(FromGrolierMultimediaEncyclopedia)

MassMedia
Massmediaaremeansofcommunicationthatareusedtoreachthegeneralpublicforthepurposeof
creatingaudiencesforinformation,artisticexpression,andotherkindsofmessages.Althoughthe
wordmasssuggestslargenumbersofpeople,thetermissubjective,withstandardsofmeasurement
relativetothenormalcapabilitiesofagivenmedium.Forexample,1millionbookssoldnationallyis
moreimpressivethananationaltelevisionaudienceof1millionviewers.Thewordmediaisalso
commonlyusedasanaggregatenountorefertotheentireindustry,oftenbecauseofaperceived
homogeneityorsamenessofpointofview.
Becausetheabilitytoreachlargesegmentsofthepublicisofgreatvalueincommerce,politics,anda
society'sculture,themassmediaareusuallycontrolledbycorporations(asintheUnitedStates)orby
nationalgovernments(asinChina).Themassmediaindustryemploysprofessionalstoconceive,
produce,promote,anddelivercommunicationproductsthatarespecificallydesignedtomeetthegoal
ofattractinglargeaudiences.Theseproductsmaybesoldasobjects(suchasbooksordigital
videodiscs[DVDs]),exhibitedforthepriceofaticketorsubscription(suchasmoviesshownin
cinemasoronpremiumorpayforviewcableTVchannels),orofferedatnocashcosttoconsumers
soastocreateanaudienceforpaidadvertising(suchascommercialtelevisionorradiobroadcasts).
Someofthemassmediausecombinationsofthesefundingsources.Forexample,mostnewspapers
andmagazinesaresolddirectlytothereaderbutdependonsellingadvertisementsfortheir
profitability.
Nocommunicationtechnologyisinherentlyamassmediumbutratherbecomesonethroughusage.
Forinstance,radiowasinventedattheendofthe19thcenturyprimarilyforuseasatwoway
communicationsystemtoserveindustrialshippingandnavaloperations.Inthe1920s,however,
corporatedecisionsweremadebyseveralmajorelectronicsmanufacturerstomassproduce
inexpensiveradioreceiversforretailsaleandtooperateradiostationsasincentivesforconsumersto
buythem.Thusradiobroadcasting,amassmedium,wasbornitquicklygrewintotheprimaryuseof
thatmedium.Televisiondevelopedintheoppositeway.Itwasfirstintroducedtothegeneralpublicas
amassmediuminthelate1940s.Decadeslater,however,thedevelopmentofsupplementary
appliances,suchasthevideocassetterecorder(VCR)andthehomevideocamera,allowedforitsuse
asaninterpersonalmedium.Thetelephoneisanexampleofamediumofinterpersonal
communicationthatremains,primarily,justthat.Itisonlyoccasionallyusedasamassmedium,as
whenatelemarketerusescomputerstoautomaticallydialthousandsoftelephonenumbersforthe
purposeofplayingrecordedmessages.Similarly,letterwritinghashistoricallybeenaninterpersonal
medium,butthedirectmailingoflettersofsolicitation,sometimesnumberinginthemillions,bypost
orbyemail,constitutestheuseoftheletterasamassmedium.

History
Massmediaareessentiallyanindustrialeraphenomenon,althoughsomehistoriansarguethat
medievalEuropeancathedralarchitecturefunctionedasamassmediumofreligiouscommunication
byofferingbiblicalstoriesandreligiousinformationtoalargelyilliteratepopulationthroughtheuse
ofpainting,sculpture,andothervisualarts.Thegrowthofthefirstcommercialprintingindustry
duringtheearly18thcentury,whichspranguparoundLondon'sGrubStreet,ismoreoftencitedasa
beginningformassmediabecauseoftherecognizableeconomicsystemthatwasputintoplace.Itwas
therethatpublishingfounditsearlycommercialapplications,ashandoperatedprintingpresseswere
usedtoproduceandreproducethousandsofcopiesofinexpensiveliteraryproducts,includingnovels
("pennydreadfuls")andmagazines,whichweresoldforprofittoagrowingaudienceofrudimentary
readers.Previously,publishinghaddependedontheclergyorthearistocracyforfunding,ratherthan

retailmarketing.
Astringofcommunicationtechnologieswereintroducedduringthe19thcentury,allofwhich
acceleratedthedevelopmentofthemassmedia:theinventionofthesteampoweredprintingpress,
coupledwithincreasingliteracyrates,gaverisetomasscirculationofnewspapersandmagazines,as
wellastothemassproductionofbooks,includingpaperbacks.Allthreetypesofmassproducedprint
productswerecommonlyavailableforsaleinEuropeandNorthAmericabythe1860s.Photography
wasinventedinthe1820s,andmethodsforreproducingphotographsintheprintmediawere
improvedthroughoutthecentury,makingsuchmediaevermoreattractivetoconsumers.Inaddition,
thedevelopmentofstillphotographyledtotheinventionofthemotionpicture,anentirelynewmeans
ofcommunicationthatshowedgreatpotentialformassmediaapplication.
Thetelegraph,inventedinthe1830sandinpracticalusebythelate1840s,wasperhapsthesingle
mostimportantinventioninthehistoryofmasscommunication.Itrevolutionizedexistingmediaby
supplyingnewspapersandmagazineswithacontinuousstreamofnewsdispatchesfromtheregion,
thenation,and,followingthecompletionoftheAtlanticcablein1863,theworld.Bolsteredbythe
resourcesofthetelegraphicwireservices,newspapersandmagazinesachievedcirculations
numberinginthemillions.Thusprintbecamethefirstofthemodernmassmedia.Bytheturnofthe
20thcentury,othertypesofmediaweregainingpublicattentiononthisscale.Silentmoviesbecame
increasinglypopularduringtheearly20thcentury.Althoughentertainments,suchasdramatic
narratives,dominatedthesilentscreen,informationalgenresofcinema,suchasthenewsreelandthe
documentaryfilm,werealsobornatthisstageofdevelopment.Withtheintroductionofsynchronous
soundtofeaturefilmsin1927,attendancegrewgeometrically.
Thephonographemergedasamassmediumaswell.Inventedin1877,itachievedwideruseas
electrificationofhomesallowedforreplacementofhandcrankedmechanicalmodels.Salesof
recordingsreachedmassproportionsduringthe1920sascommercialradiowasusedtopopularize
musicalgenres,createhitsongs,andmakestarsofartists.ThefirstU.S.commercialradiostation
wentontheairin1920,andradionetworks,linkingstationsinvariouspartsofthecountrytocarrya
singleprogramsimultaneously,werefirstestablishedin1927.Bythemiddleofthe20thcentury,
newspapers,magazines,movies,phonographrecords,andradioprogramswereconvenientlyavailable
tomostoftheAmericanpopulation.Throughsheerubiquity,themassmediabegantorivalsuch
traditionalculturaldeterminantsasfamily,education,andreligioninprovidinginformation,art,and
otheraspectsofculturallearningtomanyormostpeople.Somesawthisasanaturalandpositive
extensionofdemocracy.Otherscriticizedthemassmediaforfailingtopropagateexistingcultureand,
instead,replacingitwithanewmassculturebasedonconsumerismattheexpenseoftraditionalor
anyothervalues.
Duringthe1950s,broadcasttelevisionemergedasthenexusofthemassmedia.Containingnews,
drama,cinema,music,andatleastsomecontentfromallothermassmediainasingle,convenient
homeappliance,television'soverwhelmingfunctionalitywassoondictatingsupplementaryrolesto
othercomponentsofthemassmedia.Radiobegantoproducespecializedprogramming,mostly
music,forsmallertargetaudiencesastelevisionabsorbedgeneralinterestentertainment,suchas
drama,comedy,andvariety,whichhadbeenamongradio'smostpopularattractions.Newspaper
circulationhadstartedtodeclineinthe1930sasradiojournalismproveditselfbothfasterandmore
popular.Withthespreadoftelevision,thenumberofdailyU.S.newspapersbegantodrop
precipitously,leavingmostcitieswithonlyasinglenewspaperpublisher.Manygeneralinterest
magazinesdisappearedaswell,aspublisherssoughtsmaller,specializedaudiencesthattelevisiondid
notserve.Motionpictureattendancedeclinedinthefaceoftelevision'sathomeconvenience.

TheMassMediaToday
Evolvingtechnologiescontinuetodrivethedevelopmentofthemassmedia.Instantaneous
communication,aprocessthatoriginatedwiththetelegraph,reachedamilestonewiththesuccessful

launchingsofcommunicationssatellitesintolowEarthorbit.Thefirstofthese,Telstar1(1962)
orbitedtheEarthataspeedfasterthantheEarthrevolves,allowingfor"windows"oftimewhenvideo
andaudiotransmissionscouldbemadewithinashiftingorbitalfootprint.Today,withdozensofhigh
capacitycommunicationssatellitesinsynchronousorbit,areportermayattachacameraor
microphonetoalaptopcomputerandreportlive,viasatellite,fromvirtuallyanyplaceintheworldto
thestudioofamassmediacompany,whichinturncanofferthatlivetransmissiontomuchofthe
world.
ThenationwidedisseminationofcableTVwasaprocessthattookdecadesbecauseofthenecessityof
seekinglegalfranchisesinvirtuallyeverymunicipalityintheUnitedStates,oneatatime.Ascable
subscriptionreachedasaturationpointinthelate1980s,thenewmassmediumbegantoremake
televisioninmuchthesamewaythattheintroductionoftelevisionhadremaderadioandmagazines.
Cablechannelsseeksmalleraudienceswithspecialtargetinterestsforadvertisersspecificallyintent
onreachingthem.
The1990sweremarkedbyanexplosivegrowthinonlineservicesforpeoplewhousecomputers,as
wellpublicaccesstotheInternet.AtfirstitwashopedbycriticsthattheInternetmightofferan
alternativeorevenacounterforcetomassmediainfluenceoverpublictasteandpublicopinionwith
suchinterpersonalapplicationsasemail,newsgroups,bulletinboards,andchatrooms.Bytheturnof
the21stcentury,however,thefamiliarmodelofmassmediadevelopmenthadreasserteditselfover
thenewdomain.Massmediacompanieshadbecomethedominantservers,extendingtheirfamiliar
brandnamestothisnewestsourceofinformationandentertainment.The2001mergerofTime
Warner,anintegratedmassmediacompanywithholdingsinpublishing,cinema,television,radio,
recording,andjustabouteveryotherformofmasscommunication,withAmericaOnline(AOL),the
largestInternetserviceprovider,epitomizedthistrend.Meanwhile,marketersofallkindsmonitored
andeventuallydrovethedevelopmentofinterestgroupsasawayofcreatingretailaudiencesfor
products.FormanyInternetusers,"interactivity"hasbecomelimitedtoshoppingoncommercialWeb
siteswithcreditcards.

MassMediaandDemocracy
Massmediaownershiphasbeencharacterizedbyconcentrationofownershipthroughmergersand
acquisitions.IntheUnitedStatesaconsistenttrendofderegulationsincethe1980shasleftmostof
thetelevisionindustry,aswellasothermassmedia,inthehandsoffewerthanadozencompanies
and,atthesametime,hasrelievedthesecompaniesofwhatusedtobelegalobligationstoprovide
publicserviceprogramming.Asaprocessionofnewmediacontinuetoemergefromthelaboratory,
fewercommunicatorsor,moreimportant,fewertypesofcommunicatorsareavailabletosupplyusers
withcontent.BesidestheworldwidemassmediaempireofAOLTimeWarner,othercompanieswith
extensiveholdingsindozensofcommunicationmediasuchasGeneralElectric,Westinghouse,
NewsCorporation,andBertelsmannGrouptendtocompetewitheachotherinlikegenres
containinglikemessagesandstyles.Becausethemassmedia,especiallytelevision,aretheonly
sourcesofnewsformanyindividuals,politicalorsocialbiasesinthemediasometimesforceviewers
toidentifythemselvesinpoliticaltermsliberal,conservative,radical,reactionarythathave
becomelargelymetaphoric.Thechallengetoactiveparticipationindemocracyisfurthercompounded
whenthemassmediaseemtobeinconcertaboutwhichissuestocover.Somecriticsarehopefulthat
theinclusionofforeignbasednewsorganizationswillbroadenthevarietyofAmericannews
coverage.Therewassomeevidenceofthisduringthe2003IraqWarinradioandtelevisioncoverage
bytheBritishBroadcastingCorporation.Foreignnewsservices,however,arenotlikelytohavea
significanteffectondomesticissues.

TheEffectsofMassMedia
Becauseoftheircentralpositionasasourceofculturalandsociallearning,themassmediaareeasily

andoftenblamedformanyofsociety'sills.Someresearchersbelievethatthemassmediashape
thewaypeopleviewtheworld,especiallywhenpeoplehavelittledirectexperienceotherspointto
themediaasprovidingrolemodelspositiveandnegativeimitatedbymembersoftheaudience.
Theportrayalofviolenceinthemediaisperhapsthemostprominentissue,butotherbehavioralareas
areofconcern.Theseargumentstendtobebasedonthesuppositionthattheexperienceofthecontent
presentedbycontemporarymassmediadiffersinsomequalitativewayfromothermaterialthat
peoplehavebeenexposedtosincethebeginningofsocialcommunication.Attemptstoholdmass
mediacorporationslegallyresponsibleforthecriminalactsoftheconsumersoftheirproductshave
failed,andageneralconsensushasbeenreachedthatpeoplewillhavetocontinuetoberesponsible
fortheirownbehaviorsintheageofmassmedia.
DavidMarc

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