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OVERVIEW
5.0 Introduction
5.1 The curriculum
development process
5.2 Models of curriculum
development
5.2.1 Tylers model
5.2.2 Tabas model
5.2.3 Alexander & Taylors
model
5.3 Goals of Education
5.4 Levels of goals
5.4.1 Educational philosophy
5.4.2 Education goals
5.4.3 Curriculum goals
5.4.4 Curriculum objectives
LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe Tylers model of curriculum development
Explain the features of Tabas curriculum development model
Describe the Saylor and Alexander model
Compare the Tyler, Taba and the Saylor & Alexander models
Differentiate between the levels of educational goals
Compare the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains
Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies.
Ethics, moral
education, religious
education
Language &
quantitative
literacy
5.0 Introduction
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. What is the message of the cartoon?
2. How far is this characteristic of your education system?
Curriculum Planning
Society
Subject
matter
SOURCES
Philosophy
Objectives
Learner
Selection of
Learning
Experiences
Instructional
Objectives
Screens
Psychology
Organisation of
Learning
Experiences
Curriculum Design
Evaluation
Curriculum
Evaluation
design This was just the opposite to the more traditional deductive approach which
starts with the general design and than working toward the specifics.
Teacher Input
Evaluation
Diagnosis of
Needs
Organisation
of Learning
Activities
Teacher
Input
Formulation
of Objectives
Selection of
Content
Selection of
Learning
Activities
Organisation
of Content
Teacher Input
Figure 5.2 Tabas Curriculum Development Model
Taba proposed 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have
major input throughout the curriculum development process:
1. Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the
process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is
planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.
2. Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that require
attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
Goals, objectives
and domains
Curriculum
designing
Curriculum
implementation
Curriculum
evaluation
Feedback
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1) What is meant by domains in the Saylor and Alexander
model?
2) What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?
3) What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor and Alexander
model?
The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All
models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development.
Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum
development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to
pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are incomplete;
they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum
process. To depict every aspect in detail of the curriculum development process
would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model.
In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to
another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with
considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the
ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with
it.
5.3 Goals of Education
The cartoon at the beginning of this chapter shows the kinds of decisions that
curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world.
Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a course or
making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and farreaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary
or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary
and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or
elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or
matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models of curriculum
development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of purpose of the
education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing
primary school or after completing secondary school?
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to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring quality to learning and
avoid wastage in the learning programmes.
CASE STUDY : The Vision of South Africas Curriculum Framework 2005
The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which
provides both a philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum
development initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or
school-based. The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united,
democratic and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and
critical citizens, leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of
violence, discrimination and prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires
appropriate, lifelong education, training and development to empower people to
participate effectively in all the processes of a democratic society and to excel in
fields like human and natural resource development, human and natural sciences,
the arts and technology.
The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just
and equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and
is accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion,
ability or language. A priority for both national and provincial education
departments is, therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open
learning system, fostering in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning
and development.
The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to
facilitate and guide the development of a transformed education and training
system in a practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that
successful modern economies and societies require citizens with a strong
foundation of general education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt
to, and develop new knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between
occupations, to take responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve
high standards, and to work cooperatively.
[Source: CURRICULUM 2005 Lifelong Learning for the 21st Century: A User's Guide.
http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles]
ACTIVITY 5.2
Read the Case Study and answer the following questions:
1. Why do you think that in the vision it is emphasised that
South Africa should be free of violence, discrimination and
prejudice?
2. What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South
Africa?
3. How are these educational goals similar or different from
those of your country?
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Educational
Philosophy
Educational
Goals
Curriculum
Goals
Curriculum Phase
Curriculum
Objectives
Instructional
Goals
Instructional Phase
Instructional
Objectives
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on the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development needs to
education is an important strategy to achieve greater impact of education on society.
ACTIVITY 5.3
In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued
a list of six goals for the nations schools which stated that by the year
2000:
all children in America will start school ready to learn
the high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%
American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having
demonstrated competency in challenging subject mater
(English, mathematics, science , history and geography)
U.S students will be first in the world in science and
mathematics achievement
Every adult American will be literate and will possess the
knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global
economy and exercise the right and responsibilities of
citizenship
Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence
and
will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning
[Source: National Goals for Education, 1990. Washington D.C].
the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for the students for
whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal; Students shall acquire
knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good citizens in
their own school and community setting; the following curriculum objectives can be
derived:
The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school
More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary activity
Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum
objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum
Curriculum Goal or Aim
Primary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful, thinking,
caring, dynamic and progressive individuals able to contribute towards the creation
of a society that practices science and technology culture, responsible towards the
environment and appreciative of nature and Gods creations.
Sample Curriculum Objectives
The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to:
Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an
integrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and
everyday experiences,
Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem
solving and decision making
Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as inquisitiveness,
open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance,
Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery-inquiry
approach
Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research
Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4
A) Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things
B) Know that light can be dispersed
Sample Instructional Objectives
A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans
A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals
B1) State that sunlight consists of seven colours
B2) Explain the formation of a rainbow
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enough to say "yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you understand unless
you can demonstrate that you do. Here are some example of learning outcomes:
On completion of this 45 minute lesson on the tropical rainforest you should
be able to:
Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, canopy
Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map
Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest
ACTIVITY 5.5
Proponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:
forces the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished
enables the teacher to tell students what they must achieve
makes evaluation easier because it is measurable
makes it easier for the selection of instructional objectives
makes accountability easier
Opponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:
restricts creativity
lead to trivial or unimportant competencies
is dehumanising
downplays affective outcomes
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The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what
a body of content require students to do, and for thinking about how students should
be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it
draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks which
a subject might require to perform.
Cognitive
Levels
Description
Knowledge
Comprehension
Change,
decode,
defend,
distinguish, estimate, explain,
generalise, infer, give example,
illustrate, paraphrase, predict,
rewrite, restate, summarise, solve
Application
Synthesis
Evaluation
Appraise,
choose,
compare,
conclude,
contrast,
criticise,
decide,
defend,
discriminate,
justify, resolve, support, validate,
write a review.
Cognitive Levels
Description
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organisation
Characterisation
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Description
Imitation
Assemble,
carryout,
copy,
construct,
repeat,
duplicate,
practice, reproduce, start, try,
volunteer, sketch, follow.
Manipulation
Precision
Articulation
Naturalisation
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. If you heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular course or
subject, which of these 3 models of curriculum development would you adopt
to guide you? Why?
2. Have a look at any course or programme.
a) Is there a clear statement of curriculum objectives and instructional
objectives to be achieved?
b) Would you say that students would be clear about what they are expected
to do in the course, or do the objectives simply delineate the content areas
that the course will cover?
c) Is there an explicit relationship between the objectives and the teachinglearning methods employed in the subject?
d) Is summative assessment carried out by anything other than class tests and
examinations?
e) Is there any mention in them of the affective side to learning in the subject?
f) If not, what do you think would be appropriate affective objectives for the
subject?
READINGS
Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean?
McGill Journal of Education. Vol. 34. (3). p. 227. [available at ProQuest].
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