IEEE

Power Engineering Society

IEEE Tutorial on the Protection of
Synchronous Generators

IEEE

95 TP 102

IEEE TUTORIAL ON
THE PROTECTION OF
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

Sponsored by
The Power Engineering Education Committee
Power System Relaying Committee

Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. Instructors are permittedto photocopy isolatedarticles for
noncommercial classroom use without fee. For copying, reprintor republicationpermission, writeto the IEEE

CopyrightsManager, IEEE Service Center, 445 HoesLane,P.O. Box 1331,Piscataway,NJ 08855-1331. All
rights reserved. Copyright 1995 by The Instituteof Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers, Inc.
IEEE Catalog Number: 95 TP 102
Additional copies are available from
IEEE Service Center
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854-4150
1-800-678-IEEE

ii

INTRODUCTION
In theearly 1990' s the PowerSystemRelaying Committee
conducteda survey to detemlinehowmajor synchronous
generators in North America were protected from short
circuits and other abnormal electrical conditions. The
result surprised those who conducted the survey, The
major results of the survey indicated clearly that the responding protection engineering population, with a few
notable exceptions, appeared to have little knowledge
about the electricalprotectionof synchronous generators.
In retrospect, this response was probably not altogether
unexpected. In the past ten years, utilities have built few
new generating plants. During this same period, many
companies have downsized. These two factors have resulted in the loss of engineering experise in the area of
generatorprotection.

Contrary to the belief of some, generators do fail due to

short circuits or abnormalelectricalconditions. In many
cases,these failures can be preventedby proper generator
protection. Generators, unlike some other power system
components, need to be protected not only from short
circuits but alsofromabnormal operatingconditions such
as overexcitation, overvoltage, loss-of-field, unbalance
currents, and abnormal frequency conditions. Whensubjectedto theseabnormal conditions, damage or complete
failure canoccur withinsecondsthus requiring automatic
detection and isolation.

Surveyfmdings alsoindicatedthatdespite theclearneed to

upgrade older generator protection schemes to meet current IEEElANSI C37 guide recommendations, utilities
seemedreluctantto go into existing power plantsto make
neededmodifications. This may be duetoseveralfactors:
a lack of expertise, a misguidedbeliefthatgenerators do
not fail oftenenoughto warrantproperprotection, a belief
that operating procedures will cover protection design
deficiencies. Also, there was little understanding of new
conceptsandprotectionschemessuch as inadvertent energizing, 100% stator groundprotection and sequential tripping.

Inpreparing thetutorialwehavedrawnon theconsiderable

expertise thatresidesin the PowerSystemRelaying Committee. We used a Task Force approach to write the
document The Task Force tried to focus on the needsof
utilityandconsulting engineers who areinvolved in generatorprotection. We concentrated on those areas of generatorprotection our surveyindicated were the mostmisunderstood. In many cases, we explained our C37 guides
which relateto specificprotectionareas.Therearefourteen
(14) sections of the tutorial. References, included in each
section, provideeven more detail.

The individuals participating in this tutorial effort have

generously donatedtheirtimeandeffortto producewhatI
believe isa very valuabledocument. I wouldliketoexpress
my appreciation to all the members of the Tutorial Task
Forcewhoworkedso bard to produceand edit thisdocuTheresponseof the PowerSystemRelaying Committee to ment in record time. I'd like to specifically thank the
the survey results has been two fold:
individual sectionauthors. Withouttheirefforts thisdocument wouldnot have been completed. It is our hope that
1) We arestrengthening our C37 guides, whichrelate to thiseffortwillcontribute to the better understanding ofthis
generatorprotection,to moreclearly indicate theneed important subject
for the describedprotection and the risks of not providing it.
2) We have prepared this tutorial which we hope will CJ. Mozina
provide the background necessary to better under- Editor
stand our C37 guides that relate to this subject and to Tutorial Coordinator
publicizethat these guidesexist

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.

Fundamentals
by e.l. Mozina

2.

GeneratorStator Phase Fault Protection

by G.C. Parr

3.

Field Ground Protection

by A.C. Pierce

12

4.

StatorWindingGround Fault Protection

by S.E. McPadden and T.S. Sidhu

15

5.

Abnormal Frequency Protection

by E.C. Fennell and M. Bajpai

26

6.

Overexcitation and Overvoltage Protection

by K.C. Kozminski, W.O. Hartmann and S.E. McPadden

32

Voltage Transformer Signal Loss

GardeIl

38

7.

by I.D.

8.

Loss of Field Protection

by M. Yalla

41

9.

Out-Of-Step Relay Protection of Generators

by D.W. Smaha

45

10.

Current Unbalance (Negative Sequence) Protection

by P.W. Powell

52

11.

System Backup Protection

by P.W. Powell

56

12.

Inadvertent Generator Energizing

by e.l. Mozina and G.e. Parr

60

13.

Generator Breaker Failure

by S.C. Patel, H.J. King and M. YalIa

71

14.

Generator Tripping
by E.C. Fennell and K.C. Kozminski

75

Generator ProtectionTutorial TaskForcb CJ. Mozina-Chairman, P.W. Powell-Vice Chairman, M. Bajpai,

J.A. Bright, E.C. Fennell, J.D. Gardell, E.M. Gulachenski, S. Mazumdar, G.e. Parr, R.D. Pettigrew,
A.C. Pierce, M.S. Sachdev, T. Sidhu, W.G. Hartmann, C.F. Henville, H.J. King, K.C. Kozminski, S.C.
Patel, G.W. Pence, M. Yalta, S.E. McPadden, C.H. Castro, D.W. Smaba.

Section 1
FUNDAMENTALS
CJ. Mozina
Beckwith Electric
Largo,FL

make mistakes and create abnormal conditions where

tripping to avoiddamageis required. Inadvertent energizThis introductory sectionof the tutorial provides thereader ingandoverexcitation areexamplesof suchevents.Operwith thebasicbackground information to understand bet- atingprocedures arenot a substitute for properautomatic
ter the sections which follow. It is intended to provide protection.
information forthelessexperienced engineer. Thissection
describes the electrical workings of synchronous generaBASIC SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
tors and how they are connected to the power system.
Generatorperformance under short circuit conditions are
also described, alongwith generator grounding practices. A synchronous generator converts mecbanicaUthennal
In addition, some of the most misunderstood aspects of energy intoelectricalenergy. Themechanical powerof the
generatorprotection are also addressed. Finally, the C37 primemoverrotatestheshaftof thegenerator on which the
ANSIlIEEE guideswhichrelatetogeneratorprotection are dc fieldis installed. Figure 1 illustrates a simplemachine.
enumerated along with the definitions of relay device
numbers.
ABSTRACT

Prime mover

(mechanical input)

INTRODUCTION

The protection of synchronous generators involves the

considerations ofmoreharmful abnormaloperating conditions than the protection of any other power system element Ina properlyprotectedgenerator, automatic protection againstharmful abnormal conditions isrequired. The
bulk: of this tutorial deals with the need to provide such
protection. The objections of someto theaddition of such
protectionis not so muchthat it willfailtooperate whenit
should, but that it might operate improperly to remove a
generatorfromserviceunnecessarily. Thisfearofapplying
proper protection can be greatlyreduced by understanding
the needfor suchprotection andhow to apply it to a given
generator. An unnecessary generator hipping is undesirable, but the consequences of not tripping and damaging
the machine are far worse.The cost to theutility for such
an occurrence is not only the costof repairor replacement
of the damaged machine,but the substantial cost of purchasingreplacementpowerduringtheperiodwhentheunit
is out of service. An alert. and skillfuloperator, at manned
locations, cansometimes avoidremoving a generator from
service by correcting the abnormal condition. In the vast
majority ofcases,however, theeventwilloccur toorapidly
for the operator to react and automatic detection and
isolationis required. Operators have alsobeenknown to

--~. i a
- -..... i b
----ic

DC Field Source

Figure 1 Basic Synchronous Generator

Primemoverenergy can be obtainedfrom burningfossil
fuels such as coal, oil or natural gas. The steam which is
produced turnsthe generator shaft (rotor)at typicalspeeds
of 1800or 3600 RPM. Converting steam energy to mechanical rotation is done in a turbine. At nuclear plants,
uranimn fuel, through the fusion process, is converted to
heat which produces steam. Steam is forced through a
steam turbine to rotate the generatorshaft Prime mover
energy can also beobtainedfrom falling or movingwater.
Hydroelectric generators rotatemuchslower(around 100300RPM) than steam turbines.

-1-

CONNECTION OF GENERATORS TO
THE POWER SYSTEM

Therearetwomajorbasic methodsused withintheindustry to connect generators to the power system. They are
direct and unit connections.
POWER SYSTEM

RoundRotor

S1ator

3a)DirectConnected

iLl.

POWER SYSTEM
Rotor

<1

Salient-Pole

Figure 2 Synchronous Generator Types

3b)Unit Connected

Synchronous machines are classified into two principal

designs--round-rotormachinesandsalient-polemachines.
Figure 2 providesa cross-sectional view of both typesof
construction. Generators driven by steam turbines have
cylindrical (round) rotors with slotsinto whichdistributed
field windingsareplaced.Mostcylindrical rotorsaremade
of solidsteelforgings.Thenumberof polesistypicallytwo
or four. Generators driven by water wheels (hydraulic
turbines)have laminatedsalient-pole rotors with concenttated field windings and a largenumber of poles.Whatever type of prime mover or machine design, the energy
source used to tum the shaft is maintained at a constant
level through a speedregulatorknown asa governor. The
rotation of the de flux in the field of the generator reacts
with the windingsof the stator and, becauseof the induction principle,a three-phase voltage is generated.

Figure 3
Direct Connected: Figure3A shows the one-line diagram
for a directconnection of a generator to the powersystem.
The generator is connected to its load bus without going
through a voltage transformation. The generator supplies
power directly to the load.This type of connection is an
earlier method usedwithinthe industryfor the connection
of generators when generators weresmallin size.It is still
used today to connect smaller machines.
IlnU Connected: Figure 3Bshowsthe one-linediagram for

a unit connected generator. The generatoris connected to

the powersystem through a dedicated step-uptransformer.
Auxiliary generator load is supplied from a step-down
transformer connected to the generator terminals. Most
largegenerators areconnected to the power system in this
manner using a wye-delta step-up main transformer connection. By having the generation connected to a delta

-2-

system,groundfaultcurrent can bedramatically reduced

using high impedance grounding.Basic grounding practices are addressed later in this section of thetutorial and
again inmoredetailin the StatorGround FaultProtection
Section (Section4).
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
SHORT CIRCUIT BEHAVIOR

The equivalentelectrical circuitofa synchronous generator is an internalvoltage in series with animpedance. For
fault currentcalculation, the resistance component of the
generatorimpedance is small compared to thereactance
and is usuallyneglected. Table 1 shows thesymmetrical
component representation of a generator. Symmetrical
componentanalysisis an importantmathematical tool to
calculategeneratorcurrentsand voltage under unbalance
conditions. Reference 1 and 2 provide goodbasic information on this subject.
30 Re,presentation

Sjn2Je Phase EQujvalent

1 1 __
0

Positive Sequence

10 2 - -

~~

REF. BUS

Negative Sequence
10 0 . -

Ibo lco--

Positive Seguence ex): Three different positive sequence

reactance values are used.In the positive sequenceequivalent circuit. Xd" indicates the subtransient reactance, Xd'
the transient reactance, and Xd the direct axis generator
reactance. Allof thesedirect-axis values are necessary for
calculating theshort-circuit currentvalueat differenttimes
after the short circuit OCCm5. They are provided by the
generator manufacturer as part of the testsheet data forthe
generator. Since the subtransientreactance value givesthe
highestinitialcurrentvalue,it is generally used in system
short-circuit calculations for relay application. The transientreactance valueis usedfor stability consideration. The
unsaturated reactance valuesare usedfor fault-currentcalculations because the voltage is reducedbelow saturation
during faults near the unit. Since typical generators are
operated slightly saturated, thesustained (steadystate)fault
current will be less than the maximum load current unless
the voltage regulators boost the field during a sustained
fault

Ne23-tive Sequence CXJ: The flow of negative sequence

currentis of opposite phase rotation through the machine
andappearsas a doublefrequency componentin the rotor.
Theaverageof thedirect-axis subtransient reactanceunder
thepolesandbetween thepolesgivesa goodapproximation
of negativesequence reactance. In a salientpole machine,
negative sequence is the averageof the subtransientdirect
axis andquadrature axisreactances (X2 =Xd" + Xq"l2) but
in a roundrotor machine, X2 equalsXd".
Zero Seguence CXJ: The zero sequence reactance is less
thanthepositive andnegativesequence valves.Because of
thehigh available ground faultcurrentfor a solidly ground
machine, impedance (reactance or resistance) is almost
always insertedintheneutralgrounding pathexceptonvery
smallgenerators wherethe cost of providing such grounding in relationship to the machinecosts are significant.

Aspreviously stated, thestatorwinding resistanceis generally small enough to be neglected in calculating short
circuits. This resistance howeveris importantin determining the dc timeconstants of an asymmetrical short circuit
current. Tocalculate faults or unbalanced abnormalgenerator conditions the positive, negative and zero sequence
networks are interconnected. Reference 1 and 2 provide
moreinformation on this subject. For common faultconditions they are connected as shownin Table 2.

Zero Sequence

Table 1 Symmetrical ComponentRepresentation

-3-

Generator Fault Current Decay: Because the generator's

positivesequenceischaracterizedby three reactances with
increasing values over time, its fault current decays with
time.

N,
FA~T

Von
+

G
I

I"

(OF

Z,

I,

iI
IcF

F,
I, ; I,

Van

Z,

a) Three Phase Fault

N2

N,

FAU.T
r--"----,

Ven
+

12

-1 2

Z2

'"

19,

bF

0 I- JH-- +-1f-1rl

\x,roPC/o,ion of
SfMtf,

F2

F,
I,

i
IIF I
I

Z,

I,

"5 -=H-+-+-H-+-+-I-+-f-t-t-t--Hr-++-H-++-I---l--::-:-Time

.~

rt1lv~

n The FllAt:

V""

I oF

Z,+ Z2

I lIF

0
-Iei'

b) Phase to Phase Fault

Figure 4 SymmetricalTrace
of a GeneratorShort-CircuitCurrent

N,

veIl

Z,

I,

F,
N2

i
12

Z2

10

F2
N.

Z.

FAlA.T

.....--"---,

I. F I liF

Ie.

h The Faun:

[lIF O;

[eF

Figure 4 illustratesa single phase symmetrical trace of a

threephase shortcircuitwaveform (de componentabsent)
such as might be obtained oscillographically. The wave
formshown inFigure 4 canbedividedinto threeperiods or
timeregions.

SubtransientPeriod - This period lasts fora few cycles

during whichthe current magnitude is determined by
the generatorsubtransientreactions (Xd") and decay
time by the Td" time constant,

Transient Period - Covering a relatively longer time

during which the currentmagnitudeis determined by
thegeneratortransientreactance(Xd')and decaytime
by time constant Td'.

Steady-State Period - is the long time level of generatorfaultcurrentwhosemagnitudeis determinedbythe

generator direct axis reactance(Xd).

= 0

F.

c) Single Line to Ground Fault

When de offsets are considered generator currents for a

three phase fault resemble thoseshown in Figure 5.

d) Double Phase to Ground Fault

Table 2 Fault SequenceNetwork Connections

...c

The system contribution to the fault will immediately be

removed whenthe generator breakertrips as illustrated in
Figure 6. The generator currenthowever, will continue to
flowafter the tripping. The generator short circuitcurrent
can not be "turned-off' instantaneously because of the
storedenergyin therotating machine.The flowof damaging generator fault current will continue for a period of
several secondsafter the generator has been tripped makinggeneratorfaultsextremely damaging. Generatorterminalleads are usuallyisolated through bus construction to
minimize multi-phase terminal faults.The generatorisalso
grounded in such a manner as to substantially reduce
ground fault currents. This is done by increasing the zero
sequence impedance by inserting neutral ground impedance.

lime

"

L.
L.

::l

D-c component

<.)

...

D- c componerrr

"

L.

L.
::J

Time

Phase .!!

GENERATOR GROUND PRACTICES

~lo7ftttt:1:tl:f:1;j=#lffifl:tH++H+HttftH-ftj4fH-tf-:T:r:"i m~e

Two types of grounding practices represent the major

methods used within the industry to ground generator
statorwindings.Theseare highand lowimpedanceground-

...

O-c component

Phase

Figure 5 Generator Short-Circuit Currents

for a 3 PhaseFaultwith deOffset

Generator
Windings

Whena generator faultis detected byprotective relaysit is

separatedfrom thepowersystem bytripping thegenerator
breaker, fieldbreakerand primemover.
I Ge_no_

I syste m

~
I system

or
Reactor

Generator
Windings

I
I
I

* Resistor

7a) Low Impedance Grounding

POWER
SYSTEM

- - l
Current

Time

Generator
Breaker Trips

* Resistor

Figure6 GeneratorTerminal FaultCurrent

7b) High Impendance Grounding
Figure 7 Generator Grounding Practices

-5-

Low Imgr4ance Growulina - Figure 7A illustrates a generatorgrounded through a resistor orreactor. Thegrounding resistoror reactoris selected to limit the generator's
ground fault contribution to current between 200A to
150% of generator ratedcurrent, Low impedance ground21
ing is generally used when multiple generating units are
operated on a common bus or they are directly connected
to load buseswithout a voltage transformation providing 24
the groundsourcefor the system.
32
Him Impedanre Groundjna - Figure 7B illustrates a generator grounded by utilizing a distribution transformer
witha secondary resistor. This grounding method allows 40
the ground fault current to be reduced to low levels, 46
typically 5-25 Amps. It is usedon unit connected generators.
49

VoltsIHz protection for generator overexcitation.

Reverse power relay. Anti-motoring

protection.

51V

Ii1k

Guidefor AC Generator Protection

Guidefor Generator Ground Protection
Guide for Abnormal Frequency Protection
for PowerGenerating Plants
RELAY DEVICE NUMBERS

Devicenumbersareaconcisemethodofspecifying protection requirements. Numbers from 1 to 100are assigned

specific defmitions. When discrete relays were the only
methodofprotection, theydenoted a specific relayneeded
for protection. With the advent of multifunction relays,
theyare usedto describe the functions within suchrelays.
Listedbelow are therelaydevice numbers and theirassociated function that are used for generator protection.
Devicenumber designation is usedthroughout thetutorial
so this list provides a handy reference. The definitions
provided for each number are those that would relate to
theirapplication to protecting generators.

14

Loss-of-field protection

Negative sequence unbalance current

protection for the generator

10

StatorThermal Protection

14

51lN

Three major ANSIIIEEE guides outline the protection

requirement and practices for synchronous generators.
Theseguides are under thesponsorship oftheIEEE Power 59
System Relaying Committee. They provide a wealth of
59GN
technical information on the electrical protection of synchronous generators.

C37.102
C37.10I
C37.106

11

SIGN Timeovercurrent ground relay.

Backup for ground faults.

ANSIlIEEE GENERATOR
PROTECTION GUIDES

Distance relay. Backup for system and

generator zonephase faults.

4& 11

Voltage-controlled or voltage-restrained
timeovercurrent relay. Backup for
system andgenerator phasefaults

11

Overvoltage protection

Overvoltage relay. Statorground fault

protection for a generator

60

Voltage balance relay. Detection of

blown voltage transformer fuses

63

Transformer FaultPressure Relay

14

62B

Breaker Failure timer

13

64F

Fieldground fault protection

71

Transformer oil or gas level

14

78

Loss-of-synchronism protection

81

Frequency relay. Bothunderfrequency

and overfrequency protection

86

Hand-reset lockout auxiliary relay

14

87G

Differential relay. Primary phasefaultprotection for the generator

87N

Statorground faultdifferential protection

87T

Differential relay. Primary protection

for the transformer

87U

Differential relay for overallgenerator

and transformer protection

-6-

A typicalgeneratorrelayfunction diagram using Device

numbers is shown in Figure 8.

.. '.

J:_

TRANS:['

.~,'
,

........-

UNIT
DIFF.

Blackburn, J. Lewis, "Symmetrical Components for

2. "Protective Relaying, Theoryand Application,"

ABB RelayDivision, Coral Springs, FL, Marcel
Dekker, 1994.

,.BO'LLOW

~~""""II ~

3. ANSIlIEEE C37.102-1986, "IEEE Guide for AC

Generator Protection."

7U

1.

PowerSystems Engineering," Marcel Dekker, Inc.,

New York, NY, 1993.

TRANSF.
FAULT PRESS.

UNIT ~7T,:

REFERENCES

4.

", 242 ~\, IF

2nd VJHZ
USED

-.'

Mason, Russell C., "The Art And Science of

Protective Relaying,"John Wiley & Sons Inc.,

New York, NY, 1956.

5. Fitzgerald, A.E. And Kingsley, C, "Electric
Machinery," McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1961.
6.

Zorhas, Pino, ''Electric Machines," West Publishing

Co., New York, NY, 1989.

VOlTIHZ

Figure 8 Typical Unit GeneratorTransformer Configuration

-7-

GENERATOR STATOR PHASE FAULT PROTECTION

G.e. Parr
ABB PowerT&D Company
Birmingham, AL
Abstract: A phase fault in a generator stator winding is
always considered to be seriousbecause of the high currentsencounteredand thepotential damage tothemachine
windings as well as to theshaftsand couplings. Longrepair
times for severelydamaged machines can be very expensive as well as generatehigh costsforreplacement power
while the machine is out of service. Minimizing the damage dueto statorfaultsis therefore important. To makethis
situationworse,thefaultcurrentinafaulted generator does
not stopwhenthe generatorfieldistripped and thegenerator is separated from the system. Theenergystoredin the
field will continue to supply fault current for several
seconds.

TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL SCHEMES

PercentaieDifferential: Thevariable percentage differential (Fig. A) is used most often for large machines. The
slopemayvaryfrom 5% to 50% ormore. Afixed percentage
relayis usually fixedat 10 to 25%. Atypical scheme using

I OPERATE

RELAY
OPERATION

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Major generatorunits use high speed protection to detect

these severe stator winding faults andminimize damage.
The use of rapid de-excitation methods may even be
justiftabletoproducefasterdecayoffaultcurrents.Ahighspeed differential relay is normally used to detect threephase, phase-phase and double phase to ground faults.
Single phase-to-ground faultsarenotnormally detectable
by differentialrelays on machines unless their neutral is
solidly or low impedance grounded. When the neutralis
grounded through a high impedance, the fault current is
usuallyless than the sensitivity of a differential relay.
A differential relay will not detect a turn-turn fault in the
same phase because the currentin andout of the winding
will not change. Separate turn-tum fault detectioncan be
provided on generators with two or more windings per
phase and will be discussed subsequently. When one ct
connected to a generator differential is in the generator
neutralandtheotheris located in thegeneratorbreaker, the
application of the CIS need to be checked thoroughly
because the cts are likely to be dissimilar.
Normallygeneratorstatorphase fault protectiondoes not
need to be concerned with inrush as in a transformer
protection scheme since the generator voltage is built up
slowlywhenthe fieldis applied. Threetypesof high-speed
differential relaysare usedforstatorphase faultdetection2:

-8-

. "" RELAY

NON-OPERATION

I RESTRAINT

FigureA Variable SlopePercentage

Differential Relay

o
R

Figure B Percentage Differential Relay ConnectionSix-Bushing Wye-Connected Generator

a variable percentage differential relay is shownin Figure

B. Current transformers usedin a differential relay scheme
should have the same characteristics however, the variable
percentage differential is generally more tolerant to ct
errors at high currents. It should be noted that using the
same standard accuracy ct's doesnot guarantee getting the
same characteristics. The actual characteristics should be
checked for similarity.

Figure D Self-Balancing Protection Scheme

limited size of the ct window limits thesize of conductor

and thence the size of the unit that can be protected. The
relay should be as Iowa burden as possible, typically solid
stateto maintain high sensitivity and lessen the likelihood
of ct saturation. Very high fault currents can saturate this
type ct if a sensitive electromechanical relay with high
burden is used.

Figure C High-Impedance Differential

Hi&b Impedance Differential. These relays should be supplied from identical ct's with fully distributed secondary
windings and havenegligible leakage reactance. Therelay
is actually a voltage relay and responds to high voltage
impressed across its coil caused by the ct's all trying to
force current through the operate winding dming an internal fault The setting of the high impendance relay is based
on the perfectperformance of one inputctand thecomplete
saturation of the other.

For the veryhigh currents in largegenerators, theproximity of ct's in different phases to each other can cause
unbalance currents to flow in the ct secondaries". These
currents must be less than the minimmn sensitivityof the
differential relay used. Normally this is taken care ofin the
design of the unit by the supplier but, it should also be
checked.
Self Balancina Differential Relays. The self-balancing
scheme (Fig.D) typically is usedon smallgenerators.They

will detectphase and ground faults on thegeneratorstator.

This scheme uses a single low ratio ct perphase with the
leads of bothendsofeach winding passingthrough it sothe
net flux is zero fornormal conditions. A simple instantaneous overcurrent relay connected to the ct secondary
gives fast reliable protection by detecting any difference

between current entering or leaving the winding. The

-9-

Figure E Split-Phase Protection Using

Separate Current Transformers

TURN TO TURN FAULT PROTECTION

1Jsin& SplitPhaseRelayin&. Mostturbinegenerators have

singletum statorwindings. Ongenerators withmulti-turn
coilsand twoor morewindingsperphase the split-phase
relayscheme can beusedto detecttum-tum faults. Inthis
scheme (Figure E), the circuit in each phase of thestator
windings are splitinto twoequalgroupsand thecurrents
of each group compared. A difference in these currents
indicates an unbalance caused by a single tum fault. A
very-inverse overcurrentrelay withinstantaneous attachmentisusually usedforthisscheme. Thetimeovercurrent
is set above any normal unbalance currentbut below the
unbalance causedbya singleshortedturn.The timedelay
is set to preventoperation for transients occurring during
external faults caused by unequal ct response to the
transient. The instantaneous unit must also be setabove
transients during external faults and will probably only
detectmulti-tum or phase to phasefaults.
Anyexpected problem withct errorscan be eliminatedby
the use of a single or double window ct as shown in
Figures F and G. The elimination of ct errors willpermit
the use of a more sensitive settingon the instantaneous
~~,
relay.
The single window ct is usually limited to small
FigureF Split-phase Protection Using a
~l~
generators becauseof the sizeof thewindow.Thedouble
SingleWindow Current Transformer
window ct shown in Figure G can be used for larger
generators.
Split-phase protection willdetectphaseand someground
faultsin thestatorwinding. However, becauseofthe time
delayit isnormally usedto supplementhigh-speed differential protection for high magnitude phase faults.
BACKUP

Figure G Split-Phase Protection Using DoublePrimary Single Secondary Current Transformer

I~

Themostcommon typeofbackupprotectionusedforunit
connected generator stator phase faults is the overall
differential relay. For smaller units or units connected
directlyto a bus, systemback-upand negative sequence
relays, discussed in a separatesection of the tutorial, are
used. Also, an impedance relay is sometimes used to
provide back-up protection for the generator step-up
transformer and generator.
Overall Differential. An overallgeneratordifferential is
connected by including a unit connected generator and
step-up transformer insideone differential relay zone as
shown in Figure H. A harmonically restrained transformer differential relayis used for this application. The
generator auxiliary transformer may also be included in
thedifferential zoneas shown. The highct ratiorequired
on the low voltage side of the auxiliary transformer to
balancethe differential circuit currents may require the

-10-

It's satisfactory on crosscompound generators to parallel

ct's in theneutralside of the generator or to connectthem
to separate windings of a multi-winding differential relay.
It is sometimes practical to apply a three winding transformer differential to two generators connected to ODe
step-up transformer.
Impedance Relay. A singlezone impedance relay may be

/'"

.- ALTERNATE
CONNECTION

connected to ct's and vt's on the high voltage sideof the

generator step-up transformer soastolookback toward the
generator. It may be set to trip with no intentional time
delayfor phase faults sinceit doesnot have to coordinate
withanyotherrelaysfora fault in thegenerator. Itmustnot
haveanyreversereach if set with notimedelay. However,
beinga distancerelayit canoperate forpowerswings, loss
of excitation and inadvertent energization. Its settings
should be madewith these possibilities in mind. Applicationof thisrelay is discussedfurther in thesectiononOutof-StepRelayProtection ofGenerators. Settinglimitations
may notallowtherelay to be set to lookcompletelythrough
the generator.
REFERENCES

Figure H Generatorphasefault backup

overalldifferential scheme

1. Blackburn, J. Lewis, Protective Relaying Principles

and Applications, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York,
NY, 1987,Chapter8, pp. 248.

useof an auxiliaryct. It is usuallypreferabletoincludethe 2. "IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection," ANSI!

IEEE C37.102-1986.
auxiliarytransformerinside theoverall differential if that
is possible.The auxiliary transformer differential cts on
the auxiliarytransformerhighvoltageside may severely 3. Pfuntner, R.A. "Accuracy of Current Transformers
Adjacent to High Current Busses." AlEE Transacsaturatefor high sidefaults due to theextremely highfault
tions. Vol. 70, Part II, 1951, pp.1656-1662.
currentat that point Saturation couldbe soseverethatthe
differential relay might fail to operate before saturation
occurred and resultin a failure tohip. Theoverall differential connected to the auxiliarytransformer lowvoltage side
would detect that fault and provide backup tripping.

-11-

Section 3
FIELD GROUND PROTECTION
A.C. Pierce
Factory Mutual Research Corp.
Norwood, MA

Abstract- Thefieldcircuitof a generator is anungrounded

dc system. A singlegroundfaultwillnot generally affect
theoperationof a generatornor willit produce any immediate damaging effects. However, the probability of the
second ground fault occurring is greater after the first
ground fault has occurred. When a second ground fault
occurs, a portion of the field winding will be short-circuited, thereby producingunbalanced air gap fluxes in the
machine. Theunbalanced fluxes producennbalancedmagneticforceswhichresult in machine vibration anddamage.
A field ground also producesrotor iron heating from the
unbalanced currentswhichresultin unbalanced temperatures that can cause damaging vibration. The tripping
practices withinthe industry for fieldground relaying are
notwellestablished. Someutilities trip while othersprefer
to alarm, thereby risking a second ground faultandmajor
damage.

INTRODUCfION

relays were generally instantaneous types that frequently

operate duringa unit's start-updue to intermittent grounds
produced by moisture, copper dusting or during system
transients. Copperdusting is causedby rotorbarsrubbing
togetherwhilethe unit was on turning gear, especially for
a prolongedtime.Unitoperators wouldroutinely reset the
alarm and continue with the start-upprocedure.
If a persistent alarm occurred, technicians attempted to
locate the problem by lifting instrument shunts. If the
groundcouldnot be foundwithina reasonable period, the
unit was supposed to be trippedmanually. However, the

many nuisance alarms and the very few legitimate ones

causedunitoperators toloseconfidence in thefield ground
relay, therefore the alarm lost credibility. Operators continuedto keeptheunitson-lineriskingthata second ground
would never occur. Catastrophic rotor failures have occurreddue to a secondgroundin themainfielddeveloping
veryquickly after the first ground.In these instances, the
operatorswerenotabletoisolatethecauseonnenrstalarm
nor were theyable to bringthe units off-linein an orderly
fashionbefore the second ground occurred.

This sectionof the tutorial is concerned withthedetection

of groundfaultsin the field circuitry.Lossof fieldprotectionis addressed in another sectionof thetutorial.Once the These rotor failures prompted some major generatormanufirst field ground has occurred, the probability of the facturers to develop a more secure field ground relay that
second ground occurring is much greater, since the rust had a built-in timer. The timer would prevent relay
ground establishes a groundreference forvoltages induced misoperation from temporary grounds caused by system
in the field by stator transients. Thesetransients increase transients. The relaysweredesignedso thatdetection of a
legitimate first ground would automatically trip the genthe stress to groundat other points on the field winding.
eratorandremovefieldexcitation beforea second ground
Ground detection for the exciter and field windings are could develop. Someutilities, due to manufacturers' recusually supplied as part of the generator manufacturer's ommendations and warranties, have decided to change
equipment. A recentgeneratorprotection surveyindicated from an alarm policyto a trip policywiththe introduction
that 82% of all generating units included in the survey of thisrelay.Although thetrip mode usingthemoresecure
employ field ground detectors. Of these detectors, only field ground relay greatly diminishes the risk of a catastrophicrotor failure, its use still increases the chance of
30% trip the unit on occmrence of a field ground.
unitfalsetripping due to copperdustingand otherphenomena
as experienced bysomeutilities. In settingtherelay, a
Theexplanation forthelowpercentage oftripping is partly
compromise
between pickupsensitivity and security must
duetotheearlierpracticesusedbyutilities. It wascommon
be
recognized.
The decision to trip or alarm must be
industry practicetoapplya generator fieldgroundrelayon
brush type generators to alarm on rotor ground These carefullyweighed.

-12-

PROTECTION METHODS

There are several methods in common use for detecting

rotor field grounds.
FJELD

EXCITER

='-

DC

GROUNDING
BRUSH

-=

Figure 2 illustrates a secondmethod used to detect field

circuitgrounds. It is similarto grounddetection schemes
usedto sensegrounds on substation controlbatteries. This
methodusesa voltage dividerand a sensitive overvoltage
relay betweenthe dividermidpointand ground. A maximum voltage is impressed on the relay by a ground on
either the positive or negative side of the field circuit.
However, there is a nullpointbetweenpositiveandnegativewherea groundfaultwillnot producea voltage across
the relay.This generator fieldgroundrelay is designed to
overcome the null problem by using a nonlinear resistor
(varistor) inserieswithoneof thetwolinearresistors in the
voltagedivider. The resistance of the varistorvaries with
the appliedvoltage. Thedivideris proportioned sothatthe
field winding null point is at the winding midpoint when
the exciter voltageis at rated voltage. Changes in exciter
voltage will move the null point from the field winding
center.

Ona brushlessexcitation system, continuedmonitoring for

fieldgroundis notpossible withconventional fieldground
relayssince the generator fieldconnections are contained
In the method shown in Figure 1, a dc voltage sourcein in the rotatingelement
serieswithan overvoltage relaycoil isconnected between
thenegativesideofthegeneratorfieldwinding andground.
A ground anywhere in the field will cause the relay to
operate. A brushis used to groundtherotorshaftsincethe
bearing oil film mayinsertenoughresistance in the circuit
fiELD
so thatthe relay wouldnot operatefor a field ground. One
to threesecondsof time delay is normally usedwith this
relay in order to prevent unnecessary operations for moEXCfTER
mentary ttansitory unbalances of the field circuit with
respect to ground. These momentary unbalances may be
caused by the operation of fast response thyristor type
excitation systems.
Figure 1 Field Ground Detection Usinga dc Source

FIELD BREAKER

CONTROL

POSITIVE

VARISTOR

II

GEN

EXCITER

NEGATIVE

Figure 3 Field Ground Detection UsingPilotBrushes

FIELDBREAKER
CONTROL
TEST PUSH BUTTON
(OPTIONAL)

Figure 2 Field. Ground Detection

Using a VoltageDivider

Figure3 illustrates theaddition of a pilotbrushorbrushes

togainaccesstotherotating fieldparts.Normally this isnot
donesinceeliminating thebrushesis oneof theadvantages
of a brushlesssystem. However, detection systems canbe
usedto detect fieldgrounds if a collectorring is provided
on the rotating shaft along with a pilot brush thatcan be

-13-

periodically installed to monitor the system. The ground

check canbedoneautomatically byasequencing timerand
controlor by theoperator.The brushes used in thisscheme
are not suitable for continuouscontact with the collector
rings. The field circuit impedance to ground is one leg of
a Wheatstone bridge connected via the brush. A ground
fault sbortsout the fieldwinding to rotorcapacitance, CR,
which unbalances the bridge circuit If a voltage is read
between groundand the brush, which is connected to one
side of the generator field, then a ground exists. For
brushless machinesresistancemeasurements can be used
to evaluate the integrityof the field winding.

r---------------------~--------------,

EXCITE]

receiver'sinfrared detectors sensethelightsignal fromthe

LED across the air gap. Upon detection of a fault, the
LED's areturned off. Lossof LEDlight to thereceiverwill
actuatethe ground relay and initiate a trip or alarm. The
relay has a setsbletime delay of up to 10 sec.
BACKUP PROTECTION

Backup protection for the above described schemes usually consists of vibration detecting equipment. Contacts
areprovided to tripthe main andfieldbreakersif vibration
isabovethatassociated withnormal shortcircuittransients
for faults external to the wit A brush seating
verification scheme is also sometimes used
when brushesare retractable. The scheme requires twobrusheswitha powersupplywhich
byrelayactionwillindicateifeitherbrushdoes
w;
not seatand therefore the ground detectionis
GENERATOR
not functioning.

FlELO

TRIPPING CONSIDERATIONS
STATIONARY
RECEIVER
(UNIT B)

TRIP OR

AlAR"
OUTPUT

=.
I

From a protection viewpoint, the safest practiceis toshutdownthegeneratorautomatically

when the first ground is detected. A second
ground fault may be imminent because of
insulation problems in the field. There have
beeninstances in whicha second ground fault
bascaused damageto the field. Many utilities
alarm with the field ground relay with written
instructions fortheoperatorto unloadandshut
downthemachine in an orderly manner.

LE.D. (UGHT EMITTING DIODE)

-----~~:~~:~~~~----------

Figure 4 Field Ground Detection for

BrushlessMachines
Figure 4 illustratesa methodfor continuous monitoring of
field grounds on brushless machines without using pilot
brushes.Therelaystransmitteris mountedonthegenerator
field diode wheel. Its source of poweris the ac brushless
exciter system. Two leads are connected to the diode
bridgecircuitof therotatingrectifiertoprovide thispower.
Grounddetectionis obtainedby connecting oneleadofthe
transmitterto thenegativebus of thefield rectifier, andthe
ground lead to tbe rotor shaft. These connections put the
fieldrectifierin serieswiththe voltage of therectifierinthe
transmitter. Current is determined by the field ground
resistance and the location of a fault with respect to the
positive and negative bus. The transmitter detects the
resistancechange between the field winding and therotor
core. The transmitterLED's emit lightfor normalconditions. The receiveris mountedon theexciter housing. The

REFERENCES

1. "IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection," ANSII

IEEE C37.102-1986.
2. "Protective Relaying, Theoryand Application," ABB
Relay Division, Coral Springs, FL, Marcel Dekker,

1994.
3. "FieldGround Detection SystemInstruction Manual,"
Dresser Rand, ElectricMachinery 2100-IN-324B.
4. "Machine Field Ground Detector Relay PJG-12-B,"
GEK-4188, General Electric.
5. "TypeDGFGenerator Field Relay," ABB IL41-747.

-14-

Section 4

STATOR WINDING GROUND FAULT PROTECTION

s. Easterday-McPadden
PublicService of Colorado
Denver, CO

T.S. Sidhu
University of Saskatchewan
Dept.of Electrical Engineering
Saskatoon, SK,Canada

ABSTRACT

LOW Il\{PEDANCE STATOR GROUNDING

Thispart of the tutorial deals with generator statorneutral Thisgrounding method is illustrated in Figure 1.
grounding and theprotectionschemes used todetectstator
ground faults. Two types of grounding, high and low
impedance, are described. These twotypes of grounding
practices represent the major methods used within the
HIGH - VOLTAGE SYSTEM
industry to ground generator stator windings. The major
protection schemesused are also described.

-<'\l

INTRODUCTION

Themethodof statorgroundingusedina generator installation determines the generator's performance during

groundfaultconditions. Ifthe generatorissolidlygrounded,
as is practicallynever the case, it will deliver a very high
magnitude currentto a single-line-to-ground (SLG) faultat
its terminals, accompanied by a 58% reduction in the
phase-to-pbase voltages involving the faulted phaseand a
modestneutralvoltageshift.If thegeneratorisungrounded,
as is also practically never the case, it will deliver a
negligible amount of current to a bolted SLG fault at its
terminals, accompanied by no reduction in the phase-tophase terminal voltages and a full neutral voltage shift.
Theserepresenttheextremes in generator grounding with
normalpractice falling predictably in between.

I:"

*' REACTOR

The high magnitude of fault currentwhich results from

solidlygrounding a generator is unacceptable because of
thefaultdamageit cancause. Shutting down thegenerator
through tripping the generator breaker, field, and prime
moverdoes not cause the fault current to immediately go
to zero.The flux trappedin the fieldwill result in the fault
current slowly decaying over a number of seconds afterthe
generatoris trippedwhichsubstantially exacerbates damage. On the other hand,operating a generator ungrounded
provides negligible fault current, but the line-to-ground
voltagesontheonfaultedphasescanriseduring arcing type
faults to dangerously high levels which could cause the
failureof generation insulation.Asaresult, statorwindings
on major generators are grounded in a manner that will
reduce fault current and overvoltages and yet provide a
means of detecting the ground fault condition quickly
enoughto prevent iron burning. Twotypes of grounding
are widelyused withinthe industry. They are categorized
as high and low impedance grounding.

-15-

OR
RESISTOR

Figure I(A) Generators BussedTogether

ona Common Bus Sharing a GSU

HGH - VOLTAGE SYSlEM

.u2ur-tt+

Figure l(B) Generators Sharinga Transformer

-<

The differential comparison is biased to assure that a

positive restraint exists for an externalfault even though
the current transformers, RcN and RcL have substantially
different performance characteristics. This scheme providesexcellent security againstmisoperation for external
faults and provides very sensitive detection of internal
ground faults.

UNIT AUXILIARIES

~ TRANSFORMER

Figure l(C) Generators Connected Directly to a

Distribution System
Figure l(A-C) Low Impedance Grounding
The grounding resistor or reactor is selected to limitthe
generator's contribution to a SLG fault to a range of
currents generally between200A and 150% of ratedload
cmrent. With this wide range of available fault current,
phasedifferential relayingcanprovide someground-fault
protection for higher level of ground currents. However,
the differential relay will notprovide ground faultprotection forthe entirestator winding. It is common practice to
providesupplemental protection. Figure 2isanillustration
of a ground differentialscheme thatcanbe usedtoprovide
this enhanced sensitivity. Thescheme uses a product type
directional overcurrentrelay (87N) and its application is
fully described in Reference 5. Therelayis connected to
receivedifferential currentin itsoperating coilcircuitand
generator neutral (3IJ cmrent in itspolarizing circuit.

GROUf\O ONE TERMINAL

OR CENTER TAP IF
AVAILABLE

Figure3 HighImpendance Grounded Generator

Aux.cl

n=1.1?:1

eN

Currents shown
for external fault

Generator

Figure 2 Generator Ground Differential UsingProduct Type Relay

-16-

mGH IMPEDANCE STATOR GROUNDING

High resistance generatorneutral grounding is illustrated

in Figure 3. It is primarily utilized on unit connected
systems,however, it can also be usedon cross-compound
generators whereonewinding isgenerally highimpedance
grounded.

The time setting for the overvoltage relay is selected to

provide coordination withothersystemprotectivedevices.
Specific areasof concernare:
A)

High resistance generator neutral grounding utilizes a

distribution transformer with a primary voltage rating
greater than or equalto the line-to-neutral voltage ratingof
the generatoranda secondary ratingof 120V or 240V. The
distribution transformershould have sufficient overvoltagecapability so thatitdoesnot saturate onSLG faultswith
the machineoperated at 105%of ratedvoltage. The secondaryresistoris usuallyselectedso thatfora SLGfaultat
the terminals of the generator, the power dissipated in the
resistor is approximately equal to the reactive volt-amperes in the zero sequence capacitive reactance of the
generator windings, its leads, and the windings of any
transformers connected to the generator terminals. Using
this grounding method,a SLG faultis generally limited to
3-25primaryamperes.As a result, thislevel offaultcurrent
is not sufficient to operate generator differential relays.
Appendix I providesa detailedexample of how to determine the size of the ground resistorto meet the requirementscitedaboveas wellas calculate theresultingground
currentsand voltages.

B) The voltage relay may have to be coordinated

with system relaying for system ground faults.
System phase-to-ground faults will induce zerosequence voltages at thegeneratorneutraldue to
capacitive coupling between the windings of the
unit transformer, This induced voltage will appear on the secondary of the grounding distribution ttansformer and can cause operation of the
zero-sequence voltagerelay.

CONVENTIONAL HIGH IMPEDANCE STATOR

WINDING PROTECTION METHODS

Neutral OvervoltageiCurrentScheme - Themostwidely

used protectivescheme in highimpedance grounded systemsisa timedelayedovervoltagerelay(59GN) connected

across the grounding resistorto sensezero-sequence voltage as shown in Figure 3. The relay used for thisfunction
is designed to be sensitive to fundamental frequency voltage and insensitive to third-harmonic and other zerosequenceharmonicvoltagesthatarepresent at thegenerator neutral.
Since the grounding impedanceis large compared to the
generatorimpedanceand other impedances in the circuit,
the full phase-to-neutral voltagewill be impressed across
the grounding device for a phase-to-ground fault at the
generatorterminals. The voltage at therelay is a function
of thedistribution transformerratioandthelocation of the
fault The voltagewill be a maximum fora terminal fault
and decreases in magnitude as the fault location moves
fromthegeneratorterminalstowardtheneutral. Typically,
the overvoltage relay has a minimum pickup setting of
approximately 5 v. With this setting and with typical
distribution transformerratios, this scheme is capableof
detectingfaultsto withinabout 2-5% ofthestatorneutral.

Whengrounded wye-grounded wyevt's are coonectedatthemachine terminals, theneutralground

overvoltage relay should be coordinated with vt
transformer fusesto preventtrippingthe generatorforvt secondary groundfaults.If therelaytime
delayforcoordination is notacceptable, thecoordination problemcan be alleviatedby grounding
oneof the secondary phaseconductorsinsteadof
thesecondary neutral. Thus,a secondary ground
fault results in a phase-to-phase vt fault which
will not operate the neutral ground overvoltage
relay. However, whenthis technique is used, the
coordination problem stillexistsforgroundfaults
on the secondary neutral; thus, its usefulness is
limited to thoseapplications where the exposure
onthesecondary neutralto groundfaultsis small.

Atime overcurrent relaycan be usedas backupprotection

when the generator is grounded through a distribution
transformer with a secondary resistor. The current transformer supplying the overcurrent relay may be located
eitherin the primary neutral circuit or in the secondary
circuit of the distribution transformer, as shownin Figure
3.When thecurrenttransformer is connectedin the distribution transformer secondarycircuit,acurrenttransformer
ratiois selected so that the relay current is approximately
equal to the maximum primary current in the generator
neutral. An inverse or veryinversetime delayovercurrent
relay isgenerally usedfor thisapplication. Theovercurrent
relay must be set so that it doesnot operate on the normal
unbalance currents and the zero-sequence harmonic currentsthat appear in the neutral. The pickup settingof the
overcurrent relay should be no less than 1350/0 of the
maximum valueof currentmeasured in the neutralunder
non-fault conditions. In general, the overcurrent relay
provides less sensitive protection than the overvoltage
relay that detects zero sequence voltage. As witb the
overvoltage relay, the overcurrent relay must be time
coordinated with the voltage transformer fuses and with
thesystem ground relaying.

-17-

100% STATOR WINDING GROUND FAULT

PROTECIlON METHODS
Conventional protection for stator ground fault detection
on high impedance grounded systems has been discussed
in the previous section. These protective schemes are
straight forward and dependable, however, these relays
would providesensitive protection for onlyabout 95 percent of the stator.Thisisbecausethefaultin theremaining
five percentof thewinding, neartheneutral, doesnotcause
sufficient 60 Hz residual voltage and residual current to
operate these relays. It is importantto protectmajor generators with an additional groundfaultprotection system
so that fault coverage for 100 percentof the winding is
obtained. The techniques for detection of ground faults
whichcover 100percentof statorwindings can be broadly
divided into two categories:

use as their relaying signals for fault detection. Figure 4

shows the third harmonic voltages (V 3RD) presentat the
neutralandterminalsof a typicalgeneratorduringdifferent
load conditions: (a) under normal operation (b) for a fault
at the neutral end and (c) for a fault at the generator
terminals.
The following observations can be made from Figure 4:

1. The levelof third harmonic voltageat theneutral

and generator terminalsis dependenton theoperating conditions of the generator.The voltage is
higher at full load than at no load condition as
depicted Figure 4; however, depending on the
generatordesign, the reverse may be true.
2.

Third harmonic voltage based techniques

Neutralor residualvoltage injection

3. For a ground fault at the neutral, the third harmonic voltage at the neutral becomeszero.Fora
fault near the neutral, the level of third harmonic
voltage at the neutral would decrease and the
level at the generator terminals would increase.
The amountof decrease or increase depends on
the operating conditions and the location of the
fault

+ V3 RD

FULL LOAD
NEUTRAL

NO LOAD
TERMINAL

NO LOAD
FULL LOAD

-v

(a) NORMAL
OPERATION

3 RD

+V

3RD

FULL LOAD

4.

NO LOAD

TERMINAL

NEUTRAL

(b) FAULT AT
NEUTRAL
NEUTRAL

,.----------=-

TERMINAL

NO LOAD
FULL LOAD

-v

3 RD

There is a point in the windings where the third

harmonic voltage is zero. The exact position-of
this point depends on operating conditions and
generator design.

For a ground fault at the terminals, the third

harmonicvoltageat the terminals becomeszero.
If a fault occurs near the generatorterminals, the
level of third harmonic voltage at the neutral
wouldincreaseand that of at the terminals would
decrease. The amount of increase or decrease is
againdependenton the prevailingoperating conditions and the locationof the fault

5. The levels of third harmonic voltage vary from

one machine to another machine depending on
the design. The third harmonic levels of any
generatorshould be measured with thegenerator
connectedand disconnectedfrom the powersystem before installing any third-harmonie-based
protectionschemestoensure thatadequate levels
exist to operate the various protective elements,

(c) FAULT AT
TERMINAL

Figure 4 Third Harmonic Voltages for Different

Conditions in a TypicalGenerator

Third Harmonic Voltage Based Techniques - Third

harmonic voltagecomponents are present at the terminals
of nearly everymachineto varyingdegrees; they ariseand
vary due to differences in design and manufacture. If
present in a sufficientamount, this voltage is used by the The techniques basedon the useof thirdharmonic voltage
schemes in this categoryto detect ground faults near the can be divided as follows:
neutral. The third harmonic voltages measured at the
Third harmonic neutral undervoltage technique
generator neutralor terminals or both are used to provide
[2]
protection. Before discussing the techniques and their
Third harmonic residual terminal voltage techoperatingprinciples, it is worthwhile tolookat the characnique
teristics of third harmonic voltages which these schemes
Third harmoniccomparator technique[3]

-18-

UN1T TRANSfORMER

than 1 percent of the rated voltage is needed to provide

adequate overlap. Normally, the third harmonic
undervoltage protection can provide adequate protection
for 0-30 percentof the stator winding measured from the
neutral towards the machine terminal. The undervoltage
relay settings should be well below the minimum third
harmonic voltage present at the neutral during normal
operation of the generator.

COMPLETE

SHUTDOWN

59C
Instantaneous Overvoltage Supervisory Relay
59GN Overvoltage RelayTunedToTheFundamental
(60 Hz) Frequency
27
Undervoltage RelayTunedToTheThird
Harmonic (180Hz) Frequency
2-1,2-2 Timers
Figure5 A Third Harmonic Undervoltage
GroundFault Protection Scheme
Third Harmonic Undervoltage Technique (Figure 5) -

Thistechnique usesthefacttbatforafault neartheneutral,

the levelof third harmonic voltageattheneutral decreases.
Therefore, an undervoltage relay operating from third
harmonic voltage measured at the neutral end could be
usedtodetectthefaultsnear the neutral. Thegroundfaults
in theremaining portionof thewindings can bedetectedby
conventional groundfaultprotection, e.g., an overvoltage
relay(59GN) whichoperates on the 60Hzneutralvoltage.
Thecombination of bothrelaysprovide 100percentstator
winding protection. A simplified protection schemeusing
this technique is shown in Figure 5.
The relaying signals are taken from voltage inputs measured across the neutral resistor. An internal isolating
transformer scales the voltage down to the continuous
rating of the relay and also provides isolation of the
protection scheme. The undervoltage protection consists
of a 180 Hz tunedfilter, an undervoltage (27)level detector, on-line logic and a timer. Overvoltage protection is
made up of a 60 Hz tuned filter, an overvoltage (59GN)
leveldetectorand a timer.

Thethirdharmonic undervoltage relaymust beblocked to

avoidfalsetripping duringgenerator shutdownor startup.
This is achieved by providing a supervisory overvoltage
(59C) relay.In somecases,thegenerator doesnotdevelop
significant thirdharmonic voltage until it is loaded. Inthis
case, supervision using an overcurrent relay can be provided; the overcurrent relay would operatewhenthecurrentexceedsits pick up value. Therefore, underlightload
conditions, and when the main breakeris open, the third
harmonic undervoltage relay would be out of service and
analternate protection schemeshouldbe considered. Third
harmonic undervoltage protection wouldoperateforopen
andshortcircuitsof primaryor secondary windings of the
neutral grounding transformer and would not be able to
detect an open circuit in the secondary grounding resistance.
Third HarmonicTerminal Residual Voltage Technique
(Figure 6) - This technique is basedon the fact that for a
faultnear theneutral,thelevelof third harmonic voltage at

thegenerator terminals increases. Therefore, an overvoltage relay usingthirdharmonic voltageat the terminals of
ageneratorcan beusedfordetecting faultsneartheneutral.
Asbefore, thegroundfaultsin theremaining portion ofthe
windings can bedetectedby theconventional 95%protection, e.g., an overvoltage relay which operates on 60 Hz
neutral voltage. Both of these relays would, therefore,
provide 100percentprotection of statorwindings by covering different portions of the windings. A simplified
protection schemeusingthistechnique is shown inFigure
6.
The residualvoltageat the machine terminals is supplied
by thewye-grounded broken-delta transformer. Thisvoltageispassedthrougha 180Hztunedfilterandanovervoltage (59T)detector. At the neutral end, the relaying signal
is takenacrossthe neutralresistor an internal relayisolatingtransformer scalesthe voltage downto thecontinuous
rating of therelay.Thisvoltageispassedthrough the60Hz
tuned filter and then providedto an overvoltage (59GN)
level detector,

The settingsof undervoltage and overvoltage level detectorsaresuchtbatoverlapfor all faultlocations on the stator For a ground fault near the neutral, the level of third
winding from the generator terminals to the neutral is harmonic voltage at the generator terminals becomes elassured. Generally, third harmonic voltage of not more evated and the third harmonic overvoltage relay would

-19-

voltage at the generator neutral to thatat the

generator terminals. The schemeis based on
the premise that the ratio of the third harmonic voltage at the generatorterminals to
that at the generator neutral is almost constantduringthenormal operation ofagenerator.Thisratiois upsetfora groundfaultnear
the neutral ornear the terminals of a generator,and thisfact is used to detect thesefaults.
Theground faultsin theremaining portionof
the windings are detected by the conventional95%ground fault protection, e.g.,and
6O-Hzovervoltageorovercurrentrelayoperating from the neutral voltage or current
respectively. Figure 7 shows a simplified
diagram of the comparator scheme.

UNIT TRANSfORMER

LL-Y

COMPLETE
SHUTDOWN

(-) .....- e__-...--

59GN Conventional Overvoltage Relay Tuned To The

operate. This relaymustbe set in sucha waythat itdoesnot
Fundamental Frequency.
respondto the maximum. thirdharmonic VOltage presentat 59D
Third Harmonic Voltage Differential Relay
the generatorterminals duringnormal operation. Also, the
settings of the overvoltage relaysat theneutral endandat The basic operating principle of this scheme is a differenthe generator terminals should be such that detection of tial third harmonic approach. It consists of two full wave
bridge rectifiers, two 180Hzpassfiltersand an isolatingl
faults in the entire windingis assured.
matching transformer. Theisolating transformer is usedto
59GN Overvoltage Relay TunedTo The Fundamental match the third harmonic voltage fromthe generator termi(60 Hz) Frequency.
naIs to that from the neutral end. Any difference voltage
Overvoltage Relay TunedTo TheThird
will causethecurrentto flow in thedifferential relay.This
59T
Harmonic (180 Hz) Frequency
relay assumes that the ratio of the third harmonic voltage
at generator terminals tothirdharmonic voltageat genera2-1,2-2 Timers
tor neutral remains constant during normal conditions. If
the ratio of the thirdharmonic terminal to third harmonic
Figure 6 Third Harmonic ResidualTerminal Voltage
neutral voltage changes, this wouldcause the difference
Based GroundFault Protection Scheme
voltage to appear, and the differentialrelay wouldoperate.
Third Harmonic Comparator Technique (Figure 7) - Also, slightvariations in thisratioduringnormaloperation
Thisschemecompares themagnitudeofthetbirdharmonic would reduce the relay sensitivity.
l.NT TRANSFORMER

AUX.

VT

ISOLAllNG

MAIN
VT

TRANSFORMER

r-T

590

OPTIONAL

GRO~DING

tJETHOD

Figure 7 ThirdHarmonic Comparactor Based Ground Fault Protection Scheme

-20-

The settings of the conventional 95% protective relay

(59NG) and those of the third harmonic differential relay
(59D) should be chosen in sucha way thatfaultdetection
coveragefortheentirestatorwindings isensured. Thethird
harmonic differential relay detects ground faults near the
neutral as well as at the terminals. Theconventional 95%
groundfault relay detectsfaults in theupper portion of the
windingsand overlaps muchof the windings protected by
the third harmonic differential relay. The third harmonic
differential relay sensitivity is minimal for a fault somewhere near the middle of the winding. At this point the
difference between the thirdharmonic voltages at neutral
and at terminals is very nearto therelay setting. Therelay
setting is usually determined fromfield testsduring commissioning. As an example, the magnitude of the third
harmonic voltage at the neutral and at the terminals and
their ratio for differentoperating conditions for a typical
generatorare given in Table1. The needfor multiple vt's
and the necessity of field testsfor determination of relay
settingsare the weak: pointsof thisscheme. However, this
schemeprovides the optimum 100percent faultcoverage.
Voltage Injection Scheme (Figure 8) - Due to design

variations, certain generating unitsmaynotproduce sufficient third harmonic voltages to apply the ground fault
protectionschemes basedonthirdharmonic signals. Alternate fault detection techniques would be needed in these
situations. Voltage injection scheme detects groundfaults
by injectinga voltage at theneutral orresidually inabroken
delta voltage transformer secondary. Full ground fault
protection is available when the generator is on turning
gearandduringstartupprovidedtheinjected voltage source
doesnotoriginate fromthegenerator. Some schemes inject
a coded signal at a sub harmonic frequency whichcan be
synchronized with thesystemfrequency. Onesuchscheme
that injectsa frequency of 15Hzin thegenerator neutral is
UNIT LOAD
MW
MVAR

shown in Figure 8. The resultant 15 Hz current is measured. When a ground fault occurs, the 15 Hz current
increases and causes the relay to operate. The 15 Hz
injection signal is synchronized to the 60 Hz generator
terminal voltage.
UNIT TRANSF"ORMER

SUP(RVISOR~

l()-JRELAY

INJECTION
TRANSF"ORMER
GRDUND
rAULT
DE:TECTION
RELAY

Figure 8 Subharmonic Voltage Injection Scheme

for Ground FaultProtection
The voltage injection scheme operates with the same
sensitivity for faults overtheentirerangeof thewindings.
Also, it provides 100% ground fault protection independentof the 95% ground faultschemes. In addition, these
schemes are self-monitoring and have a sensitivity independent of system voltage, load current and frequency.
The use of sub harmonic frequencies offers improved
sensitivity because of the higher impedance path of the
generator capacitances at these frequencies. Also, the
integrations overhalfcycleofthesubharmonic frequency
result in zero contributions from the signals of system
frequency and harmonics (i.e., 60 Hz, 120 Hz, 180 Hz,
etc.) and, therefore, these do not influence the measure-

180 HZ RMS VOLTAGE

NEUTRAL
TERMINAL

VOLTAGE RATIO
TERMINALINEUTRAL

2.8

2.7

1.08

2.5

3.7

1.48

35

2.7

3.8

1.41

105

4.2

5.0

1.19

175

25

5.5

6.2

1.13

340

25

8.0

8.0

1.00

TABLE 1 Magnitudes of ThirdHarmonic Voltages

for a Typical Generator

-21-

REFERENCES
ments. The economic penalty (high cost) associated with
providing and maintaining a reliable sub-harmonic source
is a disadvantage. Another disadvantage of the scheme is 1. "IEEEGuidefor GeneratorGround Protection" ANSII
IEEE C37.101-1993.
its inability to detectopen circuits in thegrounding transformer primary or secondary as thiscausesa decreasein the
15 Hz currentand not an increase asneeded by this scheme 2. C.H. Griffin and J.W. Pope, "Generator Ground
FaultProtection UsingOvercurrent, Overvoltageand
to indicate a fault. An undercurrent condition can, howUndervoltage Relays," IEEE Trans.on PowerAppaever, be used to give an alarm for indicating a grounding
ratusandSystems, VoI.PAS-101,No.12,Dec.1982,
systemproblem or loss of subharmonic source.
pp. 4490-4501.
TRIPPING MODE
3. J.W. Pope, "A Comparison of 100%Stator Ground
FaultProtectionSchemesforGeneratorStatorWindAll stator ground detection methods described in this
ings," IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Syssection should be connected to trip and shutdown the
tems, Vol.PAS-I03, No.4, April 1984,pp. 832-840.
generator.

4. IEEE Guide for "AC Generator Protection Guide"

ANSIIIEEE C37.102-1988.
5. "Protective Relaying, TheoryandApplication," ABB
Relaying Division,CoralSprings, FL,MarielDekker,
1994.

-22-

Assume the phase-to-ground capacitive reactance of the

generator, transformers, leads, and associated equipment
The appendix presents an exampleof how to calculatethe in the system of Fig. A is Xoc = 6780 n per phase. The
zero sequence fault quantities and how to determinethe ohmicvalue of the secondary resistorhas been selectedso
value and ratings of the groundingelements (resistor and thatwhenreflected across thedistribution transformer, the
transformer) used in the conventional 95% 60 Hz based resulting resistance, Rn, is equal to 1/3 of Xoc:
high impendance grounded protection schemes. A 974
MVA, 22 kV generator is unit-connected to a 345 kV
Rn = 0.738 (13,2801240)2 = 2260 n
transmission system and groundedthrough a distribution
transformer as shown in Figure A below:
APPENDIX I

t---O-------..----.....- ....

<3

-----4~--.._c

75kVA
13,280V:240V

fi'll.

345kV SYSTEM

GEN STE~UpXEMB
975"""MVA
345kV:20.9kV

II~~
UNITAUX XEMB
50MVA
22kV:6.9kV

AUXILIARY
BUS

Figure A

Due to the high resistance grounding, the capacitances to

ground in the system, which is not. usually taken into
account because of their high reactancevalues relative to
the series inductive reactances in the system, become
significant.In general, these are distributed capacitances,
butforpurposesofthesecalculations, they can be "lumped"
and modeled as a single capacitor. The most significant
capacitances in the system shown(and in anysimilarsuch
system) arethose associated with the generator windings,
the generator surge capacitors and arresters, and the generator step up transformer low voltage windings. These
three typically account for more than 95% of the system
capacitanceto ground.Other sourcesaretheisolatedphase
bus ducts, the unit auxiliary transformer high voltage
windings, and thehigh voltagewindings of any instrument
transformers (i.e., generator vt's), Generally, the capacitance values must be obtained from theequipment manufacturer; however, insulation or power factor tests (i.e.,
"Doble" type tests) are excellent sources as well. All
capacitance values used for these calculations should be
phasetogroundona per-phasebasis.Notethatcapacitance
in farads or microfarads will need to be converted to
capacitivereactance (ohms) at 60 Hz.

For the purposes of the discussion, a SLG fault will be

assumedat the terminals of the generator. In terms of the
resulting faultquantities (voltageand current), this location yields the worst case. That is, the neutral shift (or
development of 3Vo across the distribution transformer
secondary winding) andfaultcurrentmagnitudesaregreatest In termsof relay sensitivity, this is the "best" location
fora SLGfaulttooccurpreciselybecausethequantities are
greatest, and, therefore, the probability of detection is
greatest. As the fault is moved deeper into the generator
winding towards the neutral, the fault quantities decrease
inmagnitude,reducingtheabilityoftheprotectivedevices
to detectit A ground faultat theterminalsof the generator
as shownin Fig. A.
Symmetrical Components SolutioD
With symmetrical components, SLG faults are calculated
by connecting the positive, negative, and zero sequence
networksin seriesas shownin Fig. B(l) and solvingfor 10

-23-

10 = Ion + lac Where

Figure B SLGFault Symmetrical Component

Equivalent Circuits

10 = total zero sequence fault current

11 ----+

IOn =zero sequence currentflowing in the neutral

resistor
lac = zero sequence currentflowing in the lumped
capacitance

x1C

Let Zaeq be the equivalent parallelcombination of 3Rn and

-jXOc:

f~
~g

~BUS

_0
II

Zaeq = 0.5(6780- j6780) =3390- j3390 n

Ii.,..

~s

If, E 1g

= generator phase-to-neutral voltage (positive se-

quence)

~c

E1g = 22JlQQ = 12,700 V (zero degree phase angle assumed)

~3

then, 10 in the fault is

lot los
IOn

r 3F\,

10c

10 =

r -iXoc

.BIg =

Zaeq

12,700 =1.873 + jl.873 A

3390-j3390

Sincel fau1t =310, Ifault =3 (1.873 + j1.873) =5.62 + j5.62A

,--'0

E19 - Generator Source

E1s - System Source
g = generator
t generatorstep-uptransformer
s = powersystem

Alternately, finding the currents in 3Rn and XOc respectively, we arrive at the same result:

Figure B(l) Symmetrical Component Equivalent Circuit

forCalculation ofSLG Fault

Let In be the current in the generator neutral;then,

I

=3IOn =3 (Elg ) =(E1 g ) = 12,700 =5.62 A

3R n
a, 2,260

With Xe= 6780 n per phase, the fault current contribution

fromthe capacitance is
Ie =

Figure B(2) Reduced Approximate Symmetrical

Component Equivalent Circuit

3I Oe =

3E1g
_
-JX e

3(12,700)
-j6780

= -S.62A
J

The total fault current, l fau1t is equal to 310 = In+Ie:

The equivalent positive and negative sequence impedancesoftbe systemandthezerosequenceimpedanceofthe

generator can be neglected because they are extremely
small as comparedto theequivalentcircuit madeupof the
neutralresistor and the distributed zero sequence capacitance. The zero sequence network is open at the delta
winding of the generator step up transtormer andconsists
of the reflected generator neutral resistor in parallelwith
the phase-to-ground capacitance of thegenerator windings
and associated equipment. The approximate equivalent
circuit is shown in Fig. B(2) to which the following
definitions apply:

l fault =5.62+ j5.62 = 7.95/~o A

In is the current flowing in the generator neutral fora SLG

fault at the generator terminals. The current I.e flowing in
the distribution transformer secondary wiring andthrough
the resistor, R, is In multiplied by the turns ratio of the
distribution transformer:

-24-

sec

=562(13,280)=311A

240

The voltage acrossthe secondary resistor is:

The resistor rating is:

VR =Ilee (R) =311 (0.738) =229.5V

KW= IsecxVR

1000
Thelattertwoquantities, VR and Isec, aretheonesavailable
forsetting relays. Thereader isreminded thattheresistance
=(229.5){311) = 71.4
valueof the grounding resistor wasselected on thebasis of
1000
the zero sequence capacitances inthesystem. The continuous ratingsof the resistor and grounding transformer are The transformer should be ratedat:
chosenassuming a fullneutral voltage shift(dueto a SLG
faultat the generator terminals). Asshown above, VR for
KW = IRATING x lsec
this condition and this example is 229.5V. This implies
1000
continuous ratings for both resistor and transformer of at
least 71.4 KW:
(240){311) = 74.6
100

-25-

Section 5
ABNORMAL FREQUENCY PROTECTION
E.C. Fennell
Florida Power & Light
Juno Beach, FL

M. Bajpai
Arizona PublicService
Phoenix, AZ

Abstract- Boththegeneratorandtheturbine arelimitedin

the degree of abnormal frequency operation that can be
tolerated. Atreducedfrequencies, therewillbe a reduction
in the outputcapabilityof a generator. Theturbine, especially steam and gas turbines, are considered to be more
restrictive than the generator at reduced frequencies 00cause of possible mechanical resonances in the many
stages of turbine blades. Departure from rated speed
underload willbringstimulusfrequencies closerto one or
more of the natural frequencies of the various blades and
there will bean increasein vibratory stresses. Asvibratory
stressesincrease, damageis accumulated which may lead
to cracking of some parts of the blade structure.
Primary underfrequency protection forturbine generators

is providedby the implementation ofautomatic loadsheddingprogramson thepower system. These loadshedding

programs should be designed so that for the maximum
possible overload condition, sufficient load is shed to
quicklyrestoresystem frequency to near normal. Backup
protection for underfrequency conditions is provided by
the useof oneor moreunderfrequency relaysand timer on
each generator. The underfrequency relays and timersare
usuallyconnected to trip the generator,
INTRODUCfION

When a power system is in stable operation at normal

frequency, the total mechanical power input from the
prime mover to the generators is equal to the sum of the
connectedloads,and all real powerlosses in thesystem. A
significantupsetof thisbalancecauses anabnormal system
frequency condition. The abnormal frequency conditions
can cause generators to trip or tie lines to open from
overloador parts of the system to separate due to power
swings and resulting instability. This could result in the
power system separating into one or more electrically
isolatedislands.

abnormal frequency operating condition. These loadshedding programs are designed to:

Shedjust enough loads to relieve the overloading on

connected generation.
Minimize the risk of damage to the generating plant.
Mitigate the possibility of cascading the event as a
result of a unit underfrequency tripping.
Quickly restoresystemfrequency to near
normal.

Two typesofabnormal frequency conditions canoccur on

a power system:
1. Underfrequency condition occurs on a powersystem
as a result of a sudden reduction in input power
through the loss of a generator(s) or key intertie(s)
importing power. This can produce a decline in the
speedof thegenerator, resulting in systemfrequency
decline.
2. An overfrequency condition occurs as a result of a
suddenloss of load or key interties exporting power.
The prime mover outputs supplying the initial load
drop is absorbed by accelerating these units and can
result in an increase in systemfrequency.

There are two majorconsiderations associated with operating a generating plant at an abnormal frequency. These
are:

Protection of equipmentfromdamage that could result fromoperation at an abnormal frequency.

Prevention of inadvertent tripping of the generating
unit for a recoverable abnormal frequency condition
thatdoesnotexceedtheplantequipmentdesign limits.

The major parts of a generating plantthatare affected by

abnormal frequency operation are generator, step transMost utilitieshave implemented an automated loadshed- formers, turbine, andthestationauxiliary loads. Theeffect
ding programtopreventboth total system collapses aswell of abnormalfrequency conditions on thesemajorparts of
asminimizethepossibilityofequipmentdamageduringan a generation plant will be discussed in this section, along
with recommended protection.

-26-

STEAM GENERATING PLANT ABNORMAL

FREQUENCY OPERATION

A. Generator Oyerll]nderfreguency Capability

While no standards have been established for abnormal

frequency operation ofsynchronous generators, itisrecognized that reduced frequency results in reduced ventilation; therefore, operation atreduced frequency should beat
reduced kVA.
During anunderfrequency operation oftheunit, itisalmost
certain to be accompanied by high value of load current
drawn from the generator. Thiscould result in exceeding
the short-time thermal capability of the generator. The
permissible short-time operating levels for boththe stator
and rotorfor cylindrical rotorsynchronous generators are
specified in ANSI C50.13. The limitations on generators
operating in an underfrequency condition are lessrestrictive than those placed on the turbine. However, when
generator protection is required, it bas been industry practice to provide overcurrent protection.
Overfrequency is usually theresult of a sudden reduction
in loadand therefore is usually associated with light-load
or no-load operation. During overfrequency operation,
machine ventilation is improved andtheflux densities for
a given terminal voltage arereduced. Therefore, operation
within the overfrequency limits of the turbine will not
produce generator overheating so long as rated kVA and
ratedvoltage are not exceeded.

If the generator voltage regulator is left in service at

significantly reduced frequencies, thevoltsperhertz limitation of a generator could be exceeded. However, most
incidents of excessive volts per hertz occur for reasons
otherthan reduced frequency operation and are addressed
in another section of this tutorial.
B. Turbine Oyer!IJnderfreguency Capability

The primary consideration in operation of a steam turbine

underload at other than thesynchronous frequency is the
protection of the long tuned blading in the low pressure
turbine element. Figure 1 illustratesa composite representing themost restrictive limits (refer to ANSIC37.106) for
large steam turbine partial or full-load operating limitationsduring abnormal frequency. Operation ofthese stages
underload, at a speed that causes a coincidence of blading
natural frequency band will lead toblading fatigue damage
and ultimately blading failures. This problem can be particularly severe when negative sequence current flow
through thegenerator armature, thereby exciting torsional
frequencies, blade reservance around 120 Hz.
Overfrequency protection isgenerally notapplied because
governor mnback controls oroperator actions arecounted
upon tocorrect theturbine speed. However, considerations
must be given to the impact on overspeed protection and
the isolation oftheunitduring anoverfrequency condition.
This is necessary in order to ensure coordination and
protection forturbine bladesforoverfrequency conditions.
Since the operating limits for the units are the same as
shown in Figure 1 above the 60 Hz line.

6'

60

>-

z
~

aUJ

59

a:

u..

58

PAOHBITED
OPERATION

56 ..........~--..-.,~~~L.-.4-~""""""f--''--'-~-+--':.-..+-~...L.....r..~"-4-.r-.L.~......{.-..<'-4
0.001

0.005

0.01

0.05 0.10

0.50 10

5.0

10.0

TIME (MNUTES)

Figure 1 Typical Stearn Turbine Partialor Full-Load

Operating Umitations During Abnormal Frequency

-27-

50.0 100.0

UNDERFREQUENCY
RECORDER
(59.5 Hz)

ALARM- TURBINE/

1-----------------GENERATOR
UNDERFREQUENCY

GSU

OR

ALARM

OR

ALARM

TRIP
TURBINE/
GENERATOR

VT

AND~------

TRIP TURBINE/
GENERATOR
(1.0 s DELAY)

62 TIME DELAY RELAY

81 UNDERFREQUENCY RELAY

Figure2 ProtectionScheme - Block Diagram

Frequency Band (Hz)

Time Delay

60.0-595
59.5

No relayaction- turbinecan operatecontinuously.

None

Frequency recorderalarms.

59.5-58.5
585-57.0

Comments

System operatormust shed load or isolate the unit

within30 min.
These bands may trip or alarm depending on
individual utilities' practices. For "alarm, the operator
has theserespective times to shed load or isolate the unit

5.0 Min

tt

Table 1 Frequency and TimerSettingsfor above scheme

62

~OVERLOAD

lOAD-GEt'RAT10N
GENERATION

x 100

61
SYSTEM RESPONSE FOR 67~ OVERLOAD
H CONSTANT - 3.0
(25' LOAD St-ED)

60
SYSTEM RESPONSE FOR 67iS OVERLOAD

H CONSTANT - 3.0
(401 LOAD ~D)

>0

UJ

::>

59

0
w

a::

LL

58

-+----~+-+-lt___-_+4_--+----__+_--_+-_+_

TURBINE
ABNORMAL
FREQUENCY

L1MT

5.0 min.
- - - - - - . J - - + - - - - -or
SCHEME SETTING BASED
ON 50% ACCUMULATION OF
ALLOWABLE TIME BETWEEN
57.9 AND 58.5Hz

57

TURBINE
TRIP
POINT

56

0.001

0.005

0.01

0.05 0.10

0.50 1.0

5.0

TIME (MNUTES)

Figure3 ApplicationExample

-28-

10.0

50.0 100.0

Protection methods for preventing turbine operation out- 3. Failure of a single underfrequency relay should not
side theprescribed limitswillberestrieted tounderfrequency
cause an unnecessary trip of the machine.
protection. System load shedding schemes provide the
primary turbine underfrequency protection. Appropriate 4. Failure of a single underfrequency relay to operate
load sheddingcan causethe system frequency toreturn to
during an underfrequency conditionshouldnotjeopardizethe overall protective scheme.
normal before the turbine abnormal limits are exceeded.
Automatic load shedding underfrequency relays are used
to shed the requiredamountof loadneeded to maintain a 5. Relays should be selected based on their accuracy,
load-to-generation balanceduring a system overload.
speedof operation, and reset capability.
Therefore,operation atfrequencies otherthan ratedornear 6. Theturbine underfrequency protection systemshould
be in servicewhenever the unitis synchronized tothe
rated speed is time-restricted to the limits for the various
system or whileseparated fromthesystembutsupplyfrequency bands published by each turbine manufacturer
iog auxiliary power.
for various blade designs. The abnormal frequency limits
are generally based on worst-case conditions because:
7. Provide separate alarms to alert the operator of a
system frequency less thannormal and an indication
1. The naturalfrequencies of bladeswithin a stagediffer
of a pending tripof the unit
due to manufacturing tolerance.
2.

The fatigue may increase with normal operation for

reasons such as pitting,corrosion and erosion of the
blade edges.

c.

3. Thelimitshouldalsorecognizetheeffeetofadditional

PowerSteamPlant Auxiliaty - Underfreguency

Considerations

Theabilityof the steam supplysystem to continue operaloss of blade life incurred during abnormal operating tionduring an extended period of underfrequency operaconditions not associated with under-speed or over- tion depends on the margin in capacity of the auxiliary
motor drives and shaft-drive loads. The most limiting
speed operation.
auxiliary equipment is generally the boiler feed pumps,
Power systemswhosedesignsare such thatsystem islands circulating water pumps, and condensate pumps, since
are formed becauseof load shedding schemes or unfore- eachpercentofspeedreduction causesa largerpercentloss
seen circumstances shouldconsiderunderfrequency pro- of capacity. The critical frequency at which the perfortection of the turbine generator to reduce the riskof stearn mance of the pumpswill affect the plant outputwill vary
turbine damage in the island area In addition, turbine from plant to plant Consequently, the minimum safe
generatorunderfrequency protectionprovides backup pro- frequency levelfor maintaining plant output is dependent
tection against the failureof the loadshedding system. A on each plant and the equipment design and capacity
typical relay scheme to providegenerator tripsduring an associated witheach generating unit
underfrequency condition from which the system could
recover, yet minimizethe risk of damaging the turbine is Protection against underfrequency operation is usually
shown in Figure 2. Table 1 summarizes thefrequency and allocated to the thermal protective equipment, but more
refined protection is possible using a frequency-sensitive
timer settings used in Figure 2.
relay or a volt per hertz relay, which will measure actual
The dotted line in Figure 3 represents thecharacteristic of system conditions.
the relay settingsand the solid linerepresents the turbine
damagelimits. The following design criteriaare suggested
NUCLEAR GENERATING PLANTS
ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OPERATION
as guidelines in the development of an underfrequency
protection scheme:
A. Turbine Generator Oyer/(Jnderfreguency
Capabiljty
1. Establish trip points and time delays based on the
manufacturer's turbine abnormal frequency limits.
Theturbine generator considerations thataffectoperations
2. Coordinatethe turbinegenerator underfrequency trip- of theplantare, in general, the same as thosediscussed in
ping relays with the systemautomated loadshedding the section on stearn generating plants.
program.

-29-

B. Nuclear PowerPlautAuxiliaries-Underfreguency
Considerations

6. Systemvoltageconditions that exist at the timeof a

systemfrequency decline.

The major effect of an underfrequency condition on the

plantauxiliary systemis to cause various outputsof electrical coolantpumpflowsin thenuclear steam systemto be
reduced. Operation asa resultof reduced flows in parts of
the systemmaybe detrimental totheplantequipment. The
nuclear plantdesignsthat are based on pressurized water
reactor (PWR) and boilingwater reactor (BWR) are analyzed separately becausetheir responses to abnormal frequency operation differ.

BWRPlants

PWRPlants

Some boiling water reactor (BWR) units employ nonseismically qualified motor-generator setstosupplypower
to the reactor protection systems. To ensure that these
systems canperformtheirintendedsafetyfunctions during
a seismic eventfor which an underfrequency condition of
themotor-generator sets or alternate supplycoulddamage
components of these systems, redundantunderfrequency
relays are provided. This protection is providedbetween
the alternate power source and thereactorprotection systembuses. Operation ofeitherorbothoftheunderfrequency
relays associated with a reactor protection system will
cause a half-scram of the unit. If one or both of the
underfrequency relaysoperateon each of the reactorsystem protection buses, full scram of the unit occurs. There
are several factors thatshouldbe considered in the setting
of the underfrequency relays for BWR wits:

The impactof abnormal frequencies on PWR units is its

effectonthereactorcoolantpumpspeed, which varieswith
thepower system frequency. If the frequency at the plant
collapses, thereactor will be trippedautomatically when
thiscondition resultsin reducedcoolant flow through the
reactor. Whenthereactortrips,thegenerator is also tripped
andthereactoris shutdown with thereactor coolantpump
connected tothepowersystem. If thefrequency continues 1. The tolerance characteristic of the underfrequency
todecayat a rategreaterthan thedesign coast-down rateof
relay.
thereactorcoolantpump,thereactorcoolant flow ratewill
be forced down by the decaying system frequency. This 2. The slip characteristic of the motor-generator sets.
condition couldresultin a challenge to the safe operation
oftheplant Thisis oneof themostserious impactsthat an 3. Thecharacteristics of thepowersystemloadshedding
underfrequency condition can impose on a PWR plant.
schemes.
In addressing the problem indicated above, one possible
solution is to isolate the reactor coolant pumps from the
power system if the systemfrequency decay exceeds the
pump design coast-down rate. To accomplish this task
requires theapplication of an underfrequency relay to trip
the reactor and generator at a frequency level that will
allow an isolated reactor coolantpump to meet its coastdown operational performance requirements. The following parameters should be considered when applying
underfrequency protection to a PWRplant

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

COMBUSTION-TURBINE-ABNORMAL
FREQUENCY OPERATIONS

Thelimitations for combustion-turbine generators (CTGs)

are similar in many respects to the limitations for steamturbine generators. Thereare,however, certaindifferences
in the design and application of CTGs that may result in
different protective requirements.

A combustion turbine may lose air flow if an attempt is

made to maintainfull output duringunderfrequency conThe designed departure from nuclear boiling ratio of ditions. Loss of air flow wouldresultin eventualunittrip
on blade over temperature. Cl'Gs are equipped with a
the plant.
control systemthatautomatically unloadtheunitbyreducThe size of the coolant system with respect to the ing fuel flow as speed decreases. This control has the
overall effectof protecting the turbine bladefromdamage
reactorcore.
andthegeneratorfromoverheating duringunderfrequency
Themaximum rate of powersystem frequency decay operation of the unit
that may be encountered.
Ingeneral, CTGshavea greatercapability thansteam units
for underfrequency operation, particularly if the control
The ratingcore with respectto loading.
system includesa loadrunbackfeature. Continuous operaCoordination with power system load shedding lion of the CTGs ranges from 56-60 Hz with the turbine
schemes.
blades being the limiting factor. Thesefactors, plusthose

-30-

discussed above, suggest an underfrequency protection

scheme with a single trip set-point atorbelow thelowest
underfrequency trip set-point for the steam units in the
vicinity. The following guidelines should be used when
applying underfrequency protection to combustion turbines:

overspeed devices. These relays may be set at a lower

frequency than themaximum occurring duringloadrejection, but with appropriate time delay to override normal
governor action. If governor action does not bring the
frequency down within an appropriate time, the
overfrequency protection will operate.

1. Useoneunderfrequency relayperunit supplied bythe

unit voltage transformers.

Operation of the overfrequency protection mayindicate a

malfunction in the turbine gatecontrolsystem. Therefore,
this protection may be connected to close emergency
2. If addedsecurity is desired, supervise tripping witha intake gatesor valves upstream of the main turbine inlet
secondunderfrequency relay.This relay maybe com- gates.
mon to severalunits.
Duetothelargefrequency variations thatmay be expected
3. Be aware of existing underfrequency protection pro- during sudden loadchanges onbydrogenerators, customer
videdby themanufacturer intheunit's control system. loadsthat may be connected to islandswith suchgeneraCoordination ofsettingsandtriplogicmayberequired tionmay be protected by under and overfrequency protecto avoid interference with external protection.
tion. Theserelaysmay be set withnarrower windows and
withshortertime delays than neededfor protection of the
COMBINED CYCLE GENERATING UNITS
generating plant The relays are sometimes connected to
ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OPERATIONS
voltage transformers (vts) in the generating plant. Such
"quality protection" devices are not to be confused with
In a combined cycle generating installation, which is a generator protection. They are intended to protect the
combination of a combustion-turbine unit and a steam quality of supplyto customers, and are usually connected
turbine unit,underfrequency limitations will be subject to to disconnect the loads, perhapswithincidental shutdown
thosedescribed in thesection associated with each type of of the generator.
unit.A recommended approach forprotecting a combined
cycle installation is to provide separate underfrequency Since the setting requirements for quality protection are
protective schemes for each unit of the combined cycle quite independent from the requirements for turbine or
installation. The method used should follow the recom- generator protection, different relays may be required for
mendations indicated in eachunit's section.
the two functions.
HYDRO GENERATING UNITS

REFERENCES

Hydraulic powered mrbines can usually tolerate much 1. ANSIlIEEEC37.106-1987IEEEGuideforAbnormal

Frequency Protection for Power Generating Plants.
wider frequency deviations than steam or combustion
turbines, Underfrequency protection is not normally requiredforturbine protection. Themaximum rateofchange 2. Westinghouse TotalIntegration Protection ofGeneraof water flow through the turbine is often limited by
tors, Section 4 Off-Frequency Operation - Generator
maximum or minimum pressures that can be tolerated in
Considerations by M.S. Baldwin, Section 5 Steam
the penstocks.
TurbineOff Frequency Operation by Al. Partington.
Thelimitedrateat which thewaterinlet gate canbe closed 3. General Electric - GET-6449 Load Shedding, Load
may result in overspeeds in excess of 150% of nominal
Restoration and Generator Protection Using Solidspeed upon sudden loss of load. While suchhigh speeds
StateandEleetromechanicalUnderfrequency Relays,
may be tolerated for a short while, the units should be
Section 1 Basic Application of Underfrequency Rebroughtback to nominal speedwithin several seconds by
lays, Section 4 Protection of SteamTurbine-Generagovernor action. In the event of governor failure, the
tors DuringAbnormal Frequency Conditions.
turbine generator may "run away" at speeds approaching
200% of nominal. Overfrequency protection may be ap- 4. ANSIlIEEE C37.96-1988 IEEEGuidefor ACMotor
pliedonhydrogenerators tobackuporreplace mechanical
Protection.

-31-

Section 6

OVEREXCITATION AND OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

K.C. Kozminski
PacificGas & Elec. Co.
San Francisco, CA

W.G. Hartmann
Siemens Energy & Automation
Raleigh,NC

Abstract- ANSIlIEEE standards state thatgenerators shall

operatesuccessfully at rated kVA for frequency and voltage
levels within specific limits. Deviations in frequency and
voltagesoutsidetheselimitscan causethermal anddielectric
distress which can cause damage within seconds.
Overexcitation and overvoltage are deviations for which
monitoring andprotectionschemes need to be provided.

INTRODUCfION
Overexcitation of a generatoror any transformers connected
to the generatorterminals will typically occurwhenever the
ratioof the voltage to frequency, expressed as voltsperhertz
(V 1Hz) applied to the terminals of the equipment exceeds
designlimits. ANSIlIEEE [3, 5] standards haveestablished
the following limits:

Generators
Transformers

s. Easterday-McPadden
PublicService Co. of Colorado
Denver,CO

OVEREXCITATION FUNDAMENTALS
Overexcitation, or V1Hz, relaying is used to protectgenerators and transformers from excessive magneticflux density
levels. High flux density levelsresultfrom an overexcitation
ofthegenerator. Atthesehighlevels, themagneticironpaths
designed to carry thenormalfluxsaturate, and fluxbegins.to
flow in leakagepathsnotdesignedto carry it. Theseresulting
fields are proportional to voltageand inverselyproportional
to frequency. Hence, high flux density levels (and
overexcitation) willresultfromovervoltage, underfrequency
or a combination of both.

1.05 p.u. (generator base)

1.05p.u.; (on transformer secondary
base) at rated load, 0.8 pf or greater;
1.1 p.u. (transformer base)at no
load

Theselimitsapply,unlessotherwise statedbytheequipment
manufacturer. WhentheseV1Hz ratiosareexceeded, saturation of the magnetic core of the generator or connected
transformers can occur and stray flux will be induced into
non-laminated components whichare not designed to carry
Figure 1 AxialCross-Section of TurbineGenerator
flux.Damagecanoccurwithinseconds. Itisgeneral practice
Showing Magnetic Field Paths
toprovideVlHzrelayingtoprotectgeneratorsandtransformers from these excessivemagneticflux density levels. This
protection is typically independent of VIHz control in the
Figure1is an axialcross-section of a turbinegenerator, with
excitation system.
the main and leakage magnetic fields shown. Magnetic
Excessive overvoltage of a generator will occur when the leakage fieldsaremostdamaging attheendsof thecoreofthe
levelof electricfield stressexceedstheinsulation capability generator where the fringing magnetic field can induce high
of the generatorstator winding. The V1Hz protection cannot eddycurrentsin thesolidcoreassembly components andthe
be relied upon to detect all overvoltage conditions. If the end-of-core laminations [9,10]. Thisresults in higher losses
overvoltage is the result of a proportional increase in fre- andheating in thosecomponents. A typicalconstruction for
quency, the V1Hz relaying will miss the eventbecausethe the end of a generator stator core is shownin Figure 2.
ratio of volts to hertz will not have changed. It is general
practice to provideovervoltage relaying toalarm, or in some
cases, trip the generators from these high electric stress
levels.

-32-

stator ~ lQminaticn

statar
ritl
~

tra~

cor~ ~rdplat~

Cl~g

~ndpla~

- / - , 1 - - - - - tlu.t

sI'Ii~d

cor~ finge-r
plat~

Figure 2 TypicalEnd Construction of

GeneratorStatorCore

building bars

Intt'mal
eXlal flux

core back
contacts

In addition to the higher temperatures, eddy currents also

causeinterlaminar voltages which couldfurtherdegrade the
insulation. Figure 3 shows thesecurrents paths. If the thin
insulation of the Iaminations is broken down by the high
temperatures or voltages, severeirondamageresults. These
high temperatures and voltages canresultin damage within
seconds. Afterthisdamage occurs, thecore is useless. Even
normal coremagnetic flux density levelswill only increase
the amount of burning and melting. Equipment downtime
willbe significantDamage ismoresevere thanmostwinding
failures, and the repair may require removal of the entire
winding and restacking a portion of the core.
Damage due to excessive V1Hz operation most frequently
occurswhen theunitisoff-line, priortosynchronization.The
potential for overexcitation of the generator increases dramatically if operators manually prepare the unitforsynchronization, particularly if overexcitation alarm or inhibit circuits are inadequate or voltage transformer (vt) circuits are
improperly made up. A largenucleargenerator failed when
animproperly racked-in vt caused thevoltagesignal tobe far
less than the actualmachine voltage. This signalwas being
readby the operator manually applying fieldexcitation. The
corefailedin less than oneminute. This situation could also
haveoccurred withanautomatic scheme if propersafeguards
were not designed into the protective system, or if these
measures failed.
It is also possible for a unit to experience excessive V1Hz
operation whilesynchronized tothegrid. Acommon beliefis
thatthe interconnected powersystems in NorthAmerica are
infinite-bus systems and that it is virtually impossible to
significantly raise unitvoltages aboverated operating voltage. This is not true for all units, and improper full boost
operation by a faulty voltage regulator has been known to
significantly raise local system voltages. Several scenarios
maydevelop thatcancauseanoverexcitation condition when
the unit is connected to the system: [I, 2]

Loss of nearby generation can affect grid voltage and

VARflow, causing a distUIbance whichshows itselfas
a voltagedrop.Inan attempt tomaintain system voltage,
the remaining generators' excitation systems may attempt to boostterminal voltage to the setpoint limits of
the excitation control while the tripped generation is
beingreconnected. If failure ofexcitation control occurs
duringthisinterval, an overexcitation eventtakes place.

A generator may be operating at ratedlevelsinorderto

supplya high level of VARs to thesystem. Unit voltage
may still remain near rated grid levelsdue to interconnections. A sudden lossof loador interconnections can
cause unit voltage to rise suddenly. An overexcitation
eventwill occur if thegenerator excitation control does
not respond properly.

,-rft-__

air gap

flux

Figure 3 LeakageFluxesand Induced Currents

at the End of the Core

-33-

Selfexcitationcanoccur in generatorsduetotheopening
of a remotesystem breakerwhen theunitisconnected to
the system via long transmission lines. If thecharging
admittance at thegeneratorterminals is greater than the
quadrature-axis admittance l/Xq, thepositive feedback
natureof thevoltageregulator'scontrol action cancause
a rapid voltage rise.

age/time relationships fortheirequipmentshowingthelimits

of permissible operation.
In setting theovervoltage relaying for a generating unit, it is
important thatthepermissible operating limitsfor generator
and transformers be put on a common voltage base for the
samereasons described for V1Hz relaying.

OPERATING LIMITS ON EQUIPMENT

150%

Equipment limitations are an important consideration in

settingthe V1Hz protection for a generating unit ANSIIIEEE
standards have guidelines on limits forexcessive V1Hz and
overvoltage of generators and associated unittransformers,
including generator step-up(GSU) andunitauxiliary (VAT)
transformers [6,7]. Theseare summarized intheIntroduction
Section.

!
N
~

140%
130%

~ 120%

110%

0.1

10

100

1000

Time (Minutes)

Figure 4A Typical Limiting Curve for

V 1Hz Operation for Generator

Whensettingovervoltage protection, certain standards govern minimum requirements. Cylindrical-rotor turbine generators must be capable of operation up to 105% of rated
voltage.Similarvariations in voltage arealsosetfor hydroelectricgenerators [4]. Powertransformers are onlyrequired
to operate up to 110% of rated voltage at rated frequency
depending on loading levels [5].

150%

Equipmentdamageduetoexcessive VlHzisprimarilycaused
by component overheating, whichis dependent on the dura-

tion of the event From the relationships between leakage

fields and heating, curvescan be developed which definethe
limitson themagnitude and duration ofYffizevents. Manufacturers will generally provide curves for theirequipment
showing the limits of permissible operation in terms of
percentof normal V1Hz versustime. Figure 4Aand4B show
typical curves for a generator anda power transformer.

140%

.-.

130%

120%

110%

100% +----+----+-----+--~

0.1

100

10

1000

Time (Minutes)

Figure 4B Typical Limiting Curve for

Y1Hz Operation for PowerTransformer

In setting the V1Hz protection for a generating unit, it is

important that the permissible operating curves for generators and transformers be put on a common voltage base. This
is necessary because, in some cases, thevoltage rating of a
GSU's lowvoltage windingis slightlylessthanthegenerator's.

Theresulting turnsratiopartiallycompensates forthevoltage

drop across the bank due to load flow. The voltage base
normallyused is thegeneratorterminal voltage, sincethe vts
typically usedfortherelayvoltagesignalareconnected tothe
unit betweenthe generatorand GSUandUAT transformers.
Figure 4C shows thecombinedcurves forthegenerator and
GSU transformer.
Equipmentdamagefor excessivevoltage alone is primarily
caused by breakdown of insulation due to dielectric stress.
Overvoltage withoutoverexcitation (Vffiz) can occurwhen
a generator experiences overspeed due to load rejection,
severesuddenfaultor someotherreason. An overexcitation
does notoccur inthese cases because voltage and frequency
increase in the same proportion; therefore, the V1Hz ratio
remainsconstant. Manufacturers willgenerally provide volt-34-

150%
145%

0' 1400,4
::'135%
1300/0
~ 125%

~ 120%

115%
110%

105%
100% ~---+---+----+---+-----f
0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Time (Mlnut. .)

Figure 4C Combined Curves forV1Hz Operation for

Generator and GSUTransformer (with GSU
transformer curveput on Generator VoltageBase)

PROTECTION SCIIE:MES AND

CHARACTERISTICS

ForV1Hz relaying, therearetwogeneralrelaycharacteristics

used, definite-time andinverse-time. Figure 5Aand 5B show
thebasic relaycharacteristic andzone of protection foreach
typeof relay.For newersolid-state inverse-time relays, two
styles of inversetimecurvesettings are available. Onestyle
ofrelay allows theusertoselectspecificpoints onthedesired
V1Hz-time curve for the user's particular application. The
otherstyleof relayprovides sets of V1Hz-time curves, from
which theuserselectsa specific curve whichprovides a best
fit for thisapplication.

Zoneof Protection

There are three common protection schemes currently employed forV1Hz relaying in theindustry. Theseschemes are
thesingle-level, defmite time; dual-level, defmite-time; and
inverse-time. One major disadvantage of employing a protection scheme which onlyutilizes definite-time relays is the
trade-off between equipment protection and operating flexibility. Figure 6 showsa possible protection scheme using
twoV1Hz relaysin adual-level, defmite-time scheme. Notice
the unprotected areas whereequipment limits could be exceeded and the areaswherethe relay characteristics restrict
operation belowequipment limits. For this reason, inversetime relaysprovidethe optimal protection and operational
flexibility, since theycoordinate better with theoperational
limits of the equipment. Figure 7 shows a typical scheme
using both inverse-time and defmite-time relays.

Time (Minutes)

Figure 5A Typical Defmite-Time Relay

Characteristic

~nc

of P:'otec:ion

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L....
_-_-_-_-_
......

150%
145%
140%

Time (Minutes)

~ 135%

Figure 5B TypicalInverse-Time Relay

Characteristic

130%

X 125

J'

~ 120/0

'0 115%
>

145%

1250/0

100%
0.01

10

100

1000

Time (Minutes)

TimeRelays(Relay A is a defmite-time relay, set at

123% VoltslHz with a 2-second time delay.
Relay B is an inverse-time relay.)

.....

110%
105% .

0.1

Figure 7 Optimal Protection and Operational Flexibility

is Provided by Using Both Inverse-Time andDefmite-

RelaY~~---~~:..;;;;==~=
I

-+---+----t-----+----+---I
0.01

I
I

!! 120%
"0 1150/0

>

100%

1400/0
~ 135%
130%

110"
105%

I
I
I
I

150%

Rel~y

RelayB

0.1

10

100

1000

Time (Minutes)

Figure6 Typical RelayCharacteristics forDual-Level,

Definite-Time V/Hz Protection (Relay A setat 118%

volts/hz with a 6-second timedelay. RelayB set
at 110% volts/hzwith a 6O-second timedelay)

A recent generator protection survey found thatalmost all

units larger than 100 MW have V/Hz protection for the
generator. Most large units (over 60%) use the dual-level,
definite-time scheme. Theremaining unitsarealmost evenly
splitbetween the single-level, definite-time andtheinversetime schemes. Of the responses for units smaller than 100
MW, almostall unitsdid not have any V1Hz protection.

-35-

For overvoltage relaying, the pickup should besetabovethe

maximum normaloperating voltage, andtherelay mayhave
an inverseor definitetimecharacteristic to givetheregulator
a chance to respond to transientconditions before tripping
occurs. Additionally, an instantaneous element may be applied for very high overvoltages.
It is important that the overvoltage relaying have a flat
frequency response, as frequency excursions can takeplace
during the overvoltage event This is of particular concern
withhydroelectric installations which mayhavelimits on the
rate of gate closure imposed by hydraulic pressure in the
penstocks. In such cases, these unitsmayexperience speed
increasesin the region of 150%during a full loadrejection
before governoraction can takeeffectto reduce the speed.

off-line, andtheirproteetion logichas theV1Hz relayopening

onlythefieldbreaker foranyoperatingcondition. If anevent
doesoccurwhiletheunitissynchronized tothegrid,thefield
breaker will openand the unitmust dependon otherprotectivedevicesto trip.
Sequential tripping of the unit is also not recommended.
Sequential tripping implies a scheme whereby the prime
mover(usually a turbine) is trippedby a deviceresponding to
somedisturbance, and then the generatorand field breakers
are tripped by some other protective device(s), usually including a reversepowerrelay,responding to the lossof the
prime mover. Time delays inherent in sequential tripping
schemes are long enough to result in severe equipment
damage.

CONNECTION OF VIHZAND
OVERVOLTAGE RELAYING

CONCLUSION

Many V/Hz relays are single-phase devices. Problems arise

if the voltage signal for the relays is taken from a single
generator vt, A blown fuse or an incomplete circuitconnection when racking the vts back into place can result in no
voltagebeing sensed bythe V 1Hz relay, therefore no protection.For completeandredundant protection, vtsondifferent
phases should be used for the multiple alarm and relay
functions. Some of the newer digital relays have alarming
capabilitieswhen potential to one or twoinputs is lost. For
overvoltagerelaying, thesameissues asV1Hz relaying apply.

V1Hz and overvoltage relaying are applied to generating

plantsto alarm and trip. Although on the surface theymay
seem very similarprotections, they are not. A keen understanding of the causes for overexcitation and overvoltage
eventsis necessary for theproper application and setting of
this protection. Factors to consider include issues such as
generator capabilities, transformer capabilities, excitation
response, governor response, type of primemover, and if the
unit is on-line or off-line for proper tripping action. These
factors have beendetailed in this sectionof the tutorial. The
damage to the apparatus for overexcitation and overvoltage
can be severe, and this protection should be installed and
properly applied.

TRIPPING PHILOSOPHY
REFERENCES
Excessive V1Hz operation will result in equipment failure
and should be treated as a severe electrical problem. As
recommended in the "Guidefor AC Generator Protection," 1. "Impact of HV and EHV Transmission on Generator
Protection." IEEE TransactiQDS on PQwerDeliyery. Vol.
the field and main unit breakers should be opened if the unit
8, No.3. July 1993, pp. 962-974.
is synchronized [8]. For those units without load rejection
capability (unable to quickly ramp down in power and
stabilize at a no-load point), the turbine should also be 2. Baldwin, Elmore, Bonk. "ImprovedTurbine-Generator
Protection forIncreased PlantReliability." IEEETranstripped. Prior to synchronization, alarm and inhibitcircuits
actionson PowerApparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-99,
should be providedto preventan operator from overexciting
No. 13,pp. 985-990, May/June 1980.
the generator.

For machines operating off-line, the practice is to trip the 3. ANSIlIEEE C50.13-1989. "American National Standard for Rotating Electrical Machinery-Cylindrical Rofield breakeronly, and not trip the turbine. As theproblemis
tor Synchronous Generators." Sections4.1 and 4.3.
with the excitationsystem, it may be quickly remedied and
the unitplacedon-linewithoutgoing through thefullstart-up
process. This is particularly advantageous on steam units 4. ANSIIIEEE C50.12-1982. "American National Standard Requirements for Salient-Pole Synchronous Genwith long start-up times.
erators and GeneratorlMotors for Hydraulic Turbine
Two tripping schemes indicated by some respondents in the
Applications." Section 3.1.
aforementionedsurvey should be discouraged: opening only
the field breakeron a V1Hz relayoperation andsequentially 5. ANSIlIEEE C57.12.00-1987. "Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power
trippingfirst the turbine andthenthegenerator. Somebelieve
and Regulating Transformers."
that an excessive V/Hz event is only possible With the unit

-36-

6.

ANSIllEEEC37.106-1987. "Guide for Abnormal Frequency Protection for PowerGenerating Plants."

7.

ANSIIlEEE C37.91-1985. "Guide to Protective Relay

Applications to PowerTransformers."

8. ANSIllEEE C37.102-1987. "Guide for AC Generator

Protection,"Section 4.5.4.

9. Powell, Skoogland, Wagner. "Performance of ExcitationSystems UnderAbnormalConditions." IEEETransactionson PowerApparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-87,
No.2, pp. 546-553, February 1968.
10. Alexander, Corbin, McNutt "Influenceof Design and
Operating Practices on Excitationof Generator Step-up
Transformers." IEEE Transactions onPower Apparatus
and Systems, Vol.PAS-85,No.8, pp. 901-909, August
1966.

-37-

Section 7
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER SIGNAL LOSS
I.D. Gardell
General Electric Co.
Schenectady, NY

Abstract-Loss of the vtsignalcanoccurdueto a number of

causes. The most common cause is fuse failure. Other
causesmay be anactualvt or wiring failure, anopenin the
draw-outassemblies, a contactopening dueto corrosion,
or a blown fuse due to screwdriver shorts during on-line
maintenance. S uchlossof vt signal cancause misoperation/
failure to operateof protective relaysorgenerator voltage
regulatorrun away leadingto an overexcitation condition.
Thisportion of the tutorial identifies schemes todetectthe
loss of voltage signal. Some method of detection is requiredsothattheeffectedrelaytripping canbeblockedand
the voltage regulatortransferred to manual operation.

VOLTAGE
BALANCE
RELAY
PROTECTIVE
RELAY

TO

TO
VOL TAGE
REGULATOR

INTRODUCTION
On largergenerators, it is common practice to use twoor
more sets of voltage transformers (vts) in the generator
zoneofprotection. The vts areusually connected grounded

wye-groundedwye,normally havesecondary andpossibly

primary fuses. These vts are used to provide potential to a
numberof protectiverelays and thevoltage regulator. If a
fuseblowsinthevtcircuits, thesecondary voltages applied
to the relays and voltage regulator will be reduced in
magnitude and shifted in phase angle. This change in
voltagesignalcan causethemisoperation oftherelaysand
the regulator to overexcite the generator. Typically, relay
protective fimctions such as 21, 32,40 and 51V are impacted and are normallyblocked when thelossofpotential
is detected. If the vt with the loss of potential detected
supplies a regulator, that control should be transferred to
manualoperation or to anotherregulator or vt, whichever
is appropriate to prevent "run-away."
If the overcurrent device (51 V) is the only primary fault

protection for the mit, it should not be blocked for lossof

the voltage signal. The reason for this is the generator
would be left operating without its primary fault protection.
FAILURE DETECTION BY VOLTAGE
COMPARISON (VOLTAGE BALANCE)

Figure 1 Application of Voltage Balance Relay

When a fuseblows in the vt circuit, thevoltage relationship
becomes unbalanced and therelay operates. In addition to
initiating the blocking and transfer action previously discussed, an alarm is also activated.
Historically, therelay has beensetaround 15%unbalance
between voltages. Aconcern when considering thesetting
of this relayis thatcorrosion or poorcontactof the vt stabs
canresultin a voltage dropin thecircuitsignificantenough
tocausea regulatorrunaway (overexcitation) buttoosmall
for detection by the relay. This is due to the sensitivity of
theautomatic voltage regulator circuitry.
FAILURE DETECTION BY SYMMETRICAL
COMPONENT ANALYSIS

A modem method usedin vt failuredetection makes useof

therelationships of sequence voltages andcurrents during
a loss of potential. When one vt signalis lost, the three
phase voltages become unbalanced. Duetothisunbalance,
a negative sequence voltage is produced. Positive sequence voltage diminishes for a loss of a vt signal. To
distinguish this condition from a fault, both negative and
positive sequencecurrents arechecked. Thistypeofdetection canbe usedwhen onlyonesetof vts are applied tothe
generator system.

Themostcommonmethodusedtoprovide lossof vt signal

protection is a voltage balance relay which compares the
three-phase secondary voltage of the two sets of vts. The Thismethod iseasily implemented indigitalmicroprocesschemeis shown in Figure 1.
sorbasedgenerator protection systems.

-38-

VT APPLICATION CONCERNS

Two concerns will be addressed in thissection regarding

the properapplication of vts. Theseare:
Ferroresonance and Grounding

Use of CurrentLimitingResistors
1. Vt Ferroresonance and Grounding
A ferroresonance phenomena can be created when wyel
wye vts with grounded primaries are connected to an
ungrounded system.

This condition can occur in thegenerator zoneif eitherthe

generator neutralbecomesdisconnected orthegenerator is
electrically disconnected and the vtsareleft connectedto
the deltawinding of the unit transformer. Should a higher
than normal voltage be impressed across the vt windings
during backfeeding due to a ground fault or switching
surge on the ungrounded system, the likelihood of
ferroresonance is enhanced. The higher voltage requires
the vts to operatein the saturated region which promotes
the ferroresonance "currentjump" phenomena. Thesehigh
currents can cause thermal failure of the vts in a short
period of time.
By using line-to-line rated vts connected line-to-ground,
the potential for ferroresonance can be 'reduced. To completely suppress ferroresonance, it may be necessary to
applyresistance loading acrosseachphase of the secondary winding sufficient to produce loading equal to the
thermal capability of the vt,

Figure 2 One CurrentLimiting Resistor Per Phase

Whenthe resistoropensor partially fails, it inserts a high
resistance in the circuit The outcome is that withthe open
resistor, both vts are left with zero or reduced voltage
signals. This condition wouldrender the voltage balance
relayinoperative andautomatic voltage regulatorrunaway
could occur.
Singleswitched voltmeter schemes would be impacted if
connected to theafflictedphase. An operatormayrespond
to the reduced voltageduringa unit startupby inappropriately increasing the field to the point of failure. This has
occurred in practice and resulted in equipment damage.
A remedy to this problem is to provide a currentlimiting
resistorfor each vt, thereby eliminating thecommon mode
failure of both vt circuits. Figure 3 shows the suggested
circuitarrangement for thisremedy.

This solution can be used during the above mentioned

special operating conditions. During normal operation
these resistive loads should be removed.

~---e.t

2. Use of CurrentLimitingResistors
Currentlimitingresistorsare sometimes usedin vt circuits
supplied from isolatedphasebusses to insurethat current
limiting fuse ratings are not exceeded by fault current
levels.Severalissuesarise that the usermust be awareof
regarding the proper appliction of current limiting resistors. A seriousexposure occurs when onlyone resistoris
used per phase with two or more vts applied. Figure 2
illustrates this arrangement

P.T.

CUBICLES

1-------1
I
C.L.FUSES I
I
I

I
l

Figure3 One CurrentLimiting Resistor PerVT

-39-

When manufacturers providethisarrangement, thepotential of the abovementioned conditions areminimized and

allow the voltage balancerelay to operate appropriately.
Use of failure detection by symmetrical components will
successfully provide vtfailure detection when thecommon
resistor arrangement is used for both generator vts.

as thetransfer of theregulator controlthatdependson this

signal. Twomethods of detection have been discussed in
this section of the tutorial as well as two issues that arise
during application of vts. For further background and
guidance the IEEE AC Generator Protection Guide and
other text addressing the subject of generator protection
should be consulted.

CONCLUSION

REFERENCE
Some form of loss of potential detection for generator
voltage transformers is required. It is important for the 1. ANSIIlEEEC37.102-1992 "Guidefor AC Generator
securityof generatorprotection thatrelays dependent upon
Protection."
the voltagesignal areblockedduring thiscondition aswell

-40-

SectionS
LOSS OF FIELD PROTECTION
M. Yalla

Beckwith Electric Co.

Largo, FL
Abstract - Partial or totalloss-of-field on a synchronous
generator is detrimental to both the generator and the
power systemto whichit is connected. Thecondition must
be quickly detected and the generator isolated from the
systemtoavoidgeneratordamage.Alossoffieldcondition
which is notdetectedcanalsohavea devastating impacton
the power systemby causingboth a lossof reactive power
support as well as creating a substantial reactive power
drain. On large generators thiscondition cancontribute to
or trigger an area wide system voltage collapse. This
section of the tutorial discusses the generator loss of field
characteristicsand schemes to protectthe generator from
loss of field conditions.

as real power are delivered to the power system. If the

excitation system is reduced or lost, the generator absorbs
reactive powerfromthepowersystemrather than supplies
it and it operates in the underexcited regionof thecapability curve.Generators havelow or reducedstability in this
area If a totallossoffieldoccursandthesystemcan supply
sufficient reactive powerwithouta large terminal voltage
drop, the generator may ron as an induction generator,
otherwise, synchronism will be lost. The change from
normal overexcited operation to tmderexcited operation
upon loss of field is not instantaneous but occurs over a
timeperiod (generally seconds) depending on the generators output leveland connected system capability.

The generator capability curve (Figure 1) outlines the

generator operating limits. In thenormaloperating region,
these limits are thermal limits (rotor and stator). In the
A synchronousgeneratorrequiresadequate de voltage and underexcited area they are limited by the stator end iron
current to its field winding to maintain synchronism with heating. The setting of the regulator controlis coordinated
a powersystem.Therearemanytypesofexciters whichare withthe steady-state stability limitof the generator which
used in the industry, including; rotating dc exciters with is a function of the generator, system impedance and
conventionalcommutators, rotatingbrushlessrectifiersets generator terminal voltage. Reference 1providesdetails on
howto plot thiscurve. Thegeneratorminimum excitation
and static exciters.
controlpreventsits exciterfromreducing the fieldbelow
the steady-state stability limit. Partialor full loss of field
ReactivePower
Rotor
into System
can result in the generator operating outside of the
Winding
limited
underexcited limits.
+
INTRODUCTION

WAR

Complete lossofexcitation occurswhenthedirectcurrent

source of the machine field is interrupted. The loss of
excitation can be caused by such incidents as field open
circuit, field shortcircuit, accidental tripping of the field
breaker, regulatorcontrolsystemfailure, lossoffieldtothe
main exciter,lossof an ac supply to theexcitation system.

OVerexcited

t
0

-+--+-_ RealPower

into System

=
~
w

Underexclted

MVAR

System

MVARS

ReactivePower
into Generator

StatorEnd
Iron Limited

Figure 1 GeneratorCapability Curve

The generator capability curve (Figure 1) provides an
overview of synchronous machineoperations. Normally,
the generatorfield is adjustedsothatreactive poweraswell

Whena synchronous generator loses its excitation, it will

run at higher than synchronous speed and operate as an
induction generator delivering real power (MW) to the
systembut at thesametimeobtainsits excitation from the
systembecoming a largereactive drainon thesystem. This
large reactive drain causes problems for. the generator,
adjacent machines and the power system. The system
impactof lossoffieldtoa generator dependson"stiffness"
of theconnectedsystem, loadon the generatorprior to the
lossof field and the size of the generator.

-41-

GENERATOR DAMAGE

GENERATOR LOSS OF
FIELD CHARACTERISTICS

When the generator loses its fieldit operates as an induction generator causing rotor surface temperature to increase due to slip induced eddy currents in the field
winding,rotorbody,wedges and retaining rings. Thehigh
reactive current drawn by the generator from the system
canoverloadthestatorwindingcausing the stator temperatureto increase. Themachinedamagetime duetotheabove
causescanbeasshortas10seconds to several minutes. The
time to damage depends on type of machine, type of
excitation loss, governor characteristics and load on the
generator.

The mostwidelyappliedmethodfor detectinga generator

loss of field is the use of distance relays to sense the
variation of impedance as viewed from the generator
terminals. Ithasbeenshownthat when a generatorlosesits
excitation whileoperating at variouslevelsof loading, the
variation ofimpedance as viewedat themachineterminals
willhavethe characteristics shownon the R-Xdiagramin
Figure 2.

Referring to Figure 2, the apparent impedance of a fully

loadedmachinewilltravelfromtheloadedvaluein the first
SYSTEM EFFECfS OF A LOSS
quadrantto the fourthquadrantclose to -X axis and settle
OF FIELD CONDITION
at a valuesomewhatgreaterthanone-halfof thedirectaxis
transient reactance X d/2 in approximately two to seven
A lossof fieldconditionwhichisnot detected quickly, can seconds. The fmal impedance pointdependson theloadon
havea devastating impacton thepowersystem by causing the machineprior to the loss of excitationconditionandit
both a loss of reactive support as well as creating a
variesfrom X d/2 at fullload to aboutdirectaxissynchrosubstantial reactive power drain for a single event This
nous reactance Xcl at no load The presence of residual
type of conditioncan triggeran areawide voltage collapse
magnetism
in the machinefield following a lossof excitaif thereis notasufficientsourceofreactive power available
tion
condition
can result in apparent impedance greater
to meet the demandfor VARs createdbythelossof field
condition. If the generator which has sustained a loss of thanX cl
field is not isolated, transmission lines can trip due to
power swings or excessive reactive power flow to the
faulty generator.
+X (Toward System)

HeavyLoad

.. +R
.
.,. .
.. ..,,
.. ...1" . .tf
...
\

.
:
. -'. .
....

-R

UghtLoad
,,

Underexcited

Lossof Excitation Final

Impedance Locus

L-..

'fl'

:::.~
~.~

. ./i.. "'

...,.:,-:/

...---.-..
~.

I I

i i

-.
....L' :Z

:,.<:.

<,

--..... ..........

~ r---.

--, Steady-State StabilityUmit

~

Machine Capability

r-....... Minimum Exciterlimit

-x (Toward Generator)
Figure 2 Generator Loss of FieldCharacteristics

-42-

The locusof theimpedance trajeetory depends onthevalue

of system impedance. Machines connected with system
impedancesapproximately less than 20% takea directpath
to the final point and withhighersystem impedances, the
trajectory willspiral in to the fmal point.The spiral path is
faster than the direct path.
If the machineis fully loaded priortothelossofexcitation
condition,themachineat thefmal impedance pointwill be
operating asan inductiongenerator, with a slipof 2 to 5%
above normal.The machine will also startreceiving reactive power from the system whilesupplying reducedreal
power. High system impedance will resultin low power
output and high slip.
PROTECTION

The loss of excitationprotection should reliably detectthe

loss of excitation condition without responding to load
swings, system faults and other ttansients which do not
causethemachineto becomeunstable. Presently available
lossof excitationrelaysprovide reliable protection and the
potential for misoperation of these relays from system
disturbances is low.
Protectionschemesbased onthemeasurement of machine

fieldcurrent bas been used to detectlossof excitation of a

generator. Measurementof reactive current through the
generator (or reactivepower) has also been used to detect
loss of excitation condition. However, the most popular
andreliableprotectionscheme forlossofexcitationdetection uses an offset mho type relay. The relay operating
characteristic of a single zone offset mho type relay is
shown in Figure 3.

-x
-R

The relay is connectedat the machine terminalsand supplied with terminal voltagesand currents. The relay measorestheimpedance asviewedfromthemachineterminals
and it operateswhentheimpedance fallsinsidethecircular
characteristic.

Therelay is offsetfrom theoriginby one half of thedirect

axis transient reactance X d/2 to prevent misoperation
during systemdisturbances andother faultconditions. The
diameterof the circle is adjusted to be equal to thedirect
axis synchronous reactance. A timedelayof 0.5 to 0.6sec.
can be used to provide security against stable power
swings.These settings can provideloss of excitation pr0tectionof the generator fromno load to full load provided
the generator direct axis synchronous reactance is in the
range 1.0pu to 1.2pu.Modemmachinesare designed with
highersynchronous reactances in therangeof 1.5 to 2.0pu.
With thesehigh synchronous reactances, setting the diameterof theoffsetmhorelayto X d willopen up thepossibility
ofmisoperationof the relayduring nnderexcitedoperation.
To prevent these misoperations, the circle diameter is
limitedto 1.0pu(onthegenerator base) insteadof Xd This
reduced setting would limit the protection coverage to
heavilyloadedmachineconditions and wouldnotprovide
protectionfor lightly loadedconditions.
Tocircumventtheabovelimitation, twooffset mhorelays
can be usedas shownin Figure 4. The relay with 1.0 per
unit(onthegeneratorbase)impedance diameterwilldetect
a loss of field condition from full load to about 30% load
and the relay is set with almostinstantaneous operation to
provide fast protection for severe conditions in terms of
possiblemachinedamageand adverse effects on the system.The secondrelay with a diameterequal to Xd witha
timedelayof 0.5 to 0.6 sec. will provideprotection forloss
of excitationcondition up to no load. The two offsetmho
unitsprovide loss of excitation protectionfor any loading
level. Both units are set withan offset of X d/2. Figure4
depictsthis approach.

-x
-R

+R

DIAMETER

1.0 P.u.

-x
DIAMETER

Figure 3 Single Zone Off-Setmho Relay Characteristic

I-----+--~----+-----r~+__--- xd

-x
Figure 4 Two Zone Off-Set mbo Relay Characteristic

-43-

Figure 5 illustrates another approach that is used in the

industryfor lossofexcitationprotection. Thisschemeuses
a combinationof an impedanceunit,a directional unitand
anundervoltageunitappliedat thegenerator terminals and
set to "look into" the machine. The impedance (Z2) and
directional units are set to coordinate with the generator
minimum excitationlimiter and the steady statestability
limit Duringabnormally low excitation conditions, such
as might occurfollowinga failureof the minimum excitationlimiter,theseunitsoperateandsoundanalarm, allowinga stationoperatorto correctthecondition. Shoulda low
voltage condition also exist, indicating a loss-of-field
condition,theundervoltageunitwouldoperate andinitiate
tripping with a time delay of 0.25 to 1.0second.

TRIPPING MODE

Thelossoffield protection isnormallyconnectedto tripthe

main generatorbreaker(s) and the fieldbreakerandtransferunitauxiliaries. Thefieldbreakeris tripped to minimize
damage to therotor fieldin case the lossof fieldis due to
a rotor fieldshortcircuitor a slip ring flashover. Withthis
approach, if the loss of field were due to some condition
thatcould be easilyremedied, a tandemcompoundgenerator could be quickly resynchronized to the system. This
approachmaynot beapplicable withonce-through boilers,
with cross-compound units, or those units that cannot
transfersufficientauxiliary loadstomaintain theboilerand
fuel systems. In thesecases,the turbinestop valves would
also be tripped.

Two relays may also be used in this scheme, with the

second(shown as ZIon Figure 5) set with an offset equal
REFERENCES
to Xd/2 and withthelongreachintercept equal to1.1times
Xci. In this case, the relay with the ZI setting should trip 1. J.L. Blackburn, "ProtectiveRelaying, Principles and
Applications," MarcelDekker,Inc., 1987.
without any external time delay, with the other relay Z2
delayedbyapproximately.75 secondtopreventoperation
2. Rajn D. Rana, Richard P. Schultz, Michael Heyeck
on stable swings.
and Theodore R. Boyer,Jr., "GeneratorLossofField
x
Study for AEP's Rockport Plant," IEEE Computer
Z2 SETTINGS
Applications in Power,April 1990,pp. 44-49.
R

3.

H.M. Turanli, R.P. Taylor, ML. Frazier, "A Novel

Technique forSettingLossofField ExcitationRelays

at Generators," 39th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, Apr. 14-16, 1986.

MACHNE

CAPABLITV

4. J. Beedy, "Loss of Excitation Protection for Modem

Synchronous Generators," IEEE Transactions, vol.
PAS-94,~0.5,Sep/~t1975,pp.1457-1463.

STEADY STATE
STABIlITY LIMIT

5.

Figure 5 Loss ofField Protection Using

ImpedanceUnit and Directional Element
When applying this protection to hydrogenerators, there
are other factors which may have to be considered. Since
bydrogenerators may be operatedonoccasion assynchro- 6.
nous condensers,it is possible for the aboveloss of field
relaying schemesto operate unnecessarily whenthe generator is operated underexcited, that is, taking in vars
approachingmachine rating. To preventunnecessary operations,anundervoltagerelay canbeusedtosupervisethe 7.
distance relaying schemes. The dropout level of this
undervoltagerelaywould be setat90-95% of rated voltage
and therelay wouldbe connectedto blocktripping whenit
is picked up and to permit trippingwhen itdrops out This
combinationwillprovide protectionforalmostaliloss-offield conditions but may not trip when the generator is 8.
operatingatlightload, since thevoltage reduction maynot
be sufficient to cause relay drop out.

C.R. Arndt and M. Rogers, "A Study of Loss-ofExcitation Relaying and Stability of a 595 MVA
Generator on the Detroit Edison System," IEEE
Transactions, vol.PAS-94, No.5, Sep/Oet 1975, pp.
1449-1456.

"Loss-of-Field RelayOperationDuringSystem Disturbances," PowerSystemRelaying Committee, IEEE

Transactions on PowerApparatusand Systems, Sepl
October1975.

H.G. Darron, J.L. Koepfmger, J.R Mather and P.

Rusche,''The Influence of GeneratorLoss of Excitation on Bulk PowerSystemReliability," IEEETransactions on Power App. and Systems, Sep/Oct1974,
pp.1473-1478.
"ProtectiveRelaying, TheoryandApplication," ABB
RelayingDivision, CoraISprings,FL,MarielDekker,
1994.

Section 9
Our-oF-STEP RELAY PROTECTION OF GENERATORS
D. W. Smaha

Southern Company Services, Inc.

Birmingham, Alabama
Abstract - There are many combinations of operating
conditions, faults, and other disturbances which may cause
an out-of-step condition between two parts of a power
system or between two interconnected systems. If such an
event occurs, the asynchronous generatorsshouldbetripped
as soon as possible to prevent generator damage or before
a more widespread outage develops. This section of the
tutorial discusses the need for out-of-step protection of
generators,
describes
the out-of-step impedance
characteristics typical of large generators connected to highvoltage (HV) or extremely high-voltage (EHV)transmission
systems, and presents various relaying schemes that can be
used for generator out-of-step protection.
INTRODUCTION
Following the infamous 1965 Northeast Power Blackout, a
considerable amount of attention was given to the need for
applying out-of-step protection to generators. Although
out-of-step relaying protection existed to open transmission
lines exhibiting a loss of synchronism with generators,
there were few applications to cover the gap where the
electrical center passes through the unit step-uptransformer
and into the generator.
This gap existed because
differential relays and other time-delayed mho relays, such
as loss-of-excitationrelays and unit back-updistancerelays,
generally cannot operate for an out-of-step condition. Also,
there was some belief in the industry that conventional lossof-field relays provide all the out-of-step protection
requirements for a generator.
During the past several decades, system performance
criteria have become more stringent. During the same
time, improved cooling methods in generator designs have
allowed larger kVA capacities in given volumes of
materials. This trend has reduced inertia constants and
raised machine reactances, especially on the larger kVA
based units. Also, the use of more HV and EHV
transmission lines to transmit larger power levels over

longer distances has resulted in reduced critical clearing

times required to isolate a system fault near a generating
plant before the generator goes out of step with the power
grid. Other factors in addition to prolonged fault clearing
that can lead to instability are: operating generators in the
lead during light load periods, low systemvoltage, low unit

excitation, excessive impedance between the unit and the

system, and some line switching operations.
EFFEcrs ON GENERATORS OPERATING OUT OF
STEP

An out-of-step condition causes high currents and forces on

the generator windings and high levels of transient shaft
torques. If the slip frequency of the unit with respect to the
power system approaches a natural torsional frequency, the
torques can be high enough to break the shaft. It is,
therefore, desirable to immediately trip the unit since shaft
torque levels build up with each subsequent slip cycle.
This buildup is the result of the continually increasing slip
frequency passing through the first natural torsional
frequency of the shaft system. Pole slipping events can
also result in abnormally high stator core end iron fluxes
that can lead to overheating and shorting at the ends of the
stator core. The unit' s step-up transformer will also be
subjected to very high transient winding currents that
impose high mechanical stresses on its windings.
OUT-OF-STEP CHARAcrERISTICS

The best way to visualize and detect out-of-step phenomena

is to analyze apparent impedance variations with time as
viewed at the terminals of the generator or high-voltage
terminals of the unit step-up transformer. These apparent
impedance loci depend on the type of governor and
excitation system the unit has and the type of disturbance
which initiated the swing. This variation in impedance can
be detected by mho-distance-type relays.
A simple visualization of these variations in apparent
impedance during an out-of-step condition is illustrated in

Figure 1. Three impedance loci are plotted as a function

of the ratio of the system voltages EAlEs which is assumed
to remain constant during the swing. Several other
assumptions are required for this simplified approach:
generator saliency is neglected; transient impedance
changes due to fault or fault clearing have subsided; effects
of shunt loads and capacitance are neglected; effects of
regulators and governors are neglected; and the EA and EB
voltages behind the equivalent impedances are sinusoidal
and of fundamental frequency.

-45-

provide the best meaDS of determining the rate of slip and

where the loci of the power swing will go relative to the
generator terminals or high-side terminals of the generator
step-up transformer. When the location of the loci are
known, the best relay scheme to detect an out-of-step
condition can be selected.

GENERATOR OUT-OF-STEP CHARACTERISTICS

-------....

----~...,

---.

......

Figure 1 Typical Out-of-Step Impedance Loci Using

Simplified Graphical Procedures

When the voltage ratio ofEAIE. = 1, the impedance locus

is a straight line PQ, which is the perpendicular bisector of
the total system impedance between A and B. The angle
formed by the intersection of lines AP and BP on line PQ
is the angle of separation

a between

systems.

As E A

advances in angle ahead of E., the impedance locus moves

from point P toward Q and the angle 0 increases. When
the locus intersects the total impedance line AB, the
systems are 180 0 out of phase. This point is the electrical
center of the system and represents a full three-phase
apparent fault at that impedance location. As the locus
moves to the left of the system impedance line, the angular
separation increases beyond 180 0 and eventually the
systems will be in phase once again. If the systems remain
together, system A can continue to move ahead of system
B and the whole cycle may repeat itself. When the locus
reaches the point where the swing started, one slip cycle
has been completed. If system A slows down with respect
to system B, the impedance locus will move in the opposite
direction from Q to P.
When the voltage ratio EAIE. is more than one, the
electrical center will be above the impedance center of the
system (line PQ). When EAIE. is less than one, the
electrical center will be below the impedance center of the
system.

Figure 2 illustrates the out-of-step impedance loci of a

tandem generator for three different system impedances.
The loci were determined from a digital computer study.
In these simulations, the excitation. system and governor
response were included, but the voltage regulator was out
of service. Without the voltage regulator response, the
intemal machine voltages during the disturbance are low;
therefore, the electrical centers of the swings are closer to
the generator zone. It was assumed that the instability was
caused by the prolonged clearing of a three-phase fault on
the high-voltage side of the generator step-up transformer.
As Figure 2 illustrates, the circle formed by the impt.~ce
locus increases in diameter and the electrical center moves
from within the generator into the step-up transformer as
the system impedance increases. All three of these out-ofstep characteristics can usually be detected by available outof-step relaying schemes discussed later.

QUT-OF-STEP
GENERATORS

RELAYING

SCHEMES

FOR

Relay schemes that can be used for detecting generator outof-step events are essentially the same as the relay schemes
used for detecting transmission line out-of-step conditions.
Several methods of detection are discussed below.

The electrical centers of the system vary as the system

impedances behind the line terminals vary and
equivalent internal generator voltages vary. The
slip between systems depends on the accelerating
and inertias of the systems. Transient stability

Many years ago, the electrical center during an out-of-step

occurrence was out in the transmission system. Thus, the
impedance loci could be readily detected by line relayingor
out-of-step relaying schemes, and the system could be
separated without the need for tripping generators. With
the advent of HV and EHV systems, large conductorcooled generators, and fast-response voltage regulatorsand
the expansion of transmission systems, system and
generator impedances have changed considerably.
Generator and step-up transformer impedances have
increased while system impedances have decIeued. As a
result, the systemimpedance center and electrical center for
such situations occur in the generator or in the step-up
transformer.

Loss-of-Field Relaying

as the
rate of
torques
studies

-46-

Loss-of-field relaying is applied for protection of a

generator against a loss-of-field condition. Depending on
how the conventional mho-distance relays used for this

are its simplicity, its ability to provide backup protection

for faults in the step-up transformer and in portion of the
generator, its ahility to detect inadvertent three-phasc
energizing of the unit if properly set, and the fact that
tripping can occur significantly before the 180 point
(maximum current and stress point) is reached. The
disadvantages are that without supervision, a large
characteristic circle is exposed to tripping on stable swings
and a small characteristic circle would permit tripping of
the generator breakers at high angles approaching 180,
subjecting the breakers to a maximum. recovery voltage
during interruption.

protection are set and applied, some degree of out-of-step

protection might be provided for swings that pass through
the generator. Figure 3 illustrates a two-relay loss-of-field
protection scheme.
These relays are applied to the
generator terminals and set looking into the machine. The
smaller mho characteristic has no intentional delay and thus
could sense and trip an out-of-step swing that dwells inside
its circle long enough. The larger mho characteristic must
have a time delay to prevent misoperatioDSon stable swings
that might momentarily enter the circle; hence, it is not
likely to be able to detect an out-of-step condition since the
swing will not stay inside the relay circle long enough for
the timer to expire. This larger diameter characteristic,
usually set to the synchronous reactance of the unit and
with a forward offset equal to one-half the transient
reactance of the unit, is often used by itself on small and
less important generators.
oas

47S

1.0

p.1I.

.....A

OJ5

P.IL

+X

-R

+R

1.0

p.1I.

p.1I.

TAND("~~
\IV
GOI. _

..-r

RESISTANCE .. 'lit

1.4

L2

1.0

0.1

,.

'

,'"

.n -,

0 .6

0.1

'\
\

2t---+~~---+----..,.....+------;

\
\

"
\

LO

"

I~.IO

+0..5
,

0.1 xSTSo.oa....

"
"~-..e.~

12

10.ll21....

1.0

__ ......-

", /

-,

LOADIMlllO. "

X ITS 0.20 .... / "

<,
~.IG.t5' jO.066l....
..._

0.12
~4

-0
0.55
,,' CI.M

0.15

i
!i

, o.ln

0.4

L,

02

0'"

'

DIAMETER.
1.0 . P. U.

"

~...

~0.1I

.. ...

....

..

'....

'..

a.

X~ 0.40 ....

L.DoIDIIM '10." +

NOTE: TIME 1.1 INSECONDS.

AU. IMPEDANCES IN
PER UNIT AT 475 MVA.

'"
~

1.0

; ; '

~~;
z.z
!

re.51....

I!

I.

Figure 3 Typical Loss-of-Field Relay Chmcteristic

1.4

-x

.-'

A single-mho out-of-step relay scheme could also be

applied On the generator terminals with reverse offset into
the step-up transformer.
However, to prevent
misoperations for faults or swings appearing beyond the
high-voltage terminals of the transformer, the reach must
be short of the high-voltage terminals or tripping must be
delayed.

0.11

Figure 2 Loss of Synchronism Characteristic - Tandem

Unit
Single-Mho Relay Scheme
A single-phase or three-phase mho-distance relay can be
applied on the high-voltage terminal of the step-up
transformer to look into the generator and its step-up
transformer. Figure 4 illustrates such an application where
this relay can detect out-of-step swings passing through the
step-up transformer and overlapping the two loss-of-field
relays' mho characteristics. The advantages of this scheme

-47-

Figure 4 illustrates an example of a single-mho relay

scheme applied at the high-voltage terminals of generator
step-up transformer.
The angle of swing
is
approximately llr at the point where the swing impedance
comes into the mho circle characteristic. Recovery at this
angle may be possible, but as the mho circle is set smaller
to avoid tripping.on stable swings, a less favorable tripping
angle will occur.

It is usual practice to supervise the mho relay with a highspeed overcurrent fault detector in series with the trip path
of the mho relay. This minimires the possibility of getting
a false unit breaker trip for a loss-of-potential condition.

TRANS
---F."'---1+--=-:bd~---..

- cJ:~ERI:T
GEN

MHOd

ELEMENT J

(x'd)

Figure 4 Application of Mho Circle Scheme

Single-Blinder Scheme
A single-blinder scheme can be applied to the high-side
terminals of the step-up transformer and looking into the
generator or applied to the generator terminals and looking
into the system. In either case, a reverse offset setting is
usually used. Figure 5 shows a single-blinder scheme
applied to the high-side of the generator's step-up
transformer.
The sensing elements consist of two
impedance elements called blinders that have opposite
polarity and a supervisory relay. The mho supervisory
relay restricts the operation area to swingsthatpass through
or near the generator and its step-up transformer. Faults
that occur between blinders A and B will cause both
characteristics to pick up simultaneously; thus, no tripping
will be initiated. For operation of the blinder scheme,
there must be a time differential between operation of the
two blinders such that the swing originates outside the mho
relay and progresses from one blinder to the other over a
period of a few cycles.
For the example in Figure S, an out-of-step swing
impedance having progressed to H will pick up the mho
element and cause blinder A to pick up. As the swing
progresses, it will cross blinder B at F and the B element
will pick up. Finally. the swing impedance will cross the
A element at G and the A element will drop oUL The
breaker trip circuit is completed when the impedance is at
G or following reset of the supervisory unit, depending on
the specific scheme used. The reach setting of the blinder
unit controls the impedance NF and NG; hence, the angle
DFC can be controlled to allow the circuit breaker to open
at a more favorable angle for arc interruption.

-48-

SUNDER
ELEMENTS
Figure 5 Blinder Scheme

The advantages of the blinder scheme over the single-mho

scheme can be seen by comparing Figures 4 and 6. As the
diameter of the mho circle in Figure 4 is increased to
provide better sensitivity for out-of-step swings in the
generator, it is possible that undesired tripping could occur
for the recoverable swing indicated in Figure 6. However,
the addition of the blinders would prevent that trip. The
blinder scheme will also permit tripping of the generator
only when the interruption would be at a favorable angle.
Transient stability computer simulations are required to
provide the timing of the swing for the proper impedance
settings of the blinders.
If the out-of-step swing passes through the trlosnrission
lines near the generating station and the line relays are not
blocked by out-of-step relaying, the lines may be tripped
before the unit out-of-step relaying will operate. Thus, the
lines to the generating station could be lost.
Double-Lens and Double-Blinder Schemes
The double-lens and double-blinder schemes operate similar
to the single-blinder scheme. As with the single-blinder
scheme, the double-blinder scheme requires the use of a
supervisory mho element for security.
Referring to
Figures 7 and 8, the outer element operates when the swing

impedance enters its characteristics at F. The mho element

in the double-blinder scheme will pick up before the outer
blinder element. If the swing impedance stays between the
outer and inner element characteristics for longer than a
preset time. it is recognized as an out-of-step condition in
the logic circuitry. As the swing impedance enters the
inner element. the logic circuitry seals in. As the swing
impedance leaves the inner element. its travel time must
exceed a preset time before it reaches the outer element.
Tripping does not occur until the swing impedance passes
out of the outer characteristic or. in the case of the doubleblinder scheme. until the mho supervisory element resets.
depending on the logic used.

When the concentric circle scheme is used, the inner circle

must be set so it responds only to nonrecoverable swings.

x
0
\

,\

I ,,\

'\

G'

/ TRANS

TI

\\

\5 \\ F

\ (a'd)

\/

/ \

\\

-,

"

" C

"

/1 ~8
IJ-u
/ /
I
/ I //

..... , , / /

Figure 7 Double-Lens Scheme

x
NOTES:

1. AlL IMPEDANCES IN OHMS AS VIEWED FROM 345-kVBUS.

2. AlL TIME VALUESINDICATED ON SWING CHARACTERISTICS

AREIN SECONDS.

Figure 6 Example of Blinder Scheme for a Stable and

Unstable Case
Angle DFC can be controlled by setting the outer elements
to limit the voltage across the opening poles of the
generator breaker. Once the swing has been detected and
the swing impedance has entered the inner element. it can
leave the inner and outer elements in any direction and
tripping will take place. Hence, the inner element's setting
should be such that it will respond only to swings from
which the system cannot recover. The single-blinder
scheme does not have this restriction, and for this reason,
is a better choice for protecting the generator than any of
the other schemes.
Concentric Circle Scheme
The concentric circle scheme uses two mho relays. It
operates essentially the same as the double-lens scheme.

-49-

Figure 8 Double-Blinder Scheme

APPLYING A MHO RELAY FOR OUT-OF-STEP

PROTECTION OF MULTIPLE UNITS

2. Pilot relay system - provides fast clearing of both ends

of a line regardless of fault location on the line, thus
reducing rotor angle acceleration time.

For economy, one out-of-step relay scheme is sometimes

used to protect more than one generating unit when they
share a common step-up transformer and/or transmission
line. For discussion purposes, assume that three identical
units share a common step-up transformer. If all three
units are generating with equal excitation, the swing loci
will pass closer to the generator terminals than they would
with only one generator on line. This is due to the
combined impedances of the online generators being
approximately one-third the impedance of one online
generator. However, to protect for the situation where
only one unit is on line, the mho relay will have to have a
larger diameter setting. Hence, a single-mho relay scheme
could be vulnerable to tripping on a stable swing. This
type of applicationcan be applied securely with one of the
blinder schemes previously described.

3. Dual fast-acting relays - provide redundant high-speed

fault clearing when one relay or relay system fails to
operate.

4. Rapid-elearing circuit breakers - provide faster fault

removal for reduced rotor angle acceleration time.
5. Remote bus breaker failure transfer trip - utilizes a
communication channel to speed up fault clearing at the
generating plant line terminals if the remote end line
breaker(s) fails to clear a fault on the remote bus, thus
reducing rotor angle acceleration time.
Independent Phase Breaker Application Techniques

OUT-OF-STEP TRIPPING MODE

1. Single-phase tripping - utilizes relays that can detect

faults on each phase and trips only the faulted phase,
thus maintaining a portion of power transfer capability
and enhancing stability of the system until successful
reclosure of the faulted phase.

Out-of-step protection schemes should operate to trip just

the generator breaker(s) if the generating unit is capable of
withstandingloadrejection and carrying its ownauxiliaries.
Tripping only the generator breaker(s) allowsthe generator
to be resynchronized to the system once the system has
stabilized. If the unit does not have full-load rejection
capabilities, it should be shut down.

2. Independent pole breaker - reduces a multipbase fault

to a less severe single-phase fault if at least two of the
three phases open, since each breaker phase operates
independently.

SYSTEM STABILITY

Increased Power Transfer Techniques

System reliabilitydepends on the ability of generating units

to remain in synchronism with the transmission system
following severe faults or transient disturbances. Stability
can be attained whenever the accelerating power produced
during a fault is offset by post-deceleratingpower sufficient
to bring the unit back to synchronous speed.
The
maximumtime from fault initiation to isolation of a fault on
a power system such that the power systemis stable is the
system's critical clearing time.

1. Additional transmission lines - lower system impedance

at the plant, resulting in increased power transfer
capability of the plant's generators.

STABILITY AIDS
Several stability control techniques may be required to
achieve system stability. Below are some frequently
employed stabilityaids.
Faster Fault Clearing Techniques
1. High-speedbreaker failure scheme - provides fast fault
clearing by tripping the backup breakers.

-so-

2. Reduced-reactance generator step-up transformer provides the generator greater power transfer
capability

3. Series capacitor transmission line compensation lowers the apparent impedance of the line, thus
increasing the power transfer capability of the plant's
generators.
4. High-speed reclosing of transmission lines - provides
faster reenergizing of the lines and, if reclosure is
successful, improves the power transfer capability of
the plant's generators.

Out-of-Step Tripping Techniques

1. Unit out-of-step tripping - utilizes a dedicated out-of-

step relaying scheme to sense the loss of synchronism

and trip the unit to remove its negative influence from
the system.
2. Systemout-of-steptripping - utilizesa dedicated out-ofstep relayingscheme to detect when one area or system
is going out of step with another and trips to separate
the two systems to prevent one system's instability.
from cascading into the other system.
3. Special protection scheme - provides a. special tripping
scheme that may require a unit to be tripped
simultaneously upon loss of a critical line or failure of
a critical breaker to keep the unit from becoming
unstable.

High-Speed Excitation Techniques

1. High-response excitation system - achieves a higher
excitation voltage faster to increase the power output
capability of the unit immediately after a system fault
conditionto enhance stability by decelerating the rotor.

2. Power system stabilizer - provides supplementary

signals to decrease or cancel the undamping effect of
voltage regulator control during severe system
disturbances.

from the high-voltage terminals of the step-up transformer

down into the generator. This condition tends to occur in
a relatively tight system or if a low excitation condition
exists on a generator. Unit out-of-step protection should
also be used if the electrical center is out in the system and .
the system relays are blocked or not capable of detecting
the out-of-step condition.
Out-of-step conditions can be most simply detected by a
mho-dis_ce-type relay oriented to look into the generator
and its step-up transformer. Its main disadvantages are it
is subject to tripping on recoverable swings and it could
signal the interruption of the generator breaker at an
unfavorable angle of swing. More sophisticated schemes
such as blinder and lcm types minirnim the probability of
tripping on recoverable swings and permit controlled
tripping of the generator breaker at a better angleof swing.
Conventionalloss-of-field relays offer a limitedamount of
out-of-step protection for swings deep into the geaerator's
impedance, especially if there is any intentionaltime delay
used.
.
The data presented in this discussion are the results of
generalized studies. Theydo not consider the effects of all
types of generator designs and system parameters, or the
interaction effects of other generators. It is recommended
that the user determine the actual out-of-step impedance
loci using available transient stability computer programs.

REFERENCES

Other High-Speed Techniques

1. Dynamic braking - places a momentary switched
resistive power load directly on the plant's power
system to help decelerate the unit's rotor during a
close-in system fault.
2. Fast turbinevalving - initiates rapid closureof intercept
valves to allow momentary or sustained reduction of
turbine mechanical power which reduces the
generator's electrical output power. The benefit of fast
turbine valving, when applicable, may be an increase
in the critical clearing time.
Except for valving, the above techniques are implemented
to alter generator electrical power so that generating units
can recover from severe disturbances.
CONCLUSIONS
This discussion has provided general guidelines on the
application of out-of-step relaying for generators. This
protection should be provided on any generator if the
electrical center of the swing passes through the region
-51-

1. IEEE Committee Report, wOut of Step Relaying for

Generators, IEEE Transaction on Power Apparatus
and Systems, Vol. 96, pp 1556-1564, Septemberl
October 1977.
W

2. Working Group of IEEE PSRC, Report 92 SM 383-0

PWRD, wImpact of HV and EHV Transmission on
Generator Protection,- presented at IEEEJPES 1992
Summer Meeting t Seattle, Washington, July 12-16,
1992.
3. Berdy, J., "Out-of-Step Protection for Generators,
presented at Georgia Institute of Technology Protective
Relay Conference, May 6-7, 1976.
W

4. -IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection, ANSIJIEEE C37.102-1986.

Section 10

CURRENT UNBALANCE (NEGATIVE SEQUENCE) PROTECTION

P.W. Powell
Virginia Power
Richmond, VA
Abstract-Thereareanumberofsystemconditions thatcan
cause unbalanced three-phase currents in a generator.
Thesesystemconditionsproducenegative-phasesequence
components of currentwhich induce a double-frequency
current in thesurfaceof therotor.These rotorcurrents can
cause high and dangerous temperatures in a very short
time. It is common practice to provide protection for the
generator for external unbalanced conditions that might
damage the machine. This protection consists of a time
overcmrentrelaywhichisresponsive to negative sequence
current. Two types of relays are available for this protection: an electromechanical time overcurrent relay with an
extremelyinversecharacteristic anda static or digital relay
with a time overcurrent characteristic which matches the
negativesequence currentcapabilities of the generator.

faults. If undetected theopenconductor condition poses a

serious threat to thegenerator sincethenegativesequence
cmrent will produce excessive rotor heating, even at low
levels of loadcurrent.

INTRODUCfION

The skin effectofthe twice frequency rotorcurrentcauses

it to be forced intothe surface elementsof the rotor.

Negative sequence relaying is usedto protect generators

from excessive heating in the rotor resulting from unbalancedstatorcurrents.From symmetrical componentrepresentationof unbalanced systemconditions, currents in the
generatorstatorcanbe brokenintopositive, negative, and
zero sequence components. The negative sequence component of the unbalanced currentsinduces a double frequencysurfacecmrentin therotorwbich flows through the
retaining rings, the slot wedges, and to a smaller degree in
the field winding. Theserotor currents can cause dangerously high temperatures in a very short time.
There are a number of sourcesof unbalanced threephase
currents to a generator. The most common causes are
system asymmetries (single phase step-up transformers
with different impedances or untransposed ttansmission
lines), unbalanced loads, unbalanced system faults, and
open circuits.The highest source of negative sequence
currentis the generatorphase-to-phase fault Notethaton
generators withstep-uptransformersconnecteddelta-wye,
a systemphase-to-ground faulton thewye sideof thestepup is seen by the generatoras a phase-to-phase fault. The
generatorphase-to-ground fault does not createas much
negative sequence current for the same conditions as the
phase-to-phase fault. The open conductor condition produces low levels of negativesequence current relative to
the levelsproducedby phase-to-phaseor phase-to-ground

Ne2atiye SeQuence Generator Dama~e

For balanced system conditions with only positive sequence current flowing, an air gap flux rotates in the same
direction andin synchronism withthe fieldwinding onthe
rotor. During unbalanced conditions, negative sequence
current is produced. The negative sequence currentcomponent rotates in theopposite direction fromtherotor.The
flux produced by this current as seen by the rotor has a
frequency of twice synchronous speed as a result of the
reverse rotation combined withthe positiverotationofthe
rotor.

RETAINING
RING

LOCKING

WEDGE

RING

Figure 1 Currents in the RotorSurface

Figure 1 outlines the general form of the rotor.The rotor
coilsarefastened totherotorbodyby metalwedges which
are forced intogrooves in therotor teeth. The endsof the
coilsaresupportedagainstcentrifugal forcebysteelretaining rings which are shrink fitted around the rotor body.
Skin effect causes the double frequency currents to be
concentrated at thesurface of the pole faceand teeth. The
rotor wedges and the metallic strips below the wedges,
which arelocated nearthesurface of therotor,conduct the
highfrequency current. This current flows alongthe sur-

-52-

face to the retaining rings.Thecurrentthen flows across the

GENERATOR NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
metal to metal contact of the retaining rings to the rotor
CAPABILITY
forgingand wedges. Becauseofthe skineffect, onlya very
small portion of this high frequency current flows in the Thecontinuous unbalance currentcapability ofa generator
field windings.
is defmed in ANSI C50.13. Ageneratorshallbe capable of
withstanding, without injury, the effects of a continuous
Negative sequence heating beyond rotor limits results in current unbalance corresponding to a negative-phase-setwo failure modes. First, the wedgesareoverheated to the quence current I, of the following values, providing the
point where they anneal enough to rupture. Second, the rated kVA is not exceeded and themaximumcurrentdoes
heating can cause the retaining rings to expand and float not exceed 105percent of rated currentin any phase.
free of the rotorbody whichresultsin arcing at the shrink
fits. In smallermachines, thefailureof theshrink fit occurs Typeof Generator
Permissible 12
first and in largermachinestheruptureofthewedges after
(percent of stator ratina)
they have been annealed from overheating occurs first, Salient Pole
Both failure modes will result in significant equipment
With connected amortisseur windings
10
downtime for repairs to the rotor body.
With non-connected amortisseur winding
5
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
GENERATOR HEATING

Negativesequence heating in synchronous generators is a

well defined process which produces specific limits for
unbalancedoperation. Except for a small statorloss, the
losses due to the negative-sequence current appearin the
machinerotor.The energy inputto therotor and the rotor
temperature riseover an intervalof timearecloselyproportiona!to 1~t where12 is thenegativesequence currentfrom
the stator and t is the intervalof time in seconds.
The following ratingmethod was developed basedon the
concept of limiting the temperature to the rotor components below the damaged level.The limit is basedon the
following equation for a givengenerator:

Cylindrical Rotor
Indirectly cooled
Directly cooled- to 960 MVA

10
8
6
5

961 to 1200MVA
1201 to 1500 MVA

Thesevalues also express the negative-phase-sequence

current capability at reducedgenerator KVA capabilities
Theshorttime(unbalanced fault) negativesequence capabilityof a generator is also definedin ANSIC50.13.
Type of Cnmerator

Permissible L2t

Salientpolegenerator
Synchronous condenser

40
30

Cylindrical rotor generator time

Indirectly cooled

20

Directlycooled(0-800MVA)
10
Directlycooled(801-1600 MYA) See CurveBelow

K = Constantdepending on Generator Design

and size

t = timein seconds
12 = RMS value of negativesequence current
The limitingK valueis determined by placing temperature
sensors on the rotor of the generator along the negative
sequencecurrentpath while negative sequence currentis
supplied to the stator. This monitoring was used to determine the limitingnegativesequencecurrents therotor can
withstand. The value of K is provided by the generator
manufacturer for each specific unit in accordance with
ANSI C50.13.

...

C\I

-53-

I 2 t=n-t0(625) X (MJA-SOO)
2
2

CE'ERAT()R MIA RATf\l3

Figure 2 Short-Time Unbalanced Current

Capability of Generators

100
80
60
40
30
20

CJ)

ow

F'

TIME DIAL
SETTINGS

'0
8

CJ)

:l:

!\EGATNE-SEQlNCE
Ttv OVERCUfENT RElAY

Figure 3

--+-I~ t = 30

0.8
0.6

NEGATIVE SEQUENCERELAY
CHARACTERISTICS

0.4 LL..L...l..JL--l.-.L-_L-..l...-::LJl..J.....I...hJ
.6 .7.8.9\0
\52.0
3
4 5 678 910

With the unbalance current capabilities of the generator

defmed by the negative sequence current as measured at
the stator, a negative sequence time overcurrent relaycan
be used to protectthegenerator. These relays consistof a
negative sequence segregating network supplied by the
phase and/or residual components which drives a time
overcurrent relay function. The time overcurrent characteristics are designed to match as closely as possible the
l~t characteristics of the generator. Figure 3 shows a
typical negative sequence relay application.

Figure4A
~0!"'e"ATN3n.E

990

"""
500

\ \'

<00
300

zoo

'\

1\

00

20

Twotypesofrelaysareinwide use. Theelectromechanical

relay whichusesa typical inverse time characteristic anda
static or digital relay which uses a characteristic which
matches the l~t capability curves of the generator. Figure
4 shows the typical characteristics of the two types of
relays.

'\

[\

50
<0
30

10

sec.

./

'\"\\

...-0::1--"
:..-- J-

il?

\'

::

\ ,\
\'

.
.,

..

r>

~ ~

.,

" "-

!i: S 32g

It.I

Lu. b

U''''Ul

""

l:S

f'e'llHT :I

The main difference between these two types of relaysis

their sensitivity. Theelectromechanical relay canbeset to
pickup at around.6 to .7 puof full load currentThe static
or digitalrelay has a pickup range of.03 to .2 per unit An
example, for an 800MVA directly cooled generator with
a K factor of 10, the generator could handle .6 per unit
negative sequence current for approximately 28 seconds.
Protection fornegative sequence currents below .6perunit
would not be detected with an electromechanical relay.
Given thelow values of negative sequence foropencircuit
unbalances as wellas low value long clearing faults, the
static ordigitalrelayismuch better forproviding coverage
down to the continuous capability of thegenerator.
Since the operator can in many cases reduce negative
sequence currentcausedby unbalanced conditions (such

Figure4B
(A)
(B)

Typical Time-Overcurrent Curves for an

Electromechanical Negative Sequence Relay
Characteristics of a Static or Digital Negative-Sequence
Time-Overcurrent Relay

as by reducing generator load), it is advantageous to

provide indication whenthemachine continuous capability is exceeded. Somerelayscan be providedwith aIarm
units (I, pickup range0.03-0.2 pu)andsome types ofstatic
ordigitalrelays provide an12 meterto indicatethenegative
sequence currentlevel.
It has been shown that protection against negative se-

quence harmonics from suchsources as the saturation of a

-54-

unit step-up transformer (from geomagnetic currents) or

nonlinearsystemloads is not provided by standard negative sequencerelaying. (9,10) Additional protection may be
required to provideprotection for negative sequence harmonics because of the frequency dependence of negative
sequencerelays.

REFERENCES

1. ANSIlIEEEC37.102-1987, "GuideforACGenerator
Protection."
2. "A Survey of Generator Back-up Protection Prac-

NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES

tices," IEEE Committee Report, IEEE Transactions

on PowerDelivery, Vol. 5, No.2, April1990, pp575584.

Dedicatednegativesequence relays are usually provided 3. Barkle, J.E.andGlassburn, W.E., "ProtectionofGenfor generatorprotection. In general, backup relaying for
erators Against Unbalanced Currents," AlEE Transnegative sequence is not provided. Some limited protecactions, Vol.72, Part In, 1953, pp. 282-286.
tionis provided bythephase-to-phase andphase-to-ground
protection for fault conditions. For open conductor or 4. Ross, MD. andKing,E.I.,"Turbine-Generator Rotor
impedance unbalance protection the negative sequence
Heating During Single-Phase Short Circuits," AlEE
relay is usually the only protection. The magnitude of
Transactions, Vol.72, PartIII, 1953, pp 40-45.
negative sequence currents created by open conductor
conditions and low magnitude faults combined with the 5. Pollard, E.I., "Effects of Negative-Sequence Currents
generator continuous negative sequence ratings prevent
on Turbine-Generator Rotors," AlEE Transactions,
other fault relays from providing full negative sequence
Vol. 72, PartIII, 1953, pp. 404-406.
protection.
6. Morris, W.C., and Goff, LE., "A Negative-PhaseFor electromechanical relays, the minimum pickupof the
Sequence-Overcurrent Relay for Generator Protection," AlEE Transactions, Vol. 72, Part ill, 1953, pp.
timeunit can be set at 60% of rated current. This provides
only limited protection for series unbalance conditions
615-618.
such as an openphasewhenthe electromechanical relay is
used for generator constants (K) under 30.
7. Graham, DJ. Brown, P.G., and Winchester, R.L.,
"Generator Protection With a New Static Negative
Sequence Relay," IEEE Transactions onPowerAppaThe static or digital relay time units can be set to protect
generators with K values of 10 or less. An alarm setting
ratus and Systems, Vol PAS-94, No.4, July-August
associated with these relays can provide detection for
1975,pp.1208-1213.
negativesequence currentdownto 3% ofmachinerating.
With this type of relay, the trip pickup can be set at the 8. Symmetrical Components, C.F. Wagner and R.D.
continuous negativesequence capability of the generator
Evans,McGraw-Hill BookCompany, Inc.,NewYork,
operatingat full outputandprovide full unbalance protecNY, 1933, Chapter5, pp 91-96.
tion.
9. Gish,W.B.,Ferro, W.E.,andRockefeller,G.D., "RoCONCLUSIONS
tor Heating EffectsFromGeomagnetic Induced Currents," Presented to the IEEEIPES 1993 Summer
Separate protection needs to be applied to generators to
Meeting, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, July18-22, 1993.
protectagainstdestructive beating fromnegative sequence
93 SM 378-0PWRD.
unbalance currents.Electromechanical negative sequence
relayingwillprovideonlylimited protection. Theserelays 10. Bozoki, B.,"Protective Relaying Implication of Geolack the sensitivity to detectdamaging negative sequence
magnetic Disturbances," Canadian Electrical Assocurrents resulting from opencircuitunbalances as wellas
ciation, Power System Planning & Operations, May
low level faults. To provide full protection, down to the
1991, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
continuous ratingof thegenerator, staticordigitalnegative
sequence relays must be used.

-55-

Section 11
SYSTEM BACKUP PROTECTION
P.W. Powell
Virginia Power
Richmond, VA
Abstract - System backup protection as it is applied to
generator protection consists of time delay relaying to
detectsystemfaults, requiring thetripping ofthegenerator,
whichhavenot beenproperly isolated by primary system
relaying.This section of thetutorial covers thebasic types
of system backup protection that are in wide use for
synchronous generators. The types of protective relays
used, their purpose and setting considerations are discussed as well as the consequence of not having the
protectioninstalled.
INTRODUCTION

powersystem, relaysettings for the backupmust besensitiveenoughtodetecttheseconditions.This sets upa tradeoff between sensitivity and security of the generator.
Figure 1 shows the basictypes of backupprotection used
on unit-connected anddirect-connected synchronous generators.Backup protection is generallydividedintophase
fault backupprotection and ground fault backup protection. Phasefault protection is providedby the 21, 51, or
51Vrelays. Groundfault protectionisprovidedby the51N
relay connected to thestep-up transformer high sideneutral. The 46 negative sequence relay provides protection
for unbalanced phase and ground faults but not for balanced threephase faults.

Systembackupprotection asisapplied togeneratorproteclion consists of time delay protection for line-to-ground

PHASE FAULT PROTECTION
and multipbase faultconditions. Backup generator protective schemes are used to protect against failure of the
primarysystemprotective relaying and a subsequent long As shownin Figure 1, currenttransformers for phasefault
clearingsystemfaults. The ttadeoff in thistypeofrelaying protection are normally connectedto the neutralsideofthe
scheme is security. Since these conditions' are out on the generator toprovide additional backup protection for the
generator. Potential transformers are connected on the
generator bus. The backup protection is time delayed to
assure coordination with the primary system relaying.
Backup phase protection is normally provided by two
types of relays, overcurrent and distance. Backup
is used whenthelinesare protected
overcurrentprotection
-AUX CT MAY BE
REQUIRED TO SHIrT
by
overcurrentrelays
and
distance protection is usedwhen
VOLTAGE PHASE ANGLE
the lines are protected with phase distance relays.
Overcurrent backuprelays aredifficultto coordinate with
line distance relaysbecause of the changesin trip time for
overcurrentrelays fordifferentsystemconditions.
Figure lA Application of System Backup RelaysPhasebackup relaying (51V and 21) maybe supervisedby
Unit Generator-Transformer Arrangement
a voltagebalance relay to prevent falsetrippingforlossof
potential or open circuiting of the potential coil. When
these relays are applied as primary tripping for smaller
units, theymaybe designed to tripon lossof potential. This
is normally done by using a voltage balance relay to
compare the output of two sets of voltage transformers
connectedto the generator terminals.

Figure tB Application ofSystem Backup RelayGeneratorConnected Directly to the System

Backupphase fault protection also providesbackup protection for the generator and step-up transformer zones
before the generator is synchronized to the system. A
generalnote,thegeneratorfaultcurrentscandecayquickly
duringlowvoltageconditions created bya close in fault. In

-56-

theseapplicationsthe faultcurrentdecrement curvefor the

generator/exciter should be reviewed carefully for time
constants and currents. See the Fundamentals Section for
more details.
Qyercurrent PhaseBackup
The simplest type of overcurrentphasebackup protection
is the 51 overcurrentrelay.The 51 relaymustbe set above
load and have a long enough time delay to ride through
generator swings. At the same time it must be set low
enough to trip for remote phase faultsfor various system
conditions.In mostcases,reliablesetting criteriacannotbe
met on a realistic system. The most recent survey of
generatorbackuppracticesfoundminimal applicationsof
overcmrent (51) backup.

25

50

75

100

Input Voltage (% of rated voltage )

Figure 2 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent

Relay Characteristic

The pickup settingof this type of relaywouldnormallybe

1.5 to 2.0 times themaximumratedcurrentfor the generator to prevent false trips. Coordination requirements usually cause the time delay to exceed .5 seconds. Since the
generatorfault currentdecaystonear rated fullloadcurrent
as determinedbysynchronous reactance andthe generator
time constant, therelay setting will betoo high to pickup.
Only in a small number of applications will the system
coordination requirements and the generator time constants allow a reliable setting for a simple overcurrent
backup.

The generator current for a three phase fault is lowest for

an unloaded generator with the regulator out of service.
This is the worsecaseconditionsusedforsettingthesetwo
types of relays. For a voltage controlled relay the pickup
setting shouldbe30% to40% of full loadcurrent Because
the tripping times of the backup overcurrent relays are
delayed about .5 seconds or more, the generator currents
should be calculated using the synchronous reactance of
the generator and the voltage behind the synchronous
reactanceofthegenerator.With theregulatoroutofservice
and only minimal auxiliary load, a typical value for the
voltagebehindthesynchronous reactanceisapproximately
The most used group of overcurrent phasebackup relays 12peruoit Givena typicalgeneratorimpedanceof1.5per
arethevoltagerestrainedandvoltagecontrolledovercurrent unit and a step-up transformer impedance of .1 pu, the
relays. Both of these relays allow settings below load maximum steady state current will be .7 per unit without
current of the generator to provide lower sensitivity to field boosting.
system faults. The voltage controlled overcurrent relay
disables the overcurrent tripping until the voltage drops Thecharacteristicofatypicalvoltagerestrainedovercurrent
below a set level. If generator fault voltages for remote relay is shown in Figure 2. Pickup of a voltage restrained
faultsare well belowthenormaloperating voltagelevelsof overcurrent should be set at 150% of generator rated
the generator, the overcurrentfunction can be safely re- currentwithratedvoltagerestraint.Thiswill typically give
strained by the voltage unit of the voltage controlled a pickupof25% of generatorrated currentwith0%voltage
overcurrent, The voltage restrained overcurrent relay restraint This will givea proportionalpickupfor voltages
changesthe pickupof the overcurrent unitinproportionto between 0% and 100% rated restraint. Note that these
the voltage which desensitizes the relay to load currents settings do not normally allow the backup relaying to
while increasing sensitivityto faults whichdrop the volt- protect for faultson the auxiliary bus because of thelarge
age and pickup of the relay.
impedance of the station service transformer.
Both of these relays depend on a voltage drop during the Time delay setting shouldbe based on worst-case coordifault condition to function properly. For generators con- nation with system protective relays. The worst-case is
nected to a weak system, voltagedrops for system faults usually a delayed trip with breaker failure clearingtimes.
may not be different enough from normal voltage to For line relays with pilot relaying the worse case used is
provide a safe margin. If this is true then the ability to just delayed trippingbecause a delayed trip with breaker
voltage supervise the overcurrentprotection will not pr0- failureassumesbotha failureof pilot relayinganda failure
videtheneeded securityandthebackupprotectionmustbe of the breaker. This is usually too conservativeand very
set too high to beeffective.
low probability. Coordination is usually calculated with
zero voltage restraint. This is a conservative approach
since in reality some voltage restraint is present and will
work to improvethe coordination.

-57-

failure time. Thissetting canusuallyaccommodateinfeeds.

However, there aretwoproblems with thissetting.1)Ifthe
lines out of the power station are relatively short, the
impedance of the step-uptransformer may cause the short
zone to see beyond the line protection. Setting the relay
with margin to allow for errors in impedances may add
more impedance to the setting than the short line. 2) A
problem for older relay protective schemes with no zero
I
I
""'--F1
- - - - - - - F3
voltage faultprotection wheretheclose-in fault causes the
tripping unitof the relaynot to operate. If no zero voltage
Figure 3 Complex System Configuration
faultprotection existson thepowersystem bus, highspeed
with MultipleInfeeds
tripping of the generator is required to prevent reclosing
out-of-phase from remote end transmission relays. The
Some generatorexciter systemsuseonlypower potential benefits from shorter tripping times for faults within the
transformers (PP1) connectedtothegenerator terminals as zone between the generator breakers and the backup disinput power to the field excitation. Theseexciter systems tance relay are minimized by the slow field decay and
may not be ableto sustainfaultcurrents long enough fortbe generator coastdowncharacteristics.
backup protectiverelayingto operate. Thiscurrentreductionmust be takenintoaccountwhensetting therelaytime Thelong'reach settingshouldbe checked for coordination
withthe auxiliary bus relays. Thelongreach settingmust
delay for the PPr based systems.
allow for the regulator response to short time system
overloads and allow for recoverable generator swings.
Distance Phase Backup
The secondtype ofbacknp phaseprotection is thedistance Because ofthese conditionsdistance relaysshouldbe setto
relay. According to the most recent utility survey, the carrymore than200% of theMVAratingof the generator.
distance relay was by far the most used phase backup
BACKUP GROUND PROTECTION
protection. Typically one zone of distance relaying with a
mho characteristic is applied.IT thegenerator isconnected
througha delta-groundedwyestep-up transformer, certain Figure 1 shows the locationof the backup groundprotecrelays requireauxiliarytransformers which shift the relay tion relays.For the unit-connected generator the relay is
potential phase angle to match thesystem voltages in order located in thehigh-side neutral ofthe step-uptransformer.
In the directly-connected generator, the backup relay is
for systemfaults to be detectedcorrectly. See Figure 1.
connected to a current transformer in the neutral of the
The distance relay application requires a setting which generator. Insomeapplications, it is advantageous tohave
reaches far enough to cover a fault for failure of the line both an off-line and on-linebackup ground relay. Priorto
relaying going out of the power station. This setting is synchronizing the low set ground relay on the unit concomplicated by infeed effects and different line lengths nected generator can protect the high side transformer
(Figure3) whenmultiplelinesconnectthegenerator to the bushings and leads to the generator breakers with a high
system.The infeed effects require the setting to be much speed trip. With the generator breaker open, there is no
higher than the line impedance. Coordination with line need to coordinate with system relays. The direct conprotectivedevices is usuallyrequired forcing a timewhich nectedgenerator canprovidehighspeedgroundprotection
is longerthan a secondzoneclearing timeforthelinefault. for the zoneup to the generator breakerin off-lineoperaIn additionto this, the settingmustremain conservatively tion. Tbe. relay used for backup groundprotection is the
above the machine rating to prevent inadvertent trips on simple time overcurrent relay with an inverse or very
generator swings and severe voltage disturbances. This inverse timecharacteristic.
criteria normallyrequire compromises in the desiredproThisoff-linerelayshouldbe set at a minimum setting. The
tection to maintain generatorsecurity.
on-line relayshould be set to coordinate with the slowest
There are a number of considerations in setting phase ground faultprotection on the system. Particularattention
distancebackup relays. For applications where high speed should be paid to coordination with grounddistance proprotection of the local switebyard is required, a two zone tection on the transmission lines. Any high resistance
application is required with the first zone timer set to ground faultoutsidethereachof thegrounddistance relay
coordinate with a high speed line relaying plus a breaker should not be seen by the backup ground relays.

-58-

The backup ground protection should pickupfor ground

faultsat the end of all linesoutof thestation. Coordination
requires the pickup to be at least 15% to 25% higherthan
the highest ground relay setting. For lines protected by
ground distance relays, the backup relay should 'be set
above the highest system ground distance relay's fault
resistance limit to provide coordination.
System Backup with Generator Ne~atiye Sequence
Relayin2
The negative sequence relay has beencovered in detail in
anothersectionof thistutorial.Thissection will emphasize
the relay characteristics as they apply to system backup
protection. The negative sequence relay should be set to
protect the generator based on rated current capabilities
from ANSI C50.13. It is desirable to set therelaytoprotect
for system series unbalance which requires the use of the
sensitivestaticrelay. A low setting will allow thenegative
sequencerelay to protectthegenerator foropenconductor
conditionswhich may not be detected by any otherrelay
protection.

thebackupgroundproteetionhadthefewestmisoperations.
Thephase andnegative sequence operations werenearly
evenly split between correct and incorrect. Of these
misoperations, nine were faulty or maladjusted relays,
three were wiring errors, three were incorrect settings,
three wereopen potential circuits, arid one was personnel
error. These misoperations emphasize the need forcareful
application and implementation of the backupprotection.
It also underlines the fact that these relay schemes are
secure when applied andimplemented correctly.

Thesurvey alsooutlined threeeventswhichoccurred as a

resultof not having backup relays. Two resulted in a fire
thatburned upsix cubicles asa resultof a failedbreakers.
Thethirdreported generatordamage as a resultofonehour
ofoperation withonpoleof the high sidebreakeropen. One
other incident with lack of backup protection has been
reported to theauthor. It wasa longclearing ground fault
resulting from a 230 kV breaker failure operation which
resulted in damage on two generator rotors because of
negative sequence electromechanical relay sensitivities.

The most recent survey on backup protection showed

CONCLUSIONS

minimal operations of the negative sequence overcurrent

relays for faults on the power system. This validates the

ideathatsetting thenegative sequence relays at the generatorcapabilitydownto continuous ratings stillleaves a large
coordination marginbetweenthetripping times of system
fault protection and the generator negative sequence protection. On the other hand, generator negative sequence
relays may not be goodbackupfor system faults because
of additionalequipment damage due to longhippingtime
before the fault is clearedand subsequent generator instability for the extendedfaultclearing times. As pointedout
before, the negative sequence relay does not protect for
balanced three phase faults.
CONSEQUENCES
As was stated at the beginning of this section there are
trade-offs in the application of system backup protection.
The most recent survey of the industry on this topic
outlined both the risks in security and sensitivity.

The application of generator backup protection involves

the careful consideration of trade-offs betweensensitivity
and security. The risks in applying backup protection can
be minimized by careful consideration of the points discussed in this section of the tutorial. These risks are far
outweighed by the consequences of not having proper
backup protection.

REFERENCES
1. "A Survey of Generator Back-up Protection Practices
lEEECommitteeReport,"lEEETransactionsonPower
Delivery, Vol. 5, No.2, April 1990, pp 575-584.
2.

Higgins, T.A.,Holly,HJ.,andWall,L.A., "Generator

Representation and Characteristics For Three Phase
Faults,"Georgia Instituteof Technology Relay Con-

ference, 1989.

In the surveya totalof 46 operations of backup protection 3. ANSIlIEEE C37.102-1987, "GuideforACGenerator

were reported by the respondents. Out of this total there
Protection."

were 26 correct operations and 19 incorrect operations.

-59-

Section 12
INADVERTENT GENERATOR ENERGIZING

G.e. Parr
ABB PowerT&DCo.
Birmingham, AL

CJ.Mozina
BeckwithElectric Co.
Largo,FL

Abstract- Inadvertentor accidental energizing ofsynchronous generators has been a particular problem within the
industry in recent years. A significant number of large
machines have been damaged or, in some cases, completely destroyed when they wereaccidentally energized
while off-line. The frequency of these occurrences has
promptedmajor U.S. generatormanufacturers to recommend that the problem be addressed through dedicated
protective relay schemes.
INTRODUCfION

FIGURE 1 A) TYPICAL BREAKER-

AND-A-HALF STATION

Inadvertent or accidental energization of large turbinegenerators has occurred frequently enough within the
industryin recent years to warrant concern. Whena generator is energizedwhileoff-lineonturning gear, or coasting to a stop,it behaves as an induction motor and can be
damaged withina few seconds..Turbine damage can also
occur. A significantnumber of large machines havebeen
severely damaged and, in some cases, completely destroyed.The cost to the utilities for such an occurrence is
not only the cost of repair or replacement of the damaged
machine, but the substantial cost of purchasing replacement power during the period when the unit is out of
service.Operating errors,breaker head flashovers, control
circuitmalfunctions or a combination of these causeshave
resulted in generators becoming accidentally energized
while off-line.

B) TYPICAL RING BUS

STATION

the systemthrough only an open high voltagedisconnect

switch (Sl). Additional isolation from the power system
can be provided by removing generator straps or other
sectionalizing devicesin the generatorisophasebus.Generally, these isopbase bus devices are opened to provide
safety clearances or isolation for extended unit outages.
Thereare many instances in whichthehigh voltagedisconnect switch(Sl) provides the only isolation between the
machineand the system. Even with extensive interlocks
between thegeneratorbreakers(A andB) and the disconnect switch (Sl) to prevent accidental switch closure, a
significant number of cases have been recorded of units
beingaccidentallyenergizedthroughthisdisconnect switch
whileoff-line. Compotmding this problemis the possibility that some or all generator protection, for one reason or
another, may be disabled during this period.

QperatiD& Errors: - Operating errors have increased within

the industry as high voltage generating stations have be-

Another path for inadvertent energizing of a generator is

through the unit auxiliary system by accidental closureof
comemorecomplexwiththe useofbreaker-and-a-halfand unit auxiliary ttansformer breakers (C or D). Because of
ring bus configurations. Figure 1 shows typical one-line thehigherimpedance in thispath, the currents and resultdiagramsfor two such stations.
ing damageare muchlowerthan thoseexperienced by the
generator when it is energized from thepower system.
Thesestationdesignsprovidesufficientflexibility toallow
a singlehigh voltagegeneratorbreaker (A orB)to betaken Breaker Head flashOver: The extreme dielectric stress
out-of-service without also requiring the wit to be re- associated with HV and EHV breakers and the small
moved from service. Breaker disconnect switches (not cODtaetgapspacingass~atedwiththeirhigb-speedinter
sbown)are available to isolatethebreaker forrepair. When rupting requirement can lead to contact flashover. This
the unitis off-line,however, generator breakers (A andB) flashover of contacts (generally one or two poles) is anare generally returned to service as busbreakers to com- othermethodby whichgenerators havebeeninadvertently
plete a rowin a breaker-and-a-halfstation or to complete a energized. The risk of a flashover is greaterjust prior to
ring bus.This results in the generator being isolatedfrom synchronizing or just after the unit is removed from ser-

-60-

vice. During this period, the voltage across the open

generator breaker can be twice normal as the unit slips
angularly withthesystem. A lossofpressure in sometypes
ofHV andEHVbreakers duringthisperiodcanresultinthe
flashoverofa breaker pole(s), energizing thegenerator and
causing a significantflowofdamaging unbalanced current
in the generator windings. This unique breaker failure
condition mustbe quicklydetected and isolated to prevent
major generator damage.
Large machines connectedto thesystem through mediumvoltage generator breakers have also been inadvertently
energized. The use of these medium-voltage generator
breakers allows more operating flexibility than the traditional unit-connected configuration. Figure 2 shows a
typical one-line diagram for this design.
When the generator is off-line, breaker E is opened to
provide isolation from the system. This allows the unit
auxiliary ttansformer to remain energized and carrying
load when the generator is out of service and to provide
startup powerwhenthegeneratorisbroughton-line. There
have beenreportedcasesof accidental closures of breaker
E and pole flashovers resulting from loss of dielectric
strength.

Figure 2 Station with Low Voltage Generator Breaker

GENERATOR RESPONSE TO
INADVERTENT ENERGIZING

Cnmerator Response to Three-Phase EnerKizin& - Whena

generator is accidentally energized with three-phase system voltagewhileon turninggear,it behaves as an induction motor.Duringthree-phase energization at standstill, a
rotating flux at synchronous frequency is induced in the
generator rotor, The resulting rotorcurrent is forcedinto
sub-transientpaths in therotorbodyanddamper windings
(if they exist) similar to those rotor current paths for
negative sequence stator currentsduring generator single
phasing. The machine impedance during this high slip
interval is equivalentto its negative sequence impedance
~o + jX 2JThe resistivecomponent oftheimpedance is

usually neglected. The negative sequence machine reactaneeisapproximately equalto theaverageofthemacbine's

directand quadrature subtransientreactances (Xd" + Xg")/
2. The machine terminal voltageand current during this
period will be a function of the generator, unit step-up
transformer, and systemimpedances. Whena generator is
inadvertently energized, the generator stator current induces high magnitudes of cmrent in the machine rotor,
causing rapidthermalheating. Thisrotorcurrentis initially
at 60 Hz, but decreases in frequency as the rotor speed
increases due to induction motoraction.
If the generator is connected to a strong system, the
machine'sinitialstatorcurrentswill bein therangeof three
to four times ratingand the terminal voltagewill be in the
rangeof 50-70% of rated, for typical valuesof generator
and step-up transformer impedances. If the generator is
connected to a weak system, machine stator currentmay
only be one to two timesrating and the terminal voltage
only20-40% of rated. Whenthegeneratoris inadvertently
energized fromitsauxiliarytransformer, statorcurrentwill
bein therangeof 0.1 to 0.2 timesratingbecauseof thehigh
impedance in this path. The equivalent circuit shown in
Appendix I can be used to determine approximately the
initialmachinecurrents and voltageswhen a generator is
energized from the power system.

Generator Response Due to Sio&le-Phase Ener&izinK Single-phase energizing of a generator from the high
voltage systemwhile at a standstill subjects the generator
to a significant tmbalanced current The unbalanced current causes negative sequence current flow and thermal
rotorheatingsimilarto thatcausedby three-phase energizing. There will be no significant accelerating torque if the
voltageappliedtothegeneratoris single-phase andtheunit
is essentially at standstill. Both positive and negative
sequence currents will flow in the stator and each will
induce approximately 60 Hz currents in the rotor. This
produces magnetic fieldsin opposite directions essentially
producing no net accelerating torque. H single-phase voltage is applied when the unit is not at standstill but, for
instance, at half rated speed,theaccelerating torquedue to
positive sequencecurrent will be greater than theretarding
torque due to negative sequence currentand the unit will

accelerate.

Breaker head flashover is the most frequent cause of

single-phase inadvertentenergizing. Thissituation ismost
likely to occurjust prior to synchronizing or just after the
unitisremovedfromservicewhenthe machineandsystem
voltage are 180 degrees out of phase. The magnitude of
stator current can be calculated using the symmetrical
component equivalentcircuit shownin Appendix II for a
generator connected to the powersystemthrough a deltawye groundedstep-up transformer.

-61-

GENERATOR DAMAGE DUE TO

INADVERTENT ENERGIZING

Hydro MachineDamage - Hydro-generators are salientpole machines and are usually provided with damper
windings on each pole. These damper windings mayor
The initialeffect of inadvertent energizing of a generator may not be connected together. Inadvertent energizing
from standstillor on turning gear is rapidbeating in iron may create sufficient torque in the rotor to produce some
paths nearthe rotor surfacedue to statorinduced current rotation. Moreimportantthethermalcapacityoftbedamper
These pathsprimarilyconsistof the wedges, rotoriron,and winding, especially at the point of connectionto thepole
retaining rings. The depth of current penetration is a steel,wouldnot beadequate fortheresultingcurrents. The
fractionof an incb, considerably less than thedepthof the heatingof theconnecting points,combinedwith thelackof
rotor windings. The contacts between these components proper ventilation, will createdamage quickly. Since hyarepointswherea localized, rapid temperature riseoccurs, dro-generator design is unique, each unit needs to be
due mainly to arcing. Wedges, for example, have little evaluated as to the detrimental effects of inadvertent
"clamping"load at standstill, resulting in arcingbetween energization.
them and the rotor iron.The arc beating beginsto meltthe
metals,andmay causewedges to beweakened to thepoint
RESPONSE OF CONVENTIONAL
of immediate or eventual failure, depending upon the
GENERATOR PROTECTION TO
trippingtimetocleartheinadvertentenergization incident.
INADVERTENT ENERGIZING
Damage to rotor windings, if it occurs, wouldresult from
mechanical damage due to loss of wedge support, rather Thereare severalrelaysused as partof the typical complethan heating. Because of the low depthof current penetra- mentof generator protection that may detect, orcan beset
tion, the rotor windings would not likely experience an to detect, inadvertent energizing. they are:
excessive temperature rise and, therefore, would not be
thermally damaged.
Loss of fieldprotection
Generalized heating of the rotor surface to an excessive
temperature takes longerthan thelocaIizedareasdescribed,
but if trippingis delayedtherotorwill be damaged beyond
repair. The current magnitudes in the stator during this
incident are generallywithin its thermal capability; however, if continued rotor beating occurs, wedges or other
portionsof the rotor may break off anddamagethe stator.
This may result in total loss of the entire generator.
Thetime after whichrotordamagewillgenerally occurcan
beapproximated by using the equation for the short time
negative sequence capability of the generator I~t = K.
When the machine is at or near standstill and is inadvertentlyenergized from eithera singleor three-phase source,
the value of 12 used in this formulashouldbe the per unit
magnitude of generatorphase currentflowing in the machinewindings. If thegeneratoris energized from a singlephase source at or near synchronous speed, the negative
sequencecomponentofcurrentshouldbe used.1beequivalentcircuitsin AppendixI and II can be used to determine
the value of current for these situations.
In the case of a cross-compound unit, sufficient field is
applied at a very low speed to keep the generators in
synchronism asthey come up to speed. Inadvertent application of three-phase voltage will attempt to start both
generators as inductionmotors. The thermal hazardto the
rotor is the same as when no field is applied and is
aggravated by the presence of current in the rotor field
winding.

Reversepowerrelay
Negativesequence relay
Breaker failure
Systembackuprelays

Disabled Protection: Inadvertent energizing protection

needsto be in-service whenthegeneratoris out-of-service.
This is the opposite of normal protection. Frequently,
utilitiesdisablegeneratorprotection when the-unit is offline to prevent undesirable tripping of generatorbreakers
which have been returned to service as bus breakers in
breaker-and-a-half and ring bus substations. It is also a
common operating practice to remove generator voltage
transformer (vt) fusesas a safetypracticewhenthegenerator is removed from service. This disables voltage dependentrelays from providing inadvertent energizing protection. Many utilities use auxiliary contacts (S2/a) of the
generatorhigh voltage disconnect switch to automatically
disablegeneratorprotection whentheunitisoff-line which
canpreventtheserelaysfrom beingoperativeforinadvertent energizing protection. In many cases, engineers who
rely on the normal compliment of generator relaying for
inadvertentenergizing protection fail to recognize any of
these common operating/control practices which disable
protection.

Loss of Field Relayin2: - Loss of field relay schemes are

voltagedependent. If the potentialsource is disconnected
when the unit is off-line, the loss of field relay will not
operate.It shouldalso be notedthat the loss of field relay
is often removedfromserviceby a disconnectswitch and!

--62-

or breaker 52Ja contacts when the machine is off-line.

Therefore,depending uponhowtheinadvertentenergizing
occurs, the loss of field protection may be disabled.

TRIPS
BACKUP
BREAKERS
AND
UNIT

Reyerse Power Relays: - The resulting powerlevel from

inadvertentenergizing willgenerally be within thepickup
range of the reverse power relay. Tripping by reverse
521a - CIRCUIT BREAKER
power relays is substantially delayed (usually 30 seconds
PROTECTIVE
AUXILIARYCONTACT
or longer) which is much too long to prevent generator
RELAYS
damage. In some typesof reverse power relays, this time
CD - CURRENT DETECTOR
delay is introducedthrough an AC voltage operated timer
whosepickuplevelrequiresthat50percent ofratedterminal voltagebe present If thegenerator terminal voltageis
Figure 3 GeneratorBreakerFailureLogic
below thislevel, therelay willnotoperate. If thepotential
supply is disconnected, the reverse power relay is also
from the system. The currentdetector (CD) or thebreaker
inoperative.
auxiliary contact(52/a) are usedto detect that thebreaker
has successfullyopened.Thebreaker52/acontactmustbe
NeKatiye Sequence Relayin~: It is common practice to
used in this case since there are faults and/or abnormal
provide protection of the generator from extern.a! unb~
generator conditions which will not produce sufficient
ance conditions that might damage the machme. This
current to operatethe currentdetector (CD). If oneor two
protectionconsistsof a time-current relay which responds
poles of a breaker flash over to energize a generator, two
to negativesequencecurrent. Twotypes ofrelaysare used
conditionsmust be satisfiedto initiate breakerfailure:
for this protection: an electromechanical timeovercurrent
relay and a static relay with a timeovercurrent character1. The flashovermust be detectedby a generator protecistic which matches the I~t = K capability curve of the
tive relay that wouldinitiatethe breaker failure relay.
generator. The electromechanical relay wasdesignedpri(BPI)
marilytoprovidemachineprotection foruncleared, unbalancedsystemfaults. Thenegative sequence currentpickup
2. The breakerfailurecurrentdetector (CD)mustbe set
of this relay is generally 0.6 per unit of rated full load
with sufficientsensitivity to detect the flashover concurrent.The static relaysare muchmore sensitive and are
dition.
capable of detecting and tripping for negative-sequence
currentsdown to the continuous capability of the genera- SystemBackupRelays: Impedance and voltagerestrained
tor. The static negative sequence relay will, therefore,
or controlled overcurrent relays, used to provide backup
detect single-phase inadvertent energizing for most cases.
for generatorprotection, can be adjusted to provide detecThe response of the electromechanical relay should be
tion of three-phase inadvertent energizing. Their operachecked to ensure that its setting is sufficiently sensitive, tion, however, should be checked by comparing their
especiallyin applications in which the unitis connectedto
setting with expected machine terminal conditions for
a weak system. The tripping of these relays may be super- inadvertent energizing. These backup relays have time
vised by a high voltage switch or breaker 52/a contacts delay associated with tripping which generaIly is too long
which could render them inoperative for breaker bead
to prevent the generator frombeingdamaged Attempts to
flashoverevents where the breaker is mechanically open.
reduce this time delay usually result in false tripping for
stable power swings or loss of coordination under fault
ClCnerator Breaker Failure Protection: Generator breaker
conditions. Also,operationof the particulartype of relay
failure must be initiated to isolate a generator for an usedshould be reviewedfortheconditionwhenpo1arizing
inadvertentenergizercondition duetobreaker head flashor restraining potentialhas been disconnected.
over. A functional diagramof a typical generator breaker
failure scheme is shown in Figure 3.
DEDICATED PROTECTION SCHEMES TO
When the generator protective relays detect an internal
DETECT INADVERTENT ENERGIZING
fault or an abnormalcondition, theywillattemptto tripthe
generatorbreakersandat thesametime initiatethebreaker
Due to the severe limitation of conventional generating
failure timer(s). If the breaker(s) do notclear the fault or
relaying to detect inadvertent energizing, dedicated proabnormalconditionin a specified time, the timer will trip
tectionschemeshavebeendeveloped andinstalled. Unlike
the necessary backup breakers to remove the generator
conventional protection schemes, which provide protee-

-63-

tion when equipmentis in-service, theseschemes provide

protection when equipmentis out of service. Thus, great
care shouldbetakenwhenimplementing thisprotection so
that dc tripping power and relay input quantities to the
scheme are not removed when the unitbeing protected is
off-line.

This sectionof thetutorialdescribes a number of dedicated

inadvertentenergizing protection schemes for units without low voltagegeneratorbreakers. Thejudiciousselection
of inputsourcesallowsmostof theseschemes tobeapplied
to generators with low voltagegenerator breakers. Whatever schemeis used to provideprotection foraccidentally
energizinga generator,theprotection should beconnected
to tripthegeneratorhighvoltageandfieldbreakers, tripthe
unit auxiliary breakers, initiate generator high voltage
breakerfailurebackup,and beimplemented so that it is not
disabled when the machine is out of service.

+OC
81x

50 (3)
86

Frequepcy Sgperyised QyerCurrent ReJays

Figure4 depicts a frequency-supervisedovercwrentscbeme

specifically designed to detect accidental energization.
The schemeutilizesa frequency relayto supervise the trip
output of sensitively set mstantaneous overcmrent relays.
The overcurrent relays are automatically armed by the
frequency relay as the unit is taken off-line and remain
armed whilethe unit is shut down.Toensure reliable high
speed tripping, the overcurrentrelaysshould besetat 50%
or less of the minimum current seen during accidental
energizing.Thefrequency relay (81) usedtoidentify when
the generatoris off-line shouldhavea setpoint wellbelow
any emergency operating frequency. Its output contacts
should also remain closed as the applied voltage goes to
zero. The voltage balance relay (60) prevents incorrect
operations should the frequency relay lose potential under
normal operating conditions.

-DC

50 - THREE INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS

60 - VOLTAGE BALANCE RELAY

81 - FREQUENCY RELAY
81x - AU~ILIARY RELAY (TIME DELAY DROP OUT)

86 - LOCKOUT RELAY

Figure 4 Frequency Supervised Overcmrent Logic

As the generator is accelerated in order to be brought on-

line, the machine frequency exceeds the frequency

relaysetpoint The frequency relay operates and de-energizes the 81X auxiliary relay. The 81X auxiliary relay,
after its time delayed dropout, disarms the trip output
circuitof the overcmrentrelays. The frequency supervised
overcurrent scheme will not provideprotection for a high
voltage generator breaker pole flashover just prior to
synchronizing when the machineis at or nearrated speed
with field applied. Additional protection, as described in
thenextsectionof this tutorial, shouldbe installed forthis

When the generator is taken off-line, the machine frequency will drop below the frequency relay setpoint, The
frequencyrelay will energizeauxiliary relay 8IX through
a normally closed contactof the voltage balance relay. An
8IX auxiliary relay contact then closes to enablethe trip
output circuit of the overcurrent relays. The protective situation.
scheme is therebyarmedandremains armed as longas the
unit is shut down. Even if the a-c potential supply is vo1ta&e Sgperyised Overcurrent Relays
disconnected whilethegeneratorisdown formaintenance,
the frequency relay contact should remain closed, thus Figure5 depictsa voltage-supervised overcurrent scheme
allowinghighspeed overcurrenttripping. Should thegen- whichis designed to detect accidental energization. This
eratorbe accidentally energized, the frequency relay will scheme utilizes voltage relays (27-1&2) to supervise the
open its contact,but the time delayeddropout of the SIX outputofstatic, high-speedinstantaneousphaseovercurrent
auxiliary relay will permit instantaneous overcurrent trip- relays (50) to provide inadvertent energizing protection.
The overcurrent relays are automatically armedwhen the
ping.
unit is taken off-line and remainarmed while the unitis

.-----------,
I
I

ht:'Ml---Io-l-+-l-l---.-------,..---..,.-.---.-<

detected. Supplemental protection, as described in thenext

section ofthistutorial, should beinstalled forthissituation.

I
I

ALTERNATE CURRENT SOURCE

In order to improve the integrity of this scheme, some

utilities have chosen to install it in the high voltage
switehyard using CIS anddcpowerlocated in theswitehyard.
Others havechosen to locateit in theplant and install it in
suchamannerthatitwillnot be disconnected when theunit
is off-line. By location the ct inputs at the machine terminals, the relay can be set to detectinadvertent energizing
through the unit auxiliary transformer. Reference 5 provides a detailed description of the voltage supervised
overcmrent scheme.

S1

+OC

27-2

27-1 62-1

62-3

50 (3)

94

Directional OYercurrent Relays

-oc
27 - Static, instantaneous, undervoltage relays
50 - Three static, instantaneous, overcurrent relays
62 - Adjustable time delayrelays
74 - Self-reset, hinged armature alarm relays with
targets
86 - Lockoutrelaytrips generator breakers and
starts breakerfailuretimer
94 - High-speed, hinged armature trip relay

METHOD #1
ONLY

II
MVARS

Figure 5 Voltage Supervised Overcurrent Logic

shut down. They are automatically removed from service

when the wit is broughton-line. Theovercurrentunitsare
settorespondto current of 50% or less of minimum current
seen during an accidental energization. Undervoltage relays(27-1&2) enable anddisablethecurrentdetectors (50)
through time delay relays (62-1&2). Two 27 relays are
supplied from separate voltage transformers to prevent
misoperations which can result from lossof one potential
supply. A time delay (62-3) and a voltage detector alarm
relay (74-1) are used to 'alarm for this situation. The 271&2voltagerelaysare generally setatapproximately 85%
of rated voltage. The 62-1 timerdisables tripping by (50)
overcmrent relays after the unit voltage returns to normal
priorto synchronizing. The62-2timerenables overcurrent
trippingwhenvoltagefallsbelow 85% ofnormal whenthe
machine is removed from service. The 62-2 timer is set
with sufficient delay (generally two seconds) to prevent
enabling the overcurrent relays for power systemor unit
auxiliarysystemfaults whichcoulddropmachine terminal
voltagebelow the 85% level.The scheme willresetwhen
the generatorfieldis appliedtodevelop ratedvoltage prior
to synchronizing. Thus, high voltage generator breaker
pole flashovers just prior to synchronizing will not be

DIRECTIONAL
CONTACT
CLOSURE

MW

RELAY ZERO
TORQUE LINE

Figure6 Directional Overcurrent Logic

Thescheme depicted in Figure6 employs three directional
inversetime-overcurrent relays.Voltage andcurrent sensingareobtainedfromthe generator terminals. Twodifferent methods are used. Method 1 uses a relay having
maximum sensitivity whenthecurrentapplied totherelay
leads the voltageby 300 To assure that the underexcited
loading capability ofthemachineisnotimpaired appreciably, the 600 connection (IA-IB and VAC) is used. Delta
connected cts or auxiliary cts are required, or line-toground connected vts may be applied. The setting used
may involveacompromisebetweendesiredsensitivityand
a setting at which the relay will not be endangered ther-

-65-

mallyby the maximum continuous loadcurrent, Method2

usesa relay having maximmn sensitivity when thecurrent
applied to the relay leads the voltage by 600 A 900
connection to the relay (lA and VBe) allows adequate
underexcited operationto be achieved Some relaysof this
typehavea fixedsensitivityof 0.5ampere andacontinuous
rating of 5 amperes. They are generally set to operate in
0.25 second at 2.0 times rated generator current. The
directionalovercurrentrelays (67) should trip the generatorbreaker(s)andstartbreaker failure timing. Thisscheme
isdependentuponpotential being presentforproperoperation. Thus, if company operating procedure requires removalof generatorvoltage transformer fuses or links as a
safety procedure when the unit is removed from service,
this scheme shouldnot be applied.

+DC

50

21

-DC

50 - INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS

21 DISTANCE RELAY
62 - ADJUSTABLE TIME DELAY RaAY

62TX TIMER AUXILIARY RELAY

S1/89b HIGHVOLTAGE GENERATOR DISCONNECT SWITCH
AUXILIARY CONTACT
86 LOCKOUT RELAY TRIPS GENERATOR BREAKERS
AND STARTS BREAKER FAILURE TIMER

Figure 7 ImpedanceRelayLogic

Therehave been a number of schemes developed which

useimpedancerelayslocatedin thehighvoltageswitehyard
which arepolarized to "lookinto" themachine asshownin
Figure 7.Theimpedance relayissetto detect thesumofthe
reactance of the unit step-uptransformerand the machine
negative sequence reactance (X 1T + X 2g) with appropriate
margin. In some cases,the impedance relay is supervised
by an instantaneous overcurrent relay to prevent false
operation on loss of potential. Some utilities connect the
impedance relayto tripthehigh voltagegeneratorbreakers
and initiate unit shutdown withoutdelay whether the unit
is on or off-line. The impedance relay will generally
operate forunstablepowerswingsandrequires a thorough
stability analysis to ensurethat the scheme will not trip on
stableswings. Other utilitieschooseto enable the scheme
for high speedtripping only when the unit is off-lineand
add timedelayto provide security whenthe unit is on-line.
Figure 7 is an illustration of sucha scheme.This approach
provides a measure of protection evenif generatordisconnectauxiliary contacts fail to enable high speed tripping.
Thisscheme will trip the unit if the field is applied when
accidental energizing occurs provided that the unit is
substantially ont of phase with the system at the time of
energizing. Additional protection is required for singlephaseenergization, since an impedancerelay has limited
capability to detect thiscondition.
Auxiliary Contact Enabled Oyercurrent Relays

62TX

52X - AUXILIARY RELAY TIMEDELAY DROPOUT

Impedance Relays

The scheme shown in Figure 8 uses the generator field

breaker auxiliary contact to enable and disable an
overcmrentrelaytodetectinadvertentenergizingwhenthe
unitisoff-line. Thisschemeconsistsof three nondirectional
instantaneous current fault detectors which are armed to
tripwhenever the generator fieldbreaker is openor racked
out,Eitherof these conditions will energize a time-delay
pickup and drop-out auxiliary relay (62) enabling the
scheme. Theovercurrentrelays aresetat 50%or lessof the
minimum currentseenduring an accidental energization.
Toavoidfalseoperation whenthe wit is in service,as well
as misleading target information, the scheme is designed
suchthat it is not armed unless the overcurrent relays are
first reset IT the unit is on line, and the overcurrentrelays
are pickedupdue to load,the62 relaycoil is shortedout to
prevent its operation, whichenhances the securityof the
scheme. Theschemeis designedsuch that no unit-tripping
function associated with a fault or mechanical trip will
activate the scheme.

-66-

Theinitiationof breakerfailure relaying is requiredto trip

additionallocaIand possibly remotebreakers to de-energize the generator. Someof the schemesdiscussed in the
preceding sectionof thetutorial can beset to detect breaker
headflashovers andprovideprotectionin conjunction with
generator breaker failure protection. Other schemes are
inoperative when the generator is near rated speed and
voltageprior to synchronizing and must be supplemented
by additional protection.
Unbalance currentsassociatedwith breakerheadflashover
willgenerally cause thegeneratornegative sequence relay
to operate. Breakerfailure will be initiated if the breaker
failure currentdetectors are set with sufficient sensitivity
to detect the situation. Specifically designed schemes to
speed up the detection and isolationof this uniqueformof
breaker failure are described below.

+DC

41
POS

Modified Breaker Failure Scheme

-DC

41 POS- CLOSED WHEN FIELD BREAKER IS RACKED OUT

41b - FIELDBREAKER AUXILIARY CONTACT

50 - THREEINSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS

62 - AUXILIARY RELAY WITH TIMEDELAY (CYCLES)
PICKUP & DROPOUT

86 - LOCKOUT RELAY TRIPS GENERATOR BREAKERS

AND STARTS BREAKER FAILURE

Figure 8 AuxiliaryContactEnabled Overcurrent

Relay Logic

._r-'

As with someotherschemes described, thescheme shown

in Figure 8 will reset when the field is applied to the unit
prior to synchronizing. The scheme will notprovide protectionallow turbineRPM with fieldon.Although fieldis
generallynot appliedbelowsynchronous speed onmodern
tandem units, aoss-compound units require synchronization between units at very lowRPM.Toassure protection
during the pre-synchronization period, it is necessary to
usethe41b contactfrom themain exciter field breaker and
not the startup exciterfield breaker. In addition, excitation
must be transferred from startup to main exciter prior to
synchronization to precludea false tripon synchronizing.
DEDICATED PROTECTION SCHEMES TO

TRIPS
BACKUP
BREAKERS
AND
UNIT

52a. 52b- CIRCUIT BREAKER

AUXILIARY CONTACTS

CD - CURRENT DETECTOR
SON - INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT RELAY

Figure 9 ModifiedBreaker Failure Logic

One approach used to speed up the detection of a breaker
flashover is to modify thebreakerfailure scheme as shown

DETECT GENERATOR BREAKER

HEAD FLASHOVER

Fortheflashover of a generator highvoltage breaker pole,

retripping of thebreaker willnot de-energize themachine.

in Figure 9. An instantaneous overcmrent relay (SON) is

connected in the neutral of the generator step-up transformer and is set to respond to an EHV breaker pole
flashover. The relay output is supervised by the generator

-67-

breaker "b" contact providing an additional start to the

breaker failure scheme. When the generator breaker is
open and one or two poles of the breaker flash over, the
resulting transformerneutralcurrentis detected by the50N
relay without the delay that would be associated with
negative sequence or some of the previously described
inadvertent energizing schemes. The current detectors
(CD) associatedwith the generator breaker failurescheme
must be set with sufficientsensitivity to detectthis flashover condition.

must be detected and isolatedby automatic relay action.

Although there are relays used as part of the normal
complement of generatorprotection, theirability to detect
inadvertent generator energizing is generally marginal.
These relays are generally disabled at the time when the
machineis inadvertentlyenergized, or operate too slowly
to prevent damage to the generator and/or turbine. For
thesereasons, major U.S. turbine-generator manufacturers
haverecommended, andmanyutilitiesare installing, dedicated inadvertentenergizing protection schemes. Themajor
scbemes in service in the U.S. bave been describedin this
tutorial. These schemes vary becausethe operatingpracticesandprotectionphilosophies of utilitiesusingthemare
different Protection engineers must asses the risks and
determine theimpactonprotectionof tbeirown company's
operating practices prior to deciding which scheme best
suits theirparticular needs. It is hoped that this sectionof
the tutorial will assist in that task.

BreakerPole Disaareemeut- It isgeneral practice thathigh

voltage breakersaredesigned with independentpole operatingmechanisms. For unsymmetrical poleclosures,these
breakersare protected by an interconnection of auxiliary
contacts.If anypole is closedat thesametime that another
isopen,a pathis providedtoinitiatetripping of thebreaker.
Since breaker auxiliarycontactindications do not provide
positive indication of pole position, these schemes can be
REFERENCES
augmented by a relay whichmonitors three-phase current
flowing through the breaker andsenseswhetherany phase
is belowa certain low threshold level (indicating an open 1. IEEE Power System Relay Working Group Report
No. 88SM527-4 "InadvertentEnergizing Protection
breakerpole) at the sametimethatanyotherphaseis above
of SynchronousGenerators" IEEE Transacations on
a substantially higber thresholdlevel (indicating a closed
PowerDelivery, Vol. 4, No.2 April 1989.
or flashedoverpole). For breaker-and-a-half and ring bus
applications, zero sequence voltageacross the breaker is
used to supervise the relay tripping. This prevents false 2. E.R.Detjen, "Some Additional Thoughtson GeneratorProtection,"presentedat thePennsylvaniaElectric
operationdueto unbalancecurrentscaused by dissimilariAssociation Relay Committee, May 29, 1981.
ties in busphaseimpedances.Thus,thiscurrentmonitored
pole disagreement relay provides a method of detecting
generatorbreakerbeadflashovers, buttripping is generally 3. IEEE"Guide for A.C. GeneratorProtection," ANSU
IEEEC37.102-1988.
delayed .5 seconds. Reference 5 provides a detailed descriptionof this relay.
4. J.G. Manzek and J.T. Ullo, "Implementation of an
CONCLUSIONS
OpenBreakerFlashoverandInadvertentEnergization
Protection Scheme on Generator Circuit Breakers,"
presented
to the Pennsylvania Electric Association
Inadvertent energizingof synchronous generators has beRelayCommittee,September14, 1983.
come a significantproblem within the industry in recent
years as generating stations have become more complex.
The widespread use of breaker-and-a-half and ring bus 5. M. Meisinger,G. Rockefeller, L. Schulze,"RAGUA:
Protection Against Accidental Energization of Synschemes has added significantoperating flexibilitytohigh
chronous Machines," presented to the Pennsylvania
voltage generating stations. These configurations have
Electric Association Relay Committee, September
also increased complexity and the risk of the generator
14, 1983.
being inadvertently energized while off-line. Operating
errors, breaker head flashovers, control circuit malfunctions or a combination of these causes have resulted in 6. W.A. Elmore, CL. Wagner "PoleDisagreement Relaying," presented to 10th Annual Western Relay
generators becomingaccidentally energized Because the
Conference, Spokane, Washington, October 24-27,
damage to the machine can occurwithin a few seconds, it

1983.

-68-

APPENDIX I

APPENDIXll

Calculation of initial currents and voltages when a generator is energized froma three-phase source.

Calculation of initial currents andvoltages whena generator is energized from a single phase source such as a
breaker headflashover just prior to synchronizing.

Approximate Eguiyalent Circuit

UNIT STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER

Open Breaker FlashoYer

EauIVALENT
HIGH-VOLTAGE

SYSTEM

SYSTEM
GENERATOR

UNIT STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER

~14.1,;
I.

B~EAKER

GEN

EQUIVALENT
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE

SINGLE POLE

GEN

FlASHOVER

Symmetrical Componept EQuiyalept Circuit

Where:

Pas.
XIS

=System PositiveSequence Reactance

XIT = Transformer Positive Sequence Reactance

~O

j30

.....----..1:e .....--------.
Es12:..

Eg/ 150

=Generator Negative Sequence Reactance

~ = Generator Negative Sequence

Resistance

Es =System Voltage

E, = Transformer High SideVoltage

EG =Generator Terminal Voltage
I = Current

P300 = Generator 3 Phase Power

10

Eo = (I) (X 20 )
~=

(I) (X 20+X1T )

P30G = 3121)"'20

Theabove diagram assumes flashover occurs whengeneratorandsystem voltages are 1800 out of phase. If there
is no field on the machine at the time of inadvertent
energizing, the E8 voltage source is zero in the positive

-69-

sequenceequivalentcircuit.
Where:
X1o ' X20 , Xoo = Generator Positive, Negative and Zero
Sequence Reactances

= Unit Step-Up 'Iranstormer Positive,

NEgativeand Zero Sequence Reactances

X 1T , X 2T, X OT

= SystemEquivalent Positive, Negative and

Zero SequenceReactances

XIS' X 2S' XOS

Eg =GeneratorVoltage
ES = System Voltage
11' ~, 10 = Positive, Negativeand ZeroSequence Currents
SiJDpIified Eguiyalent Cirrnit

Eslsr..-

Eg/180
+

X1G
X1T
X2S

11

=12 =10

X2G
X2T
XOS

XOT
X1S

-70-

Section 13
GENERATOR BREAKER FAILURE

s.c. Patel
General Electric Co.
Malvern, PA

H.J. King
General Electric Co.
Malvern, PA

M. Yalta
Beckwith Electric Co.
LargO,FL

1_ :::CTION ZO~

Abstract- A breaker failure schemeneeds to be initiated

when the protective relay system operates to trip the
generator circuit breaker but the breakerfails to operate.
Because of the sensitivities requiredfor generator protection,generatorbreakerfailure backupby remote terminal
relaying is not possible. Local breakerfailure is required.
Breakerfailureprotectionfor generator breakers is similar
to that of other breakers on the transmission system, but
there are some subtle differences which are addressed in
this section of the tutorial.

GENERATOR

:'-@

Figure 1

Breaker failure protection provides for the tripping of

backupbreakersif a faultorabnormalcondition is detected
by protectiverelays and the associated generator breaker
does notopen after trip initiation. Forexample, if a faultor
abnormal condition in protection zone of Generator 1
(Figure 1) is not cleared by breaker 1 within a predetermined length of time, it will be necessary to trip breakers
2, 3, and 4 locally in order to remove the fault/abnormal
condition.

r
1_

GEIlERATOR

:::CTI~ Z~ 1

:'-

YES

:J

----------16
Figure2

YES

FAULT
CLEARED

INITIATE

t-------4I~

A
N

Figure 3

-71-

INITIATE
BREAKER
TRIP

BREAKER
FAlLURE SCHEME

r-----------t 5

Similarconsiderations must be given to multibreakerarrangements such as ring buses or breaker-and-a-half

configurations. Figure2 illustratestheoperation of a local
breaker failure schemeappliedto a ringbus station.

MAIN

INTRODUCTION

PROTECTION
OPERATED

RESET

BREAKER
FAILURE SCHEME

WAIT FOR

FAULT
CLEARANCE

TRP
BACK-UP
BREAKERS

A fault in protectionzone of generator 1 requires tripping Protective Relays, shown in Figure 4, represent all the
of two breakersatStation A. If anybreaker fails toclearthe generator and bus relays that trip the generator breaker.
fault, breaker failureprotection wouldinitiate tripping an Typically, the generator relays are divided in primary and
additional local breaker and transfer tripping a remote backup groups providing redundancy in protection funcbreaker.
lions as well as trip auxiliary relays (See the section on
Generator Tripping).
Figure 3 isa logicdiagramdepictinga basicbreakerfailure
Another factortoconsideris the operatingprocedurewhen
protection scheme.
a machine is shutdownformaintenance. When a ringbus,
or a breaker-and-a-half or a double breaker-double bus
arrangement
is usedon thehigh side,it iscommonpractice
GENERATOR BREAKER FAILURE LOGIC
to isolate the unit generator via a disconnect switch and
A functional diagram of a typical generator zone breaker closethe high voltage breakers to close the ring or tie the
failure schemeis shown in Figure 4. Likeall suchschemes, two buses together. Under these conditions, it will be
when the protective relays detect an internal fault or an necessary to isolate the lockout and trip relay contacts in
abnormaloperatingcondition, they willattempt to trip the order to preventunnecessary breaker-failure backup opgeneratorbreaker and at the sametimeinitiate thebreaker- eration during generator relay testing. Test switches are
failure timer.If a generator breaker doesnotclearthe fault sometimes used for this function. If the generatoris conor abnormalconditionin a specifiedtime,thetimerwilltrip nected to the system through two circuit breakers, each
the necessary breakers to remove the generator from the breakermust be equipped with a breaker failure relay.
system. As showninFigure4, toinitiate thebreaker-failure
timer,a protectiverelaymust operateandacurrentdetector
or a breaker "a" switch must indicate that thebreaker has Breaker Failure Timin&- The breaker failure protection
failed to open.Exceptfor the useof thebreaker"a" switch, shouldbe fastenoughto maintainstabilitybut not so fast
the arrangement shown in Figure 4 is typical of most as to compromise tripping security. This is particularly
breaker failure schemes. The breaker "a" switch must be important on bulk transmission lines where stability is
used in this case since there are faults and/or abnormal critical. Figure5 showstimingchart for a typical breaker
operating conditions such as stator or bus ground faults, failure scheme.
voltslHz overexcitation, negative sequence, excessive
underfrequency, reverse power flow, etc., which will not The shaded margin time provides security and should
produce sufficient current to operatethecurrentdetectors. accommodate the following:
Ifeach poleof thebreakeroperatesindependently, breaker
A. Excessive breaker interruptingtime.
"a" switches from all three poles must be paralleled and
B.
TimeovertraveI.
connected into the logic circuit
C. Ct and vt errors.
D. Safetyfactor.

TRIPS
BACKUP
BREAKERS
AND
UNIT

PROTECTIVE
RELAYS
528 - CIRCUIT BREAKER AUXLIARY CQNTACTS

FaultDetectQrs - Faultdetectorsthat have high dropoutto

pickupratioandwhosedropouttime is minimallyaffected
by et saturation and de offset in the secondary circuit
shouldbe used. Generators may be servedfrom twobreakers.It is important that the et ratios, the excitationcharacteristics, and thefaultdetectorsettings be adequateforthe
maximum fault currents through each breaker. Both ets
shouldhavethesameratingsandhaveadequatecapacityto
handlethe circuit burden.

CD - CURRENT DETECTOR
62 - BREAKER FAILURE TIMER WITH
ADJUSTABLE PICKUP & ZERO DROPOUT DELAYS

Figure 4 Functional Diagramof a Generator

Breaker Failure Scheme

-72-

FAULT OCCURS

a:

UJ

-c

UJ

Z
a:

-c

UJ
-1

~(!)

-1

>a:
i=<

w~

<

PROTECTIVE
RELAY

<w

a:-J

50 RESET

a:

oz

w()

TRANSFER
TRIP

BREAKER INTERUPT

MARGIN

TIME

(IF USED)

,~ 1\

86BFJ

/1

INTERRUPT TIME OF
BACK-UP BKR(S) AT
REMOTE TERMINAL

AUXILIARY
RELAY

SFI
AUXILIARY
RELAY

-----------1

~ - - - 62 TIMER - - - - -.......

INTERRUPT TIME OF
OF LOCAL BACK-UP BKR(S)

. . . . - - - - - - TOTAL CLEARING TIME OF LOCAL BACK-UP BKA(S)

--------t

. - . - - - - - TOTAL CLEARING Ttv1E OF BACK-UP 8KA{S) AT REMOTE TERMINAL

TIMES CAN NOT BE SCALED FOR COMPARISON)

Figure 5 Breaker FailmeTimeCoordination

OPEN GENERATOR BREAKER
FLASHOVER PROTECTION

Another form of breaker failure which can occur and

damagethegenerator is an open breaker flashover, thatis,
an internal flashover across the contacts of one or more
breakerpolesto energize the generator. Protection for this
type of breakerfailure is described in detail in theInadvertent Energizing Sectionof this tutorial andis briefly summarized in this section since it is a form of generator
breaker failure. Breakerflashover is most likely to occur
just prior to synchronizing or just after the generator is
removedfromservicewhenthe voltage across thegenerator breakercontactsapproaches twice normal as the generator slips in frequency with respect to the system. Although circuitbreakersare rated to withstand this voltage,
the probability of a flashover occurring during this period
is increased. Rarely aresuchflashovers simultaneous threephase occurrences. Thus most protection schemes are
designed to detect the flashover of one or two breaker
poles.
If one or two poles of a breaker flash over, the resulting
unbalancecurrentwillgenerally cause thegenerator negative-sequence relayorpossibly groundovercurrentbackup
relays to operate, which will initiate a tripping of the
flashed-over breaker.Breakerfailure asshown in Figure 4
will be initiated if current detectors (CD) are set with
sufficient sensitivity to detect this situation.

TRIPS
BACKUP

BREAKER
AND
UNIT

-,
IL

52b

I
I
I
...JI

52a52b -

XmC:JR~R8~~'f~CTS

CD - CURRENT DETECTOR
SON - INSTANTANEOUS

QVERCURRENY RELAY
62 - BREAKER FAILURE
TIMER

Figure 6 Modified BreakerFailure Logic

An approach used to speedup the detection of a breaker
flashover is to modify the breakerfailureschemeasshown
in Figure 6. An instantaneous overcurrent relay (50N) is
connected to the neutral of the generator step-up transformer. Therelay's outputis supervised by the generator

-73-

breaker "b" contact and provides an additional start to the

breaker-failure scheme. When the generator breaker is
open and one or two poles of the breaker flash over, the
resulting transformer neutralcurrentis detectedby the SON
relay without the delay that would be associated with
negative-sequenceor neutralbackuprelays. Again,current
detectors associated with the generator breaker failure
must be set with sufficient sensitivity to detect this flashover condition.

CONCLUSION
This section of the tutorial summarizes breaker failure
protectionpracticesreportedin more detail in reference 1
and 2 with more explanation of basic concepts. Breaker
failure schemes are generally connected to energize a
lockout relay which trips the necessary backup breakers,
initiates the transfertrippingof necessary remote breakers
and shuts down the generator.

Generatorbreakerflashovercanalsobedetectedby breaker
pole disagreementrelaying.'Ibis relaymonitorsthe tbreeREFERENCES
phase currents flowing through the breaker and senses
whether any phase is below a certain low thresholdlevel 1. "Summary Update of Practices on Breaker Failure
(indicating an open breakerpole)at thesametime that any
Protection," IEEE Transactionson Power Apparatus
other phase is above a substantially higher threshold level
and Systems, Vol. PAS-IOl, No.3 March 1982.
(indicating a closed or flashed-over pole). For breakerand-a-half or ring bus application, 3Eovoltage across the 2. "IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protectioo," IEEE
breaker is used to supervise the relay tripping to prevent
C37.102.
false operation due to unbalance currents caused by dissimilarities in phase bus impedances.

-74-

Section 14
GENERATOR TRIPPING
E.C. Fennell
FloridaPower & Light
Juno, Beach, FL

K.C. Kozminski
Pacific Gas & ElectricCo.
SanFrancisco, CA

Abstract- This section of the tutorial will provide insight

into thebasicobjectives and industry recommended practices for tripping the generating mit, oncean abnormality
or shortcircuithas beendetected requiring removal of the
unit from service. The task associated with applying the
propertripping schemes ongenerating units shouldnot be
underestimated. Thiseffortrequires a broad knowledge of
the generating unit equipment and its behavior during
normal and abnormal conditions. Selection of the proper
method of isolating a generator will minimize damage and
provide for rapid return to service.

lished. Wherepossible, the arrangement of the trip auxiliary relays shouldprovide redundancy in both trip paths
and trip functions, so that backuprelaystripa separate trip
auxiliary relay from the primary protection. The task

associated withapplying tripping schemes on generating

units should not be underestimated. This effort requires a
broadknowledge of the generating unit equipment and its
behavior during both normal and abnormal conditions. It
would be shortsighted if the only consideration given is to
disconnect the generator from the electrical system without taking into consideration the precise manner in which
thegenerating unit can be isolatedfrom thepowersystem
for various protective relay operations.

INTRODUCTION
A generating unitrepresents a significantinvestmentforits

owners. The generating unit is defined as the turbine,

generator, transformers, excitation system, and switchyard
breakers. Thegeneral design objectives ofprotection systems and theirassociated tripping schemes areto:

Described belowarefour(4) common methods forisolating the generator from service following unacceptable
abnormal operatingconditions or electrical faults.

Sjmultaneous lrippjg - Provides the fastest means of

isolating the generator. This tripping mode is used for all
internal generator faults and severe abnormalities in the
1. Remove the faulted section from the power system, generator protection zone. Isolation is accomplished by
thuspreventing orminimizing theeffect of the distur- tripping at the same time the generator breakers, field
bance on the unfaulted parts of the system.
breaker,and shutting downthe primemoverby closing the
turbine valves. If there exists a potential for significant
2. Minimize or prevent damage to equipment.
overspeed condition of the unit,a timedelaymay beused
3. Ensure to themaximumpossible extent that no single in the generator breakertrip path. If timedelay is used,the
contingency will totally disable theprotection on any effectof this delayon the generator and/orsystem should
be determined.
system.

4.

Providethe means to permit fast return to service of

the affected equipment.

More specifically, the objective of the generating unit

protection tripping schemes aretoensure that the effects of
faults and disturbances are restricted to local areas. The
tripping schemes should be capable of meeting this re-

quirement while experiencing a first-order contingency,

suchas thefailure of a singleprotective relay tooperate or
the failureof a breaker to trip.

Generator Triggina - This mode of isolation trips the

generator and field breakers. The scheme does not shut
downtheprimemoverandis usedwhere it may bepossible
to correctthe abnormality quickly thereby permitting the
reconneetion of themachine to thesystemina short period
of time.Theprotection whichtripsthegenerator forpower
system disturbance, rather than internal generator faultsl
abnormalities, can trip through this mode if permitted by
the type of prime mover and boiler system.

Unit Separation - This tripping scheme is similar to

generator tipping but initiates only the opening of the
TRIPPING SCHEMES
generatorbreakers.The schemeisrecommended forapplication when it is desirable to maintain the unit auxiliary
Generally, discretegeneratorprotectiverelays aregrouped loads connected to the generator. For example, during a
together to activate tripping auxiliary relays so that relays major system disturbance which requires tripping due to
with the same generator trip/shutdown modes are estab- low frequency, thestandby sourcemaybeunavailable.The

-75-

advantageof this scheme is thattheunitcanbereconnected TheTable 1belowindicatesthespecifictripactionforeach

to system with minimum delay. This trip mode requires trip mode described above.
that the unit be capable of a runbackoperation following a
full load rejection trip.
Sequential Trjp_llis trip mode is primarily used on
steam generators to prevent overspeed whendelayed tripping bas no detrimental effect on the generating unit, It is
used to trip the generator for primemoverproblemswhere
high speed tripping is not a requirement The first device
hipped is the turbine valves. A reverse power relay in
series with the valves close position switches provides
security against possible overspeedoftheturbine by ensuring that steam flows havebeen reduced below the amount
necessary to produce an overspeeding conditionwhenthe
generatorbreakersare tripped Forboiler/reactoror turbine
mechanical problems this is the preferred tripping mode
since it prevents the overspeedof themachine. However,
the disadvantage is that there is no trip outputfor a failure
of the turbine valve limit switches or reverse power relay.
When this approach is used, backupprotection should be
provided to assure trippingof the generator main and field
breakers in C3Se there is a failure. This is generally provided by a separate reverse power relay that initiates
independent tripping. This trip modeshouldnot override
the generator switchyard protection that instantaneously
opens the generator breaker whena criticalelectrical fault
occursthat might cause serious damage to the generatoror
switebyard equipment

Generator
B....k. .

FIeld
Trip

Prime
Mover
Trip

Simultaneous Trip

Generator Trip

Unit separation Trip

Sequential Trip

Tripping Mode

.11:.-_.-.

Table 1 Tripping Action

,.1E)OLLON

j ,,'
..-.............,II~

UNIT
OFF.

,'i\ 2ndV~Z
, 2 ,IFUSED
-I~

GEN'

GN NEl1T.OV.

-=

Generally supervised by turbine valve position switch and reverse

power relay.

TRANSF.
~ FAUlT PRESs.

.-.

ON

Figure 1 Typical Unit Generator-Transformer Configuration

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TRIP TABLE

Device

Generator Field Breaker

Trip
Breaker Trip

X
X
X
X
X

21 or 51V

24
32
40
46

49
51GN
51TN
59

59GN
61
63

64F

Prime Mover
Trip

X
X
X

X
X
X

Alarm
Onlv

X
X
Note 1
X

X
Note 4

71
78'
81

X
X

X
X

X
Note 4

X
X

X
Note 3

X
X

X
X

X
X
X

B7T

X
X

87U

87G

Notes:

Note2
X

Transfer
Auxiliaries

X
X
X

X
X

1. Device 59 may be connected to tr1J at hydro unls.

2. " generator Is off-One, trtp only fieldbreaker.

3. Referto Section on StatorGroundfor 100% ground protedlon.
4. May be conneded to trip, per generator manufacturer.

Table2 Suggested TripLogic

adaptedfrom theIEEEGuide forACGenerator Protection
(C37.102). It provides guidance in developing anoverall
Manyfactorscontribute to thedecision ontheselection of generator protection trip scheme. Individual trip schemes
the appropriate tripping scheme. Listed below are several will varydepending upon the owner'spreference, operatkey items:
ing experience and the specific capabilities of the prime
mover and boiler systems. Table 2 provides generally
Type of prime mover - dieseVgas engine, gas turbine, acceptedindustrypractice.
steam turbine, or waterwheel.
Impact of the sudden loss of output power on the Other Considerations in Developing
electrical systemand primemover.
Tripping PhHosophy
Safety to personnel
Operating experience
Concern bas arisen in recent years over several major
Management of unitsauxiliary loads during emergency accidents related to tripping philosophy in generating
shutdown.
stations. In large power plants, it is common to use a
breaker and a half orring bus yardlayout with a disconnect
Figure1depictsthe typicalcomplement ofprotection ona on the generator feed. Figure2 shows sucharrangements.
unit connectedgenerator. Table2suggestshiplogicforthe
various protective relays. Many of theseprotective func- This allowsthe generatorto be taken off-line,the disconlions have been discussed in this tutorial. The table was neetopened, and the breakers closedto maintain another
Tripping Scheme Selection

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Somecontrolschemes use the disconnectswitchauxiliary

contacts to disablecertain boiler trips whilethe machine is
in startup. This is fairlycommonon coal fired unitswhere
it takesa longtimeto get themachineon line. Ifanuisance
hip occurs, manyhoursmay be wasted. While it is necessary to be sensitive to boiler controlproblems,thegeneratorprotectionmustnot be compromisedduring the start-up
process by disabling its ability to trip the turbinelboiler.
Maintenance - Whenthe generatoris off-lineformaintenance,safetyrolesandproceduresmay requirethegeneraFigure 2 (a) Typical Breaker-and-a-Half Station
tor potential transformers to be racked out and tagged.
(b) TypicalRingBusStation
Also, in some instances, current transformers may be
shorted and even the station d.c. tripping source can be
tie between the main busses. In the early phases of plant disconnected. The designengineermust be awareof these
construction,it iscommontohavea ringbusconfiguration possibilities when determining the type and location of
which will later be expandedto a breaker anda half.The generator backup and inadvertent energizing protection.
ring configuration requires a disconnect switcb on the The commonbeliefis that if the generator is off-line, the
(a)

(b)

generator feed that can be openedso that thering can be

closedwhen thegeneratorisoff-line. Someengineers have
used auxiliary contacts in the motor operator of these
disconnectswitchesto disablesomeor all ofthegenerator
protection when the generatoris off-line. While this appears to be a convenient indication of the status of the
machine, it can be fooled by abnormal conditions.

Disconnect Switch -Whenprotectiverelaying is routinely

disabledwithauxiliarycontactsfrom the.disconneetswiteh,
the following should be carefully considered. Due to
adjustment and linkage problems the auxiliary contacts
may not properly close and vital protection can be out of
service when needed most Also, if theauxiliary contacts
are located inside the motor operator compartment, they
may only follow the motor mechanism andnot the actual
switch blades. Whenthemotoroperatoris uncoupled from
the switch shaft and the switch is closed manually, the
protectionwill beoutof service. Evenif theauxiliary stack
is mounted so thatit follows the disconnect switchoperating shaft, there can be reliable problems. Several very
serious accidents can be traced directly to usingauxiliary
contacts to disable protection and tbis practice is not
recommended.

protection is not needed. However,the long list ofgenerators that have been inadvertently energized tends to support the need to have as much of the protection in service
as possible even when the machine is off-line. Refer to
Sectionon Inadvertent Energizing.
CONCLUSION

Selecting the proper trip action of generator protective

relays is one of the most important aspects of protecting
generators. This task requires a broad understanding of
generator protection, the capabilityof the generator/prime
mover system and unit operating/maintenance practices,
Selection of the appropriate trippingmode willminimize
or prevent damage and provide for the rapid return to
serviceof the unit.
REFERENCE

1. ANSIIIEEE C37.102-1987, ''Guide for AC Generator Protection."

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