Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 228

Gill Sans Bold

Senior Science
Preliminary Course
Stage 6

Water for living

0
20

SSC.Prelim 43173

er
b
to T S
c
O EN
g
in D M
t
a
r EN
o
p
or AM
c
n

P0025976

Number: 43173

Title: Water for living

This publication is copyright New South Wales Department of Education and Training (DET), however it may contain
material from other sources which is not owned by DET. We would like to acknowledge the following people and
organisations whose material has been used:
Photographs courtesy of Jane West

Part 1 p 17,
Part 6 p 5

Diagram of structure of a leaf from Messel, H (Chair) (1963) Science for high school students,
University of Sydney

Part 1 p 18

Photographs courtesy of Julie Haeusler

Part 2 pp 18, 21, 23

Fold-out chart Freshwater macroinvertebrates where theyre commonly found, from


Watercare: a curriculum resource for schools, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, South Australia, 1995

Fold out

Water bug detective guide. Written by Fiona Van Dort (Sydney Water) et al (1998), Sydney
Water and CSIROs Double Helix

Fold out

COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Copyright Regulations 1969

WARNING
This material has been reproduced and communicated to you on behalf of the
New South Wales Department of Education and Training
(Centre for Learning Innovation)
pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).
The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act.
Any further reproduction or communication of this material by you may be the
subject of copyright protection under the Act.

CLI would also like to thank the following people who have contributed to the development of this resource:
Writer(s):

Judy Williams

All reasonable efforts have been made to obtain copyright permissions. All claims will be settled in good faith.
Published by
Centre for Learning Innovation (CLI)
51 Wentworth Rd
Strathfield NSW 2135
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Copyright of this material is reserved to the Crown in the right of the State of New South Wales. Reproduction or
transmittal in whole, or in part, other than in accordance with provisions of the Copyright Act, is prohibited without the
written authority of the Centre for Learning Innovation (CLI).
State of New South Wales, Department of Education and Training 2008.

Contents

Module overview ........................................................................iii


Contextual outline................................................................................ iv
Resources.............................................................................................v
Icons ................................................................................................... vii
Glossary............................................................................................. viii

Part 1: Water and living things ............................................132


Part 2: Sources of water......................................................140
Part 3: Chemicals in water ..................................................131
Part 4: Water pollutants.......................................................141
Part 5: Water treatment technology.....................................127
Part 6: Water investigations ................................................129
Student evaluation of module

Introduction

ii

Water for living

Module overview

Welcome to the module, Water for living. This module should take
thirty indicative hours to complete.
Have you ever considered where the water in your home comes from?
Do you know where your bath water goes? Do you think your waste
water has an impact on the river, lake or sea it runs into? During this
module, you will be investigating all of these points as well as the need
to conserve water.
In Part 1 you will learn about the percentage of water in various living
things, the role of water in solutions and some adaptations for water
conservation in plants and animals.
Part 2 reviews the water cycle, introduces surface and ground water
(both artesian and bore) and discusses problems associated with
irrigation in agriculture.
Part 3 investigates fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides and the effects of
household waste water on plant growth.
Part 4 identifies various contaminants in waterways, and describes their
sources and impacts on aquatic ecosystems. Some solutions to water
pollution are discussed.
Part 5 introduces water sustainability, laws surrounding industrial water
waste and the technology involved in water purification. You are asked
to investigate the amount of water your household uses and to suggest
ways water usage can be reduced and why it should be reduced.
Part 6 focuses on your local environment. You are asked to assess the
health of your local waterway, locate possible contaminants in your
catchment and record examples of disasters associated with water.
Be prepared for Water for living to change your attitudes about
water waste and pollution. You may find yourself telling your family
and friends to recycle, fix dripping taps and buy different detergents.

Introduction

iii

Contextual outline
The Earths water budget was essentially fixed as it cooled when gaseous
water condensed and settled on the cooling planet. Free water exists in
liquid form as surface and ground water and it is this water which is
available for living things. It is also in the atmosphere as the main gas
that absorbs back-radiation from the Earth to assist in stabilising the
Earths surface temperatures and climatic conditions.
The terrain and climate determine the amount of water available for an
individual continent. Australia has an arid environment because its water
budget is limited in most areas due to a combination of factors, such as
the Great Dividing Range, which limits rain coming in from the east, the
Papua-New Guinea Highlands, which limit rain entering inland from the
north, and very cold atmospheric and ocean currents coming in from
Antarctica, which limit rain entering Australia from the south.
The NSW river systems have been disturbed by many factors, including
run-off from pastoral systems and the damming and re-routing of others.
There are now limits regulating the discharge permitted into the river
systems and the health of these systems is continuing to improve.
Large areas of land have been set aside as catchment regions for dams
supplying urban environments and experience has shown that care of
these catchments is essential for clean, pollution-free drinking water.
This module increases students understanding of the nature and practice,
the applications and uses of science and the implications of science for
society and he environment.

The contextual outline extract is from the Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus
Board of Studies NSW, October 2002. The most up-to-date version is to be
found at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html

iv

Water for living

Resources

You will need the following equipment to carry out activities and
experiments during the module. In most cases, you should have
most of the items listed around your home. If not, some items can be
made easily, with little expense.

Part 1

Introduction

kitchen scales

oven

oven tray

oven mitt

2 types of fruit

2 types of vegetable

2 types of meat

calculator

glass or glass jar

teaspoon

salt

sugar

plain flour

bicarbonate of soda

cocoa or Milo

instant coffee

3 plants to observe for adaptations

Part 2

coloured pencils

drawing pencil

eraser

atlas of Australia

paper

map of your local area

Part 3 Internet access needed

fertiliser

at least 3 glass jars

oil

bleach

shampoo

laundry detergent

Part 4 Internet access needed

detergents, shampoos and washing agents used in your household

scissors

glue

Part 5 Internet access needed

bucket

coloured pencils

household water bill

Part 6 Internet access needed

vi

coloured pencils

sunscreen and protective clothing

equipment to sample and test water

equipment to catch and examine water bugs

paper

Water for living

Icons

The following icons are used within this module.


The meaning of each is written beside it:
The hand icon means there is an activity for you to do. It may be an
experiment or you may make something.

The talk icon guides you to discuss a topic with others.


There are exercises at the end of each part for you to complete and send to
your teacher.
The safety glass icon points out that care needs to be taken when
carrying out a task.
There are suggested answers for the following questions at the end of
each part.

The videotape indicates for you to watch a specified video.


The computer mouse icon refers to an Internet website you may wish to visit
for additional information.

The clipboard indicates a fieldtrip.

Introduction

vii

Glossary

The following glossary provides the scientific meaning for many of the
term used in this module, Water for living.
The HSC examiner will expect you to understand the meaning of every
scientific term used. If you find a term that you do not understand, then
look it up in a scientific dictionary or ask your teacher for assistance.

viii

abundance

the number of organisms present

acid sulfate soils

soils formed when sulfide minerals combine with


oxygen when exposed to air

adaptation

physical or behavioural feature of an organism


that aids its survival and reproduction

algae

single-celled photosynthetic organisms living in


marine or fresh water; single-celled algae can
join together to appear like leaves, for example,
seaweed

aqueous solution

a solution where water is the solvent

aquifer

a layer of rock that is both porous and


permeable, containing water

arid

without moisture; dry

artesian basins

ground water accumulating in large geological


structures underground

artesian water

water from an aquifer rising to the surface under


its own pressure

assay

an analysis of the composition of a mixture

atomic weight

average weight of the atoms of an element in


nature measured against a standard

bioaccumulation
( = biomagnification)

increasing concentration of a chemical in the


bodies of organisms along a food chain

bioassay

test to measure the quantity of organisms or


chemical substances from the organisms in a
water sample

Water for living

Introduction

biodegradable

able to be broken down in the environment

bore hole

hole in Earths surface to an underground source


of water

bore water

water pumped to the surface from an


underground source

catchment

region from which water drains into a waterway

control

part of an experiment used for comparisons

controlled experiment

a scientific experiment where variables are kept


constant or changed in a logical way so that valid
conclusions are possible

cyanobacteria

organisms containing chlorophyll which thrive in


fresh water producing a blue-green scum which
can make the water toxic; commonly but
incorrectly called blue-green algae

dependent variable

an unchanging parameter in a scientific


experiment; a variable that may rely on the
independent variable

derris powder

dried, ground root of Derris plants, used as an


insecticide

diffusion

the movement of a substance from an area where


it is more concentrated to an area where it is less
concentrated

diversity

the range of species present

ecosystem

a community of organisms interacting with each


other and including the environment in which
they live

eutrophication

the increase in concentration of nutrients,


particularly nitrates and phosphates, in a body of
water; sometimes applied to the entire process
from nutrient enrichment through algal bloom to
the collapse of an ecosystem

fertiliser

substance containing essential macro and micro


elements for plant growth and reproduction

fixed variables

constant variables; conditions that are made to


remain the same throughout an experiment

ground salinity

a description of the levels of salt within the soil

ground water

underground water, in caves, underground


streams or stored in pores of rocks

half-life

the time required for one half of the radioactive


material present to undergo radioactive decay

ix

heavy metal

a metal from the bottom of the periodic table; for


example, lead, mercury and cadmium

herbicide

chemical used to kill or control unwanted plants


or weeds

hydration

absorbing water into a body or substance

hydro-electricity

electrical energy produced from gravitational


potential energy stored in water

hydrological

involving water

independent variable

parameter; experimental variable; the variable


you change in an experiment

indicator organisms

living things that can be used as a sign of some


other factor

inorganic compounds

chemical compounds not containing carbon


(exceptions are CO2 and carbonates)

insoluble

unable to dissolve in a particular solvent

isotopes

atoms of the same element that have


different numbers of neutrons, and so
different atomic masses

leach

to move through the soil profile in solution

macrophyte

a plant that is visible with the naked eye

nicotine

an extremely poisonous oily liquid; found in


tobacco leaves

nitrogen cycle

the circulation of nitrogen compounds through


organisms, the soil and air

organic compound

chemical compounds common to all things that


are living or were once alive; containing carbon
(exceptions are CO2 and carbonates)

osmosis

the movement of water across a selectively


permeable membrane

permeable

allowing matter to pass through

pH

a measure of how acidic or alkaline a


substance is; a neutral substance has a pH of 7,
an acidic substance has a pH less than 7,
an alkaline substance has a pH higher than 7

phosphate

ions containing oxygen and phosphorus; a


soluble form of phosphorus and the main form in
which phosphorus is used by living things

phosphorus cycle

the circulation of phosphorus compounds


through organisms, the soil and air

Water for living

Introduction

porous

with many air spaces

primary salinity

naturally occurring soil salinity

primary source

information gathered by you

quarantine

to keep isolated and so prevent the spread of


disease

quassia

bitter wood from a Quassia tree

reservoir

a place where water is collected and stored;


it can be a natural area, such as a lake, or an
artificial area, such as a dam

riparian zone

the plant-lined area along the bank of a creek


or river

salt discharge

salt residue left on the surface of soil after


evaporation

salt water intrusion

when salt water is drawn into an aquifer,


increasing the salinity of the aquifer

saturated solution

a solution holding the maximum amount of


dissolved solute

saturation point

the point at which no more solute will dissolve


in a solvent

secondary salinity

soil salinity resulting from human activity

secondary source

information found or discovered by


someone else

soluble

able to dissolve in a particular solvent

solute

a substance that is dissolved in a solvent

solvent

the substance in which a solute is dissolved

species

a group of organisms that are able to reproduce


together to produce fertile offspring

spring

water coming from an aquifer under its own


pressure

surface water

water occurring on the surface of Earth

trace elements

elements that are essential for normal


functioning of an organism, but that are required
in extremely small amounts

transpiration

water loss through the leaves of a plant

transpiration stream

the flow of water through a plant, from roots


to leaves, as a result of water loss

waterlogging

when air spaces in soil are filled with water

xi

xii

water pollution

any unwanted substances or changes that


make a water source or body of water unclean
or unsuitable

water table

the upper level of ground water

weather

when rocks are broken into smaller pieces by


conditions such as temperature change, abrasion
and chemical action; soils can also weather when
substances within them are chemically changed

Water for living

Gill Sans Bold

Senior Science
Preliminary Course
Stage 6

Water for living


Part 1: Water and living things

0
20

er
b
to T S
c
O EN
g
in D M
t
a
r EN
o
p
or AM
c
n

Senior Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course


Water for living

Water and living things

Sources of water

Chemicals in water

Water pollutants

Water treatment technology

Water investigations

Plants

Humans at work

Local environment

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................... 2
Water in living things ................................................................. 4
Cells ......................................................................................................4
Water content of living things...............................................................5

The role of water in living things.............................................. 10


Water in solutions...............................................................................10
The importance of water in organisms ..............................................14

Water movement through plants ............................................. 15


Conservation of water ............................................................. 17
How do plants conserve water? ........................................................17
How do animals conserve water? .....................................................20

Summary................................................................................. 22
Suggested answers................................................................. 25
Exercises Part 1 ................................................................... 29

Part 1: Water and living things

Introduction

In Part 1, you will learn about the importance of water in living things
and the importance of water as a solvent. You will investigate the
proportion of water in living things as well as plant and animal
adaptations to gain water or reduce water loss.
In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to:

identify the relative amount of water in a variety of living things

describe the importance of water as a solvent in the:


bloodstream

cells

transpiration stream

discuss ways in which plants optimise water uptake

discuss ways, using examples, that plants reduce water loss, such as:

thick outer coating (cuticle) on leaves

reduced leaves

dropping leaves in times of drought

discuss ways, using examples, that animals reduce water loss, such as:

excrete uric acid instead of urea

nocturnal behaviour

reduced activity

lying in the shade

burrowing underground.

Water for living

In this part you will be given opportunities to:

perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate that substances


dissolve in water and identify the solute and solvent in each case

plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand


investigation to determine the amount of water present in a variety of
fruits, vegetables and meat

perform a first-hand investigation to identify adaptations of some


plants that assist in reducing water loss

gather, process and analyse information to identify the different


ways in which a range of terrestrial animals reduce water loss.

Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW,


October 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found on the Board's
website at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html

Part 1: Water and living things

Water in living things

Why do you need water?


Make a list of some reasons why you need water.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answer.
You can see from your list that there are many reasons why people
need water. The main reason that all living things need water
is that they all contain lots of water. Water is the main component of
most living things.

Cells
You probably already know that organisms (living things) are made up of
cells and that plant and animal cells are slightly different.
You should refer to the cell diagrams in the Science Resource Book to
remind yourself about the two different types of cells.
One property that plant and animal cells share is that both kinds of cell are
mainly composed of water.

Water for living

Water content of living things


What percentage, by weight, of water would you expect to find in the fruit
and vegetables in the following table? If you think, 'I don't know that',
think about the type of fruit or vegetable and then make an estimate.
Fruit or vegetable

Your estimate of the proportion of water (%)

tomato
apple
pumpkin
potato
lettuce

Later in this part you will be able to compare your estimates with those
determined in a laboratory.

Drying fruit, vegetables and meat


How much water is contained in some common fruit, vegetables and meat?
You are going to find out!
First you need to decide what two fruits, vegetables and meats you will test.
You don't need to buy special items. You can use whatever fruit, vegetables
and meat you have in the kitchen at the moment.
Aim
In any experiment, what you are trying to determine is called the aim.
The aim of this experiment is to find the percentage, by weight, of water
in various fruits, vegetables and meats.
In this activity you will try to determine the amount of water that is
present in various foods by seeing how much water you can remove from
the food.
To work out the percentage weight of water in each item of food,
you will need to weigh food both before and after the drying process,
then calculate the percentage of weight lost by drying.

Part 1: Water and living things

Equipment
1

Before you do this experiment at home, think about how you could do it
in a science laboratory. What equipment would you need?
Look at the list below and place a tick beside the pieces you would
choose if you were working in a laboratory.
Bunsen burner
thermometer
desiccator (drying chamber) or oven
electronic balance or kitchen scales
beaker

water

Now, decide how you could do this in your kitchen.


List the equipment you think you will need.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
(If you do not have kitchen scales, can you borrow a set from a
neighbour, friend or relative?)

Method
The set of steps, or procedure, you follow in this experiment is the method.
3

Read right through the method before carrying out your experiment.
a) Select two different fruits, two different vegetables and two
different meats. (Try not to use small light foods, such as beans,
peas and blueberries, as these will not register on the scales.)
Record the names of the foods in the results table on page 7.
b) Weigh the fruit, vegetables and meat separately using kitchen
scales. Record the undried weights in the table on page 7.
c) Heat your oven to around 100C. Place the weighed fruits,
vegetables and meats on an oven tray and put it in the oven for
as long as possible. A whole 24 hour period would be ideal, but
10 hours should give you a reasonable result.
If you dont have an oven and the weather is hot and dry, you
could try to dry the food in the sunshine, but be prepared for it
to take a while and remember to protect the food from insects
and other pests.
d) Turn off the oven and allow it to cool. Remove the dried food.

Water for living

e) Weigh the dried fruits, vegetables and meats.


Record the dried weights in the results table below.
f)

For each item of food, calculate the percentage (%) of weight


lost in water using the following formula.
Percentage
weight of water

weight of undried food weight of dried food x 100


weight of undried food
1

Or in words, to find the percentage weight of water that has been


removed in the drying process, divide the weight of the water lost
by the weight of the undried fruit and multiply by 100.
4

Before you begin the experiment, you need to think about two points.
a) How will you dispose of waste material (that is, the dried food)?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
b) What safety precautions will you take to ensure your own well being?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Check your answers for all the questions about planning your experiment.
Now go ahead and dry your fruits, vegetables and meats. Remember to
record the initial weights of your two fruits, vegetables and meats in the
results table below before placing them in the oven.
Results
Food and
food type

Undried
weight (g)

Part 1: Water and living things

Dried
weight (g)

Calculations

% weight
of water

You should have found that the dried food weighed less than the
fresh or undried food. Can you explain this observation?
Write your explanation below.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Check your answer.


Did your dried fruit remind you of the dried fruit that you can buy from a
supermarket or a health food shop? Not only are dried fruits a healthy
snack, all forms of dried foods are convenience foods, especially if you
are bush walking, camping or in a situation where you must carry your
own food for a number of days.
Some people like to dry their own fruit or vegetables using a
commercially made desiccator. Potato chips made this way contain no
fat, oil or artificial additives. You can buy commercially prepared dried
vegetables and also dried meat, sometimes called jerky, but this
requires special preparation.
Turn to Exercise 1.1 at the back of this part to discuss this experiment and to
record your conclusions.

Known water content of living things


You have completed some practical work of your own to find out
approximately how much water is in specific foods. Now lets look at some
laboratory results of the percentage of water in different types of organisms.
Organism

Water content
(%)

Organism

Water content
(%)

jellyfish

98

potato

78

chicken

66

lettuce

95

tomato

92

human

66

cabbage

91

banana

73

apple

84

orange

87

Water for living

Use the information in the table to graph the percentages of water in


different organisms. The information should be presented as a
column graph. (If you are unsure of graph types, refer to the
Science Resource Book.)
100
90

Water content (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

chicken

orange

lettuce

potato

apple

cabbage

jellyfish

tomato

banana

human

10

The percentage of water in different organisms.

So far, you have found out the percentage weight of water in fruit,
vegetables and meat. By doing an experiment, you have established
first-hand the amount of water in some living things.
2

Why do you think that water is so important for organisms?


Why is the percentage by weight of water in living things so high?
Jot down some ideas.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.

Part 1: Water and living things

The role of water


in living things

Think about all the ways you use water. Chances are that a number of
these involve using water to dissolve something. For example, when you
make tea using a teabag and sugar, you are making a solution.

Water in solutions
When a substance dissolves in water, a solution is formed. The water is
called a solvent, and the substance that dissolves is called a solute.
The solute and water together form an aqueous solution.
(The term aqueous means watery or containing water).

solute
(sugar)

solvent
(water)

spoon

solute
dissolved
in solvent

sugar
solution

A sugar solution forms when sugar (the solute) dissolves in water (the solvent).

A substance that will dissolve in a solvent is said to be soluble;


a substance that will not dissolve in a solvent is insoluble.

10

Water for living

Use information from the diagram to complete the statements below.


The arrow means the things on the left change into the thing on the right.
1

solvent

solute

________________

sugar

__________________
sugar solution (syrup)

Check your answers.


Many solutions that you use have water as the solvent. Water is also the
main solvent in your body. It is the most important solvent in all organisms.
Have you noticed that some things dissolve in water and others dont?
In the following experiment you will investigate the ability of some
common substances to dissolve in water.

Solubility of some kitchen substances


Aim
To determine which kitchen substances are soluble in water.
Equipment

tap water

a glass tumbler or glass jar

a teaspoon or coffee spoon

small amounts of the following:


salt
bicarbonate of soda
sugar
cocoa/Milo
plain flour
instant coffee.

There are many things that you can change in an experiment.


These things are called variables. For example, some variables in this
experiment are the amount of water, the temperature of the water,
how much you stir the solute and solvent, and the solutes that you test.
Each experiment should have one variable that you are testing.
You change this variable during the experiment to see what will happen.
The variable that causes things to happen or change in your experiment is
the independent variable. In this activity, the type of substance you test
as a solute (salt, sugar and so on) is your independent variable.

Part 1: Water and living things

11

You will be watching to see how the independent variable affects another
variable in your experiment. The variable that changes is called the
dependent variable because it depends on the independent variable.
In a fair experiment, you need to force all the possible dependent
variables to be the same, or constant, except the one you are studying.
So for this experiment to be a fair test, you need to keep everything the
same except the substance you are trying to dissolve. This means that
you need to use the same amount of water each time, have the water at
the same temperature and use the same amount of each substance to be
tested. That way, the substance being used as a solute will be the only
thing that affects the amount of substance that dissolves.
Now think about how you will dispose (get rid) of the solutions that you
make during this activity. Will you pour them down the sink (which is
not a good idea if you have a septic waste system), or could you dispose
of them in a more environmentally friendly way? For example, could
you tip them onto a grassed area or a garden bed?
Method
1

Use one cup (250 mL) of clean water for each test. Mark the level of
water on your glass, for example with a piece of sticky tape or a
rubber band around the glass, so that the volume of water is the same
for each substance tested.

Using one substance at a time, place a level teaspoonful of the substance


to be tested in your glass or jar of water, and stir it twenty times.

Observe whether the substance being tested dissolves or not.


Estimate how much of the teaspoonful dissolved. To do this,
compare how much solid settles or floats. The more soluble the
substance is, the less will settle or float. Record your results.

Results
Use the words solute and soluble to complete the headings of the table.
What is the solvent in each test? ________
Sol____
Substance tested

12

Is it sol____
in water?
yes/no/partially

Sol____
Substance tested

salt

bicarbonate of soda

sugar

Milo/cocoa

plain flour

instant coffee

Is it sol____
in water?
yes/no/partially

Water for living

Conclusion
State which substances dissolved in water, which did not and
which partially dissolved.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Factors affecting solubility


What factors or conditions might influence the solubility of a substance?
(Solubility describes the substances ability to dissolve.)
Write down any that you can think of.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Read the examples in the answer pages.
If you need to, add some more factors to your answer above.
Think about sugar. Sugar will not easily dissolve in cold water, but it
quickly dissolves in hot water. A small amount of sugar will dissolve
quite easily in hot water, but very large amounts do not.
Eventually every solution reaches a point where it cannot dissolve any
more of a solute, such as sugar in this example. This point is called the
saturation point, and the solution formed is called a saturated solution.

Part 1: Water and living things

13

The importance of water in organisms


Water is important to all living organisms, including humans. All
animals need to have a regular intake of clean water for survival; without
it they will die. In outback Australia the biggest danger to a person who
becomes lost is lack of water. This is because in hot conditions humans
quickly become dehydrated, or dried out, and this can lead to death.
Water has a very important role in the human body because it helps to
transport substances around the body in the blood. Substances
transported include digested food, oxygen, hormones and waste products.
(Heat energy is also transported around the body by the blood.) In the
bloodstream, water is a solvent and many substances being moved by the
blood are carried in solution.
Where are the transported substances used and where do the wastes come
from? The human body is made up of many cells of different types.
Each cell needs food and creates wastes. Individual cells rely on the
bloodstream to deliver food and remove waste products a home
delivery and garbage service with a difference!
To keep the transport system working, the body must take in clean water
each day. This water can be in food, such as fruit, or in water-based drinks.
The body also requires an excretory system to remove excess water and any
unwanted solutes that it carries. This mainly occurs in the kidneys where
wastes are removed from the blood and excreted as urine. The skin also
excretes water and a solution of salts through perspiration, or sweat.
Plants also rely on water for their survival. Plants manufacture their own
'food', which has stored energy. This is done in green leaves in a process
called photosynthesis. A summary equation for photosynthesis is:
carbon dioxide + water

sunlight
chlorophyll

glucose + oxygen

As you can see from this equation, water is an essential ingredient in the
manufacture of plant food. Once made, food needs to be transported to
all parts of the plant and this occurs in solution, with water as the solvent
and glucose, which is a type of sugar, as the solute.
Explain why is it important for humans to have a regular intake of water.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Check your answer.

14

Water for living

Water movement through plants

Like you, a plant needs water in its cells for cells to operate normally.
(Cells must operate normally for the whole plant to function properly.)
A plant also uses water to carry dissolved substances to all its parts.

How does water enter the plant?


Water enters the plant through roots. If you have ever pulled up a plant
you will have noticed that the roots become quite fine towards the ends.
These fine roots have many much finer hairs, called root hairs, along
their length. (These are so fine that you cannot see them with the naked
eye, but you might be able to see dirt attached to them.) Water enters the
plant through these root hairs.
Water moves from the soil into the root hair cells. This is an example of
diffusion because water moves from where water is more concentrated in
the soil to where water is less concentrated inside the cells. Because water
is moving into living cells, this movement can also be called osmosis.
movement of water

higher concentration of
solute (dissolved substance)
but lower concentration
of water inside cell

lower concentration of solute


but higher concentration
of water in soil

Cells have a selectively permeable membrane


that lets through some substances (such as water)
but not other substances.
Water moves into cells in the roots by the process of osmosis.

Part 1: Water and living things

15

Water moves up through the plant stem to the leaves through fine tubes called
xylem vessels. There are also fine tubes called phloem vessels that can carry
water with dissolved sugar from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Why does water enter the plant?


Water moves into the roots of a plant when it loses water from its leaves.
This flow of water from the roots, up the plant and out through the
leaves is called the transpiration stream.
Transpiration is the name of the process by which water is lost from
leaves. Water evaporates from leaves through openings called stomates.
This loss of water from the leaves creates a need for more water to enter the
root system and move through the plant.

flower
leaf
water in air

water moves out


of the leaves
in transpiration

stem, which contains fine tubes


called xylem and phloem vessels

water moves into


cells in roots
by osmosis

root

water in soil
The transpiration stream. Arrows show the movement of water through a plant.

If there is not enough water in the soil available to the plant, it will droop,
or become flaccid. Water cannot move into the plant and substances cannot
be carried around. There is not enough water to keep cells in their shape or
for the plant to carry out photosynthesis. Eventually the plant will die.
Why do plants need an adequate supply of water?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Check your answer.

16

Water for living

Conservation of water

Youve seen how important water is for living things. Most organisms
(especially ones in salt water and on land) have to save, or conserve,
water so that they always have enough water for their needs.

How do plants conserve water?


Plants ensure that they can access available water in the soil or their
immediate surroundings using special adaptations. An adaptation is
a characteristic that aids the survival or reproduction of a species.
Plants also conserve water by reducing water loss as much as possible.
For example, over millions of years, native Australian plants have
developed adaptations to conserve water.
Some Australian natives have responded to lack of water in the
environment by evolving a reduced leaf size. Some of these leaves are
so small that they are needle-like. Spinifex, hakeas, casuarinas and
some grevilleas show this adaptation. Some plants such as cactuses have
juicy, or succulent, stems that store water.

flattened
succulent
stem

spines

Spines are reduced leaves.

Needle-like leaves.
Photograph: Jane West

Part 1: Water and living things

17

These adaptations reduce water loss in hot environments.


Here is a diagram of a generalised leaf. It shows the cells inside the leaf.

epidermis

cuticle

cells containing chloroplasts

palisade
mesophyll
layer

spongy
mesophyll

stomate
air space
xylem

phloem

cell wall

vascular bundle

Structure of a leaf.
Source: Messel, H. (Chair). 1963. Science for High School Students.
University of Sydney, Sydney.

The cuticle in this diagram is very thin. Some plants develop a very
thick cuticle to reduce the amount of water that can be lost.
The stomates are the holes on the underside of the leaf in the diagram.
Some plants reduce water loss by having smaller stomates or
fewer stomates. Some grasses such as spinifex can roll their leaves
so that the stomates are more protected from water loss.
Many plants drop their leaves to reduce water loss. Fewer leaves means
less transpiration so water is conserved. You only need to think of your
own garden to find plants that do this when stressed by lack of water.
(Dont confuse this with deciduous trees that lose their leaves in winter
as a method of conserving energy.)

18

Water for living

As you have already seen, water is drawn into the plant from the
surrounding soil by the root system. However, this is often difficult,
especially if there is little soil and little water available in the soil.
Different types of plants have developed different root systems in order
to solve this problem.
1

Read through the three descriptions of root systems below.


Draw a line to match each description with the most appropriate
diagram of a plant root system.
Shallow 'mats' of
dense fine roots when
the soil is shallow

Many short thin roots


in areas with good soil
cover

Long roots that can


penetrate deep into
cracks in rocky areas

Why do plants have different root system structures?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.


Now complete Exercise 1.2. You will need to look at three different plants
and identify adaptations in these plants that assist in reducing water loss.
Choose plants to study that have one or more of these features:

thick cuticles

drop leaves in drought

needle-like leaves or spines

unusual arrangements of stomates.

Part 1: Water and living things

19

How do animals conserve water?


You have just learned some plant adaptations for water conservation.
Can you think of some adaptations animals have to conserve water?
Some animal adaptations are due to
the structure of the animals body.
For example, you have a covering of
skin that keeps water inside your body.
(Some animals have an even thicker
covering of skin or fur.)
Some adaptations are behaviours
of the animal. For example,
what is this animal doing to help it
to conserve water?

Kangaroo in the shade under a tree.

Some adaptations of native Australian animals


Here are some examples of adaptations of Australian animals to reduce
water loss.

20

nocturnal (night-time) activity when the temperature is lower;


for example, possums

burrowing underground to avoid surface heat; for example, wombats

lying in the shade rather than in the sunshine; for example, kangaroos

reduced activity during the day; for example, birds and kangaroos

covering of fur or hair; for example, possums and kangaroos

leathery or scaly skin; for example, lizards and snakes

waxy, waterproof skin; for example, the Thorny Devil, Moloch horridus

excretion of very concentrated urine; for example, hopping mice


(a kind of desert mammal)

excretion of uric acid rather than urine; for example, desert lizards
and birds. (Urea is a nitrogenous body waste that is normally
removed in a watery solution called urine. Birds, some reptiles and
insects can excrete nitrogenous wastes as insoluble uric acid. The
uric acid is combined with faeces in the form of a paste or pellets.
This involves little water loss.)

Water for living

Complete the following table by giving an example of an adaptation


to conserve water for each animal. Include an explanation of why
each adaptation is effective in reducing water loss.
Some animals display several adaptations. For these animals,
record one adaptation.
The first one has been done for you as a guide.
Animal

Adaptation

How water is conserved

owl

nocturnal

reduced activity during the day, so that less


water must be lost to keep cool

hopping
mouse

wombat

possum

kangaroo

lizard

Check the answers in your table.


Turn to Exercise 1.3 to research more animal adaptations for
water conservation.

Part 1: Water and living things

21

Summary

Use the clues to fill in the words in the puzzle on the following page.
The central column of the puzzle asks a question.
1

A plant adaptation minimising water loss from the surface of leaves

You did this to fruits, vegetables and meats

Will not dissolve in a solvent

The process in which water leaves a plant through the leaves

The most important solvent in living things

A characteristic enhancing the survival ability of a species

White kitchen substance that is insoluble in water

Candle wax will dissolve in kerosene. Kerosene is the __________ .

The process by which water moves into the root cells of a plant

10 Wombats have this adaptation to reduce heat gain and water loss
11 A day-time adaptation of kangaroos to minimise water loss
12 A substance that dissolves in a solvent
13 The water content of the human body
14 An adaptation to reduce water loss during the day by being active at night
15 The almost insoluble substance excreted instead of urine by some
animals to reduce water loss
16 Organisms rely on water to __________ dissolved materials
thoughout the organism.
17 A food type with a lower percentage of water than vegetables
18 Sugar is __________ in water.
19 An adaptation kangaroos have to minimise water loss through their skin
20 This can grow shallow or deep to maximise water intake for plants
21 A mixture of a solvent and a dissolved solute
22 A food substance that partially dissolves in cold water

22

Water for living

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Answer the question from the central column.


_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check all of your answers.

Part 1: Water and living things

23

24

Water for living

Suggested answers

Water in living things


Water is needed to drink, wash in, cook in, swim in, dissolve things in
and many more.

Drying fruit, vegetables and meat


1

desiccator (drying chamber) or oven

electronic balance or kitchen scales

beaker

These are the best things to use because they enable you to hold the
food safely (beaker), to measure its weight accurately (electronic
balance) and to heat it slowly without burning (desiccator).
2

Kitchen scales, an oven and an oven tray are required to carry out
this experiment in your kitchen at home.

a) You could eat the food, compost it, feed it to pets or place it in
the garbage.
b) Use oven mitts when using the oven to prevent burns.
Handle the foods only when cool.

Did you say that the heating/drying process has removed a large
amount of water through the process of evaporation?
The difference in weight is due to the evaporation of water from the
foods.

Part 1: Water and living things

25

Known water content of living things


1

Here is a suitable column graph.


100
90

Water content (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

chicken

orange

lettuce

potato

apple

cabbage

jellyfish

tomato

banana

human

10

Here are some examples of correct answers.


Water is important to:

carry substances to and from cells in organisms

maintain the shape of some cells

dissolve substances so that chemical reactions can occur inside cells.

Youll learn more about these answers as you progress through this module.

Water in solutions
1
2

solvent
water

+
+

solute
sugar

solution
sugar solution (syrup)

Factors affecting solubility


Some factors that determine the solubility of a substance include:

26

the type of solute

the temperature of the solvent

the amount of solute

the pH of the solvent

the type of solvent

any stirring of the mixture.

Water for living

The importance of water in organisms


It is important for humans to have a regular intake of water so that:

there is enough water in the blood to carry substances to and from


cells throughout the body, so that cells can function normally

there is extra water to wash wastes from the body (in urine) and
for sweating.

Why does water enter the plant?


Plants need water so that cells can function normally, for photosynthesis
and to retain their shape. They also need water to transport substances
through the plant due to the transpiration stream. For the transpiration
stream to operate, water must be constantly available at the roots so that
it can be lost from the leaves.

How do plants conserve water?


1

Plants have different root system structures because they live in


different conditions. The root structures must be different because
they have to obtain water from different environments to meet the
needs of the plant.

Part 1: Water and living things

27

Some adaptations of native Australian animals


Animal

Adaptation

How water is conserved

hopping
mouse

concentrated urine

water is removed from waste, leaving urine


very concentrated; less water is excreted to
remove wastes

wombat

burrowing underground

avoids surface heat, so less need to sweat to


keep cool

possum

nocturnal

reduced activity during the day, so less need


to sweat to keep cool

kangaroo

fur

fur insulates body, reducing the amount of


heat that reaches skin. Fur also traps
evaporated water so helps to keep skin cool

lizard

scaly, leathery skin

tough skin minimises the amount of water


that can escape through skin surface

Summary
W

E
T

S
T

I
4

11

13

R
X

16

18

21

10

12

E
N

14

15

17

19

20

22

Water comes from rain, rivers, lakes, the ocean, artesian basins,
the underground water table, condensation, snow, ice caps and more!

28

Water for living

Exercises - Part 1

Exercises 1.1 to 1.3

Name: _________________________________

Exercise 1.1
1

State the percentage water contents of each of the two fruits,


two vegetables and two meats from the Drying fruit, vegetables and
meat experiment.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Which food item(s) contained the highest percentage of water?


Which food(s) contained the lowest percentage of water?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Place fruits, vegetables and meats in order from highest water


content to lowest water content.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Why do you think that fruits, vegetables and meats have different
water contents?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Part 1: Water and living things

29

a) What precautions did you take to maintain a safe working


environment?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
b) Describe how you disposed of the waste materials from this
experiment and justify the method you chose.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Compare the water contents of the fruits, vegetables and meats from
your experiment with the known values of similar foods on page 8.
Did your fruits, vegetables and meats have similar water contents?
If not, try to explain the differences in terms of your experimental
procedure.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

If you were to do this experiment again, what changes would you


make to the procedure? Explain how you think these changes or
modifications would improve the experiment.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

30

Water for living

Exercise 1.2
Research some adaptations that reduce water loss in three plants.
What features of plants will you look at?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

How will you choose three plants to study?


_________________________________________________________

What (if any) equipment will you need?


_________________________________________________________

How will you protect yourself and your environment during the activity?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Make your observations and complete this table about the adaptations of
the plants you study.
Plant

Part 1: Water and living things

Adaptation(s)

How water is conserved

31

Exercise 1.3
You will now research some more examples of animal adaptations
for water conservation. Choose three terrestrial (land-living) animals;
try to select ones that live in different places from each other.
Make sure you use different animals and adaptations from the ones
you were given in this part.
Choose a method of research to complete this exercise.

Internet

CD-ROM

biology text

observing animals

library research

encyclopedia

ask others

other

Animal

Adaptation(s)

How water is conserved

Where did you find your information? Refer to the Science Resource Book
for information about how to list your references.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

32

Water for living

Gill Sans Bold

Senior Science
Preliminary Course
Stage 6

Water for living


Part 2: Sources of water

0
20

er
b
to T S
c
O EN
g
in D M
t
a
r EN
o
p
or AM
c
n

Senior Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course


Water for living

Water and living things

Sources of water

Chemicals in water

Water pollutants

Water treatment technology

Water investigations

Plants

Humans at work

Local environment

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................... 2
Water in nature.......................................................................... 4
The water cycle ....................................................................................4
Types of water ......................................................................................6

Water and Australian ecosystems ............................................. 9


Rainfall and vegetation types ..............................................................9
Types of ecosystems .........................................................................10
Some impacts of water use by humans ............................................14

Soils and water........................................................................ 17


Saline soils..........................................................................................17
Acid sulfate soils.................................................................................19
Poorly draining soils ...........................................................................21

Water regulations .................................................................... 24


Summary................................................................................. 28
Appendix ................................................................................. 29
Suggested answers................................................................. 31
Exercises Part 2 ................................................................... 35

Part 2: Sources of water

Introduction

This part of Water for living will enable you to understand the
importance of water to planet Earth in general and also specifically to
different ecosystems in Australia. To do this, you will need to study the
water cycle and the different forms of water that are involved in it.
In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to:

outline types of surface and ground waters in the hydrological cycle,


such as:

bore water

artesian water

the water table

dams

rivers

lakes

wetlands

cave environments

discuss the effects of water pollution and ground salinity on the


continued supply of fresh water to living things and provide
examples of these occurring in Australian environments

identify possible solutions to identified environmental problems


associated with the use of ground water

outline one local, State or Federal Governments policy on water


related issues in relation to increasing problems with water supplies
across NSW.

Water for living

In this part you will be given opportunities to:

process information from secondary sources to map the location and


type of surface and ground water in the local area

analyse information from secondary sources to outline the


relationships between rainfall and types of Australian ecosystems

process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to


assess human impact on one aquatic ecosystem or water source in
Australia and identify some consequences of this impact and one
possible rehabilitation technique.

Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW,


October 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found on the Board's
website at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html

Part 2: Sources of water

Water in nature

Earth is known as the blue planet because of the large proportion of


water on it. This water has been present for at least four billion years.
Earths water resources can be used over and over because of the reusing,
or cycling, of water in the water cycle.

The water cycle


You have no doubt read or learnt about the water cycle previously. It is
often shown as a diagram (see following page) that includes the many
forms of water and the processes that link them.
Some information sources refer to the water cycle as the hydrological cycle.
This is just another name for water cycle. The Greek word hydra means
water so anything relating to water can have hydra or hydro in the term.
Two examples are hydro-electricity (electricity generated using moving
water) and hydration (the process of adding water to a substance).

Some ideas included in a water cycle diagram


Use coloured pencils to colour in the following sections of the water cycle
on the diagram on the next page. This will help you to better understand
the processes involved.
a)

clouds, snow and glacier yellow

b) Sun orange
c)

trees green

d) transpiration and evaporation light blue


e)

precipitation (rain) purple

f)

percolation, ground water, ocean and lakes dark blue

g) run-off and rivers red.

Water for living

ice melts

ne

s ol a

wind moves clouds

water droplets as rain,


snow,hail
(precipitation)

rgy

SUN

re

water stored
as solid (ice)

CLOUDS
LANDMASS
snow

water stored as liquid


(water droplets)

snow

run-off

lake

evaporation

glacier

ev
ap
or
at
io
n

tra
ns
pir
ati
on

MOUNTAINS

tributary

lake

lake
water stored as liquid
(water droplets)
or solid (ice)

percolation

OCEAN

(water soaking into ground)

GROUND WATER

water moves slowly below ground

Water is recycled in nature.

Now draw a flow chart including the following terms in the order they appear
in the water cycle: ground water, evaporation, percolation and precipitation.

Look in the Suggested answers to check your flow chart.

Part 2: Sources of water

Types of water
Naturally occurring water is broadly divided into two main types:

surface water, such as oceans, rivers and dams. This water occurs
on the surface of Earth and is easy for people to access. It includes
both salt and fresh water

ground water, for example, in caves or stored in rocks. This is


sometimes referred to as underground water, because it is found
beneath the surface of Earth.

Surface water
Surface water includes any water that is on the surface of Earth.
Here are some of the different types of surface water.
Underline the ones that you could see near where you live.
dams

lakes

oceans

rivers

wetlands*

* Wetlands are sometimes called swamps, marshes or bogs.

Ground water
Ground water includes any water that is beneath Earths surface.
Water can be found in underground rivers and pools in cave systems,
for example, in the Jenolan Caves or in the caves and sinkholes across
the Nullabor Plain. Ground water also includes water that flows or is
pumped to the surface; for example, from springs and in bore holes.
Are you aware of any ground water in your local area? What is it?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Water can also be stored under the ground in rocks. For example,
think of the rock called sandstone. There are many small spaces between
the grains of sand that make up sandstone. Water can fill these spaces.
Rocks that can store water are called porous rocks. Other rocks do not
store water but water can pass through them. These rocks are called
permeable rocks.
Rocks that are both porous and permeable are termed aquifers (from the
Latin word aqua meaning water).

Water for living

The upper surface of ground water is called the water table.


Places where the water table reaches the land surface are wetlands, rivers
and lakes. Places below the water table can be aquifers.

water table

lake

wetland

river

saturated rock (aquifer)

There are few spaces for water to fill down here.


Cross-section to show water types and water table.

If water in an aquifer rises to the surface under its own pressure,


the water is called artesian water. When this occurs naturally,
the flow of water is called a spring.
Artesian water will also rise to the surface under its own pressure when a
bore, or bore hole, is sunk into it. (A bore is a hole drilled vertically
from the surface to the underground water to allow access to the water.)
Draw a diagram of a bore. Label the bore, artesian water, and porous and
permeable rocks. The goal of this activity is for you to demonstrate
your understanding of bore water, not to create a masterpiece.

Check your answer.

Part 2: Sources of water

If ground water needs to be pumped to the surface, for example using


windmills or diesel-driven pumps, it is called bore water. (Some texts may
refer to this as sub-artesian water, but this term is no longer generally used.)
There are hundreds of examples of bores and springs throughout western
NSW and other parts of Australia. These are often used for stock water,
home utility water (washing, toilet flushing) and irrigation. (The hot springs
in Moree, NSW, are a tourist attraction.)
In Australia, ground water accumulates in large geological structures
called artesian basins. Artesian basins are named according to their
general geographical location. The next diagram shows the location and
names of the largest artesian basins in Australia.
Are you close to one of these artesian basins? If so, which one?
_________________________________________________________

Desert
Basin
Great
Australian
Basin

North
West
Basin

Perth
Basin

Eucla Basin
Murray
Basin
N

0 200 400 600 8001000

kilometres

W
S

Gippsland
Basin

Locations of Australian artesian basins.

In Australia, where a large proportion of the continent is arid, all forms


of water are important, both within the water cycle and also for the plants
and animals that inhabit the continent.
Now complete Exercise 2.1 and Exercise 2.2 about natural water resources.

Water for living

Water and Australian ecosystems

All living things need water to survive. And they need specific minimum
amounts of water to remain healthy. This is particularly obvious in an
arid country such as Australia, where the availability of water is a main
controller of the types and number of living things found in an area.
Water can be available in different ways. There is ground and surface
water, as you considered previously. You need to consider rain as a type
of surface water, and also consider the surface run-off that even light rain
can generate.
Areas of good, consistent rainfall, or an area where a spring flows
continually, have very different ecosystems from arid areas. Arid areas
are inhabited by plants and animals with special methods of water
conservation such as the ones you investigated in Part 1.

Rainfall and vegetation types


The maps in the appendix show the rainfall pattern for Australia and
the location of the major types of vegetation (plant types) in Australia.
Use these maps to answer the following questions.
1

Locate Innisfail, Darwin and Alice Springs on your vegetation map


and note the type of vegetation found at each location.
Now look at the average rainfall for each location.
Describe the rainfall and vegetation found at each place.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Part 2: Sources of water

a) Look at the maps again and describe any other correlations,


or matches, between the two maps. (For example, are there
similar patterns/shapes shown on the maps? Does a particular
type of vegetation occur where there is a specific rainfall?)
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
b) Write a generalisation (general statement) about the relationship
between rainfall and vegetation type.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Now compare the locations of Australian artesian basins on page 8


with the vegetation zones in the Appendix.
a) Is there a correlation? ________________________________
b) How would you explain what you have noticed?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Check your answers.


Water supply in Australia is very dependent on rainfall. Rainfall is
responsible for most surface water and ground water. Artesian basins
hold water, but much of the water is not available to vegetation on the
surface above. It moves underground and supplies other areas.

Types of ecosystems
An ecosystem is the community, or group, of organisms living within an
area that interact with each other and with non-living things in that area.
Vegetation is one part of an ecosystem.
The plants present in an area will influence the kinds of animals and other
organisms that live there. That is why ecosystems are often identified
using the name of the main plant present.

10

Water for living

mangrove mudflat
with mangroves, reeds,
fish, crabs, clams

rainforest
with beech, ferns,
lyrebirds, leeches

coastal scrubland
with mulga, mallee,
wallabies, parrots, beetles

desert
with grasses, saltbush,
hopping mice, snakes, lizards

alpine grassland
with heath, snow gums,
sedges, wombats

Some Australian ecosystems.

In the diagram above, you can see that there are different kinds of
organisms in different ecosystems.
Compare abundance and diversity in desert and rainforest ecosystems.
1

Abundance: would you expect to find the same number of organisms


in each ecosystem? Explain your reasoning.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Diversity: would you expect both environments to have the same


number and range of species? Explain your reasoning.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.


You have seen how rainfall has a major impact on where ecosystems
are found. Many other factors also affect the distribution of ecosystems,
such as soil type, light intensity and temperature. However, this section
has only dealt with ecosystem distribution and water availability.

Part 2: Sources of water

11

Natural atypical ecosystems


Sometimes there is not a clear match between rainfall and an ecosystem.
For example, have you ever noticed a small patch of rainforest in a fairly
dry forest area? Local conditions and artesian water can mean that water
is supplied in unlikely areas.
Consider these examples.

The Northern Territory is generally hot and arid, but Kings Canyon
is a small area where rainforest occurs. This happens because the
vegetation takes advantage of a local water source, which is a river.

Mantaranka Pool at Rainbow Springs, near Katherine in the


Northern Territory, has rainforest vegetation, like an oasis in the
desert. This unexpected ecosystem is due to water supplied from
an artesian spring.

Complete the table below about these atypical (not common) ecosystems.

Atypical
ecosystem
location

What ecosystem
would you
expect here?

What ecosystem
actually occurs?

What is the
water supply for
the ecosystem?

Kings Canyon
Mantaranka Pool

Check your answers.

Created ecosystems
Mantaranka Pool can occur in a desert due to artesian water that flows to
the surface under its own pressure from underground reserves. This is a
natural example of an atypical Australian ecosystem.
People are able to create atypical ecosystems by supplying water to
an area. For example, bore water can be pumped to the surface from an
aquifer below. As soon as plants are established, other organisms appear
too, such as insects and birds. A whole complex ecosystem can be
created and supported by bore water.

12

Water for living

Artesian water and, more commonly, bore water can be used for farming.
For example, most ground water can be used to water stock.
pump driven or
wind driven
bore water

bore

water table
ground water in an aquifer
Using ground water for stock.

Depending on the salt content, ground water may also be used to irrigate
crops. For example, some cotton crops in north-west of NSW are
irrigated with ground water. Ground water provides a great opportunity
for crop production, and hence income opportunity, from an area that
would otherwise be unable to sustain such plant growth.
In some areas, ground water is suitable for human use. Many households
in areas with little fresh water use underground water for household
utilities such as toilet flushing, showering and washing clothes.
In Australia, ground water is generally not suitable as drinking water for
humans. This is due to the high level of salt in the rocks the water is
passing through. This is a problem in Australia, but is does not necessarily
occur elsewhere. For example, in Orange County in the United States,
an extensive aquifer provides drinking water for over two million people.
Use the space below to draw simple diagrams showing how ground water
is used. For example, a glass could represent drinking water and a plant
could represent crop irrigation.

Part 2: Sources of water

13

Some impacts of water use by humans


The widespread use of ground water can cause problems. Why?
Aquifers take up water very slowly but the current rate of removal of
ground water, especially in eastern Australia, is high. Water is being
removed more quickly than it is stored. Thus:

the water table is lowered so

water supplies are not as available to natural ecosystems

bores in some places have to be dug deeper to reach ground water

it is possible that no underground water will be available in the future.

Ground water is not the only water resource that humans use.
People also divert surface water, such as rivers, lakes and wetlands, to
supply the needs of cities and farming land.
For example, rice growing in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area is
irrigated by water taken from western river systems. This takes water
away from more western areas of NSW and South Australia.
Similar problems can occur when land holders upstream on a river use
large amounts of water. As a result, the river flow downstream is
considerably reduced, causing a lack of water in those parts of the river.
This can be a serious problem for many natural ecosystems, which rely
on high water quality, and ebb and flow, for reproduction and diversity.
People have recognised that using surface and ground water supplies can
create long-term problems for Australian agriculture and for natural
ecosystems. Laws have been enacted to try to limit the damage that
people are causing. For example:

land holders can no longer access unlimited amounts of ground water


from beneath the surface of their land by sinking, or drilling, bores

government departments control the amount of water that can be used.


For example, rice growers must be licensed by the NSW Department
of Land and Water Resources to use water. Growers cannot use more
than 16 megalitres per hectare over the growing season of a rice crop.

You will learn more about water use regulations later in this part.

14

Water for living

Use information on pages 12 to 14 to help you answer these questions.


1

What is artesian water?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

How do Australians access supplies of ground water?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

How do Australians access supplies of surface water?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Describe some problems that can come from unlimited access


to water by Australians.
a) problems for natural ecosystems
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
b) problems for other Australians
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

What are Australians doing to try to prevent continued excessive


usage of water?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.

Part 2: Sources of water

15

Water quality
You have learnt about different types of water and seen how important
water is in the maintenance of all Australian environments. But it is not just
the amount of water that is important. It is also the quality of the water.
Water quality can be changed in many ways. For example, when a river
stops flowing (because people have taken too much water from it),
the levels of oxygen dissolved in the water usually drop. This can kill
plants and animals and poison the water.
Many factors that affect water quality are thought about under the general
term of water pollution. Water pollution is the name given to any form of
adulteration or making unclean of a water source or body of water. This
could be disposal of industrial waste into a river, allowing sewage to enter a
river or ocean, or allowing rubbish like chip packets or plastic bags to enter
the storm water system. No doubt you can think of many other examples.
Try these questions.
1

List some examples of water pollutants (substances that cause pollution).


______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

What effects do you think water pollution has on organisms that rely
on that water to survive? Write a brief general answer.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Here is a report about an example of water pollution.


Lack of appropriate controls allowed sewage effluent to enter the waters close
to oyster leases in the Port Stephens area on the coast north of Newcastle
some years ago. The oysters became contaminated from the pollution.
Two people died as a result and many became very ill from food poisoning.

Why did this example of water pollution occur?


______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Check your answers.
Natural factors can also cause water pollution. Youll learn about how
soil types can affect water quality in the next section.

16

Water for living

Soils and water

How does soil affect water? Large quantities of water are stored in rocks
and soil. Water often moves through soil as it enters and leaves surface
and ground water reservoirs. Thus, soil can influence the quality and
availability of water.
In this section, you will learn about two important types of soils
saline soils and acid sulfate soils and consider how water affects
poorly draining soils.
Underline causes and effects of these different soil conditions as you read
pages 17 to 23. You will use the information in exercises at the end of this
section.

Saline soils
Ground salinity (sometimes called soil salinity) refers to high levels of
salt within the soil. The salt involved is largely sodium chloride (the
same as sea salt and table salt) but also includes some calcium and
magnesium salts.
There are two types of soil salinity: primary (naturally occurring) and
secondary (resulting from human activity). In this section you will only
consider primary soil salinity. There is an example of secondary soil
salinity on pages 21 to 22 of this part.
Soil salinity causes saline soils. What is saline soil?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answer.

Part 2: Sources of water

17

Some causes of primary soil salinity


In coastal areas, salt can enter the soil through rain. Water in the
atmosphere can carry dissolved salt spray from the ocean and deposit it
when it rains. Obviously in areas immediately adjacent to the coast,
wind-blown salt will also enter the soil.
Some rocks naturally contain high levels of salt. Primary soil salinity
occurs when these rocks weather and the salt is released into the soil.
This has occurred in soils derived from sedimentary rocks that were
deposited beneath the sea. Large parts of Australia were once covered by
inland seas and when these dried up, salt was left behind to eventually
become part of the sedimentary rock that developed.
Saline soils determine the types of plants that can grow in these areas,
and therefore the ecosystems that will develop. Different plants can
survive with different levels of salt. Vegetation on saline soils must be
salt-tolerant, or able to survive with the salt that is present.

Look at the photograph.


What effect would increasing
salinity have on natural ecosystems
in this area?
Increasing soil salinity is a major
problem on farming land in many
areas of Australia.

Old man saltbush grows on saline soils.


Photograph: Julie Haeusler

Salt water intrusion is a special cause of saline soils. It occurs when


saline ocean water pushes (intrudes) into an aquifer. This can happen
when an aquifer is in contact with an ocean and the pressure of the water
(and thus the level of the water table) in an aquifer falls. Once in the
aquifer, the saline water affects the water already in the aquifer,
increasing the total salinity of the aquifer.
This may occur in the Great Australian Basin (previously called the
Great Artesian Basin) where, in the Northern Territory, aquifers drain to
beds that lie beneath the ocean in the Gulf of Carpentaria.

18

Water for living

artesian water rises to surface,


drawing in more salt water

o
sal cean
tw
ate
r

r
ate
w
sh
fre uifer
q
a

water table

salt water moves


into aquifer under land
Salt water intrusion.

Obviously, bores that draw up ground water can increase salt intrusion.
This means that human water use can increase soil salinisation that
results from salt water intrusions.

Acid sulfate soils


Thousands of years ago, rising sea levels deposited clays containing
sulfur and iron in estuaries and mangroves. Bacteria converted the sulfur
and iron into iron sulfide (pyrite). Pyritic soil is soil that contains
significant amounts of pyrite.
Pyrite is stable when waterlogged. However, if the water dries out so
that the pyrite is exposed to air, it reacts rapidly with oxygen to form
sulfuric acid (acid sulfate) and iron.
Draining of land with pyritic soils exposes the pyrite to oxygen.
Acid soils (with a low pH) result. Low pH reduces the availability of
mineral nutrients to plants, thus preventing plants from surviving in these
areas. Areas affected by strong acid sulfate soils have no plant life.
When the acid formed runs off into rivers or leaches (washes away)
through the soil, it is called acid leachate. Acid leachate can dissolve
minerals in clay, releasing heavy metals and toxic amounts of
aluminium and iron, all of which can result in contaminated (polluted)
soils and run-off.
Organisms that live in acid sulfate soils must be adapted to survive with
very low availability of some soil nutrients while some metal ions are in
toxic proportions.
Acid sulfate soils also pose problems for human activities. For example,
in areas where acid sulfate soils occur:

Part 2: Sources of water

19

special types of steel and concrete are required

roads and drains must be designed to cope with acidic run-off

land use planning must be carefully considered. Agricultural crops,


fertilisers and drainage systems used must be carefully chosen.
Crops need to be acid tolerant, such as triticale instead of canola.

Acid sulfate soils often occur in low-lying areas. Drainage from these
areas tends to flow into rivers and estuaries, where the acid leachate can
harm fish populations. Diseases such as red spot in whiting can occur,
as well as massive fish kills. This occurs in many of the north coast
rivers of NSW; for example, the Tweed, Macleay and Richmond Rivers.
Massive fish kills have also been documented in the Clarence River.
Run-off from acid sulfate soils is a documented problem in areas such as
Rum Jungle (NT), Mt Lyell (Tas), Mt Morgan (Qld), Captains Flat and
Sunny Corner (NSW).
For this activity, you need an atlas that shows major Australian rivers and
towns. Find the places (listed above) affected by acid sulfate soils.
Mark them on the following map. (If you do not have an atlas, can others
help you to locate these sites?)

Areas affected by acid sulfate soils.

Check your map.

20

Water for living

Poorly drained soils


Natural ecosystems have developed in Australia to exist successfully on
our ancient, weathered soils. You have already read about some examples
of ways that human activities, and particularly human water use, can affect
soils and the ecosystems that survive on them.
Irrigation of poorly draining soil is a human activity that has major effects
on some Australian soils, and hence causes altered natural ecosystems and
influences agricultural prosperity and practices. Irrigation of poorly
draining soils tends to cause secondary soil salinisation.

Secondary soil salination, with lumps of dry salt (salt discharge) appearing on
the surface of soil in the Riverina, NSW. Salty areas are mostly bare of plants
and other organisms.
Photograph: Julie Haeusler

Irrigation adds extra water to soil. If water is allowed to build up in the


soil because it is not drained off, waterlogging and salt discharge can
occur, causing the soil to become unusable. How does this happen?
As you learnt at the beginning of Part 2, water can be stored in soil.
Most is stored at depth, in rocks and soil below the water table.
If water from irrigation remains in the soil, the soil becomes full of
water, or saturated, and the water table rises. Water fills all the spaces
between grains in the soil and it becomes waterlogged.
As you learnt in Part 1 of this module, plants take in water from the soil
by their root systems. Plant roots need both water and air to function

Part 2: Sources of water

21

normally. Waterlogging means that there is very little air available in the
soil for root cells to use. Prolonged waterlogging will kill plants.
Added to this is the problem of secondary soil salination. Water from
rainfall and irrigation percolates down the soil profile. As the water table
rises, the salts present in the soil dissolve and move towards the surface
with the water table. Salt discharge is the term used to identify when the
saline, or salty, water comes right up to the surface.
When plant roots come into contact with salt, they find it difficult to
draw in water from the soil. They show signs of water stress and
eventually die due to dehydration.
1

How could the problems of waterlogging and salt discharge


be prevented?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Think through the problems caused by waterlogging and salt discharge.


Suggest how land could be repaired, or rehabilitated, after damage has
occurred.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Check your answers. Add any ideas that you did not think of.
The construction of proper drainage may reduce waterlogging but it may
lead to other problems. For example, what could happen if the farmer
uses fertilisers to increase soil fertility?
If excess fertiliser is used and there is run-off of excess water from
irrigation, dissolved fertiliser could be leached by the water into local
rivers or stream systems. This could cause pollution of local waterways
or the water could carry the fertiliser into the ground water system, thus
polluting ground water.
Farmers seek to avoid these pollution risks by testing soil to determine
the exact amount of an appropriate fertiliser needed for the crop or
pasture. They may even have plant tissue tested to find out exactly how

22

Water for living

much of a fertiliser, such as urea, is needed for a growing crop.


(Youll learn more about the effects of fertilisers in Part 3.)

Irrigation water running into a rice crop.


Photograph: Julie Haeusler

Here is another problem that could develop due to irrigation. Think about
what might happen if a lot of ground water is taken out of a reservoir,
high up in the aquifer. This could lower the water table and other users
will need to drill deeper into the aquifer to access the water that is left.
If, over a period of time, more water is consistently withdrawn from the
aquifer than enters the aquifer to re-charge it, ground subsidence can occur,
causing the land to become unusable. Water use regulation has been
introduced to try to ensure that water resources are shared and protected.
3

List some problems that can result from overuse of aquifers.


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answer.


Now complete Exercises 2.3 and 2.4. You will need to use information
from throughout Part 2 in your answer for Exercise 2.4.

Part 2: Sources of water

23

Water regulations

There are many water regulations and management policies in operation


across Australia. They are important in ensuring that water is available
for the needs of all Australians and that environments are protected from
pollution and other forms of damage.
For example, regulations control the collection and supply of drinking
water. These ensure that water is not polluted by contaminated run-off,
during storage in uncovered reservoirs or during distribution (through
pipes to consumers). Warragamba Dam on the Warragamba River is a
restricted area where water is trapped and stored for supply to much of
the Sydney metropolitan area. This water is appropriately tested, treated
and protected to ensure the health of consumers. (People who collect and
store their own water, for example in large tanks, must also ensure that
their water is fit for human consumption.)
The responsibility for water purity is regionally-based (Sydney Water has
responsibility for water supplied to the Sydney metropolitan area), but
the standards that apply to water purity and testing are set by the State
Government. The NSW government considered the breach of standards
in 1998, when the Sydney water supply was so seriously affected by
giardia and cryptosporidium that a full scale enquiry was held in an
attempt to find the cause to ensure that it does not occur again.
Other regulatory bodies (organisations or groups) control water
management in other areas. For example, in 1994 the Council of
Australian Governments (COAG), which is made up of all the states,
territories and the Commonwealth, decided that something had to be done
to improve the overall management of water. It was agreed that:
there should be a process for sharing between users and the
environment, for trading between users, for better defining a water
right to users and finally for recovering the real cost of storing and
supplying water to users.
Extract from Water Reforms Information for water users published by the
NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, Sydney. September, 1997.

24

Water for living

In 1995 the Murray Darling Basin Ministerial Council (MDBMC) agreed


to place a cap (or limit) on the extraction of water from inland rivers, not
previously regulated, at the 1993/94 levels. A number of major reforms
were instigated and developed as the result of this. Further reforms were
introduced in 1997 with the 'aim to achieve clean, healthy and productive
water use'. This is to be achieved through three goals, which are:
Goal 1 to better share the available water
Goal 2 to enhance support to the rural water sector
Goal 3 to reshape how water management is delivered in NSW.
Details and further information can be found in the publication called
Water Sharing the way forward. NSW Progress on the Water Reforms
1995 to 1998, published by and available from the NSW Department of
Land and Water Conservation, Sydney.
Another important document to help you understand water regulations
and management is Our Water Second Edition published by the
NSW Government, 1994.
You may need to access information about State and Federal Government
policies to complete the final exercise for Part 2. Some bodies that are
involved are listed below.

Sydney Water Board

Wyong Shire Council

Local Government Councils

Snowy Mountains Council

Planning NSW

Snowy Mountains Authority

Hunter Water Corporation

NSW Agriculture

Broken Hill Water Board

NSW Fisheries

Cobar Water Board

Gosford City Council

Murray Darling Basin Commission

Environment Protection Authority

NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation

You can access information about some of these bodies using links at:
http://www.lmpc.edu.au/Science

Part 2: Sources of water

25

Here is a key showing some policies involved in water catchment


(collecting and storing) management and how they are related.
Total catchment management

state soils
policy

state trees
policy

wetlands
management
policy

estuary
management
policy

wild and
scenic rivers
policy

river
recreation
policy

state rivers
and estuaries
policy

stream
management
policy

riparian
policy

environmental
sand and
flow
gravel extraction
policy
policy

state
groundwater
policy

riverine
plains
policy

water
quality
policy

Now answer these questions.


1

Why have government bodies developed water regulation policies?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

What is the Council of Australian Governments aim with regards to


water management?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

What are some goals within NSW for water reform?


______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

26

Water for living

List six bodies involved in water resource management.


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

List six state or local policies that are involved in total catchment
management.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.

A final note on regulation of water quality


State Government regulations regarding water pollution have been
strengthened and fines increased, in an attempt to increase water quality
for all types of water. This recognises that water quality in one place can
influence the water quality in another place.
Chemical analysis has played a large role in this, because it is involved in
assessing water quality and also in identifying the culprit or specific
source of pollution. Then the person or company responsible for
pollution can be prosecuted. This not only sends a clear message to the
community that water pollution is unacceptable; it also goes some way
towards paying the cost of the clean-up process.
An example of this was the large fine imposed on the owners of a tanker
that spilled a large amount of oil in Sydney Harbour in 1999.
Turn to Exercise 2.5 to investigate the government bodies responsible for
water quality in your local area.

Part 2: Sources of water

27

Summary

What have you learnt?


The water cycle consists of a number of processes (such as condensation,
precipitation and evaporation) that link different types of water. The two
main types of water are surface water and ground water. Both types of
water are needed to support life and therefore ecosystems.
The type of ecosystem that occurs is dependent on the amount and type
of water that is available. Plants and animals each have internal systems
that require a supply of water so that the organisms can survive. Both
plants and animals have evolved specific adaptations to allow them to
survive in arid areas.
The pollution of water sources can take many forms, and can be naturally
occurring or caused by humans. Disruption to a continuous water supply
can also occur naturally or be caused by humans. Both of these have a
dramatic impact on the organisms that depend on clean water for
survival, either physical or financial.

28

Water for living

Appendix

Darwin

Innisfail

Alice
Springs

barren
desert
spinifex
grass

mulga
scrub
spinifex grass

barren
desert

mulga scrub
salt bush

mulga

grasslands and
grassy woodland
desert vegetation
multi-stemmed Eucalypt
woodland scrub (mallee)

300

600

rainforest

kilometres

other forest

Australian vegetation zones.

abundant

average

little
Mean average rainfall.

Part 2: Sources of water

29

30

Water for living

Suggested answers

Some ideas included in a water cycle diagram


precipitation

evaporation

percolation

groundwater

Ground water
artesian water
(water that has risen by itself
from underground because
of water pressure)

bore, enabling ground water to rise to the surface

water table
porous and permeable rock
underground water is called ground water

Rainfall and vegetation types


1

Innisfail: abundant rainfall, rainforest


Darwin: average rainfall, forest
Alice Springs: little rainfall, desert.

Part 2: Sources of water

31

a) Rainforest vegetation appears in areas of abundant rainfall;


grasslands and grassy woodlands appear in areas of average
rainfall; desert vegetation appears in areas with little rainfall.

b) The type of vegetation present in an area appears to be


dependent on rainfall.

a) No
b) Underground water does not necessarily rise to the surface
above. Stored water is not available unless the water table is
high or there is a spring or bore.

Types of ecosystems
1

A desert ecosystem would have much fewer organisms than a


rainforest. In a rainforest there is plenty of water so there can be
many organisms, but in a desert there can only be a small number of
organisms because of the low amount of water.

A desert ecosystem would have fewer species of organisms than a


rainforest. Deserts only have species that are specially adapted to
low water availability whereas many more species can survive in
rainforest conditions. And because there are many more organisms
in a rainforest, there can also be more species. For example, a
rainforest may have ten species of frogs present whereas a desert
might have one only.

Natural atypical ecosystems


Atypical
ecosystem
location

What ecosystem
would you
expect here?

What ecosystem
actually occurs?

What is the
water supply for
the ecosystem?

Kings Canyon

desert

rainforest

river

Mantaranka Pool

desert

rainforest

spring

Some impacts of water use by humans

32

Artesian water is underground water that flows to the surface under


its own pressure.

Ground water is available from springs and bores. (In some areas
where the water table is high, ground water moves into surface
reservoirs such as rivers, lakes and wetlands.)

Surface water is available from rivers, lakes, dams and wetlands.

Water for living

a) Natural ecosystems may be altered or even destroyed if people


use water that is needed to sustain the ecosystems.

b) If excess water is removed at a point that affects the total


amount of water available, then unequal sharing of the water
occurs. This can result in some users who are dependent on that
water source being denied access, and possibly being unable to
maintain their source of income. For example, people who live
further along a river will be disadvantaged if farms or towns
upstream divert or use too much water from the river.

The use of underground water is regulated by law to prevent


problems occurring. Some surface water use is also regulated.

Water quality
1

Some water pollutants are: sewage; garbage; industrial waste;


chemical spills and dumping; fertiliser; volcanic ash; heavy metal
contamination; toxic waste and many more.

Organisms will not be able to function or reproduce as efficiently in


polluted water. Some may die and their species may become extinct.

The water pollution occurred because sewage was released into the
water at Port Stephens. This was permitted to occur because, at that
time, there were not laws to prevent it.

Saline soils
Saline soil is soil that has a higher concentration of salt than normal.

Acid sulfate soils

Rum Jungle

Mount Morgan
Tweed River
Richmond River
Clarence River
Macleay River
N

0 kilometres 500

Captains Flat
E

W
S

Mt Lyell

Part 2: Sources of water

33

Poorly drained soils


1

Some ways to prevent or control waterlogging and salt discharge


include:

appropriate drainage of irrigation water

not overwatering crops

planting deep-rooting trees that will lower the water table.

Other answers are also acceptable.


2

Methods used to prevent waterlogging and salt discharge are also


important in the rehabilitation process. Also important is the
removing of accumulated salt. This can be done by planting specific
types of vegetation that are able to effectively use the salt and
remove it from the soil. Salt bush and mulga are two types of
vegetation that can be used. Perhaps you know of others.

Overuse of underground aquifers may result in: secondary soil


salination; others having to drill deeper to gain water; ground
subsidence; land becoming unusable.

Water regulations

34

Regulations ensure that drinking water is safe and that water


pollution is minimised. Regulations also prevent overuse of water
resources. (Overuse could result in: downstream areas having little
water and lost production; agricultural areas becoming salt-affected;
less water being available for the natural ecosystems in waterways.)

COAGs aim is that there should be a process for sharing between


users and the environment, for trading between users, for better
defining a water right to users and finally for recovering the real cost
of storing and supplying water to users.

Some goals for water reform in NSW (for MDBMC) are to better
share the available water, to enhance support to the rural water sector
and to reshape how water management is delivered in NSW.

Some examples of bodies involved water resource management are


Sydney Water Board, Hunter Water Corporation, The Public Works
Department, Broken Hill Water Board, Cobar Water Board and
Gosford City Council.

Some policies to manage catchment areas are the state soils policy,
state trees policy, state rivers and estuary policy, water quality
policy, riparian policy and stream management policy.

Water for living

Exercises - Part 2

Exercises 2.1 to 2.5

Name: _________________________________

Exercise 2.1
Using the information in the text you have just read, draw lines to match
the following water terms with the appropriate explanations.
artesian water

a moving body of surface water

river

a continually waterlogged area where the


water table meets the surface

water table

underground water that must be pumped


to the surface if it is to be used

dam

a naturally occurring body of surface


water, formed where the water table meets
the surface

underground lake

porous or permeable underground rock


that can hold water

bore water

the upper surface of ground water

lake

an artificial body of surface water

wetland

a body of underground water, usually


within a cave

aquifer

underground water that naturally flows


to the surface

Part 2: Sources of water

35

Exercise 2.2
In this activity you are going to learn about the types of water in your local area
and present this information on a map.
You may need to use secondary sources to find the types of water in your area.
Secondary sources are books, maps or even other people. They give you
information that has been found or discovered by someone else.
If you know your area very well and you are familiar with the types of water
in your area, then you may not need to use secondary sources. If you rely on
your own observations or discoveries, then this is called primary information
and you are a primary source.
If you are not familiar with your local area, where will you look for information?
There are a number of places you can try. Local libraries usually have a
considerable amount of local information and librarians are trained to help you
to find what you need. Local councils, particularly in country areas, are also
a good source of local information. In smaller communities there are often
older people who know their area extremely well and may be able to help you.
The NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation is based in Sydney
and has regional offices throughout the state. They can be contacted by mail
or phone (check your phone book). If you have Internet access, you can find
information at their website from a link at:
http://www.lmpc.edu.au/Science
You might also like to look at the Streamwatch or Waterwatch sites as these
organisations also have regional offices. There are eighteen Catchment
Management Boards throughout NSW, which can also help you to locate
information about local water.
How big is my local area?
That really depends on where you are, how well you know your area and
how much information is available. You need to remember that this activity
is to be sent to your teacher and is not a major assessment activity. You
shouldnt spend more than three hours in total to complete this exercise.
If you live in an area where there is little for you to report, you may need
to think on a large scale and indicate your nearest river, stream or dam.
Even a trickle of water can be shown on your map. You may be lucky
enough to have a bore or dam close to home.

36

Water for living

How will you make your map?


The size of your local area will determine the extent of your map.
You will need to include:

the direction of north (N)

an estimate of scale

an indication on the map as to where you live

the names of any towns or rivers that you show

a key to indicate how you have shown the different types of water on
your map; this can be based on different colours or on different
forms of shading and hatching

an indication of the larger area or region that contains your local


area; for example, Sydney, north-west NSW or Southern Tablelands.

This is to be your map, so you need to draw it, not trace it from a
commercial map. Some people would call this a 'mud map'. It is an
approximate map for your area.
How big does your map need to be?
This is something that you can decide. You may choose to draw your
map on a normal A4 sheet of paper, or you may wish to use larger paper
or cardboard. You decide on the size and the complexity of your map.
Once you have collected your information about the different types of
water in your area, go ahead and draw your map. Remember, this is your
map, not an artistic masterpiece, so be realistic in what you expect to
achieve.
Use you own paper for this activity.
Unless your teacher has asked you not to send in your map, include it
along with the other exercises from Part 2. However, if you send in your
map, it would be a good idea to keep a copy as you may need to refer to
it when completing Part 6 of this module.

Part 2: Sources of water

37

Exercise 2.3
Summarise the cause, effect and management of the following
water issues. You can use information from Part 2 or locate your own
secondary sources.
1

ground or soil salinity


an affected area in Australia:_______________________________
cause(s):_______________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
effect(s): ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
management/possible solutions: ____________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

acid sulfate soils


an affected area in Australia:_______________________________
cause(s):_______________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
effect(s): ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
management/possible solutions: ____________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

38

Water for living

Exercise 2.4
You need to use information and ideas from throughout Part 2 to
complete this exercise. You might like to plan it on the bottom half of
this page before you present your answer on the next page.
The discussion topic is:
discuss the impact of continued access to different types of surface and
ground water on the number and range of living things in an area.
A discussion means that you must identify issues and provide points or
evidence for and/or against these issues.
Look back through Part 2 to find issues about how organisms in natural
and created environments are affected by the availability of water.
Then look for issues about how organisms are affected when water
availability changes. And does it make a difference if the available water
is surface water or ground water?
Present your answer on the following page.

Part 2: Sources of water

39

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Exercise 2.5
Find out which bodies or government departments are responsible for
your local water, what their responsibilities are and what geographical
area they are responsible for.
The answers should be brief. You may have this information from your
research in Exercise 2.2 when you made a map of water in your local area.
If you don't have this information, your local council, local library or
local water provider would be a good place to start.
Your area: ________________________________________________
The government bodies responsible for water quality:
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Source of information:
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

40

Water for living

Gill Sans Bold

Senior Science
Preliminary Course
Stage 6

Water for living


Part 3: Chemicals in water

0
20

er
b
to T S
c
O EN
g
in D M
t
a
r EN
o
p
or AM
c
n

Senior Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course


Water for living

Water and living things

Sources of water

Chemicals in water

Water pollutants

Water treatment technology

Water investigations

Plants

Humans at work

Local environment

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................... 2
Fertilisers................................................................................... 4
What are fertilisers? .............................................................................4
Fertiliser and plant growth ...................................................................6
Fertiliser use in Australia....................................................................10

Herbicides ............................................................................... 12
What are herbicides? .........................................................................12
Problems with herbicides ...................................................................13

Pesticides................................................................................ 14
What are pesticides?..........................................................................14
Pesticides and safety .........................................................................17

Household chemicals .............................................................. 20


Household wastes..............................................................................21

Summary................................................................................. 23
Suggested answers................................................................. 25
Exercises Part 3 ................................................................... 27

Part 3: Chemicals in water

Introduction

In Part 3, you will learn about some chemicals that are used on plants,
both on a commercial scale and in the average garden. These chemicals
are applied to help plants grow and develop to produce food, flowers or
foliage for decoration or plant material for some other purpose.
Different chemicals have different purposes but the ones used on plants
can be broadly classified into three groups: fertilisers, herbicides and
pesticides. You will learn about each of these groups of chemicals and
how they may impact on water systems.
You will plan and conduct an experiment to find out how fertilisers affect
plant growth. Youll also use first-hand investigations to learn more
about household wastes that dissolve in water and how household wastes
in water influence the growth and health of plants.
In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to:

define the terms fertiliser, herbicide and pesticide and explain, using
examples, why each is used in the Australian context

identify the conditions under which fertiliser and pesticides may be


carried into water systems

assess the impact on water systems of the release of substances


produced or used by households, such as:

oils

detergents

bleaches and toilet cleaners

insoluble materials

sewage.

Water for living

In this part you will be given opportunities to:

plan, choose equipment and resources for, and perform a first hand
investigation to determine the effect of various concentrations of
fertiliser on plant growth.

Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW,


October 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found on the Board's
website at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html

Part 3: Chemicals in water

Fertilisers

What plant chemicals are you familiar with?


List some that you have used, or know of, and state why each is used.
Put a tick beside the ones that are fertilisers.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Hopefully, you have discovered that you already know some things about
fertilisers (and about herbicides and pesticides).

What are fertilisers?


Fertilisers are substances that are added to soil to provide nutrients
essential for plant growth. Fertilisers provide elements that plants need,
which may not be present in sufficient quantities in soil.
The main chemical elements required by plants are nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). There are other elements that plants
require in smaller amounts and these are referred to as trace elements.
Types of fertilisers include:

chemical fertilisers, which are also called artificial fertilisers;


they are complex chemicals that are manufactured

organic fertilisers, which are animal products that are usually made
from treated waste materials, such as animal faeces. They are
natural complex chemicals

mineral rock fertilisers, such as phosphate rock, dolomite and


gypsum, which are simply crushed rocks. They are also natural.

Water for living

Chemical elements present in fertilisers occur as ions. Ions are charged


particles. This is important because, as ions, elements readily dissolve in
water and are able to enter the plants root system.
Look at the list of fertilisers and their chemical composition below.
Notice the different combinations of elements present within these
complex chemicals.

Natural
fertilisers

Commercial
fertilisers

Fertiliser trade name

Chemical composition

dolomite

MgCO3

gypsum

CaSO4.2H2O

phosphate

PO4 3-

sulfate of ammonia

(NH 4)2SO4

urea

(NH2)2 CO

single superphosphate

Ca3(PO4 )2 and CaSO4

triple superphosphate

Ca 3(PO4)2 and (NH4)3PO4

sulfate of potash

K2 SO4

basic slag

Ca3 (PO4)2, CaSiO3 and CaO


and trace elements

Name the different chemical elements, important to plant growth, that are
found in fertilisers.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answers.

Part 3: Chemicals in water

Fertiliser and plant growth


You will be carrying out an experiment to determine the effect of various
concentrations of a fertiliser on plant growth.
The reason that fertilisers are used is to make plants grow better and bigger.
This activity will allow you to see this happen. You will need to select a
suitable plant for this activity. The plants could be already growing in an
area where you are allowed to add fertiliser to carry out this investigation.
Alternatively you may need to plant seeds to obtain a sufficient number of
the same type of plant.
Step 1: Finding suitable plants
Try to find some small young plants of the same type and at the same
stage of growth in an area where you would be allowed to add different
concentrations of fertiliser.
Alternatively, if you decide to plant seeds, you will need to set up a
number of containers to hold the plants and different concentrations of
fertiliser. Plastic ice-cream containers, baby food jars, yoghurt pots or
jam jars might be useful. (The number will depend on the number of
fertiliser concentrations you wish to test.)
Step 2: Obtaining a suitable fertiliser
Look in your garden or storage shed, ask a neighbour or you may need to
buy some. If you are purchasing fertiliser, buy the cheapest, smallest
amount that you can, unless you or someone you live with is a dedicated
gardener and will use a larger amount. If you have access to an
agricultural fertiliser, use that.
Note the name of the fertiliser and read the safety instructions on the
pack before you begin. Keep the packaging and instructions for later use.
Step 3: How many concentrations of fertiliser will you test?
You decide, but you need to test at least two different concentrations to
be able to make any form of comparison.
You also need a plant in this experiment that receives water only. This
test is called a control because it shows what happens when no fertiliser
is added. You can compare your other tests with it.
The different concentrations of fertiliser solution will be the independent
variable. (This is the variable you are choosing to change.)

Water for living

The growth rate of the plants will be the dependent variable. (This is the
variable you observe to see if it depends on the independent variable.)
There will be other conditions (or variables) that you will keep constant
for your experiment. These variables could affect your results if you did
not keep them the same. These variables can be called controlled or
fixed variables.
List some fixed variables below.
(These are conditions that you will keep the same.)
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answers.

Step 4: What fertiliser concentrations will you use?


You could discuss this question with your teacher, nursery staff or an avid
gardener to establish the concentrations of fertiliser you will use.
Another option is to look at the packaging or written instructions for your
chosen fertiliser and identify the recommended concentration. If this is
written as weight per volume, for example grams per litre, you will need to
work out how to convert it to something you can use, perhaps teaspoons
per bucket. Once you have identified the recommended concentration,
you need to think in terms of higher concentrations. If you test only two
concentrations you could consider using the recommended concentration
and double the recommended concentration.
Alternately, you could work out your own concentrations.
Dont forget your control!
Step 5: How long will you run the experiment for?
Depending on the specific conditions under which you work, you may
need a week or more before you see any changes to the plants, so you
will need to allow a period of perhaps a fortnight to see a difference in
the effects of the different fertiliser concentrations.

Part 3: Chemicals in water

The time required will be influenced by the season when you carry out
the experiment. Some grow more rapidly in hot weather while others
prefer cold.
Step 6: Where will you carry out your experiment?
If you are using plants in containers you need to find an area that is:

not too hot; otherwise you will lose water

not too cold; otherwise the whole process will be too slow

protected from wind; otherwise you will lose water due to evaporation

protected from rain; otherwise water will be added to the experiment.

Remember, you must try to keep everything in the experiment constant,


apart from the initial concentrations of the fertiliser solution (and the
plant growth you are observing).
Step 7: How will you measure the plant growth and note your results?
You need to devise a way of recording this growth such as height
reached. Be sure to specify how you do this in your practical report.
Here are some points to think about before you set up your experiment.

If the weather is hot and/or dry, be careful that your plants or


containers do not suffer major water loss.

Label each plant or container with the concentration of fertiliser


used.

If you make up large amounts of various concentrations of fertiliser,


label each carefully and record the details about each concentration.

How will you dispose of any excess fertiliser solution and the plants
when you finish the experiment? Since fertiliser is used to make
plants grow, what effect will it have on the area you use for
disposal?

Which safety factors will you need to consider to ensure your


own wellbeing? Check the directions on the packaging again.
How would you advise someone else to use the product safely?

Step 8: Carry out your experiment


Record your observations in Exercise 3.1 at the back of this part.
Complete the Practical report below.

Water for living

Step 9: Dismantle your experiment and dispose of waste materials


The first part of your practical report is given below. The second part of
your practical report is to be completed in the exercise section at the back
of this part. Complete the details specific to your particular experiment,
as indicated in the report.

Practical report
Aim
To determine the effect of various concentrations of fertiliser on plant
growth
Method
Set up the plants with different concentrations of fertiliser (including one
control). The fertiliser concentrations tested are:
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Conditions under which the experiment is run:


_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Turn to Exercise 3.1 at the back of this part to record your results and
conclusions for this experiment.

Part 3: Chemicals in water

Fertiliser use in Australia


Soil forms when rocks weather on the surface of Earth. In most
circumstances, soil contains enough of all of the elements that native
plants need to survive.
Soils in most places in the world are also suitable for growing
commercial crops. These soils do not need fertilisers. But in Australia,
fertilisers are usually essential for the commercial production of crops
and even for suburban garden success.

Why are fertilisers needed?


Repeated cropping reduces the essential elements over time, causing crop
yields to decrease. The obvious answer to this problem is to add the
missing elements and so fertiliser is used.
As the global population increases so too does the demand for food and
thus the need for maintaining soil fertility. Again, the use of fertilisers is
seen as a solution to enable the agricultural industry to increase
productivity to meet this demand.
Australian soils present a further problem old age! Australian soils
have been supporting natural vegetation for thousands of millions of
years and so most of the elements needed by plants have been removed.
Areas of Western Australia are some of the oldest places on Earth, so it is
not surprising that the chemicals necessary for plant growth have been
used up or leached out of the soil. Young parts of the Earths surface,
such as Indonesian islands, are geologically active with volcanoes adding
soil nutrients that allow extensive plant growth.
Australian native plants are adapted to the low levels of soil nutrients;
however few native plants are used for cropping. Intensive crop growing
requires more nutrients than are present in leached soils so fertilisers are
added. Because large quantities of fertiliser are needed, artificial
fertilisers are widely used in Australia.
Fertilisers can be applied in various ways. It can be: added to the soil
prior to planting; applied to the soil with sowing; applied to plants and
soil after germination; applied as a top dressing during growth phases;
injected into soil as a gas; sprayed from a plane (sometimes called
cropdusting); sprayed from a vehicle moving along the line of planting.
In all cases, the fertiliser must be water soluble so that the plants can use
the elements in the fertiliser.

10

Water for living

Now answer these questions.


1

When are fertilisers used on Australian soils?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Why are fertilisers necessary in these situations?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Indicate whether each statement below is true (T) or false (F).


The use of fertilisers in Australia is necessary because:
a) Australian soils are extremely old.

b) rainfall is low.

c) essential plant nutrients have been removed by


natural processes.

d) soil nutrients are not replaced by natural processes


because the continent is not geologically active.

e) humans have used the soil for so long that no


nutrients remain.

Check your answers.


Fertilisers help plants to grow by providing elements that may be lacking
in the soil, but the use of fertilisers does not guarantee a successful crop.
Other problems arise (for example, weeds and pests such as insects) that
can reduce yield.
More chemicals are used to remedy these problems, as you will soon
discover.

Part 3: Chemicals in water

11

Herbicides

Do you already know about herbicides? If you live in an agricultural


area, you probably know of quite a few herbicides. If you are not
familiar with agricultural chemicals, you may know about herbicides
from garden uses or from advertisements. Spraying the lawn to eliminate
bindii or dandelion is a common urban weekend activity!

What are herbicides?


Herbicide is the name given to chemicals that are used to kill or control
unwanted plants or weeds.
What constitutes a weed will vary according to what is being grown.
If you are growing roses on a commercial basis then self-sown tomato
plants would be weeds but if you were growing tomatoes you would
consider unwanted roses as weeds.
It doesnt matter what it is grown, weeds can be a problem. Weeds
compete with the crop being grown for all of the crops essential needs:
water, light, space and nutrients in the soil. In addition, they can attract
and harbour pests and diseases that can even be passed on to a new crop
grown in the next season.
How are weeds managed? By the use of herbicides, which are either
sprayed onto the plants or soil. As with fertilisers, successful herbicides
must be water soluble for plants to absorb the chemicals.
There are a number of different types of herbicides, including:

12

total herbicides kill all plants

selective herbicides kill only plants they were developed to kill

translocated herbicides absorbed into plant, and kill from the inside

residual herbicides applied to the soil and remain in the soil to kill
plants as they germinate.

Water for living

Problems with herbicides


Herbicides are poisonous substances they kill plants. They may or may
not affect other living things, but it is important to keep their use as
limited as possible.
For example, Agent Orange is a herbicide that was extensively used as
a defoliant (to remove all foliage or leaves) during the Vietnam War.
This was a mixture of a number of herbicides and was very effective in
this role. Unfortunately people who came in contact with it also
absorbed it and ongoing health problems have been recorded in
Vietnam veterans together with birth defects in their children. Exposure
to Agent Orange has been suggested as a cause of these disabilities.
This substance is now banned from use.
And because herbicides dissolve in water, they can be carried into
surface and ground water. (You thought about this problem with regard
to fertilisers in Part 2.) This can cause unwanted effects of the herbicides
in other places.
You read before that large amounts of fertilisers are used in Australia to
meet demands for food. If fertilisers are applied to increase the yield and
quality of the crop being grown, the number and quality of the weeds
will also increase because fertilisers do not target particular plants.
So Australian reliance of fertilisers goes hand-in-hand with high use of
herbicides.
Find out about some herbicides.
1

Make a list of herbicides and record any safety warnings that appear on
the packaging of these. You may need to visit a supermarket, plant
nursery or agricultural supplier.
Note: You are not being asked to buy these herbicides, only to extract
information from their labels.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

What effects could herbicides have on aquatic organisms and


humans if they enter water bodies or water sources?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Part 3: Chemicals in water

13

Pesticides

Pesticides are another group of common chemicals that have the potential
to enter and pollute Earths water resources.

What are pesticides?


Pesticide is a general term for a chemical that kills pests. Pesticides are
often thought of as targeting animals, but herbicides are sometimes
considered as a kind of pesticide for plants.
Pesticides can be classified in different ways. One way is to classify
them according to their intended use. Some of these are listed below.

insecticides target insects


miticides target mites
rodenticides target rodents (rats and mice)
fungicides target fungi
molluscicides target snails and slugs
nematicides target nematodes (round worms)
ovicides target eggs of insects and mites.

Pesticide labels clearly state the organisms that they target. But there are
other ways to classify pesticides.

Chemical classification of pesticides


Pesticides can be classified according to their chemical composition and
structure. Some of the different pesticide classifications are:
biological
organophosphates
inorganic
nitrogenous.
organochlorines

14

Water for living

Here is a summary about some uses and dangers of these chemicals.


Highlight or underline information related to safety as you read pages 15
and 16.

Biological pesticides
These are often referred to as natural pesticides. Probably the best
known of this group is the chemical pyrethrin, which is extracted from
the pyrethrum daisy. This is very safe and effective to use, but also very
expensive to produce. Pyrethrin is now produced synthetically and has
been used as a selling point for some household insect sprays.
Other methods of controlling pests are sometimes called biological
pesticides, even though they do not directly involve chemicals.
Here are two examples.

Ingard cotton has been developed to target the Heleothis moth.


Genes in the cotton plant cause it to make a chemical that kills
Heliothis larvae when they feed on these cotton plants. The
chemical is made by the plant and stays inside the plant; no
chemicals are added and Heleothis is the only pest affected.

Chinese gardeners used ants to control aphids, building soil bridges


or ramps between trees to provide an easy route for the ants.

Such methods are very safe.

Inorganic pesticides
When the elements hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and carbon (C) combine,
they form compounds that are called organic compounds. This term was
originally used to mean the chemicals common to organisms.
(The pesticides on page 16 are also examples of organic compounds.)
All other chemical compounds are referred to as inorganic compounds.
Inorganic pesticides include:

borax (Na2B4 O7), which is used to kill ants and cockroaches

fluoride compounds, such as sodium fluoride (NaF), which prevents


certain enzymes from working

lead arsenate (PbHAsO4), an insoluble enzyme blocker that has a


long active life

sodium chlorate (NaClO3), which is used as a weed killer


(Weeds can also be considered pests.)

sodium fluoroacetate, or 1080, which is used to kill rabbits and


dingoes. It is a non-selective mammal killer.

Part 3: Chemicals in water

15

Organochlorines
Because organic molecules are very similar to those in living things,
they are readily absorbed by organisms. The addition of chlorine to
organic molecules can make them poisonous. These two factors make
many organochlorines suitable as pesticides.
Probably the best known organochlorine is DDT.
The name DDT is an abbreviation of the old
chemical name for this compound:
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.

Cl

Cl

H
C
Cl

Cl

Cl

As an insecticide, DDT is very successful because


it acts on an insects nervous system function by
preventing the transmission of nerve impulses.

Chemical structure of DDT.

DDT is absorbed by contact with the chemical or by ingestion (eating).


It is insoluble in water but soluble in fat. This means that, once
absorbed, DDT stays stored inside an organism in its fat. The levels of
DDT can build up to high, dangerous concentrations.
DDT is now banned in many countries due to observations of problems
in some birds. High levels of DDT were discovered in birds of prey and
it was noticed that their eggs broke soon after being laid, causing the
death of the chick. Since the long-term effects on humans were not
known, a number of countries, including Australia, considered it best to
ban the use of DDT.
Other organochlorides include Lindane, Chlordane, Dieldrin and
Aldrin. Some of these are no longer available in Australia.

Organophosphates
All of these pesticides are based on phosphorus (P) which is joined to
either sulfur (S) or oxygen (O) at two sites, one using a double bond and
the other a single bond, and to two water-attracting groups. The waterattracting groups make them easily absorbed by organisms. Once in the
organism the organophosphate breaks down producing a part which
interferes with operation of the nervous system.

Nitrogenous pesticides
These pesticides contain the element nitrogen (N),
usually with a structure based on carbamic acid.
They are moderately toxic poisons and work in a
similar way to organophosphate insecticides on
the operation of an insects nervous system.

16

H O C N H
O H
Structure of carbamic acid.

Water for living

Pesticides and safety


You can see that pesticides have both advantages and disadvantages.

Living with pests


Most people have experienced unwanted pests at some time in their life,
maybe mice, cockroaches, mosquitoes, termites or locusts. The need for
pesticides is understandable. Think about the problems in everyday life
if you had to live with even just one of these pests in plague proportions
for any length of time!
For farmers and all other parts of the food industry, effective pest
management is absolutely essential for the provision of adequate amounts
of foodstuffs or raw materials that meet Health Department regulations.
It is important to realise that the property that makes the organically
based pesticides so effective against pests also enables them to be readily
absorbed by other organisms, including humans, and so great care must
be taken when they are used.
Pesticides can be in either a liquid or solid form, depending on the
purpose. Think about the pesticides that are used around the home.
Snail bait and rat bait are usually solid, in pellets, but insecticides are
usually solutions, such as fly spray and surface spray for cockroaches.
Try these questions.
1

What pest(s) have you had to deal with in the past?


_____________________________________________________

What pesticide(s) did you use?


_____________________________________________________

How successful was its use?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

What did you learn about pests or pesticides from this experience?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Part 3: Chemicals in water

17

Checking safety directions


List some safety precautions for storing pesticides.
Again, you may need to visit a place where these chemicals are sold to find
these details. But take care when handling! There are good reasons for the
safety warnings!
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Pesticides (and fertilisers and herbicides) in water


You have learnt that most people think that fertilisers, herbicides and
pesticides are vitally important (some people would say absolutely
essential) for the production of an adequate quantity and quality of
foodstuffs and raw materials. To be effective, many of these substances
are water soluble so as to be absorbed by the organism to be controlled.
The water solubility of these chemicals can also cause problems within
the environment, both on the small or local scale (such as your garden)
and on the larger or regional scale (such as the cotton growing area of
northern NSW).
If vegetation is sprayed with one of the chemicals that you have just
learnt about, will all of the chemical applied go onto the vegetation for
which it is intended? Did you answer no? Where will the rest of the
chemical land? If you said on or in the soil, you would be correct.
If you said possibly on an adjacent area, you may also be correct, but
large scale agricultural spraying takes place only under specific
environmental conditions, so that it doesnt drift. (Agricultural spray is
too expensive for the farmer to allow it to drift to another property.)
What will happen if it rains shortly after an area has been sprayed?
Much of the chemical will be washed off the vegetation and into or onto
the soil. As you learnt earlier, run-off can enter the soil and then the
local stream or river system or even the water table.
Consider your backyard, wherever you live. If you apply fertiliser or
pesticide to your garden or property, where will the excess or the run-off
go immediately after it leaves your yard? What about later? Where will
it eventually end up?

18

Water for living

Complete the following tasks. You may need to think back to Part 1 of this
module, where you drew a map of water in your area.
1

Run-off from my garden goes initially to _____________________


and ultimately to ________________________________________ .

Give an example of a natural way that these chemicals could be


prevented from entering the water system.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Find out about some other ways to prevent these chemicals from
entering the local water system.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

How can the most efficient use of these chemicals be achieved?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.


Throughout this part, you have been thinking about safe and appropriate
use of fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides.
Write your own set of guidelines for the general use of these chemicals,
with an emphasis on environmentally responsible use.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Turn to Exercise 3.2 at the back of this part to demonstrate your


understanding of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides.

Part 3: Chemicals in water

19

Household chemicals

Fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides are not the only substances that can
impact on water. Have you ever thought about the range of chemicals
that go down the sink?
Look at the list of common household chemicals below and place a tick
beside those that are used in your household.

laundry detergent
dishwasher detergent
car washing detergent
soap
shampoo
toothpaste
toilet cleaners
disinfectant
bleach
bathroom cleaners
window cleaner
chemical drain cleaners
car engine oil
cooking oil
furniture polish or furniture oil
kitchen detergent

Where do most of these substances go after you have used them?


Where does any spilt material go? Did you, by any chance, say down
the sink or into the waste water system?
That is exactly where some of these should not go!

20

Water for living

Household wastes
Here are some short activities to get you thinking about household waste
in water.
Aim
To observe the effectiveness of water as a solvent for different substances
Equipment
You will need:

a small clear glass jar with a lid; for example, a jam jar,
Vegemite jar or baby food jar

a tablespoon of: oil (such as cooking oil, castor oil, baby oil,
engine oil), bleach, shampoo, laundry detergent.

Method
1

Half fill your jar with water.

Add oil.

Shake well and observe.

Record your observations in the table below.

Repeat for bleach, shampoo and laundry detergent.

Results
Record your observations in the table below.
Substance tested

Part 3: Chemicals in water

Observation: did it dissolve?

21

Conclusion
From your observations, what effect do you think large amounts of these
wastes would have on the water system?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Look at the labels on the containers of bleach, laundry detergent and oil.
Do they give any information or recommendation regarding safe
disposal, safe use or accidental poisoning? List any relevant information
you found.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Does this information change in any way your thoughts on the use and
disposal of these chemicals? Explain.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Think about what else goes down the sink, down the toilet or into the
storm water system. List some of them below.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Did you list food scraps, tissues, cottonwool balls, sewage, pet faeces,
urine, garden rubbish such as grass scraps and flower petals, bird
droppings, pet food scraps and more as well?
Think about what goes down the drain when you shower or bathe
especially when you are really dirty, wash a load of really dirty clothes or
you wash up for a family after a roast dinner! Ugh! You wouldnt
dream of drinking or washing in that waste water would you, but where
have you sent it, and where will it ultimately end up? Think back to the
water cycle, and consider the problems that arise from thousands of
households contributing their waste water to the system.

22

Water for living

Summary

List fifteen words which prompt you to think about things you learnt
in this part.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Quickly look through this part again and record another five things
you learnt.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Write down three ideas introduced in this part that you do not
entirely understand.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Part 3: Chemicals in water

23

What will you do to help your understanding of these ideas?

talk to a member of the community


talk to your teacher
go to the library
access information from the Internet
talk to another student

Think about the type of questions you would expect in an exam on


the areas you did not entirely understand in question 3. Would the
questions be specific? Would you be able to answer them
adequately with your current knowledge?
Write down three exam type questions and their answers based on
the information you are unsure about from question 3. (This is to
help you to improve your knowledge and subsequent exam results.)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

24

Water for living

Suggested answers

What are fertilisers?


Fertilisers may contain a variety of elements. The ones that plants
particularly require for growth are: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulfur (S). Silicon (Si)
also occurs in small amounts in fertilisers. The other elements in fertilisers
are important for helping the plant to absorb the elements it needs. These
elements include: carbon (C), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H).

Fertiliser and plant growth


The fixed variables would include: the type of plant, the age and condition of
the plants used, the amount of light received, temperature and the volume of
fertiliser solution added each time. (This is the total amount of solution
added, which is different from the concentration. The concentration is the
amount of solute per litre of solution.)

Why are fertilisers needed?


1

Fertilisers are used in Australia to improve crop yields on farms and


gardens. (They are not needed for native plants because these plants
are adapted to the low nutrient levels of Australian soils.)

Australian soils are nutrient depleted through old age and repeated
cropping. Fertilisers are needed to provide elements that plants need
for good growth that are not available in the soil.

a) T
b) F
c) T
d) T
e) F (There are few nutrients remaining, not no nutrients.)

Part 3: Chemicals in water

25

Pesticides (and fertilisers and herbicides) in water


1

Garden run-off usually goes into nearby gutters or a neighbouring


property. From there, run-off usually goes into stormwater drains in
suburban areas, or into rural creeks.

Run-off is prevented from entering water systems when absorbed by


an ecosystem, such as wetland, shrubs or other vegetation.

Some examples of ways that garden chemicals can be prevented


from entering water systems are:

physical barriers which prevent water from escaping

organic chemicals can be used which break down before


entering the water systems

chemicals can be used only in dry weather to minimise run-off.

You may have thought of others, as there more ways.


4

26

Chemicals can be used efficiently by: applying chemicals only to


specific areas; applying chemicals as per instructions; physical
removal of weeds and other pests before application of chemicals.

Water for living

Exercises - Part 3

Exercises 3.1 to 3.3

Name: _________________________________

Exercise 3.1
1

Name the fertiliser you used.


_____________________________________________________

What is the chemical composition of this fertiliser, or the elements


present in it? (Look on the packet or at the directions for use.)
_____________________________________________________

Draw up a table to show the concentration of fertiliser used in


each container and the relative growth of plants that occurred.
Indicate how plant growth was measured.

Part 3: Chemicals in water

27

Write your conclusion. (It should match the aim on page 9.)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Discuss the safe and environmentally considerate way that you


disposed of excess fertiliser solution at the end of the investigation.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Discuss safety issues involved in working with or handling


fertilisers.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

28

Water for living

Exercise 3.2
You have been learning about why fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides
are used in Australia. You have also considered how these are used
safely so that non-targeted organisms are unaffected, and how they can
be prevented from entering surface and ground water reserves.
For each group of chemicals (fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides):
a)

write a definition

b) briefly describe why it is used


c)

name two examples that you know of

d) describe any safety precautions that are necessary during its use.
(You can refer to general safety instructions that you have learnt
from packaging or other procedures that you think are important.)
Fertilisers
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Pesticides
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Part 3: Chemicals in water

29

Herbicides
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Exercise 3.3 Information from the Internet


This exercise requires internet access if you do not have access from
home try a school, TAFE, public library or Internet Caf.
You need to search out information to assess the impact on water systems
of the release of sewage (wastewater) and two different types of
substances produced or used by households.
You may be able to find a web site listed for your local water supplier
that has information about the impact of release of household substances.
If not, you could try the Sydney Water web site:
www.sydneywater.com.au
Sydney Water, which supplies the Sydney, Blue Mountains and Illawarra
regions, has special concerns about:

the organophosphate pesticides chlorpyrifos and diazinon

solid, insoluble materials which people put into toilets rather than a
bathroom bin.

Select a suitable Internet web site and report on the release of sewage and
two different types of household substances and their impact on water
systems. You can use the two examples above or any other substances of
concern. If you use the Sydney Water site note that there is a search
option available in the top right hand corner of the home (opening) page.
Web site used: _____________________________________________

30

Water for living

a) Report on sewage

b) Report on substance 1 ____________________________________

c) Report on substance 2 ____________________________________

Part 3: Chemicals in water

31

Gill Sans Bold

Senior Science
Preliminary Course
Stage 6

Water for living


Part 4: Water pollutants

0
0
2

er
b
to T S
c
O EN
g
in D M
t
a
r EN
o
o rp A M
c
n

Senior Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course


Water for living

Water and living things

Sources of water

Chemicals in water

Water pollutants

Water treatment technology

Water investigations

Plants

Humans at work

Local environment

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................... 2
Nutrient pollution ....................................................................... 4
Phosphates...........................................................................................4
Nitrates..................................................................................................6
Algal blooms .........................................................................................8

Leaks and spills....................................................................... 10


Heavy metals (lead and mercury) ..................................................10
Landfill and leaching ..........................................................................13

Problems from processes........................................................ 16


Accumulated sediment.......................................................................16

Water pollution solutions ......................................................... 18


Testing water quality ..........................................................................18
Creating areas to clean water............................................................20
Using less-polluting alternatives ........................................................21
Changing polluting practices..............................................................26

Appendices ............................................................................. 29
Suggested answers................................................................. 33
Exercises Part 4 ................................................................... 39

Part 4: Water pollutants

Introduction

In Part 3, you learnt about why fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides


are used, and how they can pollute and damage ecosystems and water
reserves. You thought about effects of waste water from homes too.
But these are only some of the substances that can be pollutants.
In Part 4, you will look at more pollutants and at situations that cause
unwanted effects on ecosystems. Youll learn about problems they cause
and consider some pollution solutions.
In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to:

identify the use of and impact on water systems of substances


such as:

heavy metals (lead and mercury)

phosphates

nitrates

identify the impact on aquatic ecosystems of factors such as:

accumulated sediment

leaching from tips

bioaccumulation.

describe some of the strategies that households can use to reduce


water pollution

identify conditions under which algal blooms may occur in the


rivers of New South Wales

describe impacts of algal blooms in rivers

discuss alternative strategies to the use of chemicals in agriculture to


reduce water pollution.

Water for living

In this part you will be given opportunities to:

process information from secondary sources on methods of bioassay


for water purity

gather information from secondary sources to identify causes and


impacts of algal blooms in waterways in NSW.

Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW,


October 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found on the Board's
website at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html

Part 4: Water pollutants

Nutrient pollution

In Part 3, you learnt about the elements usually found in fertilisers.


Two of these elements are phosphorus (P), commonly present as
phosphate ions (PO43-), and nitrogen (N), typically present in
nitrates (NO3-). Fertilisers must be used carefully so that phosphates
and nitrates are not leached into waterways where they could cause
pollution.
But fertilisers are not the only sources of phosphates and nitrates.
In this section, you will learn about some other ways that pollution by
phosphates and nitrates can occur, and how this pollution impacts on
water systems.

Phosphates
Phosphates occur naturally in rocks and soil. Normally these are fairly
insoluble and only small amounts dissolve in water and can be taken up
by plants.
Phosphates are particularly important for plant growth (which is why
they are used as fertilisers). They form part of the structure of genes and
are involved in energy transfer within cells. Animals also need
phosphates and they obtain them in the food they eat. Animal wastes,
such as faeces, and the decaying bodies of dead organisms return
phosphates to soil and to waterways.
In soil and waterways, soluble phosphates can react to form insoluble
phosphates, and so the amount of phosphorus available to plants remains
low but adequate.
And so phosphorus is used over and over in natural systems. The cycling
of phosphorus is called the phosphorus cycle. Part of that cycle,
that relates to the cycling of phosphates only, can be called the
phosphate cycle.

Water for living

Human activity can interfere with the phosphate cycle within ecosystems,
particularly within water systems. Look at the examples in the following
diagram.

fertilisers added
to crops
organic
phosphate

erosion
of soils

wastes and decay


of plants and animals

household
detergents
phosphate
in water
phosphate
in soil

The phosphate cycle

Disturbances caused by humans

Consider the four ways shown that people add extra phosphates to
waterways. Try to think of an example for each way that you may be
contributing phosphates to water systems.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answers.

Part 4: Water pollutants

Are your detergents phosphate-rich?


Collect together some detergents, shampoos and other washing agents
used in your household.
1

Read the labels and list their names in the appropriate columns of
the following table.
Detergents containing
phosphates

Detergents not containing


phosphates

Will you use detergents that contain phosphates in the future?


Why or why not?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Nitrates
Nitrates are very soluble in water. They are readily formed in soil and
waterways and can be directly taken up and used by plants.
Plants need the nitrogen in nitrates to make proteins, including proteins
needed for cell structures, DNA, hormones and enzymes. Animals
obtain the nitrogen they need by eating protein from plants and other
animals. Animal wastes, especially urine (which contains nitrogen-rich
urea), and the decaying bodies of dead organisms return nitrates to soil
and to waterways.
And so nitrogen is used over and over in natural systems; this makes up
the nitrogen cycle.

Water for living

lightning

nitrogen gas in atmosphere N2

nitric acid
HNO3

nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in soil
and root nodules
of legumes

nitrates
NO3

denitrifying
bacteria
plant
death

nitrifying
bacteria
nitrites
NO2

ammonium
salts NH4+

animal animal waste, for


death
example, urea
(NH2)2CO

decomposition by
bacteria and fungi

ammonia gas
in soil NH3

The nitrogen cycle. Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen compounds in soil into
nitrate ions while denitrifying bacteria change nitrate ions to nitrogen gas.

Use information in the nitrogen cycle diagram above to help you to answer
these questions.
1

What are the two ways that nitrates are taken out of the soil?

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

What are the four ways that nitrogen (in different chemical forms)
enters the soil?

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

Part 4: Water pollutants

Why do growing meat crops (such as sheep and cattle), pet faeces
dropped on paths and roadways, and overflowing sewerage systems
all contribute to high nitrate levels?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Check your answers.

Algal blooms
You have learnt about ways that phosphates and nitrates occur naturally
in ecosystems. You have also identified ways that humans contribute to
these levels. The most obvious effects of phosphate and nitrate pollution
occur when they are carried into water systems.
As you know, phosphates and nitrates promote plant growth, but
unfortunately these nutrients are not selective and promote the growth
of all plants with which they come in contact.
Algae are found in most water systems. They show a remarkable
increase in growth when only a small amount of fertiliser is used.
(You should have found this is your experiment on fertilisers.)
When an excess of phosphates and nitrates enters the water system,
an algal bloom may occur. This means that the populations of algae and
cyanobacteria become huge, covering the surface of the waterway and
often clogging water below the surface.
Because there are so many algae and cyanobacteria, there is a sudden drop
in the amount of oxygen available for other organisms, so they die. The
algae and cyanobacteria may also die, turning the waterway into a large
rotting mass, with very high concentrations of nutrients still present.
eutrophication
(excess nutrients
in water, especially
nitrogen and
phosphorus)

algal bloom
algae and cyanobacteria
grow prolifically
algae

death of ecosystem
dissolved oxygen
used up by algae and
cyanobacteria, and then
by other bacteria that
rot away the many
dead organisms

cyanobacteria

waterway is choked with


weed; pea soup appearance
of water
Changes in an ecosystem caused by nutrient pollution.

Water for living

You have probably read newspaper articles and seen items on the
TV news about problems that algal blooms have caused in rivers
and dams. At times in the recent past, algal blooms have even affected
large parts of Australias river systems, including the Murray-Darling
River system.
The main triggers of algal blooms continue to be excessive
concentrations of fertilisers in run-off, and sewage discharges into
waterways. These are forms of pollution that can and should be avoided.
Algal blooms and the presence of toxic cyanobacteria have been a problem
in a number of NSW waterways. Use Internet access to use a search engine
such as www.ask.com or www.google.com to gather information about algal
blooms in the Darling River and at least one other NSW waterway.
Concentrate on identifying causes and impacts of the algal blooms.
Organise a summary of your information in the table below

NSW waterway

Cause

Impact

Darling river

Turn to Exercise 4.1 to describe the causes and impacts of algal blooms.

Part 4: Water pollutants

Leaks and spills

Humans use many chemicals to produce the goods we use. Sometimes


accidents happen and pollutants are released into the environment.
Even once people have finished with goods, the ways they are discarded
can lead to pollution. Youll learn about some examples of these
problems in this section.

Heavy metals (lead and mercury)


The metal elements towards the bottom of the periodic table have a high
atomic weight and are therefore referred to as heavy metals. Lead (Pb)
and mercury (Hg) are all examples of heavy metals. It is unfortunate that
these heavy metals are both useful and dangerous at the same time.

Examples of heavy metals


You will read information about lead and mercury below. As you read,
select the information you need to complete the table on the next page.

Lead
Lead was common in the environment through the use of lead plumbing,
leaded petrol, lead fumes from metal smelting and the use of lead as a
colour pigment in older paints. Lead continues to be used in storage
batteries, cable coverings, crystal glass and ammunition, and in the
manufacture of special metal alloys (mixtures) and insecticides.
Lead is readily absorbed and may cause mental retardation and problems
with the nervous system. It is especially damaging for young children.

10

Water for living

Mercury
Mercury is easily absorbed through the skin. Mercury poisoning affects
the central nervous system, resulting in lack of coordination, slurred
speech and mental degeneration.
Mercury absorption has been a problem among workers who filled
thermometers. Today many thermometers use a coloured alcohol
solution, as is found in a garden thermometer. Thermometers used for
more accurate readings still use mercury.
In 1953 and 1964, mercury poisoning occurred in Minamata Bay, Japan.
A chemical company released a mercury compound into the bay, and
the mercury became concentrated in fish living in the polluted water.
People who ate the fish became very ill and some died.
Mercury continues to be used in electrical switching, for making
batteries, in advertising signs and to make pesticides.

Summary about some heavy metals


Complete the table below about the impact of heavy metals on humans.
(Heavy metals have similar poisonous effects in some other organisms.)
Heavy
metal

Chemical
symbol

Uses

Impact on humans

Hg

Pb

Check your answers.

Part 4: Water pollutants

11

Bioaccumulation and heavy metals


One problem with heavy metals is that they are readily absorbed by
organisms and then very difficult (or impossible) to remove.
Most organisms cannot remove very low concentrations of
water-soluble heavy metals from blood and intestinal fluids.
And metals that are fat-soluble can be stored in body fat, allowing
a build-up of heavy metals. This means that concentrations of
heavy metals can build up throughout an organisms life.
Even more dangerous is the way that heavy metals are passed along the
food chain. This process is called bioaccumulation, or biomagnification.
It means that the concentration of an unwanted chemical increases each
time an animal eats affected organisms.
Consider this example.
A low concentration of a heavy metal is released into a river. The levels
are so low that no poisoning is observed. However, the heavy metal is
absorbed by plants growing in the river. Look at how the heavy metal
accumulates in the diagram below.
each leaf absorbs
one amount
of heavy metal

the organism at the top


of the food chain will contain
many amounts of heavy metal,
which can cause poisoning
each small fish eats
three leaves and
gets three amounts
of heavy metal

Bioaccumulation of heavy metal in a water system.

You may not mind if a shark is poisoned, but you occupy the same place in
the food chain as a shark! Bioaccumulation means that the concentrations
and poisonous effects of heavy metals are magnified in food chains.
Seemingly small amounts of pollution with heavy metals can cause large
problems within ecosystems and for humans.

12

Water for living

Now try this question.


How does bioaccumulation impact on an aquatic water system?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answer.

Landfill and leaching


Where does your garbage go?
Worldwide, people seem to have found the same solution to the problem
of disposing of solid domestic waste the local tip or rubbish dump!
The town tip is a great Australian tradition outside metropolitan areas,
and you have probably seen one at some time.
In many countries, holes are dug and then filled with waste material.
To save space, this waste is often compacted. Eventually the filled hole
is covered with a thick layer of earth, and vegetation grown on it.
This method of waste disposal is commonly called landfill.
Whilst the hole-in-the-ground rubbish dump is a convenient method of
disposing of non-hazardous wastes, there are some long-term problems to
consider.
From Part 2, you will remember that water in the soil generally moves
downwards until it meets the water table.
1

What will happen to water that enters the landfill, either as rain or
as moving ground water? What will happen to any liquids that are
generated in the landfill, for example, from the breakdown of
food wastes?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answer.

Part 4: Water pollutants

13

If strict controls existed on the material deposited as landfill, then


leaching from landfill might not be a problem. Control guidelines exist
on the disposal of substances like paint and paint thinners, pesticides and
weedkillers. Some towns require residents to separate rubbish and not
dispose of such items in the garbage.
You probably wouldnt dispose of an old car battery in the local tip, but
how did you dispose of the last batteries from your walkman or discman?
Did they end up in the tip? What is the difference between the two?
You decide!
There are other problems associated with landfill accumulation.
For example:

the production of methane, which is a flammable gas formed by the


breakdown of organic wastes under anaerobic conditions (when
oxygen is excluded)

settling of the ground following decay of the wastes in the landfill.


This results in an uneven ground surface and areas of damp, wet
land. This is not an ideal situation if the area is used later for
recreation, such as a childrens playground or playing field!

Landfill leaching problems are often associated with existing landfills


which were unregulated or illegal when they were created.
Now try these questions.
2

Think about what goes into your garbage bin. Then make a list of
substances that youd expect to end up in a rubbish tip.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Think about how these substances will break down while in contact
with water and air in the tip. What chemicals will they form?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

14

Water for living

What impact do you think that leaching from a tip would have on
aquatic ecosystems?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.

Part 4: Water pollutants

15

Problems from processes

The processes that humans use can also lead to water pollution.
Youll consider how human activity changes water flow and leads to the
accumulation of sediments in this section

Accumulated sediments
Put simply, sediments are soil, sand and gravel that settle to the bottom
in water. All natural water systems involve the movement of sediment,
but human activities can change the way that sediments move, and so
alter aquatic ecosystems.

Dams
For example, dams are built across creeks and rivers, to catch and store
water for human use. But sediments are carried with the water, and over
time, the dams gradually fill up with soil, sand and gravel. (If you have
visited an old weir or seen a dry dam, you will have some idea about the
amount of sediment that can clog a dam.)
Sediment in a dam is a problem for people because it means less water
can be stored. But it is also a problem for ecosystems downstream from
the dam. If the dam did not exist, these sediments would have been
carried along by the water and deposited somewhere else.
Sediments are needed in natural waterways to build banks and deltas.
They replace material that is washed away during times of heavy rain or
flood. Sediments also bring nutrients for the plants along the waterway.
By causing sediments to accumulate, dams prevent the movement of
sediments down waterways, and so change ecosystems further down the
creek or river.

16

Water for living

Erosion
Another problem for aquatic ecosystems occurs because too much sediment
is forced into waterways. Land clearing for mining, roads and agriculture
can greatly increase the erosion of soil. This sediment is carried into
streams and rivers.
Compare the two diagrams below.

Good light penetration supports


photosynthesis of attached algae and
aquatic plants abundant food chains.

Bacteria, protozoan insect


larva attached to rocks.

Many hiding and resting


places for small fish.
A natural river ecosystem.

Clay in suspension prevents light penetration.


Attached aquatic organism scoured from
rocks by sand washing along bottom.

Hiding and resting places


buried under sediment.

Almost all organisms eliminated.

A river ecosystem with accumulated sediment.

How has accumulated sedimentation altered this ecosystem?


_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answer.

Part 4: Water pollutants

17

Water pollution solutions

There are many things that we can do, individually and as a nation,
to reduce water pollution. Youll consider some examples in this section.
One of the first things that must be done is to find out if pollution is
occurring. This requires testing of water quality.

Testing water quality


Different standards of water quality apply to water used for different
purposes. (Some of the different uses of water include: drinking,
swimming, watering plants and trees, and washing fruit and vegetables.)
The highest standards apply to drinking water.
Drinking water is tested for a large variety of chemicals and organisms
to ensure that it is safe to drink. You can find out about the tests that are
carried out on drinking water by visiting the web site of Sydney Water.
http://www.sydneywater.com.au
You probably do not need to be convinced that it is essential to know
what substances and organisms are in drinking water. It may also be
important to know what is in a local river, or in run-off water that will
empty into a creek. Water samples can be chemically and biologically
tested; such tests are available to landowners and are regularly required
by councils and environmental groups to ensure adequate water quality
in waterways.
Streamwatch and Waterwatch are community schemes for monitoring
water quality, with the aim of protecting aquatic ecosystems.
You can access information about these projects from:
http://www.lmpc.edu.au/Science

18

Water for living

Water can be tested for the presence of unwanted chemicals (such as


pesticides, herbicides, phosphates, nitrates, heavy metals and radioactive
material). Each test is called an assay; an assay is a test to measure the
amount of a chemical present in a mixture.
Water testing may also involve looking for organisms or substances
from organisms, or using organisms in measurements. This kind of test
is a bioassay.

Bioassays
Complete the tasks below. You can use information from the Internet sites
you have visited, or information from Appendix 1.
1

Define the term bioassay.


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Describe two bioassay tests. Be sure to explain what is being tested


and how the tests are carried out.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.


Once polluted water has been detected, strategies are needed to remove
the pollution and to prevent or reduce further contamination. Perhaps
you will be surprised to find out that natural ecosystems are one of the
best ways to remove some pollutants from contaminated water.

Part 4: Water pollutants

19

Creating areas to clean water


Materials that enter a natural water system can be sediment, chemicals
(such as dissolved fertilisers) and anything else that might be transferred
by the action of water run-off and gravity.
Most natural undisturbed waterways are lined with plants. These may be
land plants growing on the banks or water plants at the waters edge.
The area where plants border a river or stream is called a riparian zone.
Compare the two diagrams below. Run off refers to water movement on the
surface. Leaching refers to water movement through soil or rock.

nutrien

t run off

nutri
ent le
aching

waterway

Nutrients are able to leach away or run off without a riparian zone.

nutrient ru

n off

ut

waterway
rie
nt
le

aching

run-off and leaching absorbed by riparian zone


and prevented from entering the waterway

Run-off and nutrients are absorbed by the riparian zone.

What role does a riparian zone play in protecting water quality?


_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answer.

20

Water for living

Fifty years ago, swamps and marshes were considered a waste of space.
They were often used as garbage dumps and turned into recreational
space. More recently, the value of wetlands (swamps and marshes) has
been recognised. They are now valued and protected; it some places,
wetlands are being rebuilt in areas that were previously cleared.
Wetlands are very effective in removing pollutants from waterways.
Even heavy metals may be safely processed out of water systems during
the slow movement of water across a wetland.

Using less-polluting alternatives


Another way to solve pollution problems is to avoid them in the first
place! There are alternative products for many chemicals that have
become water pollutants. (Of course, even alternatives can be pollutants
if they are used in large quantities or discarded carelessly.)

Pesticide and insecticide alternatives


Before the development of modern chemicals, many people interested in
plant or crop growing had their own home-style pesticides and insectides.
These may be fairly simple compared with modern methods, but there
was an underlying scientific basis to their use.
One method used was companion planting. Although its origin is quite
old, this method has again become popular with 'green' backyard
gardeners, because it involves no addition of chemicals.
Companion planting is achieved by interspersing the crop plants with
another plant, the companion plant. The companion plant acts as a
deterrent to insect pests; that is, it keeps the pests away or releases
chemicals which interfere with the growth process of specific pests.
Marigolds, pyrethrum daisies and garlic have long been used as
companion plants. Many gardeners traditionally planted marigolds
between their roses, just because that was the way it had always been
done and it worked to keep aphids away from the roses.
Pyrethrum daisies are now scientifically acknowledged as being a
pest-deterrent and liquid pyrethrum extracted from the flowers is added
to commercial pest control sprays. Pyrethrum spray, without other
chemical additives, kills a large range of pests, including aphids, thrips,
caterpillars and juvenile grasshoppers, when it is sprayed directly onto
them. No wonder the daisies were effective companion plants!

Part 4: Water pollutants

21

There are a number of other plant extracts which contain chemicals that
kill or repel insects. These 'natural chemicals' act immediately and do not
have long residual periods. They do not adversely effect the ecosystem
(only the pest against which they are used) and have no long-term
detrimental effects. They are not easily transferred from the area of
application to the water system and even if they were, they are dangerous
only to the target species. Here are some examples of natural chemicals.

Nicotine is a natural, yet highly poisonous insecticide that is


produced in the tobacco plant. It was the most widely and
effectively used insecticide used until the introduction of DDT.
One of nicotines big advantages is that it does not kill ladybirds or
their larvae, which are themselves valuable insect killers in the
garden.

Derris dust, or rotenone, is derived from the dried powder of the


roots of plants in the genus Rotenone. This insecticide is stronger
than pyrethrum, acts on a wide range of insects and appears to have
no long-term environmental effects.

Quassia is a mild yet effective insecticide derived from the bark of


the quassia tree. It is an extremely bitter chemical, so when sprayed
on plant foliage it is a deterrent for leaf-chewing animals.

Ryania is a mild insecticide derived from the ryania plant which


grows in South America. It is effective against some pests of fruit,
such as apples.

Rhubarb contains a poisonous chemical called oxalic acid. It is


effective against a range of animals (including humans!).

Melia, or the white cedar tree, has leaves that produce effective
insecticides and fungicides.

Natural chemicals have been very successfully used in the past; they are
also popular again with organic farmers and green gardeners.
The CSIRO is working on an new, natural insecticide based on insect
hormones. They are testing chemicals that can stop insects from
moulting, or losing their exoskeletons. If they cant moult, they cant
keep growing, and die. By identifying chemicals that target specific
hormones, new insecticides can be developed to kill specific insects.

22

Water for living

The table below contains the answers to ten questions. The questions are
in Appendix 2. Cut apart the questions and match them with their answers.
Then glue the questions into place in the table as a summary.
Questions

Answers
interspersing a crop with
another plant, which deters
insect pests
marigold, pyrethrum daisies
and garlic

nicotine

controls aphids, thrips,


caterpillars and juvenile
grasshoppers
quassia

derris dust

DDT

it will target specific species


only, not affecting other
species if it enters waterways
they quickly break down into
harmless chemicals

they have short residual


periods, no long term effects
and affect target species only

Check your questions!

Part 4: Water pollutants

23

Alternatives to chemical fertilisers


In Part 3, you learnt that the application of fertilisers is important for
agriculture in Australia. What are some alternatives to the use of
manufactured artificial fertilisers?
A traditional but still effective method of promoting soil fertility is
fallowing. This means leaving an area unplanted for a cropping period.
Fallowing doesn't take any nutrients from the soil and it helps to maintain
the water content of the soil. Crop rotation is a related technique, where
different crops are planted in the soil in different years. This promotes
fertility because each crop will use some nutrients while returning others.
Some crops are planted particularly because they add nutrients to the soil.
For example, legumes add nitrogen to the soil. (Legume crops promote
the growth of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.) More nitrogen is then available
in the soil for the next crop grown.
Mulching (adding plant material to the surface of the soil) is well known
as a method of water conservation, but it also results in increased soil
nutrient levels as the mulch material breaks down and enters the soil.
Animal wastes, especially faeces, have been used as traditional fertilisers.
For health reasons, raw human sewage is no longer considered suitable for
adding to crops and soil. What can be used, however, is the treated solid
component of sewage (called biosolids) and treated water effluent.
Biosolids are the final solid material left after the treatment of waste
water, including sewage. The water removed during treatment is graded
according to the amount of treatment it has received. 'Grey water' has
undergone secondary treatment (that is, two stages of treatment) and can
be used for watering grass and crops.
Both biosolids and grey water contain nitrates and phosphates, which will
promote crop growth. Waste management plans promote the use of these
natural fertilisers. For example, biosolids are used to great benefit on pine
tree plantations throughout the tableland areas of New South Wales. You
can find out more about the use of biosolid fertilisers in the forestry industry
from the State Forests Information Centre. You can access their website at:
http://www.lmpc.edu.au/science
Fertilisers made from treated animal waste are sold commercially, such
as blood and bone and chook poo. Matured compost, made from garden
and domestic waste, is also a good natural fertiliser and allows the
disposal of wastes in an environmentally friendly manner. (However,
it must be remembered that excessive use of natural fertilisers, such as
products from wastes, are still able to cause pollution of waterways if
they are added to soils in excessive quantities or at inappropriate times.)

24

Water for living

The use of natural fertilisers and natural methods of nutrient conservation


help to reduce the problems associated with run-off and water pollution
that accompanies the increasing use of artificial chemical fertilisers.
In the task below, youll discuss some alternative strategies to the use of
artificial chemical fertilisers in agriculture.
Discuss means that you need to identify issues and provide details for and
against the issues you raise. To help you do this, complete the table below.
Some issues are included in the table to get you started.
Issue

Advantages of
alternatives
(points in favour)

Disadvantages of
alternatives
(points against)

Cost

Ease of use

Effectiveness of
strategy

Check your answers.

Part 4: Water pollutants

25

Changing polluting practices


You have been thinking about how farmers could change their strategies
for increasing soil fertility, and so reduce water pollution. Farmers are
not the only ones who can think about alternatives. What about you?
In Part 3, you identified some sources of water pollution that come from
your home. Look back through the module so far to remind yourself of
some of these pollutants.
Then try these tasks.
1

To help you to complete the table, think about what you have seen, or
heard about being, discarded at home into wastewater outlets or outside.
Place of
pollution

Form of pollution

How to avoid this problem

kitchen

bathroom

laundry

garden/outside

26

Water for living

Why should you make an effort to reduce water pollution?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

How can you reduce water pollution?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

What will happen if water pollution is not reduced?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.


Well done! You have made good progress in understanding the role of
water and the importance of protecting our water resources. In the next
part, Part 5, you will look more closely at the amount of water you use in
your household and how this water is treated before and after you use it.
But first, turn to Exercise 4.3 to test your knowledge and understanding of
some issues raised in Part 4.

Part 4: Water pollutants

27

28

Water for living

Appendices

Appendix 1: Bioassays
Bioassays are tests to measure the quantity of organisms or substances
from organisms in samples. Some bioassays use organisms in tests for
other substances.

Testing for bacteria


The presence of faecal coliform bacteria, or E. coli, indicates that
excrement, or faeces, (from humans, pets, livestock or wildlife) is present
in the water. E. coli itself is a harmless bacterium that naturally occurs in
the digestive system of mammals, but its presence is important because it
can indicate that faecal pollution is present.
Testing for the presence of bacteria requires the use of a nutrient plate or
nutrient source such as agar. The nutrient source is exposed to the
material being tested and then sealed and incubated for a period of time
to allow the bacteria to grow if present. Incubation involves keeping the
sample at a specific temperature, suitable for the growth of the bacteria,
over a specific period of time. The incubation conditions for E. coli are
18 to 24 hours at 44C. After the incubation period the test plates are
inspected for the growth of bacteria. If the bacteria are present, they are
usually visible with the naked eye as a smooth cream-coloured colony
(spot) on the plate.
Testing takes place under sterile conditions. The person who carries out
the procedure must follow strict safety and hygiene procedures because
they are handling potentially infectious faecal material.

Part 4: Water pollutants

29

Testing for water quality using algae


Cyanobacteria cause taste and odour problems in water, especially when
an algal bloom, or excessive increase in algal numbers, occurs.
If algae are present in drinking water, an unpleasant taste and smell may
be noticed. The numbers or amount of algae present per volume of water
is assessed by studying water samples under the microscope and counting
the algae present.
In large amounts, cyanobacteria can be toxic for both animals and
humans, and blooms have caused the recreational use of some rivers and
dams to be suspended in recent years.
Interestingly, algal growth is being used as a method of bioassay, as well
as the subject of bioassay. The CSIRO and NSW EPA (Environment
Protection Authority) have worked together to develop a bioassay for
toxicity of water. This method assesses water toxicity by looking at the
effect of the water on algal growth. The amount of growth retardation of
the algae indicates the level of toxicity.
This method of bioassay is particularly sensitive to metals and has been
developed as a mobile, or easily moved, testing kit which is capable of
rapid results.

30

Water for living

Appendix 2: Questions about alternatives


Questions
What are the advantages of using organic,
or natural, insecticides?

What are some common companion plants?

Why are natural chemicals unlikely to cause


water pollution?

What insecticide can be made from the bark of


a tree?

What powder can be derived from the roots of


certain Rotenone plants?

What is companion planting?

How will a hormone-targeting pesticide help


minimise water pollution?

What is a natural insecticide produced by


tobacco plants?

What manufactured chemical replaced natural


pesticides and then caused serious pollution and
environmental damage?

What does pyrethrum spray do?

Part 4: Water pollutants

31

32

Water for living

Suggested answers

Phosphates
Here are some examples:

erosion of soils

land clearing; cementing or paving of yard, causing more run-off

mining

hosing of paths

fertilisers added to crops

demand for better, cheaper food

fertilising pot plants, lawn and gardens

wastes and decay of plants and animals

use of farm produce, increasing production of wastes

garbage sent to dumps rather than home composted

wastes from pets

overflow from septic systems or sewerage systems

household detergents

detergent from kitchen, laundry, bathroom

detergent used to wash car.

Part 4: Water pollutants

33

Nitrates
1

Nitrates are removed from the soil by:

uptake by plants

denitrifying bacteria.

Nitrogen enters the soil due to:

nitric acid formed during lightning

nitrogen-fixing bacteria

decay of plants and animals

wastes from animals.

Animals grown for meat crops, pets and humans produce large
amounts of urine and faeces; these wastes are rich in nitrates that
cause water pollution if they run off or leach into waterways.

Summary about some heavy metals


Heavy
metal

Chemical
symbol

Uses

Impact on humans

mercury

Hg

accurate thermometers;
electrical switching; in
batteries; in advertising
signs; in pesticides

lack of coordination, slurred


speech and metal
degeneration; symptoms
resemble drunkeness or
madness; death

lead

Pb

in storage batteries; cable


coverings; crystal glass;
ammunition; in metal alloys;
insecticides

mental retardation and


damage to the nervous
system

Bioaccumulation and heavy metals


Bioaccumulation means that low levels of pollution in an aquatic water
system (such as a bay or ocean) can lead to toxic levels in consumers
(large fish or even humans) at the top of the food chain. Demise of
consumers at the top of a food chain could unbalance food chains and
food webs, and cause changes in aquatic ecosystems.

34

Water for living

Landfill and leaching


1

Liquids move downwards, under the influence of gravity, out of the


landfill and eventually reach the water table and water systems.
Wastes will be leached into the water, adding pollutants to water
reserves. (These wastes may include phosphates and nitrates, and
even heavy metals and pesticides.)

Here are some common items put into the bin: glass, food wastes,
plastics, metals, timber products, paints, spray cans, disposable
nappies and paper products. (Some of these should be recycled!)

Rubbish will break down metals from rusted cans and disposable
batteries, organic chemicals from paints, extra nutrients from food
wastes and paper products, hazardous chemicals from some plastics,
chemicals from disposed oils and cleaning products and more.

Underground water moving through landfill would carry these


pollutants into aquatic water systems where they could be toxic to
some organisms and bioaccumulate in others. Their presence would
cause changes in aquatic ecosystems.

Erosion
Accumulated sediments have caused major changes in this ecosystem:
organisms attached to rocks have been scoured from rocks on the bottom
by sand washing past; hiding and resting places for organisms are buried;
almost all organisms are eliminated; clay in suspension prevents light
penetrating, preventing photosynthesis.

Bioassays
1

Bioassay is the testing of a substance, such as water, for or using


organisms or chemicals from organisms.

Nutrient agar plates are contacted with the water being tested. The
plates are then sealed and incubated to determine if any bacteria (for
example, E. coli) are present in the water. If the bacteria are present,
they will grow colonies that are seen as spots on the agar plate.
Algal growth can be measured by examining water samples under a
microscope. (Algal growth can also be used as a test to measure the
concentration of metals in water.)

Creating areas to clean water


A riparian zone is a buffer zone that helps to prevent chemicals and
materials from entering the river. When this zone is absent, there is

Part 4: Water pollutants

35

nothing to prevent dissolved materials, leaves and soil from entering the
river and polluting the water.

Pesticide and insecticide alternatives

36

Questions

Answers

What is companion planting?

interspersing a crop with


another plant, which deters
insect pests

What are some common companion plants?

marigold, pyrethrum daisies


and garlic

What is a natural insecticide produced by


tobacco plants?

nicotine

What does pyrethrum spray do?

controls aphids, thrips,


caterpillars and juvenile
grasshoppers

What insecticide can be made from the bark of


a tree?

quassia

What powder can be derived from the roots of


certain Rotenone plants?

derris dust

What manufactured chemical replaced natural


pesticides and then caused serious pollution and
environmental damage?

DDT

How will a hormone-targeting pesticide help


minimise water pollution?

it will target specific species


only, not affecting other
species if it enters waterways

Why are natural chemicals unlikely to cause


water pollution?

they quickly break down into


harmless chemicals

What are the advantages of using organic, or


natural, insecticides?

they have short residual


periods, no long term effects
and affect target species only

Water for living

Alternatives to chemical fertilisers


Issue

Advantages of
alternatives
(points in favour)

Disadvantages of
alternatives
(points against)

Cost

usually very cheap

leaving land fallow or having


to plant a less valuable crop
may reduce profit

Ease of use

may require extra treatment


or handling of bulky
materials

does not usually come


ready prepared in bags like
a manufactured fertiliser;
not so easy to use

Effectiveness of
strategy

can produce good results

may not be very effective,


depending on waste used;
less reliable than a
manufactured, standardised
fertiliser

Risk of pollution

tend not to cause pollution

some natural products, such


as grey water, stink!

Availability of
fertiliser

many natural products and


several techniques can be
used

may not always be available


when needed

Did you think of any other issues and points?

Changing polluting practices


1

There is a table on the next page.

You should reduce water pollution to minimise environmental


impacts on ecosystems in waterways and to improve water quality.

Water pollution can be minimised by using grey water on the garden,


recycling garbage items and minimising water usage in the home.

If water pollution is not reduced, water quality will go down,


impacting on ecosystems in those waterways and the ecosystems that
rely on the waterways. Algal blooms will become more common,
affecting cattle and farming industries and possibly causing fish
kills. Seafood could become contaminated with toxins and heavy
metals, ruining seafood industries. Tourism could be affected.

Part 4: Water pollutants

37

38

Place of
pollution

Form of pollution

How to avoid this problem

kitchen

waste water
(detergents, oil,
chemicals) and
garbage waste

compost all organic wastes (including


organic liquids); recycle paper, glass,
plastics and metal; use biodegradable
detergent; buy items with minimal
wrapping; save water where possible;
use clean waste water on the garden

bathroom

waste water
containing
shampoo,
conditioner, soap
and toilet water

minimise water usage; minimise


chemical use; avoid flushing items
down the toilet; use clean waste water
on the garden

laundry

detergent water,
chemical dyes

use small amounts of detergents and


water; use clean waste water on the
garden

garden/outside

herbicides,
pesticides,
fungicides,
fertilisers, paints,
turps, over-watering
of garden

use organic herbicides and pesticides;


fertilise with compost from the kitchen;
use barriers to contain chemicals
and fertilisers in the garden;
dispose of chemicals appropriately;
dont over-water the garden

Water for living

Exercises - Part 4

Exercises 4.1 to 4.3

Name: _________________________________

Exercise 4.1
1

Identify the conditions under which algal blooms may occur in the
rivers of NSW, and briefly state how each condition contributes to
algal blooms.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

b) How can algal blooms be prevented or controlled?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
c)

List and briefly describe some impacts of algal blooms in rivers


and lakes.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Part 4: Water pollutants

39

Exercise 4.2
Complete the following table.
Type of
chemical

Use(s)

Impacts on water systems

phosphates

nitrates

heavy metals

Exercise 4.3
Circle the letter of the most correct answer for each question below.
1

Bioassay refers to:


(A) water quality testing
(B) assessment of organisms
(C) algal blooms
(D) assessment using organisms.

Another name for blue-green algae is:


(A) cyanobacteria
(B) cryptosporidium
(C) giardia
(D) all of the above.

40

What do Australias quarantine laws aim to do?

Water for living

(A) keep Australia isolated from other countries


(B) prevent the movement of substances from one country to
another
(C) prevent the introduction of foreign organisms into Australia
(D) inspect all goods that arrive in Australia
4

Softwood plantations have been attacked by foreign wasps in


Australia due to:
(A) inadequate quarantine regulations and procedures in the past
(B) water pollution
(C) bioaccumulation
(D) excessive use of fertilisers.

What is the function of riparian zones?


(A) to keep a contaminant in an area
(B) to allow water and run-off directly into a water system
(C) to absorb excess nutrients and pollutants before they enter the
water system
(D) to prevent water contamination by overseas ships and boats

Write two more multiple choice questions on the solutions to water


pollution and indicate the correct answers.
a)

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

b)

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Part 4: Water pollutants

41

Gill Sans Bold

Senior Science
Preliminary Course
Stage 6

Water for living


Part 5: Water treatment technology

0
0
2

er
b
to T S
c
O EN
g
in D M
t
a
r EN
o
o rp A M
c
n

Senior Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course


Water for living

Water and living things

Sources of water

Chemicals in water

Water pollutants

Water treatment technology

Water investigations

Plants

Humans at work

Local environment

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................... 2
Water usage.............................................................................. 3
Household water use ...........................................................................3

Processing water....................................................................... 8
Collecting and treating clean water .....................................................8
Treating waste water..........................................................................13

Technology and pollution control............................................. 15


Summary................................................................................. 18
Appendix ................................................................................. 19
Suggested answers................................................................. 21
Exercises Part 5 ................................................................... 23

Part 5: Water treatment technology

Introduction

In this part, you will learn about the use of technology for the purification
and treatment of water. You will be suggesting plans to reduce water
pollution and to achieve water sustainability.
In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to:

identify an example of technology being used and developed to


reduce water pollution and discuss possible long-term effects of this
technology

define what is meant by a catchment area

describe possible sources of contamination that may enter


catchments

explain how water quality in one area can impact on the water
quality in other areas.

In this part you will be given opportunities to:

perform a first hand investigation to determine the amount of water


used for one activity such as

water used per toilet flush

water use per shower

water use per washing machine cycle

and identify ways in which it can be reduced

gather, process and present information from secondary sources on


the latest technologies being used to purify and treat water.

Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW,


October 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found on the Board's
website at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html

Water for living

Water usage

Have you ever wondered how much water you use each day? What is
the first contact you have with water each day? Do you use the toilet and
have a shower and wash your clothes? Do you drink tap water through
the day?
In the following activity, youll investigate how much water your
household uses in some activities.

Household water use


Water guesswork! How much water do you use at home?
Try to estimate how much water you use for each of the following
household activities. To do this, you need an idea of liquid volume.
Think about the volume (that is, space) of a litre of water, soft drink or milk.
Keep this volume in mind whilst you make the following estimates.
Household activity

Water usage estimate (L)

toilet flush
shower
washing machine cycle

Now that you have estimated the water used in each of these
household functions, you need to find out how much you actually use for
at least one of these activities. How will you do this? Think about it!

Part 5: Water treatment technology

For at least one way you use water listed below, briefly describe how you
could measure the amount of water used. (This is really designing your
experiment.) Keep your method as simple as possible, and state how you
will dispose of any water collected.
Two things to remember are:

do not waste water any water that is collected in this activity


should be used in a responsible manner

you are not actually measuring the water yet, just working out a
method that will allow you to measure the water at a later time.

Toilet flush
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Shower
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Washing machine cycle


_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Did you keep the method of measuring the amount of water used
as simple as possible?
Compare your methods of estimating water usage with the ones below,
and alter your plans if necessary.
Toilet flush
You might know the capacity of your toilet cistern, especially if it is a
new one. If not, you could measure the volume it uses on your water
meter (see details below under the heading Washing machine).

Water for living

Shower
1

Using a large bucket to collect the water, turn on the shower and run
the water for ten seconds. (You will need to time this carefully.)

Measure the amount of water collected, in litres (L).

Multiply it by six (one minute = ten seconds x 6).

Time your next shower, in minutes.

Multiply the time from step 4 by the output of water per minute from
step 3.

Use the collected water for something else, such as watering the
garden, or add it to the water in the washing machine.

Washing machine
Unless you have recently researched washing machines, you probably
have no any idea about the amount of water they use per cycle. You
could use the following method that relies on water passing through your
water meter.
1

Before using the washing machine or toilet, record the reading on


your water meter, which is usually at the boundary of your front
garden. Make sure that no other water usage takes place during the
period of your investigation.

Use whichever appliance it is that you are testing.

Go back to the water meter and record the final reading.

Subtract the initial reading (step 1) from the final reading (step 3) to
calculate the water used. Kilolitres are the units your water meter
uses. One kilolitre equals one thousand litres.

Did you need to make any modifications to your methods of estimating


water usage? When you have a plan that you think will work, carry out
your method to find how much water you actually use in each activity.
Record your measurements and calculations in the table below.
Household activity

Calculations

Water usage (L)

toilet flush
shower
washing machine cycle

Part 5: Water treatment technology

Were you surprised at the amount of water that was used during different
activities in your home?
Now consider the number of people in your household. This will have a
considerable impact on the amount of water used daily in your
household. To find the daily water usage for your household, you need
to count how often each of those activities takes place per day and
multiply the total for each activity by the volume of water used.
Draw up and complete a table to show your estimates of daily household
water use for toileting, showering, and washing clothes.

You should also consider and estimate other types of water usage in your
household, such as dishwashing, garden watering, car washing, dog
washing, pool maintenance and any others that you can think of.
Make a list, with your estimates.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Water for living

Now use all your results to answer these questions.


1

How much total water (average) does your household use per day?
_____________________________________________________

Of this amount, how much goes down the sink as waste water?
_____________________________________________________

How much water (average) does each person in your household use?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

How could you (personally) reduce your daily water usage?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

How could your household reduce daily water usage?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

There is an easier way to estimate your daily water usage, and that is to
use your last water bill! (If you dont have one, your teacher may
provide a copy of one for you to use.) Turn to Exercise 5.1 to report
the water usage of your home.

Part 5: Water treatment technology

Processing water

For humans to use water in a sustainable way, we need to process water


so that we make the best use of available clean water and return used
water unpolluted to oceans and waterways.

Collecting and treating clean water


Clean water is collected in a catchment area, then released through
channels and pipelines to reservoirs where it is purified and treated.

Catchment areas
A catchment area is a region, often associated with a dam or waterway,
from which water drains into a waterway. If the area is to collect clean
water it should be kept as free as possible of human activity that could
pollute the water.

Use the map of the Sydney area on the next page.

Lake Burragorang is the main storage area for water for Sydney.
Shade the lake dark blue.

Use a light blue pencil to trace along each of the rivers that carries water
into Lake Burragorang. (Watch out on the Wingecarribee River!)

Rain (and snow) that falls is carried in creeks and run-off into the rivers
and down into the lake. To show this catchment area more clearly,
shade over it using a green pencil. (It is the darker area on the map.)

The water in the catchment area and in Lake Burragorang is held back
by a large dam called Warragamba Dam. Locate this dam on the map
and circle it in red.

Water for living

10

15

20

Kilometres

Lithgow

ve

Windsor

Coxs

pe n River
a

Ri

Grose

Blackheath

Penrith
Orchard
Hills WFP

Na

iver

Katoomba

Parramatta
SYDNEY

wm
Ko

Georges

Campbelltown
LAKE
BURRAGORANG
Picton
Nat i
ta

Cataract
Dam

iv

er

Win

ge

ar

ribee River

nd

Wo

ll

Moss Vale
i

lly

Ri

ve

r
ve
Ri

Woronora
Dam

Napean
Dam

Wollongong
Cordeux
Dam

Mittagong

Crookwell

Wo
ron
ora

River

er

un

g R
iv

Warragamba
Wallacia
Dam
Liverpool

Avon
Dam
Wingecarribee
Reservoir

Kiama

Fitzroy Falls
Reservoir

Marulan

LAKE YARRUNGA Berry

Nowra

S
ho

av

e
n

al

Mu
lwa
ree

Ri v

er

Tallowa Dam

Goulburn

ver

LAKE
GEORGE
CANBERRA

Ulladulla

Map of the Sydney area.

Define, in your own words, the meaning of the term, catchment area.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answer.

Part 5: Water treatment technology

Catchment management
Water catchment areas need to be managed by government bodies to
ensure that the water collected is clean and safe. One of the main
problems with managing catchment areas is that one local council can be
responsible for areas within a number of catchments, and one catchment
can be divided between a number of local councils. This division of
responsibility makes management of water resources very difficult indeed.
For example, land clearing in the upper part of a catchment can cause
salinity and increase sediment in water downstream. Overuse of river
water from the upper reaches, or sections, of a river may leave little clean
water for use downstream. And pollutants entering the water system
through run-off will be carried into areas of the catchments that are
managed by other authorities, further down the river.
Since activities in one part of the catchment can influence or impact on
other parts of the catchment, water resource management requires a
coordinated approach by local councils, and state and federal
governments, so that clean useable water is available for all.
If you havent already done so, check out the water management
information on the Caring for our natural resources webpages of the
NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation website. You can also
use the Internet to find information about the management practices of your
local council or water supplier/manager.
You will need to find your own Internet address for your local council,
but you can access the NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation
using a link at:
http://www.lmpc.edu.au/Science

Pollution in catchment areas


In any catchment, there are sources of pollution or contamination.
These can include: sewage overflow in periods of heavy rain; dead
animals falling into creeks; animal faeces; eroded sediment or top soil;
industrial waste; fertiliser-contaminated run-off; oil/fuel from boats using
the water for recreation or from roads nearby; cigarette butts from roads,
general rubbish such as cans and paper or plastic bags; and more.
Once river water becomes even slightly polluted, these pollutants move
along the river to possibly affect other sections of the river. In a
catchment area, these pollutants can move into dammed lakes and
reservoirs. Pollutants that are difficult to treat or remove must be
prevented from getting into water in a catchment area.

10

Water for living

Draw ten examples of pollutants mentioned on the previous page on to


this diagram of an aquatic ecosystem.
Then write a caption for the diagram.

Caption _______________________________________________________

Water catchment areas are specially protected by legislation (laws) so


that industries that might cause water pollution are not allowed to occur
within them. But even though water collected in a catchment area is
clean rainwater, it still requires some treatment to remove impurities,
such as the ones youve included on the diagram above. (And remember,
for reserves of surface water, such as rivers and lakes, to be clean and
healthy, they need to be home to healthy ecosystems.)

Turn to Exercise 5.2 for a hands-on activity to better understand the links
between water and air.

Part 5: Water treatment technology

11

Purification and water treatment


Purification begins with the removal of large solid objects, such as twigs,
weeds and fish, in a screening process. Then the water is filtered through
sand to remove any fine particles. After this, fluoride is added for dental
health and chlorine is added to kill micro-organisms.
These processes are automated so that they can occur reliably around the
clock. Periodic supervision by people provides a check on the
technologies used in this process.
Your local council, water authority or catchment management council
should be able to provide information regarding water treatment and
purification in your local area. Start collecting this information now.
You will need it later in this part to complete Exercise 5.4.
Now draw a series of diagrams to represent the water purification process.

Purification
techniques

Representative drawing

screening for
objects such as
fish, twigs and
weeds

filtering through
sand to remove
fine particles from
the water

addition of
fluoride for
dental health

addition of
chlorine to kill
micro-organisms

12

Water for living

Treating waste water


Used or waste water is classified into two types.

Storm water
Storm water is the water that runs off roads and land surfaces
after rainfall, or when people wash cars and hose paths. This water
enters the nearest local receiving body of water with little or
minimal treatment.

Sewage
Sewage is the waste that is discharged from households and
industries. It includes water from toilets, baths and showers,
washing machines, dishwashers and kitchen sinks, and all industrial
processes. It is illegal to discharge sewage of any form into the
storm water system. (Sewage enters the sewerage system, which is a
pattern of interconnected pipes that remove sewage.)

The NSW State Government legislates (makes laws) regarding waste


water and its treatment. It allocates the control over waste water to the
Environmental Protection Authority, known as the EPA, a government
body. The EPA negotiates with water suppliers, such as Sydney Water,
as to how water will be supplied, treated and controlled.

Treating storm water


Picture how brown a river looks after a few days of rain. Think about
all the stuff that is washed off paths and roads into gutters and storm
channels. The sediment, chemicals and chunks of garbage can lead to
major pollution problems if the water is not treated. For example,
plastic containers and plastic bags do not break down in water; they can
tangle around sea animals and choke them, or they can be swallowed and
block their digestive systems.
One of the easiest and simplest forms of pollution control is to place a
bale of hay across a flow of water. It will trap soil and other materials
and prevent them entering the storm water system. This method has
many applications; for example, it is used by councils during road works
and also in suburban areas when home extensions or building requires
exposure or excavation of soil. Soil and other debris are thus prevented
from moving into neighbouring properties or the storm water system.
Storm water drains usually have a grate or grill to prevent larger items
entering underground pipes. There are also other techniques to reduce
pollutants in storm water entering waterways along with waste water.

Part 5: Water treatment technology

13

Read the information in the Appendix, which outlines some strategies


used to minimise pollution in waterways. Then answer the following
questions.
1

Explain what the following technologies do to minimise pollution


in waterways and describe how they work.
a) continuous deflective separators
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
b) basket traps
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
c) booms
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
d) channelling and dissipation
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Why are these technologies needed? What alternative(s) could


replace their use?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Check your answers.

14

Water for living

Technology and pollution control

Throughout the previous section about processing water, you have


learnt about the importance of technologies in controlling pollution.
Technologies are needed both to detect pollutants and to remove them.

Detecting pollutants
Advances in technology have had a considerable impact on pollution.
It is now possible to detect very small traces of pollutants and to identify
their source using technology. This is important in identifying pollutants
and the few companies or industries that knowingly cause environmental
damage.
The technology used can be simple or highly sophisticated. An example
of a relatively simple form of technology is a data logger with various
probes, each one measuring the levels of different pollution indicators,
such as dissolved oxygen, pH, chloride ions and temperature.
Sophisticated technology includes all aspects of water analysis (see the
information about assays in Part 4), culminating in the use of the
mass spectrometer.
A mass spectrometer is used to identify specific chemicals that are
present. Having identified the chemicals present and the likely substance
involved, its source can be traced. Mass spectrometers are extremely
sensitive. (How sensitive? On one occasion, water samples being tested
were found to have higher than normal levels of iron. On investigation,
it was found that the technician taking the specimens used hairspray.
The metal solder used in the hairspray can was contributing to the
inaccurate readings of iron in the water samples. Needless to say, the
person in question no longer uses hairspray.)
Aerial photography and even LANDSAT (satellite) photographs can be
used to identify and monitor large-scale pollution. For example,
sediment washing from a river into the ocean or a lake after heavy
rainfall can be detected. This method is also used to detect illegal water
storage and illegal water use for irrigation.

Part 5: Water treatment technology

15

It is also possible to use technology to prevent pollution. If waste water


is tested before discharge, and kept back for further treatment when
needed, it effectively prevents pollution.
1

Complete the table below.

Technology

Role in detecting water pollution

mass
spectrometer

satellite imagery
and aerial
photography

Why do you think these kinds of technologies have changed our


understanding of water pollution?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

How might they change the accepted limits set for water pollution?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Check your answers.


4

Have you found out about any new techniques being used to detect
pollution? If so what are the techniques and what do they detect?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

16

Water for living

Removing pollutants
Throughout Part 5, you have learnt about technologies used to remove
pollutants from water. You should have found out about the latest
technologies in the information you have collected from your local
council or water supplier/manager.
What latest technologies to remove pollutants have you learnt about?
What do they do?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Turn to Exercise 5.3 to describe and discuss one of the technologies you
have learned about in this part. Then complete Exercise 5.4 about causes of
water pollution and ways that water pollution can be reduced.

Part 5: Water treatment technology

17

Summary

The following words should prompt you to recall information in this part.
Next to each of the terms, briefly write information that comes to mind
with regards to water.

18

industrial waste _________________________________________

sewage treatment _______________________________________

technology ____________________________________________

reducing water pollution __________________________________

washing machine _______________________________________

water bill ______________________________________________

water purification _______________________________________

water cycle ____________________________________________

catchment area__________________________________________

channelling ____________________________________________

evaporation ____________________________________________

Sydney Water __________________________________________

acid rain ______________________________________________

reducing water usage ____________________________________

storm water ____________________________________________

mass spectrometer ______________________________________

Water for living

Appendix

Some technologies for treating storm water


A variety of technologies are used in the treatment of storm water.
Here are some examples. Your teacher may send you information about
some more recent technologies, or you may be able to locate the latest
examples from the Internet.
Continuous deflector separator device
Mosman Council in Sydney has responsibility for storm water that
discharges, or is 'received', into Sydney Harbour. Specially developed
continuous deflective separator (CDS) devices work on the process of
continual rotation to capture floating material at the discharge, or
receiving, point at the end of the storm water pipe, where it enters
the harbour.
The rotating device creates a whirlpool effect, which draws floating
pollutants to the centre of the device. This keeps the surrounding screen
unblocked, preventing a build-up of pollutants. It is estimated that this
device is able to filter up to 95% of all gross (large) pollutants, such as
plastic bags, bottles, cigarette butts and leaves. Cleaning of the CDS
at Balmoral Beach, within Mosman Council, occurs about four times
a year.
Basket traps
North Sydney Council is also responsible for storm water that is received
by Sydney Harbour, but it uses different devices to reduce pollution.
A steel mesh basket traps large floating pollution as storm water is
received by the harbour. The basket sits within a concrete box-like
frame, about the size of a mini-skip (a domestic-sized steel rubbish
removal bin that is delivered to your home and removed when full).
The steel basket can be removed from the concrete frame, emptied and

Part 5: Water treatment technology

19

cleaned whenever necessary. This on-going maintenance is expensive,


time-consuming and must be done on a regular basis.
Booms
Booms, or skirts as they are sometimes called, are floating devices that
sit on the water and prevent the further spreading of pollution.
Booms capture floating materials, and if used at the receiving point, will
prevent pollution from entering the receiving water. For example, booms
were used to contain oil from a spill in Sydney Harbour in August, 1999.
The examples of technology discussed above have specific application
for storm water entering a body of receiving water and are used to
remove floating pollutants. A very different approach is needed when
storm water discharges into a bushland area. Certainly gross pollutants
still need to be removed, and can be removed, prior to discharge.
Channelling and dissipation
Dissolved chemicals, such as phosphates and nitrates, can have a
dramatic effect on the growth rate of plants. Urban storm water
frequently has a high level of these chemicals, due to activities such as
fertilising gardens, washing cars and washing pet faeces into the storm
water system. If this enriched water discharges onto bushland, it will
cause an unnatural increase in plant growth and this in turn will change
the ecosystem. Two types of technology can prevent this from occurring.

Water may be channelled to concentrate the flow of water.


This causes water to pass through an area without affecting the area.

Another method is dissipation of the water. This spreads water out over
a large area so the overall effect of dissolved chemicals is much reduced.

The use of technology in the control and prevention of pollution is


continually changing and developing as different situations arise and our
understanding of technology and the environment increases.

20

Water for living

Suggested answers

Catchment areas
Catchment area means the region that collects water and transfers it into
a river, stream or lake.

Treating storm water


1

a) Continuous deflector separators create a whirlpool,


concentrating large pollutants in the centre. They are placed
where storm water enters the harbour. The whirlpool effect
keeps screens clear for water to move into the harbour.
b) Basket traps are large steel mesh baskets that capture large
pollutants as storm water flows enter the harbour.
c) Booms are floating devices that sit on the water surface,
collecting floating pollutants, such as oil spills.
d) Channelling allows water to pass through an area without
disturbing the ecosystem; dissipation spreads water over an area,
dispersing any contaminants and therefore reducing their effects.

These technologies are needed because storm water collects junk,


such as bottles, plastic bags and dead cats. If people disposed of
their rubbish suitably, these techniques would not be needed.

Part 5: Water treatment technology

21

Detecting pollutants
1

22

Technology

Role in detecting water pollution

mass
spectrometer

used to identify specific chemicals present in water; the


chemicals source can then be traced

satellite imagery
and aerial
photography

used to identify large scale pollution, such as sediment


washing into rivers, and illegal use of water

Technologies have made it easier to detect pollution. For example,


changes in ecosystems that previously could not be explained can
now be linked to low concentrations of specific pollutants. This has
changed our understanding of the effects of even small amounts of
pollution.

As the effects of pollutants are better understood, accepted limits are


likely to change, probably to fall. For example, levels of chemicals
that were previously thought safe may be shown to cause disease or
environmental damage.

Water for living

Exercises - Part 5

Exercise 5.1
If it is available, look at the last water bill for your household. If a bill is
not available, or if your home does not have a water meter, contact your
teacher for a copy of a bill or for an alternative activity.
Your water bill should show you the average amount of water used per
day in that billing period, usually over three months. It should also show
the average daily water use for the same period of the previous year, and
also in the previous billing period. This allows you to see any change in
water use and to look for a reason for it.
Notice the units used to record water used. For example, Sydney Water
records water use in kilolitres (a kilolitre is a thousand litres), which has
the symbol kL. Larger amounts of water are recorded in megalitres, or
units of one million litres. This is abbreviated to ML (not to be confused
with mL, or millilitres, which is how you would measure a dose of
medicine, or a volume of milk or soft drink).
Complete either A (using a water bill) OR B (using a water meter)
below. Then answer the questions on the next page.
A: Water bill and daily water usage
a) Water usage: ______________________________________
b) Period of time for water usage: ________________________
c) How many days in that period of time? (Show your working.)
_________________________________________________
d) Divide the water usage by the number of days to find the average
amount of water your household uses each day. (Show working.)
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Part 5: Water treatment technology

23

B: Water meter and daily water usage


a) Record the water meter reading now: ____________________
b) Date and time the above reading was taken: _______________
c) Record the meter reading in exactly one week (seven days):
__________________________________________________
d) Subtract the first reading from the second reading.
(Show working.): ____________________________________
__________________________________________________
e) Divide the last answer by seven to find the average amount of
water your household uses each day:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Questions
1

Of this amount, how much water goes down the sink to become
waste water?
______________________________________________________

How much water (average) does each person in your household use?
(Divide your daily usage by the number of people in your household.)
______________________________________________________

How could you (personally) reduce your daily water usage?


______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

24

Water for living

Exercise 5.2
This is a simple activity to demonstrate links between water and air.
You will taste solutions in this activity, so use clean kitchen equipment.
Mix two teaspoons of salt into a glass of water. Divide the water equally
between two identical glasses and mark the water level in each with a
label or a felt pen. Cover one glass (Glass A) with plastic wrap.
Leave the glasses in a warm place for several days.
Draw labelled diagrams to show what has happened in the two glasses.
Glass A

Glass B

Taste the solution in each glass. Which glass contains the saltier solution?
_________________________________________________________

Which glass, A or B, do you think is the control? Why?


_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
What is the independent variable? ____________________________
What is the dependent variable? ______________________________
What substance was able to move from the glass into the air?
_________________________________________________________
What substance was not able to move from the glass into the air?
_________________________________________________________

Part 5: Water treatment technology

25

Exercise 5.3
In Part 5, you have considered many technologies.
1

You learnt about technologies for purifying and treating water.


You have also used the Internet or contacted your local water
supplier/manager to find out about water treatment and management
in your area.
Outline the latest technologies being used to purify and treat water.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Technologies are also used to reduce pollution.


a) Identify an example of a technology used to reduce water
pollution.
__________________________________________________
b) Predict possible long-term effects of this technology.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Discuss how technological changes (for example, the development


or improvement of a technology) impact on our understanding of
pollution and pollution control.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

26

Water for living

Exercise 5.4
Use resources that you have collected throughout Part 5 and information
from this booklet to complete this exercise. (Your teacher may also have
provided you with additional pamphlets, for example from Sydney Water.)
1

Explain how water quality in one area can impact on the water
quality in other areas.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

List and explain ten ways of reducing water pollution.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Part 5: Water treatment technology

27

Gill Sans Bold

Senior Science
Preliminary Course
Stage 6

Water for living


Part 6: Water investigations

0
20

er
b
to T S
c
O EN
g
in D M
t
a
r EN
o
p
or AM
c
n

Senior Science Stage 6 Preliminary Course


Water for living

Water and living things

Sources of water

Chemicals in water

Water pollutants

Water treatment technology

Water investigations

Plants

Humans at work

Local environment

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................... 2
Water pollution disasters ........................................................... 3
Water investigations .................................................................. 5
Indicator organisms..............................................................................5
Your local waterway .............................................................................9

Summary................................................................................. 10
Appendix ................................................................................. 15
Suggested answers................................................................. 17
Exercises Part 6 ................................................................... 19
Bibliography ............................................................................ 29

Water investigations

Introduction

The presence or absence of some organisms in waterways can indicate


the purity of water. In this part you will investigate the presence of such
organisms in your local waterway. You will look for possible sources of
pollution in your catchment area and analyse water tests for water purity.
The majority of Part 6 involves investigations of a first-hand or
second-hand nature, which will be sent to your teacher.
In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to:

discuss types of indicator organisms that are found in safe water


supplies and those found in polluted water

identify a local catchment area and the sources of water feeding into
this catchment

describe the types of tests that are used to monitor and assess local
water quality.

In this part you will be given opportunities to:

plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first hand


investigation to determine the indicator organisms present in a local
catchment area and from these deduce the chemical purity of water

gather information on the source of water feeding into the local


catchment area using maps or field trips

gather information from secondary sources concerning the use and


treatment of local water

gather, process and present information from secondary sources to


identify some major disasters involving water pollution.

Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW,


October 2000. The most up-to-date version can be found on the Board's
website at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html

Water for living

Water pollution disasters

Throughout this module, you have been thinking about the importance
of water for living, and the consequences of human misuse of water
resources. Youve considered some of the disasters, or possible
disasters, associated with water pollution.
In this section you will gather, process and present information from the
Internet. This activity can be called a WebQuest because you will be
using the world wide web to answer questions. The activity involves
identifying major disasters involving water pollution that have occurred
in various parts of the world.
Try to match the locality and type of significant water pollution disaster. All
of these water pollution disasters have occurred in the last 50 years and have
received world-wide media attention.
Place the letter for the water pollution disaster after the number for its locality
in the answer column. The first one has been done as an example.

Locality

Water pollution disaster

Answer
column

1 Tapajos River, Amazon

a Arsenic in ground water

1c

2 Rhine River, Basel, Switzerland

b Mercury from chemical plant

3 Valdez Narrows, Alaska

c Mercury from gold mining

4 Bangladesh

d Cyanide from gold mining

5 Minamata Bay, Japan

e Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill

6 Baia Mare, Romania

f Chemicals from warehouse

Check your answers.

Water investigations

Go to the Learning Materials Production web site www.lmpc.edu.au, click


Science, then click Senior Science. From the left hand side of the screen click
Module 8.2, Water for Living, then click on the WebQuest link.
Carry out the WebQuest activity. Use the space below for your summary.

Water for living

Water investigations

The majority of this part involves you in first-hand investigations of a


local waterway. You will make a map of the catchment and examine the
water for signs of water pollution. To be able to do this, you need to
learn about organisms that can indicate levels of pollution in water.

Indicator organisms
Organisms whose presence gives information about the environment are
called indicator organisms. The presence of some particular organisms
indicates a healthy aquatic environment, whilst the presence of others
suggests an unhealthy or polluted aquatic environment.

Macrophytes
Macrophytes are very good
indicators of water quality.
Macrophytes are water plants
that can be seen with the naked
eye. They grow in different
water depths and may be
wholly or partially submerged,
and rooted or free floating.
The photograph shows an
example of a macrophyte.

Vallisineria is a freshwater macrophyte. Jane West

Water investigations

Macrophytes are important in natural aquatic environments for a number


of reasons. Macrophytes:

are a starting point for food chains in the aquatic environment, so all
animals in the aquatic environment rely on them in some way

provide oxygen (through photosynthesis) for aquatic animals

provide shelter from predators, sunlight and fast flowing water for
some aquatic animals, such as frogs

cool the water by providing shaded areas

supply food and breeding areas for birds

stabilise river banks and river beds, thus reducing erosion

reduce water speed, causing sediment to be deposited, thus clearing


the water.

In addition, some water plants can extract pollutants, such as heavy


metals and excess nutrients, from the water.

Macrophytes as indicators of clean water


As you know, when nutrient levels in the water increase, the growth of
algae increases (remember the conditions under which algal blooms
occur) as does the growth of bacteria. This growth can result in a brown
coloured coating on the leaves of the macrophytes. This is considered to
be a sign, or indicator, of unclean or unsafe water. If the leaf coating
continues over a period of time it may prevent photosynthesis and cause
the plant to die. Since the plants are the beginning of the food chains in
the ecosystem, the loss of these plants will disrupt food chains.
Native macrophytes are adapted to the Australian conditions of generally
phosphorus-poor and nitrogen-poor soils and water. The native
macrophytes, ribbonweed (Vallisineria gigantea), Ottelia and Trigloclin
are indicators of clean water.
The exotic (introduced) macrophytes, such as water hyacinth and
alligator weed, which have overtaken some waterways, are adapted to
higher levels of nutrients, and so thrive in water polluted with phosphates
and nitrates. The presence of introduced water plants can be considered
an indicator of polluted water.
Native macrophytes are adapted to a low nutrient environment and do not
cope well with high nutrient levels. In the long term, high nutrient levels
may result in the death of native macrophytes and replacement by exotic
or introduced species, more tolerant of the changed conditions.

Water for living

Other types of pollution can also be assessed using macrophytes.


For example, increased temperatures (from heat discharge) will initially
encourage the growth of macrophytes, but after a short time will result in
algal growth at the expense of the macrophytes.
In the diagram below, draw algae floating on the surface of the water
(as a result of increased nutrients) and the effects of minimal light (caused by
a coating of algae on leaves) on the macrophytes, such as stunting of growth,
death or browning of the leaves. You may use coloured pencils.

Some indications of polluted water.

Water investigations

Aquatic macroinvertebrates
These are 'water bugs', animals with no backbone, that can be seen with
the naked eye. The variety of aquatic macroinvertebrates is huge, with
each type having its own preferred environment. The fold-out pages at
the back of this part display macroinvertebrates. You will be using the
fold-out pages to carry out a study in your local waterway in Exercise
6.4.
Macroinvertebrates are the primary consumers in the different food
chains that are based on the macrophytes. Worms, dragonflies, yabbies,
snails, bugs and beetles all provide food for other aquatic animals that are
further up the food chain, such as frogs, fish and birds.
The presence or absence of specific macroinvertebrates can indicate
clean or polluted water.
Explain the following terms in your own words.
1

macrophytes
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

macroinvertebrates
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

indicator organisms
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Check your answers.

Water for living

Your local waterway


Now it is time for first-hand investigations of your local waterway.
The directions for all parts of the investigation are in the exercise pages.
Turn to Exercises 6.1 to 6.6 to conduct your investigation and to report on
the health of your local waterway. The exercises are:

Exercise 6.1: constructing a map of your local catchment

Exercise 6.2: identifying possible sources of contamination in your


local catchment

Exercise 6.3: assessing the health of your local waterway

Exercise 6.4: reporting on water quality tests and treatments in your


local catchment

Exercise 6.5: measuring and/or reporting on water quality tests

Exercise 6.6: evaluating the impacts of water quality in one area of your
local catchment on other areas.

Water investigations

Summary

The following is a sample test on Water for living. Use your own paper to
answer the questions. Answers are provided for the multiple choice only
to encourage you to search for the longer answers throughout the module.
Part A: Multiple choice. Choose the most correct answer.
1

What percentage of a human is water?


(A) 98%
(B) 78%
(C) 66%
(D) 75%

Plants can conserve water with:


(A) needle-like leaves
(B) thick cuticles on leaves
(C) leaf dropping
(D) all of the above.

A wombat conserves water by:


(A) burrowing underground to avoid the heat of the day
(B) having leathery skin
(C) lying in the shade of a tree during the day
(D) none of the above.

The major factor affecting the distribution of Australian ecosystems is:


(A) temperature
(B) soil type
(C) rainfall
(D) height above sea level.

10

Water for living

This question refers to the diagram below.


Ice melts

SUN
er
gy

Sola

wind moves clouds

water droplets as rain,


snow,hail
(precipitation)

n
re

water stored as
(ice)

CLOUDS
LANDMASS
water stored as liquids
(water droplets)

Snow

Glacier

ev
ap
or

tra
n

at
io
n

sp

ira

tio
n

MOUNTAINS
Run off

Lake

evaporation

Snow

Tributary

Lake

Lake
water stored as liquid
or solids (ice sheets)
(water droplets)

Percolation

OCEAN

(water soaking into ground)

GROUNDWATER

water moves slowly below ground

The diagram represents the:


(A) nitrogen cycle
(B) oxygen cycle
(C) phosphorus cycle
(D) water cycle.
6

What is the goal of most water regulations?


(A) to provide enough water for agriculture
(B) to achieve sustainable use of water
(C) to allow enough water for natural ecosystems
(D) to licence water users

The three main constituents of fertilisers are:


(A) potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus
(B) nitrogen, copper and potassium
(C) oxygen, nitrogen and potassium
(D) nitrogen, chlorine and mercury.

Algal blooms are:


(A) sometimes toxic to animals and humans
(B) caused by increased nutrients in waterways
(C) often natural events
(D) all of the above.

Water investigations

11

Which of the following is not a chemical classification


for pesticides?
(A) organophosphates
(B) biological
(C) organosulfates
(D) nitrogenous

10 What is Agent Orange?


(A) a cement colouring
(B) a rock-like structure
(C) glass
(D) a herbicide
11 How can phosphate concentration in water increase?
(A) through fertiliser use
(B) through household detergents in waste water
(C) through decay and wastes from animals
(D) through all of the above
12 What is meant by to bioassay water?
(A) to assess living organisms
(B) to measure quantity of living organisms
(C) to measure quantity of macroinvertebrates and macrophytes
(D) to measure quantity of organisms or chemicals using organisms
in samples
13 What is a riparian zone?
(A) an area containing plants beside a waterway
(B) an area that absorbs nutrients before they enter a waterway
(C) an area that reduces run-off into waterways
(D) all of the above

12

Water for living

14 Which governing body oversees the water that enters the homes of
Sydney residents?
(A) the local council
(B) Warragamba Dam
(C) Sydney Water
(D) the Total Catchment Management Authority
15 Acid rain can occur due to:
(A) carbon dioxide combining with sulfur dioxide
(B) water vapour combining with sulfur dioxide
(C) surface water combining with carbon dioxide
(D) none of the above.
Check your answers.

Part B: Short answer questions


16 a) Explain the difference between a solute, a solvent and
a solution.
b) Name two substances that dissolve in water.
c) Why is water essential for living things?
17 a) What is artesian water?
b) What is ground water?
18 a) Explain what is meant by the term catchment.
b) What is total catchment management?
19 a) What problems can fertilisers cause in waterways?
b) What problems can herbicides and pesticides cause
in waterways?
20 Explain two ways that storm water is screened before entering
Sydney Harbour.
21 Briefly explain what happened to plant growth when you varied the
concentration of fertiliser supplied.
22 a) Explain why heavy metals in water are a problem.

Water investigations

13

b) Choose one heavy metal and explain the physical symptoms


associated with poisoning by that metal.
23 Explain the problems associated with thermal pollution of water.
24 Outline one form of bioassay, explaining what it is used for and the
procedure involved.
25 Explain the need for mapping of ground water as well as surface
water in an area.
26 Explain three impacts of algal blooms in waterways.
27 Briefly outline three impacts of acid rain.
Part C: Long answer questions
28 Describe three problems associated with the overuse of water
in agriculture.
29 a) What is bioaccumulation (or biomagnification)?
b) Draw a diagram representing the process of bioaccumulation.
c) Give an example of poisoning as a result of bioaccumulation.
30 a) Explain the term eutrophication.
b) Explain the link between excess nutrients, cyanobacterial
blooms and eutrophication.
31 a) Outline two natural alternatives to herbicides and their
advantages.
b) Outline two natural alternatives to pesticides and their
advantages.
32 a) State three household chemicals that can increase the
concentration of nutrients in waterways.
b) What are five things you can do to minimise water pollution?
Outline how each of these strategies will help to reduce water
pollution.
33 Explain two types of technology used to purify and treat water.

14

Water for living

Appendix

Water tests student report


Aim

To investigate the chemical purity of water in the


Yanning River at Finthesia

Apparatus

dropper

methyl blue solution

3 beakers

pH paper

water sample

measuring cylinder

silver nitrate solution

Bunsen burner

tripod

wire gauze

filter funnel

filter paper

electronic scales

magnesium nitrate solution

Test for dissolved oxygen by adding five drops of


methyl blue solution. If the water goes clear,
no dissolved oxygen is present and the presence of
bacteria is indicated. If the water stays blue, dissolved
oxygen is present.

Test pH with pH paper. Red or orange is acidic, green


is neutral and purple is alkaline.

Method

Water investigations

15

Filter a 100 mL sample of water to assess the presence


of insoluble solids. Substances remaining on the
filter paper are insoluble solids.

Soluble solids are tested by weighing a beaker


containing 100 mL of filtered water, evaporating the
water and re-weighing the beaker. The difference in
weight is the weight of soluble solids present in the
water sample.

Add a few drops of silver nitrate solution (or


silver acetate solution) to the water sample. A milky
appearance indicates the presence of chloride ions.

Add several drops of magnesium nitrate solution to a


sample of water. A precipitate (solid that forms and
settles to the bottom) indicates the presence of
phosphate.

Results

16

Test

Observation

dissolved oxygen

the water went clear after 20 minutes

pH

the pH paper turned orange

insoluble solids

a small amount of solid was present on the filter paper

soluble solids

soluble solids weighed 0.026 g

chloride

the water turned milky when silver nitrate was added

phosphate

a precipitate formed when magnesium nitrate solution


was added

Water for living

Suggested answers

Water pollution disasters

Locality

Water pollution disaster

Answer
column

1 Tapajos River, Amazon

a Arsenic in ground water

1c

2 Rhine River, Basel, Switzerland

b Mercury from chemical plant

2f

3 Valdez Narrows, Alaska

c Mercury from gold mining

3e

4 Bangladesh

d Cyanide from gold mining

4a

5 Minamata Bay, Japan

e Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill

5f

6 Baia Mare, Romania

f Chemicals from warehouse

6d

Aquatic macroinvertebrates
1

Macrophytes are water plants that can be seen with the naked eye.

Macroinvertebrates are water animals with no backbone (water


bugs) that can be seen with the naked eye.

Indicator organisms are organisms whose presence tells something


about the state of the environment.

Water investigations

17

Summary

18

11 D

12 D

13 D

14 C

10 D

15 B

Water for living

Exercises - Part 6

Exercises 6.1 to 6.6

Name: _________________________________

It is essential that you read through Exercises 6.1 to 6.6 before you
begin your investigations of a local waterway.

Exercise 6.1
You will construct a map of your local catchment, identifying:

possible sources of pollution

the physical landscape

sources of water feeding the catchment

large bodies of water in your catchment.

You will recall that in Part 2 of this module you investigated the types of
water in your local environment, and drew a map to show these. You may
find it helpful to look again at that map. Some of the information required
for this activity will be contained in your previous map.
You may need to access other sources of information to complete this
activity. Some sources to keep in mind are the NSW Department of
Land and Water Conservation, your local council and library, Landcare
and your local water provider.
Your map
Tick off each feature as you include it in your map.

the extent (area) of your local catchment that is, the total area that
ultimately drains into your local water source

the main sources of water that feed into the catchment, with streams
and rivers clearly named

the physical (landscape) features that define the catchment (usually


hills or ridges), named if possible

Water investigations

19

any large bodies of water that occur in the catchment (If you wish to
mark stock dams, you can do so, but you may find there are too
many to consider.)

the source(s) of contamination or pollution that may enter the


catchment, with these identified and itemised using a key

the location of the sewerage works (if applicable)


your particular water source
your home or property
the direction of north (N)
the location of the water where you will assess indicator organisms.
(Refer to Exercise 6.3.)

Why not have fun with this task? If you are unsure of industries in your
local area that may contribute to pollution, or the location of the
sewerage works, talk to community members.
Refer to maps of your area to understand where your water comes from
and the landscape of those areas. Make some draft maps before your
final map so that you can correctly place landmarks, labels, the scale and
a legend, or key.
Use coloured pencils. Make the map as large as you want; however, it
must be posted. Dont forget to include everything in the above list
in your final map. Use your own paper and have fun!

MAKE SURE YOU ATTACH YOUR MAP OR A COPY OF IT TO


THIS EXERCISE

20

Water for living

Exercise 6.2
On your map you have indicated possible sources of water contamination.
Complete a summary about three of these contamination sources using the
headings below.
a)

Contamination source
_____________________________________________________
Type of contamination
_____________________________________________________
Why contamination occurs
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
How the problem could be rectified
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

b) Contamination source
_____________________________________________________
Type of contamination
_____________________________________________________
Why contamination occurs
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Water investigations

21

How the problem could be rectified


______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

c)

Contamination source
______________________________________________________
Type of contamination
______________________________________________________
Why contamination occurs
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
How the problem could be rectified
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

22

Water for living

Exercise 6.3
You are about to assess the health of your local waterway by examining
the indicator organisms present. You need to sample the water for
macroinvertebrates at the site you marked on your map.
You will find identification charts for indicator organisms as fold-out pages
at the back of this part. They will help you to identify macroinvertebrate
organisms in your local waterway or water body. The material in the
fold-out pages is kindly provided by Sydney Water Streamwatch.
Information in the fold-out pages also includes which macroinverebrates
are very tolerant to pollution and which are not. If your sample site has
many macroinvertebrates that are not tolerant to pollution, your water
source is healthy. If your samples show a large number of pollutiontolerant macroinvertebrates only, your water source is not healthy.
1

What is your aim?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Choose equipment or resources that you will need to carry your research.
Apart from the equipment needed to catch/see/identify macroorganisms,
what else will you need? (Protective clothing and footwear, hat,
sunscreen, plastic/rubber gloves?)
2

What equipment will you need?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Plan what you will do. What safety precautions will you take? Who will
you take with you? Are there any particular hazards that need to be
addressed in your plan? When will you carry out this activity? How will
you record your findings? How will you collect the macroinvertebrates?
How will you keep the macroinvertebrates still (without damaging them)
to count and identify them?
3

How will you carry out your investigation?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Water investigations

23

How will you tally the species as you identify them? How will you
record your results so they are useful? Will you identify each as
pollution-tolerant or not?
4

How will you present your results? Use the space below to prepare a
structure to record your results.

Now carry out your investigation and record your findings. (If you have
access to a school laboratory, also collect a sample of water to test in
Exercise 6.5.)
5

Are there many pollution-tolerant species? Did you find greater


numbers of species that are not pollution-tolerant? What can you
conclude from your results about the health of your water source?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

24

Water for living

Exercise 6.4
In previous parts, you have learnt about chemical tests that are performed
to ensure the purity and safety of drinking water. Use information from
your local water provider, or your local council, to answer the following
questions. (If you use tank water, answer for water in the closest town.)

What chemical tests are used to monitor and assess the quality of
your local water?

Why is each chemical test carried out? (A table might be useful here.)
What treatment is applied to your local water to make it drinkable?
The following page has been left blank for you to present your findings.
It is suggested you make a draft of your answers below before making
the final draft on the following page.

Water investigations

25

Exercise 6.4 Findings

26

Water for living

Exercise 6.5
If you have access to water testing chemicals, and a teacher to instruct
and supervise you, test the chemical purity of your local water.
Send your aim, apparatus, method, results and conclusion, recorded on
your own paper, to your teacher. You may refer to the report in the
Appendix as a guide.
If not, use the water test results in the Appendix to complete the tasks
below.
1

Briefly state what chemical substance(s) each test was identifying.


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Outline what each of the results suggest about substances in the


water sample.
Test

Substances present or absent in water sample

dissolved oxygen
pH
soluble solids
insoluble solids
chloride
phosphate

Draw a conclusion about the purity of water in the Yanning River


at Finthesia.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Water investigations

27

Exercise 6.6
Using examples from your local catchment, and the map you created in
Exercise 6.1, explain how water quality in one area can impact on the
water quality in other areas. Refer to your map in your explanation.
Your answer to this part should be at least half a page in length.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

28

Water for living

Bibliography

Our Water Second Edition, NSW Government. 1994.


Stage 6 Syllabus Senior Science. Board of Studies NSW, Sydney. 1999.
Biosolids recycling. Sydney Water.
NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation. 1998. Water
Sharing the way forward. NSW Progress on the Water Reforms 1995
to 1998 NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, Sydney.
NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, September, 1997.
Water Reforms Information for water users. NSW Department of Land
and Water Conservation, Sydney.

Household responsibilities. Sydney Water.


Laidler, G. 1991. Environmental Chemistry An Australian
Perspective . Longman Cheshire Pty Limited. Melbourne.
Lines-Kelly, R. 1994. Soil sense; Soil Management for NSW North
Coast Farmers. NSW Agriculture. Wollongbar. NSW.
Mitrovic, S. 1995. What Scum is That? Algal Blooms and Other
Prolific Plant Growth. NSW Department of Land and Water
Conservation, Sydney.
Nebel, B. 1990. Environmental Science: The way the world works
Third Edition. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.

Think before it goes down the sink. Sydney Water.


Trade waste. Sydney Water.
Trade Waste: Working together to protect our water for everyone to
enjoy. Sydney Water.
Warragamba Dam. Sydney Water.
Water Conservation in the home. Sydney Water.
Water Conservation outside. Sydney Water.
West, S. 1998. The Streamwatch Manual; The complete
Streamwatch guide to water quality monitoring. Sydney Water.

Water investigations

29

Student evaluation of module

Name: ________________________

Location: ______________________

We need your input! Can you please complete this short evaluation to
provide us with information about this module. This information will
help us to improve the design of these materials for future publications.
1

Did you find the information in the module clear and easy to
understand?
_____________________________________________________

What did you most like learning about? Why?


_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Which sort of learning activity did you enjoy the most? Why?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Did you complete the module within 30 hours? (Please indicate the
approximate length of time spent on the module.)
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Do you have access to the appropriate resources (such as a computer,


the Internet, scientific equipment, chemicals, people that can provide
information and help with understanding science)?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Please return this information to your teacher, who will pass it along to
the materials developers at OTEN DE.

SSCPrelim 43173 Water for living

Learning Materials Production


Open Training and Education Network Distance Education
NSW Department of Education and Training

Вам также может понравиться