Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Lecture Notes
Welding Technology 1
Welding and Cutting Technologies
Table of Contents
Chapter
Subject
Page
0.
Introduction
1.
Gas Welding
2.
13
3.
26
4.
43
5.
56
6.
73
7.
Pressure Welding
85
8.
101
115
10.
129
11.
146
12.
Thermal Cutting
160
13.
Special Processes
175
14.
187
15.
Welding Robots
200
16.
Sensors
208
Literature
218
9.
0.
Introduction
2003
0. Introduction
Welding fabrication processes are classified in accordance with the German Standards DIN 8580 and DIN 8595 in main group 4 Joining, group 4.6 Joining by
Welding, Figure 0.1.
2
Forming
1
Casting
4.1
Joining by
composition
4.2
Joining
by filling
3
Cutting
4.3
Joining by
pressing
4.4
Joining by
casting
4
Joining
4.5
Joining by
forming
4.6.1
Pressure welding
5
Coating
4.6
Joining by
welding
4.7
Joining by
soldering
6
Changing of
materials
properties
4.8
Joining by
adhesive
bonding
4.6.2
Fusion welding
br-er0-01.cdr
Figure 0.1
Screwing
show therefore higher strength properties than the joint types depicted
in Figure 0.2. This is of advantage,
Riveting
Adhesive
bonding
Soldering
Welding
br-er0-02.cdr
ISF 2002
Connection Types
Figure 0.2
0. Introduction
Figures 0.3 and 0.4 show the further subdivision of the different welding methods
according to DIN 1910.
Production processes
4
Joining
4.6
Joining by welding
4.6.1
Pressure welding
4.6.2
Fusion welding
4.6.1.1
Welding
by
solid bodies
4.6.1.2
Welding
by liquids
4.6.1.3
Welding
by gas
4.6.1.4
Welding by
electrical
gas discharge
4.6.1.6
Welding
by motion
4.6.1.7
Welding by
electric current
Heated tool
welding
Flow welding
Gas pressure-/
roll-/ forge-/
diffusion
welding
Arc pressure
welding
Cold pressure-/
shock-/ friction-/
ultrasonic
welding
Resistance
pressure
welding
ISF 2002
br-er0-03.cdr
Figure 0.3
Production processes
4
Joining
4.6
Joining by welding
4.6.1
Pressure welding
4.6.2
Fusion welding
4.6.2.2
Welding
by liquids
4.6.2.3
Welding
by gas
4.6.2.4
Welding by
electrical
gas discharge
4.6.2.5
Welding
by beam
4.6.2.7
Welding by
electric current
Cast welding
Gas welding
Arc welding
Beam welding
Resistance
welding
br-er0-04.cdr
Figure 0.4
1.
Gas Welding
2003
1. Gas Welding
3
Although the oxy-acetylene process
has been introduced long time ago it
5
8
7
9
1
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
br-er1-01.cdr
Figure 1.1
3
oxygen
propane
1.43
0.9
400
200
645
645
2850
2770
0
300
490
335
510
natural gas
1.17
propane
1.29
air
2.0
air
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
oxygen
10.3
370
8.5
330
KW
k
br-er1-02.cdr
Figure 1.2
/cm2
cm
/s
ISF 2002
1. Gas Welding
4
C2H2 is produced in acetylene gas
loading funnel
material lock
sludge
to
sludge pit
br-er1-03.cdr
ISF 2002
Acetylene Generator
Figure 1.3
Acetone disintegrates at a pressure of
acetone
acetylene
acetylene cylinder
acetone quantity :
~13 l
acetylene quantity :
6000 l
cylinder pressure :
15 bar
cylinder.
br-er1-04.cdr
ISF 2002
Storage of Acetylene
Figure 1.4
1. Gas Welding
5
Oxygen
duced
gaseous
is
by
profrac-
cooling
tional distillation
cylinder
nitrogen
air
stored in cylinders
oxygen
liquid
air
pipeline
liquid
oxygen
sure of up to 20
MPa, Figure 1.5.
tank car
nitrogen
vaporized
cleaning
compressor
separation
consumption, stor-
supply
br-er1-05.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 1.5
able.
50 l oxygen cylinder
protective cap
cylinder valve
gaseous
take-off connection
V = volume of cylinder : 50 l
Q = volume of oxygen : 10 000 l
Q=pV
foot ring
liquid
safety valve
vaporizer
filling
connection
user
still
liquid
br-er1-06.cdr
Storage of Oxygen
Figure 1.6
gaseous
1. Gas Welding
In order to prevent mistakes, the gas cylinders are colour-coded. Figure 1.7 shows a
survey of the present colour code and the future colour code which is in accordance
with DIN EN 1089.
The cylinder valves are also of
show a
thread
right-hand
union
Acetylene
actual condition
nut.
DIN EN 1089
blue
actual condition
white
DIN EN 1089
grey
cylinder
helium
oxygen techn.
yellow
brown
grey
blue (grey)
brown
red
dark green
grey
retentions. Cylinder
valves
for
grey
other
argon
darkgreen
left-hand
vivid green
grey
grey
combustible gases
have
hydrogen
argon-carbon-dioxide mixture
black
grey
grey
darkgreen
thread-connection
nitrogen
carbon-dioxide
br-er1-07.cdr
with a circumferen-
ISF 2002
Gas Cylinder-Identification
according to DIN EN 1089
tial groove.
Figure 1.7
Pressure regulators reduce the cylinder pressure to the requested working pressure, Figures 1.8 and 1.9.
cylinder pressure
working pressure
br-er1-08.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 1.8
1. Gas Welding
At a low cylinder pressure (e.g. acetylene cylinder) and low pressure fluctuations,
single-stage regulators
are applied; at higher cylinder pressures normally two-stage pressure regulators are
discharge pressure
locking pressure
used.
The
requested
pressure is set by
the
adjusting
the
throttle
valve
closes
the
increased pressure
br-er1-09.cdr
ISF 2002
onto
the
brane.
Figure 1.9
The
injector-type
welding torch
injector or blowpipe
torch consists of a
body
with
valves
with
mixer tube
coupling nut
mixer nozzle
oxygen valve
hose connection
for oxygen
A6x1/4" right
welding
By the selection of
suitable
welding
chambers,
welding nozzle
the
welding torch head
be
adjusted
for
different
plate thicknesses.
Figure 1.10
torch body
ISF 2002
Welding Torch
welding
hose connection
for fuel gas
A9 x R3/8 left
mem-
1. Gas Welding
The special form of the mixing chamber guarantees highest possible safety against
flashback, Figure 1.11. The high outlet speed of the escaping O2 generates a negative pressure in the acetylene gas line, in consequence C2H2 is sucked and drawn-in.
C2H2 is therefore available with a very low pressure of 0.02 up to 0.05 MPa compared with O2 (0.2 up to 0.3 MPa).
acetylene
oxygen
acetylene
pressure nozzle
torch body
br-er1-11.cdr
ISF 2002
Injector-Area of Torch
Figure 1.11
A neutral flame adjustment allows the differentiation of three zones of a chemical
reaction, Figure 1.12:
0. dark core:
acetylene decomposition
C2H2 -> 2C+H2
2. welding zone:
3. outer flame:
complete reaction:
1. Gas Welding
welding flame
combustion
welding nozzle centre cone
welding zone
2-5
outer flame
3200C
2500C
1800C
1100C
400C
br-er1-12.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 1.12
welding flame
ratio of mixture
excess of
oxygen
normal
(neutral)
excess of
acetylene
foaming
spattering
sparking
consequences:
carburizing
hardening
br-er1-13.cdr
reducing
oxidizing
ISF 2002
Figure 1.13
1. Gas Welding
10
By changing the gas mixture outlet
welding flame
soft flame
discharging velocity and weld heat-input rate: middle
3
moderate flame
hard flame
br-er1-14.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 1.14
Depending on the plate thickness are
the working methods leftward weld-
welding-rod
flame
welding bead
weld-rod
flame
br-er1-15e.cdr
ISF 2002
Flame Welding
Figure 1.15
1. Gas Welding
11
In rightward welding the flame is directed onto the molten pool; a weld
1,5
symbol
flange weld
1,0
plain butt
weld
1,0
4,0
3,0
12,0
1,0
8,0
1,0
8,0
lap seam
1,0
8,0
fillet weld
denotation
gap
preparations
r=
plate thickness
range s [mm]
from to
~
~ s+1
V - weld
1-2
1-2
corner weld
By the specific heat input of the different welding methods all welding positions can be carried out using the
oxyacetylene welding method, Figures
1.17 and 1.18
br-er1-16.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 1.16
butt-welded seams in
gravity position
PA
PB
PF
PG
vertical-upwelding position
vertical-down position
PC
horizontal on
vertical wall
PE
overhead position
PD
ISF 2002
br-er1-17.cdr
Welding Positions I
Figure 1.17
1. Gas Welding
12
A special type of autogene method is
flame-straightening, where specific locally applied flame heating allows for
shape correction of workpieces, Figure
PA
PB
PF
PC
PE
br-er1-18.cdr
Welding Positions II
Figure 1.18
Flame straightening
welded parts
butt weld
3 to 5 heat sources
close to the weld-seam
br-er1-19e.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er1-20.cdr
Figure 1.19
ISF 2002
Flame Straightening
Figure 1.20
2.
Manual Metal Arc Welding
2003
13
Figure 2.1 describes the burn-off of a
covered stick electrode. The stick
electrode consists of a core wire with
a mineral covering. The welding arc
between the electrode and the workpiece melts core wire and covering.
Droplets of the liquefied core wire mix
with the molten base material forming
weld metal while the molten covering
is forming slag which, due to its lower
density, solidifies on the weld pool.
The slag layer and gases which are
generated inside the arc protect the
metal during transfer and also the
c ISF 2002
br-er2-01.cdr
Weld Point
Figure 2.1
have
re-
a) ease of ignition
b) increase of arc stability
2. Constitution of slag, to
carbon
electrodes.
arc
The
the
a) organic components
b) carbides
functions
in Figure 2.2.
br-er2-02.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.2
14
The covering of the stick electrode consists of a multitude of components which are
mainly mineral, Figure 2.3.
coating raw material
quartz - SiO2
rutile -TiO2
fluorspar - CaF2
easy to ionize,
to improve arc stability
ferro-manganese / ferro-silicon
deoxidant
shielding gas emitter
magnetite - Fe3O4
calcareous spar -CaCO3
cellulose
kaolin Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O
lubricant
bonding agent
br-er2-03.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.3
For the stick electrode manufacturing mixed ground and screened covering materials are used as protection for the core wire which has been drawn to finished diameter and subsequently cut to size, Figure 2.4.
descaling
magnetic
separation
inspection
cone crusher
for pulverisation
6 mm
sieving
to further treatment like milling,
sieving, cleaning and weighing
sieving system
5,5 mm
4 mm
weighing
and
mixing
inspection
br-er2-04.cdr
electrode
compound
3,25 mm
wet mixer
inspection
ISF 2002
Figure 2.4
to the
pressing
plant
15
inspection
electrodepress
electrode
compound
inspection
compound
packing
inspection
TO
DELIVERY
core wire
magazine
nozzleconveying
wire wire pressing
belt
feeder
magazine
head
drying stove
inspection
inspection
inspection
ISF 2002
br-er10-33e.cdr
Figure 2.5
pressing cylinder
core rod
coating
pressing nozzle
pressing cylinder
pressing mass
Figure 2.6 shows how the moist extruded covering is deposited onto the
core wire inside an electrode extrusion
press.
br-er2-06.cdr
Figure 2.6
16
cellulosic type
acid type
cellulose
40
rutile TiO2
20
quartz SiO2
25
Fe - Mn
15
potassium water glass
almost
no slag
droplet transfer :
medium- sized
droplets
toughness value:
good
basic typ
rutile type
magnetite Fe3O4 50
SiO2 20
quartz
CaCO3 10
calcite
Fe - Mn
20
potassium water glass
slag solidification
time: long
droplet transfer :
fine droplets
to sprinkle
toughness value:
rutile
TiO2
45
magnetite Fe3O4 10
SiO2
quartz
20
CaCO3 10
calcite
Fe - Mn
15
potassium water glass
fluorspar CaF2 45
CaCO3 40
calcite
SiO2 10
quartz
5
Fe - Mn
potassium water glass
slag solidification
time: medium
slag solidification
time: short
droplet transfer :
medium- sized to
fine droplets
toughness value:
droplet transfer :
medium- sized to
big droplets
toughness value:
good
very good
normal
ISF 2002
br-er2-07.cdr
Characteristic Features of
Different Coating Types
Figure 2.7
The melting characteristics of the different coverings and the slag properties result in
further properties; these determine the areas of application, Figure 2.8.
coating type
symbol
cellulosic type
C
acid type
A
rutile type
R
basic type
B
~/+
~/+
~/+
=/+
very good
moderate
good
good
PG,(PA,PB,
PC,PE,PF)
PA,PB,PC,
PE,PF,PG
PA,PB,PC,
PE,PF,(PG)
PA,PB,PC,
PE,PF,PG
low
high
low
very low
moderate
good
good
moderate
slag
detachability
good
very good
very good
moderate
characteristic
features
spatter,
little slag,
intensive fume
formation
high burn-out
losses
universal
application
low burn-out
losses
hygroscopic
predrying!!
current type/polarity
gap bridging
ability
welding positions
sensitivity of
cold cracking
weld appearance
br-er2-08.cdr
ISF 2002
Characteristics of
Different Coating Types
Figure 2.8
17
h ac
co igh id s
n d - te l a
uc mp g
to e r
r a
tu
re
hig bas
h- ic s
co tem lag
nd pe
uc ra
to tur
r
e
conductivity
g slag
ntainin
o
c
le
ti
high ru
r
nducto
semico
Therefore,
rutile
electrodes
ence
in
the
ISF 2002
br-er2-09.cdr
production of tack
Conductivity of Slags
Figure 2.9
quently.
The complete designation
for
filler
materials, following
European
dardisation,
cludes
Stanin-
details
partly as encoded
abbreviation
br-er2-10.cdr
Designation Example
for Stick Electrodes
for the
welding process is
Figure 2.10
first:
E
18
The identification numbers give information about yield point, tensile strength and
elongation of the weld metal where the tenfold of the identification number is the
minimum yield point in N/mm, Figure 2.11.
key number
tensile strength
N/mm2
minimum elongation*)
%
35
355
440-570
22
38
380
470-600
20
42
420
500-640
20
46
460
530-680
20
50
500
560-720
18
*) L0 = 5 D0
br-er2-11.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.11
The identification figures for the minimum impact energy value of 47 J a parameter for the weld metal toughness are shown in Figure 2.12.
characteristic figure
Z
A
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Figure 2.12
19
The
chemical
composition
of
Figure
2.13.
br-er2-13.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.13
type of coating
tails are determined by the identification letter for the electrode covering,
Figure 2.14.
acid coating
basic coating
cellulose coating
rutile coated
(medium thick)
RR
RA
RB
RC
br-er2-14.cdr
Figure 2.14
ISF 2002
2.15
20
ex-
of
The
current.
subsequent
identification figure
determines the application
possibili-
ties
different
for
ISF 2002
br-er2-15.cdr
welding positions:
Figure 2.15
1-
all positions
2-
3-
flat position butt weld, flat position fillet weld, horizontal-, vertical up position
4-
5-
The last detail of the European Standard designation determines the maximum hydrogen content of the weld metal in cm per 100 g weld metal.
Welding
current
amperage
and
of
the
stick
by
the
thickness
of
the
workpiece
to
be
ISF 2002
Figure 2.16
are
each
lengths
assigned
to
diameter,
Figure 2.16.
21
of
manual
stick electrode
- (+)
power source
= or ~
the
+ (-)
applied
elec-
arc
trode
types.
known
All
power
work piece
ISF 2002
br-er2-17.cdr
scending
characteristic curve
can be used.
Figure 2.17
power source
characteristic
A1
A2
2
1
A1
21
characteristic
of the arc
br-er2-18.cdr
Figure 2.18
ISF 2002
22
Simple welding transformers are
arc welding
converter
transformer
welding
and
are
mains-
br-er2-19.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.19
45
RA73
40
types.
RR73
35
RR12
RA12
30
B53
B15
25
=
=
=
=
100
200
300
3,25
4
5
6
400
ISF 2002
23
A survey of the material spectrum which is suitable for manual metal arc welding is
given in Figure 2.22. The survey comprises almost all metals known for technical applications and also explains the wide application range of the method.
cy
constructional steels
shipbuilding steels
high-strength constructional steels
boiler and pressure vessel steels
austenitic steels
creep resistant steels
austenitic-ferritic steels (duplex)
scale resistant steels
wear resistant steels
hydrogen resistant steels
high-speed steels
cast steels
combinations of materials (ferritic/ austenitic)
cast iron:
nickel:
pure nickel
Ni-Cu-alloys
Ni-Cr-Fe-alloys
Ni-Cr-Mo-alloys
copper:
aluminium:
pure aluminium
AlMg-alloys
AlSi -alloys
eff
ic
ion
de
po
s it
de
po
s it
io n
ef
fic
ien
cy
22
0%
16
0%
steel:
ien
kg/h
th
d
te
oa
c
ick
2
th
in-
ed
at
co
1
= RR12 - 5 mm
RR73 - 5 mm
X=
100
200
300
welding amperage
400 A 500
ISF 2002
Figure 2.21
br-er2-22.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.22
In d.c. welding, the
concentration of the
magnetic
arc-blow
br-er2-23e.cdr
Figure 2.23
transfer
also
24
Arc deflection may also occur at
magnetizable
mass
accumulations
close to current-connection
ISF 2002
opposite
placed
steel
tilting of electrode
through using
a welding transformer
alternating current (not
applicable for all
types of electrodes)
tacks
br-er2-25.cdr
Figure 2.25
ISF 2002
br-er2-26.cdr
Figure 2.26
ISF 2002
25
of the power supply point the various
reasons for arc deflection can be
eliminated. The fast magnetic reversal
4,0
20C / 70% RF
3,0
the water absorption of a stick electrode may vary strongly during stor-
1,0
age, Figure 2.27. The absorbed humidity leads during subsequent weld-
10
Tage
100
Time of storage
br-er2-27.cdr
tibility.
ISF 2002
Figure 2.27
Stick electrodes, particularly those with a basic, rutile or cellulosic cover have to be
baked before welding to keep the water content of the cover during welding below
the permissible values in order to avoid hydrogen-induced cracks, Figure 2.28. The
baking temperature
1,0
%
0,9
facturer. Baking is
carried out in special ovens; in damp
working
conditions
taken
basic-coated electrode
(having been stored at
18 - 20C for one year)
0,7
0,74
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,39
0,3
0,28
AWS A5.5
0,2
0,1
0,8
out
30
40
50
60
from
electrically
heated receptacles.
Figure 2.28
70
80
ISF 2002
br-er2-28.cdr
3.
Submerged Arc Welding
2003
26
In submerged arc welding a mineral weld flux layer protects the welding point and
the freezing weld from the influence of the surrounding atmosphere, Figure 3.1. The
arc burns in a cavity filled with ionised gases and vapours where the droplets from
the
electrode
flux hopper
contact piece
continuously-
br-er3-01e.cdr
Figure 3.1
which
mounted
torch
is
on
the
head.
De-
ISF 2002
Submerged
Figure 3.2
27
arc welding can be operated using
alloy type
commercial wire
electrodes
Mn
S1
S2
S3
S4
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
MnMo
S2Mo
S3Mo
S4Mo
1,0
1,5
2,0
Ni
S2Ni1
S2Ni2
1,0
1,0
1,0
2,0
NiMo
S2NiMo1
S3NiMo1
1,0
1,5
1,0
1,0
NiV
S3NiV1
1,5
1,0
NiCrMo
S1NiCrMo2,5
S2NiCrMo1
S3NiCrMo2,5
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,5
1,0
2,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
movement.
0,15
0,6 0,8
0,6 0,5
0,6 0,8
S6: I
: _
:
Example:
S2Si: II _
S3Mo: III
IIIIII
br-er3-03e.cdr
C = 0,10
Si = 0,10
Mn = 1,00
S3
1.5064
C = 0,11
Si = 0,15
Mn = 1,50
C = 0,10
Si = 0,30
Mn = 1,00
C = 0,10
Si = 0,15
Mn = 1,00
Mo = 0,50
C = 0,09
Si = 0,12
Mn = 1,00
Ni = 1,20
C = 0,10
Si = 0,12
Mn = 1,00
Ni = 2,20
C = 0,12
Si = 0,15
Mn = 1,00
Mo = 0,50
Ni = 1,00
S2Si
1.5034
S2Mo
1.5425
S2Ni1
S2Ni2
S3NiMo1
for
high-temperature
S2
1.5035
br-er3-04e.cdr
28
The identification
of wire electrodes
is
stan-
dardised in DIN EN
Figure 3.5
weighed
and
lime
subsequently
quarz
rutile
bauxite
magnesite
silos
balance
coke
raw material
molten metal
air
approximately 5 mm.
granulation
air
cylindrical crusher
screen
tub
foaming
coal-burning stove
electrical furnace
balance
br-er3-06e.cdr
ISF 2002
29
During manufacture of agglomer-
rutile
Mn - ore
fluorspar
magnesite
alloys
sintering furnace
silos
ball mill
mixer
balance
dish granulator
gas
drying oven
screen
oven hardens the grains. In the annealing furnace the remaining water is
balance
br-er3-07e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.7
Properties
The fused welding fluxes are characterised by high homogeneity, low sen-
Fused fluxes
1)
Agglomerated
1)
fluxes
uniformity of grain
size distribution
+/++
grain strength
+/++
-/++
homogeneity
+/++
-- /++
susceptibility
to moisture
+/++
-/+
storing properties
+/++
-/++
resistance to dirt
--/+
-/++
+/++
+/++
-/+
+/++
temperature,
Figure
-/++
2)
slag removability
high-speed welding
properties
+/++
+/++
multiple-wire weldability
-/++
+/++
flux consumption
-/+
+/++
1)
2)
br-er3-08e.cdr
ISF 2002
30
themselves during
MS
CS
ZS
RS
AR
AB
AS
AF
FB
Z
MnO + SiO2
CaO
CaO + MgO + SiO2
CaO + MgO
ZrO2 + SiO2 + MnO
ZrO2
TiO2 + SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3 + TiO2
Al2O3 + CaO + MgO
Al2O3
CaF2
Al2O3 + SiO 2 + ZrO2
CaF2 + MgO
ZrO2
Al2O3 + CaF2
CaO + MgO + CaF2 + Mo
SiO2
CaF2
other compositions
min. 50%
max. 15%
min. 55%
min.15%
min. 45%
min. 15%
min. 50%
min. 20%
min. 40%
min. 40%
min. 20%
max. 22%
min. 40%
min. 30%
min. 5%
min. 70%
min. 50%
max. 20%
min. 15%
manganese-silicate
calcium-silicate
zirconium-silicate
rutile-silicate
aluminate-rutilel
aluminate-basic
aluminate-silicate
processing has to
aluminate-fluoride-basic
be taken intocon-
fluoride-basic
sideration.
br-er3-09e.cdr
Figure 3.9
The SA welding fluxes are, in accordance with their mineralogical constituents, classified into nine groups, Figure 3.9. The composition of the individual flux groups is to
be considered as in principle, as fluxes which belong to the same group may differ
substantially with regards to their
MS - high manganese and silicon pickup
- restricted toughness values
- high current carrying capacity/ high weld speed
- unsusceptible to pores and undercuts
- unsuitable for thick parts
- suitable for high-speed welding and fillet welds
CS
acidic types
- highest current carrying capacity of all fluxes
- high silicon pickup
- suitable for welding by the pass/ capping method of thick
parts with low requirements
basic types
- low silicon pickup
- suitable for multiple pass welding
- current carrying capacity decreases with increaseing
basicity
ZS
RS
AR
br-er3-10ae.cdr
Figure 3.10a
31
properties. With the application of wire
AB
AS
AF
FB
ised by good weld metal impact values and high cracking insensitivity.
Figures 3.10a and 3.10b show typical
br-er3-10be.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.10b
and low-alloy steels, as, e.g. general structural steels, as well as for welding hightensile and creep resistant steels. The silicon pickup is 0.1 0.3% (6), while the
manganese pickup is expected to be 0.3 0.5% (7). Either d.c. or a.c. can be used,
as, in principle, a.c.
weldability
allows
w e l d i n g f l u x D I N EN 760-SF CS 1 67 AC H10
flux/SA welding
lower
method of manufacture
hydrogen content
(table 4)
than
10 ml/100 g
metal.
the
weld
type of current
F fused
A agglomerated
M mechanically mixed flux
(table 2)
flux type
(table 1)
(figure 3.9)
br-er3-11e.cdr
Figure 3.11
metallurgical
behaviour
32
The flux classes 1-3 (table 1) explain the suitability of a flux for welding certain material groups, for welding of joints and for overlap welding. The flux classes also
characterise the metallurgical material behaviour. In table 2 defines the identification
figure
for
the
table 2
table 1
unalloyed and
low-alloyed steel
general
structural steel
high-tensile & creep
resistant steels
stainless and heat
resistant steels
Cr- & CrNi steels
welding of joints
hardfacing
metallurgial
behaviour
flux class
1 2 3
identification
behaviour of the
burnoff
1
2
3
4
over 0,7
0,5 up to 0,7
0,3 up to 0,5
0,1 up to 0,3
respective
pickup or
burnoff
0 up to 0,1
ment.
pickup
6
7
8
9
0,1 up to 0,3
0,3 up to 0,5
0,5 up to 0,7
over 0,7
table 4
pickup of elements
as C, Cr, Mo
pickup or burn-off
hydrogen content
ml/100g all-weld metal
ele-
Table
hydrogen
max.
H5
H10
10
H15
15
content
in
the
br-er3-12e.cdr
ure 3.12.
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13 shows the identification of a wire-flux combination and the resultant
weld metal. It is a case of a combination for multipass SA welding where the weld
metal
shows
minimum
wire-flux combination
D I N E N 7 5 6 - S 4 6 3 AB S2
yield
standard no.
wire electrode and/or
wire-flux combination
for submerged arc
welding
chemical
composition of
the wire electrode
type of flux
(figure 3.10)
value of 47 J at
impact energy
(table 3)
(table1 and 2)
Figure 3.13
33
The tables for the identification of the tensile properties as well as of the impact energy are combined in Figure 3.14.
The chemical composition of the weld
Identification for strength properties of multipass weld joints
table 1
identification
35
355
440 up to 570
22
38
380
470 up to 600
20
42
420
500 up to 640
20
46
460
530 up to 680
20
50
500
560 up to 720
18
table 2
identification
minimum tensile
strength
N/mm2
2T
275
370
3T
355
470
4T
420
520
5T
500
600
table 3
identification
no
demands
+20
br-er3-14e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.14
welding flux
3 different welding
fluxes
assists,
in
dependence of the
used
wire
welding data
elec-
base metal
slag
dilution
welding data
trodes, to determine
the
pickup
burn-off
of
the
and
welding data
behaviour
element
weld metal
br-er 3-15e.cdr
manganese, Figure
Figure 3.15
34
the mean charac-
Mn-pickup
S2
2,0%
S3
S4
S5
3,0% Mn in wire
tral
point
where
S6
Mn-burnoff
br-er 3-16e.cdr
Figure 3.16
The pickup and burn-off behaviour is, besides the filler material and the welding
flux, also directly dependent on the welding amperage and welding voltage, Figure
3.17. By the example of the selected flux a higher welding voltage causes a more
steeply descending manganese charweld flux LW 280
current intensity 580 A
welding speed 55 cm/min
neutral point
% Mn wire
% Si wire
% C wire
br-er3-17e.cdr
ISF 2002
35
The Mn-content of the weld metal can be
determined by means of a welding flux
neutral point
% Mn wire
450 A
% Si wire
% C wire
ISF 2002
wire electrode 4 mm
acc. to Prof. Thier
example:
I = 580 A
U = 29 V
MnSZ1 = 0.48 % Mn
MnSZ2 = 1.69 % Mn
br-er3-19e.cdr
line point.
Figure 3.19
ISF 2002
36
Weld preparations for multipass fabrication are dependent on the thickness of the
plates to be welded, Figure 3.21. If no
root is planned during weld preparaflux diagramm LW 280,
silicon
wire electrode 4 mm
acc. to Prof. Thier
example:
I = 580 A
U = 29 V
SiSZ = 0.16 % Si
auxiliary
straight line
auxiliary
straight line
br-er3-20e.cdr
ISF 2002
expensive,
although
exact
weld
weld quality.
Another variation of
heavy-plate
welded
preparation geometry
weld buildup
and
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
br-er 3-21e.cdr
torches.
Figure 3.21
37
also during rework-
preparation geometry
ing
weld buildup
weld-related
side 1
SA
SA
turn
nipulation
turn
SA
SA
process
turn
SA
SA
and
control.
Special narrow-gap
ISF 2002
br-er3-22e.cdr
Here,
SA
SA
side 2
problems.
slag
re-
moval.
Figure 3.22
The most important welding parameters as regards weld bead formation are welding current, voltage and speed, Figure 3.24. A higher welding current causes higher
deposition rates and energy input, which leads to reinforced beads and a deeper
penetration. The weld width remains roughly constant. The increased welding voltage
leads to a longer arc which also causes the bead to be wider. The change in welding
speed causes - on both sides of an optimum - a decrease of the penetration depth.
At lower weld speeds, the weld pool running ahead of the welding arc acts as a
buffer between arc
and base metal. At
high
speeds,
the
energy
per
length
decreases
which
GMA welding
unit
leads,
GMA welding
beSA welding
sides
lower
penetration, also to
SA welding
narrower beads.
oscillated
ISF 2002
br-er3-23e.cdr
Figure 3.23
38
2,4
2,2
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
w
plate thickness:
wire electrode:
flux:
penetration depth tp in mm
tp
weld width b in mm
constant:
w
te
constant:
agglomerated fluxes
400
ISF 2002
Figure 3.24
600
700
agglomerated fluxes
0
400
500
B) fillet weld
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
tp
constant:
500
600
700
br-er3-25e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.25
Weld flux consumption is dependent on the selected weld type, Figure 3.25. Due to
geometrical shape, the flux consumption of a fillet weld is significantly lower than that
of a butt weld. Because of their lower bulk weight, the specific consumption of agglomerated fluxes is
direction of welding
L2
L1
L3
br-er3-26e.cdr
Figure 3.26
39
dependent on the available power
U
U0
source characteristics.
US
I
IS IK
descending
characteristic,
Figure 3.27. In this case, the shortening of the arc caused by some
U0
US
ISF 2002
Figure 3.27
drop (slightly descending characteristic). At a constant wire feed speed the
backing flux
penditure.
br-er3-28e.cdr
Examples of Weld
Pool Backups
40
liquid weld pool with a backing, Figure 3.28. This is normally done with either a ceramic or copper backing with a flux layer or by a backing flux. Dependent on the
shape of the backing bar, direct formation of the underside seam can be achieved.
When welding circumferential tubes,
0 -
30
the inclination angle of the electrode has a direct influence onto the
formation of the weld bead, Figure
3.29. For external as well as for internal tube welds, the best weld shapes
may be obtained with an adjusted an-
1 = 0
gular position of the torch. If the advance is too low, the molten bath runs
ahead and produces a narrow weld
with a medium-sized ridge, too high
b3
t1
b2
t2
b1
inclusion
br-er3-29e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.29
To
increase
the
single wire
tandem
parallel twin
wire
tandem, twin
wire
Figure
3.30. In multiwire
welding, where up
to 6 wires are used,
each welding torch
ISF 2002
br-er3-30e.cdr
is operated from a
separate
Process Variations of
Submerged-Arc Welding
power
Figure 3.30
41
welding, two wire
electrodes
are
connected in one
torch and supplied
cold wire
iron powder/
chopped wire
from
one
power
source. Dependent
on the application,
the wires can be
hot wire
arranged
strip
in
br-er3-31e.cdr
dem.
Process Variations of
Submerged-Arc Welding
Figure 3.31
In submerged arc welding with iron powder addition can the deposition rate be
substantially increased at constant electrical parameters, Figure 3.31. The increased
deposition rate is realised by either the addition of a currentless wire (cold wire) or of
a preheated filler wire (hot wire). The
1. WH
2. WH
65
tandem welding
12..16
1. WH
range of surfacing.
2. WH
3. WH
~
65
three-wire welding
However,
the
mentioned
35
12..16
process
1. WH
HW
2. WH 3. WH
15
10 10
35
12..16
~
80
four-wire welding
br-er3-32e.cdr
~
75
15
18
12
ISF 2002
42
The description of these individual
process variations of submerged arc
deposition rate
100
kg/h
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
three-wire
tandem
10
0
four-wire
double wire
single wire
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3500
current intensity
12
kg/h
weld metal
5,0 mm
4,0 mm
3,0 mm
3~
~
0 300 400 500 600
voltage = 30 V
speed = 40 cm/min
wire protrusion = 10d
length
800
current intensity
br-er3-33e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.33
When more than one wire is used in order to obtain a high deposition rate, arc interactions occur due
to magnetic arc
blow, Figure 3.34.
Therefore,
selection
the
of
elektrode
(_)
(_)
_( )
+
the
(+) _
phase
arc
displacements
between the individual
workpiece
welding
ISF 2002
br-er3-34e.cdr
Figure 3.34
4.
TIG Welding and
Plasma Arc Welding
2003
43
TIG welding and plasma welding belong to the group of the gas-shielded tungsten
arc welding processes, Figure 4.1. In all processes mentioned in Figure 4.1, the arc
burns between a
non- consumable
tungsten
Gas-shielded
metal arc welding
GMAW
Gas-shielded tungsten
arc welding
trode
elec-
and
workpiece
Metal inert-gas
welding
MIG
narrow-gap
gas-shielded
arc welding
electrogas
welding
CO2 welding
Mixed gas
welding
plasma metal
arc welding
Tungsten
hydrogen
welding
the
or,
in
Plasma arc
Plasma arc
Plasma
welding with
arc welding
welding with
semi-transferred
non-transferred with transferred
arc
arc
arc
ISF 2002
br-er4-01e.cdr
Classification of Gas-Shielded
Arc Welding acc. to DIN ISO 857
inside
Figure 4.1
as shielding gases.
The potential curve of the ideal arc, as shown in Figure 4.2, can be divided into
three characteristic sectors:
1.cathode- drop region
2.arc
3. anode-drop region
In
the
cathode-
50%
of the total
voltage
drop
oc-
US
20
V
10
0
10
-4
4 mm 5
of 10-4 mm.
A
similarly
voltage
high
drop
oc-
0,5
br-er4-02e.cdr
however,
Arc Potential Curve
Figure 4.2
over
44
The voltage drop on the remaining arc
20
Argon
60 A
UK = 6,5 V
10
UARC
anode
gion.
cathode
UA = 3,5 V
0
mm
X ARC
40
Helium
60 A
UK = 6,5 V
20
UARC
anode
10
cathode
UA = 6,1 V
0
mm
XARC
br-er4--03e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.3
The electrical characteristics of the
arc differ, depending on the selected
25
20
he
lium
15
4
2
n
argo
10
50
100
150
200
250
350
weld current
br-er4-04e.cdr
Figure 4.4
ISF 2002
arc length
arc voltage
4
mm
2
45
The
temperature
8 000 K
9 000 K
distribution of a
2
10 000 K
TIG cathode
mm
x
x
x
Figure 4.5.
mm
mm
anode
spot
weld pool
br-er4-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
Temperature Distribution in a
TIG Arc (at I=100 A)
Figure 4.5
welding direction
R.I2
melting of wire
thermal conductivity
[W/m K]
fusion heat
[kJ/kg]
specific heat
[kJ/kg K]
br-er4-06e.cdr
Figure 4.6
ISF 2002
46
Figure 4.8 explains by an example the code for a TIG welding wire, as stipulated in
the drafts of the European Standardisations.
tungsten electrode
electric contact
shielding gas
shielding gas nozzle
welding
power
source
filler
metal
weld
workpiece
arc
isf 2002
br-er4-07e.cdr
Figure 4.7
A table with the chemical compositions of the filler materials is shown in Figure 4.9.
W 46 3 W2
chemical composition table
rods and wires for tig-welding
minimum impact energy value 47 J at -30C
minimum weld metal yield point: 460 N/mm2
identification letter for TIG-welding
br-er4-08e.cdr
Figure 4.8
47
alternating
current
must
be
high-
frequency
high
voltage is superimposed
br-er4-09e.cdr
and
ISF 2002
causes
Chemical composition of
filler rods and wires for TIG-welding
ionisation
between electrode
and workpiece.
Figure 4.9
The central part of the torch for TIG welding is the tungsten electrode which is held
in a collet inside the torch body, Figure 4.11. The hose package contains the supply
lines for shielding gas and welding current. The shielding gas nozzle is more often
than not made of
ceramic. Manually
filter
capacitor
mains
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
_
O
torches
for
welding
TIG
high voltage
impulse generator
well
St
transformer
SC: scattering core for adjusting
the characteristic curve
as
torches
rectifier
+
O
=
~
duty
selector switch
Principle Structure of a
TIG Welding Installation
machine
for
cycles
water-cooled.
ISF 2002
br-er4-10e.cdr
Figure 4.10
operated
long
are
48
longer arc
shorter arc
R and U rise
R and U
drop
I drops
I rises
torch cap
with seal
control switch
control cable
long
short
arc length
torch body
with cooling device
electrode collet
voltage
shielding
gas supply
cooling water
supply
collet
case
increasing
cooling water
return with
welding current
cable
tungsten electrode
gas nozzle
decreasing
current intensity
increasing
decreasing
i
br-er4-11e.cdr
br-er4-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
isf 2002
Construction of a Water-Cooled
Torch for TIG Welding
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
In order to keep the influence of torch distance variations on the current intensity and
thus on the penetration depth as low as possible, power sources used for TIG welding always have a steeply drooping characteristic, Figure 4.12.
voltage
The
reignition of the arc
by voltage impulses
non-contact
reignition of the
A.C.
+
-
time
trode-workpiece
gap
by
high-
frequent
Reignition of the Tungsten A.C. Arc
Through Voltage Impulses
Figure 4.13
high
ISF 2002
br-er4-13e.cdr
voltage
pulses,
Figure 4.13.
49
When argon is used as a shielding gas, metals as, for example, aluminium and
magnesium, which besides having low melting points and also simultaneously forming tight and hard-to-melt-off oxide skins, cannot be welded with a negative polarity
electrode. With a positive polarity, however, a cleaning effect takes place which is
caused by the impact of the positive charged ions from the shielding gas atmosphere
on the negative charged work surface, thus destroying the oxide skin due to their
large cross-section. However, as a positive polarity would cause thermal overload of
the electrode, these materials are welded with alternating current.
However, this has a disturbing side-effect. The electron emission and, consequently,
the current flow are dependent on the temperature of the cathode.
During the negative phase on the work surface the emission is, due to the lower melting temperature substantially lower than during the negative phase on the tungsten
electrode. As a consequence, a positively connected electrode leads to lower welding current flows than this would be the case with a negatively connected electrode,
Figure 4.14. A filter capacitor in the welding current circuit filters out the d.c. component which results in equal half-wave components. With modern transistorised power
time
+
lower
smaller
time
+
-
alternating current
current
a
time
- time
+
time
+
-
- time
+
cleaning effect
stronger
heat load
of the electrode
increasing
Figure 4.14
is
duration
stress
isf 2002
electrode
with filter
capacitor
without filter
capacitor
current
a
electronic controled
power source
electrode polarity
The
thermal
and
the
freely
enced.
influ-
50
Figure 4.15 shows that the thermal
electrode load can be recognized
from the shape of the electrode tip.
While the normal-load negative connected electrode end has the shape
of a pointed cone (point angle approx.
ISF 2002
br-er4-15e.cdr
Electrode Shapes
for TIG Welding
Figure 4.15
materials:
- steels, especially high-alloy steel
- aluminium and aluminium alloys
- copper and copper alloys
- nickel and nickel alloys
- titanium
- circonium
- tantalum
workpiece thickness:
- 0,5 - 5,0 mm
weld types:
- plain butt weld, V-type welds,
flanged weld, fillet weld
- all positions
- surfacing
application examples:
- tube to tube sheet welding
- orbital welding
- root welding
ISF 2002
br-er4-16e.cdr
Figure 4.16
51
For circumferential welding of fixed pipes, the TIG orbital welding method is applied.
The welding torch moves orbitrally around the pipe, i.e., the pipe is welded in the positions flat, vertical down, overhead, vertical-up and also interpass welding is applied.
preflow of the
shielding gas
postflow of the
shielding gas
movement in
switch-on position
Moreover,
must
achieved.
welding
orbital
movement
0
360
be
Orbital
installa-
welding
current
rise of
current
de-
shielding
gas
erational
preheating
pulsing
overlap
current decay
which
the
br-er4-17e.cdr
controls
determine
appropriate
ISF 2002
process
parame-
In plasma arc welding burns the arc between the tungsten electrode (- pole) and the
plasma gas nozzle (+ pole) and is called the non-transferred arc, Figure 4.18.
The non-transferred arc is mainly used for metal-spraying and for the welding of
metal-foil strips.
In
contact tube
plasma
welding
tungsten electrode
arc
with
transferred
arc
shielding gas
plasma gas
welding
power
source
filler
material
surface weld
electrode
workpiece
non-transferred
arc
(-pole)
pole)
and
is
isf 2002
br-er4-18e.cdr
Figure 4.18
contact tube
52
arc and leads to a
tungsten
electrode
more
concentrated
shielding gas
Ignition
device
plasma gas
welding
power
source
filler
material
seam
arc
welding
transferred
work piece
transferred
arc
mainly
br-er4-19e.cdr
with
arc
used
is
for
isf 2002
welding of joints.
Figure 4.19
Plasma arc welding with semi-transferred arc is a combination of the two methods
mentioned above. This process variant is used for microplasma welding, plasma-arc
powder surfacing and weld-joining of aluminium, Figure 4.20
The plasma welding equipment includes, besides the water-cooled welding torch, a
gas supply for plasma gas (Ar) and shielding gas (ArH2-mixture, Ar/He mixture or Ar);
the gas supply is, in most cases, separated, Figure 4.21.
The copper anode and the additional focusing gas flow constrict the plasma arc
which leads, in comparison with TIG welding, to a more concentrated heat input
and thus to deeper
contact tube
tungsten
electrode
penetration. An arc
that has been gen-
shielding gas
plasma gas
plasma gas nozzle
surface weld
ample,
non-transferred
arc
ure 4.21.
ISF 2002
br-er4-20e.cdr
at
work-
workpiece
transferred arc
Figure 4.20
br-er4-21e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.21
53
br-er4-22e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.22
The TIG arc is cone shaped or bell shaped, respectively, and has an aperture angle
of 45. The plasma arc, in comparison, burns highly concentrated with almost parallel flanks, Figure 4.22.
The
shielding
gas
arc length
onto
the
configuration.
arc
The
use of a mixture of
argon with hydrogen
results in the often
br-er4-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.23
54
In plasma arc welding of plates thicker
than 2.5mm the so-called keyhole
plasma torch
forming a weld keyhole. During welding the plasma jet with the keyhole
weld (seam)
weld
surface
keyhole
created.
root
br-er4-24e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.24
Very
thin
sheets
welded
using
microplasma
welding with amperages
between
0.05 and 50 A.
ISF 2002
br-er4-25e.cdr
Microplasma Welding of a
Diaphragm Disk Made of CrNi
Figure 4.25
55
Figures 4.25 and 4.26 show these application examples: The circumferential weld
in a diaphragm disk with a wall thickness of 0.15mm and the joining of fine metal
grids made of Cr-Ni steel.
br-er4-26e.cdr
Figure 4.26
ISF 2002
5.
Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding
2003
56
The difference between gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMA) and the gas tungsten arc welding process is the consumable electrode. Essentially the process is
classified as metal inert gas welding (MIG) and metal active gas welding (MAG).
Besides, there are
gas-shielded arc
welding (SG)
gas-shielded metal-arc
welding (GMAW)
metal inert
gas welding
(MIG)
electrogas
welding
(MSGG)
Narrow-gap gasshielded arc
welding (MSGE)
metal
active gas
welding
plasma gas
metal arc
welding
tungsten
inert-gas
welding
tungsten
plasma
welding
hydrogen
tungsten arc
welding
(MAG)
(MSGP)
(TIG)
(WP)
(WHG)
plasma
jet
welding
plasma
arc
welding
(WPS)
(WPL)
plasma jet
plasma
arc
welding
(WPSL)
(MAGC)
consumable electrode
plasma
br-er5-01e.cdr
ISF 2002
Classification of Gas-Shielded
Arc Welding Processes
Figure 5.1
In contrast to TIG welding, where the
electrode is normally negative in order
to avoid the melting of the tungsten
water
cooling
shielding gas
control device
control switch
cooling water
control
rectifier
transformer
ISF 2002
quently rectified.
GMA Welding Installation
Figure 5.2
compact device
57
Apart from the torch cooling and the
universal device
mini-spool device
push-pull device
A selection of common welding installation variants is depicted in Figure 5.3, where the universal device
10, 20 or 30m
5 to 10m
used variant in
the industry.
ISF 2002
br-er5-03e.cdr
Figure 5.3
machine torch has no handle and its
shape is straight or swan-necked. The
hose package contains the wire core
and also supply lines for shielding gas,
current and cooling water, the latter for
contact tube cooling. The current is
transferred to the wire electrode over
the contact tube. The shielding gas
1 torch handle
2 torch neck
3 torch trigger
4 hose package
5 shielding gas nozzle
6 contact tube
7 contact tube fixture
8 insulator
9 wire core
10 wire guide tube
11 wire electrode
12 shielding gas supply
13 welding current supply
ISF 2002
br-er5-04e.cdr
Manual Gas-Shielded
Arc Welding Torch
Figure 5.4
58
A so-called Two-Wire-Drive wire
1
2
feeding.
1 wire reel
ISF 2002
Figure 5.5
4-roller drive
4
planetary drive
3
br-er5-06e.cdr
ISF 2002
Wire Drives
59
make contact and a short-circuit occurs. In the short-circuit phase is the liquid electrode material drawn as result of surface tension into the molten pool. The narrowing
liquid root and the
welding voltage
density
that
welding current
causes a sudden
evaporation of the
remaining
time
1 ms
1 mm
root.
technique
is
particularly suitable
br-er5-07e.cdr
for
and
Figure 5.7
out-of-position
root
passes
welding.
The limitation of the rate of the current rise during the short-circuit phase with a
choke leads to a pointed burn-off process which is smoother and clearly shows less
spatter formation, Figures 5.8
In shielding gases
welding current
welding current
time
transfer
is
unde-
choke effect
br-er5-08e.cdr
medium
ISF 2002
Short-circuits
Choke Effect
Figure 5.8
with
are
60
welding current
welding current
time
welding voltage
welding voltage
time
time
time
br-er5-09e.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er5-10e.cdr
ISF 2002
Long Arc
Spray Arc
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
If the inert gas content of the shielding gas exceeds 80%, a spray arc forms in
the upper power range, Figure 5.10. The spray arc is characterised by a non-shortcircuiting
35
C1
shielding gas composition:
C1: CO2
M21: 82% Ar, 18% CO2
M23: 92% Ar, 8% O2
welding voltage
long arc
and
spray-like material
M21
M23
transfer.
high
For
its
deposition
25
15
short arc
contact tube distance: approx. 15 mm
150
3,5
br-er5-11e.cdr
4,5
filler
spray arc
Figure 5.11
cover
200
welding current
250
300
5,5
7,0
wire feed
8,0
m/min
10,5
and
ISF 2002
Connections
tween
be-
welding
61
parameters, shielding gas and arc
type are shown in Figure 5.11. When
the shielding gas M23 is used, the
thermal conductivity
helium
CO2
nitrogen
argon
temperature
CO2
helium
ISF 2002
rate.
temperature
argon
carbon dioxide
Fa
Fr
Fa
penetration.
argon
br-er5-13e.cdr
carbon dioxide
ISF 2002
62
thermal reaction 2CO + O2 ->2CO2 in
the workpiece proximity) intensifies
wire elektrodes
current-carrying
arc core
is wider and envelops the wire electrode end, Figure 5.13. This generates electromagnetic forces which
argon
carbon dioxide
ISF 2002
force
component,
acceleration
due to gravity
wire electrode
electromagnetic
force FL
(pinch effect)
the
gravitational
force,
other
viscosity
surface
tension S
droplets necking
down
backlash forces fr
of the evaporating
material
inertia
electrostatic
forces
suction forces,
plasma flow
induced
work piece
br-er5-15e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 5.15
63
If the welding voltage and the wire feed speed are further increased, a rotating arc
occurs after an undefined transition zone, Figure 5.16. High-efficiency MAG welding has been applied since the beginning of the nineties; the deposition rate, when
this process is used, is twice the size as, in comparison, to spray arc welding. Apart
from a multicomponent gas with a helium
proportion,
also a high-rating
power source and a
precisely controlled
wire feed system for
high
wire
feed
br-er5-16e.cdr
ISF 2002
Rotating Arc
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17 depicts the deposition rates over the wire feed speed, as achievable with
modern high-efficiency MAG welding processes.
During
1,2 mm
kg/h
deposition rate
transi-
25
high performance
GMA welding
20
1,0 mm
15
10
0,8 mm
conventional
GMA
the
0
the
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45 m/min
decreases
same
degree.
With an increasing
CO2-content,
this
ISF 2002
critical
Deposition Rate
Figure 5.17
at
current
range moves up to
higher power ranges
64
and is, with inert gas constituents of lower than 80%, hardly achievable thereafter.
This effect facilitates the pulsed-arc welding technique, Figure 5.18.
300
300
200
100
100
V
arc voltage
200
critical current
range
UEff
10 cm
drop volume
number of droplets
35
-4
1/s
25
20
Um
15
10
5
500
0
0
400
tP
200
600
A
400
welding current
Ikrit
Im
- background current IG
- pulse voltage UP
- impulse time tP
- background time
tG or frequency f with
f = 1 / ( tG + tP), resp.
- wire feed speed vD
time
IG
tG
Setting parameters:
350
300
IEff
250
200
Im
150
100
50
0
5
br-er5-18e.cdr
ISF 2002
10
15
time
20
ms
br-er5-19e.cdr
30
ISF 2002
Pulsed Arc
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
welding current
Non-short-circuiting
metal tranfer range
backround current
intensity
wire
electrode
pulsed
material
phase
is
the
molten
superseded
isf 2002
br-er5-20e.cdr
by
the
magnetic
65
Figure 5.19 shows an example of pulsed arc real current path and voltage time
curve. The formula for mean current is:
Im =
1T
idt
T 0
1T 2
i dt
T 0
Ieff =
By a sensible se-
50
working range welding current / arc voltage
lection of welding
45
parameters,
40
optimal setting
lower limit
upper limit
35
voltage [v]
spray arc
GMA
the
welding
technique allows a
30
transition arc
selection of differ-
25
short arc
shielding gas: 82%Ar, 18%CO2
wire diameter: 1,2 mm
wire type: SG 2
20
15
10
50
75
100
125
150
275
300
325
350
375
are
distinguished
by
their
metal
400
ISF 2002
br-er5-21e.cdr
Figure 5.21
good
welding
conventional
GMA welding.
transition zones
spray arc
voltage
of
rotating
arc
50
30
high-efficiency
spray arc
20
10
short arc
high-efficiency
MAGM
100
br-er5-22e.cdr
200
300
welding current
400
A
Quelle: Linde, ISF2002
Figure 5.22
welding
600
process
with
rotating arc.
66
Some typical ap-
arc types
welding methods
MAGC MAGM MIG
seam type, positions
workpiece thickness
applications
spray arc
short arc
long arc
aluminium
copper
steel unalloyed, lowalloy, high-alloy
aluminium
copper
steel unalloyed,
low-alloy
steel unalloyed,
low-alloy
steel unalloyed,
low-alloy
plications of the
pulsed arc
aluminium
(s < 1,5 mm)
ure
5.23.
The
br-er5-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
arc, however, it is
welding of copper
and aluminium.
AM
AK
arc length:
long
medium
short
vD, I
operating point:
wire feed speed:
arc length:
welding current:
deposition efficiency:
AL
AM
AK
low
long
low
low
medium
medium
medium
medium
high
short
high
high
weld appearance:
feed speed, Figure 5.25. This has influence on the current over the internal
adjustment with a slightly dropping
power
source
characteristic.
br-er5-24e.cdr
This
ISF 2002
Figure 5.24
67
rate, the result is flat penetration and
arc length:
long
medium
short
U
AL
AM
AK
vD, I
operating point:
welding voltage:
arc length:
AL
AM
high
long
medium
medium
AK
low
short
weld appearance
butt weld
br-er5-25e.cdr
ISF 2002
Welding Voltage
Figure 5.25
the wire diameter should be considered.
lk1
lk2
lk3
30
mm
20
lk = 10 to 12 dD
1
10
0
200
250
operating rule:
300 A
350
current
wire electrode:
1,2 mm diameter
shielding gas:
arc voltage:
29 V
8,8 m/min
welding speed:
58 cm/min
br-er5-26e.cdr
ISF 2002
68
base metal fusion by the arc is better,
advance direction
Figure 5.28 shows a selection of different application areas for the GMA
technique and the appropriate shieldpenetration:
shallow
average
deep
gap
bridging:
good
average
bad
arc
stability:
bad
average
good
average
low
weld width:
average
narrow
average
rippled
ing gases.
br-er5-27e.cdr
ISF 2002
Torch Position
effect.
power
sources
became
possible,
Figure
92% Ar + 8% CO2
forming gas (N2-H2-mixture)
88% Ar + 12% O2
82% Ar + 18% CO2
application examples
autoclaves, vessels, mixers, cylinders
panelling, window frames, gates, grids
stainless steel pipes, flanges, bends
spherical holders, bridges, vehicles, dump bodies
reactors, fuel rods, control devices
rocket, launch platforms, satellites
valves, sliders, control systems
stator packages, transformer boxes
passenger cars, trucks
radiators, shock absorbers, exhausts
cranes, conveyor roads, excavators (crawlers)
shelves (chains), switch boxes
braces, railings, stock boxes
mud guards, side parts, tops, engine bonnets
attachments to flame nozzles, blast pipes, rollers
vessels, tanks, containers, pipe lines
stanchions, stands, frames, cages
beams, bracings, craneways
harvester-threshers, tractors, narrows, ploughs
waggons, locomotives, lorries
industrial sections
analogue
sign of transistor
99% Ar + 1% O2 or
97% Ar + 3% O2
97,5% Ar + 2,5% CO2
Argon 4.8
Helium 4.6
efficient
Argon 4.6
of
shielding gases
ment
Ar/He-mixture
Ar + 5% H2 or 7,5% H2
analogue
br-er5-28e.cdr
Fields of Application of
Different Shielding Gases
ISF 2002
Figure 5.28
amplifier which amplifies a low-level to a high level input signal, possibly distortion-free. The transistor
power source is, as conventional power sources, also equipped with a three-phase
69
transformer, with generally only one secondary tap. The secondary voltage is rectified by silicon diodes into full wave operation, smoothed by capacitors and fed to the
arc through a transistor cascade. The welding voltage is steplessly adjustable until
no-load voltage is reached. The difference between source voltage and welding voltage reduces at the transistor cascade and produces a comparatively high stray
power which, in general, makes water-cooling necessary. The efficiency factor is
between 50 and 75%. This disadvantage is, however, accepted as those power
sources are characterised by very short reaction times (30 to 50 s). Along with the
development of transistor analogue power sources, the consequent separation of the
power section (transformer and rectifier) and electronic control took place. The analogue or digital control sets the reference values and also controls the welding process. The power section operates exclusively as an amplifier for the signals coming
from the control.
The output stage may also be carried out by clocked cycle. A secondary clocked
transistor power source features just as the analogue power sources, a transformer
and a rectifier, Figure 5.30. The transistor unit functions as an on-off switch. By varying the on-off period, i.e., of the pulse duty factor, the average voltage at the output of
the transistor stage may be varied. The arc voltage achieves small ripples, which are
of a limited amplitude, in the switching frequency of, in general, 20 kHz; whereas the
welding current shows to be strongly smoothed during the high pulse frequencies
caused by inductivities. As the transistor unit has only a switching function, the stray
power is lower than
that
three-phase
transformer
fully-controlled
three-phase
bridge rectifier
energy
store
of
analogue
transistor
power section
mains
supply
welding current
ciency factor is
approx. 75 95%.
The reaction times
of
uist
u1 . . un
reference input
values
iist
signal processor
(analog-to-digital)
these
clocked
300
500
br-er5-29e.cdr
Figure 5.29
those of analogue
power sources.
70
Series regulator power sources, the so-called inverter power sources, differ widely
from the afore-mentioned welding machines, Figure 5.31. The alternating voltage
coming from the mains (50 Hz) is initially rectified, smoothed and converted into a
medium frequency alternating voltage (approx. 25-50 kHz) with the help of controllable transistor and thyristor switches. The alternating voltage is then transformer reduced to welding voltage levels and fed into the welding process through a secondary rectifier, where the alternating voltage also shows switching frequency related
ripples. The advantage of inverter power sources is their low weight. A transformer
that
transforms
voltage
with
fre-
quency of 20 kHz,
has, compared with
a
50
former,
Hz
3-phase
transformer
3-phase
bridge
rectifier
energy
store
transistor
switch
protective
reactor
welding
current
mains
supply
trans-
considera-
Uist
U1 . . Un
losses, that is to
reference input
values
be
smaller
its
Iist
signal processor
(analog-to-digital)
br-er5-30e.cdr
and
ISF 2002
current
pickup
Figure 5.30
transformer.
factor
are comparable to
the
filter
3-phase
bridge
rectifier
energy
storage
transistor
inverter
medium
frequency
transformer
rectifier
welding
current
mains
supply
corresponding
values of switchingUist
U1 . . Un
reference input
values
br-er5-31e.cdr
Iist
signal processor
(analog-to-digital)
current
pickup
ISF 2002
Figure 5.31
71
All welding power sources are fitted with a rating plate, Figure 5.32. Here the performance capability and the properties of the power source are listed. The S in capital
letter (former K) in
manufacturer
insulations
class
protective
IP21
system
VDE 0542
production
number
type
welding
MIG/MAG
U0 15 - 38 V
cooling
type
that
DIN 40 050
input
3~50Hz
6,6 kVA (DB) cosj 0,72
power
source is suitable
switchgear
number
the
35A/13V - 220A/25V
power range
X 60% ED 100% ED
170 A
I2 220 A
23 V
U2 25 V
power capacity
in dependence
of current flow
17 A
10 A
U1 220 V
I1 26 A
U1 380 V
I1
15 A
U1
I1
U1
I1
power supply
under
ardous
haz-
situations,
br-er5-32e.cdr
dangerous to the
welder.
Figure 5.32
gas-shielded
seamless flux-cored
wire electrode
form-enclosed flux-cored
wire electrode
core
br-er5-33e.cdr
cross-
ISF 2002
Cross-Sections of Flux-Cored
Wire Electrodes
Figure 5.33
filling.
sectional shapes.
72
Filler wires contain arc stabilisators, slag-forming and also alloying elements which
support a stable welding process, help to protect the solidifying weld from the atmosphere and, more often than not, guarantee very good mechanical properties.
An important distinctive criteria is the type of the filling. The influence of the filling is
symbol
R
slag characteristics
rutile base,
slowly soldifying slag
rutile base,
rapidly soldifying slag
basic
filling: metal powder
P
B
M
V
W
rutile- or fluoride-basic
fluoride basic,
slowly soldifying slag
fluoride basic,
slowly soldifying slag
other types
Y
S
customary
application*
S and M
S and M
C and M2
S and M
S and M
S
S and M
C and M2
C and M2
without
without
S and M
without
Figure 5.34
electrode
covering in manual
electrode
(see
welding
chapter
2).
wire.
ISF 2002
the
of
6.
Narrow Gap Welding,
Electrogas - and
Electroslag Welding
2003
73
Up to this day, there is no universal agreement about the definition of the term Narrow Gap Welding although the term is actually self-explanatory. In the international
technical literature, the process characteristics mentioned in the upper part of Figure
6.1 are frequently connected with the definition for narrow gap welding. In spite of
these
Process characteristics:
- narrow, almost parallel weld edges. The small preparation angle has the function
to compensate the distortion of the joining members
- multipass technique where the weld build-up is a constant 1 or 2 beads per pass
- usually very small heat affected zone (HAZ) caused by low energy input
definition
difficulties
questions
the
Disadvantages
- higher apparatus expenditure,
espacially for the control of the weld
head and the wire feed device
- increased risk of imperfections at
large wall thicknesses due to more
difficult accessibility during process
control
- repair possibilities more difficult
about
universally
valid
Advantages:
- profitable through low consumption
quantities of filler material, gas and/
or powder due to the narrow gaps
- excellent quality values of the weld
metal and the HAZ due to low heat
input
- decreased tendency to shrink
all
advantages
and disadvantages
of the narrow gap
welding
method
ISF 2002
br-er6-01e.cdr
Figure 6.1
The numerous variations of narrow gap welding are, in general, a further development of the conventional welding technologies. Figure 6.2 shows a classification with
emphasis on several important process characteristics. Narrow gap TIG welding
with cold or hot wire addition is mainly applied as an orbital process method or for the
joining
submerged arc
electroslag narrow
narrow gap welding
gap welding
process with
straightened
wire electrode
(1R/L, 2R/L, 3R/L)
process with
oscillating
wire electrode
(1R/L)
process with
twin electrode
(1R/L, 2R/L)
process with
lengthwise
positioned
strip electrode
(2R/L)
flat position
tungsten innert
gas-shielded
narrow gap welding
high-
alloy as well as
non-ferrous
process with
linearly oscillating
filler wire
process with
stripshaped
filler and
fusing feed
electrogas
process with
linearly
oscillating
wire electrode
electrogas
process with
bent,
longitudinally
positioned
strip electrode
tice.
The
other
processes
more
vertical up position
met-
br-er6-02e.cdr
spread
are
widely
and
explainedin
Survey of Narrow Gap Welding Techniques
Based on Conventional Technologies
Figure 6.2
of
are
detail
in the following.
74
long-wire method
(1 B/P, 2 B/P)
thick-wire method
(1 B/P, 2 B/P)
twin-wire method
(1 B/P)
coiled-wire method
(1 B/P)
corrugated wire method
with mechanical oscillator
(1 B/P)
corrugated wire method
with oscillating rollers
(1 B/P)
corrugated wire method
with contour roll (1 R/L)
zigzag wire method
(1 B/P)
wire loop method
(1 B/P)
explanation:
B/ P:
Bead/ Pass
br-er6-03e.cdr
tandem-wire method
(1 B/P, 2 B/P, 3 B/P)
twisted wire method
(1 B/P)
rotation method
(1 B/P)
used. While most methods are suitable for single layer per pass welding,
other methods require a weld build-up
with at least two layers per pass. A
ISF 2002
Figure 6.3
In the following, some of the GMA narrow gap technologies are explained:
Using the turning tube method, Figure 6.4, side wall fusion is achieved by the turning
of the contact tube; the contact tip angles are set in degrees of between 3 and 15
towards the torch axis. With an electronic stepper motor control, arbitrary transversearc oscillating mocorrugated wire method with mech. oscillator
2
3
wire
method
me-
1 - wire reel
2 - drive rollers
3 - wire mechanism
for wire guidance
4 - inert gas shroud
5 - wire guide tube and
shielding gas tube
6 - contact tip
1 - wire reel
2 - mechanical oscillator
for wire deformation
3 - drive rollers
4 - inert gas shroud
5 - wire feed nozzle and
shielding gas tube
6 - contact tip
br-er 6-04e.cdr
with
Principle of GMA
Narrow Gap Welding
chanical oscillator is
Figure 6.4
8 - 10
wire properties. In
12 - 14
75
300 mm
square-butt joint, 9 mm
flame cut
1.2 mm
elctrode diameter:
amperage:
260 A
pulse frequency:
120 HZ
arc voltage:
30 V
welding speed:
22 cm/min
-1
wire oscillation:
80 min
oscillation width:
4 mm
shielding gas:
80% Ar/ 20% Co2
primery gas flow:
25 l/min
secondary gas flow: 50 l/min
number of passes: approx. 70
br-er6-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.5 shows the macro section of a GMA narrow gap welded joint with plates
(thickness: 300 mm) which has been produced by the mechanical oscillator method
in approx. 70 passes. A highly regular weld build-up and an almost straight fusion
line with an extremely narrow heat affected zone can be noticed. Thanks to the correct setting of the
oscillation parame-
rotation method
1
2
3
2
3
4
no
of
the
low
sidewall penetration
depth. A further ad-
1 - wire reel
2 - drive rollers
3 - mechanism for
nozzle rotation
4 - inert gas shroud
5 - shielding gas nozzle
6 - wire guiding tube
1 - wire reel
2 - wire mechanism for
wire deformation
3 - drive rollers
4 - wire feed nozzle and
shielding gas supply
5 - contact piece
br-er 6-06e.cdr
vantage
of
weave-bead
the
Principle of
GMA Narrow Gap Welding
techFigure 6.6
9 - 12
spite
13 - 14
fects occurred, in
76
nique is the high crystal restructuring rate in the weld metal and in the basemetal adjacent to the fusion line an advantage that gains good toughness properties.
Two narrow-gap welding variations with a rotating arc movement are shown in Figure 6.6. When the rotation method is applied, the arc movement is produced by an
eccentrically protruding wire electrode (1.2 mm) from a contact tube nozzle which is
rotating with frequencies between 100 and 150 Hz. When the wave wire method is
used, the 1.2 mm solid wire is being spiralwise deformed. This happens before it enters the rotating 3 roll wire feed device. With a turning speed of 120 to 150 revs per
minute the welding wire is deformed. The effect of this is such that after leaving the
contact piece the deformed wire creates a spiral diameter of 2.5 to 3.0 mm in the gap
adequate enough to weld plates with thicknesses of up to 200 mm at gap widths
between 9 and 12 mm with a good sidewall fusion.
Figure 6.7 explains two GMA narrow gap welding methods which are operated without forced arc movement, where a reliable sidewall fusion is obtained either by the
wire deflection through constant deformation (tandem wire method) or by forced
wire deflection with the contact tip (twin-wire method). In both cases, two wire electrodes with thicknesses between 0.8 and 1.2 mm are used. When the tandem technique is applied, these electrodes are transported to the two weld heads which are
arranged inside the gap in tandem and which are indeFigure pendently selectable.
When
tandem method
twin-wire method
350
twin-
2
3
the
switched
elec-
9 - 12
1 - wire reel
2 - deflection rollers
3 - drive rollers
4 - inert gas shroud
5 - shielding gas nozzle
6 - wire feed nozzle
and contact tip
1 - wire reel
2 - drive rollers
3 - inert gas shroud
4 - wire feed nozzle and
shielding gas supply
5 - contact tips
15 - 18
in
common
sword-
br-er 6-07e.cdr
Principle of GMA
Narrow Gap Welding
Figure 6.7
type torch at an
incline towards the
77
strip electrode
s
a
x
gap width
electrode deflection
distance of strip tip to flank
twisting angle
h
w
bead hight
bead width
so
x
ten.
twin-wire electrode
vw
H
z
a
h
vw
a
H
z
weld speed
electrode deflection
stick out
distance torch - flank
s
h
w
p
gap width
bead height
bead width
penetration depth
br-er6-08e.cdr
Submerged Arc
Narrow Gap Welding
Figure 6.8
10
16
trodes (1.2 to 1.6 mm) where one electrode is deflected towards one weld
br-er6-09e.cdr
Comparison of the
Weld Groove Shape
or a two pass layer technique are applied. Dependent on the electrode diFigure 6.9
78
ameter and also on the type of welding powder, is the gap width between
12 and 13 mm.
ISF 2002
Figure 6.10
gap welding technique, 66% up to
workpiece
wire guide
edge weld.
shielding gas
+
arc
weld pool
Cu-shoe
weld advance
weld metal
water
flanged calotte joint for a reactor pressure vessel cover is depicted in Figure 6.10. The inner diameter of the
pressure
vessel
is
more
than
and
40,000 mm.
with
The
height
of
total
weight
is
designation:
gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMAW acc. DIN 1910 T.4)
position:
vertical (width deviations of up to 45)
plate thickness: 6 - 30 mm square-butt joint or V weld seam
30 mm double-V weld seam
materials:
unalloyed, lowalloy and highalloy steels
gap width:
8 - 20 mm
electrodes:
only 1 (flux-cored wire, for slag formation between
copper shoe and weld surface) 1.6 - 3.2 mm
amperage:
350 - 650 A
voltage:
28 - 45 V
weld speed:
2 - 12 m/h
shielding gas:
unalloyed and lowalloy steels
CO2 or mixed gas (Ar 60% and 40% Co2 )
highalloy steels: argon or helium
br-er6-11e.cdr
Electrogas Welding
79
sary to select a gap width of at least 35 mm and to work in the three pass layer technique.
The application of electrogas welding for low-alloyed steels is more often than not limited, as the toughness of the heat affected zone with the complex coarse grain
formation does not meet sophisticated
demands. Long-time exposure to temperatures of more than 1500C and
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
low crystallisation rates are responsible for this. The same applies to the
weld metal. For a more wide-spread
1. base metal
2. welding boom
3. filler metal
4. slag pool
5. metal pool
Electrogas
6. copper shoe
7. water cooling
8. weld seam
9. Run-up plate
Welding
designation:
position:
plate thickness:
gap width:
materials:
electrodes:
Electroslag Welding
80
Figure 6.12 shows the process principle of Electroslag Welding. Heating and melting of the groove faces occurs in a slag bath. The temperature of the slag bath must
always exceed the melting temperature of the metal. The Joule effect, produced
when the current is transferred through the conducting bath, keeps the slag bath
temperature constant. The welding current is fed over one or more endless wire electrodes which melt in the highly heated slag bath. Molten pool and slag bath which
both form the weld pool are, sideways retained by the groove faces and, in general,
by water-cooled copper shoes which are, with the complete welding unit, and in relation with the welding speed, moved progressively upwards. To avoid the inevitable
welding defects at
the
beginning
of
ess
slag
powder fusion
sion of unmolten
powder) and at the
slag
molten pool
weld metal
start of welding
(insufficient
(shrinkholes,
welding
end of welding
slag
inclusions), run-up
ISF 2002
br-er6-13e.cdr
Figure 6.13
The electroslag welding process can be divided into four process phases, Figure
6.13. At the beginning of the welding process, in the so-called ignition phase, the
arc is ignited for a short period and liquefies the non-conductive welding flux powder
into conductive slag. The arc is extinguished as the electrical conductivity of the arc
length exceeds that of the conductive slag. When the desired slag bath level is
reached, the lower ignition parameters (current and voltage) are, during the so-called
Data-Increase-Phase, raised to the values of the stationary welding process. This
occurs on the run-up plate. The subsequent actual welding process starts, the process phase. At the end of the weld, the switch-off phase is initiated in the run-off
plate. The solidifying slag bath is located on the run-off plate which is subsequently
removed.
81
The copper sliding shoes are replaced by fixed Cu cooling bars and the welding nozzle by a steel tube, Figure 6.14. The length of the sheathed steel tube, in general,
corresponds with the weld seam length (mainly shorter than 2.500 mm) and the steel
tube melts during welding in the ascending slag bath. Dependent on the plate thickness, welding can be carried out with one single or with several wire and strip electrodes. A feature of this process variation is the handiness of the welding device and
the easier welding
drive motor
wire or strip
electrode
Electroslag fusing
nozzle process (channel welding)
welding cable
run-off plate
workpiece
workpiece
position: vertical
plate thickness:
15 mm
materials: unalloyed, lowalloy
and highalloy steels
area
preparation.
=
~
welding consumables:
fusing
feed nozzle
run-up plate
workpiece cable
copper shoes
workpiece
workpiece
electrode. As the
groove width can
be
significantly
reduced
when
comparing
copper shoes
with
br-er 6-14e.cdr
conventional proc-
Figure 6.14
metallurgical measures
increase of
purity
increase of
deposit rate
decrease of
groove volume
application of
several wire
electrodes,
metal powder
addition
V, double-V butt
joints, multi-pass
technique
application of suitable
base and filler metals
reduction of
S-, P-, H2-, N2 and O2 - contents
and other
unfavourable
trace elements
guide
C-content limits
Mn, Si, Mo, Cr, Ni,
Cu, Nb, V, Zr, Ti
ing techniques.
Likewise in elec-
br-er 6-15e.cdr
Possibilities to Improve
Weld Seam Properties
Figure 6.15
82
To avoid postweld heat treatment the electroslag welding process with local continuous normalisation has been developed for plate thicknesses of up to approx. 60
mm, Figure 6.16. The welding temperature in the weld region drops below the Ar1temperature and is subsequently heated to the normalising temperature (>Ac3). The
specially designed
torches follow the
copper
temperature C
1. filler wire
2. copper shoes
3. slag pool
4. metal pool
5. water cooling
6. slag layer
7. weld seam
8. distance plate
9. postheating torch
10. side plate
11. heat treated zone
2
2000
1500
900
7
8
9
500
10
950
11
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
along
shoes
the
weld
seam. By reason of
the residual heat in
the workpiece the
necessary
perature
temcan
be
reached in a short
br-er 6-16e.cdr
time.
Figure 6.16
In order to circumvent an expensive postheat weld treatment which is often unrealistic for use on-site, the electroslag high-speed welding process with multilayer
technique has been developed. Similar to electrogas welding, the weld cross-section
is reduced and, by application of a twin-wire electrode in tandem arrangement and
addition of metal powder, the weld speed is increased, as in contrast to the conventional technique. In the heat affected zones toughness values are determined which
correspond with those of the unaffected base metal. The slag bath and the molten
pool of the first layer are retained by a sliding shoe, Figure 6.17. The weld preparation is a double-V butt weld with a gap of approx. 15 mm, so the carried along sliding
shoe seals the slag and the metal bath. Plate preparation is, as in conventional elec-
83
tained.
2
3
4
9
5
6
7
technique
10
br-er6-17e.cdr
1 magnetic screening
2 metal powder addition
3 tandem electrode
4 water cooling
5 copper shoe (water cooled)
6 slag pool
7 molten pool
8 solidified slag
9 welding powder addition
10 weld seam
ISF 2002
has
double-V-groove
been
developed.
preparation
(root
Figure 6.17
12
11
3
4
5
6
8
4
br-er6-18e.cdr
1 magnetic screening
2 metal powder supply
3 three-wire electrode
4 water cooling
5 copper shoe (water cooled)
6 slag pool
7 molten pool
8 solidified slag
9 welding powder supply
10 weld seam
11 first pass
12 second pass
ISF 2002
84
If wall thicknesses of more than 100 mm are to be welded, several twin-wire electrodes with metal powder addition have to be used to reach deposition rates of
approx. 200 kg/h. The electroslag welding process is limited by the possible crack
formation in the centre of the weld metal. Reasons for this are the concentration of
elements such as sulphur and phosphor in the weld centre as well as too fast a cooling of the molten pool in the proximity of the weld seam edges.
7.
Pressure Welding
2003
7. Pressure Welding
85
Figure 7.1 shows a survey of the pressure welding processes for joining of metals
in accordance with
DIN 1910.
welding
pressure welding
In
fusion welding
gas
pressure
resistance pressure
welding
induction pressure
welding
conductive pressure
welding
resistance spot
welding
projection
welding
roll seam
welding
friction welding
pressure butt
welding
flash butt
welding
open
square
and
closed
square
gas
pressure
br-er7-01e.cdr
welding,
Classification of Welding
Processes acc. to DIN 1910
Fig-
ure 7.2.
Figure 7.1
Both methods use efficient gas torches to bring the workpiece ends up to the welding
temperature. When the welding temperature is reached, both joining members are
butt-welded by the application of axial force when a flash edge forms. The long preheating time leads to the formation of a coarse-grained structure in the joining area,
therefore the welds are of low toughness values. As the process is operated mainsindependently and
initial state: gap closed
ment
weight
mobile
is
low
and
in
also
ring-shaped burner
(sectional view)
pressure
1. heating
main
application
2. torch positioning
3. welding by rapid pressing
steels
br-er7-02e.cdr
Figure 7.2
7. Pressure Welding
86
In pressure butt welding, the input of the necessary welding heat is produced by
resistance heating. The necessary axial force is applied by copper clamping jaws
which also receive the current supply, Figure 7.3. The current circuit is closed over
the abutting surfaces of the two joining members where, by the increased interface
resistance, the highest heat generation is obtained. After the welding temperature which is lower than the melting temperature of the weld metal is reached, upset
pressure is applied and the current circuit is opened. This produces a thick flash-free
upset seam which is typical for this method. In order to guarantee the uniform heating
of
the
abutting
upset force
cross-sectional
sizes and shapes
water-cooled clamping
chucks (Cu electrodes)
must
have
bulging at the end
of the weld
parallel faces.
_
~
As no molten metal
br-er7-03e.cdr
develops
during
Process Principle of
Pressure Butt Welding
Figure 7.3
surfaces must be
free from contaminations
and
from
a+b
b
2
clamping force
steel chuck
copper shoe
secondary side
and
primary side
welding transformer
br-er7-04e.cdr
good
a = flashing length
b = upset loss
7. Pressure Welding
87
joining
members
are
always
br-er7-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 7.5
are progressively advanced towards each other until they make contact at several
points and the current circuit is over these contact bridges closed. As the local current density at these points is high, the heating also develops very fast. The metal is
liquified and, partly, evaporated. The metal vapour pressure causes the liquified
metal to be thrown out of the gap. At the same time, the metal vapour is generating a
shielding gas atmosphere; that is to say, with the exception of pipe welds, welding
can be carried out without the use of shielding gas. The constant creation and destruction of the contact bridges causes the abutting faces to burn, starting from
the contact points, with heavy spray-type ejection. Along with the occurrence of
material loss, the parts are progressively advanced towards each other again. New
contact bridges are created again and again. When the entire abutting face is uniformly fused, the two workpiece ends are, through a high axial force, abruptly
pressed together and the welding current is switched off. This way, a narrow, sharp
and, in contrast to friction welding, irregular weld edge is produced during the upsetting progress, which, if necessary, can be easy mechanically removed while the weld
is still warm, Figure 7.5.
7. Pressure Welding
88
In flash butt welding, a fundamental distinction is made between two different working techniques. During hot flash butt welding a preheating operation precedes the
actual flashing process, Figure 7.6. The preceding resistance heating is carried out
by reversing, i.e., by the changing short-circuiting and pressing of the joining surfaces and by the mechanical separation in the reversed motion. When the joint ends
are sufficiently heated, is the flashing process is initialised automatically and the
following process is similar to cold flash butt welding. In contrast to cold flash butt
welding, the advantage of hot flash butt welding is that, on one hand, sections of 20
times the size can be welded with the same machine efficiency and, on the other
hand, a smaller temperature drop and with that a lower cooling rate in the workpiece
can be obtained. This is of importance, especially with steels which because of their
chemical composition have a tendency to harden. The cooling rate may also be reduced by conductive reheating inside the machine. A smooth and clean surface is
not necessary with
hot flash butt weld-
upset travel
flashing travel
the
desired
plane-parallelism,
upset force
preheating
flashing
flashing
amperage
time
br-er7-06e.cdr
The welding area of the structure of a flash butt weld shows a zone which is reduced in carbon and other alloying elements, Figure 7.7. Moreover, all flash butt
welded joints have a pronounced coarse grain zone, whereby the toughness properties of the welded joint are lower than of the base metal. By the impact normalizing
effect in the machine successive to the actual welding process, can the toughness
properties be considerably increased. By one or several current impulses the weld
7. Pressure Welding
89
temperatures are increased by up to approximately 50 over the austeniting temperature of the metal.
Steels, aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can be welded economically with the
flash butt welding
process. Supported
heat affected zone
10 mm
shrinkage in flash
material: C60 E
butt welding is so
insignificant
that
0,1 mm
soft-annealing zone
base metal
Secondary Structure
Along a Flash Butt Weld
carbon content.
Figure 7.7
production.
Friction welding is a pressure welding method where the necessary heat
br-er7-08e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 7.8
7. Pressure Welding
90
br-er7-09e_sw.cdr
Figure 7.9
tion-symmetrical parts. It is, nowabrake
and
polygonal
clamping tool
clamping tool
workpiece
clutch
pressure element
for axial pressure
cross-
sections.
driving motor
flywheel
clamping tool
clamping tool
workpiece
pressure element
for axial pressure
br-er7-10e.cdr
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
91
perature profile has been achieved. Then the motor is declutched and the relative
motion is neutralised by external braking. In general, the friction force is raised to upsetting force after the rotation movement has been discontinued. During flywheel
friction welding, the inertia mass is raised to nominal speed, the drive motor is declutched and the stationary workpiece is, with a defined axial force, pressed against
the rotating workpiece. Welding is finished when the total kinetic energy - stored in
the flywheel has been consumed by the friction processes. This is the so-called
self-breaking effect of the system. The method is used when, based on metallurgical
processes, extremely short welding times may be realised. Further process variants
are radial friction welding, orbital friction welding, oscillation friction welding and friction
surfacing.
However,
process
these
variants
braking
0,1...0,5s
1800...
number of
revolutions
5400 min
900...
-1
-1
5400min
time
in the experimental
stage.
Recently,
axial
pressure
40...280
20...100 Nmm
-2
40...280
-2
-2
Nmm
Nmm
new developments
in the field of friction
stud
welding
studs on plates
torque
br-er7-11e.cdr
have
been
intro-
duced.
Figure 7.11
Figure 7.11 depicts the variation in time of the most important process parameters in friction welding with continuous drive and flywheel friction welding. The occuring moments maxima may be interpreted as follows: The first maximum, at the start
of the frictional contact, is explained by the formation of local fusion zones and their
shearing off in the lower temperature range.
The torque decreases as a result of the risen temperature - which again is a consequence of the increased plasticity - and of the lowered deformation resistance. The
second maximum is generated during the braking phase which precedes the spindle
standstill. The second maximum is explained by the increased deformation resistance at dropping temperatures. The temperature drop in the joining zone is ex-
7. Pressure Welding
92
plained by the lowered energy input due to the rotation-speed decrease and
also by the augmented radial displacement of the highly heated material into the weld
upset.
In friction welding
number of revolutions
with a continuous
upset force
comfriction
welding
allows
reduction
time
the
braking
and
ISF 2002
br-er7-12e.cdr
upsetting
mo-
b)
be accurately pre-
determined by the
microcontroller
c)
d)
of
e)
f)
workpieces in the
clamping chuck.
ISF 2002
br-er7-13e.cdr
Figure 7.13
7. Pressure Welding
93
chine is in its structure similar to a turning lathe, however, for the transmission of the
high axial forces, the machine structure must be considerably more rigid.
Basically, there are three types of friction welding: a) friction welding with a rotating
workpiece and a translational motion of the other workpiece; b) friction welding with
rotation and translational motion of one workpiece facing a stationary other workpiece, c) rotation and translation of two workpieces against a stationary intermediate
piece. The remaining variations, shown in Figure 7.13, also find applications when
both workpieces have to rotate in opposite direction to each other. For example,
when a low diameter and, in connection with this, the low relative speeds demand the
necessary heat quantity.
A survey of possible joint shapes achievable with friction welding is given in Figure 7.14. The specimen preparation of the joining members should, if possible, be
carried out in a way that the heat input and the heat dissipation is equal for both
members. Dependbefore
welding
abutting
surfaces
should be smooth,
angular
equal
and
of
3.
0,75d
d=0,75D
dimensions.
br-er7-14e.cdr
The
5. round material
with plate
g/d 0,25...0,3
d 0,6D
considerably.
after
welding
1..2
before
welding
4. pipe with pipe
after
welding
Figure 7.14
7. Pressure Welding
94
combinations have, however, not yet been tested on their suitability to friction welding. Metallurgical reasons which may reduce the friction weldability are:
cirkon
tungsten
vanadium
titanium
tantalum
stellite
free cutting steel
cast steel
steel, austentic
steel, high alloyed
steel, alloyed
steel, unalloyed
silver
niobium
nickel alloys
nickel
molybdenum
brass
magnesium
copper
cobalt
hard metal, sintered
cast iron (GGG, GT)
lead
aluminium, sintered
aluminium alloys
aluminium
aluminium
aluminium alloys
aluminium, sintered
lead
cast iron (GGG, GT)
hard metal, sintered
cobalt
copper
magnesium
brass
molybdenum
nickel
nickel alloys
niobium
silver
steel, unalloyed
steel, alloyed
steel, high alloyed
steel, austentic
cast steel
free cutting steel
stellite
tantalum
titanium
vanadium
tungsten
cirkon
non-metal inclusions,
2. formation of low-melting or intermetallic phases,
3. embrittlement by gas absorption (as a rule, the costly, inert
gas shielding can be dispensed with, even when welding titanium),
4. softening of hardened or pre-
friction weldable
cipitataly-hardened
materials
and
not tested
a cooling rate.
ISF 2002
finestructure
structure)
metal: S235JR
ing
zone
p = 30 N/mm2
t =6s
2
tSt = 250 N/mm
n = 1500 U/min
region.
is typical of a fric-
tion-welded joint is
characterised
by
base metal
br-er7-16e.cdr
toughness
proper-
Secondary Structure
Along a Friction Weld
ties.
Figure 7.16
weld metal
10 m
7. Pressure Welding
95
Figure 7.17 shows a comparison between a flash butt-welded and a frictionwelded cardan shaft. The two welds are distinguished by the size of their heat affected zone and the development of the weld upset. While in friction welding a regular, lip-shaped upset is produced, the weld flash formation in flash butt welding is narrower and sharper and also considerably more irregular. Besides, the heat affected
zone during friction welding is substantially smaller than during flash butt welding.
Friction welding machines are fully mechanized and may well be integrated into
production lines. Loading and unloading equipment, turning attachments for the
preparation of the abutting surfaces and for upset removal and also storage units for
complete welding programs make these machines well adaptable to automation. The
machines
may
furthermore
be
friction welding
br-er7-17e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 7.17
Nevertheless, these machines are also always applied when metals and material
combinations which are difficult to weld have to be joined in a reliable and costeffective way. With the machines that are presently used in Germany, it is possible to
weld massive workpieces in the diameter range of 0.6 up to 250 mm For steel pipes,
the maximum weldable diameter is at present approximately 900 mm, the wall thicknesses are approx. 6 mm.
7. Pressure Welding
96
3 loading device
material combination:
Cf53/ Ck45
4 unloading grippers
br-er7-18e_sw.cdr
Figure 7.18
br-er7-19e_sw.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 7.19
1 pump shaft
2 shaft C22E/ E295
3 press cylinder S185/9S 20K
4 hydraulic cylinder S235J3G2/ C60E or S235JR/ C15
5 cylinder case S235JR/ S355J2G3
6 piston rod 42Cr4
7 connecting rod 100Cr6/ S235JR
8 stud S235J2G3/ X5CrNi18-10
9 knotter hook 15CrNi6
br-er7-20e_sw.cdr
Figure 7.20
7. Pressure Welding
97
160 mm
40 mm
30 mm
tant
advantages
and
disadvan-
tages of friction
940 mm
friction-welded piece
20,-
flange,forged
material costs shaft
30 und 40 mm
2x friction welds
incl. upset removal
20,-
7,50
4,25
3,-
14,75
parison
with
the
competitive
method
of
flash
butt welding.
br-er7-21e.cdr
Figure 7.21
Pressure welding with magnetically
impelled arc, Magnetarc Welding,
is an arc pressure welding method for
the joining of closed structural tubular shapes, Figure 7.23. The weldable wall thickness range is between
0.7 and 5 mm, the weldable diameter
range between 5 and 300 mm. In
Magnetarc Welding an arc burns between the joining surfaces and is rotated by external magnetic forces. This
is achieved by a magnet coil system
that produces a magnetic field.
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
98
effects a tangential force to act upon the arc. The rotation of the arc heats and melts
the joint surfaces. After an adequate heating operation, the two workpiece members
are pressed and fused together. A regular weld upset develops which is normally not
removed. The welding operation takes place under shielding gas (mainly CO2).
1. starting position
2. starting of welding
protection
of
rounding
3. heating
the
atmos-
contribution
to-
4. completion of welding
br-er7-23e.cdr
reproducibility
Diagrammatic Representation
of Magnetic Arc Welding
of
Figure 7.23
malleable
cast steel
materials
steel, lowalloyed
steel, unalloyed
steel, lowalloyed
cast steel
dustrial conditions.
As reason is the symmetric heat input,
malleable
suitable for
magnetic arc
welding
not tested
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
99
when steels with a high carbon content or machining steels are welded. The joining
faces of the workpieces must be free from contamination, such as rust or scale.
To obtain a defect-free weld, normally a simple saw cut is a sufficient preparation of
the abutting surfaces.
If
special
of
the
tolerances
to
be
ad-
justed accordingly.
This applies also to
ISF 2002
br-er7-25e_sw.cdr
friction welding.
Applications for Magnetic Arc Welding
Figure 7.25
examples
of
pressure
br-er7-26e_sw.cdr
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
100
advantages:
ops.
wall thicknesses
- in comparison with friction welding less moving parts
(only axial movement of one joining member during upsetting)
is mainly used for welding of aluminium alloys is the low thermal stress of
- no spatter formation
disadvantages:
- suitable for small wall thicknesses only
ISF 2002
Figure 7.27
workpiece
tool collar
fixed backing
contoured pin
br-er7-28e.cdr
Friction-Stir Welding
Figure 7.28
8.
Resistance Spot Welding,
Resistance Projection Welding
and Resistance Seam Welding
2003
101
Figure 8.1 shows an extract from the classification of the welding methods according
to DIN 1910 with a detailed account of the conductive resistance pressure welding.
In the case of resistance pressure welding, the heating occurs at the welding point as
a consequence of Joule resistance heating caused by current flow through an electrical conductor, Figure 8.2. In spot and projection welding, the plates to be welded in
overlap. Current supply is carried out through spherical or flat electrodes, respectively. In roller seam welding, two driven roller electrodes are applied. The plates to
be
welded
are
mainly overlapped.
welding
fusion
welding
Qinput is generated
by resistance heat-
cold pressure
welding
resistance pressure
welding
induction pressure
welding
Conduction pressure
welding
resistance spot
welding
projection
welding
roller seam
welding
friction welding
resistance butt
welding
flash butt
welding
ISF 2002
br-er8-01e.cdr
Classification of Welding
According to DIN 1910
Figure 8.1
projection welding
l workpieces overlap
l electrode
l weld nugget
loss
arises
from
the
heat
plates
1 electrode force
2 elektrodes
3 production part
br-er8-02e.cdr
Figure 8.2
4 loaded area
5 projection
and
also
102
electrode force
effective heat
total heat input
current (time dependence)
heat losses
losses into the electrodes
losses into the sheet metal
losses by heat radiation
total resistance
material resistance
contact resistance
Q4
Q2
rate
by
Q4
Qeff
Q3
Q4
t=tS
Qinput = C
input
Fel
Q4
down
to
90%
decreases
Q2
Fel
I (t) R(t) dt
t=0
current
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4
time reduction to
90%
decreases
Figure 8.3
The time progression of the resistance is shown in Figure 8.4. The contact resistance
is composed of the interface resistances between the electrode and the plate (electrode/plate) and between the plates (plate/plate). The resistance height is greatly dependent on the applied electrode force. The higher this force is set, the larger are the
conductive
cross-
sections
at
the
mOhm
resistance
total resistance
10
welding time
periods
surface resistance is
collapsed,
a3 is highly extended
A1: area out-of-contact
A2: contact area with high resistance
A3: contact area completely conductive
tact
surfaces,
of
welding,
br-er8-04e.cdr
duction of interface
resistances.
Figure 8.4
103
With the formation of the weld nugget the interface resistances between the plates
disappear. During the progress of the weld the material resistance increases from a
low value (surrounding temperatures) to a maximum value above the melting temperature.
Figure 8.5 shows diagrammatically the different resistances during the spot welding
process with acting electrode force, but without welding current. Weld nugget formation must therefore start in the joining zone because of the existing high contact resistance there.
electrode force
resistance rate
R3
R3
trodes
for
resis-
R6
R6
_
~
R7
R4
coolant is normally
R5
the
R7
R2
R5
R4
0
cooling
100
200
R [Ohm]
water is transported
to
the
electrode
br-er8-05e.cdr
Figure 8.5
maximum tempera-
cooling drill-hole
2-5
10 - 20
slope
ture is reached in
the centre of the
weld
nugget
and
decreases strongly
in the electrode di-
rection.
ISF 2002
br-er8-06e.cdr
Electrode Cooling
Figure 8.6
104
The functions of the set-up time and the post-weld holding time are listed in Figure
8.8. Dependent on the welding task different force and current programs can be
set in the welding machines, Figure 8.9. In the top the simplest possible welding
program sequence is shown: The application of the electrode force, the set-up time
sequence tpre, the switching-on of the welding current and the sequence of the weldFel
Iw
set-up time
welding current Iw
time t
tpre
tw
th
top electrode
postweld-holding time
- holding time of workpiece during
cooling of molten metal
- prevention of pore formation in the
welding nugget
- prevention of lifting the electrode
under voltage
workpiece
lower electrode
weld nugget
br-er8-07e.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er8-08e.cdr
Time Sequence of
Resistance Spot Welding
Figure 8.7
ISF 2002
Figure 8.8
105
welding current
electrode force
tw
tpres
th
time
Fel
welding current
electrode force
electrode force
weld holding time th and the switchingoff of the force generating system. The
diagram in the centre is almost identi-
tpre
welding current
Iw
Iw
5
7
1
2
5
7
Fel
3
Iw
6
time
1 - initial force
2 - welding pressure
force
3 - post pressure force
4 - preheating current
5 - welding current
6 - postheating current
7 - ascending current
8 - descending current
time
br-er8-09e.cdr
tion, welding is carried out with a variable electrode force (2) and with preheating (4) and post-heating current
(6). Dependent on the control system,
Figure 8.9
A controlled variable may be, for in1
stance, the electrode path, the resistance progress, the welding current or
10
2
3
11
12
4
5
8
the machine frame, the welding transformer with secondary lines, the elec-
br-er8-10e.cdr
ISF 2002
Schematic Assembly of
Spot Welding Machine
106
Figure 8.11 depicts the possible process variations of resistance spot welding.
These are distinguished by the number of plates to be welded and by the arrangement of the electrodes or, respectively, of the transformers. It has to be noted that
with a corresponding arrangement also plates can be welded where one of the two
plates has a non-conductive surface (as, for example, plastics).
Figure 8.12 shows the current types which are normally used for resistance welding.
Alternating current has the simplest structure (Figure 8.13) and is most price effective, unavoidable are, however, the disadvantages of current zeros and weld nugget
cooling. In relation
to the average cur-
loads
occur
and,
wear.
two-sided single-shear
single-spot welding
two-sided two-shear
spot welding (stack welding)
extreme
+
direct
occur
current.
br-er8-11e.cdr
is,
more
however,
Figur 8.11
complicated
alternating current
expensive
12
[kA]
15
10
5
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16
-5
current
more
therefore,
current
and,
[kA]
20
-10
-15
-20
6
4
2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
[kA]
operate with a 50
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.00
0.02 0.04
welding time
0.14 0.16
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.00
Figur 8.12
[s]
ISF 2002
Current Types
trolled only in 20 ms
0.02 0.04
welding time
[s]
br-er8-12e.cdr
[s]
current
machines
[kA]
conventional
Hz primary current
welding time
current
welding
unit.
As
10
units
single-phase
alternating current
107
(1
period).
frequency
tech-
nique is used, a
finer setting of the
current-on
period
sible.
In order to realise higher currents and shorter welding times, the impulse capacitor
resistance welding technique is applied. The rectified primary current is stored in capacitors and, through a high-voltage transformer, converted to high welding currents.
The advantages of this technique are
low heat input and high reproducibility.
Because of the high energy density,
materials with good conductivity can
be welded and also multiple-projection
welds can be carried out. A disadvan-
electrodes
form A
form B
form C
form E
form F
form G
form D
electrode holders
br-er8-14e.cdr
ISF 2002
Electrodes,
Electrode Caps and Holders
108
requirements
- good electrical conductivity
- good thermal conductivity
- high high-temperature strength
- high temperature stability
- high softening temperature
- little tendency to alloying with workpiece material
- easy options in machining
ISO 5182
Group
Type
1
2
Group Type
No.
1
Cu - ETP
Cu Cdl
Cu Crl
Cu Crl Zr
Cu CO2 Be
Cu Ni2 Si
Cu Ni1 P
Cu Be2 Co Ni
Cu Ag6
CuAl10NiFe5Ni5
and holders.
ISO 5182
Key
Key
No.
10
W75 Cu
11
W78 Cu
12
WC70 Cu
13
Mo
14
15
W65 Ag
br-er8-15e.cdr
Figure 8.15
poor
good
br-er8-16e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 8.16
poor
109
good
the electrodes, the electrode working surface must be flat. Also during
the design phase space must be provided for an adequately large clearing
zone around the working point, in order to guarantee the unimpeded electrode approach to the working point,
Figure 8.17.
ISF 2002
Figure 8.17
weld nugget; under certain circumstances it might even prevent a reliable welding process. In the example,
shown in Figure 8.18, the shunt cur-
spot welding
current path
indirect welding
one side
br-er8-18e.cdr
Shunting
Figure 8.18
110
fig. 1
fig. 2
discharge of molten
material at the joint plane
impedance.
br-er8-19e.cdr
Welding Spatter
Figure 8.19
Different welding conditions are caused by welding machine wear, different heat
dissipation. Non-uniform conditions by alterations to components are: different plate
plate
quality, number of
plate
sur-
faces,
edge
dis-
tances.
Electrode
by:
pres-
shunt
connection
alteration to force
plates,
alteration
of
pressure
wear of
electrodes
wear of
cable
mains voltage
fluctuation
secondary
electrical
impedance
wear
Qeff
diversion
heat
plate
fluctuations
plate
thickness
bouncing.
quality
of plates
number
of plates
plate
surface
Figure 8.20
edge
distance
welding equipment
thicknesses,
111
materials
aluminium
alloying
elements
good
weldability
sufficient
weldability
satisfactory
maximum content [%]
iron
very good
gold
satisfactory
0,25
0,40
C + Cr
0,35
1,60
C + Mo
0,50
0,70
C+V
0,40
0,60
C + Mn
1,40
1,60
molybdenum satisfactory
C + Ni
3,00
4,00
nickel
very good
Si
0,40
1,00
platinum
very good
Cu
0,60
0,60
P+S
0,10
0,10
C+Cr+Mo+V
0,60
1,60
cobalt
very good
copper
poor
magnesium
good
silver
very good
tantalum
very good
titanium
very good
tungsten
satisfactory
materials. A list of the various materials is shown in Figure 8.21. The alloying elements which are used for
steels have a varying influence on the
suitability for resistance spot welding.
The values which are indicated in the
table are valid only when the stated
element is the sole alloying constituent of the steel material.
influence of
alloying elements
(steel materials)
weldable materials
br-er8-21e.cdr
Weldable Materials
Figure 8.21
The differences between both methods are illustrated in Figure 8.23. The short life of
the electrodes used for resistance spot welding is explained by the higher thermal
load and the larger pressing area caused by the smaller electrode contact areas. The
term electrode life
stands for the num-
after welding
before welding
one
pair
electrodes
of
without
follow-up
distance
exceeding
elektrode
projection
br-er8-22e.cdr
weld.
Figure 8.22
spot
welding
projection
welding
up to 20 mm
> 20 mm
embossed
projection shape
elektrodes:
diameter
tip face
pressed
mould pressed
convex
flat
electrode life
less
longer
place where
the nugget
originates
elektrodes
projections
one
several
small
big
current distribution
no
yes
force distribution
no
yes
number of
welding nuggets
circular
longitudinal
annular
solid
projection shape
112
natural
projection shape
struck
machined
cut
pushed
circular
longitudinal
annular
interrupted annular
spot
contact
line
contact
Circular
follow-up distance
weld nut
problems:
br-er8-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
Longitudinal
cut
Annular
pushed
crossed wires
wire-plate
bolt-pipe
br-er8-24e.cdr
Figure 8.23
Figure 8.24
die
die
plate
plate
mould plate
mould plate
counter-die
d1
embossed projection
the used plate thickness and may, therefore, appear as different types in the
die
l
mould plate
plate
longitudinal projection
br-er8-25e.cdr
ISF 2002
Production of
Embossed Projection Shapes
Figure 8.25
113
plate surface by appropriate die plates, dies and, if necessary, counter dies.
br-er8-26e.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er8-27e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 8.26
Figure 8.27
lap joint
with foil
squash seam
weld
butt weld
with foil
with
qualities
differing
are
pro-
before
welding
after
welding
br-er8-28e.cdr
bution, as shown by
Roller Seam Welding
114
ISF 2002
welding the electrodes remain in contact and turn continuously after the
first weld spot has been produced. At
Figure 8.29
be produced again
current flow is initiated. Dependent on
the electrode feed
rate
and
on
the
weld
nuggets
pro-
are
br-er8-30e_sw.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 8.30
9.
Electron Beam Welding
2003
115
The application of highly accelerated electrons as a tool for material processing in the
fusion, drilling and welding process
and also for surface treatment has
anode
adjustment coil
to vacuum pump
valve
viewing optics
working chamber
beam generation
cathode
stigmator
focussing coil
defelction coil
industrially
applied
high-production
joining method.
The electron beam welding machine
workpiece
workpiece
handling
to vacuum pump
chamber door
br-er9-01e.cdr
ISF 2002
Schematic Representation of an
Electron Beam Welding Machine
Figure 9.1
power supply
chamber evacuation
system
valve
evacuation
system for gun
control cabinet
EB-gun
working chamber
workpiece
receiving platform
workpiece handling
control panel
control desk
br-er9-02e_f.cdr
ISF 2002
All-Purpose EBW
Machine and Equipment
116
tween the cathode and the modulating electrode, is a barrier field which may pass
only a certain quantity of electrons. This happens during an electron excess in front
of the cathode where it culminates in form of an electron cloud. Due to its particular
shape which can be compared to a concave mirror as used in light optic, the Wehnelt
cylinder also effects, besides the beam current adjustment, the electrostatic focussing of the electron beam. The electron beam which diverges after having passed the
pierced anode, however, obtains the power density which is necessary for welding
only after having passed the adjacent alignment and focussing system. One or several electromagnetic focussing lenses bundle the beam onto the workpiece inside the
vacuum chamber. A deflection coil assists in maintaining the electron beam oscillating motion. An additional stigmator coil may help to correct aberrations of the lenses.
A viewing optic or a video system allows the exact positioning of the electron beam
onto the weld groove.
The core piece of the electron beam welding machine is the electron beam gun
where the electron beam is generated under high vacuum. The tightly focussed electron beam diverges rapidly under atmospheric pressure caused by scattering and
ionisation development with air. As it would, here, loose power density and efficiency,
the welding process is, as a rule, carried out under medium or high vacuum. The
necessary vacuum is generated in separate vacuum pumps for working chamber and
beam gun. A shut-off valve which is positioned between electron gun and working
chamber serves to maintain the gun vacuum while the working chamber is flooded. In
universal machines,
Figure
9.2,
the
back-scattered electrons
x-ray
the
secondary electrons
vacuum
chamber is a slide
x
convection
stepper
heat conduction
z
ISF 2002
br-er9-03e.cdr
117
the vacuum chamber onto the workpiece platform. A distinction is made between
electron beam machines with vertical and horizontal beam manipulation systems.
The energy conversion in the workpiece, which is schematically shown in Figure 9.3,
indicates that the kinetic energy of the highly accelerated electrons is, at the operational point, not only converted into the heat necessary for welding, but is also released by heat radiation and heat dissipation. Furthermore, a part of the incident
electrons (primary electrons) is subject to backscatter and by secondary processes
the secondary electrons are emitted from the workpiece thus generating X-rays.
The impact of the electrons, which are tightly focussed into a corpuscular beam, onto
the workpiece surface stops the electrons; their penetration depth into the workpiece
is very low, just a few m. Most of the kinetic energy is released in the form of heat.
The high energy density at the impact point causes the metal to evaporate thus
allowing the following electrons a deeper penetration. This finally leads to a metal
vapour
pour
cavity
cavity
which
which
is is surrounded by a shell of fluid metal, covering the entire weld
surrounded
by
penetration
depths
into
steel
a)
b)
c)
d)
materials of up to
300
mm,
when
voltage
ISF 2002
br-er9-04e.cdr
Figure 9.4
The diameter of the cavity corresponds approximately with the beam diameter. By a
relative motion in the direction of the weld groove between workpiece and electron
beam the cavity penetrates through the material, Figure 9.5. At the front side of the
cavity new material is molten which, to some extent, evaporates, but for the most part
118
flows around the cavity and rapidly solidifies at the backside. In order to maintain the
welding cavity open, the vapour pressure must press the molten metal round the vapour column against the cavity walls, by counteracting its hydrostatic pressure and
the surface tension.
However, this equilibrium of forces is unstable. The transient pressure and temperature conditions inside the cavity as well as their respective, momentary diameters are
subject to dynamic changes. Under the influence of the resulting, dynamically changing geometry of the
vapour cavity and
electron beam
groove
front side
keyhole
melting pool
molten
zone
welding direction
vapour capillary
with an unfavourable
selection
the
welding
rameters,
F1
of
pa-
metal
solidified
zone
be included which
F3
F1
shrinkholes, Figure
ISF 2002
br-er9-05e.cdr
9.6.
The unstable pres-
Condition in Capillary
molten backside of
the vapour cavity to
strong and irregular
changes in shape
(case II). Pressure
variations interfere
with
II
III
the
regular
workpiece movement
ISF 2002
br-er9-06e.cdr
Figure 9.6
119
distributed
groove
g
len
fs
ho
m
ea
len
o
gth
ea
fs
ten
blind bead
back-
molten area
cavities
unapproachable gap
lower bead
cavity
weld
thickness
weld
penetration
depth
width of seam
Nahtdicke
weld reinforcement
upper bead
root reinforcement
molten
end crater
are
not
root weld
br-er9-07e.cdr
collapse
Basic Definitions
sporadi-
solidification (case Ill). The angle (case I) increases with the rising weld speed and
this is defined as a turbulent process. Flaws such as a constantly open vapour cavity
and subsequent continuous weld solidification could be avoided by selection of jobsuitable welding parameter combination and in particular of beam oscillation characteristics, it has to be seen
to a constantly of the molten metal, in
by accelerating voltage:
l high voltage machine (UB=150 kV)
l low voltage machine (UB=60 kV)
by pressure:
l high vacuum machine
l fine vacuum machine
l atmospheric machine (NV-EB welding)
advantage
of
the
by machine concept:
l conveyor machine
l clock system
l all-purpose EBW machine
l local vacuum machine
l mobile vacuum machine
l micro and fine welding machine
120
able with the electron beam technology, Figure 9.7. Electron beam welding of thick
plates offers thereby decisive advantages. With modern equipment, wall thicknesses
of up to 300 mm with length-to-width ratios of up to 50 : 1 and consisting of low and
high-alloy materials can be welded fast and precisely in one pass and without adding
any filler metal. A corresponding quantification shows the advantage in regard of the
applied filler metal and of the primary energy demand.
Compared with the gas-shielded narrow gap welding process, the production time
can be reduced by the factor of approx. 20 to 50.
< 1 x 10 mbar
Considering the above-mentioned advantages, there are also disadvantages which emerge from the process.
These are, in particular, the high cooling rate, the high equipment costs and
the size of the chamber, Figure 9.9.
br-er9-09e_f.cdr
Figure 9.9
Electron beam units are not only distinguished by their working vacuum quality or the
unit concept but also by the acceleration voltage level, Figure 9.11. The latter exerts
a considerable influence onto the obtainable welding results. With the increasing acceleration voltage, the achievable weld depth and the depth-to-width ratio of the weld
121
geometry are also increasing. A disadvantage of the increasing accelerating voltage is, however, the exponential increase of X-rays and, also, the
-2
< 5 x 10 mbar
the
low-voltage
technology
Figure 9.10
to the lower acceleration voltage, a
separate complete lead covering of the
unit is not necessary.
While during the beam generation, the
vacuum (p = 10-5 mbar) for the insula-
-4
< 1x 10 mbar
~ 10 mbar
~ 1 mbar
br-er9-11e_f.cdr
in high vacuum.
Figure 9.11
122
The beam diameter is minimal in high
vacuum and the beam power density
in vacuum
at atmosphere
r
br-er9-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
Advantages of EBW
With a low risk of oxidation and reduced demands on the welds, the so-
Figure 9.12
called medium-vacuum units (p = 102
in vacuum
r
X-ray formation
high investment
at atmosphere
mulators).
X-ray formation
high investment
br-er9-13e.cdr
ISF 2002
Disadvantages of EBW
123
units are applied, Figure 9.14. Their
advantages are the continuous welding time and/or short cycle times. Areas of application are in the metalworking industry (precision tubes, bimetal strips) and in the automotive
industry (converters, pinion cages,
socket joints and module holders).
Figure 9.14
generators. Here, several workpieces
can be welded in subsequence during
an evacuation cycle. The largest, presently existing working chamber has a
volume of 265 m.
characterised
by
short
br-er9-15e_f.cdr
124
cycle, while, at the same time, the next
vacuum chamber may be flooded and
charged/loaded.
Conveyor machines allow the continuous production of welded joints, as, for
example, bimetal semi finished products such as saw blades or thermostatic bimetals, Figure 9.17. In the main
chamber of these units is a gradually
raising pressure system as partial vacsemi-finished material
endproduct
br-er9-16e_f.cdr
Figure 9.16
butt weld
a)
b)
lap weld
br-er9-17e.cdr
ISF 2002
Seam Appearance
for EB-Welding in Vacuum
125
sel skins, components for particle accelerators and nuclear fusion plants).
ISF 2002
Figure 9.18
sized parts (press fit) should be selected during weld preparation, as a
transverse shrinkage sets in at the
150
EBW MSG
UP
(narrow gap)(narrow gap)
EBW
welding current
0,27 A
welding voltage
groove area
150.000 V
UP
(conventional)
MSG
(narrow gap)
260 A
UP
(narrow gap)
650 A
30 V
510 A
30 V
2
UP
(conventional)
28 V
number of passes
896 mm
1
2098 mm
35
filler metal
melting efficiency
7,7 kg/h
energy input
6410 kJ
12810 kJ
29310 kJ
37710 kJ
welding time
27 min
4 h 35 min
4 h 11 min
7 h 20 min
4905 mm
81
5966 mm
143
23 kg
54 kg
66 kg
5 kg/h
13 kg/h
3
9 kg/h
3
br-er9-19e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 9.19.
Figure 9.19
126
In order to receive uniform and reproducible results with electron beam welding, an
exact knowledge about the beam geometry is necessary and a prerequisite for:
The objective of many tests is therefore the exact measurement of the beam and the
investigation of the effects of different beam geometries on the welding result.
For the exact measurement of the electron beam, a microprocessor-controlled measuring system has been developed in the ISF. The electron beam is linearly scanned
at a high speed by means of a point probe, which, with a diameter of 20 m is much
smaller than the beam diameter in the focus, Figure 9.20. When the electron beam is
deflected through the aperture diaphragm located inside the sensor, the electrons
flowing through the diaphragm are
picked up by a Faraday shield and
industrial areas:
l automotive industries
l aircraft and space industries
l mechanical engineering
l tool construction
l nuclear power industries
l power plants
l fine mechanics and electrical
industries
l job shop
material:
l almost all steels
l aluminium and its alloys
l magnesium alloys
l copper and its alloys
l titanium
l tungsten
l gold
l material combinations
(e.g. Cu-steel, bronze-steel)
l ceramics (electrically conductive)
br-er9-20e.cdr
Figure 9.20
127
An example for a measured electron
hole sensor
hole with aperture
diaphragm Faraday
cup (20 m)
cross section
of the beam
measurement
field
been
heated
up
sufficiently.
slit sensor
cross section
of the beam
voltage
i.e., there are always enough electrons which can be sucked off. In the
ideal case, the developed power denbeam deflection
br-er9-21e.cdr
Figure 9.21
The electron signals are used for the
automatic seam tracking. These may
be either primary or secondary electrons or passing-through current or the
developing X-rays. When backscattered primary electrons are used, the
electron beam is scanned transversely
to the groove. A computer may determine the position of the groove relative
FILENAME: R I N G S T R
Accel. voltage:
150 kV
Beam current:
600 mA
Prefocus current:
700 mA
Main focus current: 1500 mA
Cath. heat current:
500 mm
Max. Density:
26,456 kW/mm2
2
Ref. Density:
26,456 kW/mm
br-er9-22e_f.cdr
ISF 2002
128
The broad variation range of the weldable materials and also material thicknesses
offer this joining method a large range of application, Figure 9.22. Besides the fine
and micro welding carried out by the electronics industry where in particular the low
heat input and the precisely programmable control is of importance, electron beam
welding is also particularly suited for the joining of large cross-sections.
10.
Laser Beam Welding
2003
129
The term laser is the abbreviation for
(m=microwave),
Figure
10.1.
Al-
1961 manufacturing of the first HeNe lasers and Nd: glass lasers
emission
1964 nobel price for Towens, Prokhorov and Basov for their
works in the field of masers
construction of the first Nd:YAG solid state lasers and
CO2 gas lasers
and
the
quantum-
br-er10-01e.cdr
Figure 10.1
opment of the laser technology. Already since the beginning of the Seventies and,
increasingly since the Eighties when the first high-performance lasers were available,
CO2 and solid state lasers have been used for production metal working.
The number of the
annual sales of la-
10
creased
the
1.5
few
in
years,
Figure
0.5
10.2.
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
130
in 1994 are shown in Figure 10.3. The main application areas of the laser in the field
of production metal working are joining and cutting jobs.
The availability of
more efficient laser
drilling
1,8%
welding
18,7%
beam
inscribe
20,5%
others
9,3%
sources
plication
possibili-
financial
con-
siderations - makes
cutting
44,3%
micro
electronics
5,4%
br-er10-03e.cdr
Figure 10.5 shows the characteristic properties of the laser beam. By reason of the
induced or stimu40
kW
laser power
radiation is coher-
CO2
20
10
ent
chromatic. As the
divergence is only
1/10
Nd:YAG
mrad,
mono-
long
transmission paths
1
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
diode laser
0
and
without
significant
beam divergences
br-er10-04e.cdr
are possible.
Figure 10.4
131
Inside the resonator, Figure 10.6, the laser-active medium (gas molecules, ions) is
excited to a higher energy level (pumping) by energy input (electrical gas discharge, flash lamps).
During retreat to a lower level, the energy is released in the form of a light quantum
(photon). The wave length depends on the energy difference between both excited
states and is thus a characteristic for the respective laser-active medium.
A distinction is made between spontaneous and induced transition. While the spontaneous emission is non-directional and in coherent (e.g. in fluorescent tubes) is a
laser beam generated
by
induced
emission
when
particle
with
light bulb
Laser
induced emission
E2
0,46"
is hit by a photon.
exited
state
monochromatic
polychromatic
coherent
incoherent
(fre-
(in phase)
(not in phase)
small divergence
large divergence
quency,
ground
state
0,9
4"
properties
E1
direction,
ISF 2002
br-er10-05e.cdr
Figure 10.5
energy source
possible,
laser beam
high
over-
crowded, in comparison
with
the
fully reflecting
mirror
R = 100%
energy source
ISF 2002
br-er10-06e.cdr
Laser Principle
laserFigure 10.6
partially reflecting
mirror
R < 100%
132
inversion. As result, a stationary light wave is formed between the mirrors of the
resonator (one of which is semi-reflecting) causing parts of the excited laser-active
medium to emit light.
In the field of production metal working, and particularly in welding, especially CO2
and Nd:YAG lasers are applied for their high power outputs. At present, the development of diode lasers is so far advanced that their sporadic use in the field of material processing is also possible. The industrial standard powers for CO2 lasers are,
nowadays, approximately 5 - 20 kW, lasers with powers of up to 40 kW are available.
In the field of solid state lasers average output powers of up to 4 kW are nowadays
obtainable.
energy
002
eV
transmission of
vibration energy
0,4
transition without
emission
10.7,
where
the
resonator is filled
0,3 0,288 eV
001
E = 0,002 eV
0,290 eV
0,2
100
0,1
discharge through
thrust with helium
with a N2-C02-He
LASER = 10,6 m
000
N2
CO2
ISF 2002
br-er10-07e.cdr
excitation of nitrogen
molecules
Figure 10.7
their
laser beam
vibrational
cooling water
cooling water
laser gas:
CO2: 5 l/h
He: 100 l/h
N2 : 45 l/h
vakuum pump
emit
molecules
a
radiation
with a wavelength
br-er10-08e.cdr
of 10.6 m. The
helium atoms, fiFigure 10.8
133
nally, lead the CO2
Cooling water
molecules back to
laser gas:
CO2: 11 l/h
He: 142 l/h
N2: 130 l/h
turning
mirrors
gas circulation
pump
laser beam
The efficiency of up
mirror
to 15%, which is
(partially reflecting)
achievable
gas discharge
with
end mirror
br-er10-09e.cdr
cooling water
comparison
with
other
sys-
laser
tems,
Figure 10.9
relatively
is the heat which must be discharged from the resonator. This is achieved by means
of the constant gas mixture circulation and cooling by heat exchangers. In
dependence of the type of gas transport, laser systems are classified into longitudinal-flow and transverse-flow laser systems, Figures 10.8 and 10.9.
With transverse-flow laser systems of a compact design can the multiple folding
ability of the beam reach higher output powers than those achievable with longitudinal-flow systems, the beam quality, however, is worse. In d.c.-excited systems
(high voltage), the
f2,57"
d0
focussed beam
teraction
between
molecules
0<K<1
causes
electrode burn-off.
In addition to the
ISF 2002
br-er10-10e.cdr
Figure 10.10
134
also entails a contamination of the laser gas. Parts of the gas mixture must be therefore exchanged permanently. In high-frequency a.c.-excited systems the electrodes
are positioned outside the gas discharge tube where the electrical energy is
capacitively coupled. High electrode lives and high achievable pulse frequencies
characterise
kind
of
this
resonator
excitation
principle. In diffusion-cooled
end
mirror
CO2
partially
reflecting
mirror
absorber
shutter
beam transmission
tube
LASER
systems beams of
a high quality are
generated
in
beam creation
focussing system
minimum of space.
work piece
is
hardly
br-er10-11e.cdr
ever necessary.
Figure 10.11
The intensity distribution is not constant across the laser beam. The intensity distribution in the case of the ideal beam is described by TEM modes (transversal electronic-magnetic). In the Gaussian or basic mode TEM00 is the peak energy in the
centre of the beam weakening towards its periphery, similar to the Gaussian normal
distribution. In practice, the quality of a laser beam is, in accordance with DIN EN
11146, distinguished
by
the
dimensional
quality
nonbeam
factor
(or
propagation factor)
K
(0...1),
10.10.
The
Figure
factor
distance
divergence
field
of
ISF 2002
br-er10-12e_f.cdr
Figure 10.12
mode to that of a
135
real beam and is
reflective
90-mirror optic
cus
strength.
By
beam
sources
may
compared
be
objec-
br-er10-13e.cdr
taively.
Focussing Optics
Figure 10.13
The CO2 laser beam is guided from the resonator over a beam reflection mirror system to one or several processing stations, Figures 10.11 and 10.12. The low divergence allows long transmission paths. At the processing station is the beam, with the
help of the focussing optics, formed according to the working task. The relative motion between beam and workpiece may be realised in different ways:
-
laser,
beam
focussing is normally
flash lamps
laser rod
laser beam
partially reflecting
mirror (R < 100%)
sorption,
especially
br-er10-14e.cdr
Figure 10.14
contaminations.
As
136
sipated only over the holders, there is a risk of deformation (alteration of the focal
length) or destruction through thermal overloading.
In the case of solid state laser, the normally cylindrical rod serves only the purpose
to pick up the laser-active ions (in the case of the Nd:YAG laser with yttriumaluminium-garnet crystals dosed with Nd3+ ions), Figure 10.14. The excitation is, for
the most part, carried out using flash or arc lamps, which for the optimal utilisation of
the excitation energy are arranged as a double ellipsoid; the rod is positioned in their
common focal point. The achieved efficiency is below 4%. In the meantime, also diode-pumped
solid
market.
The
possibility to guide
the solid-state laser
beam over flexible
fibre optics makes
these systems destined for the robot
ISF 2002
br-er10-15e_f.cdr
application,
Nd:YAG Laser Beam Welding Station
as
Figure 10.15
its
necessary complex
mirror systems may
cause
losses,
radiation
Figure
10.15.
Some types of optical fibres allow, with
fibre diameters of
1 mm bending radii
ISF 2002
br-er10-16e_f.cdr
of up to 100 mm.
Diode Laser
With
optical
Figure 10.16
137
switches a multiple utilisation of the solid state laser source is possible; with beam
splitters
(mostly
Nd:YAGlaser
0,30
CO2laser
proportion) simulta0,25
neous
welding
at
0,20
absorption A
several processing
stations is possible.
The
disadvantage
Cu
Al
Stahl
Ag
0,15
Fe
0,10
projection
is
impaired
Mo
the
0
beam
0,1
0,2 0,3
0,5 0,8 1
wave lenght
8 10
m 20
br-er10-17e.cdr
quality on account
of multiple reflection.
Figure 10.17
The semiconductor or diode lasers are characterised by their mechanical robustness, high efficiency and compact design, Figure 10.16. High performance diode lasers allow the welding of metals, although no deep penetration effect is achieved. In
material processing they are therefore particularly suitable for welding thin sheets.
Energy input into the workpiece is carried out over the absorption of the laser
beam. The absorption coefficient is, apart from the surface quality, also dependent
on the wave length
1010
en
106 erg
y
W/cm
shock hardening
10
power density
10
10
10
glaz
10
drilling
radiation
e
0
10
remelting
coating
example,
105
ma
rten
sitic
103
-8
10
br-er10-18e.cdr
-6
10
-4
10
acting time
-2
10
re-
welding
cutting
10
is
steel
which is exposed
har
den
ing
0
10
to wave lengths of
10.6
reflects
radia-
138
tion, Figure 10.17. As copper is a highly reflective metal with also a good heat conductivity, it is frequently used as mirror material.
Intensity
deep penetration
welding
heat conducting
welding
adjust-
laser beam
laser beam
molten pool
laser-induced
plasma
soldified
weld metal
keyhole
(vapour-/
plasma cavity)
simultaneous
molten pool
variation
soldified
weld metal
working
of
the
speed
br-er10-19e.cdr
ure
Principle of Laser Beam Welding
10.18.
The
methods of welding
Figure 10.19
and
cutting
de-
reflection R
60
40
20
penetration depth t
mm
1
0 5
10
When metals are welded with a lowintensity laser beam (I 105 W/cm2),
10
W/cm
10
laser intesity I
br-er10-20e.cdr
ISF 2002
139
conduction welding with a low deeppenetration effect is possible. Above
1010
steel
rF = 100 m
= 10.6 m
W/cm
laser intensity I
10
working zone
107
plasma threshold
6
10
A = 0,1
10
A=1
-10
-8
10
-6
10
10
10
radiation time t
br-er10-21e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 10.21
ten metal. The residual material vaporises and condenses either on the cavity side
walls or flows off in an ionised form. With suitable parameter selection, an almost
complete energy input into the workpiece can be obtained.
However,
in
de-
pendence
of
the
electron density in
the plasma and of
the radiated beam
intensity,
may
plasma
detach
from
"abormal" absorption:
I < 10 W/cm
dependent on wave length
dependent on temperature
dependent on material
absorption at solid or liquid surface:
A < 30%
I 106 W/cm
The
plasma
is
Interaction Between Laser Beam and Material
heated to such a
Figure 10.22
140
high degree that only a fraction of the beam radiation reaches the workpiece. This is
the reason why, in laser beam welding, gases are applied for plasma control. The
gases ionisation potential should be as high as possible, since also the formation of
shielding gas plasmas is possible
which again decreases the energy in-
beam energy
put.
diagnostics
0-2,5%
beam transmission
focussing system
2,5-12,5%
work piece
85-95%
reflection
ca. 10%
transmission
ca. 40%
heat convection
heat conduction
metal vapour
plasma
ca. 30%
10-15%
recombination
fusion energy
br-er10-23e.cdr
advantages
which
process
are
achievable in laser
work piece
installation
disadvantages
influential
br-er10-24e.cdr
141
(thermal conductivity), the design of
28
penetration depth
0,2% C-steel
CO2-laser
mm
(cross flow)
20
laser power:
16
15 kW
12
10 kW
8 kW
6 kW
4 kW
8
4
1,5 kW
0
0
0,6
1,2
1,8
m/min
3,0
welding speed
penetration depth
15
X 5 CrNi 18 10
CO2-laser
(axial flow)
mm
laser power:
6 kW
4 kW
2 kW
1 kW
m/min
welding speed
br-er10-25e.cdr
Penetration Depths
Figure 10.25
The high cooling rate during laser beam welding leads, when transforming steel
materials are used, to significantly increased hardness values in comparison with
other
welding
methods,
Figure
butt weld
for
the
in-
creased strength at
a lower toughness
and they are particularly
critical
circumstances
in
lap weld at
overlap joint
of
dynamic loads.
br-er10-26e.cdr
Figure 10.26
flanged weld at
overlap joint
142
The small beam diameter demands the very precise manipulation and positioning of
the workpiece or of
500
HV 0,4
WMA
MAZ
MAZ
hardness
Figure
10.28.
Otherwise,
as result, lack of
MAZ
MAZ
12
weld
fusion,
sagged
welds or concave
root surfaces are
possible weld de-
fects.
Figure 10.27
Caused by the high cooling rate and, in connection with this, the insufficient degassing of the molten metal, pore formation may occur during laser beam welding
of, in particular, thick plates (very deep welds) or while carrying out welding-in works
(insufficient degassing over the root), Figure 10.29.
However, too low a weld speed may also cause pore formation when the molten
metal picks up gases from the root side.
The materials that
misalignment
edge preparation
may
be
welded
beam
mispositioning
nium
and
nickel
br-er10-28e.cdr
Figure 10.28
143
high cooling rate, to be considered a critical influential factor where contents of C >
0.22% may be stipulated as the limiting reference value. Aluminium and copper
properties cause problems during energy input and process stability. Highly reactive
materials demand, also during laser beam welding, sufficient gas shielding beyond
the solidification of the weld seam. The sole application of working gases is, as a
rule, not adequate.
vw = 0,7 m/min
vw = 0,9 m/min
vw = 1,5 m/min
br-er10-29e.cdr
Porosity
Figure 10.29
The application of laser beam welding may be extended by process variants. One is
laser beam welding with filler wire, Figures 10.30 and 10.31 which offers the following
advantages:
- influence on the mechanic-technological properties of the weld and fusion zone
(e.g. strength, toughness, corrosion, wear resistance) over the metallurgical composition of the filler wire
- reduction of the demands on the accuracy of the weld preparation in regard to edge
misalignment, edge preparation and beam misalignment, due to larger molten pools
- filling of non-ideal, for example, V-shaped groove geometries
- a realisation of a defined weld reinforcement on the beam entry and beam exit side.
144
The exact positioning of the filler wire is a prerequisite for a high weld quality and a
sufficient dilution of the molten pool through which filler wire of different composition
as the base can reach right to the root. Therefore, the use of sensor systems is indispensable for industrial application, Figure 10.32. The sensor systems are to take over
the tasks of
- process control,
- weld quality as surance
- beam positioning and joint tracking, respectively.
welding direction
filler wire
laser beam
filler wire
laser beam
gas
gas
plasma
weld metal
molten pool
plasma
work piece
molten pool
keyhole
work piece
weld metal
keyhole
br-er10-30e.cdr
Figure 10.30
increase of gap
bridging ability
material: S380N (StE 380)
gap:
0,5 mm
PL = 8,3 kW
VW = 3 m/min
ES = 166 J/min
s = 4 mm
weld zone
Possibility of
metallurgical influence
weld zone
material combination:
10CrMo9-10/ X6CrNiTi18-10
PL = 5,0 kW
br-er10-31e.cdr
Figure 10.31
gap: 0 mm
vw = 1,6 m/min
gap: 0,5 mm
wire: SG-Ni Cr21 Fe18 Mo
vw = 1,0 m/min
dw = 1,2 mm
145
The present state-of-the-art is the further development of systems for industrial applications which until now have been tested in the laboratory.
Welding by means of solid state lasers has, in the past, mainly been applied by
manufacturers from the fields of precision mechanics and microelectronics. Ever
since solid state lasers with higher powers are available on the market, they are applied in the car industry to an ever increasing degree. This is due to their more variable beam manipulation possibilities when comparing with CO2 lasers. The CO2 laser
is mostly used by
the car industry and
with sensing device; fill factor 120 %
by
their
ancillary
KB 4620/9
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/6
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/4
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/0
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/41
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/38
20:1
10/92
Probe MS1-6C Probe MS1-5A Probe MS1-4C Probe MS1-3A Probe MS1-2B Probe MS1-1C
rotation-
0.1 mm
0.2 mm
0.3 mm
0.4 mm
0.5 mm
0.6 mm
KB 4620/12
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/17
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/15
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/12
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/9
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/7
20:1
10/92
Figure
Probe OS1-6A Probe OS1-5C Probe OS1-4C Probe OS1-3B Probe OS1-2B Probe OS1-1B
1 mm
application
br-er10-32e.cdr
aerospace industry
automotive industry
- engine components
- instrument cases
- gear parts
steel industry
- pipe production
- vehicle superstructures
- continuous metal strips
- tins
- body-making
(bottom plates, skins)
- engine components
(tappet housings, diesel engine
precombustion chambers)
electronic industry
medical industry
- heart pacemaker cases
- artificial hip joints
- PCBs
- accumulator cases
- transformer plates
- CRTs
br-er10-33e.cdr
Figure 10.33
11.
Surfacing
and Shape Welding
2003
146
DIN 1910 (Welding) classifies the
welding
according
process
to
its
applications: weld-
similar
dissimilar
surfacing. Accord-
l buffering (production of an
appropriate-to-the-type-of-duty
joint of dissimilar materials)
is
the
coating of a workbr-er11-01e.cdr
piece by means of
welding.
Figure 11.1
Dependent on the
applied filler material a further classification may be made: deposition repair welding
and surfacing for the production of a composite material with certain functions. Surfacing carried out with wear-resistant materials in preference to the base metal material is called hardfacing; but when mainly chemically stable filler materials are
used, the method is called cladding. In
the case of buffering, surfacing layers
are produced which allow the appropriate-to-the-type-of-duty joining of dis-
cavitation
coefficients.
corrosion
temperature stresses
br-er11-02e.cdr
147
In case of surfacing - as for all fabrication processes - certain limiting conditions have to be observed. For ex-
component
(material)
coating
stress
compatibility
coating
material
(filler)
consumable
surfacing
method
br-er11-03e.cdr
Figure 11.3
For all surfacing tasks a large product
line of welding filler metals is available. In dependence on the welding
method as well as on the selected ma-
q cobalt base
q nickel base
q iron base
corrosion prevention
dilution.
148
adherence of the layer with the minimum metal dissimilation. A planimetric determination of the surfacing and penetration areas will roughly assess the proportion of
filler to base metal.
When the analysis
surface built up by welding FB
penetration area FP
lation is possible by
the determination of
FP
FP + FB
AD=
AD =
x 100%
x 100%
AD: dilution
ISF 2002
br-er11-05e.cdr
30
20
10
0
0
100
200
300
distance
Ni percentages by mass
30
%
20
10
100
br-er11-06e.cdr
200
300
distance
Microprobe Analyses
500
Figure 11.6
149
certain alloying elements. The strip is continuously fed into the process via feed rollers. Current contact is normally carried out via copper contact jaws which in some
cases are protected
against
wear
by
metal-arc welding
- stick electrode
- filler wire
slag-forming
workpiece
- filler wire
in
- MIG / MAG
- MIG cold wire
- filler wire
- wire electrode
- strip electrode
TIG welding
electroslag welding
- wire electrode
plasma welding
electrode by means
- powder
- wire
of a flux support.
The non-molten flux
- plasma powder
- plasma hot wire
plasma spraying
br-er11-07e.cdr
can
be
extracted
Figure 11.7
Should the slag developed on top of the welding bead not detach itself, it will have to
be removed mechanically in order to avoid slag inclusions during overwelding. The
arc wanders along the lower edge of the strip. Thus the strip is melted consistently,
Figure 11.8.
power source
drive rolls
filler metal
flux support
flux application
slag
surfacing bead
base metal
br-er11-08e.cdr
Figure 11.8
150
Figure 11.9 shows the cladding of a roll barrel. The coating is deposited helically
while the workpiece is rotating. The weld head is moved axially over the workpiece.
br-er11-09e.cdr
Figure 11.9
The macro-section and possible weld defects of a strip-electrode submerged-arc surfacing process are depicted in Figure 11.10.
lack of fusion
sagged weld
base metal
crack formation
in these areas of
the coarse grain zone
br-er11-10e.cdr
Figure 11.10
gusset
undercuts
151
Electroslag surfacing using a strip electrode is similar to strip-electrode SA surfacing, Figure 11.11. The difference is that the weld filler metal is not melted in the
arc but in liquefied welding flux the liquid slag as a result of Joule resistance
heating. The slag is
held by a slight
inclination
of
the
method
br-er11-11e.cdr
contours
(e.g.
repair
rod/ wire-shaped
filler metal
base metal
(+ / ~)
tungsten electrode
(- / ~)
surfacing bead
br-er11-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
Process Principle of
TIG Weld Surfacing
152
workpiece.
This
method
allows
higher
contact tube
shielding gas
deposition
+
-
power source
used.
arc
The
electrode
shielding gas
wire
has
surfacing bead
workpiece
workpiece
oscillation
feed direction
br-er11-13e.cdr
to
be
surfaced
has
negative
polarity,
Figure 11.13.
Figure 11.13
A further development of the TIG welding process is plasma welding. While the TIG
arc develops freely, the plasma welding arc is mechanically and thermally constricted
by a water-cooled copper nozzle. Thus the arc obtains a higher energy density.
In the case of plasma arc powder surfacing this constricting nozzle has a positive,
the tungsten electrode has a negative polarity, Figure 11.14. Through a pilot arc
power supply a non-transferred arc (pilot arc) develops inside the torch. A second,
separate power source feeds the transferred arc between electrode and workpiece.
The non-transferred
arc ionises the centrally
fed
plasma
gas
(inert
gases,
tungsten electrode
filler metal
plasma gas
HIG
UNTA
conveying gas
power sources
thus
causing
shielding gas
pilot arc
welding arc
the
This
plasma
surfacing bead
nozzle.
jet
serves to produce
workpiece
br-er11-14e.cdr
oscillation
UTA
153
arc striking ability of the transferred arc gap. The surfacing filler metal powder added
by a feeding gas flow is melted in the plasma jet. The partly liquefied weld filler metal
meets the by transferred arc molten base metal and forms the surfacing bead. A third
gas flow, the shielding
gas,
protects
the
section A
adjacent
ZW
high-temperature
zone from the surrounding influence.
The applied gases
are
mainly
GW
inert
ample, Ar and He
and/or Ar-/He mixFigure 11.15
tures.
The method is applied for surfacing small and medium-sized parts (car exhaust
valves, extruder spirals). Figure 11.15 shows a cross-section of armour plating of a
car exhaust valve seat. The fusion line, i.e., the region between surfacing and base
metal, is shown enlarged on the right side of Figure 11.15 (blow-up). It shows hardfacing with cobalt which is high-temperature and hot gas corrosion resistant.
shielding
gas
plasma power
source
plasma gas
tungsten
electrode
metal
is
melted by an oscil-
arc
wires from spool
surfacing
bead
~
workpiece
weld pool
wires
is
br-er11-16e.cdr
154
pendently. The arc between the tips of the two parallel wires is generated through the
application of a separate power source. The plasma arc with a length of approx. 20
mm is oscillating (oscillation width between 20 to 50 mm). The two wires are fed in a
V-formation at an angle of approx. 30 and melt in the high-temperature region in the
trailing zone of the plasma torch.
For surfacing purposes, besides the arc-welding methods, the beam welding methods laser beam and electron beam welding may also be applied. Figure 11.17 shows
the process principle of laser surfacing. The powder filler metal is added to the laser
beam via a powder
nozzle and the powshielding
gas nozzle
laser beam
powder nozzle
direction of
the oscillation
powder flow
surfacing bead
shielding gas
shielding
gas
flow.
Friction
surfacing
Werkstck
Figure 11.17
welding,
surface layer
11.18.
Figure
base material
workpiece
feed direction
and
ka11-18.cdr
Process Principle
Electron Beam Surface Welding
Figure 11.18
the
relative
movement
frictional
ISF 1998
155
puts the weld filler end into a pasty condition. The advance motion causes an adherent, spreaded layer on the base metal. This method is not applied frequently and is
mainly used for materials which show strong differences in their melting and oxidation
behaviours.
A comparison of the different surfacing methods shows that the application fields are
limited - dependent on the welding method. A specific method, for example, is the low
filler/base metal dilution. These methods are applied where high-quality filler metals
are welded. Another criterion for the selection of a surfacing method is the deposition
rate. In the case of cladding large surfaces a method with a high deposition rate is
chosen, this with regard to profitability.
In thermal spraying the filler metal is melted inside the torch and then, with a high
kinetic energy, discharged onto the unfused but preheated workpiece surface.
There is no fusion of base and filler metal but rather adhesive binding and mechanical interlocking of the spray deposit with the base material. These mechanisms are
effective only when the workpiece surface is coarse (pre-treatment by sandblasting)
and free of oxides. The filler and base materials are metallic and non-metallic. Plastics may be sprayed as well. The utilisation of filler metals in thermal spraying is relatively low.
The most important methods of thermal spraying are: plasma arc spraying, flame
spraying and arc
spraying.
force
filler metal
In powder flame
rotation
advance
base metal
metal
is
melted,
br-er11-18e.cdr
156
the acceleration and atomisation of the filler metal is produced by compressed gas
(air).
compressed
air
spraying material
In contrast to pow-
workpiece
fuel gas-oxygen
mixture
flame cone
spray deposit
erated in direction
br-er11-19e.cdr
of
the
substrate,
Figure 11.20.
Figure 11.20
In plasma arc spraying an internal, high-energy arc is ignited between the tungsten
cathode and the anode, Figure 11.21. This arc ionises the plasma gas (argon, 50 100 l/min). The plasma emerges from the torch with a high kinetic and thermal energy and carries the side-fed powder along with it which then meets the workpiece
surface in a semi-fluid state with the necessary kinetic energy. In the case of shape
welding, steel shapes with larger dimensions and higher weights are produced from
molten weld metal
only. In comparison
compressed air
spraying jet
brings
about
essentially
more
favourable
non-binding
sprayed particles
(loss in spraying)
gas mixture
mechanotechnological mate-
adjustable wire
feed device
spraying wire
better
br-er11-20e.cdr
toughness
charac-
fusing
wire tip
spray deposit
157
for this lies mainly in the high purity and the homogeneity of the steel which is helped
by the repeated melting process and the resulting slag reactions. These properties
are also put down to the favourable fine-grained structure formation which is
achieved by the repeated subsequent thermal treatment with the multi-pass technique. Also in contrast with the shapes produced by forging, the workpieces produced by shape welding show quality advantages, especially in the isotropy and the
regularity of their toughness and strength properties as far as larger workpiece thicknesses
are
con-
cerned. In Europe,
powder injector
forging
equipment,
high
back
frame
isolation
ring
gas
middle
distributor frame
anode
carrier
very
copper anode
individual
parts.
cooling
water
Therefore,
shape
plasma
gas
ISF 2002
br-er11-21e.cdr
Figure 11.22
technoand
eco-
alternative
primary forming
(casting)
to the methods of
primary
arc
forming,
forming or joining,
shape welding
Figure 11.22.
forming
(forging)
joining
(welding)
an early application
which is related to
ISF 2002
br-er11-22e.cdr
158
Baumkuchenmethode
Tpfermethode
Klammeraffe
+ transportable unit
- limited welding efficiency
applications:
welding-on of connection pieces
br-er11-25e.cdr
br-er11-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 11.24
Figure 11.25
The higher tooling costs in forging make the shape welding method less expensive;
this applies to parts with certain increasing complexity. This comparison is, however,
related to relatively low numbers of pieces, where the tooling costs per part are accordingly
higher,
Figure 11.24.
of
typical
shape-welded
parts.
phase 7
phase 4
phase 2
joist
Cylindrical
duced
with
phase 5
phase 6
the
BaumkuchenmeFigure 11.26
phase 3
traction
mechanism
phase 1
turntable
159
thode method: the filler metal is welded by submerged-arc with helical
ti
tes
ng
1. welding of the
half-torus
2. stress relief
annealing
3. mechanical
treatment
4. seperating/
halving
5. folding
6. welding togehter
7. stress relief
annealing
8. testing
Figure 11.27
connection pieces onto pipes. A portable unit which is connected with the pipe welds
the connection pipe in a similar manner to the Tpfer method.
forged products
/kg
added
to
the
shape-welded
products
pipe bends
braces
shafts
11.28.
spherical caps
of a film, Figure
Figure 11.28
12.
Thermal Cutting
2003
160
and
process technology
for the production
Classification of thermal cutting processes
- physics of the cutting process
- degree of mechanisation
of components and
for the preparation
of welding edges.
The thermal cut-
ting
processes
br-er12-01e.cdr
according to DIN
2310, Figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2 shows the classification according to the physics of the cutting process:
- flame cutting the material is mainly oxidised (burnt)
- fusion cutting the material is mainly fused
- sublimation cutting the material is mainly evaporat
The gas jet and/or evaporation expansion is in all processes responsible for the ejection of molten material or emerging reaction products such as slag.
Fusion cutting
The material is mainly fused and blown out
by a high-speed gas jet.
Sublimation cutting
The material is mainly evaporated.
It is transported out of the cutting groove by
the created expansion or by additional gas.
- gas,
Figure 12.3:
electrical
gas
discharge and
- beams.
br-er12-02e.cdr
Classification of Processes by
the Physics of Cutting
Figure 12.2
Electron
beams
161
are listed in the DIN-Standard, they produce, however, only very small boreholes.
Cutting is impossible.
Figure 12.4 depicts the different methods of thermal cutting with gas according to
DIN 8580. These are:
- flame cutting
- metal powder
flame cutting
- metal powder
fusion cutting
- gas
- electrical gas discharge
- sparks
- arc
- plasma
- flame planing
-oxygen-lance cut-
- beams
- laser beam (light)
- electron beam
- ion beam
ting
- flame gouging or
scarfing
br-er12-03e.cdr
-flame cleaning
Figure 1.3
In flame cutting (principle is depicted in Figure 12.5) the material is brought to the
ignition temperature by a heating flame and is then burnt in the oxygen stream. During the process the ignition temperature is maintained on the plate top side by the
heating flame and
below the plate top
thermal cutting processes using gas:
side
by
thermal
conduction
and
l
convection.
oxygen cutting
metal powder
flame cutting
fusion cutting
metal powder
is
suited
for
flame planing
oxygen-lance cutting
flame gouging
flame cleaning
scarfing
br-er12-04e.cdr
162
cial torch which combines a welding with a cutting torch. By means of different nozzle shapes the process may be adapted to varying materials and plate thicknesses.
Hand-held
or
torches
cutting oxygen
heating oxygen
gas fuel
machine-type
torches
are
cutting jet
and
workpiece
br-er12-05e.cdr
for
Figure 12.5
riages.
The high-speed cutting nozzle (cutting-oxygen pressure 8 bar) allows higher cutting speeds with increased cutting-oxygen pressure. The heavy-duty cutting nozzle
(cutting-oxygen pressure 11 bar) is mainly applied for economic cutting with flamecutting machines. A further development of the heavy-duty nozzle is the oxygenshrouded nozzle which allows even faster and more economic cutting of plates
within
certain
thickness
cutting oxygen
ranges.
heating oxygen
gas fuel
mixing chamber
the
torch
block-type
nozze
(gas
mixing
nozzle); in special
br-er12-06e.cdr
Figure 12.6
163
of the nozzle. As the design of cutting torches is not yet subject to standardisation,
many types and systems exist on the market.
The selection of a
heating and cutting nozzle
torch
nozzle-to-work
distance
torch
kerf width
cutting jet
kerf
or
nozzles
start
cut thickness
cutting le
cut lengt
h
ngth
cutting
quality,
br-er12-07e.cdr
Figure 12.7
flame-cutting.
In flame cutting, the thermal conductivity of the material must be low enough to constantly maintain the ignition temperature, Figure 12.8. Moreover, the material
must neither melt during the oxidation nor form high-melting oxides, as these
would produce difficult cutting surfaces. In accordance, only steel or titanium materials fulfill the conditions for oxygen cutting., Figure 12.9
to approx. 0.45%
may be flame-cut
without preheating,
with a C-content of
approx.
1.6%
flame-cutting
carried
br-er12-08e.cdr
out
preheating,
is
with
be-
cause an increased
Figure 12.8
164
C-content demands more heat. Carbon accumulates at the cutting surface, so a very
high degree of hardness is to be expected. Should the carbon content exceed 0.45%
and should the material not have been subject to prior heat treatment, hardening
cracks on the cutting
surface
are
regarded as likely.
Some
alloying
elements
melting temperature
- the melting temperature of the oxides has to be lower
high-melting
form
ox-
br-er12-09e.cdr
ity.
Figure 12.9
The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram illustrates the carbon content-temperature interrelation, Figure 12.10. As the carbon content increases, the melting temperature
is lowered. That means: from a certain carbon content upwards, the ignition temperature is higher than the melting temperature, i.e., this would be the first violation to
the basic requirement in flame cutting.
Steel compositions
steel
temperature [C]
substan-
cast iron
1500
elements
liquid
pasty
solid
Liquidus
rve
n cu
o
i
t
i
ign
Solidus
solid
br-er12-10e.cdr
constituFigure 12.10
165
carbon:
cuttability of steels,
silicon:
manganese:
up to 13 % and 1,3 % C
chromium:
up to 1,5 %
tungsten:
nickel:
deteriorating, as a
copper:
up to 0,7 %
rule
already
with
alloy
con-
up to 1,6 %
lower
br-er12-11e.cdr
tents.
Figure 12.11
By an arrangement
of one or several
nozzles already during the cutting phase a weld preparation may be carried out and
certain welding grooves be produced. Figure 12.12 shows torch arrangements for
- the square butt weld,
- the single V butt weld,
- the single V butt weld with root face,
- the double V butt weld and
-
for
weld
preparations, flame
cutting-related
de-
weld
dressing
work.
br-er12-12e.cdr
Slag adhesion or
chains of molten
Figure 12.12
166
globules have
to be removed
in
cratering:
sporadic craterings
connected craterings
cratering areas
edge defect:
edge rounding
chain of fused globules
edge overhang
order
to
guarantee
process safety
adherent slag:
slag adhearing to bottom cut edge
cut face defects:
kerf constriction or extension
angular deviation
step at lower edge of the cut
excessive depth of cutting grooves
cracks:
face cracks
cracks below the cut face
for
the
subsequent
processes.
Figure
br-er12-13e.cdr
12.13
gives a survey
of
Figure 12.13
possible
defects
in
flame cutting.
In order to improve the flame-cutting capacity and/or cutting of materials which are
normally not to be flame-cut the powder flame cutting process may be applied.
Here, in addition to the cutting oxygen, iron powder is blown into the cutting gap. In
the flame, the iron powder oxidises very fast and adds further energy to the process.
Through the additional energy input
the
high-melting
oxygen
water
seperator
compressed
air
acetylene
Figure
powder
dispenser
repre-
sentation of a metal
powder
cutting
br-er12-14e.cdr
arrangement.
Figure 12.14
167
principle
of
flame gouging
Both
scarfing
gas-heat
oxygen mixture
gas-heat
oxygen mixture
gouging
oxygen
scarfing
oxygen
ration; material is
removed
but
not
may
be
br-er12-15e.cdr
Figure 12.15
Figure 12.16 shows the methods of thermal cutting processes by electrical gas
discharge:
-
must be heated to
plasma cutting
- with non-transferred
arc
- with transferred arc
-with secondary
gas flow
-with water
injection
carbon
electrode
compressed
air
cutting
oxygen
electrode
coating
tube
arc
in a restricted way
and limits thus the
cutting
ability
of
br-er2-16e.cdr
Figure 12.16
plate to a thickness
of approx. 150 mm,
168
Figure 12.17. Characteristic for the plasma cut are the cone-shaped formation of
the kerf and the rounded edges in the plasma jet entry zone which were caused
by the hot gas shield that envelops the plasma jet. These process-specific disadvantages may be significantly reduced or limited to just one side of the plate (high quality
or scrap side), respectively, by the inclination of the torch and/or water addition. With
the plasma cutting
process, all electrically
conductive
materials may be
separated.
Non-
conductive
materi-
plasma gas
electrode
cooling
water
power
source
HF
R
nozzle
Plasma Cutting
ability.
Figure 12.17
In order to cool and to reduce the emissions, plasma torches may be surrounded by
additional gas or water curtains which also serve as arc constriction, Figure 12.18.
In dry plasma cutting where Ar/H2, N2, or air are used, harmful substances always
develop which not
plasma gas
electrode
only have to be
sucked
off
very
nozzle
cone of water
posed of.
In
water-induced
plasma
water bath
workpiece
cutting
br-er12-18e.cdr
Figure 12.18
169
the UV radiation are, for the most part, held back by the water. A further, positive effect is the cooling of
the cutting surface,
Figure 12.18. Careful disposal of the
residues
is
here
inevitable.
br-er12-19e.cdr
bath.
Figure 12.19
Figure 12.20 shows a torch which is equipped with an additional gas supply, the socalled secondary gas. The secondary gas shields the plasma jet and increases the
transition resistance at the nozzle front. The so-called double and/or parasite arcs
are avoided and nozzle life is increased.
Thanks to new electrode materials, compressed air and even pure oxygen may be
applied as plasma gas therefore, in flame cutting, the burning of unalloyed steel
may be used for
increased capacity
and
quality.
plasma gas
The
selection
of
plasma
forming
electrode
the
gases depends on
secondary gas
the requirements of
nozzle
forming
workpiece
helium, hydrogen,
Plasma Cutting With Secondary Gas Flow
Figure 12.20
170
The advantage of the use of oxygen as plasma gas is in the achievable cutting
speeds within the plate thickness range of approx. 3 12 mm (400 A, WIPC). In the
steel plate thickness range of approx. 1 10 mm the application of 40 A-compressed
air units is recomIn
com-
systems,
significantly
narrower
cutting
mended.
8
1
6
2
4
2
3
4
shows
different
cutting
Figure 12.21
gases.
processes
beams
only
- laser beam combustion cutting
Figure
- laser beam sublimation cutting
12.22.
Variations
of
the
15
br-er12-21e.cdr
10
br-er12-22e.cdr
process:
Figure 12.22
20
171
The process sequence in laser beam combustion cutting is comparable to oxygen cutting. The material is heated to the ignition temperature and subsequently
burnt in the oxygen stream, Figure 12.23. Due to the concentrated energy input
almost all metals in the plate thickness range of up to approx. 2 mm may be cut. In
addition, it is possible to achieve very good bur-free cutting qualities for stainless
steels (thickness of up to approx. 8 mm) and for structural steels (thickness of up to
12 mm). Very narrow and parallel cutting kerfs are characteristic for laser beam cutting of structural steels.
energy
cutting oxygen
dising materials) or
an inactive cutting
gas may be applied
laser focus
thin layer of cristallised
molten metal
workpiece
depending on the
slag jet
powers
(pulsed/superpulse
Figure 12.23
80
ting
and
cutlaser
beam sublimation
20
of
the
40
laser
evaporating
combustion
60
melting
heating-up
(sublimaabsorption factor
material
r)
G-lase
(Nd:YA
6 m
er)
s
a
= 1,0
-l
(CO 2
,06 m
= 10
melting point Tm
boiling point Tb
temperature
br-er12-24e.cdr
172
creases unevenly when the process starts. In laser beam fusion cutting remains
the reflexion on the molten material, however, at more than 90%! Figure 12.24 shows
the absorption factor of the laser light in dependence on the temperature. This factor
mainly depends on
the wave length of
laser cutting (with oxygen jet)
- the laser beam is focused on the workpiece surface
and the material burns in the oxygen jet starting
from the heated surface
materials:
- steel aluminium alloys, titanium alloys
the
used
light.
laser
When
the
cutting gas:
- O2, N2, Ar
criteria:
- high cutting speed, cut faces with oxide skin
br-er12-25e.cdr
sorption
factor
increases
un-
evenly
and
reaches values of
more than 80%.
Figure 12.25
During laser beam combustion cutting of structural steel high cutting speeds are
achieved due to the exothermal energy input and the low laser beam powers, Figure
12.25. In the above-mentioned case (dependent on beam quality, focussing, etc.),
above a beam power of approx. 3,3 kW, spontaneous evaporation of the material
takes place and allows sublimation cutting. Significantly higher laser powers are necessary to fuse the
laser fusion cutting:
- the laser beam melts the entire plate thickness
(optimum focus point 1/3 below plate surface)
- high reflection losses (>90%)
materials:
- metals, glasses, polymers
cutting gas:
- N2, Ar, He
criterions:
- cutting speed is only 10-15% in comparison to
cutting with oxygen jet, characteristics melting
drag lines
Important
ence
for
influ-
quantities
the
cutting
br-er12-26e.cdr
Figure 12.26
173
ting are the focus intensity, the position of the focus point in relation to the plate
surface and the formation of the cutting gas flow. A prerequisite for a high intensity
in the focus is the high beam quality (Gaussian intensity distribution in the beam) with
a high beam power and suitable focussing optics.
Laser beam cutting of contours, especially of pointed corners and narrow root faces,
requires adaptation of the beam power in order to avoid heat accumulation and
burning of the material. In such a case the beam power might be reduced in the continuous wave (CW) operating mode. With a decreasing beam efficiency decreases
the cuttable plate thickness as well. Better suited is the switching of the laser to
pulse mode (standard equipment of
HF-excited lasers)
where pulse height
can
right
be
selected
up
to
the
cutting gas:
- N2, Ar, He (lens protection)
tinuous
criteria:
- low cutting speed, smooth cut edges, minimum heat input
wave.
super
pulse
equipment
br-er12-27e.cdr
(in-
creased excitation)
allows significantly
higher pulse effi-
Figure 12.27
laser
600 W
1500 W
600 W
1500 W
1500 W
steel
Cr-Ni-steel
Further
aluminium
of
plasma
50 A 5 kW
250 A 25 kW
500 A 150 kW
steel
Cr-Ni-steel
aluminium
pulse
pulse
Stahl
Cr-NiStahl
oxy-flame
and
super
operation
100
plate thickness [mm]
br-er12-28e.cdr
Figure 12.28
fields
1000
and
laser
beam
sublimation cutting.
174
Laser beam cutting of aluminium plates thicker than appx. 2 mm does not produce
bur-free results due to a high reflexion property, high heat conductivity and large
temperature
dif-
ferences between
CO2-laser
(1500 W)
addition
10
iron
cutting
stainless
of
steels
plasma cutting
(WIPC, 300-600 A)
1
oxygen cutting
(Vadura 1210-A)
improvement of the
molten-metal
10
vis-
100
however,
Figure 12.29
standards.
Figure 12.28 shows a comparison of the different plate thicknesses which were cut
using different processes. For the plate thickness range of up to 12 mm (steel plate),
laser beam cutting is the approved precision cutting process. Plasma cutting of plates
> 3 mm allows higher cutting speeds, in comparison to laser beam cutting, the cutting
quality, however,
is
costs [DM/m cut length]
significantly
total costs
machine costs
cutting
laser
flame cutting
with 3 torches
plasma
in comparison to
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
plasma
cutting,
significantly
lower.
Figure 12.30
plates
With
increasing
an
plate
175
ference in the cutting speed is reduced. Plates with a thickness of more than 40 mm
may be cut even faster using the flame cutting process.
Figure 12.29 shows the cutting speeds of some thermal cutting processes.
Apart from technological aspects, financial considerations as well determine the application of a certain cutting method. Figures 12.30 and 12.31 show a comparison of
the costs of flame cutting, plasma arc and laser beam cutting the costs per
m/cutting
extract from a costing acc. to VDI 3258
length
flame cutting
(6-8 torches)
plasma cutting
(plasma 300A)
170,000.00
220,000.00
500,000.00
investment total
(replacement value)
/h
23.50
29.00
65.00
maintenance costs
/h
3.50
4.00
10.00
energy costs
/h
1.00
2.50
2.50
/h
65.00
75.00
130.00
operating
The
hour.
high
invest-
might
be a deterrent to
1 shift, 1600h/year, 80% availability,
utilisation time 1280h/year
exploit
cutting
the
high
qualities
br-er12-31e.cdr
Figure 12.31
13.
Special Processes
2003
175
Apart from the welding processes explained earlier there is also a multitude of special
welding processes. One of them is stud welding. Figure 13.1 depicts different stud
shapes. Depending
on the application,
the
studs
are
screw
corrugated
Figure 13.1
In arc stud welding, a distinction is basically made between three process variations. Figure 13.2. depicts the three variations the differences lie in the kind of arc
ignition and in the cycle of motions during the welding process.
Figure 13.2
176
The switching arrangement of an arc stud welding unit is shown in Figure 13.3.
Besides a power source which produces high currents for a short-time, a control as
well as a lifting device are necessary.
Figure 13.3
In drawn-arc stud welding the stud is first mounted onto the plate, Figure 13.4. The
arc is ignited by lifting the stud and melts the entire stud diameter in a short time.
When
stud
and
base
plate
are
into
the
177
Figure 13.5 illustrates tip ignition stud welding. The tip melts away immediately
after touching the plate and allows the arc to be ignited. The lifting of the stud is dispensed with. When the stud base is
molten, the stud is positioned onto the
partly molten workpiece.
different
materials,
see
Fig-
somewhat
troublesome
Figure 13.5
different
arrangements
current
of
contact
counter-
178
In high-frequency welding of pipes the energy input into the workpiece may be
carried out via sliding contacts, as shown in Figure 13.8, or via rollers, as shown in
Figure 13.9. Only the high-frequency technique allows a safe current transfer in spite
of the scale or oxide
layers.
pipes
may be achieved.
Figure 13.7
Figure 13.8
Figure 13.9
179
Figure 13.10
Also in case of induction welding flows the current flows only close to the surface areas of the pipe. Only the current part which reaches the joining zone and causes to
fill the gap may be
utilised.
Fig-
ure 13.12
illus-
the
current
useful
path,
on
current
edges.
180
in
de-
pendence
on
the
frequency. As soon
as the Curie temperature
point
is
Figure 13.13
Figure 13.14
181
The application of
the induction welding method allows
high
welding
speeds
of
than
more
100m/min,
Figure 13.14.
Aluminothermic
fusion welding or
cast
welding
mainly
Figure 13.15
used
joining
is
for
railway
tracks on site. A
crucible is filled with a mixture consisting of aluminium powder and iron oxide. An
exothermal reaction is initiated by an igniter the aluminium oxidises and the iron
oxide is reduced to iron, Figure 13.15. The molten iron flows into a ceramic mould
which matches the
contour
track.
of
the
After
the
mould
is
process
sembly.
Figure 13.16
shows
as-
182
is
fre-
unal-
loyed steel/alloyed
steel,
cop-
per/aluminium
or
steel/aluminium.
The
materials
which are to be
Figure 13.17
by
shock
wave.
Wavy
transitions
develop
in
the
and
13.18.
Figure 13.18
The determined cladding speed must be strictly adhered to during the welding process. If the welding speed is too low, lack of fusion is the result. If the welding speed is
exceeded, the development of the waves in the joining zone is erratic. Figure 13.19
shows the critical cladding speeds for different material combinations.
Figure 13.19
183
Figure 13.20
input.
ure 13.21
184
Figshows
several
possible
material
combina-
alloy,
may be obtained by
several
intermedi-
ate layers.
Figure 13.22
Figure 13.22 shows the structure of a joint where nickel, copper and vanadium had
been used as intermediate layers. As the diffusion of the individual components takes
place only in the region close to the surface, very thin layers may be realised.
In cold pressure welding - in contrast to diffusion welding - a deformation is produced by the high contact pressure in the bonding plane, Figure 13.23. The joint
surfaces
are
each
distance.
as
through
adhesion
forces
ised.
185
warming
up
and
point-
in the joining zone, in contrast to ultrasonic welding of plastics. The ultrasonics which have been produced by
a magnetostrictive transducer and
transmitted by a sonotrode lie in the
Figure 13.24
material
combinations
ultrasonic
for
weld-
ing.
Further microwelding processes are
methods which are
also called heated
element
welding
methods,
as,
for
example,
nailhead
Figure 13.25
186
bonding. These methods are applied in the electronics industry for joining very fine
wires, as, for example, gold wires from microchips with aluminium strip conductors.
In wedge bonding
a wire is positioned
onto
the
contact
the
welded
wire
with
is
the
The
Figure 13.26
In nailhead bonding, the wire which emerges from the feeding nozzle may have diameters from 12 to 100 m. By a reducing hydrogen flame its end is molten to a
globule, Figure 13.27. The nozzle then presses this globule onto the part aimed at
and shapes it into a nail head.
Figure 13.28
de-
A further method
related to welding
is soldering. The
process
of
principle
soldering
is
briefly explained in
Figure 13.29.
Figure 13.27
187
The individual soldering methods are classified into different mechanisms depending on the type of heating, Figure 13.30. There are two basic distinctions: soft soldering (melting temperature of the solder is approx. up to 450C) and brazing (melting temperature of
the brazing solder is
approx.
up
to
sol-
tempera-
ture is approx. up to
1200C) are used.
This process is frequently subject to
automation.
Figure 13.29
Figure 13.28
Figure 13.30
14.
Mechanisation
and Welding Fixtures
2003
188
As the production costs of the metal-working industry are nowadays mainly determined by the costs of labour, many factories are compelled to rationalise their manufacturing methods
Designation
examples
gas-shielded arc welding
TIG
GMAW
torch-/
workpiece
control
filler wire
feeding
workpiece
handling
manually
manually
manually
manually
mechanically
manually
mechanically mechanically
manually
fully
manual welding
m
v
automatic
welding
partially
and
mechanised
production
proc-
partially
mechanised
welding
t
fully mechanised
welding
by
of
welding
neering
where
consistently
mechanically mechanically mechanically
engia
good
br-er14-01e.cdr
a must, automation
aspects are consequently taken into
Figure 14.1
account.
ISF 2002
Manual Welding
(Manual Electrode Welding)
ing point.
Figure 14.2
189
partially
mechanised welding,
e.g.
gas-
shielded
metal-arc
welding,
the
arc
cally by means of a
wire
feed
Figure 14.3.
motor,
Figure 14.3
In fully mechanised welding, Figure 14.4, an automatic equipment mechanism carries out the welding advance and
thus the torch control. Wire feeding
is
realised
by
The
pieces
work-
must
positioned
be
manu-
ally in accordance
br-er14-04e.cdr
Figure 14.4
moving
ma-
chine support.
In automatic welding, besides the process sequences described above, the workpieces are mechanically positioned at the welding point and, after welding, automatically trans-ported to the next working station. Figure14. 5 shows an example of
automatic welding (assembly line in the car industry).
190
Apart from the actual
welding
de-
power
the
filler
the
simple
devices
available
which
br-er14-05e.cdr
facilitate or make
Figure 14.5
assembly line
a survey of the
welding robot
most
important
machine carrier
assisting devices.
Before
welding,
dollies
assembly devices
then tack-welded.
br-er14-06e.cdr
simple
welding
Figure 14.6
tackjig
for
lower part of the device has the shape of a prism. This allows to clamp pipes with
different diameters.
Devices, however, may be significantly more complex. Figure 14.8 shows an example of an assembly equipment used in car body manufacturing. This type of device
allows to fix complex parts at several points. Thus a defined position of any weld
seam is reproducible.
191
In apparatus engineering
and
tank
construction it is often
necessary
to
e.g.,
when
welding circumferential
seams.
The
equipment should be
as versatile as posbr-er14-07e.cdr
Figure 14.7
shows
br-er14-08e.cdr
Figure 17.8
Figure
arrange-
ment.
192
set of rollers 2
set of rollers 1
br-er14-09e.cdr
br-er14-10e.cdr
Turning Rolls
Turning Rolls
Figure 14.9
Figure 14.10
gear segment
table support
tilting axis
of
approx.
support
parts
with
br-er14-11e.cdr
weights of just a
few kilograms right
Figure 14.11
193
in
Fig-
ure 14.12.
br-er14-12e.cdr
Figure 14.12
In robot technology the types of turn-tilt-tables - as shown in Figure 14.13 - are gaining importance. Positioners with orbital design have a decisive advantage because the component, when turning around the tilting axis, remains approx. equally
distant to the welding robot.
single-column turn-tilt-table
table top
table support
orbital turn-tilt-table
table top
tilting axis
support
tilting axis
support
rotational axis
rotational axis
ISF 2002
br-er14-13e.cdr
Turn-Tilt-Tables
Figure 14.13
table support
194
Other types of workpiece positioners are shown in Figure 14.14 the double column turn-tilt-table and the spindle and sliding holder turn-tilt-table. Those types
of positioners are used for special component geometries and allow welding of any
seam in the flat and in the horizontal position.
tilting axis
rotational axis
table top
table support
support
ISF 2002
br-er14-14e.cdr
Double-Column Turn-Tilt-Table
Figure 14.14
table tops
spindle holder
sliding holder
bed way
ISF 2002
br-er14-15e.cdr
Figure 14.15
In the field of welding, special units are designed for special tasks. Figure 14.16
shows a pipe-flange-welding machine. This machine allows the welding of flanges
to a pipe. The weld head has to be guided to follow the seam contour.
195
br-er14-16e.cdr
Figure 14.16
Plain plates or rounded tanks are clamped by means of longitudinal jigs for the
welding of a longitudinal seam, Figure 14.17. The design and the gripping power are
very dependent of the thickness of the plates to be welded.
br-er14-17e.cdr
Figure 14.17
A simple example of a special welding machine is the tractor travelling carriage for
submerged-arc welding, Figure 14.18. This device is designed for the application
196
on-site and provides, besides the supply of the filler metal, also the welding
speed as well as the feeding and
suction of the welding flux.
Figure 14.18
quently
applied.
boom
main piloting system case
pillar
travelling mechanism
than
three
kine-
cross piloting
system case
user-
programmable
describes
br-er14-19e.cdr
combina-
tions of translatory
and rotary axes.
Figure 14.19
designation
cartesian
robot
cylinder
coordinated
robot
197
spherical
coordinated
robot
horizontal
knuckle arm
robot
vertical
knuckle arm
robot
arrangement
kinematic
schedule
z
y
z
C
C
z
operating
space
ISF 2002
br-er14-20e.cdr
Kinematic Chains
Figure 14.20
br-er14-21e.cdr
Robot Motions
Figure 14.21
198
Varying lever lengths permit the design of robots with different operating ranges.
Figure 14.22 shows the operating range of a robot. In the unrestricted operating
range the component may be reached with the torch in any position. The restricted
operating
range
only
certain
positions.
In
the
case
sus-
of
pended
arrange-
ment
the
robot
fixing
device
is
lowing a compact
design.
Figure 14.22
For the completion of a robot welding station workpiece positioners are necessary.
Figure 14.23 shows positioner devices where also several axes may be combined.
These axes may either turn to certain defined positions or be guided by the robot
control and moved
synchronically with
the internal axes.
The complexity and
versatility
of
the
with
number
of
the
axes
which participate in
the movement.
br-er14-23e.cdr
Figure 14.23
199
br-er14-24e.cdr
Figure 14.24
15.
Welding Robots
2003
200
Increased quality requirements for products and the trend to automate production
processes along with increased profitability result in the use of industrial robots in
modern
manufac-
have
been
introduced
in
in-
most
quently
fre-
fields
of
application ranged
from
installation
jobs up to spot
welding, and seam
Figure 15.1
welding.
The definition says that an industrial robot for gas welding is an universal movement
automaton with more than three axes which are user-programmable and may be
sensor-controlled. It is equipped with a welding torch and carries out welding jobs.
Core of a modern robot welding cell are one or more seam welding robots of swan
neck type. Normally, they have six user-programmable axes; so they can access any
point
within
the
working range at
any orientation of
the welding torch.
To
extend
working
their
range,
of
the
achieved
by
201
installation of the robot onto a linear carriage with Cartesian axes. Such 'external'
axes are also user-programmable, Figure 15.3.
Figure 15.3
The robot control is the centre of an industrial robot system for arc welding, Figure
15.4. It provides and processes all information for robot mechanics, positioner, welding unit, safety equipment, and external sensors. The robot program transforms information into signals for control of
robot-
and
posi-
tioner-mechanics as
well
as
power
welding
source.
Communication
with external systems is possible by
a host or master
computer.
Figure 15.4
202
Modern industrial robot controls are build as multi-processor controls due to the multitude of parallel calculations and control functions. Figure 15.5 shows the internal
structure of such a control. Individual assemblies which are designed for special jobs
and equipped with an own micro-processor are linked with the host computer via the
system bus. The host controls and coordinates the actions of the components based
on the operating system and the robot program. Examples of such assemblies, which
are mostly installed on individual printed boards, are e.g. the axes computers. They
are responsible for
calculation
of
axes.
To
which
Figure 15.5
axis.
Further
assemblies
unit
(PHG);
these
as-
are
re-
semblies
sponsible
for
communication with
the welding power
source,
external
203
and analogue in- and outputs and field bus systems. Or they complete the data
transmission with external control systems. To reduce downtimes in the case of malfunction, some robot controls can be connected via internet with telediagnosis systems of the robot manufacturer to support service personnel during troubleshooting
and commissioning.
Programming of welding robots can be carried out in different ways which are distinguished in On-Line (programming at the robot) and Off-Line (programming out of the
robot cell), Figure 15.6.
The robot is manually guided along the later track with decoupled drives during PlayBack programming. The path of the track is recorded and transformed into a corresponding robot control program. This procedure is preferably used for painting jobs.
During sensor supported Teach-In programming, the path progress through some
typical points is only roughly indicated. Then the accurate path is picked-up by sensors
and
auto-
matically
calcu-
control.
Afterwards
the
movement
pro-
gram is supplemented
by
additional information
about
e.g.
welding parameter
sets.
Figure 15.7
204
Macro-programming is also regarded as a mixed method which shortens programming time at the robot, Figure 15.8. Macros are structured processing sequences
which are created online to fulfil working functions and which can be repeated for further similar working functions. Geometry macros contain information about torch
guidance to produce certain joints
or joint sections.
Welding
technol-
welding
situations
are
summarised
welding
This
Figure 15.8
in
macros.
applies
for
torch
positioning,
torch
inclination,
relative position of
beads to root and
welding
parame-
ters.
Using a collection
(can
be
created
online or offline) of
such macros, the
programming time
can be shortened
for workpieces with
often
Figure 15.9
repeated
205
welding jobs, e.g. steel construction when welding stiffeners and head plates
Using offline programming practice, the programming work is shifted out from the
producing robot cell. This avoids unproductive stoppages and allows for economicviable, limited number of pieces to be reduced.
During textual programming, the 3-dimensional point coordinates and torch orientations are entered into an external computer in a manufacturer-specific program language. To achieve a complete program sequence, each instruction must be entered
individually.
The graphical offline programming uses CAD data for modelling the complete robot
working cell and parts to be welded. Planning of the path is carried out with CAD
functions directly at the workpiece which is displayed on a screen. In most cases, the
programming systems provide a graphical simulation of the movement, e.g. to check
for collisions between
torch
workpiece,
and
Figure
model
206
a way that they reach their set-point at the same time. Thereby the actual path of the
torch depends on kinematics of the robot and on current position of the axes.
A linear interpolation (CP procedure, continuous Path), Figure 15.11, is used for accurate movement along a straight line, e.g. movement to weld start point or welding.
The active point of
the tool 'arc' (ToolCentre-Point, TCP)
is moved along a
straight
tween
line
be-
two
grammed
propoints,
Circles and graduated circles are entered by means of circle interpolation programs,
Figure 15.12. Then the orientation of the torch can be adapted through turning the
knuckle axis or 6th axis of the robot and the value of spill-weld at the end of the seam
can be indicated.
user-
programmable and,
if required, can be
superimposed
by
an
To
oscillation.
for:
re-
207
ditional and unconditional program jumps, waiting periods, waiting for inputs, and
working with sub-programs.
The software of modern seam welding robots contains as special functions 3dimansional transfor-mations and mirroring of programs and partial programs, palletising
functions,
processing sensor
data
and
com-
controls
(Master/Slave
op-
eration) as well as
with external computers,
15.13.
Figure 15.13
Figure
16.
Sensors
2003
16. Sensors
208
The welding process is exposed to disturbances like misalignment of workpiece, inaccurate preparation, machine and device tolerances, and proess disturbances,
Figure 16.1.
The manual welder notices them by eyesight and corrects them manually according
to strategies learned and gained by experience. To record process irregularities and
path deviations, a fully mechanised welding plant requires sensors providing control
signals which are then used in accordance with implemented rules. Using corresponding control elements, the control loop is closed for the welding process.
Scopes of duty of
the sensors is finding the weld start
point
and
seam
tracking. In addition,
with the help of information
joint
about
geometry,
process parameters
can
be
adapted
Figure 16.1
a robot application
should measure the
welding
point
(avoidance of tracking
misalignment),
detect in advance
(finding
the
start
coravoiding
and
should be as small
Figure 16.2
16. Sensors
209
as possible (no restriction in accessibility). The ideal sensor which combines all three
requirements, does not yet exist, therefore one must select a sensor which is suitable
for
the
welding
individual
job.
Fig-
ure 16.2
shows
different
sensor
principles used in
welding
ing.
engineer-
The
most
arc
Figure 16.3
adjustment.
16. Sensors
210
Through scanning of three levels the 3-dimensional point of intersection can be calculated and the robot program for correcting the deviation can be shifted accordingly
thus finding the start point of the weld. In this case, the gas nozzle of the torch serves
as a sensor, Figure 16.4, which is charged with electrical tension. As soon as the
torch touches the workpiece, a current flows, which is then taken by the robot control
as a signal for obtaining the level to be scanned.
signal.
Such
Using
several
distance
sensors,
also
welding
groove
can be scanned.
Figure 16.5
With multi-coil arrangements in one sensor, the position of the welding groove, the
angle between sensor and workpiece surface and the distance can be recorded. Figure 16.6 shows a principle arrangement. A transmitter coil generates an magnetically
alternating field which induces
alternating currents in the two receiver coils. In the undisturbed case, these currents
are phase-shifted by 180 and neutralise each other. If the sensor is moved crosswise to the groove, magnetical asymmetries will occur in the scanning area, which
16. Sensors
211
will show in the presented signal shape. The output signal will be zero, if the coils are
positioned exactly above the centre of the groove.
The radar sensor in Figure 16.6 uses Doppler's effect to generate a signal. Here the
phase difference between transmitter signal and receiving signal is evaluated.
A mathematical process transforms such signals into distance values. To record the
position and the depth of the groove, the sensor must be continuously moved along
the seam. Radar sensors form a so called radar baton, which is focussed onto a
measurement spot of about 0,7 mm diameter for this application. Figure 16.6 shows
the sensor signal,
which
represents
along
the
workpiece. At the
moment, the characteristic values of
the
weld
groove
can be determined
with a resolution in
the range of 1/10
mm.
Figure 16.6
Arc sensors evaluate the continuous
change
welding
of
the
current
with a change of
the contact tip-towork distance, Figure 16.7. A signal
for side control of
the torch is determined
by
measurement and
Figure 16.7
16. Sensors
212
To realise this principle, there are numerous possibili-ties. Figure 16.8 shows some
variants of signal recording. The most frequently used method is a mechanical oscillation of the welding torch, which is carried out by a rotor movement with an
oscillation frequency
up to 5 Hz.
The second method
is mainly used with
submerged
arc
to
direction
welding
and
the
is
evalu-
ated.
Figure 16.8
Magnetic fields can diverge only the arc itself. The advantage of this method is a high
divergence frequency of about 15 Hz. A disadvantage is the size of the electromagnets and the limited accessibility to the workpiece.
The last variant of an arc sensor incorporates a mechanical rotation of the welding
wire. In this case, the divergence frequency of the arc can reach up to 30 Hz.
The signal recording is continuous during the movement. In this way, information
about orientation of the torch and groove width is also provided. The arc sensor principle is limited to groove shapes with clear flanks. Together with the tactile torch gas
nozzle sensor, it provides a frequently used combination for seam finding and seam
tracking during robot welding.
16. Sensors
213
Optical sensors can be used for a great number of jobs. The easiest method is the
recognition
of
the
radiation
intensity,
which
reflected
is
during welding.
E.g. with laser beam
welding, this is carried
out
recording
flected
through
the
relaser
penetration
Figure 16.9
The procedure is based on the line-up between the degree of reflection and shaft
relation (penetration depth/focus position) of the capillary. The amount of backreflection of the laser beam power is measured, which due to multi-reflection is not
absorbed by the workpiece. Changes of penetration depth due to modified laser
power or a shifted focus position can be identified by the signal of reflected laser
power and can be used for control of the penetration depth.
However, optical sensors can also be used for measuring geometrical values. Such
information may be used for finding the start point of a seam, for seam tracking, and
for identification of groove profile. The two last mentioned functions provide the possibility to use the information for filling rate control and/or quality control.
Geometry-measuring optical sensors are normally external systems, which are positioned in front of the torch as a leading element. It is practical to equip the sensor with
additional axes, because both, torch and sensor, must be moved along the groove.
Without additional axes, a robot would be limited in its accessibility to the workpiece
and in its working range. Another problem is the tremendous effort to introduce the
control-technical integration into the robot control. Among other things, information
must be exchanged in real time.
16. Sensors
214
re-
Sensors as part of
the
light-section
procedure,
also
Figure 16.11
16. Sensors
215
scanning
an
automised
quality
characteris-
tics possible.
Figure 16.12
Another
optical
measurement
prin-
sight,
the
stereo procedure to
record
geometry
information
the
weld
Two
optics
the
across
groove.
independent
photograph
interesting
Figure 16.13
16. Sensors
216
groove area and displays them onto two image converter elements (CCD-lines or
CCD-matrix). Based on the corresponding image points in both picture scenes, the 3dimensional position of object points is evaluated. Figure 16.13 shows the measurement principle, which uses CCD lines as image converter elements, and idealised
signals for generating information. The grey scale drop in the signal is ideally used as
corresponding image area, which occurs with butt welds due to different reflection
intensity between workpiece surface and gap. Both, the lateral position of the groove
and the distance to the sensor can be determined by evaluating the centre positions
of both signal drops. The width of the groove is taken from the width of the signal
drop.
Optical sensors may also be used for geometrical recognition of the weld pool, to
adapt process parame-ters in the case of possible deviations. Figure 16.14 depicts
such a system for use with laser beam welding. The welding process is monitored by
a CCD camera through a filter system. An optical filter allows to observe the weld
pool surface without disturbing effects of the plasma in the near infrared spectrum.
Picture data are transferred to an image processing computer which measures the
geometry of the weld pool. Geometry data contain information which is used online
for control of the
welding
process.
Among
others,
penetration
depth
system
also
molten
ejections.
pool
Figure 16.14
16. Sensors
217
During electron beam welding, the beam is in combination with a detector used for
both, to carry out a seam tracking and a monitoring of the welded seam. For this, the
beam can be diverged as well as bent, Figure 16.15. Backscattered electrons are
recognised by a special detector and converted into grey values. The line or area
surface scanning by the spotted electron beam provides a progressive series of
greys across the scanned line or area. During electron beam welding, these signals
can be used for
seam tracking by
scanning an edge
which is parallel to
the
groove.
The
area-type scanning
provides the possibility
for
observing
the
welded
seam
or
Literature
218
Literature
219
Literature
Dilthey, U.
Programmieren von Industrierobotern
DVS-Berichte Bd. 118
DIN 1910 Teil 1, Mechanisierungsgrade in der Schweitechnik, Juli 1983
DIN 1910 Blatt 5 Schweien, Widerstandsschweien, Verfahren, Nov. 1972
DIN 1913 Stabelektroden fr das Verbindungsschweien von Stahl, un- und niedriglegiert,
Jan. 1976
DIN 1732 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe fr Aluminium, Apr. 1975
DIN 2310 Teil 6 Thermisches Schneiden, Einteilung, Verfahren, Feb. 1991
DIN 8555 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe zum Auftragschweien, Jan. 1978
DIN 8556 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe fr das Schweien nichtrostender und hitzebestndiger
Sthle, Mrz 1976
DIN 8573 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe zum Schweien von Gueisen, Jan. 1978
DIN 8575 Teil 1 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe zum Lichtbogenschwei8en warmfester Sthle, Dez.
1983
DIN 8593 Teil 6 Fertigungsverfahren Fgen, Fgen durch Schweien, Einordnung,
Unterteilung, Sept. 1985
DIN 32511 Elektronen- und Laserstrahlverfahren zur Materialbearbeitung, Juni 1996
DIN EN 440 Schweizustze - Drahtelektroden und Schweigut zum MetallSchutzgasschweien von unlegierten Sthlen und Feinkornsthlen, Nov. 1994
DIN EN 756 Schweizustze - Drahtelektroden und Draht-Pulver-Kombinationen zum
Unterpulverschweien von unlegierten Sthlen und Feinkornsthlen, Dez. 1995
DIN EN 758 Schweizustze - Flldrahtelektroden zum Metall Lichtbogenschweien mit und
ohne Schutzgas von unlegierten Sthlen und Feinkornbausthlen, Mai 1997
DIN EN 760 Schweizustze - Pulver zum Unterpulverschweien, Mai 1996
DIN EN 1089 Ortsbewegliche Gasflaschen - Gasflaschen-Kennzeichnung, Apr. 1998
DIN ISO 857 Einteilung der Schutzgasverfahren, Juni. 1996
220
Literature
221
Literature
222
VDI-Nachrichten Nr. 13, 1984, S. 32
Grger, P., G. Groten, D. Pyrasch u. H. Wietrzniok
Neue Entwicklungen auf dem Gebiet des Schutzgas-Engspaltschweiens
DVS-Bericht 127, 1989, S. 112-119
Grger, P. u. J. Koivula
Metall-Schutzgasschweien Verfahrensvarianten des Engspaltschweiens
Industrie-Anzeiger 106, 1984, Nr. 39, S. 28-33
Grnauer, H.
Reibschweien von Metallen
Expert-Verlag, Ehningen 1987
HAANE
Firmenprospekt
Hase, C. u. W. Reitze
Lehrbuch des Gasschweiers und verwandte Autogenverfahren
Verlag W. Girardet, Essen 1980
Hirschherg, H.
Thermisches Schneiden, Stand der Entwicklung und Anwendung
Technica 38, 1989, Heft 13, S. 67-73
Hrmann, E.
Hochfrequenz-Widerstandsschweien mit Kontaktelektroden
Schweien und Schneiden 12, 1960, Heft 10, S. 431-438
Hoult, A. P.
Neuartige Erkenntnisse bei der Materialbearbeitung mit gepulsten Nd:YAG
Hochleistungslasern im Kilowatt-Bereich
Laser-Praxis, Juni 1989
Industrial Laser Review 1988
International Institute of Welding
The Physics of Welding
Pergamon Press, Frankfurt 1986
ISO 5182, Materials for resistance welding elektrodes and ancillary equipment, 1978
ISO 5184, Staight resistance spot welding electrodes, 1979
ISO 5821, Resistance spot welding electrode caps, 1979
Kessel, A.
Literature
223
Literature
Wirtschaftliches Schneiden von Baustahlblechen mit Luft-Plasma von 10A bis 70A
Metallhandwerk und Technik, 1987, Heft 9, S. 743-744
Killing, R.
Handbuch der Schweiverfahren, Teil 1: Lichtbogenschweiverfahren
DVS-Fachbuchreihe Bd.76, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1984
King, F.J.
Erhhung des Mechanisierungsgrades beim maschinellen Lichtbogenschweien durch
Schweikopf positionierung und Fugengeometrieerfassung
Dissertation RWTH Aachen, 1977
Kosfeld, G.
Schweiverfahren
DVS-Bericht Band 105
KUKA Firmenprospekt
Laser Focus Annual Economic Survey 1989
Mair, M.
Einflu der Sauerstoffreinheit auf die Schneidgeschwindigkeit und die Schneidkosten beim
Laserstrahlbrennschneiden
DVS Berichte Bd. 123, 1989
Marfels, W.
Der Gasschweier
Schweitechnische Praxis Bd.I, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1982
Marfels, W.
Der Lichtbogenschweier
Schweitechnische Praxis Bd.II, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf
Marfels, W. u. A. Schneider
Vorrichtungen in der Schweitechnik, Manahmen zur Rationalisierung der Fertigung
DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1989
Matzner, H.R.
Qualittssteigerung beim spritzerarmen MAGM-Impulslichtbogenschweien durch Regelung
der Prozegren Schweitechnische Forschungsberichte Bd. 40
DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1991
Meleka, A.H.
Electron Beam Welding
Published for the Welding Institute by McGraw-Hill, 1971
224
Literature
N.N.
T.I.M.E. Das neue MAG-Hochleistungs-Schweiverfahren
Firmenprospekt, Messer-Griesheim
Metzbower, E.A., D.W. Moon u. F.W. Fraser
Laser welding of structural alloys
Proceedings of International Conference on Welding Technology for Energy Applications,
Gatlinburg, Tn, USA, May 1982
Meyer, C., A. Rosenthal u. V. Bdecker
Festkrperlaser im kW-Betrieb
Industrie Anzeiger 51/1988
Mller, P. u. L. Wolff
Handbuch des Unterpulverschweiens
Fachbuchreihe Schweitechnik Bd.63
Neff, F., P. Scherl, K. Winter u. H. Ornig
Neue Verfahren zum Schweiplattieren dickwandiger Stahlbleche und -behlter
Schweitechnik Berlin 7/74
Nies, H. u. H. Krebs
UP-Formschweien mit Bandelektrode
Oerlikon-Schweimitteilungen Mrz 1988
N.N.
Laserstrahltechnologien in der Schweitechnik
Fachbuchreihe Schweitechnik, Bd. 86, DVS-Verlag GmbH, 1989
Ortmann, R.
Werkstoffe zum Verschleischutz
DVS-Bericht Band 105
Pfeifer, L.
Fachkunde des Widerstandsschweiens
Girardet-Verlag, Essen 1969
Plasma-Technik AG
Plasma Spraying Technique
Wohlen (Schweiz) 1974
Rabensteiner, G.
Werkstoffe zum Korrosionsschutz
DVS-Bericht Band 105
Rasche, S.
225
Neuere Entwicklungen beim Plasmaschneiden
Trennen und Fgen, 1985, Heft 15, S. 55-58
Ruckdeschel, W.
Plasmaheidraht-Auftragschweien Ein neues Plattierungsverfahren
DVS-Bericht Band 23/1972
Ruge, J.
Handbuch der Schweitechnik, Bd. II, Verfahren und Fertigung
Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 1980
Schfer, P.
Industrielle Anwendungen von Festkrperlasern
Laser und Optoelektronik, 2/1988
Schellhase, M.
Der Schweilichtbogen ein technologisches Werkzeug
VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin 1985
Schiller, S. et al.
Elektronenstrahltechnologie
Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Stuttgart, 1977
Schmidt, H. u. K. Ludewig
Hochleistungs-Festkrperlaser
Laser und Optoelektronik, 2/1988
Schultz, H.
Elektronenstrahlschweien
DVS-Verlag, Dsseldorf, 1989
Seiler, P.
Schweien mit YAG-Laser
Feinwerktechnik & Messtechnik, 96 (1988) 7-8
SOUDOMETAL
Firmenprospekt
Taylor D.S. u. C.E. Thornton
High Deposition Rate Submerged-Arc Welding
Welding Review, Aug. 1989
Tong S. u. Z. Ding
Effect Of Plasma Spraywelding Technology On Dilution
Wuhan (China) 1985
Tradowsky, Klaus
Laser: Grundlagen, Technik, Basisanwendungen, Kamprath-Reihe Technik
Literature
226
Literature