Buhler 1

The Seduction is in the Smell

Michael R. Buhler
Plant Biology 1030-001
William Tanner
Dec/8/2015

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My objective in writing this paper is to give an overview of flowering plants which use
fragrance to attract insects and animals to spread their pollen for propagation, and to explain the
methods plants use to achieve this by focusing primarily on they're use of fragrance.
In the Plant Kingdom there are two classes of flowering plants. Monocots (Liliopsida)
and Dicots (Magnoliopsida.) Both have specifications between the blurry lines that divide their
class.1 The primary differences are listed below:
MONOCOTS

Embryo with single cotyledon

Pollen with single furrow or pore
Flower parts in multiples of three
Major leaf veins parallel
Stem vacular bundles scattered
Roots are adventitious
Secondary growth absent

DICOTS

Embryo with two cotyledons

Pollen with three furrows or pores
Flower parts in multiples of four or five
Major leaf veins reticulated
Stem vascular bundles in a ring
Roots develop from radicle
Secondary growth often present

However in some cases the characteristics of monocots can be found in dicots, and viceversa. My purpose in bringing up this distinction is to acknowledge the existence of these two
classes, though for this paper I will be referring to both dicots and monocots interchangeably as
flowering plants, as neither class is determined by its methods used to lure pollinating insects and
animals.
To keep the topic concise I will only be focusing on plants that fall into the category of
flowering plants, and while a large number of odious plants fall under the umbrella of fungi, I
will be excluding fungi and anything that isn't specifically a flowering plant for the purposes of
this paper.

James E. Bidlack, Shelly H. Jansky, Stern's Introductory Plant Biology (New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc ,2011), 127.

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The study and empirical evidence of flowers is well documented, as they are known for
having distinct tactile features, complex structures, vibrant colors, edibility, and in many cases
exude smells which are favorably received to our olfactory senses during certain seasons.
Though humans enjoy the scent of flowers, the purpose for a flower to produce smells is
to serve as an aid in its reproductive cycle. Though some plants disperse their pollen and rely on
wind to carry it, many plants co-evolved with insects and animals to carry pollen for them to
other members of the plants species. This is advantageous for the plant as it allows its pollen to
travel further, and be dispersed more accurately than if carried by the wind.
A flower's codependent reproduction cycle is achieved through a plethora of methods
such as producing brightly-colored petals and fragrances which attract specific types of
pollinators who are seeking food.
A flower's fragrance is a volatile molecular compound which disperses from the flower
and diffuses through the area in a gradient of concentration which is an effective signal for food.
Many species of flowers produce nectar, a sugary liquid containing carbohydrates, which many
insects and animals find as a substantial source of food as it not only contains sugars, but can
contain essential vitamins, minerals, amino acids, lipids, oils, alkaloids, and antioxidants,
depending on the variety of plant species.
The nectar pools at the base of the petals in the carpel. The insect or animal seeking to
reach the nectar must pass by the anther, a pollen-coated stalk which then dusts pollen off onto
the foreign (and mobile) visitor, who after drinking the nectar will continue to forage from other
flowers. If the carrier lands on the same species of the flower it had previously collected pollen
from, there is a chance the pollen grains will fall into the stigma of the new flower, and begin the
germination process, producing seeds.

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Though visual ques are important, scent could arguably be more vital in attracting
pollinators, as some insects and fauna will recognize the scent of a specific type of flower they
typically feed from by its scent alone when not in visual range.
Plants co-dependent for propagation have thus evolved their flowers to be precisely what
their pollinating counterparts are seeking after, as if tailored to be as noticeable as an attentiongrabbing billboard to a passing car. For instance, bees often feed from flowers which produce a
sweet scent. Being the most popular of pollinating life forms, bees also use visual cues to find
flowers. Studies have shown that bees favor yellow and blue flowers but seldom are attracted to
red flowers. This is because their ultra-violet vision causes red to appear black, and therefore less
noticeable.2 And it has recently been discovered that can identify flowers by their electrical
fields.3 They feed from the pollen and nectar of flowers as their sole source of food, so, to this
end, they have evolved to be as efficient as possible in gathering this valuable food source.
Though, because they produce honey (which we find as a valuable resource), many
people are under the assumption that bees are the only creature that pollinate flowers and this is
grossly incorrect. Given the information above, it isn't difficult to piece together that since there
are many species of flower that are not blue or yellow in color and still manage to reproduce with
the limited attention bees give to them, that there are indeed far more propagators to flowers than
bees alone, and many methods used to attract them.

James E. Bidlack, Shelly H. Jansky, Stern's Introductory Plant Biology (New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc ,2011), 443.

3 [Cited

6 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:

< http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2013/02/21/bees-can-sense-the-electric-fields-offlowers/ >

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Butterflies and moths, like bees, are attracted to the same sweet scent, and tend to feed
from orange, white, yellow, light blue, and sometimes red flowers.4
With night-flying moths, they find that light flowers are easier to discern in the dark as
there is greater contrast. Though this covers more of the spectrum of how colored flowers are
pollinated, there are flowers that produce stronger, more pungent smells, described as spicy,
yeasty, or like fruit. These smells are important because they attract insects which do not rely
primarily on their visual senses, such as beetles.
In this sense some species of flowers are masters of deception. Their fragrance is sweet
and evokes a smell associated with food. This tactic fools the senses of insects and animals
which have more diverse diets, who will serve as potential pollen carrier if they mistake the
flower for another smell and rub against it, and are fooled by another of the flowers species and
continue to disperse pollen as they forage.
The Ophrys orchid (Ophrys insectifera ) uses another deceptive tactic as it is able to
produce the sexual pheromones of a virgin female wasp. A male wasp smells what he perceives
to be a female and attempts copulation with the flower. Doing so covers him in pollen and when
he realizes his efforts have been fruitless he carried the pollen to another orchid luring him with
female sex pheromones, where he repeats the same embarrassing process all over again, but this
time being a vicarious mate for the previous orchid.5
It is common that these masquerading species of plants do not offer any reward to the
pollen carries that aid in their reproduction since the deception itself proves to be a false reward.

James E. Bidlack, Shelly H. Jansky, Stern's Introductory Plant Biology (New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc ,2011), 443.

5 [Cited

8 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:

< http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19664924 >

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There are certain types of flowers which are popular in that they effectively mimic the
smell of feces and rotting meat. Though a curiosity to us, it is to the great infatuation of flies and
other carnivorous insects which typically feed on rotting meat and feces.
Due to the great trickery of the plant, a fly will detect the stench the plant is emitting in a
wide radius, the fly will land on the plant thinking it is an enormous source of food to raise its
young. The fly will lay its eggs and leave, covered in pollen. The eggs hatch and the maggots
starve to death on the inedible surface of the flower.6
It is also worth noting that the smells of plants are strongest when the blossom has
reached maturity and has not been pollinated yet. When the sun is out and reaches the petals of
the flower the scent will be dispersed, the earlier this happens in the day the greater the
concentration of fragrance. As the sun sets the petals will close and produce more nectar and
fragrant compound.
When a flower is picked or cut from its stem, the fragrance will last a few days and
slowly fade. However a flower in a cool dim place will retain its scent longer than if placed in
direct sunlight.7
While insects and animals are either deceived, or codependent on flowering plants, it is
my viewpoint that we too share a symbiotic relationship with flowering plants. Though we do
not see any depictions of flowers or plants in early human cave paintings, there is an abundance
of floral depictions that heavily appear in civilizations which had an agricultural foundation, and
continue to be prevalent today as a symbol for beauty.8
[Cited 6 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
<http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ww0602.htm#starfish>
6

7 [Cited

4 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:

<http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-flowers-have-scent/>
8

[Cited 4 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:

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Yet it doesn't stop in a visual realm. Dating as far back at 4000 BCE there is strong
evidence that humans had perfected the art of extracting fragrances from flowers to the point it
had become an industry as far back as the bronze age.9 There is something so intoxicating and
provocative in the fragrances released by flowers that it has resulted in humans cultivating
countless acres of them for the sole purpose of producing perfume.
Not only have humans found the bottled fragrance of flowers attractive, but have
cultivated millions of roses yearly in anticipation of valentines day sales. In 2014, 257 million
roses were produced, it was estimated that 37.8 percent of Americans bought flowers for
Valentine's Day in 2015, spending an estimated total of $2.1 billion.10
Judging by these numbers, and the sheer percentage of people purchasing flowers, there
is more to them than a pretty gesture, as the custom of giving flowers to a significant other, or
person of sexual interest has gone back hundreds of years and through many cultures and
continues today, aiding in our own sexual reproduction by extension.
While the realm of plant propagation is intriguing and complex, it is one of adaptation,
where plants have evolved to reproduce in whatever way best works for their situation and
circumstance. Some have developed mutually beneficial relationships with insects and animals to
reproduce, while providing food for their pollinators. Other plants adapted to play off of the
instincts of those around them and have been the benefactors.

<http://www.ancient.eu/article/391/>
[Cited 7 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4364469.stm>
9

[Cited 8 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:

<http://www.aboutflowers.com/flower-holidays-occasions-a-parties/flowers-forvalentines/valentines-day-statistics.html>
10

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We then have humans to consider. Though we do not cultivate droves of flowers by
instinct we are so enamored with them that we continue to grow hundreds of thousands of acres
of flowers, and they remain the primary base fragrance for perfumes, soaps, and other hygiene
products. Thereby, though they did not evolve to include us as targets for their propagation, we
evolved to put ourselves in that position.

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Bibliography
1. James E. Bidlack, Shelly H. Jansky, Stern's Introductory Plant Biology (New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc ,2011), 127.
2. James E. Bidlack, Shelly H. Jansky, Stern's Introductory Plant Biology (New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc ,2011), 443.
3. [Cited 6 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
< http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2013/02/21/bees-can-sense-the-electric-fields-offlowers/ >
4. James E. Bidlack, Shelly H. Jansky, Stern's Introductory Plant Biology (New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc ,2011), 443.
5. [Cited 8 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
< http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19664924 >
6. [Cited 6 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
<http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ww0602.htm#starfish>
7. [Cited 4 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
<http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-flowers-have-scent/>
8. [Cited 4 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
<http://www.ancient.eu/article/391/>
9. [Cited 7 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4364469.stm>
10. [Cited 8 Dec. 2015]; available from World Wide Web:
<http://www.aboutflowers.com/flower-holidays-occasions-a-parties/flowers-forvalentines/valentines-day-statistics.html>