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EINSTEIN COLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
NOTES OF LESSIONS
SUBJECT NAME:

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENTS

AND PRACTICES

SUBJECT CODE:

CE 36

YEAR&SEMESTER: II, III

OBJECTIVE:
The main objective of this course is to make the students aware of the various
construction techniques, practices and equipments needed for different types of
construction activities. At end this course students gain the knowledge about construction
procedures for sub and super structures and equipment needed for construction of various
types of structures from foundation to super structures.

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UNIT-1

1. CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

15 HRS

SPECIFICATION
1. General specification
2. Detailed specification

General specification
It give only general idea of the whole work and are useful in estimating the
approximate cost of construction .They give general description of the different part of
the building. This specification depends upon the types of building to be built.

Detailed specification
It gives details of each of the different types of work in the order in which the work is
carried out at the site.
DETAILS AND SEQUENCES OF ACTIVITIES
1. Site clearance
2. Marking
3. Earth work
4. Masonary
5. Flooring
6. Damp proofing courses

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Site clearance
a) Surface cleaning of grass, trees, and hillocks.
b) Cleaning of all obstruction on site
Marking
Marking is the setting out of building works
It consists of two operations.
a) setting out centre line
b) Setting out of trenches
.
Earth work
After setting out of trenches, we proceed with the excavation for the
foundation. The earthworks have been classified following.
a)soft or loose soil
b) Hard or dense soil
c) Ordinary rock not requiring blasting
d) Hard rock where blasting is allowed
e) Hard rock where blasting is not allowed

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MASONRY

The masonry is a wall it built of individual blocks of material such as

stone, brick.concrete, hollow blocks, celluar concrete, laterite etc, usually in
horizontal courses cemented together some form of mortar.
1. Stone masonry

The construction are made by using stone blocks is called stone masonry.

Tools used in masonry

1.Trowel
2.Square
3.Plump rule
4.Spirit level
5.Line and pins
6.Bevel
7.Pick Axe
8.Crow Bar

Classification of masonry
a). Rubble masonry
b). Ashlars masonry

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a). Rubble masonry

In this category the stones used either undressed or rough dressed
having wider joint.
The following are the classication of rubble masonry
1. Uncoursed rubble masonry
2. Uncoursed random masonry
3. Uncoursed squared rubble
4. Coursed random rubble
5. Polymer rubble masonry
6. Ploygonal rubble masonry
7. Dry rubble masonry
b). Ashlars masonry
This is a costlier, high grade and superior quality of masonry. This is built
from accurately dressed stones with uniform and very fine joints of about 3mm
thickness.

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The following are the classication of Ashlars masonry`
1. Ashlar fine masonry
2. Ashlar rough tooled
3. Ashlar rock
4. Ashlar chamfered
5. Ashlar facing
6. Ashlar block in course

2. Brick masonry
The construction are made by using stone blocks is called brick masonry.
Tools used in masonry

1. Trowel
2. Square
3. Plump rule
4. Spirit level
5. Line and pins
6. Bloster
7. Brick Hammer
8. Scutch
The following are the classication of bonds in masonry
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond
4. Double Flemish bond
5. Single Flemish bond
6. Garden wall bond

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7. Facing bond
8. Dutch bond
9. Racking bond
3. Concrete hollow block masonry
The construction are made by using hollow blocks is called concrete
hollow block masonry.
The common size generally adopted for building blocks are:
1.39cm*19cm*30cm
2.39cm*19cm*20cm
3.39cm*19cm*10cm
FLOORING
Floors are the horizontal elements of a building structure which divide the
building into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation
with in a restricted space one above the other and provide support for the
occupants.

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Types of flooring

1. Mud flooring
2 . Muram flooring
3. Stone flooring
4. Cement concrete flooring
5. Glass flooring
6. Marble flooring
7. Plastic flooring

Materials used

1. Wooden blocks
2. Stones
3. Bricks
4. Concrete

DAMP PROOFING COURCES

The damp proofing is a treatment of a building, against dampness.
Causes of dampness
1. Faulty design of structure,
2. Faulty construction
3. Use of poor quality materials in construction.

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Materials used for damp proofing

1. Flexible materials
2. Semi Rigid materials
3. Rigid materials
CONSTRACTION JOINTS
Joints provided in reinforcement concrete construction can be classified as
follows:
1. Construction joints
2. Expansion joints
3. Contraction joints
4. Sliding joints
Construction joints
These joints are provided at places where places of concrete has to be
stopped for some reasons during construction.

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Expansion joints
This joints permit expansion and construction. They are provided to allow
for the movement of the structure and hence they come under the movement
joint.
Contraction joints
These joints allow only contraction. They generally consist of a simple butt
joint without any bond. They are shrinkage joints to allow shrinkage.
Sliding joints
These joints are usually formed by introducing smooth layer of plastic
between the two surfaces.
BUILDING FOUNDATIONS
a) Shallow foundation
b) Deep foundation

Shallow foundation
The depth of foundation is less than the breadth of foundation is called
Shallow foundation.
Types of shallow foundation
1. Wall footing
2. Isolated footing
3. Combined footing

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4. Continious footing
5. Strap footing
6. Grilllage footing
7. Raft foundation
Deep foundation
The depth of foundation is greater than the breadth of foundation is called
deep foundation.
Types of deep foundation
1. Classification based on function
2. Classification based on materials and composition
3. Well and caissons foundation
Classification based on function

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1. Bearing piles
2. Friction piles
3. Screw piles
4. Compaction piles
5. Uplift piles
6. Sheet piles

Classification based on materials and composition

1. Cement concrete piles
2. Cast in situ piles
3. under reamed piles
4. Bored compaction piles

TEMPOARY WORKS
a) Centering
Temporary work used for construction of arches is called centering

b) Shuttering (form work) and de-shuttering

Temporary work used as a mould in which fresh concrete is poured for it
to harden is called shuttering and removing of shuttering work is called
deshutering.

c) Scaffolding
Temporary works erected for construction of masonry works, plastering,
Painting, etc is called scaffolding.
FABRICATION AND ERECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES
The commonly used steel section in a structure as follows
1. Plate

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2. Flats
3. Angles
4. Channels
5. Joist
6. Tees
7. Z-bars
8. Rails
Equipments used in erection process
The following equipments are mainly used for steel erection process.
Such as Trusses, Frames, Braced domes
1. Cranes
2. Derrick poles
3. Power driven scotch derricks
4. Hand operated driven scotch derricks
5. Guy derricks cranes
6. Mobile cranes
7. Winches, Blocks and Jacks
8. Crawer tracks

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Erection of building
Most of the buildings are purpose made and hence rarely identical. Even when
Identical building have to be erected, the chances are that site conditions will vary
to such extent that different erection procedures have to be adopted.
The following facts to be consider while selecting tackle for any construction.
1. Proposed method of erection
2. Speed of erection desired
3. Height of the structures
4. Reach required of the tackle
5. Weight and number of maximum lifts

WATER PROOFING
Application of water proofing materials makes the stone masonry free from
Efflorescence, dampness, frost action, etc.Generally heavy petroleum
Distillates, fatty oils, are excellent for waterproofing. These materials are
Applied as washing coat and they may cause some temporary discoloration.

Methods of water proofing

1. Brick jelly lime concrete terracing with or without tiles
2. Membrane water proofing with bituminous membrane
3. Thermal insulation combined with waterproofing for flat concrete roof
4. Water proofing and insulating Roofs by elastic membrane
5. Water proofing and insulating by mud phuska terracing with
Tile brick paving

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ROOF FINISHES
The upper part of the building is called roof. It protect from weathering
agent.
Roof covering
1. Tatch covering
2. Shingles
3. Tiles
4. Asbestos-cement sheets
5. Slates
AIR CONDITIONING OF BUILDING
It is the process of treating air as to control simultaneously its temperature,
humity, purity and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned
Space such comfort and health of human beings, needs of industrial process,
efficient working of commercial premises etc.
Purposes
1. It is required to preserve and maintained the health,
comfort, and convenient Of the occupants.

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2. Improve the working condition of theatre,offices,
Banks, shops, etc.
3. Controlling the quality of air in the aero planes,
Railway coaches, road-car etc.

Classification air conditioning

1. Comfort air conditioning
2. Industrial air conditioning
3. Summer air conditioning
Principles of comfort Air conditioning
A feeling of comfort is a good indication of healthier atmospheric
Condition but this atmospheric condition, in turn, depends upon
The temperature, air motion and humity change for different season
Of the year
Hence the principle of air conditioning should involve the proper control
of temperature ,humity, and air velocity so as to suit the majority of people
throughout the year,givining the comfortable condition..

ACOUSTIC AND FIRE PROTECTION

Acoustic
The term acoustic may be defined as the science of sound and it describes
the orgion, propagation and sensation of sound.
Fire protection

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It is practically impossible to eliminate completely the changes of fire in a

Building as it is a facts no building material is fully fire proof. Every
Building has some materials which catches the fire quickly.
Fire resisting materials
1. Stone
2. Brick
3. Timber
4. Glass
5. Cast iron
6. Steel
7. Concrete
General guide lines for fire resisting building
1. Alaram system
2. Protection of opening
3. Common wall
4. Stairs
5. Floors

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UNIT-II
2. SUB STRUCTURE CONSTUCTION

15HRS

SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

Pipe Jacking method
In a situation where the sewerage pipes have to be laid in deeper ground (3 to 7
meters),the pipe jacking method will be adopted. This method not only minimizes the
digging of the trench to lay the new pipes but also alleviates disruption to the public.

. To form the pipe jacking or pipe

receiving station, a temporary shaft will
be set up at the proposed new manhole
location.

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2. The soil in the temporary shaft is
excavated

3. The pipe jacking machine is then set

up at the base of the shaft. Upon confirmation of the alignment, the roller cutter at the
face of the cutting head machine cuts the soil in front of it.
4. The excavated soil is then fed to the crusher through a pipe and further crushed to
smaller pieces, after which it is transported up to the ground surface in a fluid form using
a slurry pump.
5. The excavated soil in slurry form is treated by passing it through a number of screens.
6. The dry spoil is then removed from site, so as to keep the works area clean.

7. The new pipe is lowered in sections behind the cutting head machine and gradually
pushed behind the cutting head machine into the area excavated. The excavation and pipe
installation cycle continues until the cutting head machine reaches the receiving station
with the new pipeline laid behind it.
8. A new manhole structure is then constructed in the receiving shaft.
9. Once the manhole construction is completed, the temporary shaft is backfilled and
surrounding area reinstated.

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10. Finally the manhole is cleaned and inspected by the relevant agency for handing
over and commissioning of the new line.
Pipe Jacking, also known as pipejacking or pipe-jacking, is a method of tunnel
construction where hydraulic jacks are used to push specially made pipes through the
ground behind a tunnel boring machine or shield. This technique is commonly used to
create tunnels under existing structures, such as roads or railways.
Tunneling
Tunnel Basics
A tunnel is a horizontal passageway located underground. While erosion and other forces
of nature can form tunnels, in this article we'll talk about man made tunnels -- tunnels
created by the process of excavation. There are many different ways to excavate a tunnel,
including manual labor, explosives, rapid heating and cooling, tunneling machinery or a
combination of these methods

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Types of Tunnels
1. Mine tunnels
2. Public works tunnels
Mine tunnels are used during ore extraction, enabling laborers or equipment to access
mineral and metal deposits deep inside the earth. These tunnels are made using similar
techniques as other types of tunnels, but they cost less to build. Mine tunnels are not as
safe as tunnels designed for permanent occupation, however.
Public works tunnels carry water, sewage or gas lines across great distances. The
earliest tunnels were used to transport water to, and sewage away from, heavily populated
regions. Roman engineers used an extensive network of tunnels to help carry water from
mountain springs to cities and villages. These tunnels were part of aqueduct systems,
which also comprised underground chambers and sloping bridge-like structures
supported by a series of arches. By A.D. 97, nine aqueducts carried approximately 85
million gallons of water a day from mountain springs to the city of Rome.
Before there were trains and cars, there were transportation tunnels such as canals -artificial waterways used for travel, shipping or irrigation. Just like railways and
roadways today, canals usually ran above ground, but many required tunnels to pass
efficiently through an obstacle, such as a mountain. Canal construction inspired some of
the world's earliest tunnels.
The Underground Canal, located in Lancashire County and Manchester, England, was
constructed from the mid- to late-1700s and includes miles of tunnels to house the
underground canals. One of America's first tunnels was the Paw Paw Tunnel, built in
West Virginia between 1836 and 1850 as part of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal.

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Although the canal no longer runs through the Paw Paw, at 3,118 feet long it is still one
of the longest canal tunnels in the United States.

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Photo courtesy Eric and Edith Matson Photograph
Collection/Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division
A Roman aqueduct that runs from the Pools of Solomon
to Jerusalem

Photo courtesy Kmf164/ Creation Commons Attribution Share-alike

License
Traveling through the Holland Tunnel from Manhattan to New
Jersey

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By the 20th century, trains and cars had replaced canals as the primary form of
transportation, leading to the construction of bigger, longer tunnels. The Holland Tunnel,
completed in 1927, was one of the first roadway tunnels and is still one of the world's
greatest engineering projects. Named for the engineer who oversaw construction, the
tunnel ushers nearly 100,000 vehicles daily between New York City and New Jersey.
Tunnel construction takes a lot of planning. We'll explore why in the next section.
Tunneling technique

Principal Benefits
The principal benefits of jacked box tunneling are:

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A non-intrusive construction method

Minimal disturbance to surface infrastructure
Traffic flows maintained throughout the construction period
Traffic flows maintained with only minor restrictions during box installation
An efficient structural form incorporating a low bearing pressure foundation
A high quality maintenance free structure

Historical development

Jacked box tunneling in the UK developed from the. pipe jacking of the mid-1960s
Initially, small precast concrete boxes were jacked to form pedestrian subways and
portal bridge foundations. Later small boxes were jacked one on top Of another and filled
with concrete to form bridge abutments. In recent years, the development of high
capacity jacking equipment and sophisticated techniques for controlling ground
disturbance has led to the jacking of very large boxes each Capable of accommodating a
highway, railway or flood defense channel. Several large box structures have now been
installed in a wide variety of ground conditions.
Anti-drag systems
Referring to Fig. 1b, it can be seen that as the box is jacked forward it will tend to
drag the ground along with it. In the case of a wide box at shallow cover the mass of
ground on top of the box could be dragged forward, causing major disturbance and
possible disruption to the infrastructure above. Similarly, the underside of the box will
tend to drag and Shear the ground, resulting in remolding accompanied by a loss in
volume that will cause the box to dive. These effects are minimized by the use of a
proprietary anti-drag system (ADS) at the top and bottom of the box.

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Jacked box tunneling

The method in outline
Jacked box tunneling is a non-intrusive method for constructing a new under-bridge,
culvert or subway beneath existing surface infrastructure, for example railways and
highways.
The method enables traffic flows to be maintained throughout the construction period,
and maintained with only minor restrictions during the brief period of tunneling. The
inconvenience and costs of disruption to infrastructure and traffic flows experienced with
traditional construction methods can be avoided.
An example of the method is illustrated simply in Fig. 1. An open ended reinforced
concrete box is cast on a jacking base adjacent to a railway embankment, see Fig. 1a. A
purpose designed tunneling shield is provided at its leading end, and thrust jacks are
provided at its rear end reacting against a jacking slab. The box is then jacked slowly
through the ground under the railway in a carefully controlled tunneling operation, see
Fig. 1b. Excavation and jacking take place alternately in small increments of advance.
Measures are taken to ensure stability of the tunnel face and to prevent the ground from
being dragged forward by the advancing box. When the box has reached its final position,
Fig. 1c, the shield and jacking equipment are removed, and bridge construction is
completed with the addition of wing walls and road pavement.

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Tunnel Construction: Soft Ground and Hard Rock
Workers generally use two basic techniques to advance a tunnel. In the full-face method,
they excavate the entire diameter of the tunnel at the same time. This is most suitable for
tunnels passing through strong ground or for building smaller tunnels. The second
technique, shown in the diagram below, is the top-heading-and-bench method. In this
technique, workers dig a smaller tunnel known as a heading. Once the top heading has
advanced some distance into the rock, workers begin excavating immediately below the
floor of the top heading; this is a bench. One advantage of the top-heading-and-bench
method is that engineers can use the heading tunnel to gauge the stability of the rock
before moving forward with the project.
Notice that the diagram shows tunneling taking place from both sides. Tunnels through
mountains or underwater are usually worked from the two opposite ends, or faces, of the
passage. In long tunnels, vertical shafts may be dug at intervals to excavate from more
than two points.
Now let's look more specifically at how tunnels are excavated in each of the four primary
environments: soft ground, hard rock, soft rock and underwater.
Soft Ground (Earth)
Workers dig soft-ground tunnels through clay, silt, sand, gravel or mud. In this type of

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tunnel, stand-up time -- how long the ground will safely stand by itself at the point of
excavation -- is of paramount importance. Because stand-up time is generally short when
tunneling through soft ground, cave-ins are a constant threat. To prevent this from
happening, engineers use a special piece of equipment called a shield. A shield is an iron
or steel cylinder literally pushed into the soft soil. It carves a perfectly round hole and
supports the surrounding earth while workers remove debris and install a permanent
lining made of cast iron or precast concrete. When the workers complete a section, jacks
push the shield forward and they repeat the process.
Marc Isambard Brunel, a French engineer, invented the first tunnel shield in 1825 to
excavate the Thames Tunnel in London, England. Brunel's shield comprised 12
connected frames, protected on the top and sides by heavy plates called staves. He
divided each frame into three workspaces, or cells, where diggers could work safely. A
wall of short timbers, or breasting boards, separated each cell from the face of the
tunnel. A digger would remove a breasting board, carve out three or four inches of clay
and replace the board. When all of the diggers in all of the cells had completed this
process on one section, powerful screw jacks pushed the shield forward

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In 1874, Peter M. Barlow and James Henry Greathead improved on Brunel's design by
constructing a circular shield lined with cast-iron segments. They first used the newlydesigned shield to excavate a second tunnel under the Thames for pedestrian traffic.
Then, in 1874, the shield was used to help excavate the London Underground, the world's
first subway. Greathead further refined the shield design by adding compressed air
pressure inside the tunnel. When air pressure inside the tunnel exceeded water pressure
outside, the water stayed out. Soon, engineers in New York, Boston, Budapest and Paris
had adopted the Greathead shield to build their own subways.
Hard Rock
Tunneling through hard rock almost always involves blasting. Workers use a scaffold,
called a jumbo, to place explosives quickly and safely. The jumbo moves to the face of
the tunnel, and drills mounted to the jumbo make several holes in the rock. The depth of
the holes can vary depending on the type of rock, but a typical hole is about 10 feet deep
and only a few inches in diameter. Next, workers pack explosives into the holes, evacuate
the tunnel and detonate the charges. After vacuuming out the noxious fumes created
during the explosion, workers can enter and begin carrying out the debris, known as
muck, using carts. Then they repeat the process, which advances the tunnel slowly
through the rock.

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Fire-setting is an alternative to blasting. In this technique, the tunnel wall is heated with
fire, and then cooled with water. The rapid expansion and contraction caused by the
sudden temperature change causes large chunks of rock to break off. The Cloaca
Maxima, one of Rome's oldest sewer tunnels, was built using this technique.
The stand-up time for solid, very hard rock may measure in centuries. In this
environment, extra support for the tunnel roof and walls may not be required. However,
most tunnels pass through rock that contains breaks or pockets of fractured rock, so
engineers must add additional support in the form of bolts, sprayed concrete or rings of
steel beams. In most cases, they add a permanent concrete lining.
We'll look at tunnel driving through soft rock and driving underwater next
Other tunneling methods include:

Drilling and blasting

Slurry-shield machine
Wall-cover construction method.

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Other uses
Excavation techniques, as well as the construction of underground bunkers and other
habitable areas, are often associated with military use during armed conflict, or civilian
responses to threat of attack. The use of tunnels for mining is called drift mining. One of
the strangest uses of a tunnel was for the storage of chemical weapons
Natural tunnel

Natural Tunnel State Park (Virginia, USA) features an 850 feet (259 m) natural
tunnel, really a limestone cave, that has been used as a railroad tunnel since 1890.
Punarjani Guha Kerala, India. Hindus believe that crawling through the tunnel
(which they believe was created by a Hindu god) from one end to the other will
wash away all of ones sins and thus attain rebirth, although only men are
permitted to crawl through the cave.

Snow tunnels are created by voles, chipmunks and other rodents for protection and
access to food sources. Larger versions are created by humans, usually for fun.
For more information regarding tunnels built by animals, see Burrow
Temporary Way
During construction of a tunnel it is often convenient to install a temporary railway
particularly to remove spoil. This temporary railway is often narrow gauge so that it can
be double track, which facilitates the operation of empty and loaded trains at the same

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time. The temporary way is replaced by the permanent way at completion, thus
explaining the term Perway.
The diagram below shows the relationship between these underground structures in a
typical mountain tunnel. The opening of the tunnel is a portal. The "roof" of the tunnel,
or the top half of the tube, is the crown. The bottom half is the invert. The basic
geometry of the tunnel is a continuous arch. Because tunnels must withstand
tremendous pressure from all sides, the arch is an ideal shape. In the case of a tunnel, the
arch simply goes all the way around

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Diaphragm Walls
A diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete wall constructed in the ground using under
slurry techniques. Walls with widths of between 300mm and 1500mm can be formed in
this way to depths in excess of 60 meters.
Positive Features

Walls can be installed to considerable depths

Walls with substantial thickness can be formed

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The system is flexible in plan layout

The wall can easily be incorporated into the permanent works
The wall, or certain sections, can be designed to carry vertical load
Basement construction time can be reduced
Economical, positive solution for large, deep basements in saturated and unstable
soil profiles
Noise levels limited to engine noise only
No vibration during installation

Other Considerations

Not normally economical for small, shallow basements

The system needs a relatively large site area

Under certain conditions diaphragm walls may be used as cantilever, braced or tie-back
walls. Diaphragm walls are necessary :

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in very unstable soil profiles below the water-table where continuous support and
watertight conditions are required to prevent mud flows, piping and erosion of the
soils;
where construction time is important and the use of a diaphragm wall can shorten
the programme;
in conditions where deeper than normal cantilever support may be required. These
conditions could occur where the wall is to act only as a cantilever, or where a
very deep initial excavation is required before the first braced or tie-back supports
can be installed.

Diaphragm wall is a kind of retaining wall which appropriate for using in a limited area
of work and better protection than the "Sheet Pile" type. Diaphragm wall can deep
penetrate vertically and perform as a pile in carrying the weight. Then this wall is best for
the building which has a deep foundation or many storeys of underground level. With
selected and carefully quality control for materials used such as concrete, steel bar, and
bentonite for stronger and better reinforcement.

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Typical Details for Diaphragm Wall Construction

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Diaphragm Wall Construction photos

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SHORING
Shoring is the process of placing props against the side of a structure, or beneath or above
anything, to prevent sinking or sagging.
During and after battle, ships may have occasion to support ruptured decks, to strengthen
weakened bulkheads, to build up temporary bulkheads against the sea, to support hatches
and doors, and to provide props for equipment that has broken loose. This is done largely
by shoring.
A shore is a portable beam. A wedge is a block, triangular on the sides and
rectangular on the butt end. A shole is a flat plate which may be placed under the end of a
shore to distribute weight or pressure. A strongback is a bar or beam, often shorter than a
shore, and used to distribute pressure or to serve as an anchor for a patch over a hole. Any
of the foregoing items can be made of metal or of wood.
Tools used for shoring
In addition to shores, wedges, Sholes, and strong-backs, the following tools, materials
and equipment are often used in connection with shoring
1. Axes.
2. Battens (wooden).
3. Bolts, nuts and washers.
4. Canvas.
5. Chain falls.
6. Chisels (cold).
7. Chisels (wood).
8. Electric welding machine.
9. Hammers (claw).
10. Hatchets.
11. Hydraulic jacks.
12. Mattresses.
13. Mauls and sledges.
14. Nails.
15. Oxyacetylene cutting torches.
16. Pillows.
17. Plugs (wooden).
18. Sand.
19. Saws (carpenter's hand).
20. Saws (lumberjack's cross-cut).
21. Screw jacks
22. Sheet packing.
23. Turnbuckles.
24. Wire (binding).
25. Wire hawser.
26. Wood clamps

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Einstein College of Engineering

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