Jay Naduvilekunnel

November 15, 2015

Dr. Henry Petroski: Morning Lecture Notes

Background
o Aleksander S. Vesic Professor of Civil Engineering at Duke University
o Prolific writer of several books regarding engineering design and the role of
failure in design
o Uses history of engineering design (with respect to infrastructure) to understand
and analyze why mistakes happen
Believes that failure is necessary for progress and achieving success
Infrastructure History
o US roads
Span four million miles
Approximately two million are paved
94% with asphalt
o 42% of major urban highways are congested
$90 billion annual capital investment is only half of what is needed
$100 billion spent annually wasted on fuel
o Where it is today
Early 20th century (before automobile):
Mud puddles, impassable roads
Automobiles stuck on roads (horses come to rescue)
1919: US Army assembles convoy to make a transcontinental journey
(Dwight Eisenhower observes)
Eisenhower notices that roads are in poor condition, which leads
him to devise the interstate highway system
Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956
o Urban Streets
Generally paved
Utilized manpower (pavers)
Horses and wagons
Terrible congestion
Introduction of the automobile
Gridlock
Conception of the five-stories street (1913)
Exhibited later at the 1939 Worlds Fair
o Futurama (1940)
Superhighways (realized in the interstates)
Elevated highways (came and went; e.g. Big Dig, Seattle tunnel)
Automated highway systems (realized in autonomous vehicles)
Fast speedy short driving times (still unrealized)

Twice as much money is spent for roads today as is justified by results.

(still holds true today)
Traffic congestion
o Before and after the advent of the motor vehicle
o Traffic control
William Phelps Eno: first traffic sign and rules (1903)
Realized there was no order when calling horses and wagons after
the operas
Boulevard allowed people right-of-way without stopping
Introduction of the stop sign; characteristics changed depending on
the city
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices evolution of the
stop sign
o Fifth Av. Case Study (NYC 1909 and beyond)
Widened to accommodate the automobile constrained pedestrians
Expecting changes in little time is impractical
Traffic light invented by William Potts in 1920
Recognition of failure
o Red light on top always (accommodating color blind)
Got police off the road surface; replaced with towers
Effectiveness of traffic signals
Before towers: 42 min (2 mph)
After towers: 9 min (8 mph)
Seen as aesthetically unpleasing
Automatically-timed signals
Savings of $12.5 million annually
Evolution of the traffic signal (installed in the early 1920s)
Aesthetically pleasing, but in the middle of the street
o Cutting capacity, contributing to congestion
Led to sidewalk lights in the 1930s
o Only two lights (no yellow due to its outlaw)
o Used until the early 1970s
o All-red interval
Yellow change interval
Dilemma zone
No more than six sec., no less than three
Chicago three seconds (red light photo enforcement)
Highway safety
o No marks or signs on the earliest roads
o First rural highway centerline: Michigan (1917)
o Eventual standardization (yellow center, white edges)
o In the early days, traffic fatalities grew exponentially until the Great Depression;
dropped with the oil crisis in the 1970s

Rate of fatalities has been consistently decreasing

o Ralph Naders Unsafe at Any Speed
Bridges
o 600,000 bridges in the United States
30% have exceeded their design lives
Many of the bridges approaching 50 years of age
o About 1 in 9 are structurally deficient
o More than 3 in 20 are functionally obsolete
o Backlog of ~$115 billion in bridgework
o FY2016 federal budget proposed $478 billion for all transportation needs over six
years
o House authorized $325 billion (only three years funded)
Assessing bridge safety
o Must be inspected once every two years
o Minneapolis I-35W bridge Collapse (August 1, 2007)
Inspectors did not pay careful attention
Gusset plates were found to be bent
Design/build, fast-track project contracted September 19, 2007
$234 million, done on budget in just 11 months
o San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
Original under construction from 1933-1936
Most expensive public works project then to date, but came in under
budget
1955: ASCE poll voted bridge an Outstanding Civil Engineering
Achievement
Loma Prieta Earthquake (October 17, 1989) disrupted commuter traffic
due to the collapse of part of the eastern span
Options: retrofit or construct a replacement
Political pressures/competitive reasons
Self-anchored suspension bridge was chosen as the final design
Replacement estimate (1992): ~$1 billion
Actual cost: $6.4 billion
Construction: early 2006 September 2013
Aesthetics drove the design over engineering considerations
o Millau Viaduct, France
Considered a model project
o Tappan Zee Bridge (opened in 1955)
Replacement under construction; not yet fully financed
Infrastructure is interrelated
o Bayonne Bridge
Accommodation of larger ships due to Panama Canal expansion
Currently trying to raise the roadway
o Financing

Federal 25% ($54 billion)

State 40% ($84 billion)
Local 35% ($75 billion)
Highway Trust Fund
Revenues from fuel taxes
Less gasoline-dependent vehicles paying fewer taxes
o States add taxes and fees, too
o Most up-to-date ASCE report card
Roads: D
Bridges: C+
Transit: D
Estimated investment needed by 2020: $3.6 trillion

Reflection
Dr. Henry Petroskis arrival on the JMU campus last week was met with a great pomp
and ceremony from students and faculty spanning several different departments. Dr. Petroski,
whose area of expertise lies in failure analysis, guest lectured on topics ranging from the history
of street design to safety and infrastructure financing. Not only was the talk informative, it
provided an excellent introduction to the observations and analysis of road design that was easily
understood by engineers, industrial designers, and businesspeople alike.
The lecture began with a formal introduction to infrastructure history in America, with
Petroski delivering astonishing statistics about the overall condition of domestic roads. Of the
four million miles that make up the countrys road system, approximately half are paved, of
which 94% are surfaced with asphalt. Even more astounding was the fact that 42% of major
urban highways in the U.S. are congested, with $90 billion of the current annual capital
expenditures being only half of what is needed to remedy the problem. This was particularly
fascinating, from both an engineering viewpoint as well as an informed citizen perspective
because it stressed the necessity of engaging action to tackle a 21st century problem.
Even more interesting were the road designs that were considered to meet the everchanging demands of society after the introduction of the automobile. Several concepts were
proposed in the Futurama exhibit at the Worlds Fair in 1939, many of which were realized.
Today, superhighways, through interstate systems, have become the staple for connecting
Americans in cross-country journeys for several generations. Less common, but still fulfilled, are
elevated highways (e.g. the Seattle tunnel) and automated highway systems (which are currently
in development in the form of autonomous vehicles). Engineers and designers are consistently
looking for ways to increase road speeds and decrease driving times, which may ultimately be
the greatest challenge in meeting the demands of an ever growing, fast-paced industrial culture.
One statement of Petroskis really stood out, namely the quote that twice as much money is
spent for roads today as is justified by the results. As this still holds true today, it should become
one of the great challenges to achieve the best value for the investments spent on the design and
implementation of transportation infrastructure.

Dr. Petroski then transitioned to the topic of traffic congestion and the historical methods
of combating the problem. William Phelps Eno is credited with devising the first traffic sign and
rules in 1903, though its execution evolved throughout the century. Perhaps the most important
development of traffic rules came with the standardization of equipment used throughout cities,
states, and eventually the whole country. This was best demonstrated with the presentation of the
Fifth Avenue case study. As New York Citys roads eventually widened to accommodate the
automobile, several different types of traffic signals were experimented with in the early 20 th
century. Policemen served as the earliest traffic directors, though they were eventually replaced
by traffic towers (to limit the risks associated with keeping people on the road). Traffic towers
significantly increased the effectiveness of easing flow, yet they were seen as aesthetically
unpleasing and not easy to maintain. This led to the introduction of the automated traffic signal,
which itself has seen numerous updates for increased operational efficiency. As shown in the
case study, history provided the framework necessary for improvements in road design.
This transitioned nicely to the assessments of other case studies, this time focused on
bridge construction and safety. Bridges, as mandated by federal law, must be inspected
thoroughly once every two years. Failure to comply may result in severe consequences,
sometimes even fatal. One relatively recent example lies in the I-35W bridge disaster that took
place in Minneapolis in August 2007. Inspectors failed to pay careful attention to structural
deficiencies, including the gusset plates that were later found to be bent; this led to the bridges
collapse and 13 casualties. However, the response to the incident, as mentioned by Dr. Petroski,
was a noteworthy model for future situations. The fast-track design/build project was approved
and contracted just one month later, and done on budget in 11 months. As Petroski stated, hard
work and determination on the states part resulted in lasting results. While other projects may
not have had the same fortune, engineers and politicians can look to exemplar projects, such as
this, for success.
Dr. Petroski closed his presentation with the concepts of the interrelation of infrastructure
(specifically how design choices in one place may end up affecting projects far away) and how
financing plays a role in determining the realization of an effective project. With the ASCEs
report card revealing just how poor American roads, bridges, and transit systems are, it is a call
to action for engineers to be the change. It is unfortunate that politics is associated with the
pursuit of self-interest, and therefore a hindrance to the progress of engineering projects. That
being said, it will take understanding and involvement to ensure that the safety, well-being, and
overall welfare of the public are achieved with design projects infrastructure or otherwise.
All things considered, Dr. Petroskis lecture was eye opening and fascinating. Not only
was it well structured and easy to understand, it was exceptionally insightful and an excellent
pitch for his upcoming book that will be released early next year. Hopefully, there will be more
opportunities for other prolific writers to speak at JMU for engineering students to take
advantage of.