The Effects of Substituting Resistant Starch as a Functional Food ingredient.

Many of todays baked food products contain some form of starch, this study
reviews how supplementing resistant starch as a recipe modification and examines the
effects this has on the physical and sensual properties. Starch consists of two D-glucan
polymers: amylose, which is a linear polymer made up of D-glucose units, and
amylopectin, which is a highly branched polymer of glucose found in plants. A part of
the dietary starch, called resistant starch (RS), escapes enzymatic digestion in the
small intestine, but it may be fermented by microorganisms in the large intestine
(Hydrolysis). Starch in our food effects the digestion, although our body is unable to
digest and absorb some forms of starch. Many forms of starch now found is quickly
digested and absorbed resulting in high glucose and insulin response post meal.
However, resistant starch passes through the small intestine into the large intestine
where there is bacteria present which fully ferment it. With its health benefits in
mind it is commonly referred to as a dietary fiber; dietary fibers modify the
absorption of nutrients and chemical present in our foods. Resistant starch is a
common component of most individuals diets and can be found in foods such as
legumes and potatoes. Through research different forms of resistant starch have been
recognized. RS1 is a starch granule in which the granule is physically entrapped in
plant tissues in whole grain cereal foods; RS2 is an insoluble granule of starch found in
foods such as legumes; RS3 (amylase) is a crystalline structure formed when hot

starchy foods cool; and RS4 is a chemically modified starch used as a thickening agent
in processed foods. (Australian) In the 21st century resistant starch is a common recipe
in which almost 50 % are cereal products, bakery goods, breakfast cereal, energy
bars.
One of the most common uses of resistant starch as a recipe modification is in
baked products. study conducted by the Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
examined the effects cakes sensory analysis, nutrient content and physical
measurements when they added varying amounts of resistant starch (0%, 5%, 10%,
15%) to the wheat flour in the recipe. This study tested for nutritional and sensual
correlations. For nutritional analysis they used AACC method for ash, protein, crude
fiber and lipid content. Resistant starch content was measured using Megazyme
Resistant Starch Kit. Physical measurements included measuring the cakes volume,
symmetry, and uniformity. For sensory analysis twenty panelists from the Food
Engineering Department of Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey (males and
females) were chosen. They were asked to rate the samples on color, appearance,
pore structure, taste, odor and overall acceptability on a 1-9 scale. The results from
this study concluded that increasing resistant starch content had a significant effect
on protein. Physical properties of the cake samples containing fifteen percent
resistant starch resulted in a significant decrease in overall cake volume, however
samples containing five percent resistant starch resulted in the highest volume in the
study. This effect could also yield the result of decreased symmetry, however
uniformity seemed unaffected by the addition of resistant starch. Firmness of cake
was adversely affected by increasing levels of resistant starch. When high percentages

of resistant starch was added to the cake the crumb/crust became lighter in color.
During the sensory analysis, cake samples containing five percent of resistant starch
scored similar to control, however as the percentage of resistant starch increased the
color scores decreased. Appearance of the cake containing resistant starch were all
scored lower by the panel in comparison to the control sample. Also cakes with an
additional 10 to 15 percent of resistant starch added negatively affected the pore
structure of the grain in the cake. When higher levels of resistant starch was added
the overall acceptability scored much lower compared to the control. This study
summarized the possible advantages of substituting varying percentages resistant
starch into a cake samples and concluded that resistant starch has potential health
benefits but has a negative influence on the taste of the final product (Bilgicin cake
prop). Other studies have shown that higher levels of resistant starch substitution may
cause a dilution of gluten and deterioration of gluten network in the cake.
When resistant starch is added to food molecules it effects the way product as
a whole reacts when it is cooked. A study conducted in 2009 by the International
Journal of food sciences and Nutrition they examined how the addition of resistant
starch to flour effected bread quality. In this study they used commercial starches
rich in RS2 (HylonVII) or RS3 (Nuvelose330 and Crystalean). Unlike natural forms of
starch, commercial starch is unaffected by storage conditions and processing. They
utilized the straight-dough bread making process, making few modifications such as
using a suspension of active dry yeast in water that was equivalent to amount in
original method. Bread Volumes were determined by rapeseed displacement using a
loaf volumeter after loafs were cooled and stored in plastic bags for 24 hours. Bread

quality was scored on a 1-10 scale (1- poor, 10- very good). The resistance starch
content of the bread was examined by freeze drying the samples and grind a piece
small enough to pass through a 74 SS sieve. The flour samples analyzed in this study
had very strong gluten properties. The dough made during the experiment with high
resistant starch content was a little bucky (dough having certain resistance, which
causes excessive spring-back after stretching). They determined that the dough was
capable of accommodating the addition of resistant starch to a certain point before it
effected the handling properties of the dough. The firmness of the bread was
unaffected after each day of storage in comparison to the control sample, but
Nuselose330 caused additional firmness. The amount of resistant starch did increase
in correlation to the addition of the commercial starch products. When examining
how each starch affected the baking process, results showed that RS 2 was affected
differently than RS3. RS2s HylonVII contained 53.0% resistant starch, and RS3s
Nuvelose330 and Crstyalean contained 46.5% and 45.0%. When heat is introduced to
RS1 or RS2 grains they are in most cases destroyed yet they may end up forming RS 3.
(farinograph). In many cases the starch naturally present in our foods undergo
processing procedures such as cycles of autoclaving/cooling to produce an increased
RS3 amylose content. The following study evaluates how heating and cooling cycles
effects the resistant starch molecules. The amylose content for the samples for
measured using the rapid colorimetric method of Williams et al. (1970). The dietary
fiber contents of each of the samples was established by enzymatic-gravimetric
method, although no exceptions were made for protein and ash in undigested residue.
The starch content was determined by measuring the glucose released by enzymatic

hydrolysis after gelatinization occurred in the samples in boiling water. The samples
of legume flours, cereal flours and tubers were heated at 121 degrees Celsius under a
constant 15 psi for 15 minutes, then they were cooled at four degree Celsius for 24
hours, only to be reheated in a bath of boiling water for ten minutes making the
samples room temperatures once again. Up to three heating/cooling cycles were
given to each sample. When evaluating the results the percent resistant starch was
evaluated on a dry matter basis. The highest level of total starch content in regards
to legumes was 60.26% resistant starch present, which was higher than that of cereal
and tubers. The starch content in cereal varied from being 65.54% in barley to 81.42%
in rice. However the amylose content calculated as total percentage of starch was
highest in wheat (25.85%) and lowest for rice (20.66%). Resistant starch content was
highest in legumes, cereal containing the second highest, and tubers containing the
least. One of the potential reasons this happens is because legumes differ from
cereals and tuber in structure and chemical composition. The increased bioavailability of resistant starch in legumes can be directly attributed to the
surrounding somewhat protective intact layer of cells/tissue that encloses the starch
granule which contributes the majority of the high fiber levels present in legumes.
This layer may enable the legume to be less susceptible to be denatured under high
heat condition, which increases the end resistant starch content after the
autoclaving/cooling process. This type of conditions lead to legumes having high
levels of amylose and strong interactions between amylose chains, allowing them to
remain intact throughout the cooking process. Cereal starches are A-type starches
corresponding to their polymorph structure, which is adversely effected by high heat

causing some reduction in structure and a possible loss of starch content. However,
tubers can fully gelatinize in the presence of excess water content, however this
correlates to them having a low resistant starch. The effects of the multiple
autoclaving/cooling cycles was much relevant in the legume samples in comparison to
the cereal and tubers. A consistent increase of starch yield was recorded following
each additional cycle of autoclaving/cooling. TA potential reason tubers were more
susceptible to the cycle could have been a result of their lower amylose levels which
plays a vital role in the formation and development of resistant starch during the
cooking process. These results were also in-line with the results found in the study
conducted by the College of Food Science and Technology. In this study they tested
the effects hydrolysis via autoclaving with the addition of pullulunase, testing the
effect it had on the recrystallization of the starch structures (hydrolysis). A factor to
take into account was that in this study unlike legumes and cereals, tuber crops were
not used in flour form which could adversely affect its ability to create a uniformed
gelatinized starch quickly. The factors reviewed in this study can mediate different
responses from an individuals body in regards to digestion.
When resistant starch is added to our diet it has a positive correlation to an
increase in fecal weight by 1.0 to 2.7 grams per one gram resistant starch ingested.
With this in mind, resistant starch has been shown to demonstrate laxative-like
effects to our digestive system. Laxative effects are generally attributed to
undigested material in the colon increasing the water content of colonic material by
osmotic pull, therefore increasing the mass of colonic bacteria. This series of events
followed by the ingestion of resistant starch provides the substrate for the

fermentation reactions by resident bacteria, which results in generation of selected

microbial species. These microbial species produced have been shown to increase the
moisture content, resulting in stools that are softer and easier to expulse. Resistant
starch also possesses many properties potentially beneficial for human health. The
end product of resistant starch fermentation is a short-chain fatty-acids (acetate,
butyrate, and propionate) and gases (methane and carbon dioxide). Studies have
shown that when resistant starch is present it increases the concentration of
bifidogenic bacteria, lowers pH, and reduces concentrations of ammonia and
secondary bile. These combined properties of resistant starch have been associated
with increased protection against bowel related diseases and even colorectal cancer.
In a study conducted by Informa healthcare analyzed how increased resistant starch
content present in our diets would affect the fecal quality. For this double blind
experiment, they had 14 individuals, male and female who reported having 3 to 14
regular bowel movements per week add resistant starch (RS3) to their diet. Resistant
starch was added to the diet in the form of muffins and ready-to-eat cereal that
contained 12.5 gram commercial resistant starch (PROMI-TOR). They were required
to monitor frequency and rate the samples based upon their hardness (1- soft, 4-very
hard), straining/discomfort during bowel movement (1-none, 4-severe); and fecal
consistency (1-hard, 7-liquid). After this 14 day study period ended results showed
that with the additional resistant starch in their diets the overall dietary fiber present
increased from 15.711.6 at baseline to 40.11.8 during resistant starch period. In
this study the fecal consistency was significantly harder with the addition of resistant
starch when compared to samples containing wheat bran.

In todays clinical field regularity of bowel movements have become a growing

concern due to the increased processing nature of the ever-popular western diet
trends prevalent throughout the 21st century. Investigating more into the potential
clinical advantages may also uncover new uses for resistant starch. However, because
of the recent health weight loss trends present researchers have begun to test the
effects of resistant starch at levels above what is currently recommended for colonic
health in hope to improve an individuals overall metabolic health. This study results
showed that increasing the amount of resistant starch in obese males diets did not
significantly affect the metabolic functions. Dietitians regularly recommend resistant
starch to their patients to help relieve digestion issues, however natural forms
resistant starch are rarely utilized in normal everyday diets. This is because resistant
starch does changes the texture of the object, resulting in an undesirable mouth feel
for some consumers. On the other hand, high glycemic starch, decreases insulin
sensitivity and can even result in low dietary fiber intake, high trans-fatty acid intake;
and high saturated fat intake. Almost all of studies in regards to resistant starch show
advantageous results in almost all categories except sensual analysis. Not all of the
studies in the clinical realm may be applicable practice however with further
understanding of the resistant starch properties we may be able to greater utilize the
known advantages and possibly discovering more uses.
Resistant starch has been proven to be beneficial in aiding our digestion as well
as providing some cancer preventing properties. However only a portion of the starch
is recommended to be replaced with resistant starch because of the effects it has on
the overall sensual rating normally attributed to baked goods. Although when studies

were conducted in regards to how resistant starch effected the physical composition
of the baked good, minimal to small effects were noticed in symmetry or uniformity
pertaining to the sample, but high percentages did modify the volume. Nonetheless,
resistant starch studies showed a significant correlated increase in fecal composition.
The use of multiple autoclaving/cooling cycles on resistant starch material. This type
of procedure has been proven to modify the starch naturally present, creating a large
amount of amylase R3, which increases after each temperature cycle it is exposed to.
Commercial resistant starches are usually R3. The different types of resistant can be
broken down by in a colon via colonic bacteria. This continuous process helps
maintain regularity in the digestion tract. Many people lack proper amounts of
resistant starches in their regular diet, causing many issues. The structure and
properties of resistant starches make it possible for the environment in the colon to
maximize fecal excretion while limiting the amount of liquid in the fecal material.
Who knew something shitty, could make your life that much better?

Introduction-

Resistant starch in baked goods-

Autoclaving/cooling-

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Conclusion-