The link between politics and religion had been reinforced under the mandate of theFrench

colonial powers from 1920 to 1943, and the parliamentary structure favored a leading position for
the Christians. However, the country had a large Muslim population and many pan-
Arabist and left-wing groups opposed the pro-western government. The establishment of the state
of Israel and the displacement of a hundred thousand Palestinian refugees to Lebanon during
the 1948and 1967 exoduses contributed to shifting the demographic balance in favor of the
Muslim population.
The 1989 Taif Agreement marked the beginning of the end of the fighting. In January 1989, a
committee appointed by the Arab League began to formulate solutions to the conflict. In March
1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to its
enactment.[10] In May 1991, the militias were dissolved, with the exception ofHezbollah, while
the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian
institution.[11] Religious tensions between Sunnis and Shias remained after the war.[12]
In July 1958, Lebanon was threatened by a civil war between Maronite Christians and Muslims.
President Camille Chamoun had attempted to break the stranglehold on Lebanese politics
exercised by traditional political families in Lebanon. These families maintained their electoral
appeal by cultivating strong client-patron relations with their local communities.
In previous years, tensions with Egypt had escalated in 1956 when the non-aligned President,
Camille Chamoun, did not break off diplomatic relations with the Western powers that attacked
Egypt during the Suez Crisis.
Nasser felt that the pro-western Baghdad Pact posed a threat to Arab Nationalism. However,
president Chamoun looked to regional pacts to ensure protection from foreign armies: Lebanon
historically had a small cosmetic army that was never effective in defending Lebanon's territorial
integrity, and this is why in later years the PLO guerrilla factions had found it easy to enter
Lebanon and set up bases, as well as takeover army barracks on the border with Israel as early as
1968.
But his Lebanese pan-Arabist Sunni Muslim Prime Minister Rashid Karami supported Nasser in
1956 and 1958. Lebanese Muslims pushed the government to join the newly created United Arab
Republic, a country formed out of the unification of Syria and Egypt, while the majority of
Lebanese and especially the Maronites wanted to keep Lebanon as an independent nation with its
 own independent parliament. President Camille feared the toppling of his government and asked
for U.S. intervention.
Eisen hour doctrine
Chamoun asked for assistance proclaiming that Communists were going to overthrow his
government. Chamoun was responding not only to the revolt of former political bosses, but also to
the fact that both Egypt and Syria had taken the opportunity to deploy proxies into the Lebanese
conflict.
The Syrian occupation of Lebanon began in 1976 as a result of the Lebanese Civil War and
ended in April 2005 in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of
former Lebanese Prime Minister,Rafik Hariri.

Labor Party:
History & Overview

Labor Party: Table of Contents | Party Leaders | Party Platform

The Labor Party (In Hebrew, Mifleget ha-Avodah ha-Yisraelit) was established
in 1968 through the joining ofMapai, Ahdut Haavodah and Labor Rafi. Labor is
the dominant left-of-center party in Israel. Until Menachem Begins victory in
1977, every Israeli Prime Minister came from Labor. Since 1977, Labor
leaders Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres and Ehud Barak have served as Prime
Ministers. The party is currently led by Isaac Herzog. The Israel Labor Party is
a social-democratic political party. It's ideological vision for Israel is based upon
the values of the Jewish labor movement, which are in turn, products of the social
experience and cultural heritage of the Jewish people.
The Labor Party has a principled commitment to the maintenance of a democratic
form of government; to the enhancement of the social and economic well being
of all of Israel's citizens; to the strengthening of Israel's economy based on free
market principles; and, to the achievement of a comprehensive peace with
security in the Middle East.
The Labor Party is pragmatic in its approach. It recognizes the necessity to
compromise in both the domestic arena and in foreign affairs in order to promote
political stability and the advancement of Israel's fundamental interests.
Leaders of Israel's Labor Party have included some of the countries most
recognizable names, including David Ben-Gurion, Golda Meir, Moshe
Dayan, Abba Eban, Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres, and Ehud Barak.
 Before the October 1973 War, the Labor Party was hampered by internal
dissension, persistent allegations of corruption, ambiguities and contradictions in
its political platform, and by the disaffection of Oriental Jews. Labor's failure to
prepare the country for the war further alienated a large segment of the electorate.
Despite Labor's commitment to exchange occupied territories for peace,
successive Labor governments beginning soon after the June 1967
War established settlements in the territories and refrained from dismantling
illegal settlements, such as those established in 1968 at Qiryat Arba in Hebron by
Rabbi Moshe Levinger and others set up by the extremist settler movement Gush
Emunim. By 1976 more than thirty settlements had been established on the West
Bank.
Another contradiction in Labor's political platform concerned Jerusalem. All
Labor governments have proclaimed that Jerusalem will always remain the
undivided capital of Israel. In effect, this stance precludes the peace for territories
formula contained in Resolution 242 because neither Jordan nor
the Palestinians would be likely to accept any agreement by which Jerusalem
remained in Israeli hands.
The post-1973 Labor Party estrangement from the Israeli public intensified
throughout 1976 as the party was hit with a barrage of corruption charges that
struck at the highest echelons. Rabin's minister of housing, who was under
investigation for alleged abuses during his time as director general of
the Histadrut Housing Authority, committed suicide in January 1977. At the
same time, the governor of the Bank of Israel, who had been nominated by
Rabin, was sentenced to jail for taking bribes and evading taxes, and the director
general of the Ministry of Housing was apprehended in various extortion
schemes. Finally, and most egregious, Rabin himself was caught lying about
money illegally kept in a bank account in the United States.
Tzipi Livni and her Ha'Tnuah party joined forces with Issac Herzog and the
Labor party to run on a joint ticket titled the "Zionist Camp" in the March 2015
elections. The two leaders originally agreed on a rotation system, should they be
victorious, in which Herzog would serve as Prime Minister for the first two years
of the term, followed by Livni. The day before the election, on March 16, 2015,
Livni announced that the rotation schedule that she and Herzog had designed was
going to be scrapped, in an apparent last minute attempt to gain swing votes.
Political rivals lambasted the decision, saying that Livni and Herzog were
panicking.
Benjamin Netanyahu's lawyer, attorney David Shimron, and Likud's Youth
chairman, David Shain, accused the "Zionist Camp" ticket of systematically
violating multiple Israeli election laws on February 5. They accused
the Labor and Ha'Tnuah parties of "raising money, engaging in organizational
coordination and engaging in propaganda," and stated that the Zionist Camp
ticket "is encouraging people to vote against Likud in other words, it is
engaging in forbidden propaganda." The complaint alleges that the party has
been illegally using millions of Shekels that have been coming from NGO's, and
 has been submitted to the Central Elections Committee, who will decide if the
claims have any validity. Included in the complaint are accusations that the
Labor and Ha'Tnuah parties "attempted to buy power with money... millions of
dollars that come from leftists abroad are being funneled to finance the campaign
to topple Benjamin Netanyahu and Likud." The Zionist Camp has denied these
accusations.
Polls in the week leading up to the election put the Labor/Ha'Tnuah Zionist
Camp ticket slightly ahead of Netanyahu's Likud party, winning a predicted 25 or
26 seats to Likud's predicted 21 or 22.
On March 18, 2015, the final election results came in and it was revealed
that Netanyahu and his Likud party had beaten the Zionist Union ticket
of Livni and Herzog. The Zionist Union ticket received enough votes for 24 out
of 120 seats in the 20th Knesset, coming in second place.

#####
Likud Party: Table of Contents | Party Platform | Party Leaders

The Likud Party (The Consolidation, in Hebrew) is a right wing political party in
Israel founded by revolutionary leader Menachem Begin and was the first right-leaning
party to lead the Israeli government. It is currently headed by Prime Minister Benjamin
Netanyahu.
Likud started out as a group of both left and right-wing parties - including Herut,
Liberal Party, Free Center, National List, and Labor Movement for Greater Israel - that
united in 1973 just before the elections to the 8th Knesset. The party's electoral list for
the Knesset was drawn up from representatives of the various movements based on an
agreed formula.
Chosen to head the party was the veteran leader of Herut and
former Etzel commander, Menachem Begin. Begin, who until the establishment of the
Likud, had led the Herut Party as the hawkish right wing marker on the Israel political
map, chose to lead the newly created party in a more moderate manner. From its
inception, the Likud Party adopted the principles of social equality, a free market
economy, and preservation of Jewish tradition and culture, values that were largely
shaped according to the teachings of Zeev Jabotinsky.
Likud first came to power in 1977, in what would eventually be referred to as the
Upheaval, an election that marked the first time since Israel's independence that a
right-wing party would lead the government. As Prime Minister, Begin led the State to
the historic peace agreement with Egypt, the bombing of the atomic reactor in Osiraq,
Iraq and also oversaw the Israel Defense Forces during Operation Peace for Galilee.
Under Begins leadership, the Likud raised the banner of Jewish settlement in Judea &
Samaria and in Galilee, and introduced the Jerusalem Law, which established the status
of united Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Israel.
In 1983, Begin retired his post and Yitzhak Shamir was appointed Prime Minister in his
place. Shamir served as Prime Minister on behalf of the Likud on and off from 1986 to
1992. As Prime Minister, Shamir took part in the Madrid Peace Conference and also
enthusiasticaly promoted the historic Jewish immigration from the Soviet Union and
from Ethiopia in Operation Solomon.
Benjamin Netanyahu was elected to lead the Likud after Shamirs retirement in 1993.
Three years later,Netanyahu led the party to a sweeping electoral victory and became
the ninth Prime Minister of the State of Israel.
In 1999, Netanyahu retired from politics and was succeeded by Ariel Sharon as party
leader. In 2001, Sharon defeated then-Prime Minister Ehud Barak in the elections and
returned Likud to power. During his term of office, Sharon led Operation Defensive
Shield and ordered the construction of the security fence to help protect Israel
from Palestinian terrorism in the West Bank. In summer 2005, Sharon forged ahead
with hisGaza disengagement plan, and following a major split in Likud over the
disengagement, Sharon left the party at the end of November 2005 to form the
new Kadima Party.
After Sharon left, Netanyahu was once again made leader of Likud and returned the
party to power in 2009. In October 2012, Netanyahu and Avigdor Lieberman, head of
the Yisrael Beiteinu party, announced that their parties would merge ahead of
the January 2013 elections and would be called Likud Beiteinu.
At the January 2013 elections, Likud-Beiteinu won just over 23% of the vote and was
awarded 31 seats in theKnesset.
A primary election was held on December 31, 2014 after the sudden dissolution of
the 33rd government and19th Knesset earlier that month, with Danny Danon
challenging Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu for the party's
leadership. Netanyahu won easily, and with the poor showing of right-wing members
of the party such as Moshe Faiglin, the results represented a victory for the party's
moderates. After forming the first government without any of the religious parties in
the last election, the defection of centrists in the coalition has led Netanyahu to turn
once again to these parties as potential coalition partners.
Netanyahu's lawyer, attorney David Shimron, and Likud's Youth chairman, David
Shain, accused the "Zionist Camp" Party of systematically violating multiple Israeli
election laws on February 5. They accused the Laborand Ha'Tnuah parties of raising
money, engaging in organizational coordination and engaging in propaganda, and
stated that the Zionist Camp Party is encouraging people to vote against Likud in
other words, it is engaging in forbidden propaganda. The complaint alleges that the
party has been illegally using millions of Shekels that have been coming from NGO's,
and has been submitted to the Central Elections Committee, who will decide if the
claims have any validity. Included in the complaint are accusations that
theLabor and Ha'Tnuah parties attempted to buy power with money... millions of
dollars that come from leftists abroad are being funneled to finance the campaign to
topple Benjamin Netanyahu and Likud. The Zionist Camp denied these accusations.
A report into the spending of Prime Minister and Likud member Benjamin
Netanyahu prepared by State ComptrollerYosef Shapira was released on February 17,
2015. Included in the report are records of wild and extravagant spending by the Prime
Minister and his wife at their official residence, such as $18,000 spent on takeout food
in a single year, despite the fact that they are provided with a personal chef with a full
staff at their residence. The Netanyahu's reportedly also spent $2,120 per month
cleaning their beach home, and the cleaning costs at their main residence
in Jerusalem mysteriously doubled to over $300,000 between 2009 and 2013. Included
in the report as well are allegations that government employees were asked to pay out
of pocket for many of the Prime Minister's personal expenses, and were not
reimbursed. Yosef Shapira wrote in the summary of his report that, The meaning of a
failure to pay back these invoices from petty cash is that employees absorb the cost of
private expenditures of the Prime Minister or his family. When an employee is forced
to pay from his own pocket for an expenditure by the Prime Minister, this is improper
administration and it makes no difference whether the sum is large or small. Shapira
concluded that, The way in which the budget of the Prime Ministers residence was
managed during the years 2009 until 2012 does not comply with the basic principles of
money management, saving and efficiency and is likely to result in a waste of public
funds.
In the week leading up to the elections on March 17, 2015, Netanyahu's Likud Party
trailed behind theLabor/Ha'Tnuah Zionist Union ticket. The final polls predicted that
the Zionist Union would receive anywhere from 23-25 votes, and predicted that Likid
would likely receive no more than 20.
In a last ditch attempt to squeeze out as many far-right votes as he
could, Netanyahu stated during an interview the day before the election that there was
no chance of the establishment of a Palestinian state while he remained Prime
Minister. Netanyahu had previously hinted that he would be in favor of a two state
solution, with an independent Palestinian state existing alongside Israel. In an interview
with the Israeli news organization NRG, Netanyahu made his opinion clear, that
whoever moves to establish a Palestinian state or intends to withdraw from territory is
simply yielding territory for radical Islamic terrorist attacks against Israel. When
asked if that meant that no Palestinian state would be established while he was Prime
Minister, he responded indeed. Isaac Herzog, Netanyahu's main competitor during
2015's election, was in favor of reviving peace talks with Palestinians and working
towards a two state solution. Tzipi Livni, Herzog's running-mate, was also interested in
restarting peace negotiations with the Palestinians. In the days immediately following
the election Netanyahu backtracked on these words, stating in an interview on MSNBC
that he is in fact committed to Palestinian statehood, but only if the conditions in the
Middle East improve. Netanyahu stated that he hasn't changed [his] policy from
his 2009 speech at Bar-Ilan University.
 Netanyahu stirred up controversy on election day when he posted a campaign video on
social media stating Right-wing rule is in danger. Arab voters are streaming in huge
quantities to the polling stations. The Prime Minister added that left-wing groups were
providing rides for the Arab citizens to the polling stations. Critics were quick to
denounce this remark as racist, comparing it to a U.S. President encouraging
Caucasians to flock to the polls because African-Americans are turning out in large
numbers. Arab list (Wamab) candidates asked the Likud party to remove the video
from their social media presence, but they were met with no response.
Benjamin Netanyahu declared victory over his political rivals as the last of the votes
came in on the morning of March 18. The Likud party received enough votes for 30 out
of 120 seats in the Knesset, with the Zionist Union camp coming in second place,
receiving enough votes for approximately 24. Netanyahu's last minute appeals to right
wing voters paid off, leaving them energized and ready to hit the polls. Zionist Union
camp leader Isaac Herzog called Netanyahu to concede, but claimed that Nothing has
changed. This is not the time for coalitions and governments. I think what Israel is most
in need of is an alternative voice that continues to say the truth. Likud will need to
form a coalition government in order to reach a 61 seat majority, which will be an
interesting task considering the tickets who came in second and third place are not
willing to form a coalition with Likud.

Israel Government & Politics:

How Does the Israeli Government Work?

Government & Politics: Table of Contents | The Knesset | Elections

In the State of Israel, as in other democratic states, rule is rooted in the following liberal principles
and institutions: basic laws that lay down the order of government and the rights of citizens; the
holding of elections to the house of representatives based on the principle of the rule of the majority,
with the rights of the minority guaranteed by law; the principle of the separation between the
legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judiciary, to which the institution of state control
has been added; freedom of the press.
- The Electoral System
- The Legislative Branch (Knesset)
- Basic Laws
- The Executive Branch
- The Presidency
- Local Government
- The Judiciary
- State Control
- Freedom of the Press
The Electoral System
The elections in Israel are general, equal and secret. On the national level they are held at least once
every four years, and on the municipal level at least once every five years. Israel has a system of
proportional representation, and the whole state is considered a single constituency.
Every party running for election presents a list of candidates, and the number of candidates entering
the house of representatives is proportional to the percentage of support the list receives.
Every citizen over the age of 18, whose name appears in the list of voters, may vote.
The Legislative Branch: The Knesset
The Knesset is the house of representatives of the State of Israel. The Basic Law: The Knesset, states
that the seat of the Knesset is Jerusalem, and that upon election it will have 120 members. The law
deals with the elections to the Knesset and with the essence of the service, the work and the
immunity of the Knesset, its committees and its members. The law does not define the authority of
the Knesset and details regarding the way its functions appear in its regulations.
A new Knesset starts to function after general elections are held, which determine its makeup. The
President of the State opens the first session of a new Knesset and immediately passes its running
onto the eldest Knesset member. At this meeting the Knesset members declare their allegiance, and
the Speaker of the Knesset and his deputies are elected.
The Knesset fulfills its functions by means of two arms: the plenary in which all the Knesset
members sit and the Knesset committees.
The plenary holds debates within the framework of legislation, government statements, motions for
the agenda, motions of noconfidence and questions, and the deliberations usually end with a vote.
Before a bill reaches the plenary for debate, it must go through a fixed process of preparation. A bill
may be presented by an individual Knesset member, a group of Knesset members, the Government
as a whole or a single Minister.
When a Ministry initiates a bill, a memorandum on the proposed law is passed on first of all to the
Ministry of Justice so that its legal aspects may be examined, to the Ministry of Finance for
examination of its economic and budgetary aspects, and to the rest of the Government Ministries for
their comments. If the memorandum is approved, the bill is passed on for formulation toward its
being presented to the Knesset, and which this draft is approved by the Government, it is presented
to the Knesset for first reading. Private members' bills, which do not require Government approval,
are presented to the Knesset for preliminary reading, after which each law must pass three readings
in the plenary.
In first reading the bill is presented to the plenary and a short debate takes place on its content. After
that it is passed on to the appropriate Knesset committee for detailed discussion and redrafting,
should this be necessary. After the committee has completed its work, the bill is returned to the
plenary, and committee members who have reservations present them. At the end of the debate on
the bill in second reading, a vote takes place on each article in it, and unless it is found necessary to
return it again to the committee, the third reading takes place and a vote is taken on the bill as a
whole.
A bill which has passed third reading is signed by the presiding Speaker, and is later published in the
Official Gazette, with the signature of the President of the State, the Prime Minister, the Knesset
Speaker and the Minister responsible for the law's implementation. Finally the State seal is placed on
it by the Minister of Justice.
Knesset members are entitled to present to the Knesset Speaker motions for the agenda that deal
with issues on the national agenda.
The content of a motion, which is approved by the Knesset Presidium, is passed on to the Minister
responsible for the issue being raised, so that he can prepare a response. In the debate the proposer of
the motion explains his motion, and after it is debated a decision is taken, on the basis of a vote in
the plenary, whether to hold a more extensive debate on the issue in the plenary, to pass it on for
debate in a committee which will then lay on the Knesset table its proposals, or to reject the motion.
A motion for the agenda may also be raised as an urgent motion, which comes up for immediate
debate, should the Knesset Presidium be willing to accept the urgency of the matter raised.
A motion of noconfidence in the Government is also a sort of motion for the agenda. Such a motion
can only be presented by parties which are not represented in the Government, and their intention, in
addition to protesting against the Government policy, is to try and bring it down by means of a vote.
So far, a Government has been brought down in Israel only once by a vote of noconfidence-on
March 15, 1990.
Parliamentary questions are questions directed by a Knesset Member to the appropriate Minister,
regarding an action which was taken, or should have been taken and was not. Questions are one of
the means at the disposal of the Knesset members to criticize and supervise the activities of the
Government. The Minister answers the question in writing or orally.
The Knesset plenary decides on most issues on its agenda by means of a vote, and resolutions are
adopted by a majority. A majority usually means the majority of those present at the meeting. There
are, however, resolutions which require an absolute majority, and others which require a special
majority.
The function of the committees, in addition to dealing with bills, is to supervise the work of the
Government Ministries and to hold debates on issues within the realms for which they are
responsible, and which are of public interest. By means of the committees, the Knesset maintains
direct contact with the Government Ministries, and receives information from Ministers or their
representatives.
There are four types of Knesset committees that function on a regular basis:
- Permanent Committees (12): Committee for Advancing the Status of Women; Constitution, Law
and Justice Committee; Economic Affairs Committee; Education, Culture, & Sports Committee;
Finance Committee; Foreign Affairs & Defense Committee; House Committee; Immigration and
Absorption Committee; Internal Affairs & Environment Committee; Labor and Welfare Committee;
Science & Technology Committee; and the State Control Committee
- Special Committees (3): Committee on Drug Abuse; Committee on the Rights of the Child;
Committee for Foreign Workers
- Parliamentary Inquiry: Appointed by the Knesset Plenum to deal with particular issues viewed
as having special national importance.
- Ethics Committee: Responsible for jurisdiction over members who have violated rules of ethics of
the Knesset or who have been involved in illegal activity outside of the Knesset.
In addition, there are two types of committees in the Knesset which convene only when needed:
- The Interpretations Committee: Deals with appeals against the interpretation given by the
Speaker during a sitting of the plenum to the Knesset Rules of Procedure or precedents. The
Committee is made up of the Speaker and eight Knesset members chosen by the House Committee.
- Public Committees: Established to deal with issues that are connected to the Knesset. The
members of public committees may be experts in a particular field, public figures, or current or past
Knesset members. An example of such a committee is the Public Committee for the Draft of Ethical
Guidelines for Knesset Members.
The members of the committees are appointed during the first meetings of every new Knesset with
the help of an "arranging committee," which is selected for this purpose.
Basic Laws
Even though it was stated in the Proclamation of Independence that the Constituent Assembly,
which turned into the First Knesset, would draft a constitution for Israel, this was not done due to
differences of opinion with the religious parties.
In place of a constitution, it was decided to legislate a series of basic laws, which in the future would
together form the constitution. Even now, more than 60 years after Israel's establishment, the task of
drafting a constitution has yet to come to fruition. There are several articles in the existing basic
laws which can only be amended by an absolute majority (the support of more than 60 MKs) or a
special majority (which is large than an absolute majority) of the Knesset members.
The existing basic laws are:
President of the State (1964) | The Knesset (1958) | The Government (2001) | The
Judiciary(1984) | The Israel Defense Forces (1976)
The Capital Jerusalem (1980) | The People's Lands (1960) | The State Comptroller (1988) | The State
Economy (1975)
Human Dignity and Liberty (1992) | Freedom of Occupation (1994)
The Executive Branch: The Government
Until after the elections to the 13th Knesset, it was the President who assigned the task of forming a
new Government to the head of the list with the best chances of succeeding, who was also usually
the head of the largest party in the Knesset. The Government required the approval of the Knesset,
so that it needed to represent a coalition supported by a majority of the Knesset members, even if not
all of its supporters were actual members in it.
According to the amendment to the Basic Law: The Government, which was adopted toward the end
of the 12th Knesset, as of the elections to the 14th Knesset, simultaneous elections will take place for
the Knesset and a directly elected Prime Minister. As in the past, the new Prime Minister will have
to present the Ministers in his Government to the Knesset, as well as the distribution of portfolios
amongst them, and obtain its confidence. At the time of presenting his Government, the new Prime
Minister will announce its basic guidelines, which will constitute the new Government's work plan.
After the Knesset will express its confidence in the new Government, the Prime Minister and his
Ministers will declare their allegiance before the Knesset. During its service, all the members of the
Government will be collectively responsible for the activities of all the Minsters, and for the
Government as a whole.
Most of the Ministers are responsible for one or more Government Ministries, but can also serve as a
Minister without Portfolio. Ministers do not have to be Knesset members, while Deputy Ministers-
and there can be more than one Deputy Minister in each Ministry-must be members. The addition of
new Ministers to the Government in the course of its term of office, or a change in the distribution of
functions among them, requires the Knesset's approval.
It is the Government which determines its own working arrangements and the manner in which it
adopts decisions. It usually meets for one weekly meeting on Sundays, though in urgent cases
additional meetings may be called. The Government may also act by means of standing or
occasional Ministerial Committees, some of whose decisions require the approval of the
Government as a whole.
A Government which has resigned or has been brought down by a vote of noconfidence, continues
to serve until a new Government is formed, and is then called a transitional Government.
The number of Ministries maintained by the Government varies from time to time according to the
needs and to coalition constraints.
The 32nd Government of the State of Israel, which was formed in March 2009, is made up of the
following Ministries:
Agriculture and Rural Development | Communications | Construction and Housing | Culture and
Sports | Defense
Diaspora Affairs | Education | Energy and Water Resources | Environment | Finance | Foreign
Affairs | Health
Immigrant Absorption | Industry and Trade | Justice | Prime Minister's Office | Public
Security |Religious Services | Science
Social Affairs and Social Services | Strategic Affairs | The Interior | Tourism | Transport
The Presidency
The President of the State is elected by the Knesset in a secret vote, and primarily fulfills ceremonial
functions as head of State.
Candidates for the presidency are customarily proposed by the large parties, and are usually well-
known public figures. The President is appointed for a period of five years, which can be extended
by a further five years.
The functions of the President are defined in the Basic Law: The President of the State. In addition,
the President assumes public functions and activities in accordance with the customs which have
crystallized on the issue, and with his personal inclinations. Amongst the President's formal
functions are signing laws (even though he has no control over their content) opening the first
meeting of the first session of a new Knesset, receiving the credentials of new ambassadors of
foreign states, approving the appointment of civil and religious judges, the State Comptroller and the
Governor of the Bank of Israel, pardoning prisoners or commuting their sentences, etc. In the past it
was also the President who decided who to approach after general elections with the task of trying to
form a new Government, but this function will cease to exist as of the elections to the 14th Knesset,
when the Prime Minister will be directly elected.
Local Government
Structure of Local Government
The law defines three types of local authorities: municipalities, local councils and regional councils.
Municipalities administer urban towns, generally with a population of more than 20,000. In 1995,
the number of such municipalities totaled 51. The three largest cities are Jerusalem, the capital
(population 579,000), Tel Aviv (population 355,000) and Haifa (population 247,000). There are nine
mediumsized municipalities of 110,000 to 160,000 residents, while most municipalities have a
population of about 20,000 to 80,000.
Smaller urban towns and large rural settlements are governed by local councils, with powers similar
to those of a municipality. More than 70 out of 150 local councils serve a population of more than
5,000.
The regional councils are in fact twotier local authorities. The lower tier is the settlements, which are
mostly agricultural; they are authorized to elect a local committee for providing municipal services.
The upper tier is the regional council, which includes candidates from each settlement in the
council's jurisdiction. It possesses the powers of a local council.
Municipal federations of adjacent local authorities are a singlepurpose local authority, providing
certain services such as firefighting, working together mainly because of economies of scale. The
federation has a separate budgetary framework and may sign contracts, legislate bylaws, levy taxes
and so forth.
Functions
The local authority provides its residents, commercial firms, and other institutions within its area of
jurisdiction with a wide range of services. It develops its physical infrastructure, road system, water
supply, refuse collection and disposal system, sewage system, and parks. It is responsible for
environmental protection (public health, nuisances, cleanliness, etc.) and, with the Ministry of
Education, Culture and Sport, the education system. The local authority builds schools and provides
for their equipment and maintenance. Prekindergartens and secondary education institutions are
established and administered by the local authority, but some of these facilities may be owned by
nonprofit organizations with aid given by the local authority. Local authorities also promote and
financially assist cultural and sports activities (libraries, museums, youth clubs, etc.) and some
maintain orchestras, choirs, theaters and similar enterprises.
The local authority provides social welfare services, with its social workers taking care of families in
need, as well as special groups such as the elderly, retarded children, drug addicts and the like.
The local council has an important role in town planning. The Planning and Building Law, 5725-
1965, sets forth the principles according to which town planning is undertaken, as well as planning
institutions that must act at the local, district, and countrywide geographic and administrative levels.
The law grants the local planning commission considerable independence, while also expanding the
regional and countrywide dimensions in planning. The local planning commission consists of
members of the local council. The law gives the local planning commission responsibility for dayto-
day management and onsite compliance with regulations.
The district planning commission is a joint statelocal authority comprising representatives of those
government ministries whose field of action is relevant to the issues of planning, and of
representatives of the local authorities in the region. The district commission approves detailed local
plans and also acts as a forum for handling appeals of decisions made by local commissions. The
local council is authorized to issue bylaws in every area in which it has jurisdiction. It has the power
to enforce those bylaws as well as the laws and regulations applicable to its functions.
The local authorities are empowered to levy local taxes and imposts and collect various payments for
services and concessions. In general, they have the powers and means to manage their finances.
They prepare their own budgets, which then must be approved by the Ministry of the Interior. Each
municipality must employ an auditor to check its activities.
The Union of Local Authorities is a voluntary organization of municipalities and local councils. The
regional councils are organized separately in the Organization of Regional Councils, since they have
special problems which differ from other local authorities. Both organizations have a central goal, to
further the mutual interests of the local authorities in their relations with government ministries and
the Knesset (parliament). The Union represents the local authorities in negotiations for collective
wage agreements and it signs such agreements together with the Histadrut (New General Federation
of Labor) and the government. It also hosts various associations of key local officials such as the
Association of Town Clerks and the Association of Local Treasurers.
Legal Status
The Municipal Corporations Ordinance dates from 1934 when Great Britain held the League of
Nations Mandate for Palestine. This law essentially established the legal basis for the present system
of local government in Israel. The State of Israel enacted the Municipal Corporations Ordinance
(new version) 57241964, which serves, along with other legal frameworks, as the basis for local
government structure and its relations with government ministries.
The local authorities are legal entities and are able to perform a wide range of services in the
physical, educationalcultural and social welfare arenas. Their competencies and areas of jurisdiction
are spelled out by ministerial orders (mainly from the Ministry of the Interior), as authorized by law.
As a legal entity, the local authority can only do what the law permits it to do. Consequently, there
are detailed laws regulating the activities of the local authority.
The general powers of the local authorities are in six basic areas: legislation; taxation; financial
management; joint activities with other bodies; and various general powers. While not completely
independent in any of these areas, a local authority is able to act on behalf of local interests within
each of them according to the wishes of the elected representatives of the local constituency.
Income Sources
The income in the ordinary budget of local authorities comes from three sources: locallygenerated
income, government participation and loans for balancing the ordinary budget. From the early 1970s
to the mid1980s, locallygenerated income was low and government participation was high; from
then on the proportions were reversed.
Government financial participation includes two categories: the general grant and earmarked
participation. The general grant is provided to the local authorities without being tied to any specific
expenditure, since it is meant to be a supplement to local taxes for those authorities with a low
collection potential.
Most of the earmarked income originates in the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport and the
Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare. The former covers the salaries of some educational personnel,
as well as full or partial coverage of other projects operated by the local authority. The Ministry of
Labor and Social Welfare finances 75 percent or more of local authority welfare activities according
to standards set by the Ministry. As most local authorities exceed these standards, actual government
participation amounts to 6066 percent of local welfare expenditures.
Government ministries provide grants and loans to finance development projects such as educational
and cultural facilities, roads, water and sewage systems, as well as general development grants for
projects selected by local preference. Occasionally loans have been granted to balance the
authorities' regular budgets and reduce deficits.
The State Commission on Local Government, which was appointed by a decision of the central
government, presented its final report in 1981. Its main recommendations related to new financial
relations with the central government and to the minimizing of central supervision over local
authorities. Thus, in the 1980s and 1990s, some additional functions and responsibilities were given
to local government in physical, social and educational arenas. Studies show that local authorities
generally succeed in fulfilling their duties and in completing projects which they initiate, even
though many approvals are involved in the process. The influence of the local authority is relatively
wide in many areas, even when the central government controls the purse strings or other factors.
Relations with Government Ministries
State services, principally in the areas of education and welfare, comprise more than half the local
budget and an even higher proportion of the personnel employed by local authorities. They
constitute the major arena of interaction between local and state authorities.
For the most part, the Ministry of Education is responsible for the curriculum and the professional
qualifications of teachers, while the local authority is responsible for the provision and maintenance
of school buildings and physical equipment. Employees in the elementary and intermediate schools
are employees of the Ministry of Education, while maintenance personnel, school secretaries,
assistant kindergarten teachers and secondary school teachers are employed by the local authority.
Formally, the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare is the authority which sets policy regarding
welfare services and the local authority acts as the agent to execute that policy. However, the
professional staff (the social workers) and services are managed by the local welfare bureau. Over
the years, the local authorities have developed projects and services beyond the formal requirements
set by the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare.
The Ministry of the Interior supervises the activities of the local authorities and is primarily
responsible in the following areas: the establishment of local authorities, approval of their budgets,
provision of a suitable legal framework to fit their needs, examination of their bylaws, and assurance
that physical planning and development projects conform to national and regional outline schemes.
The Ministry distributes grants based upon specific criteria to local authorities with low potential
income, to enable them to meet minimal service standards. The Ministry of the Interior also
represents the local authorities in negotiations with the government (namely, the Finance Ministry).
Local Elections
The local authorities are headed by councils whose members are elected every five years on the
basis of the proportional representation of their political parties. The number of seats in the councils
is determined by the size of their population; between 9 and 31 seats for municipalities and between
5 and 21 for local councils. Mayors (including the chairpersons of local and regional councils) are
elected directly by the voters. In many cases no single party controls the majority of seats on the
councils and the mayor has to form a coalition to achieve a working majority. Agreements are made
among the parties for this purpose, involving the distribution of powers and functions among the
coalition partners.
When elections for the Knesset and the local authorities have been held at the same time, voter
turnout in the local elections was between 73 and 83 percent, while in the case of separate election
dates, turnout has averaged around 60 percent. Voter turnout for local elections in the Arab sector
has traditionally been much higher than that in the Jewish sector.
According to the local election financing law, each party list in the local authority is entitled to
receive financing based on the number of council seats it wins. The State Comptroller's positive
report on the financial management of the election campaign for each faction represented on the
council entitles the faction to receive its allocation as determined by the formula.
The Judiciary
The courts deal with cases of persons charged with a breach of the law. Charges are brought up by
citizens against other citizens, by the state against citizens, and even by citizens against the state.
The sessions of the courts of law are usually public, unless it is decided to hold closed hearings
under special circumstances. When more than one judge is presiding, and the judges do not agree on
a verdict, the opinion of the majority is decisive. Israel does not have trials by jury.
The cases brought to the courts are of two types: criminal cases and civil cases. A criminal case is
one involving a transgression of the social order, and its intention is to punish the offender, if his
guilt has been proven. In a civil case the plaintiff is a private person or association and the defendant
is a private person or association. The subject of the trial is the demand that a contract signed
between the parties be fulfilled, a debt is returned or compensation is paid for damages caused. In a
civil trial there is no punishment, but a duty to pay financial or other compensation.
There are three instances in the regular courts: magistrate courts, which have the authority to try
light and intermediate offences, or civil cases in which the sum claimed is no higher than a million
shekels (approximately U.S. $300,000); district courts, which try serious offenses, and civil cases in
which the sum claimed is more than a million shekels (approximately U.S. $300,000); and the
Supreme Court, which sits in Jerusalem. The number of judges serving on the Supreme Court is
determined by the Knesset. The judges elect a permanent President of the Supreme Court and a
deputy from amongst themselves.
The Supreme Court is involved in two realms: The first is to hear appeals for verdicts given by
district courts. In this capacity it is called the Supreme Court of Appeals. The verdict of the Supreme
Court of Appeals is final. The second is to hear appeals by persons who feel that they have been
wronged by one of the State authorities or statutory bodies. In this capacity the court is called the
High Court of Justice. The High Court of Justice functions by means of orders.
In addition to the ordinary courts there are special courts, which are authorized to deal with specific
matters only. The most important amongst these are the military courts, the labor courts, and the
religious courts. There are religious courts of the four main religious denominations: Jewish,
Muslim, Christian and Druze. Each religious court can only try cases applying to members of its
own religious community who are citizens of the State or permanent residents. Since matters of
personal status in Israel are usually decided on the basis of religious laws, the religious courts deal
with them.
State Control
The function of the State control is to supervise the ministries and other government institutions, the
security forces, the local authorities, and any other body which is financed by the state and is subject
to control under the law, a decision by the Knesset or agreement with the Government. The State
Comptroller is appointed by the President of the State, on the basis of the recommendation of the
Knesset House Committee. The Comptroller is elected by the Knesset for a period of five years, and
their status is not dependent on the executive branch.
In the process of control, the Comptroller examines the legality of activities performed by the
supervised bodies on matters of money or property, and on their frugality, efficiency and integrity.
The supervised bodies must provide the Comptroller with all the information about their activities
and with documents as demanded by him or her.
The faults found in the course of the inspection are brought by the Comptroller to the attention of
those supervised, and they are required to put them right. Once a year the State Comptroller prepares
a report on his or her activities. The State Comptroller's report is prepared for the Knesset, where it
is discussed in the Knesset State Control Committee, and is then brought to the Knesset plenary for
the approval of the Committee's conclusions and proposals. The report is published and brought to
the public's attention.
The State Comptroller also serves as a Public Ombudsman, to whom private persons who have been
personally hurt by one of the State authorities, can complain in writing or orally. The treatment of
such complaints, as well as publication of the activities of the Public Ombudsman, are similar to that
of the State Comptroller's report.
Freedom of the Press
The institutions of government in Israel are subject to public scrutiny by the written and electronic
media. Public scrutiny is one of the marks and foundations of a democracy, and in Israel it is secured
in the principle of freedom of expression which is mentioned in the Declaration of Independence,
and is currently being secured in a basic law.
Since the establishment of the State, the written press has not been government owned, but until
recently the electronic media was fully controlled by the Government. Today there are private radio
and television networks side by side with the national ones.