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Con telemetro: El telemetro es un instrumento ptico que sirve para medir distancias inclinadas
y funciona en base a los mismos principios que los medidores pticos de distancias de las
cmaras rflex de una sola lente, no necesita que se coloque miras o seales en el punto donde
se desea obtener la distancia. Tiene una precisin de 1/50 pero esta disminuye al aumentar la
distancia. Debido a su limitada precisin, su uso queda prcticamente restringido a operaciones
de exploracin y reconocimiento, estudios de rutas, etc., siendo su mayor aplicacin en
operaciones militares.
Con cinta o mira de invar: Es un mtodo que mide distancias horizontales indirectamente. Su
precisin es de 1:4000 a 1:50000. El uso de este instrumento no fue muy extendido debido a
que tena un costo muy alto, pero tena una gran utilidad en la medicin de distancias en
terrenos accidentados gracias a su alcance y precisin. En la actualidad la medicin de distancias
realizadas por este mtodo ya no se usan debido a que existen nuevos mtodos e instrumentos
tales como la medicin electrnica, estaciones totales, GPS. Consiste en la resolucin de un
tringulo rectngulo angosto del que se mide el ngulo ms agudo; el cateto menor es conocido
ya que es la mitad de una mira (llamada paralctica), horizontal fabricada en un material
sumamente estable, generalmente Invar, de dos metros de largo (se eligi esta longitud de 2,00
m porque la mitad es 1,00 m lo que luego facilita el clculo); y el cateto mayor es la distancia (D)
que queremos averiguar, la cual se deber calcular.
Con cinta (cinta comn de acero): Este mtodo parece un proceso sencillo de realizar pero en
realidad medir distancias con cinta no solo es complicado sino tambin largo, tedioso y costoso.
Las cintas se fabrican con longitudes de hasta 100 m, siendo las de 50 m las de mayor uso en
los trabajos de topografa. 4 Cuando se desea medir una distancia mayor a la longitud de la
cinta que se est utilizando es necesario dividir la distancia en tramos y de esta manera se
pueden cometer errores en la alineacin, lectura, etc. La calibracin es un factor importante ya
que influye en la precisin de las mediciones, en el campo es difcil obtener estas condiciones
de calibracin. En el proceso de medicin se cometen una serie de errores que son inevitables
pero se pueden corregir aplicando tcnicas adecuadas
. La medicin con cinta se realiza en seis pasos los cuales son los siguientes:
Alineacin
Aplicacin de tensin
Aplome
Marcaje de tramos
Lectura de la cinta
Registro de la distancia
El equipo que se necesita para realizar las mediciones es el siguiente:
Cinta mtrica
Jalones
Piquetes
Plomada
Nivel de mano
Se presentan dos clases de mediciones:
Medir una distancia desconocida entre dos puntos fijos, y
Marcar una distancia conocida con solo la marca de partida en ubicacin
En terrenos inclinados para realizar las mediciones siempre se debe sostener la cinta horizontal
y utilizar una plomada en uno o en los dos extremos para proyectar el cero o extremo de la cinta
sobre el punto donde debe ir ubicado el piquete.
Se puede utilizar un jaln en lugar de la plomada cuando no se requiere de mucha precisin o
cuando haya presencia de viento ya que es difcil mantener quieto el hilo de la plomada y puede
ser imposible lograr exactitud en la medicin
. Cuando no se puede mantener la cinta horizontal o el terreno es muy inclinado se mide por
tramos parciales que se van sumando hasta alcanzar la longitud completa de la cinta, a este
procedimiento se llama medicin escalonada.
Para realizar las mediciones se sigue el mismo procedimiento para terrenos planos teniendo
cuidado en que la cinta este horizontal.
En ocasiones cuando es necesario medir una distancia en un terreno inclinado en lugar de medir
la distancia por tramos es mejor medir la distancia inclinada y tomar su pendiente o la diferencia
de altura entre los extremos para luego calcular la distancia horizontal. Para realizar la medicin
escalonada se requiere de mucho tiempo y es menos exacta debido a la acumulacin de errores
por lo que algunas veces es conveniente medir la distancia inclinada.
Frmula para calcular la distancia horizontal:
Donde:
S = distancia inclinada entre dos puntos A y B
h = diferencia de altura entre A y B
d = distancia horizontal entre A y B
C = Correccin debida a la pendiente, que debe hacerse a S para obtener la distancia horizontal
d
Este mtodo se emplea cuando no se requiere de mucha precisin o cuando las caractersticas
propias del terreno hacen difcil el uso de la cinta, en estos casos es ms conveniente la
taquimetra porque resulta ms rpido y econmico que los levantamientos con cinta. Tambin
se lo utiliza para el levantamiento de detalles, para comprobar mediciones realizadas
directamente, para nivelaciones trigonomtricas de bajo orden, la localizacin de detalles
topogrficos para la elaboracin de mapas y la medicin de longitudes de lecturas hacia atrs y
hacia adelante en la nivelacin diferencial.
Las mediciones se realizan por medio de un teodolito o nivel, los cuales tienen dos hilos
reticulares horizontales, superior e inferior; visando a travs de cualquiera de estos
instrumentos sobre una mira sostenida verticalmente en un punto, se toma la lectura de los dos
hilos, se restan los dos valores y se multiplica por la constante estadimtrica (k) la cual es igual
a 100 y de esta forma se obtiene la distancia.
La constante estadimtrica de un teodolito por lo general es siempre 100 pero en algunas
ocasiones es necesario determinarla debido a que se pueden presentar variaciones en su valor,
la forma de determinar esta constante es la siguiente: se lee el intervalo I (hilo superior hilo
inferior) en la estadia, esta lectura debe corresponder a una distancia conocida D; luego se divide
la distancia para el intervalo y se obtiene la constante.
Este mtodo se basa en el principio de los tringulos semejantes, en el que los lados
correspondientes de los tringulos son proporcionales. Se logra una precisin 1/500 de la
distancia teniendo el suficiente cuidado.
A pesar de que en la actualidad existen instrumentos mucho ms rpidos y precisos con los
cuales se puede realizar las mediciones como la estacin total y el receptor GPS todava es
necesario el uso de este mtodo ya que es til en muchas aplicaciones y de seguro continuara
por algn tiempo en uso. Las causas que pueden producir errores son las siguientes:
Las componentes principales de los instrumentos de este grupo son: fuente de luz visible,
producida por una lmpara de tungsteno; tubo de xenn, luz lser o luz infrarroja; modulador
de luz; partes pticas para la transmisin y recepcin de la luz modulada; fotomultiplicador y
medidor de fase, y unidad de lectura. Adems, se requiere un sistema reflector pasivo, en
general un prisma retrorreflector en la estacin remota.
El intervalo de medicin de los instrumentos con fuente de luz de tungsteno es mucho ms
reducido que los instrumentos de microondas, ya que su radiacin tiene que competir con la del
sol.
TITULO
LEYENDA
ESCALA GRAFICA Y NUMERICA
COORDENADAS GRAFICAS Y METRICAS
FLECHA DE NORTE
CREDITOS Y FECHA
DIAGRAMA DE UBICACIN
ZONA O AREA GEOGRAFICA A REPRESENTAR
FORMATO (MARCOS, COLORES, TEMA Y FONDO.
Distance measurement
"The distance measurement is based on the topography. While in a survey the angles can be
read accurately with very sophisticated equipment, at least it has to be measured the length
of a line to complement the measurement of angles on the location of the points. "
There are different methods to measure distances, which are:
Step by Step
With odometer
With rangefinders
With Invar tape
With tape (common steel tape)
tachometer (stay)
With electronic instruments
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Of all these methods that are used most often they are tape measurement, electronic
instruments and satellite systems. Today is increasing the use of Global Positioning System
(GPS) as it has some advantages over other methods such as accuracy and efficiency.
Using other methods of horizontal control can also determine distances such as triangulation,
traverse, radiation, etc., which will be in the following chapters.
Step: This method is to count the number of steps you have a certain distance and is quite
accurate for many purposes in topography. The measurement steps are also used to detect
mistakes occurred in the distance measurement by other methods more accurately. People
who have experience in this method can measure distances with accuracy of up to 1/50 to
1/100 on flat surfaces and unobstructed.
With odometer: The odometer is quick and easy to use instrument that measures distances,
which consists of a wheel, to know the distance on a surface to spin the wheel on a digital
screen However, despite being a simple instrument to use its accuracy is limited because it
only used for verification of distances measured with other methods, preliminary surveys for
roads and earlier surveys. If the terrain has been done measuring the distance has a large
slope, this distance must be corrected. They have an accuracy of about 1/200 on smooth
surfaces.
Rangefinder: The rangefinder is an optical instrument used to measure slope distances and
operates on the same principles as optical distance meters of SLR single lens cameras, no need
to order or signal is placed at the point where you want to get the distance. It is accurate to
1/50 but this decreases with increasing distance. "Due to its limited accuracy, its use is
virtually restricted to reconnaissance and exploration operations, route studies, etc., and its
main application in military operations."
Tape or invar staff: It is a method that measures horizontal distances indirectly. Its accuracy is
1: 4000 to 1: 50000. The use of this instrument was not widespread because they had a very
high cost, but had a very useful in measuring distances on rough terrain thanks to its range
and accuracy. At present distance measurement made by this method is no longer used
because there are new methods and tools such as electronic measurement, total stations,
GPS. "It consists in solving a narrow triangle of the most acute angle is measured; the lower
leg is known as it is half a scope (called parallax), horizontal manufactured in a very stable
material, usually Invar, two meters long (the length is 2.00 m chosen because half is 1, 00 m
which then facilitates the calculation); and leg is the greatest distance (D) that want to find
out, which should be calculated. "
Tape (common steel tape): This method seems a simple process but actually make measuring
distances with tape is not only complicated but also long, tedious and expensive. "The tapes
are manufactured in lengths up to 100 m, and 50 m of the most widely used in surveying
work." 4 When you want to measure a distance greater than the length of the tape you are
using is necessary to divide the distance sections and thus can make mistakes in the lineup,
reading, etc. Calibration is an important factor because it affects the accuracy of
measurements in the field is difficult to obtain these calibration conditions. In the process of
measuring a number of errors that are inevitable but can be corrected by applying appropriate
techniques committed
. The tape measure is performed in six steps which are:
Alignment
Applying voltage
Plumb
Marking sections
Reading the tape
Record Distance
On slopes for measurement should always hold the horizontal band and use a plumb line at
one or both ends to project zero or end of the tape over the spot where the bite must be
located.
You can use a pull rather than plummet when not require much precision or when there is
wind because it is still difficult to maintain the plumb line and may be impossible to achieve
measurement accuracy
. When you can not keep the tape horizontal or sloping terrain is measured by partial sections
that are added to achieve the full length of the tape, this procedure is called staggered
measurement.
To perform the measurements the same procedure for flat terrain being careful that the tape
follows this horizontal.
Where:
S = slope distance between two points A and B
Tachymetry: The tachymetry stay or method is a fast and efficient survey method but
inaccurately used to measure distances and elevation differences indirectly.
This method is used when it does not require much precision or when the characteristics of
the terrain make it difficult to use the tape in these cases is more convenient because it
tachymetry faster and cheaper than with tape lifts. It is also used for lifting details to check
measurements directly to trigonometric leveling low order, the location of topographical
detail for mapping and measuring lengths readings back and forth in the differential leveling.
Measurements are made through a theodolite or level, which have two horizontal upper and
lower grid wire; aiming through any of these instruments look vertically sustained at a point,
reading is taken of the two wires, the two values are subtracted and multiplied by the constant
Stadia (k) which is equal to 100 and this so the distance is obtained.
Stadia constant of a theodolite is usually always 100 but sometimes it is necessary to
determine it because it may fluctuate in value, how to determine this constant is: interval I
(upper thread is read - thread bottom) in the stay, this reading should correspond to a known
distance D; then the distance for the interval is divided and you get the constant.
This method is based on the principle of similar triangles, where the corresponding sides of
the triangles are proportional. "Accuracy 1/500 of distance is achieved by having sufficient
care."
Although there are much faster and more precise tools with which you can make
measurements as the total station and GPS receiver is still necessary to use this method
because it is useful in many applications and insurance continued today by some time in use.
The causes that can cause errors are:
Map elements
The map is intended to represent a clear, orderly, and aesthetically contrasted. To symbolize
details at different scales, mapping specific factors are considered. There must be symmetry
in the graphics drawn, that is, you must keep order or horizontal and vertical arrangement;
marginal elements some information should not be above or below, or more to the left or
right. If necessary, you can define "blocks" (groups) of elements, for example, the title and
legend form a block, graphical scale and location diagram another block, the credits and the
North form a third block, even and must maintain a symmetry between the blocks to avoid
the appearance of visual clutter. The shape of the map or geographic area to represent
condition the distribution of the basics you should carry a map. For Joly (1979) map is the
representation on a flat, simplified and standard scale of all or part of the surface. The empty
or blank spaces around the map should be used to locate the marginal information. However
in some areas you can be located north, scale or location diagram. The arrangement of the
marginal information should have a logical order for reading, because it is necessary for the
interpretation and use of the map, so should never miss and must contain the following
elements: title, legend and explanatory symbols, scale graphical and numerical, geographical
and metric coordinates north credits and dates, chart location, area or geographic area to
represent, under the mappable limit.
MAP COMPONENTS
TITLE
LEGEND
Graphical and numerical SCALE
coordinate graphs and metrics
NORTH ARROW
CREDITS AND DATE
location diagram
A ZONE OR GEOGRAPHICAL AREA REPRESENT
FORMAT (MARCOS, COLORS, AND FUND UNIT.