S01SystemModeling PDF

SteadyStatePowerSystemSecurity
AnalysiswithPowerWorld Simulator
S1:PowerSystemModeling
MethodsandEquations
2001SouthFirstStreet
Champaign,Illinois61820
+1(217)384.6330
support@powerworld.com
http://www.powerworld.com
TopicsintheSection
NominalVoltageLevels
PerUnitValues
Admittanceand
Impedance
YBusMatrix
Buses
TransmissionBranchs
Loads
SwitchedShunts
Generators
PowerFlowEquations
PV,PQ,Slackbuses
Newton'sMethod
MultipleSolutions
2BusPowerFlow
PVandQVCurves
MaximumLoadability
2012PowerWorld Corporation
TransmissionSystem:
Whydotransmissionsystemsoperateatmanydifferent
voltagelevels?
Power=Voltage*Current
Thusforagivenpower,ifyouuseahighervoltage,thenthecurrentwill
belower
Whydowecare?TransmissionLosses
Losses=Resistance*(Current)2
Example:Whatifwewanttotransmit460MW?
At230kV,thatmeans2,000Amps
At115kV,thatmeans4,000Amps
BecausecurrentisTwiceashighfor115kV,thatmeansthelosses
wouldbe4timeshigher
ThusHigherVoltageisbetter,butmoreexpensive,thus
thereisatradeoff
Meansvoltagesvarydependingonthesituation
TransmissionSystem:
VaryingNominalVoltage
345kV
Harderforahumanto
comparethevoltage
levels
Hardertohandleinthe
equationsusedinpower
systems
Youdhavetoinclude
turnsratiomultipliersall
overtheplace
345kV
138kV
138kV
138kV
Thisleadstheindustry
touseanormalization
method
345kV
69kV
69kV
4
TransmissionVoltageNormalization
usingPerUnitValues
Perunitvaluesareusedinpowersystemstoavoidworrying
aboutvariousvoltageleveltransitionscreatedby
transformers.
Theyalsoallowustocomparevoltagesusingapercentage
likenumber
AllbusesinthepowersystemareassignedaNominal
Voltage.
Normallythisiscorrespondsthephysicalvoltageratingofdevices
connectedtothisbusandvoltagesareexpectedtobecloseto
this
Thismeans1.00perunitvoltageisusuallynormal
Butstrictlyspeakingitdoesnthavetobe.Itsjustanumberused
tonormalizethevariousparametersinthepowersystemmodel.
Example:InWesternUnitedStates,thereisalotof500kVtransmission,
butitgenerallyoperatesatabout525kV
BaseValues
DefineaPowerBase(SBase)fortheentire
system
TransmissionsystemSBase=100MVA
TheVoltageBase(VBase)foreachpartofthe
systemisequaltothenominalvoltage
FromthesedeterminetheImpedanceBase
(ZBase)andCurrentBase(IBase)
SBase
(VBase) 2
IBase
ZBase
3 VBase
SBase
CurrentBaseCalculation:
LinetoLineVoltage
NominalVoltagesarespecifiedastheLineto
Linevoltagebytradition
Thisisthevoltagemagnitudedifferencebetweenthe
ABphase,BCphase,andCAphase
Vline-to-ground
Vline to line
138kV 80kVLineGround
Currentappliestoonlyonephase,
butthePoweristhesumacross
allthreephases,thus
S 3I Vline-to-ground
S 3IVline to line
S
3Vline to line
I Rating
Ground
MVARating
3 NomVoltage
7
VoltageBaseZones
345kV
VBase=345kV
345kV
345kV
138kV
138kV
VBase=138kV
138kV
69kV
69kV
VBase=69kV
NOTE:Zonesareseparatedbytransformers
DeterminingaPerUnitValue
Todetermineaperunitvalue,simplydivide
theactualnumberbythebase
Forexample
Z=10+j50ohms
SBase=100MVA
138kVBase
(138,000) 2
ZBase
190.44 Ohms
100,000,000
Z
10 j50 Ohms
Zpu
0.0525 j0.2625
ZBase 190.44 Ohms
TheTransmissionSystem Modelof
theWires
YBus(AdmittanceMatrix)
Willreviewthevariouspartsofthe
transmissionsystem
Howwemodeltransmissionsystem
Howthesemodelsareenteredintosoftware
10
Impedance(Z)andAdmittance(Y)
andrelatedtermsR,X,B,andG
ThecomplexnumberforImpedanceis
representedbytheletterZ
Z=R+jX
R=Resistance
X=Reactance
Admittanceisthenumericinverseof
Impedance andrepresentedbytheletterY
Y=G+jB
G=Conductance
B=Susceptance
11
ConversionBetween
Impedance(Z)andAdmittance(Y)
ImpedanceandAdmittancearecomplex
numbersandareinversesofeachother
1
1
r -x
y
2
j 2
2
2
z r jx r
r
x
x
r
g 2
2
r x
x
b 2
2
r x
12
YBusMatrix
(theAdmittanceMatrix)
UsedtomodelofALLthetransmissionlines,transformers,
capacitors,etc...
Theseareallthepassiveelements
Thispartofthemodeldoesnotchangefordifferentsolutionstates
Representsonlyconstantimpedances
TheYBusisaNXNmatrix
Nisthenumberofbusesinthesystem
AsoftwarepackagewillcalculatetheYBusfromthedataprovided
bytheuserregardingthepassiveelementsofthesystem
TransmissionLines
LineShunts
SwitchedShunts(Capacitors/Reactors)
BusShunts
13
PowerSystemBus(ornode)
NominalVoltage(inkV)
BShunt,GShunt(inNominalMvar)
VoltageMagnitudeinperunit(calculated)
Usedasinitialguessinpowerflowsolution
VoltageAngleindegrees(calculated)
Usedasinitialguessinpowerflowsolution
14
ConvertingNominalMW/Mvarinto
aperunitadmittance
GShuntandBShuntaregivenasaMWor
Mvar atNominalVoltage (GShunt and BShunt
TheyrepresentconstantadmittanceG+jB
BShunt
V B
Writingthisinactualunits
BShunt
ConvertingtoPerUnitValues
MW
MVar
MVar
2
nom
MVar
BShunt MVar
B pu
SBase
B pu
SBase
2
Vnom
Vnom
BShunt MVar
SBase
SimilarderivationforG
15
BusShunts(BandG)
ValuesexpressedinMW/Mvar atnominalvoltage
Representaconstantimpedance/admittanceatbus
BShunt:representsanimpedanceMvar injection
GShunt:representsanimpedanceMWabsorption
SignofBandGareoppositeforhistoricalreasons
Grepresentedaloadterm
Brepresentedacapacitorterm
YBusisaffectedonly
ondiagonal
OnBusDialog
Bus K
GShuntMW BShuntMVar
Bus K
j

SBase SBase
16
S116
TransmissionBranch
(LineorTransformer)
ImpedanceParameters
OnBranchDialog
SeriesResistance(R)inperunit
SeriesReactance(X)inperunit
ShuntCharging(B)inperunit
ShuntConductance(G)inperunit
R+jX
Bus
K
jB
2
G
2
Bus
M
jB
2
G
2
Note:Thismodelismodifiedwhenincludingtapratiosorphaseshifts
forvariabletransformers
17
TransmissionBranch
affectontheYBus
TomaketheYBus,weexpressalltheimpedancesofthe
modelasanadmittance
g series
r
2
2
r x
bseries
x
2
2
r x
ThenaddseveraltermstotheYBusasaresultofthe
transmissionline(ortransformer)
BusK

G
B
g
jb
j
series
series
BusK
2
2
BusM
g series jbseries
BusM
g series jbseries
G
B
g series jbseries j
2
2
18
SwitchedShunts
(CapacitorandReactorBanks)
OnSwitchedShuntDialog
InputthenominalMVAR,
theMVARsuppliedbythe
capacitoratnominalvoltage.
BusK
Itrepresentsaconstantimpedance
Usesameconversionas
jB
Bus K
withtheBusShunts
YBusisthusaffected
QMVar
onlyondiagonalterms Bus K j SBase
19
WhatdoesYBuslooklike?
Graphicrepresents
a118BusSystem
EachdotrepresentsanonzeroentryintheYBus
SparseorMostly
Zeros
Incident
Symmetric
20
Loads(ZIPmodel)
Loadsaremodeledasconstantimpedance(Z),
current(I),power(P),oracombinationofthe
three
Foreachofthesevaluesyouspecifyareal
powerandareactivepower(Pspec +jQspec)
ConstantPower themostcommonlyused
OnLoadDialog
S Lk Pspec jQ spec
21
ConstantCurrentLoad
P+jQ specifiedarewhattheloadwouldbeat
nominalvoltageof1.0perunit
Gobacktotheequationsforcomplexpowerand
deriveexpressionforS
S VI
S Pspec jQ spec
I
1 .0 v
V
*
Pspec jQ spec
S V v
1 .0 v
Loadbecomesalinearfunctionofvoltage
magnitude
OnLoadDialog
S Lk V ( Pspec jQ spec )
22
ConstantImpedanceLoad
P+jQ specifiedarewhattheloadwouldbeatnominal
voltageof1.0perunit
Gobacktotheequationsforcomplexpower
*
2
V2
(1.0) 2
V V
*
*
S VI V * Z
Z
S
Pspec jQ spec
Z
S load
V2
(1.0) 2
P jQ
spec
spec
V 2 ( Pspec jQ spec )
Loadbecomesaquadraticfunctionofvoltagemagnitude
OnLoadDialog
S Lk V
( P spec jQ spec )
23
Generators
ModelthemasasourceofRealandReactive
Power MW,MVARoutput
Controlfeaturesofgenerators
AVR(AutomaticVoltageRegulation)
Controlsthereactiveoutput(Q)tomaintainaspecified
voltagelevelataregulatedbus(doesnthavetobethe
bustowhichitisconnected)
AGC(AutomaticGenerationControl)
Modifiesthepoweroutput
24
GeneratorMWPowerControlInput
MWOutput
MinimumandMaximumMWOutput
AvailableforAGC
EnforceLimits
ParticipationFactor
Usedwhenonparticipationfactorcontrol
OnGeneratorDialog
25
GeneratorVoltageControlFeatures
(AVR)
MvarOutput
MinimumandMaximumMVARoutput
OrcanUseCapabilityCurve
Moredetailed,butmoredata
VoltageSetpointinperunit
AvailableforAVR
RemoteRegulation%
Qout
MustStayinsideshaded
regionduringoperation
Pout
Usedwhenmorethan
onegeneratoris
controllingthesame
busvoltage
On
Generator
Dialog
26
ThePowerFlowEquations
Thisistheheartofallpowersystemanalysis
Kirchoffs Lawsforapowersystem:
SumoftheCurrentsateveryNodeEqualsZero
27
WhythePowerFlow?
Manyloads(likeheaters)arejustbigresistors
whichshouldbejustanimpedance,sowhysolve
thepowerflow?
BecauseourinputdataisMWandMVARvalues.This
isbecause
Theexperienceofutilitiesformorethan100years
showsthatconsumersbehavesimilartoconstant
poweroverthelongrun
Ifthevoltagedropsonaheater,thepower
consumptionalsodecreases,buteventuallysome
peoplegetcoldandturnuptheheat
Actuallythebuiltinthermostatandcontrolsystemprobably
dothisautomatically
28
DerivingthePowerFlowEquations
UsingtheYBus,writeKirchoffs CurrentLawat
everybusasamatrixequation
YV I generators I loads 0
WearestudyingPOWERsystems,soweliketotalk
aboutpowernotcurrent,so
S VI * [V](V * Y * ) - [V]I*generators [V]I *loads 0

[V](V * Y * ) - Sgenerators Sloads 0
etc....
TheseareN1complexnumberequations(where
N=thenumberofbusesinthesystem)
29
ThePowerFlowEquations
TheseN1complexnumberequationscanthen
bewrittenas2*(N1)realnumberequationsas
below
N 1
Pk 0 Vk Vm g km cos k m bkm sin k m PGk PLk

m 1
Transmissionlines,
transformers,capacitors
Generators
Loads
N 1
Qk 0 Vk Vm g km sin k m bkm cos k m QGk QLk

m 1
ElementsoftheYBus
Note:Thevariablesgkm andbkm aretherealandimaginarypartsoftheYBus.
(Y=G+jB or
ykm =gkm +jbkm )
30
ThePowerFlowEquationVariables
Fourparametersdescribethebus
Voltagemagnitude(V)
Voltageangle( or)
RealPowerInjection(P=Pgen Pload)
ReactivePowerInjection(Q=Qgen Qload)
TheobjectiveofthePowerFlowalgorithmisto
determineallfourofthesevalues
31
ThreeTypesofBuses
InthePowerFlowwearegiventwoofthese
valuesateachbusandthensolvefortheother
two
Generally,therearethreetypesofbusesina
PowerFlow
Type of Bus
Slack Bus (V-Bus)
(only one of these)
PV-Bus
(generator on AVR control)
PQ-Bus
(load or generator not on
AVR control)
Voltage
Mag.
(V)
GIVEN
Voltage
Angle
()
GIVEN
Power
Injection
(P = PgenPload)
SOLVE FOR
GIVEN
SOLVE
FOR
SOLVE
FOR
GIVEN
SOLVE
FOR
GIVEN
Reactive Power
Injection
(Q = Qgen Qload)
SOLVE
FOR
SOLVE
FOR
GIVEN
32
HowdoesthePowerFlowwork?
Thepowerflowequationsarenonlinear,
whichmeanstheycannotbedirectlysolved
Linear:35=7x 14,sox=7
Nonlinear:5x=sin(x),sox=???
Tosolvenonlinearequations,aniterative
techniquemustbeused.
TosolvethePowerFlow,NewtonsMethodis
normallythebesttechnique
Simulatorusesthisbydefault.
33
SolvingNonLinearEquations
PowerFlowEquationsareNONLINEARequations.
Therearecos(*)andsin(*)termswhichmakethe
equationsnonlinear
Thismeansthatfindingadirectsolutiontothemis
impossible.
Thuswemustuseiterativenumericalschemesto
determinetheirsolution
Forpowerflowequations,variationsonNewtons
Methodhasbeenfoundtobethebesttechnique
34
NewtonsMethod
DiscussedinCalculuscourses
Considerasimplescalarequationf(x)
Youcanwritef(x)asaTaylorSeries
f
f ( x) f ( x0 )
x
x x0
2 f
1
( x x 0 )
x 2
2
x x0
( x x ) 2 h.o.t.
0
35
NewtonsMethodfor
ScalarFunctions
Now,approximatethisTaylorSeriesbyignoring
allbutthefirsttwoterms
f
f ( x) f ( x0 )
x
( x x0 )
x x0
f
x x0
x
x x0
f ( x) f ( x0 )
Wearetryingtofindwheref(x)=0(thepower
flowequationssumtozero),thereforewecan
approximateandestimate
f
x x0
x
x x0
f ( x0 )
36
NewtonsMethod
Thisiscalledaniterativemethodbecauseyoutakea
guessatx0 andusetheNewtonsteptoanewguess
calledx1.Thenyouusex1 tofindx2,etc
Considerf(x)=x22.Wefind
Thus
2 xk
x xk
1
xk
( xk2 2) and
2 xk
2
xk 1 xk xk xk
( xk 2)
2 xk
37
NewtonsMethod
Nowtakeandinitialguess,sayx0=1,anditerate
thepreviousequation
k
xk
f(xk)
0
1
2
1.0
1.5
1.41667
-1.0
0.25
1.41422
6.024x10-6
6.953x10-3
xk
0.5
-0.08333
-2.454x10-3
Done
Errordecreasesquitequickly
Quadraticconvergence
f(xk)isknownasthemismatch
Theproblemissolvedwhenthemismatchiszero
38
NonLinearEquationscan
haveMultipleSolutions
Considerthepreviousexample.
Therearetwosolutions.
x 2 and x 2
Inaniterativescheme,theinitialguess
determineswhichsolutionsyouconvergeto.
Considerstartingatx0=1.
xk
f(xk)
0
1
2
-1.0
-1.5
-1.41667
-1.0
0.25
-1.41422
6.024x10-6
6.953x10-3
xk
-0.5
0.08333
2.454x10-3
Done
39
S139
NonLinearEquationscan
haveNoRealSolution
Considertheequationx2 =0,where isan
independentparameter
Thenumberofrealsolutionsdependsonthe
valueof .
For >0,therearetworealsolutions
For =0,thereisonerealsolutionatx=0
For <0,thereareNOrealsolutions
Parametervariationcanchangethenumberof
solutionsofnonlinearsystems
40
NewtonRhapson
ConvergenceCharacteristics
GlobalconvergencecharacteristicsoftheNR
algorithmarenoteasytocharacterize.
TheNRalgorithmconvergesquitequickly
providedtheinitialguessiscloseenoughto
thesolution.
Howeverthealgorithmdoesntalways
convergetotheclosestsolution.
Someinitialguessesarejustplainbad.For
example,ifisnearzero(ill
f x
conditioned),theprocessmaydiverge
41
ExtendingScalarto
VectorsandMatrices
Newtonsmethodmayalsobeusedwhenyou
aretryingtofindasolutionwheremany
functionsareequaltozero.
Letf(x)beandimensionalfunctionandletx
beanndimensionalvector
f1 ( x)
f ( x)
f n ( x)
x1
x
xn
42
NewtonsMethodforMultiple
Equations
Now,theNewtonstepisstilldefinedas
f
x k 1 x k x k
x
x xk
f (x k )
f
Butisnowamatrix,calledtheJacobian
x
f1
x
1
f
f 2
x1
x
f n
x1
f1
x2
f 2
x2
f1
xn
f n
xn
43
SolvingthePowerFlowEquations
PowerFlowEquationsareNONLINEAR
equations.
Thecos(*)andsin(*)termsmakethemnonlinear
Thismeanswehavetouseaniterative
techniquetosolvethem.
Definef tobetherealandreactivepower
balanceequationsateverybus
Definex tobethevectorofvoltagesandangles
ateverybus(excepttheslackbus)
44
SettingupthePowerFlowSolution
N 1
Recall
Pk Vk Vm gkm cos k m bkm sin k m PGk PLk

m1
N 1
Qk Vk Vm gkm sin k m bkm cos k m QGk QLk
Thus,
m1
P1
1
Q
V
1
1
P2
2
f ( x) Q2 and x V2

Pn 1
n 1
Q
V
n 1
n 1
P1

1
Q1
1
P
2
1
f
Q 2
x
1

Pn 1

1
Q
n 1
1
P1
V1
Q1
V1
P2
V1
Q2
V1
Pn 1
V1
Qn 1
V1
Note:Therearenbuses,withbusnbeingtheslackbus
P1
2
Q1
2
P1
V2
Q1
V2
P1
n 1
Q1
n 1
Pn 1
n 1
Qn 1
n 1
P1
Vn 1
Q1
Vn 1

Pn 1
Vn 1
Qn 1
Vn 1
45
PowerFlowSolutions
Thepowerflowequationsexhibitthesame
behaviorasothernonlinearequations.
Intheorythereareupto2n1 solutionstothe
powerflowequations.
Ofthese,ALLorNONEmayberealnumber
solutions
Inpowersystemanalysis,wearenormally
interestedonlyinthesolutionthatisthehigh
voltagesolutionforeverybus
46
S146
ExampleTwoBusPowerSystem
Considerthislossless(R=0)examplesystem
Bus 1
(Slack)
R+jX = 0.000 + j0.100
Bus 2
P +jQ
L
L
Voltage Angle at Bus 2
VariableDefinitions
Powerbalance
equations:
V Voltage Magnitude at Bus 2

x 0 .1
10
B 2
2
2
r x 0 0.1
PMismatch PL BV sin( )
QMismatch QL BV cos( ) BV 2
47
Howdopowerflowsolutionsvaryas
loadischanged?
Solution:Calculateaseriesofpowerflow
solutionsforvariousloadlevels.
Firstdeterminethefollowing
B sin( )
BV cos( )
f
J ( , V )
BV
sin(
)
B
cos(
)
2
BV
x
PL BV sin( )

x k ; f ( x)
2
Q
BV
cos(
)
BV
V

L
48
ExamplePowerFlowSolution
Nowforeachloadlevel,iteratefromaninitial
guessuntilthesolution(hopefully)converges
f
x x0
x
x x0
f ( x0 )
ConsideraperunitloadofPL =2puandQL=0pu
A200MWloadsinceSBase=100MVA
Thenconsideraflatstartfortheinitialguess:V0
=1;0 =0.
AlsoconsiderastartofV0 =0.5;0 =1.
49
S149
PowerFlowTwoBus.xls
Simple2BusPowerFlowinExcel
OpenMicrosoftExcel
\S01_SystemModeling\PowerFlowTwoBus.xls
GrayShaded
cellsare
userinputs
(initialguess,
loadandnetwork
parameters)
50
PowerFlowTwoBus.xls
IterationResults
forPowerFlowSolution
ChangeInitialVoltagetoV0 =1;0=0
CellB5=1.0
CellC5=0.0
k
0
1
2
3
4
Vk
k (radians)
1.0000
-0.0000
1.0000
-0.2000
0.9794
-0.2055
0.9789
-0.2058
0.9789
-0.2058
HighVoltageSolution
ChangeInitialVoltagetoV0 =0.5;0=1
CellB5=0.5
CellC5=1.0
k
0
1
2
3
4
Vk
k (radians)
0.5000
-1.0000
0.0723
-1.5152
0.2010
-1.3397
0.2042
-1.3657
0.2043
-1.3650
LowVoltageSolution
51
RegionofConvergence
InitialguessofBus2angleisplottedonxaxis,voltage
magnitudeonyaxis,forload=200MW,100Mvar;x=0.1pu
Initialguessesinthe
redregionconverge
tothehighvoltage
solution,whilethosein
theyellowregion
convergetothelow
voltagesolution
52
PVCurves
Per unit voltage magnitude
APVCurveisgeneratedbyplottingthesetwosolutionsasthereal
powerloadisvariedwiththereactiveloadandimpedanceconstant
ExperimentwithparametersincellsO2O4
Highertransmissionimpedanceusuallydecreasesthesystem
capacity(maximumload)
Note:loadvaluesbelow
500havetwosolutions,
thoseabove500haveno
solution
High voltage solutions
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Foracriticalvalue(i.e.
thenosepoint)there
isonlyonesolution
0.2
Low voltage solutions
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Real power load (MW)

53
QVCurves
Per unit voltage magnitude
AQVCurveisgeneratedbyplottingthesetwo
solutionsasthereactivepowerloadisvaried
withtherealloadandimpedanceconstant
1
Again:loadvaluesbelow
250havetwosolutions,
whilethoseabove250have
nosolution
High voltage solutions
0.8
0.6
0.4
Foracriticalvalue(i.e.
thenosepoint)there
isonlyonesolution
0.2
Low voltage solutions

0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Reactive power load (Mvar)

54
MaximumLoadability
ThenosepointsonthePVandQVcurvesare
criticalvalues.
Theycorrespondtopointsofmaximum
loadabilityfromastaticpointofview
Note:thisonlyconsidersthestaticequations.
Otherproblemscanoccurlongbeforethepower
systemreachesthispoints:linesoverheatingor
systemdynamicproblems
Thecriticalvaluesdependontherelative
allocationbetweenrealandreactivepower
55
MathematicalCharacteristicsofthe
CriticalValue
Atthecriticalvalue,thepowerflowJacobian
willbesingular
Asingularmatrixisonewhichhasazero
determinant(ageneralizationofscalarcasewhen
df/dx=0)
AsingularmatrixCANNOTbeinverted
ThustheNewtonpowerflowdoesnotworkwell
nearthispointbecauseitrequiresustoinvertthe
1
Jacobianmatrix
f
x k 1 x k x k
x
x xk
f (x k )
56

S01SystemModeling PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

S01SystemModeling PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

SteadyStatePowerSystemSecurity

S VI * [V](V * Y * ) - [V]Igenerators [V]I loads 0

Pk 0 Vk Vm g km cos k m bkm sin k m PGk PLk

Qk 0 Vk Vm g km sin k m bkm cos k m QGk QLk

Pk Vk Vm gkm cos k m bkm sin k m PGk PLk

Qk Vk Vm gkm sin k m bkm cos k m QGk QLk

R+jX = 0.000 + j0.100

Voltage Angle at Bus 2

V Voltage Magnitude at Bus 2

Per unit voltage magnitude

High voltage solutions

Real power load (MW)

Per unit voltage magnitude

High voltage solutions

Low voltage solutions

Reactive power load (Mvar)

Вам также может понравиться