal system.

When a system is at equilibrium, it is said to be in a definite state, and the state of a

system has definite values of pressure, volume and temperature.
Thermodynamic deals with the process involving transformations from one state to
another.
The following symbols are generally used in thermodynamics :
1. p = pressure
2. q = heat exchanged
3. S = entropy
4. G = free energy
5. V = volume
6. T = temperature
7. E = internal energy

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law state that energy can either be created nor destroyed. It can only be
transformed from one form to another.
According to the first law of thermodynamics :
E2 E1 = q P( V2 V1)
E = q - PV

In words, change in internal energy = heat exchanged by the system = work done.
The first law of thermodynamics has several implications, some of which are :
1. The law implies that the total energy of an isolated system is conserved.
2. E defined by the above equation is a function of the state of the system only.
3. It can only be used for calculation of internal energy changes. The absolute
value of energy cannot be calculated.
4. If there is no change in internal energy, work done is equal to heat absorbed.
5. The law does not does not say how much heat is evolved or how much work is
done.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law cannot be used to project the spontaneity of a reaction.

Useful and versatile form of the second law is stated in terms of the entropy of a
system, which is a thermodynamic quantity for measuring the randomness of a
system.
Moving from state 1 to state 2, and finally to state 3 or alternatively, we move from
state 1 to state 3 directly so that the entropy change in either case is identical.
According to the second law, a process will be spontaneous if it occurs in an isolated
system and will tend to increase the entropy of the system.
In a state of equilibrium, entropy is hypothetically maximum. For a movement from
state 1 to state 2, the change in entropy is given by :
S2 S1 =S =q/T

If pressure is kept constant during a reversible process, q = H.

Therefore, S = H/T.
For irreversible process, S >q/T