Concrete Design Using PROKON

Chapter
6
Concrete Design
The concrete design modules can be used for the design of reinforced and prestressed concrete
beams and slabs, columns, column bases and retaining walls.
Concrete Design
6-1
Quick Reference
Concrete Design using PROKON
6-3
Continuous Beam and Slab Design
6-5
Prestressed Beam and Slab Design
6-7
Finite Element Slab Analysis
6-9
Rectangular Slab Panel Design
6-35
Column Design
6-45
Retaining Wall Design
6-63
Column Base Design
6-77
Section Design for Crackwidth
6-91
Concrete Section Design
6-99
Punching Shear Design
6-107
6-2
Concrete Design
Concrete Design using

PROKON
A variety of concrete design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are useful
tools for the design and detailing typical reinforced and prestressed concrete members.
Beam and slab design

The Continuous Beam and Slab Design and Prestressed Beam and Slab Design modules
are used to design and detail reinforced and prestressed beams and slabs. Simplified design of
flat slab panels is available through the Rectangular Slab Panel Design module. In contrast,
the Finite Element Slab Design module is better suited for the design of slabs with more
complicated geometries. Punching shear in flat reinforced concrete slabs can be checked with
the Punching Shear Design module.
Column design
Rectangular Column Design and Circular Column Design offer rapid design and detailing
of simple short and slender columns. Columns with complicated shapes can be designed using
the General Column Design module.
Substructure design
Use the Column Base Design and Retaining Wall design to design and detail typical bases
and soil retaining walls.
Section design
Two modules, Concrete Section Design and Section Design for Crackwidth, are available
for the quick design of sections for strength and crackwidth requirements.
6-3
6-4
Continuous Beam and

Slab Design
The Continuous Beam and Slab Design program is a powerful, yet easy-to-use, tool in the
hands of the designer and detailer of reinforced concrete beams and slabs. The program can be
used to design and detail most types of continuous beam and slab systems encountered in
typical building projects. The analysis includes automated pattern loading and moment
redistribution. Complete bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing
using Padds.
For more information on using this module, consult the Dos Version User's Guide.
6-5
6-6
Prestressed Beam and Slab

Design
Captain (Computer Aided Post Tensioning Analysis Instrument) can be used to design and
detail most types of continuous prestressed beam and slab systems encountered in typical
building projects. Complicated cross sections are supported through an interface with the
section properties calculation module, Prosec. This, together with the facility of defining load
cases and combinations, makes the program suitable for bridge deck design as well.
Both unbonded systems, e.g. flat slabs, and bonded systems, e.g. bridge decks, can be
designed. Estimates for quantities are calculated and tendon profile schedules can be generated
for use with Padds.
For more information on using this module, consult the Dos Version User's Guide.
6-7
6-8

Fesd (Finite Element Slab Design) can perform linear elastic plate bending analyses of
two-dimensional concrete slab structures. Reinforcement can be calculated from moments
transformed using the Wood and Armer equations.
To design concrete membranes, use the Space Frame Analysis module instead.
6-9
Theory and application

The following text explains the sign conventions used and gives a brief background of the
analysis techniques.
Sign conventions
Slab input is done using the global axes. The analysis output is given in a mixture of global
axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly exclusively used when entering slab geometry and loading.
Global axes are also used in the analysis output for deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
The X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis points vertically upward. A positive vertical load thus works up and a negative
load down.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis points out of the screen.

Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, PROKON takes the
Y-axis vertical.
Local axes
Local axes are used in the output for bending
stresses:
The local x is chosen parallel to the global

X-axis.
The y-axis is taken parallel to the negative

Z-axis.
The z-axis is then taken vertical parallel to

the Y-axis.
Shell element stresses

Shell element stresses are given using the local axes:
6-10
Bending stresses: The entities Mx and My are moment per unit width about the local x and
y-axes.
Mxy represents a torsional moment in the local x-y plane.
The principal bending moments per unit width are represented as Mmax and Mmin.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction the direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the
orientation line would indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Wood and Armer moments and shell reinforcement axes

Reinforcement is calculated in the user-defined x' and z'-directions. Unlike the shell bending
stresses that are taken about the x and y-axes, the Wood and Armer moments are given in the x'
and z'-directions. Refer to page 6-29 for detail.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Units
Metric
Imperial
Distance
Mm,m
ft, inch
Force
N, kN
Lb, kip
Finite element analysis

Fesd uses four-node quadrilateral and three-node triangular isoparametric shell elements with
plate bending behaviour. The bending formulation of the quadrilateral shell element was
derived from the Discrete Kirchoff-Midlin Quadrilateral.
Accuracy of triangular elements
Both the quadrilateral and triangular elements yield accurate stiffness modelling. However,
stress recovery from the triangular elements is as accurate as is the case for quadrilateral
elements. This means that deflections calculated using triangular elements are generally quite
accurate, but moments may be less accurate.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Stresses at common nodes are smoothed by
taking the average of all contributing stress components.
Element layout
6-11
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. Also, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results when
the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Concrete design
Fesd can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x' and z'-directions. To allow for the design of membranes, the
equations have been suitably adjusted to incorporate axial stresses.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
6-12
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the slab geometry and loading:
Nodes input: Slab coordinates.
Shell elements input: Define shell elements.
Supports input: External supports.
Point loads input: Point loads and moments.
Shell loads input: Apply uniform distributed loads to shells.
Load combinations input: Group dead and live loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating slab analysis input are discussed on page 6-27.
Viewing the structure during input

You may want to enlarge portions of the picture of the structure or rotate it on the screen.
Several functions, all of which are described in detail in Chapter 2, are available to help you
using pictures of the structure:
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new view point or camera position.
Use the View Planes Control to view a slice through the slab.
The Options menu makes the following additional functions available:
Graphics:
Select whether you want items

like node numbers and supports to
be displayed.
Display the structure with full 3D

rendering, e.g. to verify the
thickness of slab sections.
Choose
quick
or
detailed
rendering. Quick rendering is
faster than the detailed method,
but you may find that some
surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent
or have them filled and outlined.
6-13
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Views: You can save the current view point and view plane. The current view's name is
displayed on the picture. To re-use a saved view, click the view name on the picture to
drop down a list of saved views.
The functions described above can also be used when viewing output. Contour diagrams, for
example, are drawn as polygons. You can therefore use the Graphics options setting for
polygons to change their appearance. Views defined during input are also available when
viewing output and vice versa.
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the slab. A unique number must be
assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X and
Z-coordinates in the X and Z columns. If you leave X or Z blank, a value of zero is used.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the slab. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
6-14
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:
The X-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0,14.614).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and negative Z-axis
respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus (1.140,14.142) and
(2.280,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node and
enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and the
specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
Second order generation

Once you have defined one or more nodes in the table, you can copy that relevant rows nodes
by entering a '' character in the No column of the next row. Then enter the number of
additional sets of nodes to be generated in the No of column and the coordinate increments in
the X-inc and Z-inc columns.
6-15
Second order generation example:
The following nodes are generated:

No
15
16
17
18
19
20
X
0.00
2.00
4.00
0.50
2.50
4.50
Z
5.12
5.22
5.32
6.12
6.22
6.32
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table row numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the row numbers with a ''.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in rows 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B10' to copy row 10 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the rows specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Tip: To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, set the
No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end row numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Z columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment.
Example:
6-16
All nodes defined in rows 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row numbers, e.g. 'A5' to copy row 5 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering a special X-coordinate of '1E-9' or by entering 'Delete' in the
Inc to end column. This can be especially handy if you have generated a large group of nodes
and then need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Nodes 15 and the additional nodes 18 and 21 are deleted.
Rigid links input

Point loads and supports invariably result in stress concentrations. In the case of slabs
supported on columns, it may be reasonable to ignore stress concentrations within the column
areas and rather work with the stress values at the column faces. An alternative approach could
be to smooth the stresses that prevail with the close surrounds of each of the columns, e.g.
within a perimeter at a distance equal to the depth of the slab away from the column face.
Another more rational approach to modelling a slab at column supports, is to introduce rigid
links. This approach entails stopping shell elements at the column face and then linking the
perimeter with the supported node at the position of the column centre. The high bending
stiffness of the rigid links gives a reasonable approximation of the increased stiffness of the
slab inside the perimeter of the column. The approach has the advantage of ridding the analysis
of high shell bending stress peaks at the points of support.
6-17
Shell elements input

Elements are defined by referring to corner nodes, four in the case of quadrilaterals and three
for triangles. You should enter the node numbers in sequence around the perimeter, either
clockwise or anti-clockwise, in the Node 1 to Node 4 columns. Leave Node 4 blank to define a
triangular element.
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 6-11 for more detail.
6-18
Selecting materials
Each slab element should
have
an
associated
material.
To add one or more
materials to a slab analysis
data file, click Materials.
Open the relevant material
type screen and select the
materials that are required
for the current slab input.
After adding the selected
materials to the input, you
can select them by clicking
the Material column to
drop down a list.
6-19
Adding materials to the global database

If you want to use a material that is not yet included in the database, you should first add it to
the database:
1.
Use Alt-Tab to swap to Calcpad or select it from the Windows Task Bar.
2.
Select the Materials Database command on the Tools menu.
3.
Open the appropriate materials type page and enter the properties for the new material:
4.
Material: A descriptive
name for the new material.
E: Young's modulus.
Poisson's ration, .
Density: This value is

optional. If defined, the own
weight of the material can
be calculated.
Thermal expansion coefficient, (not used by Fesd).
To permanently add the new material to the database, open the File menu, choose Save
and Exit.
The use of the Materials database module is described in more detail Chapter 7.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the General input page.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same section and fixety code values using the
No of extra and Node No Inc columns.
6-20
Example:
The element enclosed by nodes 15, 16, 26 and 25 are copied ten times with a node number
increment of three, i.e elements (18,19,29,28), (21,22,32,310 etc.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table row numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a ''.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in rows 5 to 7 will be copied ten times with a node number increment of
twelve. The copied elements will use the same thickness and material properties as the original
elements.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B5' to copy row 5 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Elements 15-16-26-25 and 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
6-21
Supports input
Slabs require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered at nodes to
prevent any of the three degrees of freedom associated with plate bending, i.e. translation in the
Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'Y', 'x' and 'z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixety. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'Yxz'
means fixed against movement in the Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a 'Y'.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous row of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixety column blank. If the Yxz column is left blank,
the supports applicable to the previous row will be used automatically.
6-22
Skew supports
The rotational supports 'x' and 'z' can be made skew by entering a value in the Angle column.
This feature may be useful when modelling slabs with rotational support perpendicular to skew
edges.
Prescribed displacements
Use the X, x, and z columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations. Being a global
support condition, the effect of the prescribed displacement is added once only to the analysis
results of each load case and load combination. Optionally enter a 'P' in the P/S column to
designate the values as prescribed displacements.
Elastic supports
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, x, and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displacement or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Tip: The effect of a columns above or below the slab can be modelled by entering their
bending stiffnesses as rotational spring supports about the x and z-axes. From simple elastic
theory, the rotational stiffness of a column that is fixed at the remote end is given as 4EI/L.
The stiffness of a column that is simply supported at the remote end is equal to 3EI/L.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the slab. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 6-15 for
generating additional nodes.
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Display
Options.
6-23
Point loads input

Loads on shell elements are categorised as point loads, i.e. concentrated loads at specific
coordinate, and element loads, i.e. uniform distributed loads.
All loads are organised in load cases, e.g. 'DL' for own weight, 'ADL' for additional dead loads,
'LL' for live load, etc. Load cases apply equally to the various load input screens, meaning that
you can build up a load case using different types of loads.
To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous row in the table is used.
Enter the coordinates and load values in the appropriate columns, using the global axis sign
conventions given on page 6-10. The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically.
Press Enter or Display to update the picture.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
6-24
Generating additional nodal loads

Additional nodal loads can be generated using the Number of extra and X-increment and
Z-increment columns.
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a ''
character, e.g. '16' to define elements 1 up to 6.Enter the distributed load intensity in the UDL
column.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
6-25
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional shell
loads. The procedures are similar to that used to generating additional shell elements see
page 6-20 for detail.
Load combinations input

You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination number in the Load Comb column, followed by the load case name and
relevant load factors.
If the Load Comb column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as for the
previous row of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered one per
row in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state load
factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
The ultimate and serviceability
limit states are used as follows:
Deflections are calculated

using the entered SLS loads.
A set of reactions is also
calculated at SLS for the
purpose of evaluating stability and bearing pressures.
A second set of reactions

and all element forces are
determined
using
the
entered ULS forces.
Error checking
The program only checks that
valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design code that will be used in the
member design and therefore does not check the validity of the entered load factors.
6-26
Alternative slab input methods

Alternative means of slab input are available:
Parametric input: Modules are available for the rapid generation of input for typical slab
structures.
Graphical input: Structures can be drawn in Padds or another CAD system and converted
to slab analysis input.
Parametric input
From the General input page,
you
can
access
several
parametric slab input modules.
These are suitable for the rapid
generation of complete input
files for some typical slabs.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the parametric
input modules to generate
complicated structures.
Graphical input
In some situations it may be easier to define a slab's geometry graphically. With Padds you can
draw a slab and then generate a slab analysis input file.
Using Padds for slab input
To use Padds to define a slab's geometry:
1.
Use Padds to draw the slab. Alternatively import a DXF drawing from another CAD
system.
2.
The slab should be drawn to scale using millimetres as unit.
3.
The element grid is drawn using lines.
Tip: You may sometimes find it quicker to hatch an are with a line pattern and then
vectorise the hatch to turn it into normal lines.
6-27
4.
Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the Fesd and press OK to start the conversion procedure.
The resultant Fesd input file will be compatible with both the Dos and Windows versions
of the slab analysis modules. The file is saved in the working folder as a last file, e.g.
' Lastfesd.a01 '.
5.
Close Padds.
Tip: To see a graphical input example, open '\prokon\data\demo\inputgen.pad' in Padds.
6-28
Analysis parameters input

The General input page allows you to set the parameters relevant to the analysis.
Concrete design parameters input

It is generally impractical to design reinforcement to resist torsional moments in slabs.
Reinforcement is usually fixed in two directions approximately, but not necessarily,
perpendicular to each other. This justifies the use of transformed moments to calculate
reinforcement.
Fesd uses the Wood and Armer theory, to convert calculated bending and torsional moments
to transformed bending moments. More detail is given on page 6-12.
The required concrete design parameters are:
Enter the concrete and reinforcement material characteristics, fcu and fy.
Define the orientation for the 'main' and 'secondary' reinforcement, i.e. the x' and z'-axis.
The x'-axis is defined by entering the angle formed with the local x-axis. The z'-axis is in
turn measured from the x'-axis.
Define the reinforcement levels in the slab by entering the concrete cover values for the
top and bottom reinforcement in both directions.
Reinforcement contours can be displayed on the Bending stresses output page.
6-29
Analysis
On completing the slab input, you should set the analysis options before commencing the
actual analysis.
Analysis options
Analysis options available on the General input page include:
Concrete design: If the model includes finite shell elements, you can optionally design the
shells as reinforced concrete members.
Add own weight: Select a load case to which the self-weight of the beam and shell
members should be added.
On the Analysis page, select the following:
Output file: Enter an output file name or accept the default file name, e.g. 'Fesd.out'.
Analyse load combinations only: Enable this option if the results of only the load
combinations are required. Generally one would require results for the load combinations
only. However, you may have a special need to view the results of specific load cases as
well. Disable this option to include the results for the individual load cases as well.
Analysing the slab

To analyse the slab, open the
Analysis page and press Start
Analysis. The analysis progress
of displayed to help you judge
the time remaining to complete
the analysis.
After a successful analysis, the
deflected shape is displayed for
the first load case or load
combination or, in the case of
modal or buckling analysis, the
first mode shape.
6-30
Error checking during analysis

During the input phase, the slab geometry and loading data is checked for errors. Not all
reported errors are necessarily serious. To define duplicate elements between two nodes, for
example, could be an accidental error on your side. However, the program is quite capable of
dealing with a situation like this and will therefore allow the analysis procedure to continue.
Other input errors could be serious enough to prevent an analysis from being completed
successfully. Nodes with no elements, for example, have no restraints and will cause numeric
instability during the analysis.
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning, will have an unpredictable result.
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis

Even if all input data seems valid, numeric errors may still occur during an analysis. For
example, if you entered incorrect section properties, such as a very small E-value, the mistake
may go by unnoticed. However, the analysis will then yield an invalid value in the stiffness
matrix or extremely large deflections. The same applies to the stability of the slab.
If an error was detected during the analysis, a warning will be displayed. The cause of the error
should become clear when studying the output file:
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
6-31
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format.
Viewing output graphics

Diagram can be displayed for the following:
Deflections: Deflections are

generally small in relation to
dimensions of the structure.
To improve the visibility of
the deflection diagram, you
can enter a screen magnification factor.
Bending stresses in shells:
The x, y and xy
bending stresses: The
bending stresses about
the local x and y-axes
and
the
torsional
stresses. The direction
(not axis) of bending is
shown as a small line on each shell element.
Maximum and minimum bending stresses: The principal bending stresses.
Reinforcement and Wood and Armer moments: Contours of the effective bending
moments and corresponding required reinforcement at the top and bottom in the x' and
z'-directions. The reinforcement direction is shown as a small line on each shell. Refer
to page 6-11 for an explanation of the use of the Wood and Armer equations and to
page 6-29 for the definition of the reinforcement directions.
Note: Shell bending stresses are taken about the x and y-axes. In contrast, the Wood and
Armer bending moments are given in the x' and z'-directions.
6-32
Viewing output tables

Open the Output file page for a
tabular display of the slab
analysis output file. You can
filter the information sent to the
calcsheets by enabling or
disabling the relevant sections.
You can also quickly locate a
section of the output file using
the Find output function.
6-33
Calcsheets
Slab analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.
Recalling a data file

The Data File is automatically included in the calcsheet sent to Calcpad. You can later recall
the slab by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is
saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the slab analysis module as
well.
6-34

The Rectangular Slab Panel Design module designs rectangular flat slab panels with a variety
of edge supports. The program should best be used for designing slabs with approximately
rectangular panel layouts. You can use the Space Frame Analysis or Finite Element Slab
Design module to analyse slabs with irregular panel layouts and openings.
6-35

The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The program designs rectangular reinforced concrete flat slab panels. Design loads include
own weight, distributed and concentrated dead and live loads. Slab edges can be made free,
simply supported or continuous.
Bending moment is transformed to include torsional moment using the Wood and Armer
equations. Reinforcement is calculated using the normal code formulae.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318-95.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3-93.
Eurocode 2.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
dx : Effective depth for reinforcement in the longer span direction, i.e. parallel to
the X-axis (mm or in).
dy : Effective depth for reinforcement in the shorter span direction, i.e. parallel to
the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Overall slab depth (mm or in).
Lshort : Length of the short side of the slab, taken parallel to the Y-axis (m or ft).
Llong : Longer side length of the slab, taken parallel to the X-axis (m or ft).
6-36
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
: Poisson's ratio, typically equal to 0.2.
: Unit weight of concrete (kN/m or lb/ft)
Applied loads
WADL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).
WLL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).).
PDL : Additional dead point load (kN or kip).
PLL : Additional live point load (kN or kip).
Design output
Abotx : Bottom steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Atopx : Top steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Aboty : Bottom steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Atopy : Top steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Analysis of the slab

The program calculates bending stresses and elastic deflection by means of a finite element
analysis. Thirty-six plate elements are placed on a 6 x 6 grid. The program uses eight-noded
isoparametric finite elements that are well suited for thin plate analysis.
The analysis procedure employs a 2 x 2 Gaussian integration technique to calculate the
element stiffness matrix. The stresses are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and
subsequently extrapolated to the eight nodes and centre point of each element. The stresses at
common nodes are smoothed by taking the average of all contributing stress components.
Reinforcement calculation
The finite element analysis yields values for bending stresses about the X and Y-axes and
torsional stresses. Due to the practical difficulties involved in reinforcing a slab to resist
torsion, the Wood and Armer equations are used to transform the bending and torsional
stresses to effective bending moments in the X and Y-directions.
6-37
Correlation with the design code values

The moments and reinforcement calculated by the program are generally lower than the values
given by the design codes. The discrepancy can be ascribed to the differences in the analysis
techniques used. In particular, the code values include allowances for pattern loading and
moment redistribution.
Considering continuous slabs, negative moments will generally correlate well while positive
span moments would be about ten to fifteen percent too low.
Note: In cases where pattern loading is important, e.g. continuous slabs, it is suggested that
the calculated bottom reinforcement be increased by about fifteen percent.
6-38
Input
Use the single input table to define the slab and its loading.
Geometry and loads input

The following general points should be noted:
If the aspect ratio of the slab exceeds 3:1, the accuracy of the finite element analysis may
be impaired.
Tip: A slab with an aspect ratio larger than 3:1 can normally be designed as spanning in one
direction only.
Own weight is modelled by entering a value for the unit weight. The own weight is added
to each load case entered.
For the ultimate limit state calculations, the own weight, additional dead load and dead
point loads are multiplied by the entered dead load factors. All live loads are similarly
multiplied by the live load factor.
6-39
To create load combinations, simply repeat the relevant loads in the table. Copying lines in
the table is easily accomplished using the table editor commands.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the slab picture and stretch its dimensions.
Supports input
The corners of the slab are supported vertically at all times. The edges can be supported using
the following codes:
Displacement: To support an edge in the vertical direction, i.e. simply supported. A typical
example would be a slab simply supported on a masonry wall that provides no rotational
support.
Rotation: To restrain rotation about an axis parallel to the slab edge, i.e. continuous. This
could be a reasonable model for a slab panel supported on columns if it is continuous with
one or more adjacent panels.
Displacement and rotation: The support conditions can be used together to support an edge
vertically and prevent rotation, e.g. a continuous slab resting on a wall.
Note: Edges that are made continuous are given zero rotation during the analysis. This could
be a reasonable assumption provided that the adjacent panel has a similar flexural stiffness.
Where adjacent spans differ significantly in terms of span length and thickness, spans
should be modelled individually with continuous supports. Differences in the negative
moments on the continuous edges should then be redistributed manually according to the
relative stiffness of each panel.
6-40
Design
Due to the simple finite element arrangement used, the analysis procedure will complete
almost instantaneously. You can view the design results graphically:
Moments:
Transformed
moment diagrams, using the
Wood
and
Armer
equations, for the top and
bottom in the X and
Y-directions are shown.
Values are given per unit
width. The transformed
moments in the top and
bottom fibres represent the
moments to be resisted by
the
calculated
reinforcement.
Deflections:
Short-term
elastic deflections, based on
the
uncracked
gross
concrete section are shown.
The deflections do not
include long-term effects
like shrinkage and creep.
Reinforcement:
Required
reinforcement for the top
and bottom in the X and
Y-directions is shown. The
calculated reinforcement is
based on the transformed
moments and therefore
includes the effects of
torsion.
6-41
Calcsheets
The slab panel design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.

If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the column design
module as well.
6-42
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed slab panels. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
Generating a bending schedule

Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the
reinforcement. Change the values to suit your detailing requirements.
Required information:
Schedule file name: Name of the Padds drawing and schedule file.
Detailing parameters:
First bar mark: Mark to

use for the main bar.
You may use any
alphanumeric string of
up to five characters,
e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'.
The mark is incremented automatically
for subsequent bars.
Concrete
cover
reinforcement
Reinforcement
length.
Drawing scale: The

drawing paper is sized
to fit the complete detail.
to
bond
Reinforcement for top and bottom layers in each of the X and Y-directions.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.
Note: To detail slabs of more complex shape, use Padds.
6-43
Editing and printing of bending schedules

Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, follow the
steps below:
In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the slab panel and the other window the bar schedule.
Make
any
necessary
changes to the drawing, e.g.
editing or adding bars and
adding construction notes.
Click on any visible part of

the window containing the
cutting list to bring it to the
front. Enter the following
information at the relevant
positions:
Member description: Use as

many lines of the Member
column
to
enter
a
description, e.g. 'SLAB
PANEL E'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending schedule
page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to the
file name, e.g. 'SLABE.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to suit your
numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS405'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more A4 pages using the
Make BS Print Files command on the File menu. Use Alt-P to print the schedule immediately
or Alt-F to save it as a print file for later batch printing.
6-44
Column Design
The concrete column design modules are suitable for the design of the following column types:
Rectangular Column Design, RecCol: Solid rectangular columns of which the larger
column dimension does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.
Circular Column Design, CirCol: Solid circular columns where the simplified design
approach applicable to rectangular columns may be applied.
General Column Design, GenCol: Columns of any general shape and columns with
openings.
All column design modules can design reinforced concrete columns subjected to bi-axial
bending. Bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.
Column Design
6-45

Design scope
The column design modules design reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial force and
bi-axial bending moment.
The following conditions apply to the design of rectangular and circular columns:
The design codes give simplified procedures for designing columns of which the ratio of
the larger to the smaller dimension does not exceed 1:4.
The same procedure is applied to the design of circular columns.
The reinforcement layout is assumed to be symmetrical.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Schedules can be
opened in Padds for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1993.
BS 8110 - 1987.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA-A23.3 - 1994.
Eurocode 2 -1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Rectangular column geometry
b : Width of cross section, perpendicular to h (mm or in). This smaller column
dimension is taken parallel the X-axis.
6-46
Column Design
d'x : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the X-axis (mm or in).
d'y : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Depth of the cross section (mm or in). This larger column dimension is taken
parallel the Y-axis.
Circular column geometry
d' : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement (mm or in).
: Diameter of column (mm or in).
Effective lengths
x : Effective length factor for bending about the X-axis
y : Effective length factor for bending about the Y-axis
Material properties
Es : Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (Gpa or ksi).
Applied loads
Mx top : Moment about the X-axis applied at the top end of the column (kNm or kipft).
If left blank, a value of zero is used. A positive moment is taken anticlockwise.
Mx bot : Moment about the X-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
My top : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the top (kNm or kipft). A positive moment
is taken anti-clockwise.
My bot : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
P : Axial force in the column (kN of kip). A positive value denotes a downward
compression force and a negative value an uplift force.
Design output
Ac : Gross concrete area (mm or in).
Ascx : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about
the X-axis (mm or in).
Column Design
6-47
Ascy : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about the
Y-axis (mm or in).
b' : Effective depth to reinforcement in shorter direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
h' : Effective depth to reinforcement in longer direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
Lex : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Ley : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Madd : Additional moment about the design axis of a circular column (kNm or kipft).
Madd x : Additional slenderness moment about the X-axis due to the column deflection
(kNm or kipft).
Madd y : Additional moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin x : Minimum design moment for bending about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin y : Minimum design moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mx : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
My : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M' : Design moment (kNm or kipft).
M'x : Effective uniaxial design moment about the X-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
M'y : Effective uniaxial design moment about the Y-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
Code requirements
The supported design codes have similar clauses with respect to bracing and end fixety
conditions.
Braced and unbraced columns
A column is braced in a particular plane if lateral stability to the structure as a whole is
provided in that plane. A column should otherwise be considered as unbraced.
Global lateral stability is normally provided by means of shear walls or other bracing systems.
Such bracing systems should be sufficiently stiff to attract and transmit horizontal loads acting
on the structure to the foundations.
RecCol and Circol allow you to set independent bracing conditions for bending about the X
and Y-axis of rectangular columns.
6-48
Column Design
Effective length of columns

The effective length or height of a column depends on its end conditions, i.e. the degree of
fixety at each end. Four end condition categories are defined in the design codes:
End condition 1: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs that
are deeper than the column dimension in the relevant plane.
End condition 2: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs
which are shallower than the overall column dimension in the relevant plane.
End condition 3: The end of the column is connected to members that provide some
nominal restraint. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as pinned.
End condition 4: The end of the column has no lateral or rotational restraint, i.e. a free end
of a cantilever column. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as free.
The codes suggest the follow values for the effective length factor, :
End condition
at the top
End condition
at the bottom
(Effective
length factor)
Column in braced frame ( 1.0)

Fixed
Pinned
Fixed
0.75 to 0.85
Pinned
0.90 to 0.95
Fixed
0.90 to 0.95
Pinned
1.00
Column in unbraced frame ( > 1.0)

Fixed
Pinned
Free
Fixed
1.2 to 1.5
Pinned
1.6 to 1.8
Fixed
1.6 to 1.8
Pinned
N.A.
Fixed
2.2
Note: The column design modules automatically calculate the effective length factors in
relation to the specified end conditions. You may however manually adjust the effective
length factors if necessary.
Column Design
6-49
Short and slender columns

A column is considered to be short if the effects of its lateral deflection can be ignored.
Slenderness in a given plane is expressed as the ratio between the effective length to the
column dimension in that plane. The slenderness limits for short and slender columns set by
some of the supported codes of practice are:
Slenderness limit
Short
Column
Maximum
Slenderness
BS 8110 - 1997
Braced
lex
h
and
Unbraced
lex
h
and
All
Cantilevers
lo
ley
b
ley
b
< 15
< 10
SABS 0100 - 1992

lex
h
and
lex
h
ley
b
and
<
ley
b
17 7
M1
M2
< 10
lo 60b
Lo 60b and b
h
4
100b 2
60b
h
lo 25b and b
h
4
Note: In the above expressions for maximum slenderness, h and b are taken as the larger
and smaller column dimensions respectively.
6-50
Column Design
Input
The column definition has several input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Bracing conditions and fixety at the column ends.
Load cases.
Geometry input
The RecCol and CirCol modules have been simplified for the design of rectangular and
circular columns. Entering a column's geometry input in either of these modules is therefore
straightforward.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the column pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the column length.
Column Design
6-51
General column geometry input

GenCol is used to design columns of any general shape and hence has a reasonably intricate
input procedure. A column section is entered as one or more shapes or polygons:
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
+ : The start of a new polygon. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered
in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. If you leave either blank, a value of
zero is used.
: Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
R : If you enter an 'R' or leave the Code column blank, a line is drawn using
relative coordinates, i.e. measured from the previous coordinate.
L : Enter an 'L' in the Code column blank to make the following coordinate
absolute.
A : To enter an arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle
are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
6-52
Column Design
C : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.

B : A reinforcement bar with its diameter entered in the X/Radius column.
Note: Bar positions and diameters do not need to be entered when using RecCol and
CirCol.
The X/Radius/Bar dia and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates:
X : Absolute or relative X coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive to the
right and negative to the left.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive upward
and negative downward.
You do need to close the polygon the starting coordinate is automatically used as the ending
coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes preference and the
previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be entered on top of
previously entered shapes.
Tip: You can leave blank lines between polygons/bars to improve readability.
If convenient, e.g. to simplify loading input, the column can be rotated by entering an angle.
Material properties input

The following material property values are required:
Concrete cube strength, fcu (MPa or psi).
Reinforcement yield strength, fy (MPa or psi).
GenCol also requires a value for the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement,
Es (Gpa or ksi).
Specifying bracing and fixety conditions

Define the bracing and fixety conditions by making the appropriate selections. For an
explanation of the terms used, refer to page 6-48. The effective length factors are automatically
adjusted in relation to the specified bracing and end fixety conditions. If necessary, you may
manually edit the effective length factors.
Note: RecCol allows the bracing and end fixeties to be set independently for bending about
the X and Y-axis.
Column Design
6-53
Loads input
More than one ultimate load case can be entered:
Enter a case number and description for each load case.
Axial load (kN or kip). A positive value denotes a compression force. The program does
not automatically include the self-weight of the column. The self-weight should be
calculated and manually included in the applied loads.
Moment values (kNm or kipft). Use the same sign for the top and bottom moments about
an axis to define double-curvature about that axis.
Note: All entered loads should be factored ultimate loads.

You can use as many lines as necessary to define a load case all values applicable to a
specific load case are added together.
6-54
Column Design
Design
The column design modules follow different design approaches:
RecCol and CirCol calculate the required reinforcement for the column.
GenCol evaluates the column for the entered reinforcement or calculates a single bar
diameter to be used at each defined bar position.
Irrespective the approach followed, additional moments are calculated for slender columns and
automatically added to the applied moments. The design moment is taken to be equal to or
larger than the minimum moment set by the code.
Rectangular column design

The design procedure given in the codes is applied. The column is evaluated at the top, middle
and bottom and the critical section identified as the section requiring the greatest amount of
reinforcement.
The design procedure can be summarised as follows:
Column design charts are constructed for bending about the X and Y-axis.
If the column is slender, additional slenderness moments are calculated as required about a
single or both axes.
For slender columns, the applied moments and additional moments are summed for each
axis.
In the case of bi-axial

bending, the moments are
converted to an effective
design moment about a
single design axis.
The reinforcement required

to resist the design moment
is read from the applicable
column design chart.
Using the same procedure, a

design moment is derived
about the axis perpendicular
to
the
design
axis.
Reinforcement resisting the
secondary design moment is
read from the relevant chart.
Column Design
6-55
Circular column design

The same simplified design
procedure as for rectangular
columns is used. The major and
minor column dimensions, h and
b, are both set equal to the
column diameter.
Note: The design procedure for
bi-axially bent slender columns
tend to be conservative due to
he codes' allowance for
additional moment about both
the X and Y axes.
The column is evaluated at the

top, middle and bottom and the critical section identified as the section requiring the greatest
amount of reinforcement.
General column design

GenCol designs columns that do not necessarily fall inside the scope of the code requirements.
The program therefore reverts to basic principles, e.g. strain compatibility and equilibrium, to
analyse columns. This is achieved using an automated finite difference analysis.
The following calculations are followed:
The section properties are

calculated and the column
slenderness evaluated.
For a slender column, the

additional
slenderness
moment is calculated and
applied about the weak axis,
i.e. axis of lowest second
moment of inertia. The
output gives the X and
Y-axis components.
The design moment and axis

are determined by taking the
vector sum of the applied
and additional moments.
6-56
Column Design
An iterative solution is obtained using strain compatibility and equilibrium as criteria. The
simplified rectangular stress block given by the codes is used.
Note: Given the differences in the design procedures described above, GenCol will not
yield identical results to RecCol and Circular Column Design modules when designing
simple rectangular or circular columns.
Column Design
6-57
Design charts
The column design charts can be displayed for the specified column geometry and material
properties:
Rectangular columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis for
various percentages of reinforcement.
Circular columns: Due to axial symmetry, a single design chart is shown.
General columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis.
Displaying design charts about other axes

You can use Gencol to define a column and then rotate it about any angle. Design charts can
then be displayed for the resultant horizontal and vertical axes.
6-58
Column Design
Calcsheets
The column design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The different column design modules allow various settings, including design charts, tabular
design summaries and detailed design calculations.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the column design
module as well.
Column Design
6-59
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.

Schedule file name: Name

of the Padds drawing and
schedule file.
Main bars (high yield steel

is assumed):
6-60
Rectangular columns:
Bar diameter for the
corner bars and the
number and diameter of
the intermediate bars in
the
horizontal
and
vertical faces of a
rectangular column, as
displayed on the screen.
Circular columns: The

diameter and number of
main
bars.
It
is
generally assumed good
practice to use at least
six bars.
General columns: Main

bar
diameters
are
defined in the initial
input. The shape code
can be selected for each
individual bar.
Lap length factor for

main bars.
Column Design
Note: To ensure that the amount of reinforcement supplied is not less than the amount
required, the relevant values are shown in a table.
Level at the bottom of the column (m or ft).
Level at the top of the column or, in the case of starter bars, at the top of the
base (m or ft).
Links:
Rectangular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing, e.g. 'R10@200, and choose a
link layouts. Link type '2' should only be used with square columns.
Circular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing and choose between using
circular or spiral links.
General columns: Select a shape code and follow the prompts to indicate the link
coordinates. Available shape codes include '35' (normally used for holding
intermediate bars in position), '60' or '61' (used to enclose four bars by a rectangular
link) and '86' or '87' (spiral bar for use with circular columns).
Link type: Choose one of the displayed link layouts.
Concrete cover on links (mm or in).
Detailing style to use:
First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.
Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected, the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
The following additional settings should be made:
Column continuous: Enable this option to make the column bars continuous and have it
detailed with a splice at the top. If this option is disabled the column is detailed with bends
at the top to anchor it in a beam or slab.
Starter bars only: If enabled, starter bars are generated instead of complete column bars.
Double links at kinks: If enabled, a set of double links is provided at the position of the
main bar kinks. Circular columns are detailed with straight bars, removing the need for
this option.
Column Design
6-61

steps below:
the drawing of the column and the other window the bar schedule.
Make
any
necessary

positions:
Member
description:
Use as many lines of
the Member column to
enter
a
member
description,
e.g.
'COLUMN TYPE 5'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'COLUMN5.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required
to suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS201'.
6-62
Column Design

The Retaining Wall Design module is used to analyse retaining walls for normal soil and
surcharge loads or seismic load conditions. Various types of walls can be considered, including
cantilever, simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Padds compatible bending schedules can also be generated for designed walls.
6-63

The following text gives an overview of the application of retaining wall analysis theory. For
more detailed information, reference should be made to specialist literature.
Design scope
The program can design most conventional retaining walls, including cantilever, simply
supported and propped cantilever walls. Both static and seismic load conditions are supported.
Analyses are performed using either the Coulomb or the Rankine theory.
Walls can be made to slope forward or backwards and the wall thickness can vary with height.
Toes may optionally be included. Line loads, point loads and distributed loads can be placed on
the backfill. A water table can be defined behind the wall. If required, the soil pressure
coefficients can be adjusted manually.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed walls.
Codes of practice
BS 8110 - 1997.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes.
Wall geometry
At : Wall thickness at the top (m).
Ab : Wall thickness at the bottom (m).
B : Horizontal base dimension in front of the wall (m).
C : Depth of the base (m).
D : Horizontal base dimension at back of the wall (m).
F : Depth of the shear key (m).
H1 : Total wall height (m).
H2 : Height of soil in front of the wall (m).
H3 : Height from top of wall to soil level at back of wall (m).
6-64 Retaining Wall Design
Hr : Height of the support point from the top of the wall for a simply supported or
propped cantilevered wall (m).
Hw : Height of water table, measured from the top of wall (m).
x : Inclination of the wall (m).
xf : Position of the shear key, measured from the front of the base (m).
xL : Position of the line load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
xP : Position of the point load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
: Angle of soil behind wall ().
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
: Angle of friction between wall and soil (). Must be zero if Rankine theory is
specified.
: Angle of internal friction ().
Applied loads
kh : Horizontal acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
kv : Vertical acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
L : Line load on or behind the wall (kN/m).
Lh : Horizontal line load at top of wall (kN/m).
P : Point load on or behind the wall (kN).
W : Uniform distributed load behind the wall (kN/m2).
Design parameters
DLfact : Ultimate limit state dead load factor.
LLfact : Ultimate limit state live load factor.
Pmax : Design bearing pressure at serviceability limit state (kPa)
SFOvt : Allowable safety factor for overturning at serviceability limit state.
SFSlip : Allowable safety factor for slip at serviceability limit state.
6-65
Design output
As1 : Flexural reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
As2 : Flexural reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm2).
As3 : Flexural reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ac1 : Compression reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
Ac2 : Compression reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm2).
Ac3 : Compression reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ds : Density of soil (kN/m3).
K : Active pressure coefficient, including seismic effects.
Ka : Active pressure coefficient.
Kp : Passive pressure coefficient.
Kps : Passive pressure coefficient including seismic effects.
M1 : Maximum ultimate moment in the wall (kNm).
M2 : Maximum ultimate moment in back part of the base (kNm).
M3 : Maximum ultimate moment in front part of the base (kNm).
Pfac : Pressure factor used for Terzaghi-Peck pressure distribution diagram.
V : Shear force in wall at base-wall junction (kN).
v : Shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
vc : Allowable shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
: Friction coefficient between base and soil.
General assumptions
The following assumptions are applicable to the analysis:
A unit width of the wall is considered.
Predominantly active soil pressures are assumed to act on the right-hand side of the wall
Predominantly passive pressures are present on the left-hand side of the wall.
Soil pressure, soil weight and wall self weight are taken as dead loads.
Applied distributed loads, line loads and point loads are considered to be live loads.
If a water table is specified behind the wall, a linear pressure distribution is used along its
depth. The pressure applied on the bottom of the base is varied linearly from maximum at
the back, to zero at the front.
Point loads are distributed along the depth of the soil. In contrast, line loads are taken
constant in the transverse direction of the wall.
Application of Coulomb and Rankine theories

The program can analyse retaining walls using either the Coulomb wedge theory or the
Rankine theory.
Note: This manual does not attempt to explain the applicable theories in detail, but merely
highlights some aspects of their application. For more detail, reference should be made to
specialist literature.
Friction between the wall and soil
The higher the value of the angle of friction between the wall and soil, , the greater the degree
of rotation of the system is implied. If the Coulomb theory is used, the friction angle should
preferable be set equal to the internal angle of friction, . This will yield pressures that
correlate better with the Rankine theory, than would be the case if is set equal to zero.
Saturated and submerged soil
To keep input as simple as possible, the program does no provide an option to enter values for
specific gravity, void ratio, moisture content and degree of saturation. However, reasonable
modelling of saturated soil and submerged conditions is still possible:
If no water table is present, soil should be taken as a value that includes a moisture content
that can reasonably expected.
If a water table is present, the portion of the soil above the water table will likely have a
degree of saturation close to unity. Using the wet density rather than the dry density should
yield reasonable results.
Point loads and line loads

Point loads and line loads behind the wall are incorporated using the Coulomb and Rebhann*
theories. Even if Rankine theory is used for the analysis, the effects of these loads are still
calculated using Coulomb theory with the value of set equal to that of .
'Foundation Engineering Handbook', published by Van Nostrand Reinhold of New York

6-67
Seismic analysis
The program uses the Okabe-Monobe equations, based on the Coulomb wedge theory, to
calculate revised active and passive pressure coefficients. The seismic portion of the active
pressure is assumed to act at 60% of the soil height behind the wall, effectively increasing the
lever arm of the soil pressure.
The densities of the materials are also adjusted by multiplying with (1-kv). An upward
acceleration therefore effectively decreases the stabilising effect of the wall and soil weight.
Modelling of soil pressure behind rigid walls

The program suggests values for the active and passive pressure coefficients, Ka and Kp. These
values generally yield reasonable results for cantilever walls. However, simply supported and
propped cantilever walls tend to be very rigid. This means that the actual active soil pressures
could potentially rise well above the level normally assumed. The program therefore allows
uniform pressure distribution to be specified, i.e. Factive = Pfac Hwall soil Ka. Typical values
for the uniform pressure coefficient, Pfact, was determined by Terzaghi and Peck. An average
value of 0.65 should yield reasonable results in most cases.
Seepage modelling
When a water table is modelled, seepage can optionally be allowed below the wall. If seepage
is allowed, hydrostatic pressure is modelled as follows:
The pressure behind the wall is taken as zero on the level of the water table and then
linearly increased with depth.
At the front of the wall, the pressure is taken as zero at ground level and linearly varied
with depth.
The hydrostatic pressure below the base is varied linearly between the values calculated
behind and in front of the wall.
If seepage is not allowed, the hydrostatic pressure in front of the wall or below the base is
taken as zero.
Input
Use the input tables to enter the wall geometry, loading and general design parameters.
Geometry and loads input

When entering the dimensions and loads working on the wall, you should keep the following
in mind:
Leave the value for F blank if a shear key is not required.
The value for Hr is only required for simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Leave the Hw field blank if you do not want to define a water table. If you wish to design a
liquid retaining wall, you may set the water table above the soil level.
All applied loads work downward. Point loads are distributed at 45 through the depth of
the soil. Line loads are applied uniformly along the width of the wall.
Note: For suggestions on modelling saturated soil and submerged conditions, refer to
page 6-67.
6-69
Enabling seismic analysis

When enabling Seismic analysis, you should also enter the following analysis parameters:
Enter the equivalent seismic accelerations in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Optionally include live loads in the analysis.
Soils pressure coefficients

The program will calculate the soil pressure coefficients by default. To use your own
coefficients, select User defined design values:
Active and passive pressure

coefficients, Ka and Kp.
Soil friction constant below

the base, .
For simply supported and

propped cantilever walls,
you can choose between
triangular
or
uniform
pressure distributions. In the
case of rigid walls, a
uniform pressure coefficient
can also be entered. See
page 6-68 for more detail.
Selecting a wall type

Choose one of the following wall types:
Cantilever: The base is fixed against rotation with the wall cantilevering from it.
Simply supported: The base has no fixety, i.e. free to rotate. The wall is supported
horizontally at the bottom and at the level defined by Hr.
Propped cantilever: Fixed at the bottom and simply supported at the level defined by Hr.
Selecting an analysis theory

Choose between the Column and Rankine analysis theories. The Rankine theory cannot be
used if the slope of the backfill is less than zero. Due to this and other limitations of the
Rankine theory, use of the Coulomb wedge theory is often preferred.
Design
You can design the entered wall configuration or use the optimisation functions to obtain a
more economic design.
Analysing the entered wall configuration

The analysis includes several ultimate and serviceability limit state checks.
Calculating the ultimate design loads
Loads due to soil pressure and all weights, including concrete and soil, are multiplied by the
dead load factor. Applied loads are considered to be live loads and are therefore multiplied
with the live load factor.
Additional checks for propped cantilever walls
In the case of a propped cantilever wall, the program checks whether fixety can be obtained at
the base. Fixety is attained by balancing loads such as own weight and soil weight plus the
pressure distribution under the base against the fixety moment. If the fixety moment attainable
is less than one and a half times the theoretical fixed moment, the fixety moment is reduced
and the bending moment diagram and soil pressures adjusted accordingly.
Checking stability
Stability against overturning of the wall is checked by assuming rotation about the lower front
corner of the base. If a shear key is used and it is located within one quarter of base width from
the front, the program also checks for rotation about the bottom of the shear key.
Design results
The design output gives the following values at ultimate limit state:
Bending moment diagrams (kNm).
Required reinforcement in the base and wall (mm2).
Maximum shear stress in the wall, v, and concrete shear capacity, vc (MPa).
Note: The wall design does not include any axial effects due to friction or applied loads.
Results for serviceability limit state checks include:
Safety factor for overturning.
Safety factor for slip.
Bearing pressure diagram below the base.

6-71
Optimising the wall dimensions

Optimise the wall using the following functions:
Select B: Optimise the horizontal base dimension in front of the wall. The smallest value
of B is calculated to not exceed the allowable bearing pressure and safety factor for
overturning. A warning message is displayed if an appropriate value could not be
calculated.
Select D: Optimise the horizontal base dimension behind wall. The smallest value of D is
calculated to satisfy the requirements set for the allowable bearing pressure and safety
factor for overturning.
Select F: The value of F is optimised using the safety factor for slip as only criterion.
Note: None of the optimisation functions considers all design criteria. It is therefore
possible that after optimising the value of B, for example, the safety factor for slip is
exceeded. You may thus need to alternate optimisation functions to arrive at a workable
solution.
Calcsheets
The retaining wall design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the wall design module
as well.
6-73
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed retaining wall. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.


schedule file.
Wall and base reinforcement:
Reinforcement
is
generated at various
positions in the wall and
base
using
the
calculated
ultimate
bending
moments.
Change the diameters
and
spacings
as
required.
Bond stress: Allowable stress for evaluating bar anchorage of the wall starter bars. If
90 bends proof insufficient, the program automatically uses full 180 hooks. Bar
spacing is also reduced to lower bond stress.
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed retaining wall, press
Reset. Also press Reset if you have changed the reinforcement bond stress and want to
recalculate the reinforcement.

steps below:
the drawing of the retaining wall and the other window the bar schedule.
Make
any
necessary

positions:
Member description: Use as

many lines of the Member
column
to
enter
a
description, e.g. 'WALL
TYPE C'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending schedule
page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to the
file name, e.g. 'WALLC'. The schedule number can be edited as required to suit your
numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS303'.
6-75
Column Base Design

The Column Base Design module is used to design and optimise rectangular column bases.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed bases.
Column Base Design
6-77

Design scope
The program designs rectangular concrete column bases subjected to vertical force and bi-axial
bending moment. The program designs the base at ultimate limit state for bending moment and
shear.
The program also verifies the stability requirements for overturning and bearing pressure.
Overturning can be evaluated at ultimate limit state or using the older working force method.
Refer to page 6-82 for details.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed bases. Schedules can be
opened in Padds, for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1993.
BS 8110 - 1987.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA-A23.3 - 1994.
Eurocode 2 -1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible.
Geometry:
A, B : Horizontal and vertical base dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
C, D : Horizontal and vertical column dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
E, F : Horizontal and vertical column eccentricity as shown on the screen (m or ft).
6-78 Column Base Design
X : Stub column height (m or ft).

X : Base thickness (m or ft).
Z : Soil cover on base (m or ft).
Rebar depth : Concrete cover plus half of the reinforcement diameter (mm or in).
Materials:
Density : Concrete and soil densities (kN/m or lb/ft).
Friction angle : Internal friction angle for calculating passive soil stress.
Friction constant : Coefficient for calculating horizontal friction between the base and soil.
fci : Concrete cylinder strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
fcu : Concrete cube strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
Safety factors:
SFover : Safety factor for overturning.
SFslip : Safety factor for slip.
Loads:
Hx, Hy : Horizontal forces in X and Y direction (kN or kip).
LFovt : Load factor to use for evaluating overturning stability.
LFuls : Load factor for ultimate limit state calculations.
Mx, My : Moment in X and Y direction (kNm or kipft).
P : Vertical load (kN or kip).
Column Base Design
6-79
Sign conventions
The X and Y-axes lie in the horizontal plane. Using a
right-hand rule, the Z-axis points vertically upward.
The sign conventions applicable to forces and
moments are as follows:
The vertical force, P, works downward.
The horizontal forces Hx and Hy are applied

parallel to the X and Y-axes.
The moments Mx and My are applied in the X

and Y-directions, i.e. about the negative Y and
X-axes respectively
Post-processing frame analysis results

Forces are usually obtained using the reaction values calculated by frame analysis. When
extracting frame analysis output, the differences in the sign conventions and axis systems used
should be kept in mind:
Applied load in Column Base Design module
Frame Analysis Module
Hx
Hy
Mx
My
Frame analysis reaction value to use

Plane Frame Analysis
Ry
Rx
None
Mz
None
Grillage Analysis
Ry
None
None
Mz
Mx
Space Frame Analysis
Ry
Rx
Rz
Mz
Mx
Space Truss Analysis
Ry
Rx
Rz
None
None
Input
The column base definition has several input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Load cases and stability criteria.
Geometry input
Enter the base and column dimensions, omitting the values for the either column if only one
column is used. A column is positioned at the centre of the base unless non-zero values are
entered for E and/or F.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the base pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the base thickness and column sizes.
Column Base Design
6-81
Material properties input

You are required to enter the properties of the concrete and soil fill and also specify the
concrete cover to the reinforcement.
Setting the stability criteria

Relevant limits should be entered for checking overturning, slip and bearing pressure at
serviceability and ultimate limit state.
Modern design codes tend to consider stability checks like overturning at ultimate limit state.
Depending on your own preference, you can use the program to check stability at ultimate limit
state or using the older method of working loads (permissible working stress):
Checking overturning at ultimate limit state
The ratio of the cumulative effects of factored destabilising loads to the effect of the factored
stabilising forces should not exceed unity. In this ratio, all forces are multiplied by the
appropriate ULS factors that exceed unity and only the self-weight components of stabilising
forces by the minimum ULS load factor that does not exceed unity.
When using this approach in the program, you will likely want to set the load factors for
overturning for all stabilising components of self-weight to the minimum prescribed ULS dead
load factor, typically between 0.9 and 1.0. For all other loads, a ULS load factor of between 1.2
and 1.6 (depending on the relevant code) will be appropriate.
Checking overturning using working loads
The older method requires the ratio of the cumulative effects of destabilising loads to
stabilising loads to be greater than an appropriate safety factor, typically 1/0.7 or 1.5.
When using this approach, you should enter unity values for all load factors for overturning
and specify relevant safety factors for overturning.
Checking slip at ultimate limit state
The program uses the entered load factors for ultimate limit state, LFuls, to evaluate slip. The
safety factor for slip can normally be set to unity.
Loads input
Enter one or more load cases. The following should be kept in mind:
All loads are applied at the centre of the columns. A column is positioned at the centre of
the base unless values for E and/or F are entered.
Seen in elevation, the horizontal forces Hx and Hy are applied at the top of the stub
column.
All loads are entered as

working loads. The ultimate
design loads are obtained by
multiplying the entered
forces by the specified load
factor.
A minimum and maximum

load factor should be
specified for each load to
calculate
the
worst
overturning and slip cases.
A positive value of P
denotes a downward force.
Use a negative value for
uplift.
Moments are applied in the X and Y directions, rather than about the X and Y-axes.
For the case of a concrete column extending to the slab above, no stub column should be
entered, i.e. the value for X should be left blank.
For a steel base plate bearing directly on the base, enter the plate dimensions for the
column dimensions, C and D, and use zero for the stub column height, X.
For detail on the sign conventions used for loads, refer to page 6-14.
Column Base Design
6-83
Design
A column base is designed for compliance with ultimate limit state and serviceability limit
state conditions:
The required reinforcement to resist ultimate moments is calculated.
Linear and punching shear checks are performed.
The stability of the base is evaluated at both ultimate and serviceability limit state.
Stability checks
Stability values for overturning, slip and bearing pressure are calculated at both ultimate limit
state and serviceability limit state. The following general principles apply:
Overturning: When considering overturning at ultimate limit state, the applied loads are
multiplied by the entered load factors for overturning to calculate the ratio of destabilising
to stabilising effects. At serviceability limit state calculations are performed using the
entered unfactored working loads.
Slip: At ultimate limit state, all forces are multiplied by their ULS load factors. The safety
factor for slip is calculated by dividing the resisting passive soil pressure and friction by
the horizontal forces causing slip. The same calculation is performed at serviceability limit
state using unfactored forces.
Bearing pressure: Entered loads are multiplied by their respective ULS load factors before
calculating the bearing pressure. The unfactored loads are used at serviceability limit state.
Note: With careful manipulation of the load factors for overturning, you can manipulate the
program to evaluate overturning stability at ultimate limit state or using the working loads
method. Refer to page 6-82 for more information.
Reinforcement calculation
The loads are multiplied by the specified load factor to obtain the ultimate design loads. The
design forces, including the base self weight and weight of the soil cover, are used to calculate
the ultimate bearing pressure below the base. The program calculates the bending moments in
the base and uses the normal code formulae to obtain the required reinforcement. Nominal
reinforcement is also calculated where applicable.
Shear checks
The required reinforcement for bending is used to calculate the shear resistance, vc, in the X
and Y-directions. For punching shear, the value is based on the average required reinforcement
in the two directions.
Linear shear
When
considering
linear shear, lines are
considered
at
a
distance equal to the
base depth in front of
each face of the
column.
The
contribution of the
soil pressure block
outside the lines is
then used to calculate
the shear stress.
Punching shear
For punching shear, shear perimeters are considered at one and a half time the base thickness
from the column faces.
Various combinations as for internal, edge and corner columns are considered.
Design results
Results of stability checks:
Bearing pressure beneath the base. The 3D pressure diagram is shown in elevation.
Safety factor for overturning.
Safety factor for slip.

Note: Stability checks are performed at ultimate limit state (modern limit state approach)
and serviceability limit state (older working load approach). Depending of your way of
working and the design code used, you may prefer to use only one or both sets of results.
Results of strength checks at ultimate Limit State:
Design moments in the X and Y-directions in the bottom and top of the base (kNm or
kipft).
The corresponding required reinforcement (mm or in)
Linear and punching shear stresses and allowable shear stresses (MPa or psi).
Column Base Design
6-85
Optimising base dimensions

The base dimensions can be optimised using the following functions:
Optimise A, B and Y: Calculate the optimum values for all the base dimensions. The
optimisation procedures take into account the specified material costs.
Select B: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the Y-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
Select A: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the X-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
Note: When optimising the base dimensions A and B, the base thickness is kept constant
and no shear checks are performed. Where necessary, the base thickness should be adjusted
manually.
Calcsheets
The column base design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
pictures.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as
well.
Column Base Design
6-87
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.


schedule file.
Main reinforcement:
Change the displayed

bottom and top steel in
the X and Y-directions
as necessary.
Top steel will only be

given for bases thicker
than 600 mm, or where
tension reinforcement is
required.
Column reinforcement:
At each column portion used, specify whether a normal column, stub column or no
column should be detailed.
Main bars: Diameter of column corner bars.
Middle bars: The number and diameter of intermediate bars in the horizontal and
vertical column faces, as displayed on the screen.
Lap length factor: Splice length to allow for column starter bars.
Links: Diameter, dimensions and number of stirrups to hold column starter bars in
position.
Choose a configuration of bar shape codes to use for the bottom and, where
applicable, the bottom reinforcement.

steps below:
the drawing of the column base and the other window the bar schedule.
Make
any
necessary

positions:
Member
description:
Use as many lines of
the Member column to
enter a description, e.g.
'BASE 6'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'BASE6.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS206'.
Column Base Design
6-89

The Section Design for Crackwidth can be used to design reinforced concrete sections to
meet specific crack requirements. Both beam and slab sections can be designed for the
combined effects of axial tension, bending moment and temperature.
6-91

The following text gives an overview of the application of the theory.
Design scope
The program can determine reinforcement layouts to contain cracks. Both rectangular beam
and slab sections can be designed to resist the effects of axial tension, bending moment and
temperature and the combination thereof. Temperature effects are also included to evaluate
early cracking and long-term thermal cracking.
Codes of practice
Design calculations are done according to BS 8007 - 1987 and Eurocode 2 - 1984.
List of symbols
Section dimensions
bt : Width of the section (mm or in).
h : Overall height of the section (mm or in).
he : Effective surface zone depth (mm or in).
Material properties
fy : Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Applied loads
R : Restraint factor.
T1 : Hydration temperature difference (C).
T2 : Seasonal temperature variation (C).
: Thermal expansion coefficient of concrete (m/m per C or in/in per C).
TSLS : The tensile force on the full section at serviceability limit state (kN or kip).
6-92
TULS : The tensile force on the full section at ultimate limit state. (kN or kip).
MSLS : Serviceability limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
MULS : Ultimate limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
Ro critical : The minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
Design output
Ast : Area of suggested reinforcement layout. (mm or in).
fst : Tensile stress in reinforcement (MPa or psi).
Mu : Ultimate moment capacity of section (kNm or kipft).
TU : Ultimate tensile capacity of surface zone (kN or kip).
6-93
Input
The section geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following points
require special attention.
The program evaluates an effective surface zone where crack control would be effective,
rather than the complete section. The surface zone is normally entered as half the section
depth but not more than 250 mm.
Because only a surface zone is considered, only half of the entered tensile forces
(applicable to the overall section) is used.
Reinforcement is calculated for the surface zone. The same reinforcement should be
supplied in full in both faces of the section.
Eurocode 2 requires additional information regarding the type of reinforcement bond

applicable i.e. high-bond or plain bars.
Select Beam mode if if you wish cracking to be evaluated at the section corners as well.
Tip: It is recommended that wide sections be designed using Slab mode.
6-94
The hydration temperature, T1, is defined as the difference between the environmental
temperature and the peak temperature due to hydration. The value is used to evaluate early
thermal cracking. Typical values, taken from Table A.2 of the code, are given below.
OPC content (kg/m3)
Section
Thickness (mm)
325
350
400
325
350
400
300
Steel formwork
11*
13*
15*
18 mm plywood formwork
23
25
31
500
20
22
27
32
35
43
700
28
32
39
38
42
49
1000
38
42
49
42
47
56
* Generally a minimum value of 20C should be used.
The seasonal temperature variation, T2, is used to calculate long term thermal cracking:
If movement joints are provided as per Table 5.1 of the code, the seasonal variation
can normally be set equal to zero when considering early cracking only.
The seasonal temperature variation should always be considered for long-term thermal
cracking in combination with the applied moments and tensile forces.
Section
Thickness (mm)
OPC content (kg/m3)
300
325
15
350
17
400
21
500
25
28
34
The restraint factor describes the amount of restraint in the system. The factor varies
between 0.0 to 0.5. For more detail, refer to Figure A3 of the code.
Tip: A higher restraint factor generally gives rise to more severe cracking. Therefore, when
in doubt, use a restraint factor of 0.5.
Enter a value for Ro critical, i.e. the minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
The value applies to the gross concrete section of the surface zone. The program gives a
default value of 100 fct / fy, where fct is the three-day tensile strength of the immature
concrete. For more detail, refer to paragraph A.2 of the code.
6-95
Design
The following checks are considered for each load case at serviceability limit state:
The combined effect of bending moment, tensile force and the seasonal temperature
variation, i.e. MSLS + TSLS + T2.
Early thermal movement, T1 only.
Early thermal movement and seasonal variation combined, i.e. T1 + T2.
The section is also evaluated at ultimate limit state by considering the combined effect of
bending moment and tensile force, i.e. MULS + TULS.
Up to four sets of bars are calculated for slab sections. Each set has a different diameter and
spacing to comply with the crack width requirements. A fifth column is provided where you
could enter a bar configuration of choice.
For beams, up to four sets of bars are calculated. Each set of bars consists of a number of bars
of not more than two different diameters. The bar diameters are chosen to not differ by more
than one size.
6-96
Calcsheets
The crackwidth design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
pictures.

If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall it
by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as well.
6-97
6-98

The Concrete Section Design module is a simple utility for designing concrete sections for
combined bending, shear and torsion. Rectangular and T-sections are accommodated.
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The following text gives an overview of the application of the theory.
Design scope
The program performs reinforced concrete design of rectangular and T-sections to resist
bending moment, shear and torsion.
Codes of practice
ACI 318-95.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3-93.
Eurocode 2.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Section dimensions
B : Width of the web (mm).
Bf : Width of the flange (mm).
Dct, Dcb : Distance from the top or bottom face to the centre of the steel (mm).
H : Overall height of the section (mm).
Hf : Depth of the flange (mm).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa).
fy : Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
fy : Shear reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
Design output
As : Bottom steel required for bending (mm2).
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A's : Top steel required for bending (mm2).

Anom : Nominal flexural reinforcement (mm2).
Asv : Required shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Asvn : Nominal shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Mu : Ultimate moment capacity for bottom reinforcement only (kNm).
v : Shear stress (MPa)
vc : Allowable shear stress (MPa).
vt : Torsional shear stress (MPa).
Calculation of flexural reinforcement

The normal code formulae apply when calculating flexural reinforcement for rectangular
sections and for flanged sections where the neutral axis falls inside the flange. If the neutral
axis falls outside the flange, the section is designed as two separate sub-sections:
The first sub-section consists of the flange without the central web part of the section and
the remaining central portion defines the second sub-section.
By considering the total section, the moment required to put the flange portion in
compression can be calculated using the normal code formulae. This moment is then
applied to the flange sub-section and the required reinforcement calculated using the
effective depth of the total section.
The same moment is then subtracted from the total applied moment, the resulting moment
applied to the central sub-section and the reinforcement calculated.
The tension reinforcement for the actual section is then taken as the sum of the calculated
reinforcement for the two sub-sections. If compression reinforcement is required for the central
sub-section, it is used as the required compression reinforcement for the entire section.
Calculation of shear reinforcement

The program assumes that shear is resisted by the web portion of the section only. Shear
stress, v, is therefore calculated using the web area and checked to not exceed the ultimate
allowable shear stress given in the code. The shear capacity, vc, is calculated using the required
bending reinforcement, As, and the shear reinforcement calculated using the normal code
formulae.
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Calculation of torsion reinforcement

Depending on the option chosen, torsion can be resisted by the section as a whole or by the
web portion only. For flanged beams, the torsion is calculated separately for the flange and
web along the guidelines given in the code. The torsional shear stresses are checked so as not
to exceed the ultimate allowable shear stress. Reinforcement requirements are also evaluated
separately for the flange and web using the normal code formulae.
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Input
The section geometry and ultimate loading are entered using the single input table. The
following should be kept in mind:
If the values for Bf and Hf are left blank, a rectangular section is assumed.
A positive moment is assumed to cause compression in the top flange.
The program puts the flange at the top. To model the case where the flange is at the bottom
or where the flange is in tension, enter a rectangular section without a flange. The effects
of bending and shear will still be evaluated correctly. In the absence of a flange, the
torsion checks will however be conservative.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the picture and stretch certain section dimensions,
e.g. flange width or overall depth.
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Design
Press Analyse to design the section for the entered moment, shear and torsion. The following
results are given:
The moment capacity of the section using tensile reinforcement only.
Required, nominal and suggested flexural reinforcement at the bottom and top.
Shear stress in the web and the shear capacity of the section if no links are used.
The required, nominal and suggested shear steel.
Torsional shear stress in the flange and web.
The required and suggested

torsional shear links in the
flange and web. The torsion
reinforcement should be
supplied in addition to the
reinforcement calculated for
shear.
Required and suggested

additional longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the
flange and web. The
longitudinal torsion reinforcement
should
be
supplied in addition to the
required
flexural
reinforcement.
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Calcsheets
The section design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.

If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall it
by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as well.
6-105
6-106

The Punching Shear Design module designs flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner or
internal columns. Only reinforced concrete slabs are designed to design prestressed concrete
slabs for punching shear, use the Prestressed Beam/Slab Design module, Captain, instead.
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Design scope
The program designs reinforced concrete flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner and
internal columns.
Codes of practice
ACI 318-95.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3-93
Eurocode 2.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Slab geometry
A : Horizontal column dimension, as shown on the screen, or diameter of circular
column (mm or in).
B : Vertical column dimension, as shown on the screen (mm or in).
Deff : Average effective depth of the slab (mm or in).
X : Horizontal distance, as shown on the screen, from the column centre to the slab
edge (mm or in).
Y : Vertical distance from the column centre to the slab edge (mm or in).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa of psi).
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fy : Yield strength of flexural reinforcement (MPa or psi)

fyv : Yield strength of shear reinforcement (MPa or psi).
Slab reinforcement
Asx1-4 : Average area of main steel parallel to the X-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in). The first perimeter denotes the innermost perimeter.
Asy1-4 : Average area of main steel parallel to the Y-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in).
Design output
Asv : The total area of stirrups to be provided within 1.5Deff inside a perimeter (mm
or in).
Ucrit : Length of critical perimeter (mm or in).
vc : Allowable punching shear stress (MPa or kip).
Vc : Shear force capacity at a stress of vc (MPa of psi).
Veff : The effective shear force as a function of Vt, Mtx and Mty (kN or kip).
Applied loads
Mtx : Ultimate bending moment about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mty : Ultimate bending moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Vt : Ultimate vertical load on column (kN or kip).
Effective shear force

The effective shear force, Veff, is calculated using the code formulae. The following minimum
values are assumed:
Internal columns: 1.15Vt.
Edge columns: 1.25Vt, irrespective of the direction the column is bent.
Corner columns: 1.25Vt.
Edge, corner and internal columns

The following rules are used to determine whether a column should be considered an internal,
edge or corner column:
If one edge is closer than five times the effective slab depth, i.e. 5 Deff, from the column
centre, the column is considered to be an edge column.
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If two edges are closer than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is taken to be a corner column.
If all edges are further than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is analysed as an internal column.
Circular columns
Concentric circular rather than square shear perimeters are used for circular columns.
Reduction of design moments

The program assumes that the design forces are obtained from an equivalent frame analysis
that incorporates pattern loading. As allowed for by the codes, the values of the ultimate
moments, Mtx and Mty, are subsequently reduced by 30% prior to calculating the effective shear
force, Veff.
6-110
Input
The slab geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following
parameters may require special attention:
The reinforcement values Asx and Asy to be entered for each perimeter, represent the
average amount for each direction. For an internal column, for example, Asx represents the
average of the reinforcement quantities crossing the left and right sides of the perimeter.
By careful choice of the values for X and Y, you can force a column to be considered as an
edge, corner of internal column. See page 6-109 for detail.
The program assumes pattern loading and subsequently reduces Mtx and Mty by 30%.
Note: If the ultimate moments, Mtx and Mty, do not incorporate pattern loading, their values
should be increased by 30% to ensure a correct analysis.
6-111
Design
The design procedure includes the following steps:
The effective shear force, Veff, is calculated. See page 6-109 for an explanation of the
assumptions that apply.
The program chooses four shear perimeters. The first perimeter is taken a distance
1.5 Deff away from the column face. Subsequent perimeters are spaced at 0.75 Deff. The
perimeters are chosen to be as short as possible, extending to the slab edge when
necessary.
For each perimeter, the allowable stress, vc, is taken as the weighted average of the values
calculated for the X and Y-directions, using the flexural reinforcement ratio for the
respective directions.
The required shear reinforcement for each perimeter is then calculated using the normal
code formulae. The calculated reinforcement should be supplied within a distance 1.5 Deff
inside the relevant perimeter.
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Calcsheets
The slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as
well.
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6-114

Concrete Design Using PROKON

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Concrete Design Using PROKON

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Chapter

Continuous Beam and Slab Design

Prestressed Beam and Slab Design

Finite Element Slab Analysis

Rectangular Slab Panel Design

Retaining Wall Design

Column Base Design

Section Design for Crackwidth

Concrete Section Design

Punching Shear Design