Basic Study Guide

PHYSICS
Only study guide for PHY308-K

(Atomic and Nuclear Physics)
M.L. Lekala
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

PRETORIA
c 2010 University of South Africa

All rights reserved
Printed and published by the
University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
Page make-up by the Department
PHY308K/1/2010-2010
PHY308K/1
1 Introduction
iv
1.1
Prescribed Textbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
1.2
Study Guide
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
1.3
Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
The Exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Basic Concepts
2.1
Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Self-assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
3.1
3.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Nuclear Properties
4.1
4.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
Self-assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 The Force between Nucleons
10
5.1
Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3
Self-assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6 Nuclear Models
17
6.1
6.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.3
Self-assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7 Nuclear Decay and Radioactivity
24
ii
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7.1
7.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.3
8 Nuclear Reactions
33
8.1
8.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.3
Self-assessment questions
9 Nuclear Energy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
40
9.1
9.2
Study Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.3
10 Evolution of Stars
48
10.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

10.2 Study guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
10.3 Self-Assessment questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 1
Introduction
Welcome to the PHY308K module! In this module we teach Nuclear Physics. Nuclear
Physics is an exciting and fast-developing field of physics, having fascinated mankind in
the 20th century with the awful destructive force of the nuclear bomb and radioactive
fall-out, and with the exciting possibility of nuclear-fusion power. Through research of
the structure of nuclei and nuclear reactions, we have even deliberated about the origins
of the universe, via nucleosynthesis. This is an opportunity for you to learn more about
your present existence, your origins, and possibly your future. I trust that you will put
every effort into this course and that you will find it instructive and enjoyable.
1.1
Prescribed Textbook
The prescribed textbook for the PHY308K module is the 1988 Edition of Introductory
Nuclear Physics by Kenneth S Krane, Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This
book contains many problems at the end of each chapter and you can test your mastery
of this module by attempting as many as possible of these questions. Additional problems
are given in this Study Guide. Thus this textbook was chosen to give you, the student,
a broad outline of nuclear physics,
the basic mathematical background required for further studies in this field.
Although it is expected that you have a previous background in quantum physics, the
important concepts of this field are reiterated in Chapter 2 of the textbook.
1.2
Study Guide
The Study Guide should be used in parallel with the prescribed textbook. The purpose
of this study guide is to
assist you in highlighting and summarising material which is important for examination purposes,
provide additional background and discussion on certain topics, and
give a new perspective on the arrangement of the study material.
In the course of your study you should compile a summary to achieve the objectives of
each chapter. In order to help you, each chapter of the Study Guide is organised as follows:
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Learning objectives : specified in order to facilitate systematisation of material to

be studied.
Study guidance : intended to give a special direction of the work to be studied.
Worked examples : to show how problems are solved and thereby give problemsolving skills.
Practice problems (where necessary) : for more problem-solving practice.
Self-assessment questions : to check the extend to which the Learning Objectives

have been attained.
The Study Guide treats the Chapters in succession as they are given in the prescribed
Textbook. However, large sections and few chapters of the Textbook are omitted. The
omitted sections and Chapters may be read for interest. They are not for examination
purposes, although you may find a knowledge from them useful in the examination.
1.3
Assignments
To qualify for the examination a number of assignments have to be completed satisfactorily.

The work that needs to be covered for each assignment is outlined in Tutorial Letter 101.
In your first and second years of physics, you should have learned how to solve problems
in physics. Of course, the only way to do this successfully in your third year, is to make
sure that you understand the theory first! This is my special plea to you to study the
relevant sections in the textbook first, before attempting any of the prescribed problems!
For those who still experience difficulty with problem-solving we hope that the hints and
ideas attached by the lecturer to the first assignment will resolve any difficulties.
Make life easier for yourself by attempting the assignments well in advance of the given
due dates. Submit your assignments in good time. After your assignment has been
marked, you will receive solutions or guidelines for solving the prescribed problems. This
should not be filed away in some place until just before the examinations! Please work
through these guidelines when you receive them, solving each problem in detail yourself
and paying particular attention to the problems with which you may have struggled. A
little persuasion from your lecturer - remember that a number of the assignment problems
may also appear in the examination, in modified form.
1.4
The Exam
Although we hope to impart the fascination and enjoyment that we get out of our subject
to our students, we, as ex-students, realise that ultimately all you want to achieve at this
stage is to pass the examination. To this end, I have included a Model Exam Paper in
Appendix A of the study guide. This is to help you know what type of understanding
and problem-solving ability will be required in the examination. Perhaps you would even
enjoy giving yourself a practice run on exam-writing by writing this paper under exam
conditions i.e. within 2 hours and with no assistance from the textbook or study guide Good luck! A memorandum to the paper is provided in Appendix B.
Conclusion
Finally, I wish you all well and a great deal of fulfillment as you study Nuclear Physics. Feel
free to contact the lecturer in charge of this module should you experience any difficulties.
M.L. LEKALA
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Part II
CHAPTERS
Chapter 2
Basic Concepts
2.1
Learning Objectives
An appreciation of the development and discoveries in nuclear physics,
An understanding of some of the terminology peculiar to this subject e.g. protons,

neutrons, atomic number, mass number etc.,
an outline of the properties of nuclei that will be important in the study of this
subject,
A feel for the dimensions and the units used in nuclear physics.
2.2
Study Guidance
Section 1.1: History and Overview

The origins of nuclear physics can be traced back to the fifth century BC, when philosophers started to ask questions about the structure of matter. The more recent history of
nuclear physics is closely linked to the development of quantum physics. A few historical
milestones which might be of interest are given below, but bear in mind that the list is
far from complete.
Date
1895
1896
1897
1900
1905
1913
1921
1924
1925
1926
1932
1935
1937
1938
1942
1945
1949
1952
1956
Name
R
ontgen
Becquerel
Thomson
Rutherford
Planck
Einstein
N Bohr
Stern & Gerlach
Bose/Einstein
Pauli
Fermi/Dirac
Chadwick
Yukawa
Bohr
Hahn & Straussman
Fermi et al
Oppenheimer et al
Mayer, Haxel & Suess
A Bohr & Mottelson
first commercial nuclear
power station.
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Discovery
X-rays
radioactivity
electrons
alpha and beta rays
quantum theory of light
photo-electric effect and relativity
first theory of atomic structure
quantization in magnetic field
statistics (independently)
exclusion principle
statistics (independently)
neutrons
predicted existence of mesons
liquid drop model
nuclear fission
first nuclear reactor
first nuclear bomb
shell model
collective model
Up to the end of the 1940s, elementary particle physics had been regarded as a part
of nuclear physics, but in the 1950s it achieved the status of an independent branch of
physics. For this reason the discovery of many high-energy particles is omitted from the
list.
To distinguish between the two we define nuclear physics as being concerned with the
nucleus as a whole and elementary particle physics as dealing with the properties and
structure of the various high-energy particles themselves and the interaction between them.
Because nuclear physics deals with the fundamental laws of nature, its principles will
surface in many other fields of physics e.g. solid state and plasma physics and in other
branches of the natural sciences e.g. chemistry and biology. It even influences trends in
life sciences such as psychology and philosophy. To summarize in the words of the late
Richard Feynman, well-known professor of physics:
If our small minds, for some convenience, divide this universe into parts physics, geology, biology, astronomy, psychology, and so on - remember that
Nature does not know it!
Section 1.2: Terminology
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, referred to jointly as nucleons, but no free
electrons. A specific nuclear species, or nuclide, is generally indicated as
A
Z XN
where
Z
atomic number (i.e. number of protons)
mass number
neutron number (= A Z)
Nuclides with the same proton number, but different neutron number are called isotopes;
nuclides with the same N but different Z are called isotones; nuclides with the same mass
number A are called isobars.
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Section 1.3: Nuclear Properties

Properties of importance are mass, radius, abundance, decay modes, half-lives, reaction
modes and cross sections, spin, magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments, and
excited states.
Section 1.4: Units and Dimensions
Lengths: Nuclear sizes range from 1 fm to 7 fm where 1 fm = 1015 m.
Nuclear energies: Measured in MeV where 1 eV = 1.602 1019 J.
Nuclear masses: Measured in terms of the unified atomic mass unit, u, where 1 u = 931.502
MeV.
Worked Example
In the decay of 6 He to 6 Li, the maximum amount of energy that can be lost is 3.5 MeV.
Find the mass of 6 He if the mass of 6 Li is 6.01512 u.
Solution
Since energy and mass at the subatomic level are interchangeable, the mass that is lost is
3.5 MeV
= 0.00376 u
931.502 MeV u1
The mass of 6 He is thus just the mass of 6 Li plus the lost mass, i.e.
6.0152 u + 0.00376 u = 6.01888 u
Practice Problem
See if you understand this conversion by solving the following problem:
In the decay of 242 Cm to 238 Pu, the maximum energy that can be lost is 3732 MeV. If
the mass of 238 Pu is 238.05, find the mass of 242 Cm.
2.3
Self-assessment Questions
1. Give four reasons why electrons cannot be found in the nucleus.

2. Use spin arguments to show that the proton-electron model of the nucleus is incorrect.
Solution to Practice Problem
The mass lost is
.. . The mass of
242
3732 MeV
= 4.00667 u
931.502 MeV u1
Cm is
238.05 + 4.00667 = 242.05667 u
Chapter 3
Elements of Quantum
Mechanics
3.1
Learning Objectives
To give a background understanding of Quantum Mechanical concepts such as

the wave behaviour of particles,
the Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
the Schr
odinger equation and its solution for various potentials,
normalization,
expectation values,
operators,
the stationary states,
the reflection and transmission coefficients,
degeneracy.
3.2
Study Guidance
In this chapter, unlike the other chapters, we do not discuss section by section, but rather
give a brief overview of quantum mechanics. Sometimes physicists refer to the new
physics and the old physics. The new physics refers to quantum mechanics, which
began with Max Plancks theory of quanta in 1900, and relativity, which began with Albert
Einsteins special theory of relativity in 1905. The old physics is the physics of Isaac
Newton, which he discovered about three hundred years ago.
Quantum mechanics forced itself upon the scene at the beginning of the 20th century. A
quantum is a quantity of something, a specific amount. Mechanics is the study of
motion. Therefore, quantum mechanics is the study of the motion of quantities. Quantum theory says that nature comes in bits and pieces (quanta), and quantum mechanics is
the study of this phenomenon. Quantum mechanics does not replace Newtonian physics,
it includes it. Newtonian physics still is applicable to the large-scale world, but it does
not work in the subatomic realm. Quantum mechanics resulted from the study of the
subatomic realm, that invisible universe underlying, embedded in, and forming the fabric
of everything around us.
In the subatomic realm, we cannot know both the position and the momentum of a particle
with absolute precision. We can know both, approximately, but the more we know about
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the one, the less we know about the other. This is Werner Heisenbergs uncertainty
principle. As incredible as it seems, it has been verified repeatedly by experiment. Since
we cannot determine both the position and momentum of subatomic particles, we cannot
predict much about them. Accordingly, quantum mechanics does not and cannot predict
specific events. It does, however, predict probabilities. Quantum theory can predict the
probability of a microscopic event with the same precision that Newtonian physics can
predict the actual occurrence of a macroscopic event.
Another peculiarity of physics at the subatomic level is that mass and energy change
unceasingly into each other. Particle physicists are so familiar with the phenomena of
mass becoming energy and energy becoming mass that they routinely measure the mass
of particles in energy units. Strictly speaking, mass, according to Einsteins special theory
of relativity, is energy and energy is mass.
The wave-particle duality was (and I suppose still is) one of the thorniest problems in
quantum mechanics. Physicists could no longer accept the proposition that light is either
a particle or a wave because they had proved to themselves via experiment that it was
both, depending on how they looked at it.
Niels Bohr, in 1924, suggested that the waves in question were probability waves i.e.
mathematical entities by which physicists could predict the probability of certain events
occurring or not occurring. The unfolding of these probabilities occurs according to the
Schr
odinger wave equation. In a nutshell, the Schr
odinger wave equation governs the
development in isolation of the observed system (which is a photon in the case of light)
which is represented mathematically by a wave function.
Worked Example
Hopefully the heading of this section has enticed you to read this important comment.
We have not included a worked example here as you do not have to study this chapter
for exam purposes. However, assignment problems may be set from this chapter as it is
vitally important that you understand all of the concepts described in this chapter. As
with all the read only sections of the textbook, an understanding of these sections is
very necessary for understanding of other sections prescribed as study material for this
module!
Chapter 4
Nuclear Properties
4.1
Learning Objectives
To understand a description of the nucleus in terms of the following static properties

nuclear radius,
electric charge,
mass,
isotopes,
binding energy,
angular momentum,
parity,
magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments, and
energies of excited states.
4.2
Study Guidance
Section 3.1: The Nuclear Radius

The size of the nucleus is determined by the balance between Coulomb repulsion of the
protons and the strong attraction between nucleons at short distances. Depending on the
measuring technique, one can differentiate between a charge density radius and a nucleon
mass density radius. It is relatively natural to characterize the nuclear shape with two
parameters: the mean radius - where the density is half its central value, and the skin
thickness - over where the density drops from near its maximum to near its minimum.
The number of nucleons per unit volume is roughly constant, and therefore
3
4
A
constant
R3
where R is the mean nuclear radius, we have

R = R0 A
/3
There are various techniques for determining the value of the proportionality constant R0
(e.g. electron scattering measurement, K X ray isotope shifts, optical isotope shifts,
muonic K X ray isotope shifts, direct measurement of the Coulomb energy differences
in mirror nuclei). All these techniques give essentially the same results, namely R0 =
1.2 1.25 fm.
Section 3.2: Mass and Abundance of Nuclides
To master this section the following points need to be understood
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The measurement of nuclear masses is done by means of mass spectrometry. Mass

spectrograph is the instrument used to do this.
The fixed point on the atomic mass scale is 12 C, which is taken to have a mass
of exactly 12 u. By means of the mass doublet method, the small differences, ,
between close-lying masses can be measured.
The Q value of a reaction is the difference in mass between the reactants and
products. In the nuclear reaction x + X y + Y , the Q value of the reaction is
determined as follows:
Q = [m(x) + m(X) m(y) m(Y )]c2 .
Section 3.3: Nuclear Binding Energy

In Chapter 2, I mentioned that mass and energy are interchangeable at the subatomic
level. Thus, I am going to refer to the mass energy of a nucleus. The mass energy of a
certain nuclide is its atomic mass energy less the sum of the total mass energy of the Z
electrons (me ) and the total electronic binding energy. The latter is usually very small
and can be ignored, unless otherwise instructed.
Mnucleus = mass of the atom Zme
What, therefore, is the binding energy (B) of a nucleus? It is the mass (energy) of all the
free nucleons less the mass (energy) of the nucleus, i.e
B
{Zmp + N mn Mnucleus }c2
{Zmp + N mn (mass of the atom Zme )}c2
{Zm(1 H) + N mn mass of the atom}c2
mp + me .
where
m(1 H)
The neutron separation energy Sn and the proton separation energy Sp are the amount of
energy required to remove a neutron and a proton respectively from the nucleus.
Atomic mass tables often give the mass defect (), which is the difference between the
mass of the atom and the mass number (A), i.e.
= (m A)c2
A useful value to remember is the average binding energy per nucleon (i.e. B/A) of most
nuclei. It is approximately 8 MeV per nucleon.
(The remainder of this section in the textbook is devoted to nuclear models which we will
return to in Chapter 5 of this study guide).
Section 3.4: Nuclear Angular Momentum and Parity
For a specific nucleon the orbital angular momentum couples with the spin s to give total
angular momentum j. The total angular momentum of the nucleus is called the nuclear
spin I. In a magnetic field the state I splits up into 2I + 1 substates, the so-called Zeeman
effect. There is a restriction on the allowed values of I:
odd-A nuclei: I = half-integral
even-A nuclei: I = integral
Along with the nuclear spin, the parity (behaviour of the wave function when r r)
is also used to label nuclear states; = + or = , i.e. if the wave function remains
positive when r is changed to r, we say that it has even parity ( = +). If it becomes
negative, the parity is odd ( = ).
Section 3.5: Nuclear Electromagnetic Moments
Any distribution of electric charges and currents (as in the nucleus) produces electric and
magnetic fields. These fields consist of various multipole moments (depending on their
spatial dependence) e.g. monopole, dipole and quadrupole moments. Due to the symmetry
of the nucleus, the lowest order non-vanishing moments are the electric monopole moment
(Ze), the magnetic dipole moment () and the electric quadrupole moment (eQ).
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Section 3.6: Nuclear Excited States

Excited states of the nucleus are obtained by moving individual nucleons to higher energy
orbits. This can be achieved by adding energy to the core. These states are unstable and
decay rapidly to the ground state. Properties observed for each excited state are: energy
of excitation, lifetime and mode(s) of decay, spin and parity, magnetic dipole moment and
electric quadrupole moment.
Worked Examples
Problem 1
a) Compute the difference in binding energy between 11 B and 11 C if m(11 B) = 11.009305 u
and m(11 C) = 11.011433 u.
Solution
B(11 B)
{5m(1 H) + 6mn m(11 B)}c2
{5(1.007825 u) + 6(1.008664 u)
(11.009305 u)}(931.502 MeV u1 )
B(11 C)
..
(0.08181 u)(9315.502 MeV u1 )
76.21 MeV
{6m(1 H) + 5mn m(11 C)}c2
(0.078842 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
73.44 MeV
B(11 B) B(1 1C)
= 2.77 MeV
b) Assuming that this difference arises from the difference in Coulomb energy, compute
the nuclear radius of 11 B and 12 C.
Solution
Using equation (3.17) in the textbook, we have
B =
3
e2
(2Z 1)
5 40 R
Solving for R we get (Z = 6):

R
3 e2
5 40
3
(2(6) 1)
(1.44 MeV fm)
5
2.77 MeV
3.43 fm
2Z 1
B
(Note: we have used the well known constant e/40 = 1.44 MeV fm)
Problem 2
Compute the mass defect of
133
Cs.
Solution
For 133 Cs:
[m(133 Cs) 133]c2
(132.905429 u 133 u)(931.502 Mev u1 )
(0.09458 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
88.10MeV
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Problem 3
Evaluate the proton separation energy of
32
S.
Solution
For 32 S:
Sp
A1
1
2
[m(Z1
XN ), (A
Z XN ) + m( H)]c
[m(31 P) m(32 S) + m(1 H)]c2
(30.973762 31.972071 + 1.007825) u (931.502 MeV u1 )
(0.009516 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
8.86 MeV
Problem 4
+
The spin-parity of 17 O and 17 F are both 52 . Assuming in both cases that the spin
and parity are characteristic only of the odd nucleon, show how it is possible to observe
spin-parity of 18 F (1+ )).
Solution
For 17 O, we expect the valence (unpaired) neutron to have total angular momentum
jn = 25 with n = +. For 17 F, the valence proton has jp = 52 with p = +. The vector
coupling of jn to jp yields the values 0, 1, 2, ... jn + jp = 5. Total parity p n = +.
Therefore the possible spin-parity states of 18 F are 0+ , 1+ , 2+ , ..., 5+ , with 1+ being the
observed value.
4.3
1. What is meant by the charge radius and the matter radius of a nucleus?
2. Describe what is meant by the abundance of stable isotopes of a particular element.
3. Define separately the binding energy, the neutron separation energy and the proton
separation energy of a nucleus.
4. What is meant by the parity of a nuclear state?
Chapter 5
The Force between Nucleons

5.1
Learning Objectives
To understand of the deuteron and its properties,
To understand why we use the deuteron to discuss nuclear forces,
To understand nucleon-nucleon scattering as an instrument for understanding the

nucleon-nucleon interaction,
To understand concepts involved in scattering experiments, such as
- impact parameter,
- potential; square-well potential,
- phase shift,
- boundary conditions,
- differential cross section,
- total cross section
- triplet and singlet states,
- spin dependence,
- scattering length,
- effective range approximation.
To understand the properties of nuclear forces, such as
- an attractive central potential,
- spin dependence,
- a tensor potential,
- charge symmetry,
- charge independence,
- repulsiveness at short distances,
- velocity dependence.
To understanding the basic nucleon-nucleon interactions.
5.2
Study Guidance
Section 4.1: The Deuteron

This section aims to assist you in making your own summary about the deuteron and its
properties. Include the following sub-headings in your summary:
10
11
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a) Description of a deuteron - it is the nucleus of the deuterium atom, consisting of a

neutron and a proton.
b) Excited states - none exist. (Why?)
c) Binding energy - the binding energy of the deuteron is 2.224 MeV. (What three
methods are used to determine the binding energy?)
d) Strength of the nucleon-nucleon potential - the potential is approximately 35 MeV.
(Write out the mathematical calculations that arrive at this result).
e) Spin - the total measured spin for the deuteron is I = 1, where
I = sn + sp +
and sn , sp are the neutron and proton intrinsic spins and is the orbital angular
momentum of the nucleons.
f) Parity - experimentally we know that the deuteron has even parity, i.e. the wave
function does not change sign if we replace r with -r. (Explain, as described in the
textbook, why the deuteron can have = 0 and = 2 possibilities for the orbital
angular momentum).
g) Magnetic Dipole Moment - The deuteron wave function is given by
= as ( = 0) + ad ( = 2).
The magnetic dipole moment is therefore
m = a2s ( = 0) + a2s ( = 2).
h) Electric Quadrupole Moment - due to the d-state admixture, this moment is nonzero.
Section 4.2: Nucleon-Nucleon Scattering
In the Learning Objectives, a set of points under the heading of scattering experiments
was given. See if, after reading through this section, you can write down a definition
for each of these concepts. Now that you have done this, it may be easier to follow the
mathematics outlined in this section:
Make sure that you understand how the author comes to the conclusion that the
total cross-section must be constant at low energies (see top of Page 92 for example).
Follow the discussion on page 92 of the textbook. Do you understand why it can
be concluded that the nuclear force must be spin dependent?
Section 4.4: Properties of the Nuclear Force
i) The interaction between two nucleons consists mainly of an attractive central potential.
ii) It is strongly spin dependent.
iii) It includes a noncentral term - a tensor potential.
iv) It is charge symmetric.
v) It is nearly charge independent.
vi) It becomes repulsive at short distances.
vii) It may depend on the relative velocity or momentum of the nucleons.
Section 4.5: The Exchange Force Model
According to this model, two nucleons interact by exchanging something between them.
One of the greatest developments in physics was the introduction of the concept of fields,
according to which one object establishes throughout space a force field and the second
object interacts only with the field, and not directly with the first object. A later development was that all exchanges of energy must occur in bundles of discrete size i.e. the
field must be quantized. These quanta exist only for fleeting instants (due to the uncertainty principle) and are known as virtual particles. The exchange particles that carry the
nuclear force are called mesons. The lightest meson, the -meson or pion, is responsible
for the major portion of the longer range part of the nucleon-nucleon potential.
12
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The Basic Nucleon-Nucleon Interactions
These interactions are mentioned only briefly in sections of the textbook. IT IS THEREFORE IMPORTANT THAT YOU STUDY THE FOLLOWING SECTION DIRECTLY
FROM THE STUDY GUIDE.
1. The Strong Interaction
The high binding energy/nucleon of 8 MeV cannot be explained by either gravity
or the electromagnetic force and is due to the so-called strong interaction between
nucleons. The existence of the strong interaction took some time to be discovered,
due to the short range of the interaction which limits it to the dimensions of the
nucleus. The strong force is spin dependent, but it is independent of charge to a
good approximation. This means that in terms of the strong interaction the neutron
and proton are the same particle, as long as we do not forget Paulis principle.
In analogy to the photon, quantum of the electromagnetic field, Yukawa predicted
the existence of the -meson (or pion), quantum or carrier of the strong interaction field. According to Heisenbergs uncertainty principle, the -meson should
have a mass of 140 MeV. In 1947 Powell et al discovered a particle with the required characteristics in cosmic radiation. To transmit forces between neutrons and
protons, three varieties of pions are called for to conserve electric charge, namely a
+ , and 0 meson.
In higher and higher energy experiments (> 1 GeV), more and more particles were
observed as a result of the strong interaction between pions and nucleons. These
particles are called strange particles, as they always appear in pairs and do not
decay back rapidly into pions and nucleons as would be expected. Together with
the -mesons, more than 200 members of a strongly interacting or hadron family
are already known. Hadrons can be divided into mesons, which are bosons, and
baryons which are fermions and which include protons and neutrons.
Presently fundamental particles are classified by postulating the existence of quarks,
elementary particles from which all hadrons are made. For example the proton and
neutron would be made up of three distinct quarks. One striking feature of the
model is that quarks should have fractional charge of (2/3)e and (1/3)e.
Yukawa also postulated for the strong interaction field the existence of a potential
with the asymptotic form:
V (r) f er/c /r
with c = mh c and f relating to the strength of the strong interaction in the
same way as e, the elementary charge, relates to the strength of the electromagnetic
reaction. Therefore just as e2 /
hc = = 1/137 is an indication of the strength of
the E/M force, f 2 /
hc is an indication of the strength of the strong interaction.
A value of approximately 14.5 was determined for f 2 /
hc experimentally, which is
roughly 1000 times greater than e2 /
hc.
The form of the strong interaction potential can be deduced from nucleon-nucleon
scattering experiments as shown in the figure below.
PHY308K/1
V (r)
13
r(f m)
For distances greater than 2 fm, the potential is practically zero. The asymptotic
form (above 1 fm) is described by Yukawas potential. It is attractive and stays
attractive to around 0.3 fm, below which it becomes strongly repulsive. To obtain better agreement with experiment, one needs additions to the central static
potential of Yukawa namely
a) a non-static central potential which also depends on the relative momentum
of the nucleons,
b) a non-central term dependent on spin, also known as the tensor potential and
c) an exchange term, resulting from pion exchange.
The complete form of the nucleon-nucleon force is still unknown at the present
time.
2. The Weak Interaction
In decay processes it was noticed that the electron spectrum was continuous and
not discrete, as would be expected from conservation of energy and momentum.
Pauli resolved this anomaly by introducing the massless particle, the neutrino,
which could carry away some of the momentum in the reaction. The neutrino
could at first not be detected and many scientists, inter alia N Bohr, doubted its
existence.
Another peculiarity of decay was that it was much slower than other decays for
example decay. This indicated that another type of interaction, the so-called weak
interaction, was involved in the emission of an electron-neutrino pair. The relative
weakness of the reaction also explains why it took so long before the neutrino was
eventually detected.
During the search for Yukawas particle (-meson) a particle with mass 200e was
observed in cosmic radiation. However, its interaction probability appeared to be
too small for it to be considered a quantum of the strong interaction. It was later
found to be a -meson (or muon), a particle formed in the decay of the -meson
through the weak interaction:
+ + +
+
(t 2.5 108 s)
(t 2.5 108 s)
where is a particle resembling the neutrino and its anti-particle.

NOTE: 0 decays through the electromagnetic interaction, mainly according to
the modes:
0 + (98.8%)
0 e+ + e + (1.2%)
(t 1016 s)
14
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The proton and neutron also decay through the weak interaction:
n p + e +
(T1/2 = 12 min)
p n + e+ +
(T1/2 very long)
with and the neutrino and anti-neutrino respectively. The latter decay can only
happen inside a nucleus. The free proton is not a + emitter as its mass is smaller
than the mass of the neutron.
Fermions like the electron and muon which are unaffected by the strong interaction
are called leptons. In 1975 another charged lepton, the tau lepton, was discovered.
It is sometimes called the heavy lepton because of its mass of 1800 MeV. With the
discovery of the tau lepton, and assuming that it has its own type of neutrino, the
number of known leptons stands at six particles with its associated six anti-particles,
which can be arranged in three families as shown below:
Family
Particle Anti-particle Mass (MeV) Lifetime(s)
Electron
family
e
e+
0.511
Stable
Muon
+
106
2.2 106
family
0*
Stable
Tau
+
1784
3.5 1013
family
0*
Stable?
* The mass of the neutrino was assumed to be zero, but in 1979-1980 a few experiments indicated that it might be non-vanishing. For practical purposes it can be
regarded as zero.
The Weinberg-Salam-Glashow-theory of the weak force, which unifies the electromagnetic and weak interactions, predicted the existence of a carrier or quantum
for the weak interaction, the intermediate boson. In neutral current interactions
the mediator is the Z boson and in charged current interactions the W + and W
bosons are the mediators. In 1983 the CERN group under the leadership of C
Rubbia announced the discovery of the W bosons.
3. The Four Basic Interactions
While waiting for a unified theory we still have to live with four interactions. These
can be summarized in the following way:
Interaction
Exchange
particle
graviton?
Mass
Range
Strength
zero?
Gm2p /
hc = 739
Electromagnetic
photon
zero
e2 /
hc = 1/137
Strong
, 0
meson
140 MeV
h/m c = 1.4F
g 2 /
hc = 14.5
Weak
W , Z
boson
80-90 GeV
102 F
Gravitational
* The ratio w2 /
hc to e2 /
hc is equal to 103 for 1 GeV and equal to 1 for 100 GeV.
15
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4. Classification of Particles
Worked Example
The square-well form of potential for s-wave neutron-proton scattering is defined as
V (r)
r < Rcore
V0
Rcore r R
r > R,
a) Write down the solutions to the Schr

odinger equation in each of the three regions
where the potential is defined;
b) Write down the continuity conditions for these wave functions at r = Rcore and
r = R; and hence show how Rcore can be determined, if we let 0 = 0.
Solution
a) The radial part of the wave function that satisfies the Schr
odinger equation for the
= 0 (s-wave) is:
u(r)
A sin(kr + 0 ),
r>R
B sin(k r + ),
Rcore < r < R
0,
r < Rcore
b) The continuity conditions at r = R are

i) A sin(kR + 0 ) = B sin(k R + )
ii) kA cos(kR + 0 ) = k B cos(k R + )
Dividing these two equations yields
K cot(kR + 0 ) = k cot(k R + )
(5.1)
A continuity condition at r = Rcore is

B sin(k Rcore + ) = 0
Thus
k Rcore +
or
k Rcore
(5.2)
16
PHY308K/1
Substituting (2) into (1) yields

k cot(kR + 0 ) = k cot[k (R Rcore )]
Solving for Rcore with 0 = 0, we get
.. .
.. .
cot(kR)
k
cot[k (R Rcore ]
k
cot[k R k Rcore ]
k
cot(kR)
k
k R k Rcore
cot1
R+
.. .
5.3
Rcore
k
cot(kR)
k
1
k
cot1 cot(kR)
k
k
1. Discuss the general properties of the nucleon-nucleon interaction and in particular

charge independence, spin dependence and charge symmetry.
2. Discuss the relation between the range of an interaction and the mass of the exchange particle.
3. Why is there a slight difference in the mass of the three pions?
4. Use binding energy considerations to show that the proton is not a + emitter.
5. How is it possible for a massless neutrino to carry away momentum?
6. What are the properties of neutrinos and anti-neutrinos?
7. Discuss the properties of the six leptons.
8. Classify the following as bosons or fermions:
proton, neutrino, + -meson, W + particle, photon, electron, graviton, neutron,
positron, muon.
9. Define leptons, baryons, hadrons and mesons.
10. Discuss the properties of the four basic interactions.
Chapter 6
Nuclear Models
6.1
Learning Objectives
Understanding the liquid-drop model - a semiclassical (particle) model,
Understanding the shell model - a quantum mechanical (wave) model, and
Understanding the collective model.
6.2
Study Guidance
The Liquid-drop Model

The liquid-drop model was proposed by Niels Bohr and is the oldest model of the nucleus.
The essential assumptions are (by analogy to a drop of water)
1. The nucleus consists of incompressible matter so that the radius (R) is proportional
to A1/3 (mass number).
2. The nuclear force is identical for every nucleon, and in particular does not depend
on whether it is a neutron or a proton.
3. The nucleus has constant density at its centre.
4. There is a definite surface tension.
5. Decay of a nucleus by emission of particles is analogous to the evaporation of water
molecules from the surface of a liquid.
This model is used in the explanation of
nuclear fission,
binding energy (semi-empirical mass formula),
nuclear reactions where an intermediate compound nucleus is formed.
Semi-empirical mass formula

Bethe and Weizs
acker derived the semi-empirical mass formula for the binding energy of
a nucleus containing A nucleons, of which Z are protons, as
M (A, Z) = Zm(1 H) + N mn B(A, Z)/c2
17
18
where
B(A, Z) = av A as A2/3 aC
PHY308K/1
(A 2Z)2
Z2
sym
A
A1/3
The first three terms are explained in terms of the liquid-drop model:
The volume term, av A, is derived from the fact that B/A is constant. It is positive
as it adds to the binding energy.
2
The surface term, - as A /3 , is a correction proportional to the surface area of the

nucleus. This term reduces the binding energy, as nucleons at the surface are less
bound. By assuming a nuclear drop to be a sphere its surface area is given by
A
4r 2 = 4(r0 A1/3 )2
4r02 A2/3
yielding a correction of - as A2/3 with as a constant proportional to av and the

surface thickness.
The Coulomb term, - aC Z 2 /A1/3 , reflects the repulsive interaction between protons
and its contribution will decrease the binding energy. It is derived by assuming that
each proton interacts with all the other protons and by again using R = r0 A1/3 .
The Symmetric term, - asym (Z A/2)2 /A, is derived using the Fermi gas model.
This term reflects the property of nuclei to be more stable when Z = (A Z) = N ,
the number of neutrons. It is zero when Z = N , but will decrease the binding
energy when Z 6= N.
The pairing energy term, - , is due to the coupling of identical nucleons in pairs.
It will increase the binding energy when Z and N are even, have no effect when
A = odd, and decreases the binding energy when Z and N are odd.
The Shell Model

The liquid-drop model discussed in the previous section, is a phenomenological model
which
describes the average behaviour of the nucleons and
approximates the mass of the nucleus well.
For the correct prediction of
energy,
spin, and
magnetic moment,
a microscopic model is needed which describes the nucleus in terms of all its individual
nucleons.
The nuclear shell model is similar to the atomic shell model in that we fill the shells with
nucleons (instead of electrons) in order of increasing energy, consistent with the requirement of the Pauli principle. The energies of the subshells are calculated by solving the
Schr
odinger equation for a potential which represents the interaction between individual nucleons. This model is sometimes called the independent particle model, because it
assumes that due to the short range of the strong interactions each nucleon moves independently of all other nucleons and is acted upon by an average nuclear field produced by
the action of all the other nucleons.
There is experimental evidence that supports the existence of nuclear shells.
19
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i) It was, for example, noted that nucleon numbers 2, 8 and 20 were associated with
particular stability. These magic-number nuclei were more tightly bound than
non-magic nuclei.
ii) Sharp discontinuities in the separation energies occur for certain proton and neutron
numbers - these so-called magic numbers (Z or N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126) i.e.
more energy is required to separate a proton or neutron from nuclei which contain
these magic numbers of nucleons. These discontinuities correspond to a filling of
major shells.
As explained earlier, the energies of these subshells are obtained by solving the Schr
odinger
equation. Different forms of potentials are used e.g. the infinite well and harmonic oscillator potentials. For the harmonic oscillator the energy level of the shells are given by
(equation 2.65 in Krane):
EN =
h(N + 3/2)
where N = 0, 1, 2, ... . The number of nucleons that can be put in each level is (2(2 + 1))
where can at most be equal to N and takes on only even or odd values as N is even or
odd.
Level scheme of harmonic oscillator:
N
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
0
2
1
3
0
2
4
1
3
5
degeneracy
2
6
2
10 12
6
14 20
2
10 30
18
6
14 42
22
no. protons/neutrons
2
8
20
40
70
112
As you can see from the table above, only the first three magic numbers (shell closures) are
predicted by using a harmonic oscillator potential. To get a better correspondence with
the magic numbers, we use the Woods-Saxon potential as given by equation 5.1 in Krane.
This potential includes a strong interaction between the orbital angular momentum and
the intrinsic spin angular momentum of each nucleon, the so-called spin-orbit coupling. If
a strong spin-orbit interaction exists, a different energy is associated with the j = + 12
and j = 12 states, i.e. the j = 12 degeneracy is removed, and the correct magic
numbers are predicted. The potential has the form
V = VW S + VC + VS0 si i
The Collective Model

The collective model of A Bohr and Mottelson combines features from both the shell
model and the liquid-drop model. It is an outgrowth of the shell model which assumes
a deformed potential instead of a spheric symmetric one. The deformations arise from
bulges in the nuclear drop caused by a nucleon moving in an orbit near the surface,
similar to the effect of a moon on the tides. The deformed nuclei give rise to additional
energy levels by virtue of their rotation and vibration.
20
PHY308K/1
Worked Examples
Problem 1
Derive an expression for the atomic number Z of the most stable isobar A by optimizing
the binding energy (semi-empirical mass formula) for the strong interaction (symmetry
term) and the Coulomb repulsion (Coulomb term).
Solution
B(A, Z) = av A as A2/3 ac
(A 2Z)2
Z2
asym
1/3
A
A
To optimize, we take the derivative with respect to Z and set it equal to 0.

B(A, Z)
(A 2Z)
2ac
= 1/3 Z + 4asym
Z
A
A
8asym
2ac
Z + 4asym
Z
A
A1/3
4asym
.. .
.. .
8asym
2ac
+
A
A1/3
.. .
4asym
2ac
A1/3
8asym
A
4asym
2ac A2/3 +8asym
A
A
2 + (ac /2asym )A2/3
Problem 2
The mass excesses for
15
C and
15
O are respectively:
(15 C) = 9.87 MeV; (1 5 N) = 0.1 MeV; (1 5 O) = 2.86 MeV.

a) Use the formula derived in 5.4.1 above to determine which of these nuclei are stable.
b) Calculate the binding energy difference between 15 N and 15 O, bearing in mind that
the proton-neutron mass difference is about 1.3 MeV.
c) Show that this difference comes mainly from the Coulomb term in the semi-empirical
mass formula.
Solution
a) A = 15. We choose ac = 0.72 MeV and asym = 23 MeV, as in the textbook (Krane
page 68).
.. .
.. .
15
7 N
15
2 + (0.72/(2 23)152/3
7.16
would be the most stable nucleus.
21
PHY308K/1
b) The binding energy of a nucleus is given by the formula

B(A, Z) = {Zm(1 H) + (A Z)mn Mat (A, Z)}c2
For
15
7 N
we have
B(15, 7) = (7m(1 H) + 8mn 15.0001)c2 ,
and for
15
8 O
we have
B(15, 8) = (8m(1 H) + 7mn 15.0031)c2 .
The binding energy difference is thus given by (neglecting the electron mass)
B(15, 8) B(15, 7)
{(m(1 H) mn ) 0.003}c2
1.3 MeV (0.003 u)c2
1.3 MeV 0.003 u 931.5
(1.3 2.795) MeV
4.095 MeV
MeV
u
c) The Coulomb term in the semi-empirical mass formula:

C(A, Z) = ac
For
15
7 N
we have
C(15, 7)
and for
Z2
A1/3
15
8 O
72
151/3
0.72MeV
14.305 MeV,
we have
C(15, 8)
82
151/3
0.72
18.685 MeV.
The difference is thus

C(15, 8) C(15, 7)
18.685 (14.305)
4.38 MeV.
Comparing this to the solution of (b) above, we see that the difference comes mainly
from the Coulomb term.
Problem 3
Use the semi-empirical mass formula to derive an expression for the mass difference between two mirror nuclei for which N and Z differ by 1. Use the atomic mass of two mirror
23
nuclei (e.g. 23
11 Na and 12 Mg) to determine the value for aC .
Solution:
The semi-empirical mass formula:
B(A, Z) = av A as A2/3 ac
(A 2Z)2
Z2
sym
A
A1/3
22
For a mirror mucleus with Z = Z 1,

B(A, Z 1)
av A as A2/3 ac
asym
.. .
B(A, Z 1) B(A, Z)
(Z 1)2
A1/3
(A 2(Z 1))2
ac (Z 1)2
ac Z 2
A1/3
A1/3
+ asym
PHY308K/1
(A 2(Z 1))2
(A 2Z)2
asym
A
A
ac
{zZ 2 (Z 2 2Z + 1)}
A1/3
asym 2
+
{A 4AZ + 4Z 2 (A 2Z + 2)2 }
A
asym
ac
(4A 8Z + 4)
(2Z 1)
A
A1/3
Now
B(23, 11) B(23, 12)
(11 12)m(1 H) + (12 11)mn 22.989768 + 22.994124
1.007825 + 1.008665 22.989768 + 22.994124
0.005196 u
4.84 MeV
If asym = 23 M eV. Z = 12, A = 23,

=
ac
23
(4(23) 8(12) + 4)
(23)
23
231/3
8.088 ac 0
8.088 ac
4.84
0.60 MeV
B(23, 11) V (23 12)
.. .
..
ac
Problem 4
Differentiate the semi-empirical mass formula with respect to Z and show that
a) if the symmetry term is absent the most stable nucleus would consist entirely of
neutrons and
b) if the Coulomb term is absent the most stable nucleus would contain equal numbers
of protons and neutrons.
Solution:
(A 2Z)2
ac Z 2
asym
1/3
A
A
B(A < Z)
av A as A2/3
B(A, Z)
Z
1ac Z
asym (A 2Z)
+4
A
A1/3
a) If the symmetry term is absent

B(A, Z)
2ac Z
= 1/3
Z
A
For the most stable nucleus, this derivative must be zero
.. .
.. .
2ac Z
A1/3
23
PHY308K/1
Thus the most stable nucleus would have 0 protons, and will consist entirely of
neutrons.
b) If the Coulomb term is absent
.. .
B(A, Z)
Z
asym (A 2Z)
A
.. .
A 2Z
A/2
..
asym (A 2Z)
A
Now,
N
AZ
A A/2
A/2
Thus, the most stable nucleus would contain equal numbers of protons and neutrons. (Explain why this would be so!)
6.3
1. Explain the origin of each term in the semi-empirical mass formula and show how
it affects the mass of the nucleus.
2. What is meant by magic numbers?
3. Explain how the shell model accounts for these magic numbers.
4. Determine the energy level scheme for the harmonic oscillator potential.
5. Show how the inclusion of a spin-orbit potential can remove the j =
eracy.
1
2
degen-
Chapter 7
Nuclear Decay and

Radioactivity
7.1
Learning Objectives
To understand what is meant by radioactive decay,

To derive the radioactive decay laws,
To apply the decay law in solving various decay problems,

To understand the following concepts
i) decay constant,
ii) half-life,
iii) mean lifetime,
iv) activity,
v) partial decay constant,
vi) branching ratios,
vii) partial half-lives,
To consider and understand a series or chain of decays,
To be able to give examples of alpha, beta and gamma decay,
To understand the various units used for measuring radiation.
7.2
Study Guidance
This chapter and the next in the study guide will be concerned with a discussion of the
dynamic, or time-varying, properties of nuclei: radioactive decay and nuclear reactions.
Both of these are characterized by a transition from some initial system to some final system, occurring either spontaneously (radioactive decay) or artificially (nuclear reaction).
In this chapter we consider radioactive decay. It has been found that naturally occurring
radioactive nuclides emit one or more of three types of radiation, namely alpha (), beta
() and gamma () rays. The initial nuclide in any decay is called the parent and the
(heavy) product nuclide is called the daughter.
24
25
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RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Section 6.1: The Radioactive Decay Law
Radioactive decay obeys an exponential law such that
N (t) = N0 et ,
where N0 = original number of nuclei present at t = 0, = decay constant, N (t) =
number of parent nuclei present after time t.
The number of daughter nuclei at time t will be
ND (t) = N0 (1 et ).
The half-life t 1 gives the time taken for half of the nuclei to decay:
2
t1 =
2
0.693
.
The mean lifetime of a nucleus is defined as

=
1
.
The number of decays that occur between times t and t + t :

|N | = N0 et (1 et ).
Defining the activity A to be the rate at which decay occurs within a sample,
A(t) = N (t).
It can happen that a given initial nucleus decays in two or more different ways, ending
with two different final nuclei. If a and b represent the partial decay constants for these
two modes, then the total decay constant is given by
t = a + b .
Section 6.3 Production and Decay of Radioactivity
Radioactive isotopes can be produced artificially by employing nuclear reactions. For example a radioisotope can be produced by bombarding a sample of material with neutrons.
The rate R (per unit time) at which these radioisotopes are produced is
R = N0 I,
where
=
number of target atoms/cm2
xNA
MA
x(g cm2 )NA (at mol1 )

MA (g mol1 )
cross section of reaction (in cm2 ),
incoming flux (atoms/s).
N0
The yield then of these radioisotopes is

N (t) = Rt,
26
PHY308K/1
where t = irradiation time (s).

The radioisotope decays at a rate N where N is the number of radioactive nuclei
present, and = the decay constant. The net rate of change of N is therefore
dN
= R N
dt
Solving this equation yields
R
(1 et ).
N (t) =
Section 6.4 Growth of Daughter Activities

It is common for a radioactive decay to result in a product nucleus that is also radioactive.
One can therefore have series or chains of radioactive decays. In other words a parent 1
decays with a decay constant 1 and produces a daughter 2. Then the daughter 2 decays
in turn with a decay constant 2 producing a granddaughter 3, and so on. For the simple
case where the granddaughter 3 is stable, let N1 , N2 and N3 be the respective numbers
of radioactive nuclei present at any given time t, then we find
dN1
dt
1 N1
(7.1)
dN2
dt
1 N1 2 N2
(7.2)
dN3
dt
2 N2
(7.3)
In deriving equation (2) we need only to remember that every decaying nucleus 1 produces
one nucleus 2. Since 2 is also radioactive, it also decays. The number of parent nuclei can
easily be found by integrating equation (1):
N1 = N0 e1 t
Substitution into equation (2) yields
dN2
+ 2 N2 = 1 N0 et
dt
(7.4)
If you know anything about solving differential equations (and now is the time to do
so), you will know that the complete solution of this inhomogeneous differential equation
consists of a general solution of the homogeneous equation
dN2
+ 2 N2 = 0
dt
plus any particular solution of the original equation (4).
A general solution of equation (5) is
N2 = ce2 t .
A particular solution of equation (4) is
N2 Ke1 t .
Substitution into equation (4) yields
.. .
N0 1
2 1
N2
N0 1
e1 t + Ce2 t .
2 1
If initially no nuclei 2 are present (N2 (0) = 0), we can evaluate C and find
N2 =
N0 1
(e1 t e2 t )
2 1
(7.5)
27
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Substituting into equation (3) and integrating (using N3 = 0 at t = 0) we get

N3 =
N0 1 2
2 1
1 et
1 e2 t
1
2
It is vitally important that you verify this for yourself !

Section 6.5: Types of Decay
In - and -decay processes, an unstable nucleus emits an or particle as it tries to
become a more stable nucleus. In -decay processes, an excited state decays towards the
ground state without changing the nuclear species.
-decay: In this process a nucleus of helium, 42 He2 , is emitted from the parent nucleus.
-decay: In this process a proton can be converted into a neutron or vice versa. This can
occur in three ways:
decay - emission of an electron,
+ decay - emission of a positron,
electron capture.
Recall that in chapter 4 we described -decay as a weak interaction and that in all three
processes mentioned above a neutral particle called the neutrino is also emitted. Note
also that in -decay a particle is created whereas in -decay the particle emitted already
existed within the parent nucleus.
-decay: In this process, an excited state decays to a lower excited state or to the ground
state by the emission of a photon.
Spontaneous fission:
In this process, a heavy nucleus splits spontaneously into two roughly equal lighter nuclei.
Nucleon emission:
In this process, unstable nuclei decay by means of nucleon emission.
Branching ratios and partial half-lives:
Often nuclei decay through various competing modes. The relative intensities of these
modes is specified by the branching ratios. The decay constant for each mode is called the
partial decay constant from which the partial half-life can be calculated.
Section 6.6: Natural Radioactivity
Most of the elements produced during the formation of the Earth were radioactive, but
have since decayed to form stable nuclei. A few of the radioactive elements have half-lives
that are long compared with the age of the Earth, and form thus a major portion of our
natural radioactive environment. There are also other natural sources of radioactivity of
relatively short half-lives that are being formed continuously today.
Section 6.7: Units for Measuring Radiation
You need to read through this section carefully, as there are various units defined here that
will be used in solving problems later on. Make sure that you understand the following:
curies
exposure
roentgen
absorbed dose
rad
gray
relative biological effectiveness (RBE)
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quality factor (QF)
dose equivalent (DE)

rem
sievert
To make life a little easier for you, we mention below a few of these units.
The unit for measuring activity is the curie (Ci):
1 Ci = 3.7 1010 decays/s.
Nuclear radiations are able to ionise atoms, i.e. the radiated particles are able to knock
out electrons from the atoms with which they interact. The total electric charge Q on the
ions produced in a given mass m of air is called the exposure X:
X=
Q
m
and is measured in Coulomb per kilogram.

The exposure resulting in an ionisation charge of 1 electrostatic unit in 1 cm3 of air at 0
and 760 mm pressure is called the roentgen R:
1R = 2.58 104 C kg1 .
ALPHA DECAY
Section 8.1: Why -decay occurs
Alpha radioactivity has been investigated for a long time because the naturally radioactive
substances which led to the discovery of radioactivity (Becquerel, 1896) were found to be
alpha emitters (Curie, Rutherford). Alpha particles (4 He nuclei) are emitted because the
Coulomb repulsion within the nucleus becomes large for large nuclei (A > 140).
Section 8.2: Basic -decay processes
You may be asked to show that the alpha-particle kinetic energy T is always less than
the decay energy Q . In order to do this, you will have to derive the relation
T =
A4
Q .
A
Make sure that you can do this by using the conservation of energy as described in the
textbook. This is known as the energetics of a alpha-particle decay.
BETA DECAY
Section 9.1: Energy release in -decay
Beta decay is the most common type of radioactive decay. The process consists of the
emission of an electron directly from a nucleus.
Both positive and negative electrons can be emitted. However, these electrons cannot be
emitted in isolation, as this would result in violation of conservation of energy, angular
momentum and linear momentum. Make sure that you understand from the textbook
how these difficulties concerning the conservation laws were overcome by the neutrino
hypothesis of Pauli in 1931.
You must understand how to demonstrate -decay energetics by considering each of the
three processes:
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-decay,
+ -decay,
electron capture.
We have, for example,

Q
Te + E ,
[m(A X) m(A X )]c2 ,
Q +
Te+ + E ,
Q +
[m(A X) m(A X ) 2m0 ]c2 .
Section 9.2: Fermi theory of -decay

Fermis theory of -decay begins with Fermis Golden Rule for the transition rate:
=
2
|Vf i |2 (Ef )
h
The matrix element Vf i is the integral of the interaction V between the initial and final
states,
Z
Vf i =
f V i dv.
In your summary, you need to look at the interaction V and the final state f .
The factor (Ef ) is the density of final states. Write it down.
What is the allowed approximation?
Show, how, using this approximation you can obtain an expression for the partial decay
rate and hence the momentum and energy distribution.
N (p)
N (Te )
p
c 2
p (Q p2 c2 + m2e c4 + me c2 )2
c2
1
c
(Te2 + 2Te me c2 ) 2 (Q Te )2 (Te + me c2 )
s
c
GAMMA DECAY
A nucleus can be brought to an excited state by a variety of means. An excited nucleus

can always decay to a lower-energy state by
emission of electromagnetic radiation or
internal conversion.
Emission of electromagnetic radiation or in other words a photon can occur when a nucleon
moves from a higher to a lower state. This is gamma decay.
Internal conversion occurs when the nuclear energy released (Ei Ef ) in the transition
of a nucleon from a higher to a lower state is transferred directly to an atomic electron,
which is ejected with a kinetic energy
Te = E i E f E B
where EB is the binding energy of the electron in the atomic shell form which it has been
ejected.
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We will concern ourselves here with gamma decay.

Section 10.1: Energetics of decay
If the initial excited nucleus has a rest mass M0 and the final state has a rest mass M0 ,
conservation of energy and momentum require
M0 c2
M0 c2 + E + TR
~R + P
~
P
where
E , P~
energy and momentum of gamma decay
~R
TR , P
recoil energy and momentum of final nucleus
The recoil speed of the nucleus is so small that nonrelativistic formulae may be used to
compute TR .
TR
PR2
2m0
P 2
2M0
E2
2M0 c2
Thus, using
E
Ei Ef , we get
E +
E2
2M0 c2
Worked Examples
Problem 1
3
H has a half-life of 12.26 years. If we start with 1 kg 3 H, how long will it take before 1 g
is left?
Solution:
The exponential law of radioactive decay gives the number of nuclei left after time t:
N (t) = N0 et
Firstly, we need the ratio
N (t)
N0
Now, N (t) can be calculated as follows:
.. .
number of moles (n)
mass
molar mass of 3 H nucleus
number of nuclei(N (t))
NA n
NA 1 g
molar mass of 3 H
where NA is Avogadros number.
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Similarly:
.. .
N0
NA 1000 g
molar mass of 3 H
N (t)
N0
1
1000
Secondly, we need , the decay constant:
0.693
t1
2
0.693
12.26 years
0.0565 years1
We can thus find how long it takes to have 1 g left:

et
N (t)
N0
N (t)
N0
.. .
1
N0
n
N (t)
1
0.0565 years1
122.26 years.
Problem 2
Compute the Q-values for the following reactions
a) Alpha decay of 230 Th: 230 Th 226 Ra +
b) Beta ( ) decay of 193 Os: 193 Os 193 Ir
Solution:
a)
Q
[m(230 Th) m(226 Ra) m(4 He)]c2
(230.033128 u 226.025403 u 4.002603 u)(931.5 MeV u1 )
4.771 MeV.
b)
Q
[m(193 Os) m(193 Ir)]c2
(192.964138 u 192.962917 u)(931.5 MeV u1 )
1.137 MeV.
Problem 3
(The next worked example may confuse you a little, as it comes from the section about
gamma decay that is supposed to be read only. However, we feel it is important that you
understand the modes of gamma decay.)
Lets explain what is meant by modes of gamma decay, before posing the problem. When a
~ r ) and the parity of the initial
photon is emitted, it carries a certain angular momentum (L
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and final state of the nucleon is affected. Conservation of angular momentum requires that
~r
I~i = I~f + L
The parity change r is directly related to Lr , and
For electric multipole radiation r = (1)Lr
For magnetic multipole radiation r = (1)Lr+1 . Now, the question is determine the
dominant polarities of the following transitions:
a) 2+ 0+
b) 1+ 0+
c)
1
2
+
1+
2
+
9+
2
1
2
d) 2 2
e)
Solution:
a)
2+ 0+
.
i f = +
Lr
Lr
. . Since r = (1) = +, this is an electric dipole transition and is written as

ELr or E2 in this case.
b)
1+ 0+
Lr
.. . Since r = (1)Lr+1 = +, this is an M1 transition.

c)
1+
1
2
2
.
d)
Lr
. . Since r = (1) = , this is an E1 transition.

2+ 2+
.
. . Since r = (1)
Lr+1
Lr
, this is an M1 transition.
e)
1
9+
2
2
Lr
9
1
=4
2
2
.. . Since r = (1)Lr+1 = , this is an M4 transition.
7.3
1. Explain what is meant by the half-life of a nucleus.

2. Describe briefly the five modes of radioactive decay.
Chapter 8
Nuclear Reactions
8.1
Learning Objectives
To know all the types of nuclear reactions listed in the textbook,
To understand the conservation laws,
To apply the conservation of linear momentum and energy to obtain the energetics
of nuclear reactions,
To understand isospin,
To be able to define the following

- cross section,
- differential cross section,
- doubly differential cross section,
To understand and be able to derive the differential cross section for Rutherford
scattering,
To understand the optical model, compound-nucleus reactions, direct reactions and
resonance reactions.
8.2
Study Guidance
Section 11.1 Types of Reactions and Conservation Laws

A typical nuclear reaction is written as
a+xY +b
or
x(a, b)Y.
Reactions can be classified into the following groups by the mechanism that governs the
process:
Radioactive capture reactions: In these reactions one of the products (b) is a ray
e.g. 14 N(p, )15 O.
Photonuclear reactions: In these reactions one of the reactions (a) is a ray e.g.
N(, p)13 C.
14
33
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Scattering reactions: The incident and outgoing particles are the same in these reactions
e.g.
14
14
N(p, p)14 N
elastic scattering,
N(p, p )14 N
inelastic scattering.
Knockout reactions: These reactions cause another nucleon to be ejected, so that there
are 3 particles in the final state e.g. 3 He(e, e p)2 H.
Transfer reactions:
e.g. 3 He(d, p)4 He.
Here the neutron is transferred from the deuteron (d) to the 3 He nucleus.
Compound reactions: These reactions occur via a series of intermediary steps. The
incoming and target nuclei merge briefly, sharing energy.
Direct reactions: These reactions take place immediately without the formation of a
compound nucleus.
Resonance reactions: These reactions are intermediate reactions in which the incoming
particle forms a quasibound state with the target.
In nuclear reactions (particularly at low energies) we can apply the following conservation
laws:
Conservation:
of
of
of
of
of
total energy
linear momentum
proton and neutron number
angular momentum
parity.
Section 11.2 Energies of Nuclear Reactions

Since I, so kindly, summarized Section 11.1 for you, it is up to you to summarize the rest.
Of course, this study guide is there to assist you in this task.
Using conservation of energy and linear momentum, you can write down the equations
governing these quantities in a nuclear reaction.
We define the reaction Q value as the initial mass energy minus the final mass energy.
If Q > 0, the reaction is exothermic, and if Q < 0, the reaction is endothermic.
In endothermic reactions there is an absolute minimum value of the incident particles
kinetic energy below which the reaction would not be possible. This energy is called the
threshold energy.
Section 11.3: Isospin (Pages 388-389)
A nucleon (proton or neutron) has two spin states: spin-up (with spin component ms =
+ 21 ) or spin-down (ms = 21 ). In the formalism of nuclear physics there is no need to
distinguish between nucleons of different spin.
Similarly, due to the charge independence of nuclear forces, we do not need to distinguish
between protons and neutrons. The neutron and proton are thus treated as two different
states of a single particle, the nucleon. The nucleon is therefore assigned a fictitious spin
vector, called the isospin. The isospin-up particle (with isospin component mt = + 21 ) is
the proton and the isospin-down particle (mt = 12 ) is the neutron.
Section 11.4: Reaction Cross Section
The cross section () is a measure of the relative probability for the reaction to occur.
has the dimension of area per nucleus and is usually measured in barns (b) where 1 b = 100
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fm2 . The differential cross section (d/d) represents the number of scatterings per unit
time and unit solid angle for one incident particle per unit time and one target particle
per unit area. Its measurement gives us important information on the angular distribution
of the reaction products. Integrating the differential cross section over all angles gives us
the reaction cross section.
Of course, you also need to know the definition of the doubly differential cross section.
Find this in the textbook and write it down below:
The variation of the cross section with energy, (E), is also known as the excitation
function. At high energies (E) will simply be equal to the geometrical cross section.
Section 11.6: Coulomb Scattering
Coulomb scattering occurs as a result of the electric charge distribution of the nucleus.
This scattering may be either elastic or inelastic. Elastic Coulomb scattering is called
Rutherford scattering. Rutherford used scattering of alpha particles from gold foil to
investigate the nature of the atom. He derived a formula to predict the yield of scattered
particles per solid angle expected at a given angle.
The distance of closest approach (in a head-on collision) is given by
d=
zZe2
r0 Ta
where Ta = 12 m02 .
The fraction of particles with impact parameters less than b, or that are scattered at angles
greater than is
f = nxb2
where
n
target nuclei per unit volume
target thickness
impact parameter.
The relationship between b and is given by

b=
b
cot
2
2
The Rutherford cross section is thus given by

d
=
d
zZe2
40

1
4Ta
2
1
sin4
To simplify calculations with e4 we introduce the numerical constant:

e2 /(40 ) = 1.44 MeV.fm
(Notice that the above constitutes a brief outline of the derivation of the Rutherford cross
section. You need to fill in the missing steps.)
Section 11.7 Nuclear Scattering
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A deviation from the Rutherford formula is caused by interference between nuclear and
Coulomb scattering of charged particles.
Section 11.9 The Optical Model
The approach used in the optical model is very similar to the approach used in the shell
model. The Schr
odinger equation is solved for a potential which accounts for elastic
scattering in the presence of absorptive effects. This potential is complex
U (r) = V (r) + iW (r)
The real part is responsible for the elastic scattering and the imaginary part is responsible
for the absorption.
In practice the optical model consists of the sum of central, spin-orbit and Coulomb
potentials.
Section 11.10 Compound-Nucleus Reactions
The optical model is used to describe average trends in the cross section. To explain the
resonances observed in excitation functions at low energies the concept of a compound
nucleus is introduced.
The most important feature of the compound nucleus model is the following:
1. The projectile is absorbed by the target to form a compound nucleus. The lifetime of the compound nucleus ( 1017 s) is long compared to the time needed
to transgress the nucleus ( 1021 s). This means that the projectile and target
nucleus form a new nucleus which exists long enough to forget how it was formed.
2. A prerequisite for the formation of a compound nucleus is that the projectile has
enough energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier.
3. The projectile loses its energy to other nucleons in the target atom and becomes
indistinguishable from them. The compound nucleus is thus formed in an excited
state. As the bombarding energy increases, the number of energy levels available
for occupation increases and the resonances are more closely spaced.
4. The compound nucleus loses energy by emitting energy radiation or particles. Two
decay modes are always possible, namely photon radiation and compound-elastic
scattering. At higher energies other reaction channels become available.
Section 11.11 Direct Reactions
At still higher energies (> 20 MeV) an immediate interaction occurs between the projectile and target without the formation of a compound nucleus. Features of this type of
reaction mechanism are:
1. Direct processes occur very rapidly; compound-nuclear processes take much longer.
2. Enhancement in cross section for forward angles (angular distribution is peaked in
forward direction).
3. No definite resonances in excitation function.
4. A very large cross section.
Two specific processes are stripping reactions, in which target removes one or more nucleons from projectile (e.g. (d, p) reaction), and pickup reactions, in which projectile picks
up a nucleon from target (e.g. (p, ) reaction).
From Fermis Golden Rule for the transition probability (see Section 9.2 of the textbook),
you should have realized that the transition rate or amplitude is governed by the nuclear
matrix element:
Z
M=
y b V x a dv
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where we have to consider the direct reaction

X + a Y + b.
In the plane-wave Born approximation, a and b are treated as plane waves.
To obtain a slightly more realistic result, wee use the optical model to account for the fact
that the incoming and outgoing plane waves are changed (or distorted) by the nucleus.
This gives the distorted wave Born approximation or DWBA.
Section 11.12 Resonance Reactions
For certain incident energies the exterior and interior wave functions match exactly, with
the result that the incident particle penetrates easily and the cross section rises to a maximum. This is called a resonance reaction. The Breit-Wigner formula describes the shape
of a single, isolated resonance. It is important to note that direct scattering without the
formation of a resonant state (potential scattering) and resonant scattering both contribute
to the elastic scattering amplitude.
You must be able to derive the Breit-Wigner formula for the shape of a single, isolated
resonance:
For the reaction a + x a + X,
=
(a x)2
g
,
2
k
(E ER )2 + 2 /4
and for the reaction a + x b + Y ,

=
(ax )(by )
g
,
k2
(E ER )2 + 2 /4
by following the steps in the textbook.
Worked Examples
Problem 1
Determine the distance of closest approach for an alpha particle incident on a gold target
at incident energy of 10 MeV.
Solution:
d
zZe2
40 Ta
zZ
e2
Ta 40
(2)(79)
(1.44 MeV fm)
10 MeV
22.8 fm
2.28 1012 cm.
Problem 2
Derive equation (11.10) in the textbook by making use of the conservation of linear momentum (equations (11.4)) and the difference between the final and initial kinetic energies
(Q) (equation (11.3))
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Solution:
Equations (11.4) give
pa
pb cos + py cos ,
pb sin py sin .
We can write these equations as

ma va
mb vb cos + my vy cos ,
mb vb sin my vy sin .
1
In order to eliminate , substitute mv = (2mT ) 2 for each particle and rewrite the equations:
1
(ma Ta ) 2 (mb Tb ) 2 cos

1
(mb Tb ) 2 sin
(my Ty ) 2 cos ,
(my Ty ) 2 sin ,
Squaring both of these equations and adding:

1
ma Ta 2(ma Ta mb Tb ) 2 cos + mb Tb (cos2 + sin2 ) = my Ty (cos2 + sin2 )

or
ma Ta 2(ma Ta mb Tb ) 2 cos + mb Tb (cos2 + sin2 ) = my Ty
Now, using equation (11.3):

Ty = Q Tb + Ta + Tx
we can eliminate Ty to get:
1
my Q my Tb my Ta + my Tx = ma Ta 2(ma Ta mb Tb ) 2 cos + mb Tb
.. .
my Q
.. .
Tb (my + mb ) Ta (my ma ) 2(mz Ta mb Tb ) 2 cos
Tb (1 +
ma
mb
) Ta (1
)2
my
my
ma mb
m y m y Ta Tb
12
cos
(as required).
Problem 3
Protons of energy 6 MeV are Coulomb scattered by a silver foil of thickness 3.5 106
m. What fraction of the incident protons is scattered at angles greater than 90 ? (The
density of the silver foil is 10.6 g cm3 .)
Solution:
The fraction of protons scattered at an angle greater than is given by equation (11.19)
in the textbook:
f
nxb2
NA
A
(10.5 g cm2 )(6.02 1023 atomsmol1 )

107.9 g mol1
5.86 1022 atoms cm2
where
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To calculate b using equation (11.26) we need d. From equation (11.16) we have that
d
zZe2
40 T
(1)(47)(1.44 MeV fm
6 MeV
11.28 fm
At = 90 ,
b
.. .
8.3
cot
2
2

11.28
cot 45
2
5.64 fm
nxb2
(5.86 1022 atoms cm3 )(3.5 104 cm)()(5.64 1013 cm)2
2.05 105
Self-assessment questions
1. Give the 3 categories into which nuclear reactions can be divided.

2. Define the Q value of a reaction.
3. Explain the meaning of endothermic and exothermic reactions.
4. What is isospin?
5. Define differential cross section, total reaction cross section and excitation function.
6. What is the difference between elastic and inelastic scattering?
7. Derive an expression for the differential cross section for charged particles at low
energies.
8. Show that a complex potential (in the optical model) gives rise to absorption.
9. Describe the propagation of a compound nucleus reaction.
10. It is possible to have direct and compound nucleus processes both contribute to a
given reaction. Describe the two principal differences that can be observed experimentally.
11. Derive the Breit-Wigner formula for isolated resonances.
Chapter 9
Nuclear Energy
9.1
Learning Objectives
To be able to distinguish between fission and fusion reactions,

To understand why nuclei split (or fission),
To understand the characteristics of fission such as

i) mass distribution of the fragments produced in the fission process,
ii) number of emitted neutrons,
iii) radioactive decay processes, and
iv) cross sections,
To be able to derive the energetics of fission,
To describe the factors that must be considered in the design of a fission reactor,
To be able to classify fission reactors according to
i) type of fuel used,
ii) average neutron energy,
iii) moderators used,
iv) form of energy extraction, and
v) the purpose of the reactor,
To identify safety measures,
To understand how fusion occurs,
To understand the characteristics of fusion,

To describe solar fusion.
9.2
Study Guidance
At closer inspection it will be clear that all our energy is basically nuclear in origin. We
will concentrate on two self-sustaining processes which constitute enormous amounts of
energy, namely nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
40
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NUCLEAR FISSION
Section 13.1: Why Nuclei Fission

A reaction x(a, b)y is usually called fission, if b and y have comparable masses (not normally
equal). Usually fission is produced only if sufficient energy is given to a nucleus by capture
of a slow neutron or by bombardment with n; p; d; ... particles of gamma rays. As far
as we know, the fission process always proceeds through a compound-nucleus stage. The
compound nucleus breaks up into two parts with some prompt neutron emission. The two
main nuclear components, called fission fragments, do not have equal masses because of
energetics. We consider two fission processes below viz. spontaneous fission and induced
fission.
1. In the spontaneous fission of a heavy nucleus into two fragments, the binding energy
per nucleon increases, with the result that energy is released - about 200 MeV per
nucleus. Due to the Coulomb barrier this is a very slow process. The height of
the Coulomb barrier is roughly equal to the energy released. Spontaneous fission
occurs when the energy released puts the two fragments just below the Coulomb
barrier. A rough indicator that spontaneous fission will occur can be obtained from
the semi-empirical mass formula and is
Z2
> 47.
A
2. Absorption of a relatively small amount of energy, from a neutron or photon, forms
an intermediate step that is at or just above the barrier so that induced fission
occurs. Thus, by bombarding heavy nuclei with neutrons, the reaction is sped up
considerably and a fission chain reaction is established due to the release of an
average of 2.5 neutrons per fission. This chain reaction can be controlled, utilizing
the energy for power-generating purposes, or be left uncontrolled, leading to an
explosion, e.g. an atom bomb.
Section 13.2: Characteristics of Fission
You need to summarize this section under the heading described in the textbook and
outlined below:
Mass distribution of fragments: Here you should note that fission of a specific nucleus (e.g.
235
U) into equal or nearly equal fragments is not highly probable.
Number of emitted neutrons: Neutrons are shedded by the fission fragments either at
the instant of fission or after a short delay These are called prompt neutrons or delayed
neutrons respectively.
Radioactive decay processes: The initial fission products are highly radioactive and decay
by emitting and radiations. These radioactive products constitute the waste matter
of nuclear reactors.
Fission cross sections: Take note of the various regions in the cross section.
Section 13.3: Energy in Fission
When a nucleus captures a neutron to form a compound state, that state has a certain
excitation energy. The energy needed to overcome the fission barrier of a nucleus is called
the activation energy. If the excitation energy is greater than the activation energy, zero
energy neutrons can be used to fission the nucleus.
Section 13.6: Fission Reactors
A device in which a self-sustaining reaction takes place is called a reactor. A self-sustained
reaction is obtained when at least one neutron released in a fission reaction induces another
fission reaction. Factors which inhibit this process are
42
i) absorption of neutrons by non-fissile nuclei in the fission fuel (e.g.
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238
U).
ii) Absorption of neutrons by materials used in the construction of reactor core.

iii) Leakage of neutrons from reactor core.
These factors have to be considered in the design of a reactor.
Reactors can be classified according to the following five properties.
a) Type of fuel:
i) Natural uranium (0.72%
235
ii) Enriched uranium (> 0.72%

iii) Plutonium (
239
U)
235
U)
Pu)
iv) Uranium-233 (233 U).

b) Average neutron energy:
i) Fast neutrons (10 keV - 10 MeV)
ii) Intermediate neutrons (partially moderated to 100 eV - 10 keV)
iii) Thermal neutrons (moderated to 0.025 eV).
c) Moderators (in intermediate and thermal reactors)
i) Graphite (C)
ii) Deuterium (D2 O)
iii) Hydrogen (H2 O)
d) Energy extraction
i) Gas
ii) Water, D2 O
iii) Liquid metals e.g. molten sodium
e) Purpose of reactor
i) Research
ii) Power generation
iii) Breeding
iv) Converting.
The following safety measures can be identified:
a) Nuclear fuel is kept in containers which provide sufficient radiation protection when
fuel elements are exchanged.
b) The reactor core is enveloped in reinforced concrete. The high Z value material
screens neutrons and the low Z material screens -radiation.
c) The reactor is cooled. Usually the cooling material and moderator are the same
e.g. water. In pressure water reactors the reactor core is placed under high pressure
to prevent water from boiling below 600 K. This pressurized water is also used in
steam turbines for generation of power.
d) The value of the multiplication factor k is controlled by insertion and withdrawal
of neutron absorbers e.g. control rods made of boron or cadmium.
e) Reactors also have safety factors inherent to their design. The popular concept
of reactors being controlled nuclear bombs is wrong. In a nuclear explosion fast
neutrons are needed, while most reactors work with slow neutrons. In nuclear
fission - 0.7% of neutrons are released a few seconds after fission has occurred.
These delayed neutrons are included in the calculation of k with the result that the
tempo of energy release is slowed down to prevent overheating of reactor.
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In pressure water reactors overheating will cause the water (H2 O or D2 O) which
is used as moderator, to evaporate. Vapour is a poor moderator, with the result
that the neutrons have higher energy. The probability for leakage is enhanced,
causing k to become smaller than 1 and the reactor to become sub-critical. In
thermal reactors the high energy neutrons will of course be less likely to cause
fission (smaller cross section), in effect halting the chain reaction.
PS: Damage from nuclear weapons are not restricted to the immediate slaughter. Longtime biological and ecological effects result from the fall-out produced by bomb
tests.
NUCLEAR FUSION
Section 14.1: Basic Fusion Processes
The advantages of using fusion reactions as a source of energy are:
1. Due to the strong binding of the 4 He nucleus, fusion of lighter nuclei to produce
4
He will yield great amounts of energy; in theory up to about six times as much as
the yield from fission of heavy nuclei,
2. the seemingly inexhaustible supply of fuel (deuterium) and
3. the absence of radioactive waste.
A disadvantage is that to initiate these reactions, the nuclei must get close enough to interact (< 10 fm). This requires overcoming a Coulomb barrier of 0.5 MeV for deuterons.
Due to quantum-tunneling this value is reduced to 10 keV.
Assuming the deuterons to behave like gas particles, we have
E = kT
with k the Boltzmann constant. Using this equation we find that a temperature of
108 K is needed before fusion will commence. This is why fusion reactions are called
thermonuclear reactions.
This temperature is at present unobtainable, therefore fusion of deuterium and tritium
(D-T) which commence At 4 107 K is considered instead of deuterium (D-D) fusion.
To obtain a chain reaction for D-T fusion, the fuel is enveloped in lithium which releases
tritium and neutrons through different reactions.
Practical problems encountered at present with the construction of a D-T reactor are
a) reaching high ignition temperature
b) keeping plasma confined (e.g. with magnetic fields or laser beams)
c) preventing heat from escaping
d) cooling of plasma resulting from heat exchange with surroundings
e) world reserves of tritium may be exhausted in future.
Section 14.2: Characteristics of Fusion
Energy release: To calculate the energy released in a fusion reaction, one simply has to
calculate the Q value of the reaction.
Coulomb barrier: The height of the Coulomb barrier is directly proportional to the product
of the atomic numbers of the initial nuclei, and the barrier is therefore lowest for the
hydrogen isotopes.
Cross section: Note here the dependence of the cross section on the relative velocity v of
the reacting particles and on the barrier penetration factor G:
1 2G
e
.
v2
44
PHY308K/1
Reaction rate: From the dependence of < v > on temperature, you should be able
to understand why at extremely high temperatures the D-T reaction may become less
favourable than others.
Section 14.3: Solar Fusion
The sun is a prototype of a self sustaining thermonuclear reactor. The basic process in
the sun is the fusion of hydrogen into helium:
p+p
p+d
3
He +3 He
d + e+ +
3
He +
4
He + p + p
p p I chain
This complete process is known as the proton-proton cycle. The net reaction is the conversion of 4 protons into helium:
41 H 4 He + 2e+ + 2
An alternative fate of the 3 He is to encounter an particle and for the sequence to proceed
in one of the following two ways:
p-p II chain
4
H 3H
7
Be + e
7
Li + p
8
Be
(T< 3 107 K)
7 Be +
7 Li +
8 Be +
4 He + 4 He
p-p III chain

4
He + 3 He
7
Be + p
8
B
8
Be
(T> 3 107 K)
7 Be +
8 Be + e+ +
8 Be + e+ +
4 He + 4 He
At temperatures below 3 107 K the decay of 7 Be to 7 Li is the fastest process and the
p-p II chain dominates. When the temperature is 3 107 K the protons overcome the
Coulomb barrier of 7 Be faster than the half-life of electron capture and the p-p III chain
would win.
If carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are present in the star, it is possible that these elements
can also play the role of catalyst in the 4p 4 He synthesis, as shown in the sequence
below. (This is known as the carbon or CNO cycle):
12
C+p
N
13
C+p
14
N+p
15
O
15
N+p
13
13
N+
C+e+ +
14
N+
15
O+
15
+e+ +
12
C+4 He
13
It is estimated that 56% of the 4 He formed at the centre of the sun comes from the p-p I
chain, 40% from the p-p II chain, 0.05% from the p-p III chain and 3.2% from the CNO
cycle.
Once a star has exhausted its hydrogen fuel, helium fusion reactions can take place:
34 He
12
C.
Other reactions involving fusion of light nuclei and particle capture can continue to
release energy until the process ends near 56 Fe, beyond which there is no energy gain in
combining nuclei.
45
PHY308K/1
Worked examples
Problem 1
Calculate the energy released in the fission reaction:
235
U + n 79 GE +152 ND + 4n
Solution
The energy released is the Q-value of the reaction:
Q
[m(235 U) m(79 Ge) m(52 Nd) m(3n)]c2
(235.043924 u 78.920946 151.924680 3(1.008665 u))(931.502 MeV u1
(1.172299 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
1092 MeV.
Problem 2
244
Pu decays by spontaneous fission with a half-life of 8.1 107 years. If the energy released is about 230 MeV per fission, determine how much (in g) of 244 Pu would be needed
to produce a total fission power of 0.1 W.
Solution
From the power required, we can determine the number of fissions per second required;
since
.. .
Power
Energy per fission fissions per second
Fissions per second
power
energy per fission
0.1 W
(230 MeV/fission)(1.6 1013 J/MeV)
2.72
The number of fissions per second is also known as the activity (A) of the isotope:
A=N
is the decay constant:
.. .
0.693
(8.1 107 years)(3.15 107 s/years)
2.71 1016 s1
2.72 fissions/s
2.71 1016 s1
1016 fissions (or atoms)
Now to calculate the mass of 1016 atoms, we know that
.. .
1 mole of atoms
6.02 1023 = NA
number of moles
N
NA
46
and
number of moles
therefore
mass
PHY308K/1
mass
molar mass
N molar mass
NA
1016 atoms 244 g/mol

6.02 1023 atoms/mol
4.05 106 g
4.05g.
Problem 3
Determine the excitation energy for neutron-induced fission of
226
Ra.
Solution:
226
.. .
Eex
Ra + n
227
Ra fission products.
[m(227 Ra ) m(227 Ra)]c2
[m(226 Ra) + m(n) m(227 Ra)]c2
(226.025403 u + 1.008775 u 227.029171 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
(0.004895 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
4.6 MeV.
Problem 4
Determine the Coulomb barrier that must be overcome and the energy released in the
fusion of a gas of 12 C.
Solution:
12
C +12 C 24 Mg
The Coulomb barrier is given by equation (14.6) in the textbook:

Vc
e2 Z 2
40 2R
1.44 MeV fm.
1.44 MeV fm.
18.1 MeV.
Z2
1
(1.25 fm)A 3
62
1.25 fm (12) 3
The energy released is given by:

E
[2m(12 C) m(24 Mg)]c2
(2.(12.000000 u) 233.985042 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
(0.014958 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )
13.93 MeV.
47
9.3
PHY308K/1
1. Explain how spontaneous and induced fission occurs.

2. Explain how zero energy neutrons can be used to fission the nucleus.
3. Define the concepts nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Briefly discuss the
differences between the two as a source of energy.
4. Describe the purposes of the different reactors (i.e. power, research, converter and
breeder reactors).
5. Discuss the safety measures applicable to reactors.
6. Briefly discuss the present position on the development of a fusion reactor.
7. Discuss how 4 protons are converted to helium in the proton-proton cycle.
Chapter 10
Evolution of Stars
10.1
Learning Objectives
To know the four stages of the evolution of the universe, namely

primordial nucleosynthesis and atomic formation,
galactic condensation,
stellar nucleosynthesis and
evolution of the solar system.
To be able to understand the formation of elements with A 60 by fusion.
To learn about
main sequence stars,

red giants,
super giants and
the death of stars.
To understand how the elements with A > 60 are formed, primarily by neutron
capture.
10.2
Study guidance
Section 19.4: Stellar Nucleosynthesis (A 60)

a) Main sequence stars like the sun are young stars which are made up of hydrogen. As
described in chapter 8, the main reactions in these stars occur via the proton-proton
chains and the CNO cycle.
b) In red giants helium fusion is the dominant thermonuclear reaction in the centre
of the star. As hydrogen is depleted the only way of forming stable nuclei above
A = 5 is according to the reaction
4
He + 4 He 8 Be
but the 8 Be nucleus will decay back into two alpha particles with a mean lifetime
of 1016 s. However when the temperature is close to 108 K and the density
105 g/cm3 , this reaction can be immediately followed by a resonant reaction
(high cross section for Ecm = 92 MeV), namely
4
He + 8 Be
48
12
C+
49
PHY308K/1
In this way carbon is formed and other nuclei also become possible, e.g.
4
He +
12
16
O+
A consequence of the resonant character of the 3 4 He 12 C reaction is an explosion

of the outer layers of the star, called the helium flash. This occurs because the
helium fusion reaction rate increases rapidly from ignition for a small temperature
rise. The external layers expand like a bubble when heated from the inside. The
star grows, its luminosity increases and the surface cools with the expansion. The
star has now left the main sequence and has taken its place among the red giants.
The 4 He can also interact with any 14 N present (a byproduct of the CNO cycle) to
produce neutrons through the sequence:
14
N
O
22
Ne
18
+
+
+
He
He
4
He
18
F 18 O + e+ +
Ne
25
Mg + n
22
The neutron flux produced is so weak that any nucleus formed by neutron capture
will undergo decay before the next neutron is captured. This is the so-called
s-process (slow process) through which many stable heavy nuclei are formed.
c) Super giants: When helium starts to run out, a third gravitational contraction
intervenes. When the temperature reaches 8108 K carbon starts to burn according
to reactions of the type:
12
C+
12
20
Ne + 4 He
Na + 1 H
24
Mg +
23
with 20 Ne the most abundant product.

When carbon is depleted, the temperature will rise again and when it reaches 109
K, oxygen combustion will commence through reactions of the type:
16
with
28
O+
16
28
Si + 4 He
P + 1H
31
S+n
31
Si the principal product. One would expect another phase of
28
Si burning
to occur, but photodisintegration will intervene due to the presence of photons:

28
Si +
24
Mg + 4 He
Through the process of photonuclear rearrangement, lighter nuclei will break up

and their fragments fuse with heavier nuclei until the gas of almost pure 28 Si has
drifted over to nuclei of mass 56. Through + decay the end point of 56 Fe is
reached. This so-called equilibrium process marks the beginning of the death of
a massive star.
The various fusion stages, probably ignited in an explosive way, develop until the
final supernova explosion (if the star is massive). These explosions of the outer
layers enrich the stellar gas with the products of the successive stages of fusion,
particularly 4 He, 12 C, 16 O, 28 Si and 56 Fe. Thus a young star, which was formed in
this gas, would be directly contaminated with heavy elements.
d) Death of stars: The higher the mass of the star, the shorter its life in terms of
hydrogen combustion and the more spectacular its death. Depending on the mass,
the star will end up as a white dwarf or undergo a supernova explosion and become
a neutron star or a black hole.
If the energy of the star is insufficient for it to reach the 56 Fe endpoint, it will slowly
contract until its density is 107 g/cm3 and its temperature 104 K. At this stage
the Coulomb forces exerted by the nuclei will no longer be able to captivate their
electrons and all electrons will become degenerate conduction electrons. The star
has become a white dwarf. Although its temperature is still high, it is called a cold
star in the sense that it has become inactive in terms of thermonuclear reactions.
50
PHY308K/1
A massive star which has been able to reach the 56 Fe endpoint, will contract under
its own mass. This causes the Fermi energy of degenerate electrons to increase
until it becomes energetically possible for them to be captured by nuclear bound
protons, which are transformed into neutrons, emitting neutrinos in the process.
This removal of electrons leads to a reduction in the electron pressure, thereby
accelerating the gravitational contraction. A further source of acceleration results
from photodisintegration of 56 Fe which extracts gravitational energy.
When the temperature reaches 5 109 K, the star will collapse on itself. The
implosion is heavily braked by the strong nuclear force between neutrons, causing
the outer layers of the star to be blown off in a so-called supernova explosion.
If the mass of the residual core is below the Chandrasekhar limit the star will stabilize as a neutron star of density 1015 g/cm3 , observable as a pulsar. For a mass
greater than the Chandrasekhar limit the gravitational contraction is continued
and a black hole is formed.
Section 19.5: Stellar Nucleosynthesis (A > 60)
Fusion reactions are not energetically favoured above A = 60. The question therefore
arises as to how the heavy nuclei were formed. The answer is by neutron-capture. If a
particular nucleus is exposed to a flux of neutrons, it will be able to radiatively capture
not just one neutron but a whole succession of neutrons, progressively heavier isotopes of
the same chemical element being produced at the same time. Eventually, the resulting
instability will carry the nucleus over into an isobar with Z value increased by unity, so
that a new chemical element, with a higher place in the periodic table, will be formed. This
can occur through two processes: the s- (slow) or r- (rapid) processes. The next question
that arises is where do the neutrons come from. The neutrons involved in the s-process
originate from reactions that occur in the red-giant phase of stellar evolution. During a
supernova explosion a brief but heavy flux of neutrons is released. These neutrons are
believed to be involved in the r-process.
Worked Examples
(There will be no worked examples for this section of work. Most of what you must know
here is theoretical, although of course, you must be able to follow the derivations and
discussions in the textbook in detail!)
10.3
Self-Assessment questions
1. What is the difference between main sequence stars, red-giants and super giants?
2. How is it energetically possible for a star to change from one fusion stage to the
next one?
3. How is it possible for carbon to be formed in a red-giant?
4. Explain the origin of the different elements in a star.
5. Discuss the origin of the following cold objects: white dwarfs, neutron stars and
black holes.
6. What role does the Chandrasekhar limit play?
Part III
APPENDICES
52
PHY308K/1
APPENDIX A
TRIAL EXAM PAPER
PHY308-K
PHYSICS ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Duration: 2hours
100 Marks
This paper consists of 2 pages
THE USE OF A POCKET CALCULATOR IS PERMISSIBLE.

ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS.
1. Find the solution of the half harmonic oscillator:
V (x)
x<0
1
kx2
x>0
2
Compare the energy values and wave functions with those of the full harmonic
oscillator. Why are some of the full solutions present and some missing in the
half problem?
[15]
2. Discuss the properties and behaviour of the nucleon-nucleon force, in particular its
spin-dependence, the tensor potential, charge symmetry and charge independence
and the repulsion at short distances.
[25]
=
3. Find the scattering cross section of the hard sphere:

V (r)
r<R
r>R
[15]
4. In the single-particle shell model, the ground state of a nucleus with an odd proton
and an odd neutron is determined from the coupling of the proton and neutron
shell-model states:
I = jp + jn .
Consider the following nuclei with the indicated value of I .
16
N 2 ;
12
B 1+ ;
34
P 1+ ;
28
Al 3+ .
Draw simple vector diagrams illustrating these couplings, then replace jp and Jn ,
respectively, by p + sp and n + sn . Examine your four diagrams and deduce an
empirical rule for the relative orientation of sp and sn in the ground state. Finally,
use your empirical rule to predict the I assignments for 26 Na and 28 Na.
[20]
53
PHY308K/1
5. Briefly discuss resonance reactions and illustrate your explanations with figures of
the exterior and interior wave function. Assume that only one practical wave is
important for the resonant state in the total cross section
t =
= 0 22 (2 + 1)(1 Re )
with = exp(2i ), where (E) is the phase shift. Expand cot (E) around the
R)
resonance energy ER , define the width and show that cot (EE
. Derive
/2
the scattering cross section given by
sc =
at E near ER .
= 0 42 (2 + 1) sin2
[15]
236
6. In the fission of
U into two fragments A1 and A2 = 236A1 , sketch the Coulomb
repulsion energy of the two fragments if they are formed just touching at their surfaces. Consider all values of A1 from 1 to 235, and assume each fragment has the
same Z/A ratio as 236 U.
Given
e2
= 1.44 MeV fm.
40
[10]
54
PHY308K/1
APPENDIX B
Solution to Trial Exam Paper (in Appendix A)
Question 1:
For x > 0, the wave function satisfies the Schr

odinger equation:
.. .
h2 d2
(x) + V (x)(x)
2m dx2
E(x)
h2 d2
1
(x) + kx2 (x)
2m dx2
2
E(x),
which has the following one-dimensional harmonic oscillator solution

En
n (x)
where
For x < 0, (x) = 0.
1
)
h,
2
2 2
1
(2n n! ) 2 Hn (x)e x 2 ,
p
k/m and 2 = km/

h.
(n +
To satisfy the continuity condition of (x) at x = 0, we must have

n (x)|x=0 = 0
which is fulfilled if n is odd. We can thus let n = 2 + 1.
Then
2 (x)
2+1 (x)
2 2
1
(22+1 ! ) 2 H2+1 (x)e x /2
E2+1
(2 +
3
)
h.
2
Comparing these solutions with those of the full harmonic oscillator, we see that the
solutions with even n are missing. The reason for this is that in this problem we do not
have symmetry about the origin.
[15]
Question 2:
Properties of the nuclear force:
55
PHY308K/1
The interaction between two nucleons consists to lowest order of an attractive

central potential.
The nucleon-nucleon interaction is strongly spin dependent; this follows from
- the non-existence of a singlet bound state for the deuteron, and
- the measured differences between the singlet and triplet cross sections.
The spin-dependent expression ~s1 ~s2 Vs (r) can be included in the potential.
The internucleon potential includes a noncentral term, known as a tensor potential;

this follows from
- the observed quadrupole moment of the ground state of the deuteron.
The tensor contribution to the potential has the form VT (r)S12 ,
S12 = 3(~s1 ~r)(~s2 ~r)/r 2 ~s1 ~s2 .
The nucleon-nucleon force is charge symmetric:
- this implies that the proton-proton interaction is identical to the neutronneutron interaction, after correction for Coulomb effects,
- charge refers here to the character of the nucleon and not to electric charge.
The nucleon-nucleon force is charge independent
- this means that the three nuclear forces nn, pp and pn are identical, after
correction for Coulomb effects;
- charge independence is a stronger requirement than charge symmetry.
The nucleon-nucleon interaction becomes repulsive at short distances; this follows
from
- the fact that the nuclear density remains constant, even when more nucleons
are added, and
- the s-wave phase shifts become negative at some energy, corresponding to a
change from an attractive to a repulsive force.
The nucleon-nucleon force may also depend on the relative velocity of momentum
of the nucleons.
[25]
Question 3:
(This question was a prescribed assignment question.)
For r > R, the radial part of the wave function can be written as (see page 88 of the
textbook):
A
R(r) =
sin(Kr + 0 )
r
where A is the normalization constant,
K=
2mE
,
h2
and 0 is the phase shift.

For r < 12,
R(r) = 0.
56
PHY308K/1
Using the continuity condition of the wave function at r = R, we have,

sin(Kr + 0 )
.. .
Kr
Now from equation (4.30) in the textbook, we have that
.. .
4 sin2 0
K2
4 sin2 (KR)
K2
[15]
Question 4:
(This was yet again a prescribed assignment problem.)
For
16
7 N:
There are 7 protons and 9 neutrons.
If you fill the levels as described in the study guide, you will find
jp =
~jn = 5
2
1
5+
; jn =
2
2
1
+ ~jp =
2
1
~
n = 2 + ~sn =
2
For
12
5 B:
jp =
~jp = 3
2
34
15 P:
jp =
1
~
n = 1 + ~sn =
2
jp =
3+
1+
; jn =
2
2
1
~
n = 2 + ~sn =
2
28
13 Al:
= I~ = 1
1
+ ~jp =
2

For
1
~
p = 1 + ~sp =
2
1
3
; jn =
2
2
1
~
p = 1 + ~sp =
2
~jn = 3
2
1
+ ~jn =
2

For
= I~ = 2
= I~ = 1
1
~
p = 1 + ~sp =
2
1+
5+
; jn =
2
2
57
~jp = 5
2
1
+ ~jn =
2
1
~
p = 2 + ~sp =
2
PHY308K/1
= I~ = 3
1
~
n = 1 + ~sn =
2
From the above four diagrams, we see that in the ground state the orientation of ~sp and
~sn is parallel. For 2 6Na, the last proton is 1 d5/2 and the last neutron is 2 s1/2. If we
make sP p and sn parallel, we get I = 3.
For
28
Na, the last neutron is 1 d3/2. Again making sp and sn parallel, we get I = 1. [20]
Question 5:
Resonance reactions:
The resonance region consists of discrete levels in the compound-nucleus region. These
levels have a high probability of formation and their widths are very small due to the
fact that the quasi-bound state formed can decay in only 2 ways - re-ejecting the incident
particle or emission.
The nuclear potential is represented by a square well.
The wave function at resonance:
As can be seen in the diagram above, the amplitudes of the exterior and interior waves
match exactly, so that the incident particle can penetrate easily and the cross section can
rise to a maximum.
Assuming only one partial wave is important, a scattering resonance will occur for
e = /2.
Expanding cot e (E) around the resonance energy ER , we get
cot (E) = cot (ER ) + (E ER )
in which
cot
E
cot
E
EER
1
+ (E ER )2
2
E=ER
.
E=ER
2 cot
E 2
EER
+ ...
58
We define the width

=2
so that
cot =
1
PHY308K/1
E=ER
E ER
.
/2
From this equation we can write down

sin =
/2
1
[(E ER )2 + 2 /4] 2
and the scattering cross section becomes

sc = 2 (2 + 1)
2
(E ER )2 + 2 /4
[15]
Question 6:
The Coulomb repulsion energy is given by

V
Now
Z1
A1
1
40
Z1 Z2 e2
1/3
1.25(A1
1/3
+ A2 )
Z1 (92 Z1 )
e2
1/3
40
1.25(A1 + (236 A1 )1/3
92
236
0.390
(0.175 MeV) .
e2
40
1
(1.25fm)
92 2
236
A1 (236 A1 )
1/3
A1
+ (236 A1 )1/3
A1 (236 A1 )
1/3
A1
+ (236 A1 )1/3
[10]

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PHYSICS

Only study guide for PHY308-K

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

c 2010 University of South Africa

3 Elements of Quantum Mechanics

5 The Force between Nucleons

7 Nuclear Decay and Radioactivity

10.1 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

give a new perspective on the arrangement of the study material.

Learning objectives : specified in order to facilitate systematisation of material to

Practice problems (where necessary) : for more problem-solving practice.

Self-assessment questions : to check the extend to which the Learning Objectives

To qualify for the examination a number of assignments have to be completed satisfactorily.

An appreciation of the development and discoveries in nuclear physics,

An understanding of some of the terminology peculiar to this subject e.g. protons,

Section 1.1: History and Overview

atomic number (i.e. number of protons)

Section 1.3: Nuclear Properties

1. Give four reasons why electrons cannot be found in the nucleus.

The mass lost is

To give a background understanding of Quantum Mechanical concepts such as

To understand a description of the nucleus in terms of the following static properties

Section 3.1: The Nuclear Radius

where R is the mean nuclear radius, we have

The measurement of nuclear masses is done by means of mass spectrometry. Mass

Section 3.3: Nuclear Binding Energy

{Zmp + N mn Mnucleus }c2

{Zmp + N mn (mass of the atom Zme )}c2

{Zm(1 H) + N mn mass of the atom}c2

Section 3.6: Nuclear Excited States

{5m(1 H) + 6mn m(11 B)}c2

(0.08181 u)(9315.502 MeV u1 )

{6m(1 H) + 5mn m(11 C)}c2

(0.078842 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )

B(11 B) B(1 1C)

Solving for R we get (Z = 6):

[m(133 Cs) 133]c2

(132.905429 u 133 u)(931.502 Mev u1 )

(0.09458 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )

[m(31 P) m(32 S) + m(1 H)]c2

(30.973762 31.972071 + 1.007825) u (931.502 MeV u1 )

(0.009516 u)(931.502 MeV u1 )

The Force between Nucleons

To understand of the deuteron and its properties,

To understand why we use the deuteron to discuss nuclear forces,

To understand nucleon-nucleon scattering as an instrument for understanding the

Section 4.1: The Deuteron

a) Description of a deuteron - it is the nucleus of the deuterium atom, consisting of a

The Basic Nucleon-Nucleon Interactions

where is a particle resembling the neutrino and its anti-particle.

(T1/2 very long)

a) Write down the solutions to the Schr

Rcore < r < R

b) The continuity conditions at r = R are

A continuity condition at r = Rcore is

Substituting (2) into (1) yields

1. Discuss the general properties of the nucleon-nucleon interaction and in particular

Understanding the liquid-drop model - a semiclassical (particle) model,

Understanding the shell model - a quantum mechanical (wave) model, and

Understanding the collective model.

The Liquid-drop Model

binding energy (semi-empirical mass formula),

nuclear reactions where an intermediate compound nucleus is formed.