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10ES43
IA Marks: 25
Exam Hours : 03
Exam Marks : 100
PART A
UNIT 1:
Modeling of Systems: Introduction to Control Systems, Types of control systems, Effect of
feedback systems, Differential equations of physical systems Mechanical systemsFriction, Translational systems (Mechanical accelerometer, Levered systems excluded),
Rotational systems, Gear trains. Electrical systems, Analogous systems.
6 Hours
UNIT 2:
Block diagrams and signal flow graphs: Transfer functions, Block diagrams, Signal Flow
graphs (Statevariable formulation excluded).
7 Hours
UNIT 3:
Time Response of feed back control systems: Standard test signals, Unit step response of
First and second order systems, Time response specifications, Time response specifications
of second order systems, steady state errors and error constants.
7Hours
UNIT 4:
Stability analysis: Concepts of stability, Necessary conditions for Stability, Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion, Relative stability analysis; Special cases of RH criterion.
6 Hours
PART B
UNIT 5:
RootLocus Techniques: Introduction, basic properties of root loci, Construction of root
loci.
6 Hours
UNIT 6:
Stability analysis in frequency domain: Introduction, Mathematical preliminaries, Nyquist
Stability criterion, (Inverse polar plots excluded), Assessment of relative stability using
Nyquist criterion, (Systems with transportation lag excluded).
7Hours
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UNIT 7:
Frequency domain analysis: Correlation between time and frequency response, Bode plots,
All pass and minimum phase systems, Experimental determination of transfer functions,
Assessment of relative stability using Bode Plots.
7 Hours
UNIT 8:
Introduction to State variable analysis: Concepts of state, state variable and state models for
electrical systems, Solution of state equations.
6 Hours
TEXT BOOK :
1. Control Systems Engineering, I. J. Nagarath and M.Gopal, New Age International (P)
Limited, 4 Edition 2005
2 Modern Control Engineering, K. Ogata, PHI, 5th Edition, 2010.
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Table of contents
Sl .no
Contents
UNIT 1:Modeling of Systems:
Introduction to Control Systems
Page number
5 to 12
Block diagram
13 to 23
24 to 46
47 to 65
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66 to 84
Mathematical preliminaries
85 to 102
Bode plots
103 to 118
119 to 127
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UNIT-1
Modeling of Systems
Introduction to control systems
A system is an arrangement of or a combination of different physical components connected
or related in such a manner so as to form an entire unit to attain a certain objective
Control system is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in such a
manner so as to regulate, director command itself to achieve a certain objective
Requirements of good control system are accuracy, sensitivity, noise, stability, bandwidth,
speed, oscillations
Example: Automatic hand driver, automatic washing machine, bread toaster, electric lift,
traffic signals, coffee server, theatre lamp etc.
A system in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output is called as
closed loop system
The elements of closed loop system are command, reference input, error detector, control
element controlled system and feedback element
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Feed forward system is that in which the corrective action is initiated without waiting for
the effect of disturbance to show up in the output
System having multiple inputs and multiple outputs is known as multiple output (MIMO)
control system
A servomechanism is a power amplifying feedback control system in which the controlled
variable is mechanical position or its time derivative such as velocity, acceleration
A regulator or regulating control system is a feedback control system in which the
reference input remains constant for long periods/entire intervals of operation
An adaptive control system is one that continuously and automatically measures the
dynamic characteristics of the plant.
The system which follows the principle of superposition and proportionality is called a
linear system.
The motion take place along a straight line is known as translational motion.
Rotational motion of a body is the motion about a fixed axis.
The elements of rotational system are inertia (J), damping coefficient (B) and torsional
stiffness (K).
Mechanical system
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displacement n charge q.
Mechanical coupling:
Laplace transform of signal x (t) is denoted by X (s)
Example problems:
Q 1. Draw the f-1 analogous mechanical system for the electrical circuit of fig. below:
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The equation is
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UNIT-2
Block diagrams and signal flow graphs
Transfer function
The ratio of laplace transform of the output to the laplace transform of input under the
assumption of zero initial conditions is defined as the transfer function Of system. It is
denoted by G(s).
Where
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Poles are the value of s which when substituted in the denominator of a transfer function,
make the transfer function value as infinity
Zeros are the value of s which when substituted in the numerator of transfer function,
make the transfer function value as zero
The characteristic equation can be obtained by equating the denominator polynomial of the
transfer function to zero
. The highest power of s in the characteristic equation is called the order o system
The number of poles at the origin defines the type of system
Block diagram algebra
Block diagram gives a pictorial representation of a control system by way of short handing
the transfer function Signal flow graph further shortens the representation of a control
system by eliminating summing symbol take-off point and block This elimination is
achieved by way of representing the variables by points called nodes
A pictorial representation of the relationship between input and output of a system is termed
as block diagram.
The direction of flow of signal from one block to other is indicated by an arrow.
The point in a block diagram at which signal can be added or subtracted is termed as
summing point.
Gain is the ratio of laplace transform of output to laplace transform of input .
Blocks in series are algebraically combined by multiplication.
The lines drawn between the blocks to indicate the connections between the blocks are
termed as branches.
The point from which a signal is taken for the feedback purpose is called as take-off point.
The order of summing point can be changed if two or more summing points are in series.
Signal Flow Graphs
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A signal flow grow is a pictorial representation of a system and it displays graphically, the
transmission of signal in system
Node: It is a point from where branches originate or terminate or pass through.
Branch : It is connecting link between two nodes.
Path : The time traced by connecting two or more node is called path.
Loop : It is a path that originates and terminates on same node and along which node other
node is traversed more than once.
Mason s gain formula is used to find the gain of signal flow graph
According to Masons gain formula
where
= 1 (sum of all individual loops) + (sum of all gain products of two nontouching loops) - (sum of all gain product of three non-touching loops) +.
The gain associated with each branch is called branch transmittance
The independent and dependent variable of a control system are represented by small
circles as nodes.
The relationship between nodes is represented by drawing a line between two nodes Such
lns are called branches.
Example problems:
Dec/Jan
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Ans.
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Ans.
The term
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June/July
.
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June/July
Ans.
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Q. 21. From the block diagram shown in the figure below draw the corresponding
signal flow graph and evaluate close loop transfer function relating
Dec/Jan 2006
the output and input.
Individual loop,
Non-touching loops = 0
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Determine the state model in canonical form using parallel decomposition method.
Ans.
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Ans.
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UNIT 3
Time Response of feed back control systems
r (t ) Au(t ).
b) Ramp signal:
r (t ) At; t 0.
c) Parabolic signal: r (t ) At 2 / 2; t 0.
d) Impulse signal: r (t ) (t ).
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G( s)
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kk
kk
ak1km
W ( s)
a ak k
1 m ; If r (t ) au(t ) , W ( s) 1 m 1 m
R( s ) m s 1
ms 1 s
s
s 1/ m
wr
the motor
k1km
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Control Systems
Here, T ( s)
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k1km / ( m s 1)
k1km
kk
W ( s)
1 o
R( s) 1 k1k2 km / ( m s 1) m s (1 k1k2 km ) o s 1
where, ko
km
m
and o
.
1 k1k2 km
1 k1k2 km
t / o
If a is properly chosen, the tape can reach a desired speed. It will reach the desired speed in
5 o seconds. Here, o m . Thus, we can control the speed of response in feedback system.
Although the time-constant is reduced by a factor (1 k1k2 km ) , in the feedback system, the
motor gain constant is also reduced by the same factor. In order to compensate for this loss
of gain, the applied reference voltage must be increased by the same factor.
Ramp response of first-order system
Let, k1k0 1 for simplicity. Then, T ( s)
1
W ( s)
. Also, let, r (t ) tu(t ) .
o s 1 R( s )
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o2
1
1 o
Then, W ( s) 2
;
s ( o s 1) s 2 s o s 1
ess (t ) o
Thus, the first-order system will track the unit ramp input with a steady-state error o ,
which is equal to the time-constant of the system.
Consider the antenna position control system. Its transfer function from r to y is,
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T ( s)
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k1k2 km
k1k2 km / m
n2
Y ( s)
R( s) m s 2 s k1k2 km s 2 1 s k k k /
s 2 2n s n2
1 2 m
m
where, we define,
n2 k1k2 km / m and
2n
ratio and n is called the natural frequency. The system above is in fact a standard second
order system.
The transfer function T ( s) has two poles and no zero. Its poles are,
s1 , s2 n jn 1 2 jd .
jn are purely imaginary. If 0 1 , the two poles are complex conjugate. All possible
cases are described in a table shown below.
n2
s 2n
1
1
1
2
Suppose, r (t ) u(t ), R( s) ; Y ( s) 2
2
s s 2n s n s s 2n s n2
s
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Or,
Natural frequency, n
The natural frequency of a second order system is the
frequency of oscillation of the system without damping.
s 2n
s n n
1
1
Y ( s)
2
2
2
s ( s n ) n (1 ) s ( s n )2 (n 1
Performing
inverse Laplace
transform,
Damping ratio,
The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the damping
factor, to the natural frequency n .
b
.
T (s) 2
s as b
Suppose,
nt
e
2
) 1 standard equation,
1 2 cos(an 21
n and
)t sin(n 1 2 )t
or, y(twith
Comparing
1 2
b.
2
n
y (t ) 1
or,
d n 1 2 and tan 1
ent
1
sin(d t ) ,where,
1 2 / cos 1
n t
e sin(d t )
d
.(01)
y (t ) 1
or,
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1. Delay time, t d : It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in
first attempt.
2. Rise time, tr : It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 100% of the final
value for the underdamped system.
3. Peak time, t p : It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of time response
or the peak overshoot.
4. Settling time, t s : It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within a
specified tolerance band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
5. Peak overshoot, M p : It is the normalized difference between the time response peak and
the steady output and is defined as,
%M p
c(t p ) c()
c ( )
100%
6. Steady-state error, ess : It indicates the error between the actual output and desired
output as t tends to infinity.
ess lim[r (t ) c(t )] .
t
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Let us now obtain the expressions for the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot, and settling
time for the second order system.
1.
Rise
time,
tr :
Put
t tr , sin(d tr ) 0 sin , tr
; cos1 .
d
2.
Put
Peak
time,
tp :
dy
0 and
dt
y(t ) 1
at
for
t tp ;
solve
n t
e sin(d t ) n e t cos(d t ) .
d
tan(d t p )
1 2
d n 1 2
tan , d t p k
k 0,1, 2,
n t
4
e
0.02 , ts 4T .
d
s
4. Steady-state error, ess : It is found previously that steady-state error for step input is
zero.
Let us now consider ramp input, r (t ) tu(t ) .
Then, ess lim s{R( s) Y ( s)} lim s{
s 0
s 0
n2
1 1
}
s 2 s 2 s 2 2n s n2
2
2
2
n2
1
1
s 2n s n n
ess lim {1 2
} lim
s 0 s
s 0 s
s 2n s n2
s 2 2n s n2
2n 2
.
2
n
n
E ( s)
R( s )
sR( s)
, ess lim sE ( s) lim
.
s 0
s 0 1 G ( s )
1 G( s)
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It is seen that steady-state error depends upon the input R( s) and the forward transfer
function G( s) . The steady-state errors for different inputs are derived as follows:
1. For unit-step input: r (t ) u (t ), R( s)
s 0
1
s
1
1
1
s 0
1
s2
1
1
1
lim
;
s 1 G( s) s 0 sG( s) kv
kv is
called
velocity
error
constant.
3. For unit-parabolic input: r (t ) t 2 / 2, R( s)
s 0
1
s3
1
1
1
lim 2
; k a is called acceleration error
s
0
s 1 G( s)
s G ( s ) ka
2
const.
G( s)
K ( s z1 )( s z2 )( s z3 )
s n ( s p1 )( s p2 )( s p3 )
If n = 0, the system is called type-0 system, if n = 1, the system is called type-1 system, if n
= 2, the system is called type-2 system, etc. Steady-state errors for various inputs and
system types are tabulated below.
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The error constants for non-unity feedback systems may be obtained by replacing G(s) by
G(s)H(s). Systems of type higher than 2 are not employed due to two reasons:
1. The system is difficult to stabilize.
2. The dynamic errors for such systems tend to be larger than those
types-0, -1 and -2.
( s z )n2 / z
n2
n2
C (s)
s
2
.
2
2
2
2
2
R( s) s 2n s n s 2n s n z s 2n s n
The multiplication term is adjusted to make the steady-state gain of the system unity. This
gives css = 1 when the input is unit step. Let cz(t) be the response of the system given by
the above equation and c(t) is the response without adding the pole. Manipulation of the
above equation gives,
cz (t ) c(t )
1d
c(t ).
z dt
The effect of added derivative term is to produce a pronounced early peak to the system
response which will be clear from the figure in the next page. Closer the zero to origin, the
more pronounce the peaking phenomenon. Due to this fact, the zeros on the real axis near
the origin are generally avoided in design. However, in a sluggish system the artful
introduction of a zero at the proper position can improve the transient response. We can see
from equation (03) that as z increases, i.e., the zero moves further into the left half of the splane, its effect becomes less pronounced.
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the
system, n k1k2 km / m ;
antenna
1
2n m
; ess
ramp
position
2
; ts
control
parameter. If we increase k 2 , n will increase and thus settling time will decrease. At the
same time, will decrease, this indicates the increase in peak overshoot. Thus by merely
increasing gain, we cannot improve both transient and steady-state error specifications. We
need to add additional components to the system. These are called compensators. It will
allow improvement of both transient and steady-state specifications.
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(3.1)
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(3.2)
(3.3)
Figure 3.2: Step responses (a) of the ideal and (b) of the real PID controller
In the previous considerations it has been assumed that a D behaviour can be realised by the
PID controller. This is an ideal assumption and in reality the ideal D element cannot be
realised . In real PID controllers a lag is included in the D behaviour. Instead of a D element
in the block diagram of Figure 3.1 a
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(3.4)
is introduced. From this the transfer function of the real PID controller or more precisely of
the
controller follows as
(3.5)
it follows
(3.6)
b)
the ideal PD controller with the transfer function
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(3.8)
and the
c)
and
The step responses of these types of controllers are compiled in Figure3.3. A pure I
controller may also be applied and this has the transfer function
(8.11)
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In addition, the different cases should be compared with respect to the normalised
maximum overshoot
, a long
b)
The I controller has a higher maximum overshoot than the P controller due to the
slowly starting I behaviour, but no steady-state error.
c)
The PI controller fuses the properties of the P and I controllers. It shows a
maximum overshoot and settling time similar to the P controller but no steady-state
error.
d)
The real PD controller according to Eq. (3.9) with
has a smaller
maximum overshoot due to the 'faster' D action compared with the controller types
mentioned under a) to c). Also in this case a steady-state error is visible, which is
smaller than in the case of the P controller. This is because the PD controller
generally is tuned to have a larger gain
due to the positive phase shift of the D
action. For the results shown in Figure 3.5 the gain for the P controller is
and for the PD controller
e)
The PID controller according to Eq. (3.6) with
fuses the properties of a
PI and PD controller. It shows a smaller maximum overshoot than the PD controller
and has no steady state error due to the I action.
The qualitative concepts of this example are also relevant to other type of plants with
delayed proportional behaviour. This discussion has given some first insights into the static
and dynamic behaviour of control loops.
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controllers
Example problems:
Q. 1. Consider the system having transfer function
Calculate the settling time for 2% tolerance band, for the unit step response.
Ans.
Comparing with
we get
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(1)
Now standard equation of a second order system is given as
(2)
so comparing eq (1) and (2), we get
Q.3. For a second order system the roots of its characteristic equation are
underdamped natural frequency of the system will be.
(a) 4 rad/sec
(b) 3 rad/sec
(c) 5 rad/sec
(d) 7 rad/sec
the
Ans.
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Q. 4. What will be the response of a first order system with unit step input?
Ans. We have
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Ans.
Comparing, we get
Natural frequency
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Determine the value of K and B such that the closed loop until step response has w = 3
rad/sec and
Ans. The characteristics equation of the system is 1 + G (s) = 0
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UNIT 4
Stability Analysis
Concepts of stability
Because of its feedback structure a control system can become unstable, e.g. oscillations
with increasing amplitudes in the signals can occur .
A linear time-invariant system is called ( asymptotically) stable, if its weighting function
decays to zero, i.e. if
(4.1)
is valid. If the modulus of the weighting function increases with increasing to infinity, the
system is called unstable.
A special case is a system where the modulus of the weighting function does not exceed a
finite value as
or for which it approaches a finite value. Such systems are called
critically stable. Examples are undamped
S and I elements
This definition shows that stability is a system property for linear systems. If Eq. (4.1) is
valid, then there exists no initial condition and no bounded input signal which drives the
output to infinity. This definition can be directly applied to the stability analysis of linear
systems by determining the value of the weighting function for
. If this value exists,
and if it is zero, the system is stable. However, in most cases the weighting function is not
given in an explicit analytic form and therefore it is costly to determine the final value. The
transfer function
weighting function
, there is an equivalent stability condition for
according to
Eq. (4.1). The analysis of this condition shows that for the stability analysis it is sufficient to
check the poles of the transfer function
characteristic equation
of its
(4.2)
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of its characteristic
for all
is valid, or in other words, if all poles of its transfer function lie in the left-half
plane.
b)
Instability
A linear system is only unstable, if at least one pole of its transfer function lies in the
right-half plane, or, if at least one multiple pole (multiplicity
imaginary axis of the plane.
) is on the
c)
Critical stability
A linear system is critically stable, if at least one single pole exists on the imaginary
axis, no pole of the transfer function lies in the right-half plane, and in addition no
multiple poles lie on the imaginary axis.
It has been shown above that the stability of linear systems can be assessed by the
distribution of the roots of the characteristic equation in the plane (Figure 5.2). For control
problems there is often no need know these root with high precision. For a stability analysis
it is interesting to know whether all roots of the characteristic equation lie in the left-half
plane or not. Therefore simple criteria are available for easily checking stability, called
stability criteria. These are partly in algebraic, partly in graphical form.
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Figure 4.2: Stability of a linear system discussed by the distribution of the roots of the
characteristic equation in the plane
Routh criterion
For given coefficients of the characteristic equation the method of Routh, which is an
alternative to the method of Hurwitz, can be applied,. Here the coefficients
will be arranged in the first two rows of the Routh schema, which contains
rows:
The coefficients
first two rows according to
in the third row are the results from cross multiplication the
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Building the cross products one starts with the elements of the first row. The calculation of
these values will be continued until all remaining elements become zero. The calculation
of the values are performed accordingly from the two rows above as follows:
From these new rows further rows will be built in the same way, where for the last two rows
finally
and
a)
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all coefficients
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are positive,
b)
all coefficients
Example 1
For proving instability it is sufficient to build the Routh schema only until negative or zero
value occurs in the first column. In the example given above the schema could have been
stopped at the 5th row.
Another interesting property of the Routh scheme says, that the number of roots with
positive real parts is equal to the number of changes of sign of the values in the first
column.
Example 2
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristics equation given by
a(s) s 6 4s 5 3s 4 2s 3 s 2 4s 4.
The above polynomial satisfies the necessary condition for stability since all the
coefficients are positive and nonzero. Writing the Routh array, we have
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s6
s5
1
4
s4
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3
2
4.3 1.2
1
4
4
.2 4.0
2 2
5
s2
s1
12
3( ) 4.2
76
5
s0
2
5
5 12
2.0 ( )
4.4 1.0
4
.4 4.4
12 2
5
5
15
4
5
s3
4.1 4.1
4
0
2.4 .0
2
4
2
76
.4 0
4 15
76
15
We conclude that the system has roots in the right half plane, since the elements of the
first column are not all positive. In fact there are two roots in the right half plane, since
there are two sign changes. In other words two closed loop poles of the system lie in the
right half plane and hence the system is unstable.
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28
23
12
6.4
25.6
12
s3
s
s1
Since the entire row is zero, we construct an auxiliary equation by taking the coefficients
of the previous row, i.e.,
a1 (s) 3s 2 12.
Differentiating the above equation with respect to s, we get
da1 (s)
6s.
ds
(1)
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s1
6
0
0
s
12
Since there are no sign changes in the first column of the Routh array, there are no roots
in the right half plane. However, since one entire row in the Routh array was zero, there
are roots in the imaginary axis. The roots in the imaginary axis can be obtained by
solving the auxiliary equation. Therefore,
3s 2 12 0,
s 2 4 0,
s j2
Example 4. Consider the system shown below. The stability properties of the system are a
function of the proportional feedback gain k. Determine the range of k over which the
system is asymptotically stable.
s 1
s(s 1)(s 6)
1 k
s 1
s(s 1)(s 6)
0,
s 3 5s 2 (k 6)s k 0.
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1
5
k-6
k
(4k 30)
5
s0
For the system to be stable, it is necessary that all the elements in the first column of the
Routh array must be positive. Therefore,
4k 30
5
k 7.5
and
and
k 0,
k 0,
k 7.5
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7 12 1
x
x u,
0 0
1
y 1 2x.
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For the system to be stable, the poles of the system should lie in the left half plane. In other
words all the real poles should be negative or the real parts of complex poles must be
negative. The poles of the system are nothing but the eigenvalues of the A matrix of the
system. The MATLAB code is shown below
a = [-7 -12; 1 0];
[v,d] = eig(a)
The result is
v =
-0.9701
0.2425
0.9487
-0.3162
d =
-4
0
0
-3
The diagonal elements of the matrix d are eigenvalues of the system and columns of the
matrix v represent the corresponding eigenvectors.
Example problem:
Q. 1. Calculate the value of k for which the unity feedback
system
Ans.
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Ans. As we know
Now
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Imaginary roots make system unstable and response is continuous oscillatory. Therefore
system is unstable.
Q. 4. Consider the closed loop feedback system shown in the figure below. Determine
the range of K for which the system is stable.
Ans.
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Q. 5. Discuss the Routh Hurwitz criteria for determining the stability of a control
system and calculate the range of K for stable operation of following characteristic
equation
Ans. Routh-Hurwitz criterion helps in determining relative stability of a control system. From
the characteristic equation of control system Rouths array is constructed. In case there is no
change of sign in first column and the system is stable.
Given characteristic equation is
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Since the last element is negative, there is a sign change in first column, the system is
unstable.
Since terms corresponding to S3 are zero, we will form -auxiliary equation corresponding
to
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Differentiating
2s = 0
- For system to be stable all elements in first column should be greater than zero.
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Q. 10. Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is given by
Ans.
Rouths array is
Q. 11. A unity feedback control system is characterized by open loop transfer function
Using Rouths criterion, calculate the range of values of K for
the system to be stable.
Ans. The characteristic equation is
1 + G(s). H(s),
H(s)=1
1 + G (s)
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UNIT 5
Root-locus techniques
Introduction
A designer can determine whether his design for a control system meets the specifications if
he knows the desired time response of the controlled variable. By deriving the differential
equations for the control system and solving them, an accurate solution of the system's
performance can be obtained, but this approach is not feasible for other than simple systems.
It is not easy to determine from this solution just what parameters in the system should be
changed to improve the response. A designer wishes to be able to predict the performance by
an analysis that does not require the actual solution of the differential equations.
The first thing that a designer wants to know about a given system is whether or not it is
stable. This can be determined by examining the roots obtained from the characteristic
equation
(5.1)
of the closed loop. The work involved in determining the roots of this equation can be
avoided by applying the Hurwitz or Routh criterion. Determining in this way whether the
system is stable or unstable does not satisfy the designer, because it does not indicate the
degree of stability of the system, i.e., the amount of overshoot and the settling time of the
controlled variable for a step input. Not only must the system be stable, but the overshoot
must be maintained within prescribed bounds and transients must die out in a sufficiently
short time.
The root-locus method described in this section not only indicates whether a system is stable
or unstable but, for a stable system, also shows the degree of stability. The root locus is a plot
of the roots of the characteristic equation of the closed loop as a function of the gain. This
graphical approach yields a clear indication of the effect of gain adjustment with relatively
small effort.
With this method one determines the closed-loop poles in the plane - these are the roots of
Eq.(5.1) - by using the known distribution of the poles and zeros of the open-loop transfer
function
. If for instance a parameter is varied, the roots of the characteristic equation
will move on certain curves in the plane as shown by the example in Figure5.1. On these
curves lie all
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for
where
is the gain of the open loop. In order to represent this transfer function in terms of
the open-loop poles and zeros it is rewritten as
(5.3)
or
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(5.4)
with
and
is
(5.5)
or
(5.7)
, represent the
a)
Magnitude condition:
(5.8)
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b)
Angle condition
(5.9)
for
) can be
(5.10)
for
angle condition are the loci of the poles of the closed loop by varying
. The calibration of
the curves by the values of is obtained by the magnitude condition according to Eq. (5.8).
Based upon this interpretation of the conditions the root locus can constructed in a
graphical/numerical way.
Once the open-loop transfer function
has been determined and put into the proper form,
the poles and zeros of this function are plotted in the plane.
The plot of the locus of the closed loop poles as a function of the open loop gain K,
when K is varied from 0 to +00.
When system gain K is varied from 0 to +oo, the locus is called direct root locus.
When system gain K is varied from -oo to 0, the locus is called as inverse root locus.
The root locus is always symmetrical about the real axis i.e. x-axis.
The number of separate branches of the root locus equals either the number of open
loop poles are number of open-loop zeros whichever is greater.
A section of root locus lies on the real axis if the total number of open-loop poles and
zeros to the right of the section is odd.
If the root locus intersects the imaginary axis then the point of intersection are
conjugate. From the open loop complex pole the root locus departs making an angle
with the horizontal line.
The root locus starts from open-loop poles.
The root locus terminates either on open loop zero or infinity.
The number of branches of roots locus are:
N if P>Z
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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and M if P<Z
where N > No. of poles P
M > No. of zeros Z
Based on the pole and zero distributions of an open-loop system the stability of the closedloop system can be discussed as a function of one scalar parameter. The root-locus method
shown in this module is a technique that can be used as a tool to design control systems. The
basic ideas and its relevancy to control system design are introduced and illustrated. Ten
general rules for constructing root loci for positive and negative gain are shortly presented
such that they can be easily applied. This is demonstrated by some discussed examples, by a
table with sixteen examples and by a comprehensive design of a closed-loop system of higher
order.
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Example Problems:
Q.1. Consider the example
with
and
and
As
and
transfer function are identical with those of the open-loop transfer function
values
a)
. For other
Both roots
and
and
b)
:
The roots
and
,
.
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and
and
and the
magnitudes
and
. The triangle (
) in Figure 6.2 yields the angle
condition. Evaluating the magnitude condition according to Eq. (6.8)
The value of
is
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Table 5.1 shows further examples of some 1st- and 2nd-order systems.
Table 5.1: Root loci of 1st- and 2nd-order systems
root locus
root locus
(5.11)
or
(5.12)
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and
or
(5.13)
(5.14)
follows. Here
and
denote the angles of the complex values
and
,
respectively. All angles are considered positive, measured in the counterclockwise sense. If
for each point the sum of these angles in the plane is calculated, just those particular points
that fulfil the condition in Eq. (5.15) are points on the root locus. This principle of
constructing a root-locus curve - as shown in Figure 5.3 - is mostly used for automatic rootlocus plotting.
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are listed:
Rule 1 Symmetry
As all roots are either real or complex conjugate pairs so that the root locus is
symmetrical to the real axis.
Rule 2 Number of branches
The number of branches of the root locus is equal to the number of poles of the
open-loop transfer function.
Rule 3 Locus start and end points
The locus starting points (
points (
) are at the open-loop zeros.
branches end at infinity. The
number of starting branches from a pole and ending branches at a zero is equal to the
multiplicity of the poles and zeros, respectively. A point at infinity is considered as an
equivalent zero of multiplicity equal to
.
Rule 4 Real axis locus
If the total number of poles and zeros to the right of a point on the real axis is odd,
this point lies on the locus.
Rule 5 Asymptotes
There are
For
Figure 5.4.
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of the asymptotes is at
(5.17)
for
. If there are no poles or zeros, the corresponding sum is zero.
Rule 8 Complex pole/zero angle of departure/entry
The angle of departure of pairs of poles with multiplicity
is
(6.20)
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(5.21)
For
the denominator is equal to one.
Rule 10 Asymptotic stability
The closed loop system is asymptotically stable for all values of for which the
locus lies in the left-half plane. From the imaginary-axis crossing points the critical
values
can be determined.
Eq. (5.10) for negative values of some rules have to be modified. In the following these
rules are numbered as above but labelled by a *.
Rule 3* Locus start and end points
The locus starting points (
points (
) are at the open-loop zeros.
branches end at infinity. The
number of starting branches from a pole and ending branches at a zero is equal to the
multiplicity of the poles and zeros, respectively. A point at infinity is considered as an
equivalent zero of multiplicity equal to
.
Rule 4* Real axis locus
If the total number of poles and zeros to the right of a point on the real axis is even
including zero, this point lies on the locus.
Rule 5* Asymptotes
There are
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is
(5.24)
The root-locus method can also be applied for other cases than varying
. This is possible as
long as
can be rewritten such that the angle condition according to Eq. (5.15) and the
rules given above can be applied. This will be demonstrated in the following two examples.
Q.2. Given the closed-loop characteristic equation
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it is required to find the effect of the parameter
equation is rewritten into the desired form
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on the position of the closed-loop poles. The
Using the rules 1 to 10 one can easily predict the geometrical form of the root locus based on
the distribution of the open-loop poles and zeros. Table 6.2 shows some typical distributions
of open-loop poles and zeros and their root loci.
Table 6.2: Typical distributions of open-loop poles and zeros and the root loci
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For the qualitative assessment of the root locus one can use a physical analogy. If all openloop poles are substituted by a negative electrical charge and all zeros by a commensurate
positive one and if a massless negative charged particle is put onto a point of the root locus, a
movement is observed. The path that the particle takes because of the interplay between the
repulsion of the poles and the attraction of the zeros lies just on the root locus. Comparing the
root locus examples 3 and 9 of Table 5.2 the 'repulsive' effect of the additional pole can be
clearly seen.
The systematic application of the rules from section 5.2 for the construction of a root locus is
shown in the following non-trivial example for the open-loop transfer function
(5.26)
four poles (
,
,
,
2). First the poles (x) and the
zeros (o) of the open loop are drawn on the plane as shown in Figure 5.5. According to rule
3 these poles are just
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. Values of
. We have
branches that go to infinity and the asymptotes of these three branches are lines
which intercept the real axis according to rule 6. From Eq. (5.17) the crossing is at
(5.27)
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i.e.
The asymptotes are shown in Figure 5.5 as blue lines. Using Rule 4 it can be checked which
points on the real axis are points on the root locus. The points
with
and
belong to the root locus, because to the right of them the number of poles and zeros is
odd. According to rule 7 breakaway and break-in points can only occur pairwise on the real
axis to the left of -2. These points are real solutions of the Eq. (5.19). Here we have
(5.29)
or
and
and
. The real
can be
(5.30)
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Figure 5.6: Calculating the angle of departure
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of the complex pole
With this specifications the root locus can be sketched. Using rule 9 the value of can be
determined for some selected points. The value at the intersection with the imaginary axis is
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UNIT 6
Frequency Domain Analysis
Bode plot
If
the
absolute
value
and
the
phase
of
the
frequency
response
Figure 6.1: Plot of a frequency response: (a) linear, (b) logarithmic presentation (
logarithmic scale) (Bode plot)
on a
amplitude response and the phase response. Both together are the frequency response
characteristics.
and
The logarithmic representation has some advantages for series connections of transfer
functions. For complicated frequency responses, e.g. with
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for
, it can be represented as series connections of the frequency responses of simple
elements of the form
and
for
with
for
and
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with
for
and
for
. Thus, the frequency response of a
series connection is obtained by addition of the individual frequency response characteristics.
A further advantage of this logarithmic representation is for the determination of the inverse
of a frequency response, that is for
. Here
and
and
(0-
and
The magnitude and phase relationship between sinusoidal input and steady state
output of a system is known as frequency response.
The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G (jw) is plot of the magnitude of G
(jw) versus the phase angle of G (jw) on polar coordinates as co varied from zero to
infinity.
The phase margin is that amount, of additional phase lag at the gain crossover
frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability.
The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude l G(jw) l at the frequency at which
the phase angle as _1800.
The inverse polar plot at G (jw) is a graph of 1/G (jw) as a function of w.
Bode plot is a graphical representation of the transfer function for determining the
stability of control system.
Bode plot is a combination of two plot - magnitude plot and phase plot.
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The transfer function having no poles and zeros in the right -half s-plane are called
minimum phase transfer function.
System with minimum phase transfer function are called minimum phase systems.
The transfer function having poles and zeros in the right half s-plane are called nonminimum phase transfer functions systems with non-minimum phase transfer
function. are called non-minimum phase system.
In bode plot the relative stability of the system is determined from the gain margin
and phase margin. .
If gain cross frequency is less than phase cross over frequency then gain margin and
phase margin both are positive and system is stable.
If gain cross over frequency is greater than the phase crossover frequency than both
gain margin andphase margin are negative.
It gain cross over frequency is equal to me phase cross over trequency me gain marg
and phase margin are zero and system is marginally stable.
The maximum value of magnitude is known as resonant peak.
The magnitude of resonant peak gives the information about the relative stability of
the system.
The frequency at which magnitude has maximum value is known as resonant
frequency.
Bandwidth is defined a the range of frequencies in which the magnitude of closed
loop does not drop 3 db.
Example Problems:
with
This system can now be decomposed into an integrator, two PD and two
is
elements, that
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From this simple analysis the Bode plot can be determined by adding the Bode plots of the
elements
to
Figure: Representation of a dynamic system by two frequency response diagrams: (a) Bode plot, (b)
Nyquist plot
in the terms
for
and are the breakpoint frequencies in the
Bode plot. Also shown in Figure 4.20 is the Nyquist plot of the frequency response. Both
representations of Figure 4.20 basically contain the same information about the system.
Based on the example given above the procedure for constructing a Bode plot of a
given system can be recapitulated:
a)
The given transfer function must be put into the form
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with
where possible poles of
according to their multiplicity .
b) Then for
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at
and
.
c) If necessary corrections of the approximations can be performed.
Compensation technique is used to make the unstable system stable by introducing the
poles and or zeros at suitable place.
In control system design, if the designed specifications do not satisfy the
requirements of the system or leads to expensive and conflicting demands, then it is
required to insert an additiohal component within the structure of feedback system.
This adjustment is called compensation.
Compensators are of three types:
(a) Lag phase compensator(b) Lead phase compensator
(c) Lead-lag compensator.
Depending on the location the compensation is divided in following types:
(a) Series or cascade compensation
(b) Parallel or feedback compensation
(c) Load compensation.
Load compensations is provided to damp out oscillations in the system having
mechanical output.
Primary function of the lead compensator is to reshape the frequency response curve
to provide sufficient phase lead angle to offset the excessive phase lag associated with
the components of fixed systems.
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Phase lag network is shown in figure below. The primary function of lag compensator is to
provide attenuation in high frequency range to give a system sufficient phase margin. Various
design steps of phase lag network are
Example Problems:
Q1. The asymptotic magnitude Bode plot of a system is given in the figure below Find
the transfer function of the system analytically It is known that the system is minimum
phase system.
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Q 2. Sketh the Bode Plot for the transfer function given by,
and from Plot find (a) Phase and Gain cross rer frequencies (b) Gain Margin and Phase
Margin. Is this System Stable?
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The gain crosses 0db axis at co = 1.24 rad/sec, the gain crossover frequency is co = 1.24
rad/sec.
The phase crosses 180 line at co = 0.4 rad/sec, therefore phase crossover frequency
is co = 0.4 rad/sec.
At phase cross over the gain is 20 dB, therefore gain margin is 20 dB.
At gain crossover the phase angle is 2150, the phase margin is 180 + (215) = 35.
As both gain and phase margins are negative, the system is unstable.
Q3. Sketch the bode plot for the transfer function given by
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Q 4. State the advantages of bode plots. Determine the value of K in the transfer
function given below such that
(a) Time gain margin is 20 dB
(b) The phase margin is 30
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On the phase plot, we made this poirtt and extend the line tO magnitude plot where it
intersects. For required phase margin shift magnitude plot upwards
Total shift = 19 dB (from graph)
20 log K = 19
K =8.91.1
Q.5.Design a suitable compensator such that the system will have K= 10 and phase
margin = 50.
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rad/sec to
From bode plot it is noted that uncompensated system is stable having a phase margin
of 30 and the gain crossover occurs at o = 6.75 rad/sec.
To increase the phase margin to 50 the gain crossover point is to be shifted to a higher
value of frequency and this is possible by introducing a phase lead compensation network.
The required phase lead is:
ofphase lead
is determined below:
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UNIT 7
Stability in frequency domain
Nyquist criterion
This graphical method, which was originally developed for the stability analysis of feedback
amplifiers, is especially suitable for different control applications. With this method the
closed-loop stability analysis is based on the locus of the open-loop frequency response
. Since only knowledge of the frequency response
practical approach for the following cases:
a) For many cases
are known.
is necessary, it is a versatile
can be
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To determine
, the locus
can be drawn on the Nyquist diagram and
the phase angle checked. Expediently one moves this curve by 1 to the left in the
plane. Thus for stability analysis of the closed loop the locus
according to Figure 5.5 has to be drawn.
and
is the continuous change in the angle of the vector from the so called critical point (-1,j0)
for
the point (-1,j0) or where it has points at infinity correspond to the zeros and poles of
on the
imaginary axis, respectively. These discontinuities are not taken into account for the derivation of .
Figure shows an example of a
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The closed loop is asymptotically stable, if and only if the continuous change in the angle of the
vector from the critical point (-1,j0) to the moving point of the locus
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and
, then
If the open loop is asymptotically stable, then the closed loop is only asymptotically stable, if
the frequency response locus of the open loop does neither revolve around or pass through
the critical point (-1,j0).
Another form of the simplified Nyquist criterion for
'left-hand rule':
with poles at
is the so called
The open loop has only poles in the left-half plane with the exception of a single or double
pole at
(P, I or
behaviour). In this case the closed loop is only stable, if the critical
This form of the Nyquist criterion is sufficient for most cases. The part of the locus that is
significant is that closest to the critical point. For very complicated curves one should go back
to the general case. The left-hand rule can be graphically derived from the generalised locus
The orthogonal (
a curve with
hand side of
. From figure
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it can be seen that this change of the angle is directly related to the count of intersections of
the locus with the real axis on the left-hand side of the critical point between
. The
Nyquist criterion can therefore also represented by the count of these intersections if the gain
of the open loop is positive.
Regarding the intersections of the locus of
with the real axis in the range
,
the transfer from the upper to the lower half plane in the direction of increasing values are
treated as positive intersections while the reverse transfer are negative intersections
(Figure 5.7). The change of the angle is zero if the count of positive intersections
is equal
to the count of negative intersections
. The change of the angle
depends also on the
number of positive and negative intersections and if the open loop does not have poles on the
imaginary axis, the change of the angle is
In the case of an open loop containing an integrator, i.e. a single pole in the origin of the complex
plane (
), the locus starts for
at
, where an additional
change of the angle. For proportional and integral behaviour of the open loop
is added to the
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at
Figure : Count of the intersections on the left-hand side of the critical point for
open loop
as a negative one if
behaviour of the
has
, which is
single (
) or double pole (
) at
. If the locus of
has
positive and
negative intersections with the real axis to the left of the critical point, then the closed loop is
only asymptotically stable, if
is valid. For the special case, that the open loop is stable (
negative intersections must be equal.
From this it follows that the difference of the number of positive and negative intersections in
the case of
that for
is even, for
Control System
all cases
valid if
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is an even number, such that the closed loop is asymptotically stable. This is only
.
The Nyquist criterion can now be transferred directly into the representation using frequency
response characteristics. The magnitude response
, is always positive at the intersections of the locus with the real axis in the range of
. These points of intersection correspond to the crossings of the phase response
with lines
will be defined as positive (+) and negative (-) crossings of the phase response
over the
particular
lines, where
may be valid. If the phase response starts at 180 this point is counted as a half crossing with the corresponding sign. Based on the discussions
above the Nyquist criterion can be formulated in a form suitable for frequency response
characteristics:
The open loop with the transfer function
has poles in the right-half plane, and possibly a
single or double pole at
.
are the number of positive and
of negative crossings of the
phase response
over the
lines in the frequency range where
valid. The closed loop is only asymptotically stable, if
Department of EEE, SJBIT
is
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must be valid.
Table 7.1: Examples of stability analysis using the Nyquist criterion with frequency response
characteristics
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Finally the 'left-hand rule' will be given using Bode diagrams, because this version is for the
most cases sufficient and simple to apply.
The open loop has only poles in the left-half plane with the exception of possibly one single or one
multiple pole at
if
(P, I or
has a phase of
at
This stability criterion offers the possibility of a practical assessment of the 'quality of
stability' of a control loop. The larger the distance of the locus from the critical point the
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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farther is the closed loop from the stability margin. As a measure of this distance the terms
gain margin and phase margin are introduced according to Figure below
and
or
Example Problems:
Q1 The polar plot of the open-loop transter of feedback control system intersects the
real axis at2 Calculate gain margin (in dB) of the system.
Q2. What is the gain margin of a system in decibels if its Nyquist plot cuts the negative
real axis at 0.7?
Ans.
a = 0.7
Q4. Consider a feed lock system with the open-loop transfer function. Given by
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Examine the stability of the closed-loop system. Using Nyquist stability theory
.
Q 5. Draw the Nyquest plot for the open loop transfer function given below:
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Q6. Consider a feed lock system with the open-loop transfer function. Given by
Q7. Sketch the Nyquist plot for the system with the open loop transfer function
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UNIT 8
Introduction to State variable analysis
State-variale representation of single-input-single-output systems
In the following a short introduction into the representation of systems using state-variable
techniques is given. For this purpose, the example of the
network from Figure is used.
The dynamical behaviour of this network is completely defined for
initial conditions
, if the
and the
input variable
for
and
. The variables
and
characterise the 'state' of the network and are therefore
called state variables of the network.
The differential equations describe the dynamical behaviour of this network. Inserting into
one obtains the 2nd-order differential equation according to which completely describes the
system with respect to the input-output behaviour. But one can also use the two original
differential equations and can write them in vector notation so that the 1st-order vector
differential equation
(8.1)
with the initial condition
is obtained. This linear 1st-order vector differential equation describes the connection
between the input variable and the state variables. To complete a state-space system, one
needs an additional equation that describes the dependence of the output variable on the state
variables. In this example, it is the direct relationship
Introducing the state vector
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and
with the matrix
initial condition
(8.3)
The Eq. (8.2) is the state equation, and in the general case it is a linear system of 1st-order
differential equations of
state variables
vector
. Eq. (8.3) is the output equation, which maps the states and inputs
linearly to the output. This is an algebraic equation, whereas the state equation is a
differential equation.
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(8.4)
(8.5)
where the following notation is used:
state vector
) vector
input vector
) vector
output vector
) vector
system matrix
) matrix
input matrix
) matrix
output matrix
) matrix
feedthrough matrix
) matrix
It goes without saying that the general representation of Eqs. (8.4) and (8.5) also includes the
single-input-single-output case. The matrices
and
have constants elements. If
these elements are time-varying, the matrices of the corresponding time-varying system are
substituted by matrix functions of time, e.g.
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from section 2.1 is adopted and when applying it to Eq. (8.4), one obtains
or rearranged
Substituting
Comparing this equation with Eq. (8.3) the transfer function is given by
(8.8)
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The matrix
represented by
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(8.9)
where
and
(8.11)
which is the characteristic polynomial of the system. The zeros of this polynomial are the
poles of the transfer function and at the same time eigenvalues of the system matrix . If the
system in the state-space representation is fully controllable and observable (see section 8.6),
then the number of poles are equal to the number of eigenvalues.
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Initially it sounds paradoxical that the choice of the state variables is not unique. This means
that for one and the same system with the input , the output and state variables, there
exist an infinite number of state-space representations. For each value of time one gets the
state in the -dimensional state space. The values are the cartesian coordinates of the state
where the unit vectors are -dimensional linear independent vectors. Their elements are besides the th element, which has the value of 1 - all zero. For describing the state also other
basis vectors can be used. Candidates are all linear independent and -dimensional vectors
. Therefore, it is always possible, to write the state as
(8.12)
The constant and regular matrix is a so-called transformation matrix. Now, instead of the
state the new state can be used and its behaviour analysed. Describing the system in the
new coordinates the state from Eq. (8.13) is inserted into Eqs. (8.4) and (8.5) and one
obtains
(8.14)
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(8.15)
The benefits of the transformation of systems into different state-space representations are:
Most system properties do not depend on the choice of the state variables. They
remain unchanged after a regular transformation and may be analysed in an
appropriate representation form.
The computational determination and analysis of system properties can be
tremendously simplified if the representation form is specifically selected. In
particular certain canonical forms are of interest.
Example 12.5.1 In order to demonstrate a transformation, the example from Eq. (8.1) is
used with the system parameters
,
and
. The initial condition is assumed
to be zero and therefore omitted. With these values one obtains the state equation as
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consists of two decoupled differential equations with respect to the state variables
and
The analysis and treatment of a system in such a structured representation form, as shown in
the example above, is doubtless more simple. As the representation form must be specifically
selected depending on the type of analysis or synthesis problem, the different representation
forms, for example, the canonical forms, are not discussed separately and are introduced in
the following sections when they are needed.
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