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I
-
f. #'-
INGERSOLL-FiAND
'
C O N S T B U C T J P N E Q U I P M E tir
PREFACE
In to d a y s construction industry C om paction plays a more
important role than it ever has before. During the past years,
industry has learned a great deal about the im portance and
effects o f C om paction. As insignificant as it may seem, this one
phase o f construction represents the very foundation o f the
construction industry. T od a y s projects around the globe d e
mand effective densification o f soils to support greater loads for
new highways, airports, dam and building foundations. M odern
tech n ology has answered the call with the introduction o f
vibratory com paction which has proved to be the most effective
m ethod and to o l fo r soil densification.
This text has been prepared to acquaint y o u with a working
knowledge o f soil reactions and the application o f com paction
equipment. The text presented herein concerns the basic co n
cepts relating to the requirements o f soil densification, but also
should alert y ou to the numerous factors involved in soil
com paction.
Ingersoll-Rand Company
Compaction Division
Ingersoll Drive
Shippensburg, PA 17257 U.S.A.
INGERSOLL-RAND
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
2
Figure I-l
CHAPTER I
From the beginning herds o f cattle and flocks o f sheep were
used effectively as a m ethod o f soil com paction. The times
yielded to the m ethods which were available in preparation o f
earth fill to make way for primitive roadways.
Horse and oxen-drawn rollers for road building were con
structed by approxim ately the 18th century. Steam rollers were
constructed in France in the middle o f the 19th century. The
sm ooth steel wheel roller emerged, driven b y steam pow er
which proved impractical.
Figure 1-2
The United States was the pioneer in the developm ent o f soil
com paction engineering. The first sheepsfoot rollers, which
were designed for use in earth dam construction, were devel
oped in California in the years 1904 to 1906. A t that time, it
was still customary to move earth masses by means o f carts or
similar vehicles drawn b y horses and mules. Therefore, the first
sheepsfoot rollers were likewise horse or mule-drawn.
In the field o f road construction it was found at an early stage
that pavements laid on non-com pacted highway embarkments
were damaged in a short time and becam e uneven because o f
soil settlements. For this reason, road construction has becom e
and continues to be the greatest field o f application o f soil
com paction engineering.
The principles and m ethods o f soil com paction evolved in the
United States have also been widely applied in other countries.
The organizations in the United States had to deal with th eo
retical and practical studies o f soil com paction problems with
the various road authorities, such as the Federal Bureau o f
Public Roads and the Highway Department o f the individual
states. M oreover, such studies were also made by the Corps o f
Engineers, which is charged with dam construction, flo o d regu
lation, military airfield construction, etc., and by the Bureau o f
Reclam ation, which is a federal government organization deal
ing with irrigation projects, that has built many o f the largest
dams in the United States.
V ibratory com paction o f soils began to com e into use in Ger
many in the early 1 9 3 0 s in connection with the construction o f
the m otorw ay system. The first types o f vibratory com pactors
were the self-propelled 1.5 ton base plate type com pactor and
the caterpillar type com pactor, weighing about 25 tons, which
was manufactured by the Losenhausenwerk. The first selfpropelled and tractor tow ed vibrating rollers were constructed
in the 1 9 4 0 s (Fig. 1-3).
CHAPTER II
MATERIALS
SOIL TYPES
Steel, concrete and w o o d are easy construction materials with
which to w ork because they are o f hom ogeneous, uniform
com position. As such, their behavior can be predicted. Soil is
just the opposite. In its natural state, soil is rarely uniform and
can only be studied and w orked b y comparing it to a similar
type with which previous experience has been gained. To ac
com plish this, soil types first must be classified.
R o ck was form ed b y three different means. Igneous rocks
solidified from m olten masses; sedimentary rocks form ed in
layers settling ou t o f water solutions; and m etam orphic rocks
were transformed from material o f the first tw o by heat and
pressure. Time, chemistry, and weather have attacked these
rocks and have w orn much o f their surfaces dow n into soft
seas o f minute particles the soil. These have been well
m ixed by glaciers, wind, water, gravity, and man. Decaying
plant and animal matter have further com plicated the soil
picture by contributing organic material to the mixture.
The embankment builder is on ly concerned with five basic soil
types: gravel, sand, silt, clay and organic matter.
G R A V E L is any rock-like material dow n to 1 /8 inch in particle
diameter. But the larger particles are called stones, and those
single particles larger than 10 inches are boulders.
SAND has mineral grains below 1 /8 inch dow n to 0.002 inches.
It could be coarse or fine sand, but it feels grainy and its
strength is not affected by wetting. In general, it is called
SOIL M IX IN G
Mixing soils at the borrow or on the jo b is closely allied with
moisture. It is the key step that makes subsequent operations
easy or difficult. Best results com e not from soil o f any one
predominant type, but from g ood sensible mixtures o f tw o or
more classifications o f soils if they are readily available. Here
the contractor and the engineer can w ork closely together in a
cooperative effort to develop a superior end product.
In a coarse grained sand, for exam ple, fine grain sand should be
added to im prove the density since the smaller grains will
distribute themselves am ong the spaces between the larger
grains and thereby reduce the am ount o f voids. If possible, clay
should be added as binder.
In every clayey material, granular soil should be added to
provide internal friction, prevent slides, and make possible a
better choice o f com paction equipm ent. Gravel and stones bear
up well, although they d o not com pact well, are unstable, and
may damage some com pacting equipm ent. In general, plastic
materials are m ore workable but have less bearing capacity
while granular materials lend stability due to internal friction
and g o o d strength.
If the soils to be m ixed appear together in the same borrow pit
in different layers, they often can be handled econom ically b y
shovel or belt loader. The machines, working against a mixed
face, mingle the different materials directly as they dig and load
them into the hauling units.
10
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SOIL PROPERTIES
The follow ing terms refer to properties and characteristics o f
various soil materials. To understand com paction techniques,
one must he acquainted with the various terms em ployed in the
industry. Once the basic terms are understood, selection o f the
correct com paction to ol can be made easier.
SHEAR RESISTANCE
12
m ovem ent will be dependent upon the applied force, the inter
nal friction between the soil particles and the cohesion o f the
material. Therefore, one should be able to recognize material o f
a high shear resistance and a low shear resistance. A loosely
graded non-plastic granular material, easily com pactable, could
be classified as having low shear resistance. On the other hand, a
clay material which is very elastic and difficult to com pact
could be classified as having high shear resistance. Case in
p oin t:the more force required to shear the soil material from
adjoining soil particles the higher will be the shear resistance.
ELA S TICITY
Figure II-3
voids within the material are decreased and take on less volum e.
As a result, the soil particles b ecom e forced together more
closely and remain together after the downward force has been
rem oved. In some cases a measurement o f soil density is
possible by equating the soils compression to the given load.
C A P IL L A R Y ACTIO N
produce the capillary action in the voids o f the soil mass. The
water between the particles form s an elastic bond. The capillary
forces acting between the soil particles can be overcom e by
applying com pression and shear forces.
P ER M E A B ILITY
14
15
16
Figure III-l
CHAPTER III
SOIL TESTING
Testing is an important factor o f determining whether or not
com paction is, in a given soil, being achieved. The soil specifi
cations outline the best com binations o f achieving a given
density for the various soils utilized in construction operations.
There is no advantage if specifications and testing is by-passed,
needless com pactive effort may be the result.
The soil specifications pave the way to the various soil com b i
nations and moisture content to arrive at the maximum density
for a given soil. There are several ways o f testing for soil density
which were originally developed back in 1933 by R. R. Proctor.
It was he w ho established the relationship between the soil
material to be com pacted and its maximum density which
related to a condition called optim um moisture content. A soil
is not a solid mass; it contains particles o f water and air between
the soil particles. Excessive water does not allow the material to
bon d; insufficient water does not allow the particles to slide
together with the least resistance. Therefore, both excessive
water and insufficient water will produce unsatisfactory results.
OPTIMUM MOISTURE
The optim um moisture for a given soil is established in the
laboratory. This is the am ount o f water required for a given soil
to reach maximum density. The correct amount o f water is
necessary in order for the soil particles to slide together into
their form ation with the least resistance. A series o f soil samples
are com pacted at different moisture contents and plotted on a
graph as shown (See Page. 18).
17
18
Figure III-2
PROCTOR TEST
A standard proctor soil test is
conducted as follow s:
A soil sample is taken
from the job location and
placed in a container
equal to 1 /3 0 cubic fo o t.
A 5-1/2 pound weight
with a striking face o f 3.1
square inch is dropped 12
inches fo r 25 blow s on
each o f the three equal
layers. The soil material is
then weighed, less the
m old, and recorded as wet
w eight/cubic ft.
The material is then oven
dried for 12 hours in order to
evaluate the water content.
19
5 LB
2 5 B low s Per
Layer
Soil Sample
So Cu. Ft.
3 Lay e rs
STANDARD
AASHO
Figure III-3
2 5 Blows Per
L aye r
Compaction Force
5 6 , 2 0 0 f t . lbs.
Soil Sample
30 Cu. Ft.
5 Layers
MODIFIED
AASHO
Figure III-4
20
O rW
F IE L D TESTS
,b
7S SV
ft .
_ Federal Project Ni
sec. 3
JjELl
Dry Weight
Loss Weight
Sf>7
6/1
<&/
________ / 7 -3/
B. Wgt. control sand, jar and cone --------C. Wgt. control sand, jar and cone after u
D. Wgt. sand to f ill hole and cone ---------
+ Z3
Volume o f Hole
i.t
' X 100
(M)
(Sw)
Wet Density
' / f t . 3)
Dry Density
( / f t . 3)
Density ( * / f t . 3 )
(%)
y -.b s
/ . 5T
n o 3
m . o
137-0
1173
n + n
3>z
bSi
H tl
b - s
D(y =
v in n
* '
F ield 7
ZS-hO
. S i
// 02.
/? O
Z S te Z z -.9 o
. / + L
II. OS _ u 02.
.
/ L .S
I3S. O 131. O
/2 S / l / l o
m o
r 12.01 t t + b
US-3
*2.
3Z
esz
<eS2.
fe il
+ to
vu
9S
75F
7 -oS
2 S. S g
/.5'1
// f
/S-
/3 6 S
12*0
LZ- / /
2-$3
7/0
A j,
Method A
Method B
4 mold. Material coarser th an3 /4 " shall be replaced by on equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the
4.
6 " mold. Material coarser than 3 /4" shall be replaced by an equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the # 4.
5 equal layers, 56 blows per layer.
ASTM DESIGNATION D-1557-Run all tests with 10 lb. hammer dropped 18"
Method A
Method B
Method C
4 " mold. Material coarser then 3 /4 " shall be replaced by an equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the 4.
5 equal layers, 25 blows per layer.
6 * mold. Material coarser than 3 /4 " shall be replaced by an equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the 4.
5 equal layers, 56 blows per layer.
Method D
S' ^
Method C
Lob. ^
D .n .ity , . / , , 3 ,
PROCTOR DENSITY:
37-/5 6-7
z + .Z 7
i+ .S Z
/OZI
1*1-2.
13.?
1/7/
11 V-S5
2.3
b 52.
ASTM DESIGNATION
Moisture Content
F i. u
- %Compaction
Proctor Density
Note:
OPTIMUM MOISTURE:
34 W o = /2 3 *
(Volume of Hole)
I. Field Density
I.k (o S ' %
* 4 " mold = 1/30 cu. ft. (0.0333) - 6 " mold = 1/13.33 cu. ft. (0.075)
21
22
Figure III-6
23
C o u r t e s y o f C a m p b e ll P a c ific N u c le a r C o r p .
Figure III- 7
24
Figure III-8
25
NUCLEAR DENSITY/MOISTURE
FIELD TEST DATA
SECTION _
3B
OPERATOR _
DATE __
TEST NO. .
6A
MODEL NO. .
TYPE MATERIAL
OPTIMUM MOISTURE .
JO/
ROUTE _
FREQUENCY RANGE
STANDARD COUNT
DENSITY
2.
3.
4.
5.
Total
Avg.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Total
Avg.
TEST NUMBER
/76 +37
OFFSET
2 .'
ELEVATION
2.
o ff
DENSITY
COUNT RATIO
WET
DENSITY PCF
MOISTURE COUNT
MOISTURE
3.
/X*
6 "
*/
& 0
177
/ f/7
257
127.00 /3/ So /25.00
6 77
/29oo
635
7S
/ W
COUNT RATIO
*37
MOISTURE PCF
S-5e>
DRY DENSITY
120. So
% MOISTURE
II. (o
% MAXIMUM
DENSITY
5.
/76+45
DEPTH
DENSITY COUNT
"Rolled w/th
/Zoo VPrt x - x
S P -S M
99/5??s/
9674
79Z4
9706,
*9230
9W 6
1.
STATION
OPERATING FREQUENCY
REMARKS
MOISTURE
27/33
27 OOO
2b?4l
27//Z
2.6 963
/3S/55
2.703/
SP- 54.
MAXIMUM DENSITY J
COMPACTOR NAME
1.
JS.
I-n
97. z
/ 0. o
V .7
26
6.
VISUA L TESTS
It is n ot always possible to have accurate test data available,
therefore, one should have som e idea o f what to look for. From
previous experience we know that to o little moisture can have
as unsatisfactory results as t o o much moisture. Also, in the
classification o f soils, it is beneficial to recognize the soil type
so we may proceed with the proper selection o f com paction
equipment.
A simple m ethod most often em ployed in the industry is to
pack a soil sample by hand into the shape and size o f a g olf ball.
After the shape is achieved, placed the ball between the index
finger and thumb.
27
Figure HI-9
Figure III-l 0
Figure III-l 1
29
COMPACTION METHODS
Knowing what types o f soil are to be com pacted are useful to
determine what piece o f equipm ent should be selected to d o the
jo b . The Soil-Selection Guide may be used for making rough
field checks w ithout any apparatus, but should not eliminate
the standard tests for positive confirm ation.
SOIL SELECTION GUID E
G R A N U L A R SOILS,
FINE SANDS, SILTS
PLASTIC (COHESIVE)
SOILS, CLAYS
G rains ca n n o t be seen
b y naked eye. Feels
s m o o th
and
g re a s y
w h e n rubbed be tw een
fing ers.
M o vem en t o f w a te r in
the spaces.
P la s tic ity w h e n m o is t.
V e ry little o r no plas
tic ity .
C ohesion in d ry state.
L ittle or no cohesive
stre n g th in d ry state.
W ill c ru m b le and fla k e
re a d ily .
Has
a
high
d rie d
s tre n g th .
C rum bles
w ith
d if f ic u lt y
and
fla ke s s lo w ly in w a te r.
S e ttle m e n t
W HA T TO LOOK FOR
in
w a te r.
30
CHAPTER IV
COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
C om paction equipm ent does its jo b in any one o f four principal
ways, or com binations o f them :
1.
Static weight
2.
Kneading action
3.
Impact
4.
Vibration
Figure IV-1
31
32
Pneumatic-Tired Rollers
Pneumatic-tired rollers are also surface rollers, but in addition
they apply the principle o f kneading action. They are either
self-propelled or tow ed and are o f tw o typesthose with small
tires and those with large tires.
Figure IV-3
33
Figure IV-4
34
SHEEPSFOOT ROLLERS
For cohesive materials (clays and silty clays), sheepsfoot or
pa d foot rollers are used. The typical sheepsfoot roller can be
self-propelled or tow ed , and com pacts with a kneading action
on the soil. These units generally range in weight from 2 tons to
20 tons and vary in coverage width normally between 30 and
100 inches. The feet or pads can be o f various shapes and are
norm ally less than 10 inches in length.
The sheepsfoot com pactor is usually most effective on lifts
between 10 and 12 inches in com pacted thickness, and operated
35
on the theory that the feet will com pact the lower layers o f the
soil first and w ork toward the surface in successive passes until,
when com pletely com pacted, the soil will yield no further and
the roller will walk o u t o f the lift. Because the feet penetrate
the lift and com pact within it, they affect the soil particles in all
directions. It is not necessary that the roller drum tou ch the
surface, since the total load is transmitted to the soil b y the feet
in small areas at high concentrations.
Figure IV -5
In som e cases sheepsfoot rollers will bridge over the soil at the
outset, but this bridging stops after several passes. They do
expose more soil surface to the air for evaporation o f moisture,
causing crusting. Their penetrating feet pulverize lumps in the
soil. They w ork well by causing lateral particle movement
beneath the surface, thus blending coarse and fine materials
m ore thoroughly. On the other hand, sheepsfoot rollers should
not be used in graded aggregate or stone bases since there they
will cause segregation.
IMPACT COMPACTORS
When a com paction unit has very low frequency and a very high
amplitude it is classed as an impact com pactor even though it
does have a som ewhat vibrating effect. Generally, these are
hand held tampers or rammers and are used in small areas or
confined spaces.
36
Figure IV-6
A lso available are rammers with a self-contained gasoline engine
that makes the entire unit jum p up and dow n. Guided by an
operator, a 125-lb. machine can deliver an 1150-lb. blow to the
ground surface.
V IB R A TO R Y COMPACTORS
A vibratory com pactor functions by producing a dynam ic force
into the ground with a series o f rapid impacts. Soil particles
tend to stack by nesting in void spaces between other grains.
When shaken or vibrated, the soil grains will shift themselves
into the tightest arrangement. If the particles are dry, friction
may impede their flow or shifting. If the material is to o wet,
water will take up the voids since water is n ot compressible. The
correct am ount o f water will lubricate the m ovem ent o f the soil
with least resistance into maximum density. This is known as
optim um moisture point. Maximum density at optim um m ois
ture can be achieved by all the previously mentioned com
37
Figure IV- 7
38
Figure IV-8
39
Figure IV -9
40
Figure IV -1 0
41
CHAPTER V
FUNDAM ENTALS OF V IB R A TO R Y COMPACTION
The follow in g are basic fundamentals o f vibratory com paction
equipm ent. In the pages that fo llo w we attem pt to give simple
explanations o f som e o f the concepts and term inology co m
m only encountered in the field o f vibratory com paction. This
material is geared and only intended to furnish basic familiarity
with this type equipment.
Soil com paction, through vibration, is accom plished b y :
(A ) The movement o f soil particles reducing the internal
friction and repositioning to produce the maximum
density or least am ount o f air voids.
Figure V -l
43
44
Figure V-3
out the proper drum frame weight to keep the drum pressed
against the soil during vibration. As the eccentric shaft rotates,
the centrifugal force generated is directed in a 360 force
pattern.
Figure V-4
46
47
Figure V-6
48
SOIL REACTIONS
Vibratory rollers operate with a rapid succession o f impacts
against the soil. These impacts are generated by the rotating
eccentric to produce forces and pressures w hich transmit into
the soil. Each load cycle generates a stress wave which decreases
intensity as it travels further from the vibrating drum. Each
wave characteristics is dependent upon the properties o f the
soil. Various soils will react differently when subjected to vi
bration. The purpose o f vibration is to set the soil particles into
a state o f m otion almost as a fluid. The soil is broken dow n and
subjected to shear between the particles as the material is
gradually rearranged during com paction. Soil particles in
m otion slide against each other and eventually settle out,
Figure V-7
49
Figure V-8
60 min
1 hour
50
.
,
imPacts per foot
G R O U N D FORCE
I f we wish to determine ground force exerted from the vibrating
drum our applied drum force m ust be divided over the length of
the drum.
Example: A n SP-56 has a drum applied force o f 53,800 lbs.
(24,404 kgs.) acting on the soil, the drum width is 84 inches
(2134 mm).
Ground Force =
Ground Force
SUMMARY
In field applications it is difficult to determine the actual forces
being generated into the ground. Many figures are published on
centrifugal and dynam ic forces em ployed by various com
pactors, these values are no assurance o f the forces dealt into
the soil. Many factors can alter the effect o f com paction in the
soil. The frame weight is responsible for holding the drum
against the soil, if the frame is too light the energy by the
eccentric shaft will be dissipated upward, if the frame is too
heavy the amplitude may be considerably effected. The drum
construction can also effect com paction, the drum shell must
not be allowed to flex under load, otherwise a degree o f energy
will be absorbed b y drum deflection. Therefore frequency,
amplitude, frame weight and drum construction all tend to
influence the com pactive effort. The amount o f time or impact
per unit distance is governed by the travel speed o f the co m
pactor. The travel speed and number o f passes influence the
am ount o f production as illustrated in Chapter VI. Our o b
jective is to establish the maximum travel speed with the fewest
passes to achieve a required density.
51
CHAPTER VI
P R O D U C TIV ITY
With any com paction device it is very important to be able to
measure the expected amount o f material able to be com pacted
during a specified period o f time. Because o f unknown factors
o f the soil material, this production rate cannot always be
accurately predetermined, but by making certain assumptions,
one can arrive at a reasonably close estimate o f com paction
output. Following is a simple form ula for determining pro
duction.
p _ D
T x L
P
where P
D
T
L
C
P
=
=
=
=
=
=
When working with the foot-pou n ds system, the follow ing units
o f measure would apply. Drum width would be expressed in
inches, com paction unit travel speed in miles per hour, lift
thickness in inches, and the conversion factor required to make
the sum o f inches multiplied by miles per hour multiplied by
inches equal to cubic yards per hour would be 1.36.
W hen w orking in metric units (the meter-kilogram system ), dif
ferent units o f measure are required. Drum width is expressed in
millimeters, travel speed in kilometers per hour, lift thickness in
centimeters, and the conversion factor is 0.01.
L ets now examine one specific example for each system. First,
we are using an SP-56 operating at a speed o f three miles per hour
and com pacting a fourteen inch thick lift (com pacted thickness)
in three passes. W hat is our production rate?
,
_______ . D X T X L X C
Production Rate ( P.R. ) = -----------------D
T
L
C
P
=
=
=
=
=
drum width
84 inches
travel speed
= 3 miles per hour
lift thickness
= 1 4 inches
conversion factor =
1.36
passes
= 3
= 1599com pacted
cubic yards per
hour.
= drum width
= 2134 centimeters
= travel speed
= 5 kilometers per hour
= lift thickness
= 20 centimeters
= conversion factor = 0 .0 1
= passes
= 2
P.R. = (2134)X (5)X (20)X (0.01)= ^
com pacted
cubic meters per
hour
54
APPLICATION DATA
T o intelligently approach and select proper com paction equip
ment, one must recognize several factors; the type o f soil being
com pacted, the moisture con ten t and equipment selection.
Various soils require different types o f com paction equipm ent
to satisfy the soil system. T o aid in the selection o f equipm ent,
refer to the C om paction Selection Chart (Fig. V I-1), Unified
Soil Classification (Fig. II -l) and Machine Specifications (Fig.
V I-2). The C om paction Selection Chart will assist in a
basic selection. The Soil Classification Chart will further define
the com position o f the soils you will encounter under standard
classifications. Machine Specifications will furnish inform ation
as to approximate machine production and soil application in
conjunction with the Unified Soil Classification System. Bear in
mind, this inform ation is on ly a guide; fluctuations in a soil
system or other variables may require altering a selection.
Let us take a hypothetical case:
A project requires com paction o f a silty gravel and sand
material in 12-14 inch lifts and production o f approxi
mately 10,000 cubic yards per 8 hour day. Referring to the
C om paction Selection Chart under Sand-Silt-Gravel we find
several machines capable o f this com paction requirement.
The determining factor will be the amount o f production
required.
L ets go a step further and refer to the Unified Soil Classifi
cation Chartthe silty, gravel and sand mixture is described
under Secondary and classified as a (GM ) material. Refer
to the machine specifications, observing the production
range. Our requirement is 1 0,0 0 0 /8 or 1250 cu/yds/hr.
The SP-56DD appears to meet production requirements and
soil classification as shown. Once we have selected the unit
we m ay further calculate our production rate for the job.
58
Production Rate ( P.R. ) = 1359 com pacted cubic yards per hour
L ets assume an eight hour day:
1359 cu. y d /h r.X 8 hr. = 10,872 cubic yards per day
Therefore, we can clearly see that we are able to meet ( and even
exceed) the required production rate with the SP-56DD. L e ts go
one step further and com pute the cost to operate the SP-56DD.
OPERATING COST
Operating cost is an indirect fixed cost which includes the
expenditures for repairs and maintenance, the costs for fuels
and lubricants, and the expense for an equipm ent operator. The
follow ing assumption are made.
1.
2.
59
3.
4.
60
SUMMARY
61
APPENDIX
CUBIC MEASURE
1
1
1
1
Cubic
Cubic
Cubic
Cubic
MEASURES OF LENGTH
1 Mile =
1,760 yds. = 5,280 ft. = 1.609 Kilometers
1 Yard =
3 ft. = 36 inches = .9144 meters
1 Foot =
12 inches = .3048 meters = 304.8 millimeters
1 Inch =
2.54 centimeters = 25.4 millimeters
1 Kilometer = .6214 miles
1 Meter =
3.2808 feet = 1.093 yards = 39.37 inches
1 Centimeter = .3937 inches
1 Millimeter = .03937 inches
SQUARE MEASURE
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Square
Square
Square
Square
Square
Square
Square
LIQUID MEASURE
1 U.S. Gallon
63
MEASURE OF W EIGHT
IT o n (short) =
1 T on (long) =
1 Metric T on =
1 Pound =
2000 lb.
2240 lb.
.9842 Ton (long) = 2204.6 lbs.
16 ounces=.4536 kg.
GRADE CHART
Percent
Degrees
Percent
Degrees
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
2
5
8
11
14
16
19
21
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
24
26
28
30
33
35
36
38
52
43
32
19
2
42
17
48
14
34
49
58
1
52
40
b_
Percent grade is c or the amount o f vertical rise relative to
horizontal distance travelled expressed in terms o f percent.
_b
The angle o f the grade in degrees is tan B = c or equivalent to the
tangent trigonom etric function of the product o f the adjacent side
and the base o f the triangle.
64
D EFIN ITIO N S
AASH O
Adhesion
A ggregate
Am plitude
Applied
Drum Force
A ST M
Basalt
Base
Binder
Caliche
Capillarity
Centrifugal
Force
C IM A
the
65
In d u stry
M anufacturers
r-
Clay
Cohesion
Com paction
Compression
Consolidation
D ensity
D ouble
Am plitude
Dynam ic
Force
Elasticity
Expansion
Frequency
Gradeability
66
Granular
Gravel
Gum bo
Hardpan
Humus
O rg a n ic
m a teria l
fo rm e d
decom position o f vegetation.
Im pervious
Lift
Loam
Nominal
Am plitude
Non-Vibra ting
W eight
Operating
W eight
Optimum
Moisture
by
the
67
Pass
Permeability
Plasticity
Sand
Shearing
Resistance
Shrinkage
Silt
by
capillary
Sprung
W eight
Unsprung
W eight
Vibrating
W eight
68