Tom Budzyn Mitch Dyer Ben Ridgeway Garrett Thomas FYS Contemplative Traditions 12/2/15

Most people, even those unfamiliar with any kind of meditative or contemplative practices, are
aware that these kind of techniques are used by athletes all over the world to gain either a competitive or
spiritual benefit. Especially in todays day and age it is not uncommon to hear about football players who
do yoga after practice, or about basketball players who meditate on a daily basis. The widespread nature
of these kind of techniques certainly suggests that there is something to them, and there is also copious
amounts of scientific evidence to support the claims that mindfulness is a key part of performing well in
the field of athletics.
There have been a number of studies that have shown definitive links between use of mindfulness
techniques and athletic achievement. For instance, Psychology of the Elite Athlete: An Exploratory
Study takes a look at the performances of gymnasts who were attempting to make it to the Olympics.
They filled out questionnaires about their mental practices regarding competition and then the results of
the competition were cross-referenced with the results of the questionnaire. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the
athletes who were more mentally focused performed better. In particular, anxiety levels appeared to be
correlated with success, One other factor which seemed to differentiate these highly competent athletes
was their anxiety patterns prior to and during athletic competition (Mahoney, 2015, 139). Another study,
The Effects of Meditation on Shooting Performance yields similar results. This study can be nicely
summed up by saying that the main result in this study was that, in comparison to the control group, the
meditation group significantly improved their competition shooting the season after the intervention
versus the season before (Solberg, 1996, 345). A similar study, "The Effect of Mindfulness Meditation
on HPA-Axis in Pre-Competition Stress in Sports Performance of Elite Shooters", found similar results
regarding the effects of meditation on shooting performance. The result of the study indicated that there
is an increase in post intervention and follow up values in MMT group, whereas the control group, it was
highly insignificant result (John, 2011, 18).In this study, post-intervention refers to the period before the
athletes were introduced to meditative practices. These similar studies show similar results that back up
the theory that mindfulness techniques improve athletic performance. They show that clearly meditation

and contemplation lead to a strength of mind that can only enhance athletic performance. However, there
are many different meditative and contemplative approaches to take.
The words contemplative practice & sport are rarely paired with one another in the mainstream
media. Often, contemplative practice is overshadowed by the physicality and the high demands sport
requires from our body. Whilst these thoughts are factually true, it has been developed over time that in
order for an elite athlete to be at their peak physical form, they must also be of the strongest possible state
of mind in order to have the most successful career imaginable in this ever changing robust industry.
Many athletes and clubs have developed their own contemplative programs in order to ensure they are, as
they say, forever ready, and as such have used various methods such as meditation, contemplation,
prayer and other various forms of the contemplative study.
In Nick Watsons article The role of spirituality in sports psychology consulting (19), the
author recalls that in order for any kind of athlete, elite or not, to be able to perform at their highest level,
they must be able to incorporate and utilize different principles of spiritual and religious mental skill
training, a positive mind and its relationship with the mental state, spirituality in sports counseling, and
how this is all necessary in an athlete centered model. In modern history, one of the most famous cohorts
that implement a contemplative study are the Kenyan Distance Cohort. Coming from a highly Christian
community, each member of the team shares a prayer, which is followed by a moment of contemplation
where they accept what will happen in the race, and thank God for allowing them to race it. Current
800m World Record holder David Rudisha was recently quoted saying, I want to be a warrior in the
Olympics, treating the worlds biggest stage, mentally, as nothing larger than his own life in the Kenyan
Community. It is this mental ability, as well as maximal physical form, that inevitably gave him the
composure to go on and win Olympic Gold.
Before the credits of modern day sporting icons, contemplative traditions were utilized in a wide
array of sports: traditional such as Archery and Martial Arts, and modern such as Shooting and
Gymnastics. In Dr Nathaniel Fosters study,Flow and Spirituality, the success of 206 National
Association of Intercollegiate Athletics athletes, ranging from those who do and do not use contemplative

practice was analyzed.He found was that mindfulness is, a state of consciousness where one becomes
totally absorbed in what one is doing, to the exclusion of all other thoughts and emotions (78). These
semi-elite athletes, who used methods from meditation or prayer, all benefited from the overall relaxing
methods of controlling the mind. Statistics date back as far as the first Olympiad in 1896, where athletes
would pray to God for a successful games, and a great performance.
Whilst traditionally seen as a superstition to please the Gods, the use of contemplative traditions
in sport has been more prevalent than most would imagine. Whether it be the meditation methods used in
martial arts, or the use of prayer exercised by Native Kenyans before a major race, each athlete has their
own method of mental security to ensure their elite physical condition is met with the appropriate mental
one.
For example, martial arts has a rich history intertwined with meditation. Chinese Martial Arts as
we know it today was shaped by Daoism in some way, shape, or form. In the article, "Daoism and
Chinese Martial Arts", Barry Allen explains the different practices and ideas shared by Chinese martial
arts and Daoism. The concept of having A mind like dead ashes of Zhuangzi is a common practice in
Chinese martial arts of which the goal is to be immortal in the sense of always being disciplined (Allen,
2014, 1).
According to Winston King, author of Zen and the way of the sword: Arming the Samurai
Psyche, Eisai is called the founder of Zen Buddhism in japan. He set out to make Zen and its meditative
practices more independent. During his life, he made two trips to China to study under Zen masters and
renew his knowledge of Zen. He was given ordination as a Rinzai Zen master and on his return to Japan
he sought to establish a temple in Kyoto in which specific Zen training and meditation- of course, Zen
means just that, meditation- would be given a central place. However, Enryakuji would have nothing
to do with it and Eisai had to relocate to Kamakura (King, 1993, 27-28). Fifty years after the death of
Eisai, Zen was moved back to Kyoto around the same time warriors were starting to become more
intrigued with the arts. Buddhists were their teachers and showed them new art forms. The warriors began
to adopt Zen for its meditation practices and the religion became widespread throughout the warrior class

(30). Many Buddhist warriors retired to monasteries some to pursue their spiritual well-being and others
to make right the wrongs they had done while a warrior (33).
Kata in Karate-do, or forms in martial arts, are great examples of mindfulness and meditation. Pat
McCarthy states in Ancient Okinawan Martial Arts, that one must first learn the movements and be
constantly aware of what movements they are making. Most orthodox teachers will only teach one or two
kata to their students so they can fully master those kata. Among modern teachers, it is popular to teach
many forms. Another art that has be lost to modern teaching is the story behind those movements
(McCarthy, 1999, 85). In most modern martial arts, there is almost no meaning to it other than selfdefense and physical health. There has been some loss of meditative practices in martial arts over the
years, but it seems to be on the rise again since studies have shown that meditation and mindfulness,
incorporated in martial arts, can benefit the practitioner. The Test of Variables of Attention was
administered to the twenty subjects to test their physical fitness and awareness. The TOVA measured
reaction time attention and impulse control. It was found that Kung-fu athletes deteriorated in their
performances on the test more so than Taekwondo and Judo Athletes. However, Kung-Fu athletes showed
better inhibition response than the Judo and Taekwondo athletes. The study suggests that Kung-Fu
training improved attention skills more than the other two disciplines. This shows that there are any
different levels of attentiveness and discipline in different martial arts (Sanchez-Lopez, 2013, 607-612).
Martial arts is only one way in which one can come into contact with meditative practices.
As seen in martial arts, meditation is found in different cultures and practices. In the East, the
religious branch of Buddhism known as Zen incorporates meditation into everyday life. One of the chief
goals in Zen is to reach absolute concentration, also known as Samadhi. As an opportunity to express this
concentration, many followers of Zen use the sport of archery. First, the teachings of Zen must be
examined further. In general Buddhism, followers are taught the Four Noble Truths about suffering: life is
full of suffering, this suffering is caused by selfish desires, suffering can be eliminated by eliminating our
desires, and the Noble Eightfold Path can help remove our desires (Whigham, 2010, 427). Furthermore,
in Zen, subjectivity and objectivity merge (Ogata, 1973, 11). This means that an individuals mind

creates his world. All material items and objects do not truly exist as separate entities because everything
in the world is connected. Through meditation and absolute concentration, one understands this
connection and uses it to remove all worldly desires from his mind.
In order to analyze the connection between Zen and archery, the history of both factors must be
included. Developed roughly in 600-700 A.D., Zen was first developed by Bodhidharma, an Indian monk
who traveled to China to teach a different form of enlightenment (Zen, 2003, 915). Furthermore, the
early Buddhist teachings of Nikya and Mahyna in China are regarded as the formative teachings for
Buddhist meditation (Hudson, 2005, 1290). As for archery, it was much more used for means of killing
rather than sport. In fact, next to nothing can be said of how bows became so powerful (McNeill,
2010, 412). How did a weapon once used for death transition to a weapon used for sport? In Japan, the
samurai warriors often demonstrated their physical superiority through archery competitions (Guttmann,
2002, 309). Thus, archery slowly transformed into a sport in the East.
How and why did Zen and archery come together? While the origin of this relationship is not
certain, it is speculated that archery was incorporated into Zen teaching around the Mongol Dynasty
period (Sollier, 1970, 22). Moreover, it was carried on by Japanese monks and saw a revitalization after
World War II when an archery organization was formed between the Japanese and Western foreigners
(Sollier, 1970, 22). The most important reason Zen and archery came together was because archery was a
fantastic approach for practicing Samadhi. As Andr Sollier states, the purpose of Zen archery is not
to hit the target, but rather the concentration achieved by the archer in order to create a style that
expresses his perfect mental serenity (Sollier, 1970, 23). In addition, the discipline involved with archery
training is beneficial to a Zen student because many Zen meditation practices incorporate high levels of
discipline (Sollier, 1970, 23). Following the revitalization, many competitions and tournaments were held.
Today, archery is an integral part of many Zen schools and continues to be a symbol of Japanese sport.
Seen in various cultures, meditation has been proven to improve athletic performance and athletic
performance has been proven to improve meditation. In the West, many case studies comparing different
types of athletes resulted in better athletic performance from participants who used mindfulness

techniques. In the East, meditation is a natural part of life and sports are used to further this meditation.
Sports are a popular way to bring people together, however, one must notice the culturally specific
purpose of sports. Through this understanding of mindfulness and meditation, one is able to not only
further his athletic and meditative abilities but also further his relatability to other cultures.
Although each group member has participated in sports, each person had different ideas regarding
the purpose of sport. Whether it be track, wrestling, or basketball, each group member had a fixed view
on how sports influenced everyday life. Throughout this research process, each member agreed that
analysis of sports and meditation opened up their minds to new perceptions of sport. For example, the
idea of absolute concentration and being in the moment while participating in a sport never seemed so
prevalent. As we worked on the project we became more and more aware of this principle. In addition, we
gained a better understanding of the culturally specific purpose of sports through our readings of various
stories and case studies. Going forward, we have collectively agreed that our future ideolocator responses
will be more understanding not only to ideas regarding sports and meditation but also other contemplative
encounters. Discovering these findings as a group has most definitely increased our social bond and the
ability to have more creative ideas.

Endnotes
Allen, Barry. "Daoism and Chinese Martial Arts." Dao : a Journal of Comparative Philosophy 13.2
(2014): 251-66. ProQuest. Web. 1 Sep. 2015.
Foster, R. Nathaniel, Ph.D. Flow and spirituality: The relationship within undergraduate male and female
varsity athletic participants. Capella University, 2012, 100 pages. Web. 1 Sept. 2015
Guttmann, Allen. Sports-Japan. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Ed. Karen Christensen and David
Levinson. Vol. 5. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 2002. 308-312. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 1 Sept. 2015.
Hudson, Clarke. "Buddhist Meditation: East Asian Buddhist Meditation." Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed.
Lindsay Jones. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. 1290-1295. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 Oct. 2015.
John, Dr. Shaji, Dr. S. K Verma, and Dr. G. L. Khanna. "The Effect of Mindfulness Meditation on HPAAxis in Pre-Competition Stress in Sports Performance of Elite Shooters." National Journal of
Integrated Research in Medicine 2.3 (2011), 15-21.
King, Winston L. Zen and the Way of the Sword: Arming the Samurai Psyche. New York: Oxford UP,
1993.
Mahoney, Michael J., and Marshall Avener. "Psychology of the Elite Athlete: An Exploratory Study."
N.p., n.d. 139. Web. 11 Oct. 2015.
McCarthy, Pat, Yuriko McCarthy, Shinken Taira, and Chojun Miyagi. "Karate-do: Development, Essence,
and Aims." Ancient Okinawan Martial Arts: Koryu Uchinadi. Vol. 2. Boston: Tuttle Pub., 1999.
McNeill, William H. "Bows and Arrows." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Ed. William H.
McNeill, et al. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing, 2010. 411-414. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. 412. Web. 4 Oct. 2015.
Ogata, Sohaku, Huikai, and Laozi. Zen for the West. For the Buddhist Society of London. Westport, CT:
Greenwood, 1973.

Snchez-Lpez, Javier, et al. "Differences between Judo, Taekwondo and Kung-Fu Athletes in Sustained
Attention and Impulse Control." Psychology 4.7 (2013): 607-12. ProQuest. Web. 1 Sep. 2015.
Solberg, E E et al. The Effect of Meditation on Shooting Performance. British Journal of Sports
Medicine 30.4 (1996): 342346.
Sollier, Andr, and Zsolt Gyorbiro. Japanese Archery: Zen in Action. First ed. New York:
Walker/Weatherhill, 1970.
Watson, Nick. The role of spirituality in sports psychology consulting: An analysis and integrative
review of literature. 2005. 15-19. Web. 1 Sept. 2015.
Whigham, Phillip. "Buddhism." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Ed. William H. McNeill, et al.
2nd ed. Vol. 1. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing, 2010. 427-435. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 11 Oct. 2015.
"Zen." New Catholic Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Vol. 14. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 915-16. Gale Virtual Reference
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