Protecci6n contra el rayo en fuselajes de material compuesto

A. Esteban Onate

Los componentes estructurales de material compuesto que se emplean en los aviones actuales estan sujetos a las descargas electricas que produce el rayo.

Como es bien conocido, el origen de tales descargas se encuentra en la separacion de cargas positivas y negativas dentro de la nube. Las descargas ocurren antes de producirse los fenornenos visibles, en los puntas donde estan mas proximas las cargas electricas de distinto signo. Oesde la base de la nube parte una corriente descendente de electrones (ilamada canal) hacla tierra. Cuando esta corriente esta proxima a tierra se produce un campo electrlco muy alto que ocasiona un nuevo canal, esta vez ascendente. Es un canal de cargas positivas. Cuando se unen los dos canales se forma el golpe de retorno, dicho de otro modo, un cortocircuito de enorme intensidad. Es el rayo, que neutraliza las cargas que hay en la trayectoria.

Si la aeronave, que se encuentra en las proximidades de una nube electrificada, posee carga electrica suficiente para desencadenar la descarga pasara a formar parte del canal, en cuyo caso conduce la corriente de descarga.

En el incidente tipico de colision, el rayo se une a una extremidad del avion y sale, 0 se separa en la atmosfera por otra. EI resultado es que ocurre un flujo mom entaneo de corriente electrlca muy importante a traves del avion y entre los dos puntos citados.

EI "golpe" mas severo, lIamado tarnbien primario, se une y separa del avion en puntas situ ados en protuberancias de la aeronave tales como la proa, bordes marginal y de ataque del ala, 0 zonas proximas, estabilizadares, gondolas de los motores, etc., adernas de los bordes de salida de las superficies citadas. La colision, que sequn estadfstica recibe un avion comercial dos veces par ano, se caracteriza por un pico muy alto de corriente (que lIega a 2x105 amperios). La transrnision de energfa que acompafia al proeeso tiene componentes de frecueneia que oseilan entre 1 kHz y 1 MHz, data importante a tener en cuenta euando la proteccion de la aeronave se efectua por rnetodos de aislamiento.

En todo easo, la experiencia indica que estas colisiones pueden causar darios estrueturales importantes en componentes de material compuesto, si sstan desprotegidos. En este caso la energia introdueida por la colision no se conduce de modo eficiente a traves del compuesto, dada su conductividad terrnica y electrica menores que las correspondientes rnetalicas.

Ademas de los posibles darios por impacto primario, hay otras partes de la estructura que pueden sufrir los llamados efeetos secundarios, que son debidos al fenomeno de barrido del rayo par la superficie del avion. EI barrido se produce cuando la trayectoria de descarga ssta inclinada respecto al plano horizontal del avion, ver Fig. 1. EI fenorneno de barrido es importante en el sentido de que zonas del avlon no propensas, en principio, a eonstituir puntas de anclaje del rayo, pasan a serlas como consecuencia del barrido. En to do caso, el barrido da lugar a transferencias de energia electrornaqnetica de la misma frecuencia que el golpe primario, aunque presenta valores relativamente mas moderados en euanto a la veloeidad de transmislon de dicha energia. Los picos de corriente son tam bien mas pequefios (tfpieamente 1 xi 05 amperios).

La tecnica basica para prevenir 0 reducir al minima los darios que puede sufrir el material compuesto se basa en condueir electricarnente la corriente de descarga a aislar la aeronave en 10 posible de los fanomenos de la misma. Asi, entre

Mas del cincuenta por ciento de peso estructural del Boeing 787 es material compuesto.

Foio par cartesia de The Boeing Company.

48 Hevia nO 70. 2 -2009

-...-----------,------------------------------------"'-~- ~ ~"

Rayos ¥ twel10s

Fig, 1.

Fenomeno de "barrido" del rayo en colision inclinada.

los puntos de ancla]e y de salida del rayo de la aeronave, se dispone sequn el primer concepto de una banda metalica conductora, capaz de transferir y descargar en la atm6sfera los picos de corriente y energfa del proceso.

En la practice todos los elementos del avi6n estan conectados electricamente para conducir la corriente de descarga lejos de las zonas donde sus efectos comprometen la seguridad en vuelo: depositos de combustible, superficies de control de vuelo, etc.

Compuesto

Aluminio

Larguero libra carbono

Compuesto

Puente

Articulaci6n de titanio

Aluminio

Descargador estatica

EL2'2ZI Aluminio 1;·'..:'.-.1 Compueslo

Fig,2,

Timon de direccion. Un esquema de construccion.

Asf, pues, los rnatodos de proteccion se sinian dentro de dos categorias: aislamiento y conduccion.

Un ejemplo de tecnlca por el rnetodo de aislamiento se explica a partir de la Fig. 2, que es el esquema de un timon de direcci6n. Con este fin se colocan dos bandas de aluminio, una en el borde marginal y otra en el borde de salida de la superficie, unidas electricarnente a la artlculacion del timon y a la estructura rnetalica de la

Ensayo en laboratorio de una maqueta de Grumman A6, dande se aprecian los canales de entrada y salida del rayo.

Itavia nO 70. 2 -2009 49

IEstudiar los

f efectos del rayo

I Los proyectistas en el campo r de las interferencias electro-

maqrietlcas utilizan tres metodos baslces para estudiar el ambiente ele~tromagnetiGQ qllle

r rodea el avian.

f ~I primer metoda utlliza los r datos que Sillmirilistran los operaI dares. Elil el curse de SlJS nrtas I los avienes sufren la Gies€;arga de I raves y los informes correspenI dientesse envfan al fabricante. l.Los datos que se gener-an de l este mode se emplean normal-

[. rnentepara eeiecerener detalles IconcretCls que ayudan en el pro-

f yecto parala mejor. proteccion

I posible contra el rayo,

~ C:I segwndo metode irrtplica

openar en ambiente real. Esto se puede hacer de dos modes. En p~imer Ingar sltuar equipos de

I medinlon en pcsiciones geogrMi-

. Cas donde suele bable, r actlvidad I eleotrioa irapcrtante, y una vez

I

I en plena tarmenta atraer las de.s-

I cargas eleetricas y obtener datos ~ para analisis post~rior.

lJna se§unda via es velar tina

aml::iiente electrofTJ·agnetico en el laboratorio. Este metoda es por 10 Gomunel mas wtil, pues 61 eSRJeeialista plJe(ie irwestigar, de

f~r,ma selectiva, aspectos espe- I I ctflcos de IQ) que sucede cuando

t el ray0 ccltsiona con la aeronave. Segufl la capaeida€i del laboratorie se puede ensayar en la aeronave cempleta, a sobre partes eSlileoffieas Y propensas a I constituir puntos de anclaje del I

lra~. I

Interior de fuselaje de Boeing 787,

Foto por cortesia de The Boeing Company.

aeronave. EI compuesto en la superficie se reviste de material de poder dielectrico muy alto. EI canal del rayo no se puede unir entonces a esta superficie, y son las bandas rnetalicas las que conducen la corriente de descarqa. N6tese que los descargadores de sstatlca (cuatro posiciones en este caso) estan conectados a las bandas de aluminio.

Otro ejempla, maderno, de tecnica de aislamiento se discute mas adelante baja el epfgrafe de "Jaula de faraday".

EI metoda conductivo consiste en emplear bandas rnetalicas en las superficies aerodinarnicas situadas en las regiones de impacto directo del rayo (bordes marginales del ala y superficies de cola, bordes de ataque, proa, etc.). Las bandas de metal conducen la cantidad principal de corriente puesto que estan en paralelo, desde el punto de vista electrico, con la superficie de material compuesto. EI compuesto, pues, conduce aquf energfa electrica. Bien entendido, par dlserio, la cantidad de corriente que circula par el compuesto debe limitarse a intensidad aceptable para este.

Jaula de Faraday "elemental"

EI paso mas prometedor que se ha dado en la tecnologfa de protecci6n es consecuencia de la introducci6n masiva de materiales compuestos. ITA VIA ya ha informada que mas del 50% par ciento en peso del Boeing 787 esta fabricado en compuestos, pasos que sequira el Airbus A350. La tscnlca de protecci6n ahara se basa en conseguir un rnetodo mas ligero y econornico, a la vez que mantiene los niveles de seguridad exigibles.

En el plano te6rico se trata de construir una jaula de Faraday sobre la superflcie exterior del avion, EI tema no es nuevo pero si la practice de hacerla. La jaula es una malla hecha en pletina rnetalica continua y conductora sabre los paneles de material cornpuesto: EI sistema goza de los beneficios de la propiedad industrial, pero parece ser que el titanio es el material id6neo y de preferencia para fabricaci6n de la pletina. La rnalla as! constituida tiene numerosas puntos para la entrada, anclaje y salida del rayo, asf

50 Itavia n° 70. 2 ~2009

como trayectorias para la eonduccion de la eorriente elsctrica sin produeir dafios hacia el inserior de la estruetura. EI interim del Iuselaje de la aeronave esta apantallado par la malia, y el compuesto protegido de los efeetos de ia descarga electrica.

Hemos hablado de pianos teoricos. Sabemos Que en la jaula de Faraday, digamos "perfecta", ninqun campo eiectrico exterior, tal como el creado por el rayo, puede inducir campos electricos en el interior de la jaula. Es obvio que esta adaptacion haria imposible el vuelo instrumental y control ado actual. Par esta razon, la aplicacion aeronautica de este sistema de proteccion eonsiste en la liamada "Jaula de Faraday elemental", esto es, una jaula que es pantalla para los campos electricos de freeuencias entre 1 kHz y 1 Mhz, el espectro de frecuencia de los efeetos inducidos por la descarga del rayo, pero que es permeable a las frecuencias de comunicaciones y naveqacion. EI sentido de elemental de la jaula significa, pues, que tiene aberturas cuasi-dielectricas en la estructura del avi6n para permitir la recepcion de las ondas electrornaqneticas indispensables para el vuelo instrumental y controJado. Tales "aberturas" son en realidad zonas libres de malia, probablemente protegidas del rayo can tecnicas conductoras mas convencionales. No obstante, como la atenuacion electrornaqnetica 'de la jaula depende, entre otras, del espaciado de la rejilla que forma la malla puede ser suficiente alterar esta variable para conseguir la apertura electrornaqnetica necesaria.

Parece ser que la opclon seleccionada para el Boeing 787 es la primera citada anteriormente, dicho con las reservas propias de un sistema que es propiedad industrial de la firma de Seattle.

A.E

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es el medio mas econ6mico de hacerlo.

Llame al Telf. 630 356024 y compruebe como optimizar fa productividad de sus mensajes publicitarios.

itaviamagazine@yahoo.es

ftavia nO 70. 2 ~2009 51

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y precios (algunas academias poseen m6dulos de Ingles aeroriautico espedficos). Esperamos que alguna de las formas de estudio propuestas, ya sea on-line, convivencia 0 clases presenciales, sirvan para que aquellos que 10 necesiten Ileguen al 2011 superando los exarnenes sin problemas. Para eso, solo faltan 24 meses.

Hoy presentamos Pueblo Ingles y Villa I nglesa, un curso de convivencia en ingles especffico para pilotos.

Pueblo Ingles y Villa Inglesa. La mejor opcion para pilotos En muchos casas se concibe la "forrnacion en ingles" como clases de Ingles, y esto es erroneo. Las clases de ingles son solo simuladores de vuelo: te enserian el manejo del avion y como utilizar los distintos i nstru mentos de navegacion, los mandos, se realizan simulaciones, etc. Las clases de ingles en su sentido convencional te suelen aportar la parte teo rica del idioma, pero cuando ya dominas todo esto, 10 que hay que hacer es volar.

En este sentido, Pueblo Ingles es un "vuelo real" que te lanza a hablar en i ngles. Este es el desafro que resuelve esta propuesta: diferentes acentos, profesiones, edades y temas de conversacion fluyen de manera natural durante 8 dfas, a traves de un nexo comun, el ingles.

En Pueblo Ingles los alumnos practican ingles durante mas de 15 horas al dla. La formula es sencilla: hacer convivir durante 8 dfas a unos 20 angloparlantes lIegados de todo el mundo con otras tantas personas i nteresadas en hablar y darle un empuj6n a su Ingles, en enclaves unicos para aislarse del entorno, como Valdelavilla, La Alberca y Cazorla.

En Villa Inglesa los cursos de inrnersion permiten que la concentracion sea maxima y se favorezca el uso continuado del ingles para un mayor aprovechamiento del tiempo. Dos, tres y hasta seis alumnos conviven de lunes a viernes a durante un fin de semana, con el mismo nurnero de profesores de distintas nacionalidades. El programa va dirigido a profesionales que necesiten mejorar sus habilidades gramaticales y quieran practicar ingles, en este caso espedfico de pilotos: vocabulario aeronautico, teen ico, etc .•

NOTICIAS DE FORMACICN

AVIADOR MARZO-ABRIL 2009 35

SESAR: tecnologia al servicio de la eficiencia

CRIDA. Centro de Referenda I+D+i ATM

La gesti6n del incremento de trafko aereo previsto' y la necesidad de respetar el medio ambiente hacen patente las limitaciones de las estructuras y sistemas de control de trafico aereo actuales. Para hacer frente a estas limitaciones, se necesitan operaciones mas eficientes basadas en una tecno!ogfa mas avanzada, EI programa SESAR (Single European Sky ATM Research) nace para dar respuesta a esta necesidad.

La SESAR Joint Undertaking (Sj U) fue creada el 27 de febrero de 2007, con la Comisi6n Europea y Eurocontrol como socios inidales'. La SJU tiene el objeti-

vo de gestionar la fase de desarrollo de SESAR. Su misi6n principal es asegurar la modernizaci6n de los sistemas de gesti6n de trafico aereo europeos mediante la coordinaci6n y concentraci6n de todos los esfuerzos relevantes de investigaci6n.

SESAR no solamente implica un cambio tecnol6gico, tambien implica un cambio en la forma en hacer las cosas y, sobre todo, un cambio en el planteam iento y operaci6n del sistema de control de trafico aereo, Desde el punto de vista conceptual, SESAR

Los pilotos siguen siendo los responsables ultimos de la seguridad dela aeronave, pero adernas pasa n a tener una pa rte rna s activa en la gesti6n del vuelo, ya que participan, junto can su compafiia aerea, en el estableclmiento de la ruta optima

NOTICIAS DE AIM

implica el paso de una filosofia de control reactiva (en la que se espera a que un conflicto surja para asi solucionarlo) a una filosofla de control proactiva (en la que se evita que los conflictos surjan). Mediante SESAR se deja de gestionar unicarnente el espacio aereo para pasar a gestionar las trayectorias, dando prioridad a las necesidades de los usuarios. EI sistema SESAR propone una redefinici6n de los roles de los actores principales del sistema de trans porte aereo (pilotos y control adores) . Estos roles se redefinen para ajustarlos a la nueva filosoffa del sistema. Los pilotos siguen siendo los responsables ultimos de la seguridad de la aeronave, pero adernas pasan a tener una parte mas activa en la gesti6n del

vuelo, ya que participan (junto con su compafiia aerea] en el establecimiento de la ruta 6ptima. Los controladores mantienen su rol como garantes de la seguridad, pero actuan adem as como facilitadores del seguimiento de la ruta 6ptima por parte del piloto.

A grandes rasgos, SESAR propone seis principios que se detallan a continuaci6n:

• Situa a las personas como la parte central y fundamental del futuro sistema de transporte aereo.

• Usa de trayectorias 4D (latitud, longitud, altitud y tiempo) sustentadas sobre

la existencia de trayectorias de referencia (Reference Business Trajectories - RBT). EI usa de trayectorias 4D es necesario para habilitar un entorno basado en la gesti6n de trayectorias.

• Uso de una planiflcacion dinarnica y colaborativa. Esta

AVIADOR MAYO·JUNIO 2009 19

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26 ye_ars ago, in the midst of a staffing crisis requiring airspace closures, things were so desperate that there were airspace closures. Solution? Start 20 controller trainees every 6 weeks for 2 years. The few that remember further back will note a similar cycle in the mid' ~ late 60's. The [then] young recruits of the gO's who now approach or have passed 50 years of age are considering retirement. Australian controllers, on average, retire at 52 with numbers falling rapidly beyond this age, in part due to the simple difficulty of managing shift work and meeting medical standards. There are but a handful of operational controllers in Australia aged 60. More than 40% of Australia's controllers are either eligible to retire now or within 5 years. The lack of planning for this eventuality has been widely recognised within Australia, including by its ANSP, but effective management ofthe problem is yet to be resolved. Trainees are starting but this resource takes time to come on line and then further time to reach full capacity. So how does the 'system survive?

Australian controllers are like our peers the world over. We are driven by a stronq. need to provide a service and safety always remains the top priority. For years the system has relied on controllers working considerable overtime to keep the system afloat. This systemic reliance on overtime has, to some extent hidden the real impact of staffing reductions over time. From a workforce of over 1100 a decade or so ago the workfQfce is now approximately 900 of whom about 760 are operational. This will sound familiar to many controllers the world around. Whilst it is true that Australia deliberately held controller numbers high to facilitate transition into our automated Air Traffic System, staff savings from automation have not been as great

THE

CONTROLLER

With over 1000 NOTAMedairspaceclosures or reductions in service due to staffing shortages across the year, Australia's staffing situation was and remains a topic of. conversation in aviation. circles across the world.

_ With significant controller shortages world-" wi de, co m petition for th is sea rce resou rce has become fierce. Many nations actively recruit overseas (including Australia) and market forces are driving wages up in international locations, making overseas transfers attractive. Recent departures for Ireland, Germany, UAE and other Middle Eastern locations have stretched scant human resources such that application of overtime is no longer sufficient measure to sustain operations.

So let's review what happens in harsh times in business. First, streamline processes to reduce waste and duplication. Secondly, cut underperforming areas or outsource. Thirdly, reduce workforce to meet demand. Compare this with an ANSP's view of the world. Streamline and reduce duplication - ok so far. Next, support areas such as training and procedures development are trimmed and in some cases excised entirely because they are expensive and essentially long term investments. Sadly that reduction in capacity shows immediately in improved bottom line but doesn't begin to bite in real terms for a couple of years.

Lastly look at the workforce. The ATC workforce globally has steadily declined over the past 10 years. To some extent this was expected with technical advances. What is more worrisome is that modelling for numbers is being done on technologies not yet proven, or indeed in some cases simply non-

existemt. ~ years a!ilQ A)JiatiQri ElHsiness ma§a;o;ine J1lGstulate€l a near future in whlcfi1 there WQl!ild be a si§lnifical'ltly improved Air Traffic System which at its heart had no Air Traffic Controllers. Indeed NASA has been working on cooperative airborne and ground based technologies' that, in time, would obviate the need for human involvement in air traffic management. With increased capability in air to air communications, data exchange and processing power both ground based and airborne,

. industry may prefer a model in low density airspace which offers no servi~es (and therefore charges). In such airspace aircraft could self separate using ADS-B in and other emergent technologies to mitigate collision risks without the need for an ANSP but.'. THE FU~ TURE IS NOTHERE YET.

Those that thought they might wait and see how the future turns out can already see the writing on the wall. Recovering from skill and ~nowledge shortfalls takes years and exposes the system to unacceptably high levels of risk. We can't afford to lose more. Simply put, lose controllers, lose control. ®

rob.mason@civilair.asn.au

7

How do ANSPs Respond to the Crisis ~ by Alexander ter Kuile, Secretary General of CANSO Deficient Charging Model

The answer is that almost all ANSPs find

Alexander ter Kuile was appointed Secretary General of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation, CANSO, in January 2001. The organisation represents 49 ANSPs and 42 associates, all stakeholders in the aviation community. Starting his aviation career in 1978 with KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, he also holds a Bachelors Degree in Economic Geography from London University and a MBA from Cranfield School of Management. He is a Board Member of the Air Transport Action Groiu: and a Governor of the Flight Safety Foundation.

For the last twelve months, aviation has been

.. facing an economic crisis. Following a brief return to growth and profit in recent years, in 2008 commercial air transport was first hit by a trebling of the oil price, then a dramatic decline in demand. The final few months of last year revealed that recession in every region of the world was plunging airlines into losses and even the most optimistic cannot foresee any growth in the market in 2009.

How have the world's Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSPs) responded to this crisis? It must be remembered that unlike airlines, who can reduce capacity swiftly by grounding planes, ANSPs are fixed infrastructure providers who cannot simplytum radars off. However, in June CANSO members promised to increase their efforts to find airspace efficiencies (the CANSO 'Madeira Statement')' and this was welcomed by the airlines. But with fuel prices now less of a problem, the focus has also moved to the cost base of ANSPs. While the rest of the economy cuts costs, what is ATM doing to seek efficiencies?

THE

CONTROLLER

themselves in a regulatory straightjacket, which prevents them from responding to economic cycles in the way any other business would. Within the confines of the system they operate in, many ANSPs have done their best to help airlines, but the reality is that most cannot significantly overcome the deficiencies of the ATM charging model, and this situation will continue to have negative repercussions on the aviation industry unless it is remedied.

Although it is important to note that no two ANSPs are the same, and that the problems of ATM economics do not apply equally in all parts of the world, broadly speaking, there are five deficiencies in ATM finance. Firstly, in many cases there is the impossibility of building reserves. Secondly, for those having to provide compulsory services, there is not always compensation in return. Thirdly, there are the many shortcomings of the cost recovery system. Fourthly, the problems with cross-subsidising services. And fifthly, there is the absence of normal business practices.

No Reserve

In the current 'cost recovery' system, once traffic falls, revenue falls as well. It is a 'fair weather' system, which runs into great difficulty during a storm. This problem is acute in Europe, which· runs on a 'cash-flow' basis. In other parts .of the world solutions exist; NAV CANADA, for example, is allowed to hold a contingency reserve. Under the cost recovery method, ANSPs have to balance the books, so under-recovery in one year requires them to compensate in future years, which can result in increased charges. In other cases, airline bankruptcies result in the unpaid fees being paid by surviving carriers. This system, created during the years of predictable growth and protected national flag carriers, is no longer suitable for the modern, liberalised and dynamic aviation industry.

Uncertainty and Suspicion

The result of this inflexible system is that the relationships between ANSPs and airlines

canso

civil air navigation services organisation

frequently become strained and planning becomes opaque and short-term. What should be. a cooperative, equal and .innovative process is instead a unilateral position breeding uncertainty and suspicion. Such fears are sometimes warranted, for example when 'the costs of provision are hidden, or the monies raised for services are diverted into other areas, or used to cross-subsidise other activities. Fortunately CANSO members have worked hard to improve transparency and open customer relations, The recent CANSO/lATA 'Guide to customer relations in turbulent times' is a good example of this cooperative spirit.

There are of course other areas of concern, which should be addressed, such as the potential imbalance between the amounts charged to large commercial airliners, compared to other airspace users. But the core of the problem is still the fact that governments - particularly in Europe - set or approve navigation charges, and most ANSPs still have little control over their own businesses, rarely given the chance to set their charges according to service quality.

11

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by Xavier Fron, Head of EUROCONTROL Performance Review Unit

The objectives of air traffic services are indicated in ICAO Annex 11 and include obligations for safe and efficient conduct of flights. This article focuses on the economic efficiency aspect of the European ATM system (see key data in box).

>} Xavier Fran

ATM costs in Europe and in many other parts of the world are fully refunded from en-route and terminal navigation charges collected from airspace users.

Economic efficiency is of high significance: user charges amounted to more than eight billion euro in 2007 (see box).

Monopolies

European Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSPs) are statutory monopolies which mostly operate under a full cost-recovery regime; this means that their revenues are virtually guaranteed. The United Kingdom is the only European State which applies' the independent economic regulation option (price-cap) where any profit or loss remains with the ANSP, together with strong safety regulation and management systems. Provided that all relevant international safety requirements are met, there is also a duty on ANSPs to ensure that the best possible service is provided .at the lowest possible cost, even more when the economic climate is difficult.

EUf0pean ATM system (2007 data)

En-route ANSPs I 36

Area Control Centres 66

Em route sectors (_max. cOl'lfi uratiol'l) 684

A macn units 225

450

14

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Institutional Strategy

In a first step to drive ATM performance, including economic efficiency, the ECAC Min-

THE

CONTROLLER

isters of Transport adopted an Institutional Strateqy, An independent Petformance Review Commission (PRC) was created in the EUROCONTROL Organisation in 1998. It (inter alia) analyses and benchmarks the costeffectiveness and productivity of ANSPs. The PRC publishes its results in its annual ATM cost-effectiveness (ACE) Benchmarking reports. All of the PRe's reports are on its website (http://www.eurocontrol.i nt/prc). Although this is very light-handed regulation, it does have a clear positive impact on economic efficiency. Costs grew more slowly than traffic in the 2003-2008 period. This resulted in real unit costs (net of inflation) decreasing more or less in line with targets, as illustrated. Some 3 billion euro were saved in this period compared to constant unit costs.

Benchmarking Highlights

The ACE 2007 Benchmarking Report, which will be published in May 2009, highlights that:

1. Cost-effectiveness among ANSPs is generally improving since 2003 although the rate of improvement decreased in 2007

2. Reductions in support costs are a major element of the improvement

3. ATCO-hour productivity rose rapidly since

2003 mostly in many smaller ANSPs

This is very welcome news, and reflects tremendous credit on all concerned.

However, the PRC considers that there is still ample scope for cost-effectiveness improvement of the ATM system, based on best practices identified through benchmarking analysis.

Wide variations in ATM-r'elated unit costs borne by airspace users (i.e. taking into account user charges and quality of service in terms of ATFM delays - what is defined as "economic cost-effectiveness" in the graph below) are observed across Europe (see

graphl. However, such factors as cost of living, traffic complexity and variability would need to be taken in to account to identify actual efficiency gaps.

Single European Sky A High Level Group report called for a continued drive towards improved ATM performance. The current economic crisis reinforces this need. The European Community adopted Single European Sky regulations in 2004, including a similar performance review system. A second package (SES II) is being negotiated, which contains a petformance scheme with binding performance targets to be set at European and na-

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Continuity

Another factor that affects ATC training is that each trainee is taught by more than one instructor. Every controller does the job, and therefore teaches it, slightly differently. Trainee pilots generally have the same instructor every lesson, one with whom compatibility has been established; trainee controllers generally do not.

by Ainslie Rowland,

Visual Vectoring Pty Ltd, Australia

The past

The manner in which training for Air Traffic control is delivered has not changed since the 1930s. Every controller who has ever done the job has been taught the necessary skills by others - in person. The trainer and the trainee are placed in a situation where aircraft traffic can be managed, either live or in simulation, and a process of 'osmosis' takes place; the skills of the trainer very gradually flow to the trainee. Certainly, the introduction of simulators in the 1970s'made the process easier, but it did not change the manual delivery method. And, simulators made the process far more expensive, mainly because in simulation both participants are revenue-negative.

Disadvantages of current system

Ignoring the massive cost of training by personal contact, the current method has major disadvantages for the trainee, due to the Human Factors associated with training. These factors include any issue that could adversely affect the efficacy with which one person can teach another, or with which one person can learn from another. Such issues exist in all training, but in ATC they become dominant, because of the pressures on the trainee, both from the fact that they are learning a safetycritical job and that their career depends on their being able to learn the required skills. The interpersonal compatibility between trainer and trainee is one of the most significant factors that determine the outcome.

A trainee entering ATC, is immediately under pressure, even before the first aircraft is handled. He/she knows that training time is limited, due to its enormous cost. If the necessary skills cannot be obtained in the specified time their aspirations for a career evaporate; there is a 'brick wall' at the end of all ATe training. If a trainee reaches that wall without attaining the required standard they can generally forget any ideas of moving into ATe. This training stress is unique to ATe. In any other similar profession (flying, for example), the trainee knows that, if he/she does not pass the first licence test, further lessons can be taken -there is no 'brick wail'.

THE

CONTROLLER

ATC training blunders on from year to year. Training efficiency never really improves, in spite of all the technological advances over the decades. Enormous amounts of money are expended just to keep up the necessary supply of controllers whilst never-diminishing numbers of (usually young) people have their aspirations dashed, possibly due not to a lack of ability on their part but rather a training methodology that is' back in the 'Dark Ages'.

ing rate, and unlimited practice at handling realistic traffic must be available if successful outcomes are to be achieved. These are what our Radar Ap-' proach training course W Approach provides. For the first time real, high-level, practical training is available, and at low cost. Training can be done anywhere and at any time the trainee desires, even at home, under no learning pressure. The vital change has arrived, and ATC training in'the future will be very different to what it has been in the past. It will not be long before full ICAO modules, both theory and practical, are done without the need for a formal training environment. <f)

The solution

How is the problem to be solved? Many have tried but none have succeeded, all because the primary cause has never been addressed. Until the manual training delivery method is changed the problem will remain, and ATC training will continue to be the burden on the Aviation Industry that it is.

ainslie.rowland@ visualvectoring .com

The only solution is to change to computerbased delivery of basic practical training, something that has been done, in part at least, in virtually every other field of human endeavour. Training needs to be standardise-d, done at the trainee's individual learn-

Photo credit: photosuphona/draarnstirna

by Philip Marien, Deputy Editor

As reported on in previous issues, one of the results of the European Single European Sky (SES) initiative is the creation of several socalled Functional Airspace Blocks or FABs. One of those, the FAB Europe Central, has the commitment of seven air navigation service providers (ANSPs) in six European States:

Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland. The seven ANSPs are Belgocontrol (BE), DFS (DE), DGCA-DSNA(FR), LVNL (NL), skyguide (CH), ANA (LU) and Maastricht UAC (currently providing upper area control for 4 of the 6 states already).

As with others FABs, the main goal is to increase ATM performance by creating a flexible, harmonised and seamless network, independent of national boundaries. This should eventually lead to greater safety and improved capacity and cost effectiveness.

Basic training

Especially in these times of economic turmoil, every efficiency" initiative counts. One of the first concrete projects the FABEC has recently undertaken involves the basic training module for Maastricht UAC student controllers. Since the early 70's, the first phase of their training took place at Eurocontrols' own institute in Luxembourg. This phase comprises mostly theoretical subjects, such as rules, regulations and meteorology.

Since October 2008 however, Maastricht UAC, skyguide, Belgocontrol, DFS and ENAC (Ecole Nationale de l'Aviation Civile) have made important strides towards greater cooperation for the provision of basic air traffic controller training - a training phase lasting approximately 15 weeks - for future Maastricht UAC controllers.

Instead of goir)g to Luxembourg, a first group ·of M UAC student controllers started their training at skyguide in Zurich. The second group started in March 2009 at Belgocontrol's premises in Steenokkerzeel and the third group went to DFS, Langen, in June 2009. Another group is due to join ENAC (see elsewhere in this issue) in Toulouse, France in January 2010.

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After the 15 weeks, the students go to Eurocontrol's own training institute in Luxembourg. There, they continue their training to obtain their area rating. The final stages of their training take place at the Maastricht Upper Area Centre in the Netherlands. Following simulator and on-the-job training, they obtain their sector qualifications in one of the three main sector groups at the centre. On average, a trainee is expected to be fully qualified in 2,5 years.

Competence

In the domain of controller competence assessment, LVNL and Maastricht UAC also undertook to cooperate more closely. As part of its training process, Maastricht UAC will therefore start to use a methodology developed by LVNL, called CBAS: Competence Based Assessment System.

The system is comprised of a set of tools which allow student air traffic: controllers to be assessed and monitored objectively throughout their training. One of the strengths of CBAS is that potential trainee weaknesses are spotted and pinpointed at a very early stage, allowing for additional targeted training. This should increase the trainee's chances of success and ultimately benefit the overall effectiveness and cost of the training process.

Harmonised

Finally, the FABEC Training Task Force is currently developing a common basic training course, which will be used in future throughout the region. Since this course will be completely harmonised, it will be possible to embark on any subsequent training phase : (e.g. rating training for tower, approach or ACC), regardless of the training station within FABEC. In addition, the FABEC Training

Task Force is currently looking into how the duration and schedule for all the different training phases can be harmonised across the board, providing further synergies and flexibility.

FABEC is looking as well in a much closer cooperation in selecting the future Air Traffic Controllers. Beside the effect of harmonization an improved quality of students at a lower cost for selection is the aim.

As training is usually the entrance to an ANSP, harmonized training across FABEC will serve well as catalyst for further collaboration in operations. ~

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+ MUAC students together with Patrick Coppens, ATC Training Center Manager. Belgocontrol Photo credit: Belgocontrol