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PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
01/04/16
Outline
Key Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
Fundamentals of Oil & Gas Reservoirs
Analysis Methods in Reservoir Engineering
01/04/16
Part I
Key Concepts in
Reservoir Engineering
01/04/16
Definition of Reservoir
01/04/16
Definition of Engineering
Engineering is the discipline or profession of
applying necessary knowledge and
utilizing physical resources in order to
design and implement systems and
processes that realize a desired objective
and meet specified criteria.
01/04/16
Definition of Engineering
Engineering is the discipline and profession
of applying necessary knowledge and
utilizing physical resources in order to
design and implement systems and
processes that realize a desired objective
and meet specified criteria.
01/04/16
Necessary Knowledge
Knowledge about oil & gas reservoirs
Reservoir Rock Properties & Behavior
during the Production Process
Reservoir Fluid Properties & Behavior
during the Production Process
Fluid Flows in Reservoirs
01/04/16
Necessary Knowledge
(contd)
Technical & Scientific Knowledge
Quantitative Methods for Reservoir
Characterization
Quantitative Methods for Reservoir
Evaluation
01/04/16
Definition of Engineering
Engineering is the discipline and profession
of applying necessary knowledge and
utilizing physical resources in order to
design and implement systems and
processes that realize a desired objective
and meet specified criteria.
01/04/16
Physical Resources
In-place Reservoir Resources
Reservoirs energy source resulted
from the initial pressure & drive
mechanisms during production
Available flow conduits thanks to
reservoirs characteristic properties
such as porosity and permeability
01/04/16
10
Definition of Engineering
Engineering is the discipline and profession
of applying necessary knowledge and
utilizing physical resources in order to
design and implement systems and
processes that realize a desired objective
and meet specified criteria.
01/04/16
11
Design and
Implementation
Design and Implement an Oil Field
Development Plan
Plan for producing oil & gas from the reservoirs
in the field: Exploit reservoir energy sources;
Design appropreate well patterns; Select
suitable subsurface & surface facilities ...
during the lifecycle of the oil field
01/04/16
12
Definition of Engineering
Engineering is the discipline and profession
of applying necessary knowledge and
utilizing physical resources in order to
design and implement systems and
processes that realize a desired objective
and meet specified criteria.
01/04/16
13
Desired Objective
To Maximize the profit resulted
from the recovered oil & gas
To recover as much as possible oil &
gas from the reservoirs
To recover high-quality oil & gas
01/04/16
14
Definition of Engineering
Engineering is the discipline and profession
of applying necessary knowledge and
utilizing physical resources in order to
design and implement systems and
processes that realize a desired objective
and meet specified criteria.
01/04/16
15
Specified Criteria
Money associated with hired
manpower, facilities, technologies, ...
Time
Local regulations
01/04/16
16
01/04/16
17
01/04/16
18
Revenue Throughout
LifeCycle
01/04/16
19
Part II
20
Classification of Reservoir
Fluids
Volatile Oil
Black Oil
Dewpoint line
50
80 9
0
7
60 0
40
30
20
20
10
30
Separator
10
33
Separator
p
Dew
oint
line
Temperature
Temperature, F
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Retrograde gas
2
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Pressure
% Liquid
2
Separator
Temperature
Temperature
Retrograde Gas
Wet Gas
01/04/16
Dry gas
2
5
30
1
Separator
% Liquid
Critical
point
25
15
Bu
bb
l
lin epo
30 e int
20
% Liquid
line
ne
oin
t li
Wet gas
De
wp
Pressure
De
w
po
lin
e
4
300
bl
ep
o
in
t
Critical
point
Bu
b
Pressure
in
tl
in
e
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
50
25
1
60
oin
t
lin
e
in
t
le
po
% Liquid
7900
Bu
bb
80
% Liquid
50
bb
Bu
90
e
lin
nt
oi
p
e
l
Volatile oil
Pressure
Black Oil
Five
Basic
Reservoi
r Fluids
Dewpoint line
Critical
point
40
Pressure, psia
Pressure path
in reservoir
1 Critical
point
Dew
p
Pressure path
in reservoir
Separator
Temperature
Dry Gas
21
01/04/16
22
Single
Liquid
Phase
Region
Critical
Cricondenbar Point
0
10
ne
i
L
90 0
8
70 00
96
Two-Phase
Region
Separator
oi nt
p
w
e
D
Cricondentherm
% Liquid
10
b
u
B
ep
l
b
n
oi
Single
Gas
Phase
Region
Initial
Reservoir
State
50
20
Pressure, psia
Phase Diagrams
l in e
Temperature, F
01/04/16
23
90 0 % Liquid
8
790 0
6
Separator
20
10
o
p
e
bl
b
Bu
t
in
e
in
30
Black Oil
Pressure path
in reservoir Critical
Dewpoint line
Point
50
40
Pressure, psia
Black Oil
Temperature, F
01/04/16
24
Volatile-Oil
Dewpoint line
Pressure path 1
in reservoir
2
% Liquid
Bu
b
20
30
bl
ep
oi
nt
40
lin
50
80 9
0
70
60
Volatile oil
Pressure
Critical
point
10
Separator
De
t line
n
i
o
wp
Temperature, F
01/04/16
25
Retrograde Gas
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Retrograde gas
De
w
% Liquid
20
40
30
ep
oi
nt
l
in
e
Critical point
Bu
bb
l
Pressure
po
in
tl
in
e
15
10
Separator
5
0
Temperature
01/04/16
26
Wet Gas
Wet gas
De
wp
oin
t li
Pressure
ne
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
% Liquid
Critical
point
25
30
Bu
bb
l
lin epo
e i
nt
Separator
Temperature
01/04/16
27
Dry Gas
l in e
poi
nt
Dry gas
Dew
Pressure
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
% Liquid
25
1
50
Separator
Temperature
01/04/16
28
Exercise 1
Based on the phase diagrams of volatile oil
and retrograde gas, describe some
characteristic properties of these two
reservoir fluids
Name some applications of phase diagrams
in selecting surface facilities
01/04/16
29
01/04/16
30
Gas Equation-Of-State
(EOS)
Equation of State:
pV nZRT
Quantit
y
01/04/16
Description
Unit/Value
Pressure
psia
Volume
ft3
Mole Number
lb-mol
Gas Devation
Factor
dimensionless
Temperature
Rankine
Universal Gas
10.73
31
Molecular
Weight
(lb/lb-mol)
(1)
C1
C2
C3
iC4
nC4
(2)
16.043
30.070
44.097
58.123
58.123
0.85
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.02
Critical
Pressure
Critical
Temperature
(psia)
(3)
666.4
706.5
616.0
527.9
550.6
(oR)
(4)
343.00
549.59
665.73
734.13
765.29
M a yi M i 20.39
i 1
01/04/16
32
mg
nM a p pM a
g
=
=
Vg nZRT ZRT
01/04/16
(lb/ft )
33
g
Ma
Ma
g
=
=
air M air 28.96
01/04/16
34
p
T
p pr
; Tpr
p pc
Tpc
01/04/16
35
Standing-Katz Chart
Step 1: Calculate pseudo-critical
pressure and temperature
p
T
p pr
; Tpr
p pc
Tpc
Step 3: Use Standings-Katz chart
to determine Z
01/04/16
36
2
r
5
r
2
r
11
2
r
11
2
r
r 0.27 p pr / ( ZTpr )
R1 A1 A2 / Tpr A3 / Tpr3 A4 / Tpr4 A5 / Tpr5
R2 0.27 p pr / Tpr
R3 A6 A7 / Tpr A8 / Tpr2
R4 A9 ( A7 / Tpr A8 / Tpr2 )
R5 A10 / Tpr3
A1 0.3265; A2 1.0700; A3 0.5339
A4 0.01569; A5 0.05165; A6 0.5475
A7 0.7361; A8 0.1844; A9 0.1056
A10 0.6134; A11 0.7210
01/04/16
37
Exercise
Component
01/04/16
yi
Mi
Tci,R
pci
CO2
0.02
44.01
547.91
1071
N2
0.01
28.01
227.49
493.1
C1
0.85
16.04
343.33
666.4
C2
0.04
30.1
549.92
706.5
C3
0.03
44.1
666.06
616.4
i - C4
0.03
58.1
734.46
527.9
n - C4
0.02
58.1
765.62
550.6
38
Wichert-Aziz Correction
Method
Corrected pseudo-critical temperature:
T pc T pc , o R
Corrected pseudo-critical pressure:
p pcTpc
p pc
,
psia
Tpc yH 2 S (1 yH 2 S )
Pseudo-critical temperature adjustment factor
120
01/04/16
H2S
yCO2
0.9
yH 2 S yCO2
1.6
15 y
0.5
H2S
y H 2 S 4.0 ,
39
Exercise
Given the following real gas composition,
Component
Mole fraction
C1
0.76
C2
0.07
CO2
0.1
H2S
0.07
40
Tc
3
pc i
Tci
, o R/psia
pci
yi
K yi
i
i
i
Tc
pc
0.5
, o R/psia
Tc
FJ y
3 pc
C7
Tc
y
3 pc
0.5
C7
Tc
pc
01/04/16
0.3129 y
C7
C7
41
01/04/16
42
44
mo
o
Vo
01/04/16
(lb/ft )
45
o
o
; w 62.4 (lb/ft 3 )
w
API is usually used to reprensent the gravity of
the crude oil as follow
o
141.5
API
-131.5
o
01/04/16
46
01/04/16
47
Characteristics of
Reservoir Rocks
Porosity
Permeability
In-situ Saturation
01/04/16
48
Porosity
01/04/16
V pore
Vbulk
Vbulk Vmatrix
Vbulk
49
Porosity
Porosity depends on grain packing, NOT grain size
Rocks with different grain sizes can have the
same porosity
Rhombohedral packing
Pore space = 26 % of total volume
01/04/16
Cubic packing
Pore space = 47 % of total volume
50
Rock matrix
01/04/16
Pore space
51
Pore-Space Classification
Total porosity
Bulk Volume
Vbulk
Effective porosity
52
Permeability
Permeability is a property of the
porous medium and is a measure of
the capacity of the medium to
transmit fluids
01/04/16
53
Absolute Permeability
When the medium is completely
saturated with one fluid, then the
permeability measurement is often
referred to as specific or absolute
permeability
01/04/16
54
Effective Permeability
Effective permeability is a measure
of the fluid conductance capacity of
a
01/04/16
55
Relative Permeability
Relative permeability is defined as the
ratio of the effective permeability to a
fluid at a given saturation to the
effective permeability to that fluid at
100% saturation
01/04/16
56
Calculating Relative
Permeabilities
Oil
Water
Gas
01/04/16
k ro
k eo
k rw
k ew
k rg
k eg
k
57
q
k
p
v
L
Darcys
Law
q
Direction of flow
01/04/16
v: Velocity
q: Flow rate
A: Cross-section area
k: Permeability
: Viscosity
L: Length increment
p: Pressure drop
58
V
s
p
e
c
i
f
l
u
i
d
S
a
tu
rio
n
o
re
Fluid
Saturation
Phase
Sw =
So =
Sg =
01/04/16
saturations
water saturation
oil saturation
gas saturation
59
In-Situ Saturation
Rock matrix
01/04/16
Water
60
Exercise
3
Given the following reservoir data:
Bulk Volume Vb
Porosity
Water saturation Sw
Calculate:
01/04/16
61
Reservoir Drive
Mechanisms
Solution Gas Drive
Gas Cap Drive
Water Drive
Gravity drainage drive
Combination drive
01/04/16
62
Reservoir Energy
Sources
Liberation, expansion of solution gas
Influx of aquifer water
Expansion of reservoir rock
Expansion of original reservoir fluids
Free gas
Conate water
Oil
Gravitational forces
A. Original Condition
Oil
producing
wells
d
te n
a
r io
b e l ut s
i
L so a
g
B. 50% Depleted
01/04/16
64
Secondary
gas cap
s
ve e
o
r
s m ctu
a
G tru
s
up
01/04/16
65
Reservoir Behavior
Characteristics
Initial reservoir
pressure
Bubblepoint
pressure
0
01/04/16
15
Oil recovery,
% of OOIP
Mai Cao Ln Faculty of Geology & Petroleum Engineering - HCMUT
10
66
01/04/16
Gas cap
Oil
zone
67
Oil
Zone
Water
Water
Cross Section
01/04/16
68
Oil
Zone
Water
Cross Section
01/04/16
69
Point C
Oil
Point B
Oil
Point A
01/04/16
70
Oil zone
Water
Cross Section
01/04/16
71
Water drive
Reservoir pressure,
Percent of original
80
60
Gas-cap drive
40
20
Solution
-gas drive
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place
01/04/16
72
Exercise 4
1. How can we identify different reservoir drive
mechanisms?
2. Rank in descending order typical reservoir drive
mechanisms in terms of efficiency
3. How does knowledge about reservoir drive
mechanisms help us in designing an oil field
development plan?
01/04/16
73
Exam 1
1. Based on the phase diagrams of volatile oil
and retrograde gas, describe some
characteristic properties of these two
reservoir fluids.
2. List some limitations of Standing-Katz chart.
Describe the common approach in extending
the application of the chart
01/04/16
74
Exam 1
3. Describe in DETAILS the computation
procedure of Dranchuk & Abu-Kassem method
in computing Z.
4. Hall-Yaborough propose a method to calculate
Z as follows
Z
01/04/16
0.06125 p pr
YTpr
1
1.2 1
Tpr
exp
75
Exam 1
where
X1
Y Y 2 Y3 Y 4
1 Y
X 1 0.06125
p pr
Tpr
X 3Y X 4 X 2Y 2
exp 1.2
1
1
X 2 14.76
9.76
Tpr
Tpr
1
X 3 90.7
242.2
Tpr
Tpr
1
X 4 2.18 2.82
T
pr
01/04/16
1
1 ;
Tpr
2
1
4.58
Tpr
1
42.4
Tpr
76
Exam 1
Calculate Z at p=3000 psia and T=180oF with the PVT data as follows
Component
01/04/16
yi
Mi
Tci,R
pci
CO2
0.02
44.01
547.91
1071
N2
0.01
28.01
227.49
493.1
C1
0.85
16.04
343.33
666.4
C2
0.04
30.1
549.92
706.5
C3
0.03
44.1
666.06
616.4
i - C4
0.03
58.1
734.46
527.9
n - C4
0.02
58.1
765.62
550.6
77
Material Balance
Equation (MBE)
An Overview of MBE
Generalized Material Balance Equation
MBE for Typical Oil and Gas Reservoirs
Applications of MBE
01/04/16
78
An Overview of MBE
First developed by Schilthuis in 1936, MBE is
considered to be a tool for:
estimating initial hydrocarbon in place
predicting future reservoir performance
predicting ultimate reservoir recovery under
certain type of driving mechanisms
01/04/16
79
Fundamentals of MBE
MBE is derived using the following assumptions:
Reservoir
Bulk
Volume of
Pore
Rock Matrix
Volume
Constant
Volume
The pore volume is fully occuppied by existing fluid components (oil, gas, water)
01/04/16
80
01/04/16
81
Tank Model
INITIAL GAS-CAP GAS
INITIAL OIL
REMAINING OIL
INJECTED WATER
NET WATER INFLUX
01/04/16
CONATE WATER
EXPANDING CONATE
WATER
ROCK (MATRIX)
EXPANDING ROCK
MATRIX
Initial Condition
Current Condition
82
Derivation of GMBE
Volume of
Initial Gas Cap
Volume of
Initial Oil
Volume of
Conate Water
Volume of
Rock Matrix
01/04/16
Volume of
Injected Gas
Volume of
Injected
Water
Volume of
Expanding
Conate Water
Volume of
Injected
Water
83
Acronyms in GMBE
01/04/16
84
Bt Bo ( Rsi Rs ) Bg
Bti Boi
01/04/16
85
Exercise 5
1. Derive the equation for the pore volume of the
reservoir
2. Derive the equations for water and rock matrix
expansions
3. Derive the equation for the initial gas in the
reservoir
4. Derive the equation for the remaining free gas in
the reservoir
01/04/16
86
Fluid Flows in
Reservoirs
Properties of Reservoir Fluids in Motion
Flow Regimes
Flow Geometry
Fluid Flow Equations
01/04/16
87
Properties of Reservoir
Fluids Criteria: Isothermal Compressibility
Classification
1 v
c .
v P
1
c .
P
or
Reservoir Fluids
Incompressible Fluids
Slightly Compressible
Fluids
Compressible Fluids
01/04/16
88
Incompressible Fluids
0;
0 cl 0
p
p
01/04/16
89
Slightly Compressible
Fluids
Small changes in volume or density with
changes in pressure
p
1 V
c
c
p
V p
pref
c pref p
V Vref
Vref
n
x2
x3
x
1 x
...
2 3
n
For small x, x 1 x
x
V Vref 1 cpref p
ref 1 cpref p
01/04/16
90
Slightly Compressible
Fluids
Blo
1
Bl
o
1 cl ( p p ) 1 cl ( p psc ) cTl (T Tsc )
01/04/16
91
Compressible Fluids
A compressible fluid has compressibility ranging
from 1.E-3 to 1.E-4
1 1 z
cg
p z p
pM
g
zRT
gsc
psc
z
Bg
T
c g cTsc p
01/04/16
92
Volume-Pressure
Relationship
V
p
Incompressible
V Vref 1 c pref p
1 V
c
V p
Slightly
Compressible
Compressible
01/04/16
93
Density-Pressure
Relationship
1
c
p
Compressible
ref 1 cpref p
Slightly
Compressible
Incompressible
01/04/16
94
Flow Regimes
Classification Criteria: Changes in pressure with time
Flow Regimes
Steady-State
Flow
Pseudosteady-State
Flow
Unsteady-State
Flow
01/04/16
95
Steady-State Flows
p
t
01/04/16
96
Unsteady-State Flows
p
t
01/04/16
fx, t
97
Pseudo-Steady Flows
p
t
01/04/16
constant
98
p
t
0
p
t
Steady-State
constant
p
t
PseudosteadyState
fx, t
Unsteady-State
01/04/16
99
Flow Geometry
The shape and boundaries of a reservoir has a
significant effect on its flow geometry.
Flow
Geometry
Radial Flow
Linear Flow
Hemispherical Flow
Spherical Flow
01/04/16
100
Radial Flow
Fluids move toward the well from all directions
01/04/16
101
Linear Flow
Flow paths are parallel and the fluid flows in a
single direction
01/04/16
102
Spherical Flow
A well with a limited perforated interval could
result in spherical flow in the vicinity of the
perforations
01/04/16
103
Hemispherical Flow
A well which only partially penetrates the pay
zone coud result in hemispherical flow
Wellbore
Side view
Flow lines
01/04/16
104
01/04/16
105
Darcy Law
Velocity of a homogeneous fluid in a porous medium
is proportional to the pressure gradient, and inversely
proportinoal to the fluid viscosity.
For a radial flow system, Darcys transport equation is
given by
q
k p
v
Ar
r
01/04/16
106
107
0.001127
Ar
2
r h
p
qref re r
p
0.001127
2 kh rw r
pref 1 cpref p
0.00708 kh
qref
c lnre rw
1 c pe pref
ln
1 c pwf pref
0.00708
kh
Q0
ln 1 cope pwf
o
Bo
co
lnre rw
01/04/16
108
0.0011272 r h k dp
qgr
g
dr
Qg
qgr
; Bg
psc
ZT
5.615 Tsc p
bbl scf
Bg
TQg dr
2
p
0.703
dp
kh r
g
Z
TQg
kh
ln
r
rw
TQg
rw
kh
p
r
0.703
0.703 w
0.703
khw
Qg
T lnr rw
01/04/16
m p
pwf
2
p
P
g
Z
2 p
P
g Z
109
Exercise 6
The PVT data from a gas well in the Anaconda Gas
Field is given below:
p (psi)
mu (cp)
0.0
0.01270
1.000
400.0
0.01286
0.937
800.0
0.01390
0.882
1200.0
0.01530
0.832
1600.0
0.01680
0.794
2000.0
0.01840
0.770
2400.0
0.02010
0.763
2800.0
0.02170
0.775
3200.0
0.02340
0.797
3600.0
0.02500
0.827
4000.0
0.02660
0.860
4400.0
0.02831
0.896
01/04/16
110
Numerical Integration
Trapezoidal Method
01/04/16
111
r
r
p
r
ct
p
t
01/04/16
112
Constant-Termial-Rate
Solution
qB 948ct r
p pi 70.6
Ei
kh
kt
01/04/16
113
Exponential Integral
e
Ei ( x)
du
u
x
01/04/16
114
Approximation of Ei
Function
x 0.01
Ei ( x) ln(1.781x)
0.01 x 3.0
Ei ( x) a1 a2 ln( x ) a3 [ln( x )]2 a4 [ln( x )]3 a5 x a6 x 2 a7 x 3
a8
x
a1 0.33153973
a2 0.81512322
a3 5.22123384 10 2
a4 5.9849819 10 3
a5 0.662318450
a6 0.12333524
a7 1.0832566 10 2
a8 8.6709776 10 4
01/04/16
115
Exercise 7
An oil well is producing at a constant flow rate of 300 STB/day under unsteadystate flow conditions. The reservoir has the following rock and fluid properties
Bo=1.25 bbl/STB, =1.5cp, ct=12 x 10-6 psi-1
ko=60 md, h=15 ft, pi=4000 psi,
2.Repeat question 1 for t=12 hours and 24 hours. Plot the results as pressure
versus logarithm of radius
01/04/16
116
Part III
Data Analysis Methods In
Reservoir Engineering
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PVT Analysis
The objective of PVT Analysis is to
estimate essential properties and
predict behaviors of reservoir fluids
during production
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SAMPLING
SAMPLING
Surface
Separator
Wellhead
Subsurface
Open hole
Case hole
BLACKOIL
OIL
BLACK
GASCONDENSATE
CONDENSATE
GAS
SPECIALSTUDY
STUDY
SPECIAL
Quality check
Quality check
Quality check
Compositional
analysis
Compositional
analysis
Constant
Composition
Expansion
Constant
composition
expansion
Effect of Injection
Gas on Fluid
Properties
Differential
Vaporisation Test
Constant Volume
Depletion
Effect of Injection
Chemical on Fluid
Properties
Viscosity Test
Separator Test
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Oil Viscosity
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Oil Density
Above Pb, the oil density
decreases. Why?
Below Pb, the oil density
increase. Why?
The reduction of mass is
minimal compare to oil
volume decrease
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Exercise 5
1. Explain why above the bubble point pressure (Pb), Bo
increases as pressure decreases whereas below Pb, Bo
decreases as pressure decreases.
2. Explain why above Pb, the oil density decreases as
pressure decreases whereas below Pb, it increases as
pressure decreases.
3. Explain why above Pb, Rs is constant whereas below Pb, it
decreases as pressure decreases.
130
Wellbore Storage
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Skin Factor
2000
Pressure, psi
s = -2
1500
s = +5
1000
s=0
500
1
10
100
1000
Distance from center of wellbore, ft
10000
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Types of Test
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Types of Test
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Type of Test
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Interference Test
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Diffusivity Equation
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Dimensionless Variable
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Constant-Terminal-Rate
Solution
qB 948ct r
p pi 70.6
Ei
kh
kt
pwf
qB
pi 162.6
kh
log
y mx b
kt
3.23 0.87 s
2
ct rw
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Exercise 6
1. Use three verbs to describe primary activities
in well tests.
2. Explain why we care about the wellbore
storage and skin factor.
3. Explain why well test analysis techniques
based on pressure-derivative give more
reliable information than classic methods.
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Ei-Function Solution
qB 948ct r
p pi 70.6
Ei
kh
kt
Pressure, psi
s = -2
1500
s = +5
1000
s=0
500
1
10
100
1000
Distance from center of wellbore, ft
10000
pwf
qB
pi 162.6
kh
log
y mx b
kt
3.23 0.87 s
2
ct rw
162.6qB
k
mh
p p
k
1hr log
s 1.151 i
3.23
10
2
m
c
r
t w
Problems with
Drawdown
Tests
It is difficult to produce a well at a strictly
constant rate
Even small variations in rate distort the
pressure response
There is one rate that is easy to maintain A
tp
qB
k
3.23 0.869 s
pi 162.6
log10 t p t log10
2
kh
c trw
qB
k
3.23 0.869 s
162.6
log10 t log10
2
kh
c trw
p ws
t p t
qB
pi 162.6
log10
kh
t
y = mx + b
tp t
t
Pressure, psi
1900
pi
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
10000
1000
100
10
k
s 1.151
log10
2
m
c trw
3.23
NON-TECHNICAL TRAINING
COURSE FOR PEARL OIL
The End
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