Advance Hydrology

Hydrograph analysis

hydrograph
hydrograph

hydrograph

A hydrograph is a continuous
plot of instantaneous discharge
v/s time.

A hydrograph may be used to

show how the water flow in a

drainage

basin

(particularly

river runoff) responds to a period

of rain.

hydrograph
hydrograph

Watershed

Hydrograph

combination

results

of

from

physiographic

and meteorological conditions in

a watershed.
.

hydrograph
hydrograph

Hydrologic cycle

Hydrograph represents the

integrated

effects

of

climate, hydrologic losses,

surface runoff, interflow,

and ground water flow

hydrograph
hydrograph

Flood forecasting, mitigation,

Design of structures

Detailed analysis of
hydrographs

is

usually

important in
1. Flood damage mitigation,
2. Flood forecasting
3. Design
structures
floodwaters.

flows
that

for
convey

Hydrograph analysis
Hydrograph analysis
During the rainfall, hydrologic losses
such as infiltration, depression storage
and detention storage must be satisfied
prior to the onset of surface runoff
As the depth of surface detention
increases, overland flow may occur in
portion if a basin Water eventually
moves into small rivulets, small
channels and finally the main stream of
a watershed
Some of the water that infiltrates the
soil may move laterally through upper
soil zones (subsurface storm flow) until
it enters a stream channel

Hydrograph analysis

Hydrograph analysis
Hydrograph analysis
If the rainfall continues at a
constant intensity for a very long
period, storage is filled at some
point and then an equilibrium
discharge can be reached
In equilibrium discharge the
inflow and outflow are equal
The point P indicates the time at
which the entire discharge area
contributes to the flow
The condition of equilibrium
discharge is seldom observed in
nature, except for very small basins,
because of natural variations in
rainfall intensity and duration

Hydrograph analysis

Hydrograph analysis
Hydrograph analysis
The typical hydrograph is
characterized by a
1. Rising limb
2. Crest
3. Recession curve
The inflation point on the
falling limb
is often
assumed to be the point
where direct runoff ends

Hydrograph analysis

Hydrograph analysis
A flood hydrograph is a graph of two axis,
'discharge' and 'time' Plotted on the graph
is the amount of discharge over a period of
time.
There are many different factors that can
affect the appearance and shape of a
hydrograph. Certain conditions can cause
the line on the hydrograph to be tall and
thin and other conditions can cause it to be
short
and
wide.

Factors that influence the hydrograph shape and volume

Meteorological factors
Rainfall intensity and
pattern
Areal distribution or rainfall
over the basin and
Size and duration of the
storm event

Rainfall intensity and pattern

Factors that influence the hydrograph shape

and volume
Physiographic or watershed
factors
1.Size and shape of the drainage area
2.Slope of the land surface and main
channel
3.Channel morphology and drainage
type
4.Soil types and distribution
5.Storage detention in the watershed
The size, shape and relief of
the basin are important controls. Water
takes longer to reach the trunk stream
in a large, round basin than in does in a
small, narrow one.
Where gradients are steep,
water runs off faster, reaches the river
more quickly and causes a steep rising
limb. Prolonged heavy rain causes more
overland flow than light drizzly rain.

Shape and slope

Factors that influence the hydrograph

shape and volume
Human factors
1. vegetation
intercepts
precipitation and allows
evaporation to take place
directly into the atmosphere
so reducing the amount of
water available for overland
flow
2. large
number
of
impermeable surfaces in
urban areas encourages run
off into gutters and drains
carrying water quickly to
the nearest river.

vegetation

Hydrograph analysis

Hydrograph analysis
1. The ascending limb is the first part of
the line on a hydrograph that rises to the peak
discharge.
1. If the gradient is steep, then this can indicate
that the amount of rainfall becoming overland
flow is very high, the result of this is that all the
water reaches the river very quickly and all in a
short period of time, this gives the immediate
steep ascending limb on the hydrograph.

Hydrograph analysis
2. Peak discharge is the
describe the maximum amount
from the river over the period of
this peak discharge can be
depending on Climatic factors.

term used to
of discharge
time recorded;
high or low

Hydrograph analysis
3. The descending limb is the last part of the line
on a hydrograph, showing the discharge dropping with
time after the peak discharge. This line can also be
either steep or gentle.
1. If it is steep then it indicates that the river is very
efficient because it takes the excess water from the flood
away quickly and brings the river back to its base flow.
2. If the descending limb is gentle then it could mean the
river is less efficient, it could also mean that the storm
endured over a long period of time and much water is
still being contributed to the river by groundwater flow.

Base-flow Separation
Discharge which is not associated
with the storm (i.e. from groundwater) is
termed base-flow. Hydrograph or baseflow separation is performed to determine
the portion of the hydrograph attributable
to base-flow.

Base-flow Separation
Base-flow Separation
Discharge which is not
associated
with
the
storm
(i.e.
from
groundwater) is termed
base-flow.
Hydrograph or base-flow
separation is performed
to determine the portion
of
the
hydrograph
attributable to baseflow.

Base-flow Separation
Base-flow Separation
1.Constant-discharge
method
2.Constant-slope
3.Concave(mostrealistic)
4.Master depletion curve
method (use when the
most accurate model of
hydrograph recessions is
needed).

Base-flow Separation
= 0.830.2

Base-flow Separation
Constant-discharge method:

Assume basef low constant

regardless of stream height
(discharge).
project from minimum
value immediately prior to
beginning
of
storm
hydrograph.

Constant-discharge method:

Base-flow Separation
Constant-slope
Connect inflection point on
receeding limb of storm
hydrograph to beginning of
storm hydrograph
Assumes flow from aquifers
began prior to start of current
storm, arbitrarily sets it to
inflection point
For large watersheds set
inflection point at = 0.2 ,
where N is number of days
after hydrograph peak, A is
Discharge area in km2

Constant-slope

Base-flow Separation
Concave (most realistic):

Assume baseflow decreases

while streamflow increases
(i.e. to peak of storm
hydrograph)
project hydrograph trend
from minimum discharge
value immediately prior to
beginning
of
storm
hydrograph
to
directly
beneath hydrograph peak
connect
that
point
to
inflection point on reseeding
limb of storm hydrograph

Concave (most realistic):

Base-flow Separation
Master depletion curve
Master depletion curve

Master
depletion
curve
method use when the most
accurate model of hydrograph
recessions is needed.
combine data from several
recessions to make general
recession model.
from this an equation of the
form = 0 can be
derived, which gives discharge
at any time t after discharge
0 is measured.

Effective rainfall
Effective rainfall
Effective rainfall is
equal to the difference
between total rainfall and
actual losses. These losses
consist in interception,
storage within depressions,
infiltration
and
evapotranspiration.

Effective rainfall

Effective rainfall
The simpler method to determine
rainfall excess include
1. index method

2. Horton infiltration method

Effective rainfall
The index method
The index is defined as the average
infiltration capacity that, for a certain
rainfall, is considered as a constant
value in time. Above this infiltration
capacity
the
surplus
of
the
precipitation is considered as effective
rainfall. this index is obtained by
drawing a parallel line to the time
abscissa so that the area of the
hyetograph above this line would
represent the effective rainfall. This
index integrates all the losses that
occur in the process of runoff
formation: interception, retention,
evaporation and infiltration. For the
rainfall values having significant
depths, interception and retention in
depressions might be neglected.

The index method

Effective rainfall
Horton method estimates infiltration with an
exponential-type equation that slowly declines in
time as rainfall continues and is given by
f= fc + (fo fc) e-kt ( when rainfall intensity i>f)
where
f = infiltration capacity (in./hr)
fo = initial infiltration capacity (in./hr)
fc = final infiltration capacity (in./hr)
k = empirical constant ( 1 )

Example 1
Rainfall of magnitude 3.8 cm and 2.8 cm
occurring on two consecutive 4-h durations on
a catchment area 27 2 = produced the
following hydrograph of flow at the outlet of
the catchment. Estimate the rainfall excess
and -index.

Time from start

of rain
(h)

-6

12

18

24

30

36

42

48

54

60

66

flow
(m3/s)

13

26

21

16

12

4.5

4.5

Example 1
Solution
Base flow separation:
Using Simple straight
line method,
N = 0.83 0.2 = 0.83
(27)0.2 = 1.6 days = 38.5
h
So the base flow starts
at 0th h and ends at the
point (12+38.5)

Hydrograph

Example 1 (Solution)
DRH ordinates

Base flow seperation

Example 1 (Solution)
Area of DRH = (6*60*60)[1/2 (8)+1/2 (8+21)+

1/2 (21+16)+ 1/2 (16+11)+ 1/2

(11+7)+ 1/2 (7+4)+ 1/2 (4+2)+
1/2 (2)] = 1.4904 * 106 3
Run-off depth(P) = Runoff volume/catchment
area =

1.4904 * 106 /27* 106 = 0.0552m = 5.52

cm
=(Rainfall excess)
Total rainfall (P) = 3.8 +2.8 = 6.6cm
Duration of rainfall excess = 8h
-index = (P-R)/t = (6.6-5.52)/8 = 0.135cm/h

Example 2
A storm over a catchment of area 5.0 km2 had a duration of 14hours. The
mass curve of rainfall of the storm is as follows:
Time from start of 0
storm (h)

10

12

14

Accumulat ed
rainfall (cm)

0.6

2.8

5.2

6.6

7.5

9.2

9.6

If the -index of the catchment is 0.4cm/h, determine the effective

rainfall hyetograph and the volume of direct runoff from the
catchment due to the storm.

Example 2 (Solution)

Total effective rainfall = Direct runoff due to storm = area of ER hyetograph =

=(0.7+0.8+0.35+0.45)*2 = 4.6 cm

Volume of direct runoff = (4.6/100) * 5.0*(1000)2 = 230000m3

Unit hydrograph
The unit hydrograph is the direct runoff
hydrograph produced by a storm of given
duration such that the total volume of excess
rainfall is 1 mm. The total volume of direct
runoff is also 1 mm.

Unit Hydrograph Theory

35

Unit Hydrograph Lingo

Duration
Lag Time
Time of Concentration
Rising Limb
Recession Limb (falling limb)
Peak Flow
Time to Peak (rise time)
Recession Curve
Separation
Base flow

36

Graphical Representation
Duration of
excess
precipitation.

Lag time
Time of
concentration

Base flow

37

Methods of Developing UHGs

From Streamflow Data
Synthetically
Snyder
SCS
Time-Area (Clark, 1945)

Fitted Distributions
Geomorphologic
38

Unit hydrograph
1.The unit hydrograph is the direct runoff hydrograph
produced by a storm of given duration such that the total volume of
excess rainfall is 1 mm. The total volume of direct runoff is also 1
mm.
2. The ordinates of UH indicate the direct runoff flow
produced by the watershed
for every millimeter of excess rainfall;
3
therefore, the units are
/

3. A volume of 1 mm is the amount of water in a 1-mm layer

uniformly distributed over the entire watershed area. This volume
is equal to the area under the UH.
4. Storms of different durations produce different UHs even
if the excess rainfall volume is always 1 mm.
5. Longer storms will likely produce smaller peaks and
longer duration in the UH.
6. The duration associated with the UH that of originating
storm and not the base duration of the UH

Unit hydrograph
Assumptions
Unit hydrograph theory assumes that watersheds behave as linear
systems. The following are the fundamental assumptions of UH theory.
1. The duration of direct runoff is always the same for uniformintensity storms of the same duration, regardless of the intensity. This means
that the time base of the hydrograph does not change and that the intensity
only affects the discharge.
2. The direct runoff volumes produced by two different excess
rainfall distributions are in the same proportion as the excess rainfall volume.
This means that the ordinates of the UH are directly proportional to the storm
intensity. If storm A produces a given hydrograph and Storm B is equal to
storm A multiplied by a factor, then the hydrograph produced by storm B will
be equal to the hydrograph produced by storm A multiplied by the same
factor.

Unit hydrograph
3. The time distribution of the direct runoff is independent of
concurrent runoff from antecedent storm events. This implies that direct
runoff responses can be superposed. If storm C is the result of adding storms
A and B, the hydrograph produced by storm c will be equal to the sum of the
hydrographs produced by storm A and B.

4. Hydrologic systems are usually nonlinear due to factor such

as storm origin and patterns and stream channel hydraulic properties.
In other words, if the peak flow produced by a storm of a certain
intensity is known, the peak corresponding to another storm (of the
same duration) with twice the intensity is not necessarily equal to
twice the original peak.

Unit hydrograph
5. Despite this nonlinear behavior, the unit hydrograph concept is
commonly used because, although it assumes linearity, it is a convenient tool
to calculate hydrographs and it gives results within acceptable levels of
accuracy.
6. The alternative to UH theory is kinematic wave theory and
distributed hydrologic method.

0.
00
0
0. 0
16
00
0.
32
0
0. 0
48
00
0.
64
0
0. 0
80
00
0.
96
0
1. 0
12
0
1. 0
28
00
1.
44
0
1. 0
60
00
1.
76
0
1. 0
92
00
2.
08
0
2. 0
24
00
2.
40
0
2. 0
56
0
2. 0
72
00
2.
88
0
3. 0
04
00
3.
20
0
3. 0
36
00
3.
52
0
3. 0
68
00

Derived Unit Hydrograph

700.0000

600.0000

500.0000

300.0000

Surface
Response

400.0000

Baseflow

200.0000

100.0000

0.0000

43

Estimating Excess Precip.

0.8

0.7

Precipitation (inches)

0.6

0.5

Uniform loss rate of

0.2 inches per hour.

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Time (hrs.)

Excess Precipitation
1
0.9

Derived unit hydrograph is the

result of approximately 6
hours of excess precipitation.

0.8

Excess Prec. (inches)

0.7
0.6
0.5

Small amounts of
excess precipitation at
beginning and end may
be omitted.

0.4
0.3

0.2
0.1
0
0

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Time (hrs.)

Derived Unit Hydrograph

700.0000

Total
Hydrograph

600.0000

500.0000

Surface
Response

400.0000

300.0000

Baseflow
200.0000

100.0000

0.0000
0.0000

0.5000

1.0000

1.5000

2.0000

2.5000

3.0000

3.5000

4.0000

Example 3
Obtain a Unit Hydrograph for a basin of 282.6 km2 of area using the rainfall
and streamflow data tabulated below.
Time
(h)

Observed
Hydrograph (m3/s)

160

150

350

800

1200

900

750

550

350

225

10

150

11

140

Time
(h)

Gross Precipitation
(GRH)
(cm/h)

0-1

0.25

1-2

2.75

2-3

2.75

3-4

0.25

Example 3(Solution)
Unit Hydrograph Derivation
1. Separate the base flow from the observed streamflow
hydrograph in order to obtain the Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH).

For this example, use the horizontal line method to separate the
base flow. From observation of the hydrograph data, the
streamflow at the start of the rising limb of the hydrograph is 150
m3/s. Thus, use 150 m3/s as the base flow.

2. Compute the volume of Direct Runoff. This volume must be equal

to the volume of the Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH).

Example 3(Solution)
Unit Hydrograph

Time (h)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Observed
Hydrograph
(m3/s)
160
150
350
800
1200
900
750
550
350
225
150
140

Direct Runoff
Hydrograph
(DRH) (m3/s)
10
0
200
650
1050
750
600
400
200
75
0
0

Unit Hydrograph

Unit
Hydrograph
(m3/s/cm)
-0
40
130
210
150
120
80
40
15
0
0

Example 3(Solution)
Thus, for this example:
VDRH = (200+650+1050+750+600+400+200+75) m3/s
(3600)s = 14'130,000 m3

3. Express VDRH in equivalent units of depth:

VDRH in equivalent units of depth = VDRH/Abasin =

14'130,000 m3/(282600000 m2) = 0.05 m = 5 cm.

4.Obtain a Unit Hydrograph by normalizing the DRH.

Normalizing implies dividing the ordinates of the DRH by the
VDRH in equivalent units of depth.

Example 3(Solution)

Determine the duration D of the ERH associated with the UH obtained.

In order to do this:
a) Determine the volume of losses, VLosses which is equal to the difference
between the volume of gross rainfall, VGRH, and the volume of the direct
runoff hydrograph, VDRH .
VLosses = VGRH - VDRH = (0.25 + 2.75 + 2.75 +0.25) cm/h *1 h - 5 cm = 1 cm

b) Compute the -index equal to the ratio of the volume of losses to the
rainfall duration, tr. Thus,

-index = VLosses/tr = 1 cm / 4 h = 0.25 cm/h

c) Determine the ERH by subtracting the infiltration (e.g., -index) from

the GRH:

Estimating ER
4.007

Precipitation (cm)

3.00

2.75

0.4

Uniform loss rate of

0.25 Cm per hour.

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
7

0 1

Time (hrs.)

7
Time (hrs.)

Example 3(Solution)
As observed in the table, the duration of the effective rainfall
hyetograph is 2 hours. Thus, D = 2 hours, and the Unit
Hydrograph obtained above is a 2-hour Unit Hydrograph.
Time
(h)

Gross Precipitation
(GRH)
(cm/h

0-1

0.00

1-2

2.75

2-3

2.75

3-4

0.00

Changing the Duration of the unit hydrograph

Very often, it will be necessary to change the duration of
the unit hydrograph.
If unit hydrographs are to be averaged, then they must be
of the same duration.
Also, convolution of the unit hydrograph with a
precipitation event requires that the duration of the unit
hydrograph be equal to the time step of the incremental
precipitation.
The most common methods of altering the duration of a
unit hydrograph are:
1. Short duration to long duration
2. S-curve method.
54

Short duration to long duration

A UH has a particular duration, D. Unit hydrographs are linear, they can be added, for
example, to generate a hydrograph for a storm 2x, 3x, 4x, etc. longer

1hr UH
2hr UH

The linear property of a UH can be used to generate a UH of a larger duration.

Here two copies of a 1-hour UH are lagged by 1-hr and added, then the ordinates
are divided by 2, to make a 2-hour UH (1 cm over two hours).
However this lagging method is restricted to integer multiples of the original
duration.

Example 4
6 hr UH from 3 hr UH

6 hr UH from 3 hr UH

S-Curve
S-curve
60000.00

50000.00

40000.00

30000.00

20000.00

10000.00

Time (hrs.)

120

114

108

96

102

90

84

78

72

66

60

54

48

42

36

30

24

18

12

0.00
0

Flow (cfs)

S-curve method
The
S-curve
method
involves continually lagging
a unit hydrograph by its
duration and adding the
ordinates.
For the present example,
the 6-hour unit hydrograph
is continually lagged by 6
hours and the ordinates are
added.

S curve
S curve
S curve method works for
any duration. The first step
is to add a series of UHs of
duration D, each lagged by
time
period
D,
This
corresponds to the runoff
hydrograph
from
a
continuous rainfall excess
intensity of 1/D cm/hour.

S curve

S curve method works for any duration, D

By shifting a copy of the S-curve by D hours, and subtracting the ordinates, the
resulting hydrograph (dashed line - - - - - - ) must be due to rainfall of intensity 1/D cm/hour
that lasts for a duration of D hours.
To convert the hydrograph (dashed line - - - - -) to a UH, multiply ordinates by
D/D, resulting in a UH of duration D. D need NOT be an integral multiple of D.

D hr UH from D hr UH

Example 5
The ordinates of a 2-hr hydrograph for a particular basin are given below.
Determine the ordinates of the S-curve hydrograph and therefrom the
ordinates of the 3-hr unit hydrograph.
Time
(hr)

Discharge
(cumecs)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

0
75
250
300
275
200
100
75
50
25
0

Example 5 (solution)
S curve

Make a spreadsheet with

the 2-hr UH ordinates, then
copy them in the next
column lagged by D=2
hours.
Keep adding columns until
the row sums are fairly
constant. The sums are the
ordinates of S-curve.

S curve

Example 5 (solution)
S curve lagged by 3 hrs

Here are the two copies of

S-curve based on a sum of
2-hr UHs.
The second copy is lagged
by D=3 hours.

S curve lagged by 3 hrs

Example 5 (solution)
3-hrs unit hydrograph

Here the original UH was for a

2-hour storm, and we need a
UH for a 3-hour storm.
A 2-hour UH is for a storm
with 1/2 cm/hr for 2 hours
A 3-hour UH is for a storm
with 1/3 cm/hr for 3 hours
1/2 x 2/3 = 1/3
Calculate the difference, then
multiply by D/D ,here = 2/3,
to get your 3 hour UH.

3-hrs unit hydrograph

Example 6
2hr UH from 4 hr UH

2hr UH from 4 hr UH

Example 7
6 hr UH from 4 hr UH
(Short cut)

Prediction
This method provides a hydrograph that predicts the
behavior of a flood from a storm of any duration

Thank
You