Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
The L. Ray Buckendale Lectures, inaugurated in 1954, commemorate the contributions of the 1946 SAE
President as developer of the latent abilities of young engineers and as an authority in the theory and practice
of gearing, particularly as applied to automotive vehicles.
A cash award and certificate are provided for an annual lecture and monograph by a distinguished authority in
the technical areas of commercial or military ground vehicles for either on- or off-road operation.
The Lectures are directed toward filling the needs of young engineers and students for up-to-date practical
knowledge.
Sponsorship of the Lecture series is rotated among companies within the commercial vehicle industry. This
Lecture has been made possible by funds provided by Dana Corporation. The Lecture series is administrated
by SAE in accordance with a Plan for Administration approved by the SAE Board of Directors.
The L. Ray Buckendale Committee of SAE welcomes nominations for future Lectures and suggestions for
subject matter related to the basic objective of the program. Nominations and suggestions may be addressed
to: Secretary, L. Ray Buckendale Committee at SAE Headquarters.
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without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISSN 1-56091-463-7
SAE/SP-94/1011
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 93-87523
Copyright 1994 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
David F. Merrion
David F. Merrion is Senior Vice President-Engineering for Detroit Diesel Corporation and is an officer of the
corporation. He started his career at Detroit Diesel Engine Division of General Motors in 1954 as a General Motors
Institute cooperative student. He graduated from GMI with a bachelors in mechanical engineering following
completion of a bachelors/master program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he was granted a
masters degree in mechanical engineering in 1959.
Following graduation he had assignments in Product Engineering, Research & Advanced Development, and
Application Engineering. During this period he developed the Detroit Diesel multi-fuel engine, discovered the cause
of hydrocarbons and odor in diesel exhaust and was part of the team who designed the Detroit Diesel 8.2L
medium-duty engine.
In 1980 he became Director, Product Engineering for Detroit Diesel when the Series 60 engine design was started.
Subsequently he became Director, Diesel Engine Sales and became General Director - Engineering for Detroit
Diesel Allison Division in 1983.
In 1986 he became Vice President, Product Engineering for Detroit Deere Corporation and in 1988 assumed his
current position with Detroit Diesel Corporation. He has been a member of SAE since 1960 and is currently on the
Motor Vehicle Council and the Truck and Bus Program Committee.
He is on the Engineering Department Advisory Committee at Wayne State University, a member of the Board of
Directors of the Coordinating Research Council and a member of the Board of Directors of the Engine
Manufacturers Association (and a past president). He also serves as a member of the U.S. Federal Fleet
Conversion Task Force and is a past member of the U.S. Alternative Fuels Council.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History Of The Diesel Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History Of North American Diesel Engine Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diesel Engine Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Markets For Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
2
3
4
SECTION 2
North American Truck Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
American Automotive Manufacturers Associatio (AAMA) Classifications 7
EPA Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SECTION 3
Diesel Engine Requirements for the Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coolant System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrical And Electronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
11
11
11
12
12
14
14
14
15
20
21
21
23
25
25
26
SECTION 4
Engine Design by Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Engine Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cylinder Block And Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Piston, Piston Rings, Connecting Rod And Bearings, And Cylinder Liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overhead And Valve Train Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Oil Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Main Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crankshaft Vibration Damper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geartrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timing Gear Case And Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flywheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flywheel Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Injection System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electronic Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
27
27
29
39
50
55
55
56
57
58
60
60
63
67
75
III
117
117
124
127
130
134
136
146
147
148
SECTION 6
Measuring Your Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measuring Engine Acceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Driveability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
151
151
151
152
154
155
156
157
157
158
SECTION 7
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
IV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
SECTION 1
Introduction
Figure 1.1 Rudolf Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SECTION 2
North American Truck Market
Figure 2.1 Class 8 Heavy-duty Truck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 2.2 Class 8 Retail Truck Sales in Thousands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SECTION 3
Diesel Engine Requirements for the Market
Figure 3.1 Classic Bathtub Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.2 Random Failures During Useful Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.3 Maximum Power Series 60 12.7L Engine - By Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.4 Dynamometer Operation Cycle for Smoke Emission Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.5 Transient Emission Test Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.6 Vehicle Passby Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.7 Percent Increases in Volume for Water and Antifreeze Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
13
14
16
16
20
24
SECTION 4
Engine Design by Component
Figure 4.1 Kinematic Slider - Crank Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.2 Piston Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.3 Combustion Chamber in the Piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.4 Effects of Combustion Gases and Spring on the Compression Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.5 Compression Ring Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.6 Oil Control Rings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.7 Expander Coil Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.8 Different Ring Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.9 Ring Barrel Faced Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.10 Square Piston Pin Rod Design with Normal Cut Rod Bearing Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.11 Trapezoidal Piston Pin Rod Bearing Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.12 Rod Bearing Cap - Angle Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.13 Connecting Rod and Bearing Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.14 Poppet Valve Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.15 Camshaft Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.16 The DDC Series 60 Camshaft Bearings and Caps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.17 Valve Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.18 Valve Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.19 Exhaust and Intake Valves and Porting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.20 DDC Series 60 12.7L Valve Events - Cam 18N16E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.21 Rocker Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.22 Valve & Injector Operating Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.23 Side-by-Side Rocker Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.24 Finite Element Analysis Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.25 One-piece Rocker Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.26 Two-piece Valve Rocker Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.27 Three-Piece Valve Rocker Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
30
30
32
33
33
34
34
35
36
36
37
38
40
41
42
43
43
44
46
46
47
47
47
48
49
49
VI
List of Illustrations
SECTION 5
System Integration and Engine Development
Figure 5.1 DDC Series 60 12.7L Specific Fuel Consumption Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.2 Effect of Injection Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.3 Performance Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.4 Performance Map of Different Sized Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.5 EPA Transient Emission Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.6 Probe Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.7 Medium Rank Weibull Plot for Sample of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.8 Significance of Weibull Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.9 Demonstration of Reliability Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.10 Methods of Measuring Engine Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.11 Sound Pressure Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.12 Typical Modal Deformation Output for an Oil Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.13 1994 Performance Comparison of Two Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.14 Battery Cranking Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.15 Low Temperature Oil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
122
123
124
126
128
130
131
132
135
135
136
139
141
142
SECTION 6
Measuring Your Success
Figure 6.1 DDC Series 60 12.7L Engine Performance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.2 DDC Series 60 12.7L Fuel Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.3 Representative Output from ADAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.4 Emissions Vs. Fuel Economy Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.5 Representative Noise Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.6 Noise Result with Improved Exhaust Gas Silencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.7 Component Reliability - A Month of Build Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.8 Component Claim Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.9 DDC Series 60 12.7L Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
152
153
154
154
155
156
156
157
VII
SECTION 1
Introduction
Caterpillar
During the late 19th century, Daniel Best and Benjamin
Holt were experimenting with possible ways for using
the steam tractor for farming. This early
experimentation gave Caterpillar its start. In 1909, Holt
acquired a plant in Illinois and the company began to
expand the manufacture of gasoline-powered crawler
tractors.
Cummins
C. L. Cummins played an instrumental role in
introducing the high speed diesel engine to the market.
He installed a four cylinder diesel engine into a
Packard car in 1929 and presented it to the SAE
conference in Detroit, Michigan. This led to an
installation in a racing car that achieved records on the
race tracks at Daytona Beach, Florida and
Indianapolis, Indiana. He also demonstrated the
engines capability in a truck, by driving a vehicle from
New York, New York to Los Angeles, California in 97.5
hours with a fuel cost of $11.22. Cummins was without
doubt the greatest promoter of the diesel engine in the
United States. Not only did he demonstrate the
potential of the diesel engine, but he also set standards
with the development of light weight, high speed
engines.
Mack
In 1900, the Mack brothers emerged on the scene in
Brooklyn, New York with their first vehicle, a four
cylinder bus engine. They established the Mack Truck
company in 1905. Mack Truck began its venture in
diesel development in the mid-1930s and
Section1
Introduction
introduced its first diesel engine in October, 1938.
Detroit Diesel
The Winton Engine Company built the first two-strokecycle blown diesel engine. In 1929, C.F. Ketterings
yacht, Olive K, became the proving ground for two
Winton Engines with unit fuel injectors. General Motors
acquired the Winton Engine Company on June 20,
1930. During the period from 1936 to 1937, a complete
staff of engineers and test personnel were gathered
together from the Research Division, Winton Division
and the Product Study Group and in 1938, the Detroit
Diesel Engine Division was organized.
Detroit Diesel manufactured only two-stroke-cycle
diesel engines between 1938 and 1980 when it
introduced its first four-stroke-cycle engine. They now
produce both two-stroke and four-stroke engines all
with unit injectors.
On January 1, 1988, Detroit Diesel Corporation was
formed to design, manufacture and sell diesel engines.
Marine
Military
Generator Set
Construction & Industrial
Agricultural
Bus & Coach
Truck
Marine
One of the first marine assignments for diesel engines
was the toughest a marine propulsion system could
draw; powering Navy landing craft during World War II.
Since then, diesel engines have distinguished
themselves on all the seas of the world, fishing, towing,
pushing, patrolling, exploring, rescuing and
Section1
Introduction
transporting. For crew boats, fire boats, patrol boats
and high speed ferries, boat speed is the critical factor
and reliability a must. Also, ease of starting, immediate
acceptance of load and quick acceleration are
important. In fishing boats, the need to get to the
fishing grounds fast is important, but towing nets
efficiently at a low fuel consumption rate in continuous
service is the critical factor that makes diesel engines
the right choice. In the river barges of Europe and tugs
and tow boats all over the world, diesels provide the big
responsive power essential for accurate maneuvering
of heavy loads in busy waterways.
Marine propulsion engines must also provide the power
needed for pumps, hoists, generators and other
accessories required on board the vessel. Small, light,
high performance premium diesels provide greater
power in pleasure boating applications. These engines
are more compact to conserve engine room space and
offer inboard service points to make engine
maintenance convenient in compact engine rooms.
Military
As battlefield demands have changed, so have the
diesel equipment employed. An advanced type of
diesel engine is required for todays combat and
support vehicles and equipment, one that provides high
mobility, extreme agility and rapid deployment. Diesel
engines enhance the mobility and survivability of
military vehicles while maintaining high efficiency and
rugged durability. The military market is continuously
searching for new diesel engine technology that will
increase power pack densities, improve fuel economy,
minimize cooling requirements and reduce signature
(noise and smoke) while in the theater of operation.
Ease of maintenance is also critical to successfully
perform repairs under all types of field conditions.
Diesel engines are used in both rubber tired vehicles
and tracked vehicles such as trucks, personnel
carriers, tanks and gun carriers.
Generator Set
There are two general applications for diesel engines in
power generation. Prime power generator sets operate
continuously as the primary source of electrical power
for the user. Standby generators are typically used in
the event of a power outage and are operated for
relatively short periods of time.
The primary objective of any generator set is to start
quickly, accelerate to speed and accept rated load in
the shortest possible time. For this reason, the
generator set market is one of several markets where
the two-stroke cycle diesel engine excels. The two
cycle engine produces a power stroke from every
cylinder on every engine revolution instead of every
other revolution like the four cycle engines. These
more frequent and subsequently lighter power strokes
produce less cyclic torque irregularity than four cycle
designs which means higher quality electric power
output for critical loads. Two cycle diesels are also able
to accelerate from stop to synchronous speed much
faster, pick up more load in a single step, and respond
to load transients more quickly than four cycle diesels.
Agricultural
The agricultural market is currently dominated by
vertically integrated equipment manufacturers such as
Deere, Case, Iveco, and Duetz. A vertically integrated
company produces the whole product as compared to
manufacturers who produce just the engine or power
train. These applications typically require the same
characteristics from a diesel engine as the automotive
and on-highway markets: peak torque at low engine
speed, high torque rise at lower engine speeds, and
constant horsepower at higher engine speeds to
provide excellent tractive effort in soft footing or varying
load conditions.
Truck
To gain acceptance in the truck marketplace, one must
offer diesel engines that maximize fuel economy.
Obviously, one more mile per gallon of diesel fuel on
each truck in a fleet adds up to significant savings on
fuel costs. Although fuel economy is the primary
concern, diesel engines that offer superior driveability,
reliability and durability are also prime concerns. These
typically feature a variety of horsepower, speed and
torque options for the wide variety of applications. They
also tend to provide peak torque at low speed for
improved driveability and high torque rise to increase
acceleration from lower engine speeds. The North
American truck market is discussed in much more
detail in the next section and will be the focus of this
paper.
SECTION 2
AMERICAN AUTOMOTIVE
MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
(AAMA) CLASSIFICATIONS
Section 2
North American Truck Market
EPA CLASSIFICATIONS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also
classifies engines for exhaust emission certification
purposes. The EPA classification differs from the eight
class AAMA system and is divided into only two
categories: light-duty and heavy-duty.
Heavy-duty
Category
Miles of Useful
Life *
light
medium
heavy
110,000
185,000
290,000
Percent of Sales
Ford
8.6%
Freightliner
23.2%
Kenworth
13.0%
Mack
11.7%
Navistar
20.1%
Peterbilt
9.5%
Volvo GM
12.4%
Western Star
1.1%
Percent of Sales
Caterpillar
24.7%
Cummins
37.3%
Detroit Diesel
25.7%
Mack
11.7%
SECTION 3
The market picked for this paper is the AAMA Class 8 and
the EPA category heavy heavy-duty. The engine
requirements for this market are defined by the following:
size, weight, cost, durability, reliability, fuel economy,
horsepower, torque, exhaust emissions, noise, air system,
fuel system, coolant system, lubrication system and
electrical/electronic system.
SIZE
WEIGHT
The weight of the engine is important to the truck builder so
the weight must be competitive with other engines on the
market. The requirements for durability and reliability also
have an influence on the engine weight since it would not
be advantageous to make extensive use of aluminum and
plastic simply for weight reduction if it impacted either
durability or reliability.
The inline six cylinder engine must have length, width and
height dimensions that allow it to fit into most North
American trucks. Also some specific application
arrangements are preferred, such as starter motor on the
left, intake manifold on the left, and turbocharger on the
right, etc.
COST
1011
DURABILITY
The durability of a heavy-duty diesel engine used in the
Class 8 truck market is known as the mileage to first
overhaul or the mileage to an in-frame overhaul. The
market place determines the first overhaul
requirement.
RELIABILITY
The reliability of an engine is measurable during
development, prototype field testing and after start of
production. Goals need to be set for the reliability of the
total engine and for each component and system using
a reliability budgeting technique.
Truck owners and operators depend on their trucks for
their livelihood and, as such, they are concerned with
the durability and reliability of their trucks and the
engines that power them. Durability and reliability are
distinct concepts although they are related and often
confused. The relationship between these two
12
11
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
13
12
FUEL ECONOMY
The truck fuel economy requirement is not set by the
Federal Government as a Corporate Average Fuel
Economy (CAFE) requirement as it is for passenger
cars and light trucks.
HORSEPOWER
The power required to operate an 80,000 lb tractor
trailer on level terrain at 55 miles/hr (89 km/hr) is less
than 170 horsepower. Operation at 65 miles/hr (105
km/hr) increases the requirement to 230 bhp. Power
levels from 350 to 450 bhp (261 to 336 kW) are
required for passing and handling rolling terrain.
Applications with higher weight or more road load such
as Michigan gravel trains, logging trucks in Canada
and triples operating in the Western U.S. require up to
500 bhp (373 kW).
14
13
TORQUE
The engine and transmission must be matched to allow
an adequate launch of the vehicle from a stop, allow
acceleration through the gears to get the vehicle "up to
speed" and allow the vehicle to be able to stay in top
gear while negotiating mild grades. This last feature is
enhanced by an engine that has high torque rise, i.e.,
increasing torque as speed decreases. High torque
and high torque rise give the driver the feeling of
"pulling power" and "good driveability".
Typical peak torque offerings for Detroit Diesel are
shown in Table 3.1.
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
STANDARD RATINGS
11.1 LITER
Rated
Power
12.7 LITER
Rated
Speed
Peak Torque
300 hp
1800 r/min
325 hp
1800 r/min
330 hp
300/325 hp
Rated
Speed
Peak Torque
370 hp
1800 r/min
370 hp
2100 r/min
1800 r/min
400 hp
1800 r/min
1800 r/min
400 hp
2100 r/min
300/330 hp
1800 r/min
430 hp
1800 r/min
325 hp
1800 r/min
430 hp
2100 r/min
325 hp
2100 r/min
470 hp
2100 r/min
330 hp
2100 r/min
370/430 hp
1800 r/min
350 hp
1800 r/min
370/430 hp
2100 r/min
325/350 hp
1800 r/min
430 hp
2100 r/min
330/350 hp
1800 r/min
470 hp
2100 r/min
325 hp
1800 r/min
430 hp
2100 r/min
330 hp
1800 r/min
470 hp
1800 r/min
330 hp
2100 r/min
470 hp
2100 r/min
350 hp
1800 r/min
430/470 hp
1800 r/min
365 hp
1800 r/min
325/350 hp
1800 r/min
325/365 hp
1800 r/min
330/350 hp
1800 r/min
330/365 hp
1800 r/min
Table 3.1
Rated
Power
EXHAUST EMISSIONS
The exhaust emissions of on-highway diesel engines
have been regulated since 1970. In that year, the
United States Public Health Service implemented
regulations requiring engine manufacturers to
demonstrate through certification testing that each of
Figure 3.4
16
15
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 show the current and future
U.S. Federal and California emission and smoke
standards for heavy-duty on-highway diesel engines.
Standards from the recent past are also shown to
provide an indication of how the stringency of
standards has progressed.
Separate standards are given for engines used in
trucks and engines used in urban buses, with the bus
engine standards being more stringent. The rationale
for this is that urban buses operate almost exclusively
within cities and thus have a proportionately larger
impact on urban air quality than trucks which spend a
significant portion of their lifetime engaged in intercity
transport.
Federal Heavy-duty Truck Engine
Emission Standards
NOx
HC
CO
PM
pre-1988
10
1.5
25
##
1988
10.7
1.3
15.5
0.60
1990
6.0
1.3
15.5
0.60
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.25
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
1998
4.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
HC
CO
PM
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.25
1993
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10*
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.07
1996
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.05
1998
4.0
1.3
15.5
0.05
Peak: 50%
Lug: 15%
17
16
HC
CO
PM
5.1
1.3
15.5
##
1984-1988
1988
6.0
1.3
15.5
0.60
1990
6.0
1.3
15.5
0.60
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.25
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
NOx + NMHC
CO
3.9
0.10
14.4
PM
HC
CO
PM
1991
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.10
1994
5.0
1.3
15.5
0.07
1996
4.0
1.3
15.5
0.05
## not regulated
Table 3.3 California On-highway Engine Emissions
Standards
The 1998 NOx and PM standards represent reductions
of approximately 65 percent and 95 percent
respectively compared to uncontrolled engines.
18
17
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
19
18
NOISE
Diesel engine airborne sound emissions must be
considered during the concept design of an engine to
provide a low level of airborne sound emission with
efficient use of material and low cost. Without proper
consideration for sound emission in the early stages of
design,
excessive
shielding
and
installation
considerations will be necessary to make the sound
level and quality acceptable to users and regulatory
agencies.
Regulatory Agencies
Diesel engines are used in a wide variety of markets
each having unique guidelines for maximum sound
emission levels. The regulations are designed to
provide safety and comfort for users and bystanders.
The sound regulations range from passby sound levels
Figure 3.6
20
19
Sound Testing
For the North American highway truck market
regulatory agencies are primarily concerned with total
accelerating vehicle sound pressure level. SAE test
J366 details procedures for a vehicle passby test for
which the current acceptable standard is 80 dB(A). The
vehicle passby test measures sound pressure level of
an accelerating truck operated on a special test site
which is detailed in Figure 3.6. The test is not
concerned with spectrum content of the sound.
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
Equation 3.1
Equation 3.1
Lp=10 Log (10 Lp1/10+10 Lp2/10+10 Lp3/10...)
Where,
AIR SYSTEM
The air system for a diesel engine consists of intake air
for the cooling system, intake air for the combustion
system and the exhaust system. The intake air system
for the cooling system is of further interest to the
engine manufacturer since air-to-air charge coolers are
now used in many heavy-duty trucks.
The maximum intake air restriction for the combustion
air is traditionally a requirement from an engine
manufacturer to the truck manufacturer. These
requirements are for a new air cleaner pressure drop
and a dirty air cleaner pressure drop. Typical values for
a new air cleaner are 12 in. H2O (3 kPa) and 20 in. H2O
(5 kPa) for a dirty air cleaner.
FUEL SYSTEM
The engine fuel system must be capable of drawing
fuel from the vehicle fuel tanks and returning some
percentage of the fuel back to the tanks. The engine
must have a fuel transfer pump and may require a filter
prior to the pump. It is not unusual for the engine
manufacturer to have a fuel filter after the transfer
pump.
The truck manufacturer may also install other systems
in the fuel lines such as fuel heaters, fuel coolers, water
separators, etc.
The fuel system must be designed around a fuel with
specific fuel properties. Studies show that differences
in fuel properties can have a marked impact on the
performance, efficiency, emissions, and durability of
the engine. It is therefore appropriate for the
manufacturer to recommend fuels that meet predefined
fuel property specifications (Table 3.4).
21
20
ASTM Test
No. 1
ASTM 1-D
No. 2*
ASTM 2-D
Gravity, API
D 287
40-44
33-37
D 93
100 (38)
125 (52)
D 445
1.3 - 2.4
1.9 - 4.1
Cloud Point F
D 2500
[See Note 1]
[See Note 1]
D 1266
0.5 (0.05)
0.5 (0.05
D 524
0.15
0.35
D 2274
1.5
1.5
D 482
0.01
0.01
D 613
45
45
D 4737
40
40
IBP, Typical
350 (177)
375 (191)
10% Typical
385 (196)
430 (221)
50% Typical
425 (218)
510 (256)
90%
End Point
0.05
0.05
D86
D 1796
Table 3.4
Fuel Filtration
Filters are an inherent part of the fuel system. Fuel
filters should be properly sized to ensure correct fuel
flow to the engine. Optimal fuel filter performance is
important to providing acceptable engine service life,
22
21
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
COOLANT SYSTEM
The primary function of the cooling system is to
sufficiently dissipate heat energy from circulating
engine coolant to the ambient surroundings, regardless
of the engine operating condition. Insufficient cooling
capability can adversely impact engine performance,
fuel economy, emissions, and durability.
Structural Durability
Currently the most popular radiator used in the truck
industry is the bolted radiator, which is a large, yet
simple, assembly. Todays design permits ready
replacement of fragile components, such as the core
and header. Although component life is an important
consideration, ease of cooling system accessibility and
component replacement is just as important in a
vehicle application with a useful life of 500,000 to
1,000,000 miles.
Packaging Constraints
The use of air-to-air charge coolers and the desire to
reduce vehicle weight and improve vehicle
aerodynamics have fostered the need for smaller
radiator assemblies. Advanced heat exchangers are
now being used that have a 30 percent reduction in
face area over the traditional bolted radiator, yet are
still able to meet the vibrational, thermal, and pulsating
pressure input loadings typically observed in over-theroad operation.
23
22
Corrosion/Erosion Resistance
Coolant Deaeration
Grains per
Gallon
Chlorides
40
2.5
Sulfates
100
5.8
Total Dissolved
Solids
340
20
Total Hardness
170
10
24
Section 3
Setting the Requirements
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The lubrication system must lubricate and cool engine
components. The system must perform these functions
and also meet the requirements of the customer for oil
change interval and service cost.
Some key functions of the lubrication system which
require optimization are as follows:
ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS
AND
ELECTRONIC
25
OTHER REQUIREMENTS
There are many other requirements which are either
application specific or environmental/geographical.
Some of these are cold starting, white smoke clean-up,
performance at altitude, snap-idle acceleration smoke,
accessory requirements, (cranking motors, air
compressors, alternators, cooling fan drives, etc.).
This section has outlined the requirements of the diesel
engine design which can now be used to look at the
engine design by component.
26
SECTION 4
792, 000- =
DISPLACEMENT = 450
----------------------------------
775 in
( 12.7 liters)
27
28
Section 4
Components and System Design
Piston
The mechanical and structural aspects of piston design
must consider the ability to guide the connecting rod in
the cylinder, provide a bearing surface for the normal
forces being transferred to the cylinder walls, provide a
means to seal the combustion gases within the
combustion chamber, and withstand high mechanical
and thermal stresses. The other important areas of
piston design are the combustion bowl shape and the
ability to dissipate heat energy. Pistons used in modern
diesel engines come in two basic styles: trunk and
articulated.
Trunk pistons combine the crosshead, or piston crown,
with the side load bearing surface, or skirt, in one unit.
The articulated piston separates these two parts,
allowing them relative motion by allowing the skirt
29
30
Section 4
Components and System Design
31
Piston Rings
Piston rings are used to seal the combustion gases
within the combustion chamber, assist in heat transfer
from the piston to the cylinder wall, and control
lubrication in the cylinder kit area. Typical cylinder kit
designs incorporate three or more rings:
32
Section 4
Components and System Design
33
34
Section 4
Components and System Design
35
Figure 4.10
36
Section 4
Components and System Design
37
Cylinder Liner
The cylinder bore in heavy-duty diesel engine is
typically replaceable, allowing for overhaul at engine
wear out. Influences to cylinder liner design are heat
transfer characteristics, including whether it is wet
(direct contact of engine coolant to liner) or dry, the
compression seal and liner-to-head joint, and
lubrication and wear characteristics.
Dry liners tend to have poor heat transfer
characteristics, are stiffer and do not need the engine
coolant seals. Wet liners, while having good heat
transfer characteristics, can suffer from coolant
cavitation and greater liner-to-head joint motion.
Figure 4.13
38
Section 4
Components and System Design
OVERHEAD
AND
COMPONENTS
VALVE
TRAIN
Air System
Fuel System
Coolant System
Cylinder Breathing
Lubrication System
Combustion System
39
Camshaft Configuration
Selecting the camshaft location is an important step in
overhead design. Camshaft location defines many
engine constraints which affect subsequent component
and system design processes. Therefore, a general
40
Section 4
Components and System Design
Direct Acting
TYPE II:
TYPE III:
TYPE IV:
41
Section 4
Components and System Design
Figure 4.18
Valve Arrangements
43
p
Z = ---------------------------------
Al Cl a
Where:
Ap
= Piston Area
Al
Cl
= Piston Speed
44
Section 4
Components and System Design
Valve Area
As discussed in previous sections, valve areas should
be maximized. However, intake and exhaust valves
need not have the same area. Intake valve capacities
should exceed exhaust capacities. The ratio of exhaust
to intake flow capacity usually ranges between 0.70
and 0.75.
The DDC Series 60 uses 1.575 in. (40 mm) diameter
exhaust valves and 1.732 in. (44 mm) intake valves.
The resulting exhaust-to-intake valve area ratio is 0.83.
This typically ranges between 0.83 and 0.87.
Valve Lift
Equation 4.4:
Equation 4.4
Mass of Retained
EFFtr = ---------------------------------------------Mass of Supplied
Several basic engine parameters influence the
charging process. The two most significant parameters
affecting charging are intake manifold conditions and
valve timing. The DDC Series 60 is a turbocharged
engine. Therefore, the intake manifold pressure is
higher than the cylinder pressure, during the
scavenging process. This profoundly impacts the
trapping efficiency. More excess air is pumped through
the combustion chamber and out the exhaust port than
in a naturally aspirated engine.
Equation 4.3
Trapped Fresh Charge
EFFs = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fresh Trapped Charged + Residuals
Computerized cycle simulation and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) programs like KIVA are valuable tools
for analyzing scavenging efficiencies and valve timing
strategies. They are typically used early in the engine
development process. Engine tests and flow bench
measurements are eventually used to confirm
analytical results.
45
Section 4
Components and System Design
47
Section 4
Components and System Design
Figure 4.27
49
Section 4
Components and System Design
Torsional Vibration
Marine diesel engines at the beginning of this century
were found to be failing crankshafts and propeller
shafts with regularity; this sparked an area of
investigation into torsional vibration. When a cylinder
fires, a power impulse is sent through the crankshaft
which causes oscillations in the torque.
1 st harmonic
mBcrcw2
cos(wt + )
2nd harmonic
mBr/4l(r)(2w)2
(cos 2wt)
where:
m A, r
mAc, rc
W
l
=
=
=
mBcrcw 2
sin(wt + )
0
Centrifugal
Forces
and
50
Design Considerations
Contemporary crankshaft design must consider the
torsional oscillations in a multi cylinder (multiple throw)
configuration. An equivalent torsional stiffness,
calculated from main journal diameters & lengths and
cheek thickness, provides a design starting point.
Inertia of each section of the crankshaft is calculated.
In addition, the inertias of connected components such
as gear trains, pulleys, flywheels and the rotating and
reciprocating inertias of the cylinder kits are accounted
for. With an equivalent stiffness and the total inertia, an
estimate of the natural frequencies of vibration can be
made.
A mathematical model of engine inertias and shaft
stiffness can be prepared; Figure 4.30 is an example
of a MC Series 60 engine with an attached
transmission.
Any engine component will have a natural frequency of
vibration, measured in hertz. When operating at this
frequency, the amplitude of vibrations will grow with
very little additional input of energy. The natural
frequencies of torsional vibration are called the critical
speeds. For a simple two mass system, the frequency
of torsional vibration is predicted by Equation 4.5.
Equation 4.5
W=
IA + IB
K ---------------------IA I B
where
W = Frequency of vibration
IA = Inertia of the first mass
IB = Inertia of the second mass
K = Torsional stiffness of the connecting shaft
51
Section 4
Components and System Design
T = I X w2 x sin(wt)
where
T = required torque
I = individual inertia
w = assumed frequency
t = time in rad/sec
Figure 4.30 Mass Elastic Drawing of a Typical DDC Series 60 with Transmission
52
53
Section 4
Components and System Design
Temperature
Seal design must take into account expected
temperature variations the engine is likely to see in
customer service. The upper temperatures are
determined by the heat from the engine and
transmission and in practice ranges from 300 to 350F
(149 - 177C). The lower temperature range depends
upon customer service and geographical location;
lower temperature ratings to -25F (-32C) are not
uncommon while special requirements to -50F (-46C)
exist for military, sub Arctic and Arctic locations.
CRANKSHAFT PULLEYS
Crankshaft pulleys transmit crankshaft power to
external auxiliary devices such as cooling fans,
alternators, water pumps and hydraulic pumps. Two
styles of crankshaft pulleys are typically used, the vee
belt and a multi ribbed or poly vee design. Vee belt
systems are common through out the diesel engine
industry; poly vee belt systems have been mainly
applied to higher auxiliary horsepower installations
(+50 hp).
Pulley diameter and width are determined by an
analysis of the auxiliary systems. Power requirements,
duty cycles and
55
56
Bearing Materials
Four principle bearing materials for hydrodynamic
sliding type bearings are considered: Tin based (80%
Sn, 10% Cu, 10% Sb); lead based (82-86% Pb, 9-11 %
Sb, 5-7% Sn); copper based (approx. 70% copper,
30% lead); and aluminum based (100% Al).
Lubrication
Bearings maybe either splash lubricated or forced
lubricated. Splash lubrication is limited to very small
displacement engines; forced lubrication, that is,
lubrication of the bearings by pressurized oil is the
norm for diesel engines. Because of the presence of a
pressurized oil feed to the bearings, an oil film over the
bearings is maintained.
Location of the oil feed holes and the location of oil
grooves in the bearings are carefully considered in
order to provide an adequate supply of oil to all of the
bearing surface, but especially to the highly loaded
areas where maintenance of the oil film thickness is
critical for good bearing durability. Oil holes should be
located in areas of minimum loads.
Section 4
Components and System Design
Equation 4.7
PA = D2 X (pC- pL)/(4 x dl x lb/in.2)
where
pB = maximum bearing pressure, lb/in. of projected
area
pc = maximum gas pressure in engine cylinder,
lb/in.
pL = inertia pressure at service rpm, lb/in. of piston
area
D = bore of cylinder, in.
d = diameter of crankpin, in.
l
57
GEARTRAIN
The geartrain provides power to drive the camshaft and
auxiliary components, and provides timing between
combustion events and valving events. A typical diesel
engine geartrain is composed of the crank gear, an oil
pump drive gear, a bull gear, an adjustable idler gear,
and a camshaft drive gear, Figure 4.32. Auxiliary
components driven by the geartrain including the water
pump, fuel pump, accessory drive for alternators, and a
drive for an air compressor.
Timing
For electronic engines, the timing of the combustion
events coordinated with the rotation of the crankshaft
by the geartrain, must be relayed to the electronic
governing system. This is accomplished by the use of a
steel pin and magnetic pickup; the steel pin will provide
a once per revolution signal to the electronic governing
system.
In the DDC Series 60 engine, this is called the
Synchronous Reference Signal (SRS). The steel pin is
pressed into the bull gear. Another signal required by
an electronic governing system is when each cylinder
is approaching top dead center (TDC). This is
accomplished by the use of a timing wheel, which has
one tooth per cylinder, and a magnetic pickup.
The wheel is indexed to the crankshaft; in the DDC
Series 60 engine, this system is called the Timing
Reference System (TRS). The signal indicates to the
electronic governing system when each individual
cylinder is approaching TDC so that combustion
chamber fueling events may be scheduled.
Gearlash
Gear Types
Three types of gears are considered for diesel engine
timing gears; spur, helical, herring bone. Of the three,
spur gears offers the advantages of economy and ease
58
Section 4
Components and System Design
Equation 4.9
WB = FSY/PD
where
WB = gear load
Tooth Form
The involute system is almost invariably used. The
minimum number of teeth should be so chosen as to
avoid undercutting, that is, reduction of tooth thickness
below the pitch line.
Materials
Materials for gears must have the ability to be case
hardened and provide a good surface finish. Alloy
materials will, in combination with a core heat
treatment and a surface hardening process, provide
the strongest and most wear resistant gears. Typical
material specification for the DDC Series 60 engine is
SAE 4140 with specific microstructure and case
hardening.
Tooth Loading
= allowable stress
PD = diametral pitch
A refinement to the general Lewis formula was
introduced by Buckingham. By including terms for
geartooth profile error, elastic properties and data
gathered from observation, Buckinghams equation,
Equation 4.10, is considered for dynamic stresses.
Equation 4.10
WD = WT + [0.05V(FC + WT)]/[0.05V + (FC +
W T)1/2, for spur gears
where
WD = gear load at diametral pitch
WT = transmitted load
F = gear face width
C = center distance
Tooth Stresses
Generalized stresses resulting from tooth loading can
be predicted by the Lewis formula and Buckinghams
dynamic equation for tooth bending.
Face Width
In general, the face width of gears should be no more
than one half the pitch radius; because larger gear face
widths tend to lead to poor load distribution.
59
Equation 4.11
F = w x N / (C x .5)
FLYWHEEL
Where
The flywheel is a rotating device attached to the
crankshaft output that reduces rotational speed
fluctuations which occur between combustion pulses.
Speed fluctuations in the engine occur due to friction,
scavenging, compression, and combustion pulses.
60
Section 4
Components and System Design
Inertia Analysis
The mass polar moment of inertia (J) involved in
controlling speed fluctuations includes the inertia of all
rotating masses: the crankshaft, driven machine, and
flywheel, plus the mass polar moment of inertia of the
connecting rods, etc. For rotating cylindrical discs, J is
calculated using Equation 4.13.
Equation 4.13
2
m d
J = -------------------8
Where
J = Mass Polar Moment of Inertia(lb.ir To convert to
lb.in.sec2 divide by 386 in. sec 2
m = mass, lb
d = outside diameter, in.
61
Equation 4.14
UK = 1/2 x J x w2
Where
UK = Kinetic Energy (lb.in.)
J
= Total Mass
(lbin.sec2)
Polar
Moment
of
Inertia
Optimal Inertia
The mass polar moment of inertia needed to achieve
the desired speed fluctuation can now be determined
by setting the the excess energy (UT) from the torque
curve analysis equal to the kinetic energy change due
to a speed fluctuation (UK) per Equation 4.16.
Equation 4.16
Solving for J:
UT = 1/2 x J x (w12-w22)
J = UT x 2 / (w12-W22)
62
Section 4
Components and System Design
circle diameter (D), the bolt clamp load (FI), and the
coefficient of friction between the crankshaft and
flywheel (CF). The friction torque capacity of the joint is
given by Equation 4.18.
Equation 4.18
Tc = NBxFIxDxCF/2
Where
Tc = Torque Capacity (in.lb)
NB = Number of Bolts
FI = Clamp Force Per Bolt (lb)
D = Diameter of Bolt Circle (in.)
CF = Coefficient of Friction Between Joint Faces
Some estimations of the parameters exist. Typical
values of CF range from .1 to .15. Values of KB range
from .12 for highly lubricated bolt threads and
underheads to .2 for non lubricated installations.
Flywheel Types
Figure 4.34 Flywheel/Crankshaft Section
The friction between the crankshaft and flywheel
should be sufficient to withstand all torque output of the
engine. If friction is sufficient then mounting bolts will
not be subjected to bending torque and will not be
subject to fatigue failure. Engine torque output consists
of a mean torque output plus a vibratory torque output.
Vibratory torque output can exceed mean torque
output. The total output torque for which flywheel to
crankshaft friction must exceed is given by
Equation 4.17.
Equation 4.17
T = TV +Tm
Where
T = Total Engine Torque
Tv = Vibratory Torque
Tm = Mean Torque Output
The friction capacity (Tc) of the crankshaft to flywheel
FLYWHEEL HOUSING
The flywheel housing serves as a coupling between the
engine and driven machine, a shroud for the flywheel,
and a mount location for the engine/driven machine
assembly. As a coupling device, the flywheel housing
must provide alignment for engine output and driven
machine input shafts, and provide a rigid connection to
resist engine torque loads and shock loads input
through the system mounts.
63
Alignment
Service Loads
Transverse
Plane
Axial
Plane
Stationary
Applications
2 "g"
2 "g"
2 "g"
Mobile Applications
5 "g"
5 "g"
5 "g"
Vibratory Rollers,
Impact Hammers
7 "g"
7 "g"
Specific
Mobile Applications*
7 "g"
64
Section 4
Components and System Design
65
66
Section 4
Components and System Design
67
68
Section 4
Components and System Design
Injector Body
By eliminating high pressure jumper lines, a common
cause of fuel leaks, and choosing to fuel the injectors
using "rifle" drilled passages in the cylinder head, the
injector body itself took on a few design constraints of
its own. The injector would not include a bolt-on fuel
manifold.
Instead, fuel would fill and spill the injector through
openings in the injector body as shown in Figure 4.42.
Covering each inlet is a filtering screen which prevents
relatively coarse foreign material from entering the
injectors. The fuel passage design allows excess fuel
to bypass each injector and continue onward toward
the next injector in line. The bypass flow of fuel
provides cooling for the injectors.
69
Shown in Figure 4.43 are the cam lift and cam velocity
of the original DDC Series 60 cam lobe as a function of
camshaft angle. Significant to the DDC Series 60 cam
lobe is the "constant velocity" portion. Here the lobe
radius of curvature is large and the resulting cam
velocity as a function of cam rotation is nearly constant.
By timing injection events to occur over this lobe
segment one is assured that the swept volume of fuel
located under the injector plunger is nearly constant,
regardless of when the event initiates. This produces a
more predictable injection event since injection
becomes less sensitive to cam-to-crankshaft timing
and other stack-up tolerances. The magnitude of the
constant velocity is significant in that it directly relates
to injection pressure and injection duration.
70
Section 4
Components and System Design
Injector Tip
The most important injector parameter for todays onhighway engine manufacturers is the injector tip. As
mentioned above, the tip characteristic dictates the
injector output volume, but more importantly, the
injector tip design directly influences the engine
emissions and fuel consumption characteristics. Within
conventional design practices, two injector tip
configurations are commonly used.
The valve covered orifice (VCO) configuration shown in
Figure 4.44 was chosen for the DDC Series 60
injector. Specific to the VCO design is that the needle
valve, which when closed, covers the tip holes. In the
low-sac tip design the needle valve, when seated, does
not cover the tip holes. The VCO configuration was
favored because of its positive impact on particulates
and smoke.
Once an injector tip configuration is chosen, such as
the VCO in the case of the DDC Series 60, one must
further define several key injector tip characteristics in
order to optimize both engine emissions and fuel
economy. It is the design engineers goal to define the
following injector tip characteristics.
71
72
Section 4
Components and System Design
73
74
Section 4
Components and System Design
75
76
Packaging Considerations
The harshness of the on-engine environment presents
special reliability challenges and unique packaging
requirements for the electronics-based control modules
and sensors. The design of the electronics packaging
for the on-engine application must be based on the
following criteria: environmental effects, current
advanced state-of-the-art technology, fabrication
techniques and processes.Basic design principals of
system architecture, circuit architecture, power
analysis and distribution, environmental extremes,
safety and service requirements must be applied to all
phases of the ECM design.
Section 4
Components and System Design
77
2.
Determine
the
maximum
engine
speed
encountered during normal operation to insure
that microcontroller clock frequency/computing
power is acceptable. The time available for
algorithm calculation is significantly reduced at
high engine speeds.
3.
4.
Microcontroller
The ECM hardware design should begin with an
investigation of which CPU, generally referred to as a
microprocessor, should be used. The basic standalone microprocessors of a decade ago have evolved
from simple arithmetic logic units (ALUs) with limited
memory space to 8-, 16-, and 32-bit architectures
combined with random access memory (RAM), read
only memory (ROM), various input/output (I/O)
78
Section 4
Components and System Design
Memory
The designer of the ECMs memory structure should
consider three types of data retention: 1) Permanent,
2) Reprogrammable, 3) Dynamic. The engine
management main program code should reside in
permanent type memory. A permanent memory device
retains its contents over an ignition cycle and when the
ECM supply power is disconnected. The ability to
reprogram the permanent memory device should be
considered a key issue when the main program code is
to be updated or if features are to be added to existing
ECMs after the engine has left the factory.
There are currently three basic types of
reprogrammable permanent memory devices: 1)
erasable programmable ROM (EPROM), (2)
electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM),
3) Flash ROM. Of these three types of reprogrammable
memory, EPROMs are typically the best choice for
applications where data almost never needs changing.
Otherwise, Flash devices should be considered.
Although the average EPROM costs about a third of
what a Flash device costs, the differential is wiped out
by the expense of a single reprogramming. The inECM reprogramming of a Flash device is minimal as
compared to removing, erasing, and reprogramming an
EPROM, when vehicle downtime and labor are
factored in.
Parameters, which can be set by OEMs and
customers, provide the required system configuration
flexibility. This flexibility necessitates the need to erase
and program individual ECM memory bytes selectively.
Therefore, EEPROMs should be considered as the
storage device for engine performance data, customerspecified parameters, engine audit trail information,
etc. Although currently about twice the cost of FLASH,
EEPROM technology enables individual byte erasure
and programming.
79
80
interfaces.
Many
integrated
microcontrollers
incorporate these functions, which can simplify the I/O
design structure of the ECM.
Serial Interface Devices
The design and implementation of heavy-duty industry
standardized serial data links can facilitate the diesel
engine to vehicle integration. The SAE Vehicle Network
for Multiplexing and Data Communications Subcommittee has defined three basic serial data link
hardware interfaces:
Section 4
Components and System Design
Power Supply
The ECM power supply should be designed to accept
heavy-duty vehicle system supply voltages, which can
be either 12 or 24 volts nominal. Designing reliable
power supplies requires accounting for the effects of
peak instantaneous transients, using high reliability
components, and using conservative derating practices
which result in operation at low device junction
temperatures. The designer should compare the
operational aspects of the two typical power supply
designs, linear mode, and switching mode. A high
frequency switching mode design can minimize power
dissipation as compared to the linear mode, although
this switching may be an EMI noise source.
Sensors
Engine sensors are vital components for providing
effective performance of the diesel engine electronic
control system. The sensors provide the ECM
information which is used to enhance engine
performance during various operating conditions. Also,
diagnostic limits can be programmed into the ECM to
provide engine protection based on sensor information.
It will be the decision of the system designer to identify
the required types of engine sensors. Designing and
manufacturing sensors is a formidable task. Therefore,
working with a supplier who offers the desired
components is typically the best approach for
incorporating them into the engine control system
design. Engine sensors are available from many
suppliers who offer sensing elements of various
technologies. When considering these technologies it
is also important to thoroughly understand the sensor
application environment. Key design features of
sensors are: electrical accuracy of the sensing
element, strong output signal without the need for
compensation, response time, supply voltage
requirements, transfer function, and robust packaging.
81
Section 4
Components and System Design
Communications
Implementing serial data link interfaces in the ECM is
an essential design consideration because of the
SAE
J1708
"Serial
Data
Communications
C)
for
Truck
and
Bus
hardware
83
Diagnostics
The process of troubleshooting and repairing an
electronically controlled diesel engine requires the use
of advanced on-board diagnostic techniques and offboard service tools. Properly implemented diagnostics
can provide the diesel engine service technician with
an orderly procedure to quickly identify a defective
subsystem, even if it is intermittent in nature. This
diagnostic system will also ensure the acceptance and
success of future heavy-duty vehicle electronic
integration.
In the heavy-duty trucking industry the requirement for
standardized diagnostics and service tools is a priority.
Truck manufacturers have the responsibility of
installing various engines from different manufacturers
84
86
Section 4
Components and System Design
Software Development
The software development process for the ECM should
be modelled after the conventional engineering cycle
which begins at the system requirements level and
progresses through analysis, design, coding, testing,
87
88
Electronic Programming
With the amount of programmable memory contained
in the ECM, the designer must determine the most
efficient method to
Section 4
Components and System Design
Engine Calibrations
The engine calibration programmed in ECM memory
uniquely defines the operational characteristics of the
engine in the vehicle. There are two components to this
calibration; basic engine performance and customerspecified parameters. The basic engine performance
calibration is developed by a calibration engineer to
insure that the engine will produce the described
torque curve and will meet customer performance
expectations while also adhering to federal regulated
smoke, emissions and noise criteria.
The customer-specified parameters, such as cruise
control operation, vehicle speed limiting, engine
protection levels, etc., will vary widely depending on
89
90
TURBOCHARGER, INTERCOOLER,
INTAKE MANIFOLD, EXHAUST
MANIFOLD
The purpose of the engine air inlet system is to supply
fresh air to the engine in the proper quantity and under
the proper conditions of pressure and temperature to
meet the needs for cylinder scavenging and
combustion. Similarly, the purpose of the engine
exhaust system is to collect, transport, and discharge
the exhaust gases from the engine cylinders to the
vehicle exhaust system.
For naturally aspirated engines, the engine intake and
exhaust systems are comprised simply of the intake
and exhaust manifolds and any additional ducting that
may be required to interface with the vehicle intake and
exhaust systems. Although naturally aspirated engines
have the advantage of simplicity of air system design,
they have a serious drawback in that their specific
power output is limited by the quantity of air available
for combustion. Attempts to increase power solely by
increasing fueling result in lower airlfuel ratios and
raise exhaust smoke, brake specific fuel
Section 4
Components and System Design
Turbocharger
There are two fundamental types of pressure boost
devices, mechanically driven superchargers and
exhaust energy driven turbochargers.
Several different kinds of mechanical superchargers
exist, including roots blowers, piston pumps, swash
plate devices and various types of rotary and screw
compressors. Because these devices are both
mechanically driven and positive displacement, they
respond instantaneously to changes in engine speed
but do not react to changes in engine load. Engine air
flow with these devices is therefore nearly proportional
to engine speed and as a result, the available engine
torque curve tends to be quite flat.
91
92
Section 4
Components and System Design
Turbocharger
performance
and
operating
characteristics are normally communicated through the
use of compressor and turbine maps. In a compressor
map, lines of constant rotational speed and thermal
efficiency "Islands" are plotted on axes representing
the compressor pressure ratio and the air mass flow
rate (Figure 4.54). The compressor map also shows
the compressor operating limits.
93
94
Section 4
Components and System Design
95
96
Section 4
Components and System Design
97
Intercooler
98
Section 4
Components and System Design
99
100
Section 4
Components and System Design
101
Equation 4.19
E = (T 2 T3) / (T2 T1)
where:
E = Heat exchanger effectiveness
T1 = Temperature of the ambient cooling air
T2 = Temperature of the charge air entering the
heat exchanger (approximately equal to the
compressor discharge temperature)
T3 = Temperature of the charge air exiting the heat
exchanger (approximately equal to the intake
manifold temperature)
Since the overall objective of the charge cooling
system is to maximize the intake manifold density, it is
desirable to maximize the heat exchanger
effectiveness and, at the same time, minimize the
charge pressure drop across the cooler. Optimizing the
trade-off between cooling effectiveness and flow
restriction within the vehicle spacial constraints
requires careful design of the cooling core flow
passages and fin density (fins per inch). Similarly, the
heat exchanger headers must be designed to minimize
flow losses and to provide a uniform charge air flow
distribution through the core.
Because the air-to-air heat exchanger is located
remotely from the engine, ducting is required to deliver
the charge air from the turbocharger compressor
discharge to the charge cooler and to return the cooled
air to the intake manifold. The underhood configuration
of the vehicle and serviceability requirements often limit
options for routing these ducts. It is important to design
the ducts to minimize pressure drop flow losses and to
avoid any temperature rise particularly on the cold side
return ducting.
102
Section 4
Components and System Design
103
Equation 4.21
ENGINE BRAKES
Where:
Where:
Pv = Vehicle generated power (hp)
W = GVM (lb)
= Grade (Percent)
V = Vehicle speed (miles/hr)
The required retarding (braking) power to maintain
vehicle control (constant speed) can be calculated
using Equation 4.21.
104
PBR = Pv - PVN
Section 4
Components and System Design
105
106
Section 4
Components and System Design
107
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The lubrication system provides lubrication and cooling
of engine components. In some engines it is also used
108
Section 4
Components and System Design
109
Oil Pump
The lubrication system depends on the oil pump to
provide the proper flow rate of oil to the engine. It is
designed to draw as little power as possible. An
additional 10% flow capacity has to be provided to
compensate for oil leakage, worn parts, etc.
Typical oil flow rates for a diesel engine with oil cooled
pistons and new bearings can be found in internal
combustion engine references.
110
Section 4
Components and System Design
Regulator
The oil pressure regulator stabilizes oil pressure
regardless of temperature. The regulator is shown in
Figure 4.73.
When the oil pressure exceeds 45 lb/in.2 (311 kPa), the
valve is forced off its seat, and oil from the oil gallery is
bypassed to the engine oil pan. This stabilizes
lubricating pressure in the engine block at all times,
providing sufficient pressure for flow of oil through the
bearings and to all parts of the lubricating system.
One consideration for the regulator and the lubricating
system design should be to minimize energy loss in the
bypassed oil. Since the oil that is bypassed through the
regulator valve is simply drained into the oil pan, it is
not being utilized for anything and is therefore a waste
of energy. Minimizing the amount of oil bypassed,
(which should be a part of the overall system design),
and the pressure drop which has occurred in the
bypassed oil are ways of reducing the amount of
wasted energy in the lubricating system.
Relief Valve
The relief valve, shown in Figure 4.73, utilizes
hardware very similar to the regulator valve. It has a
different pin location than the regulator, providing the
lb/in.2
111
Oil Cooler
The oil cooler, also shown in Figure 4.71, maintains
the oil temperature within its optimum temperature
range. If the oil is too cold, it will not flow freely, and will
require more power from the engine for proper
circulation. If the oil is too warm, the oil film will not be
thick enough to support bearing loads, and it cannot
carry enough heat away from components such as the
piston dome. The oil cooler must be sized to provide
the right amount of cooling to maintain the optimum oil
temperature, which for the DDC Series 60 engine is
230F (110C). Heat is transferred from the engine oil,
which absorbs a considerable amount of heat, to the
engine coolant.
An oil bypass with a small orifice is provided around the
oil cooler to maintain optimal oil flow through the cooler
and to the engine, for varying conditions such as cold
oil or a plugged (restrictive) cooler.
The oil cooler used for the DDC Series 60 is a plate in
shell type of cooler. Design of the cooler is based on
heat transfer analysis.
Dipstick
The dipstick is inserted into the oil pan in order to check
the amount of oil in the engine oil pan. Marks on the
dipstick indicate "low" and "full". When the engine is
installed at an angle the dipstick has to be recalibrated
to maintain accuracy.
The level of oil in the oil pan at the "low" mark must be
high enough to ensure that the oil pump inlet is not
exposed to air, even when the engine is at the worst
possible combination of installation and vehicle angles.
112
Section 4
Components and System Design
Crankcase Ventilation
Vapors, formed within the engine, are removed from
the crankcase, gear train, and valve compartment by a
continuous pressurized ventilation system. A slight
pressure is maintained in the engine crankcase by
normal seepage of air and combustion gases past the
piston rings. These gases sweep through the engine
and exit through a crankcase breather. The vent
location should be away from oil splash, and is usually
located on the rocker arm cover.
The vapors passing through the crankcase ventilation
system contain some oil from the engine lubrication
system. Oil is removed from the vapor by a wire mesh
element in the rocker arm breather. Oil collects on the
wire mesh and drains back to the oil pan. The vapors
are vented to the atmosphere after passing through the
rocker arm breather.
The crankcase pressure is determined by the rate of
combustion gas leakage past the piston rings and by
the restriction of the gases as they pass through the
breather system. The restriction of the crankcase
gases must be sized for the worst case: maximum
engine power, and a worn engine near the end of the
piston ring service life. Over the life of the engine, the
crankcase pressure of the DDC Series 60 engine
ranges up to 1 lb/in.2 (7 kPa), not including any effects
due to the air compressor, a damaged turbocharger, or
a clogged crankcase ventilation filter element.
113
COOLANT SYSTEM
Water Pump
114
Section 4
Components and System Design
Thermostats
Thermostats are required to automatically regulate the
coolant temperature by defining the coolant flow path.
At high coolant temperature conditions, the thermostat
directs coolant through the radiator. Once the coolant
temperature is within the recommended region, the
thermostat redirects coolant flow through a bypass
circuit, recirculating the coolant through the engine.
The nominal settings for coolant temperature for the
DDC Series 60 are presented in Figure 4.74.
Temperature is held within the nominal operating range
of 15 to 17F (8 to 9C). If coolant temperature exceeds
the fully open temperature of the thermostat, the
115
SUMMARY
This section completes the design of components and
systems. The sections included design guidelines for
the major fluid systems, i.e., air, water, fuel, oil and
guidelines for major engine components, i.e., cylinder
head, cylinder block, cylinder liner, connecting rod,
crankshaft, camshaft, (some people refer to these as
the six "c"s), piston, valves, overhead mechanism,
flywheel housing, gear train, bearings, fuel injection
system, turbocharger, electronics systems and engine
braking system. The next section will cover the
development of these systems and components.
116
SECTION 5
PERFORMANCE DEVELOPMENT
Identification Of Performance Objectives
In order to properly develop an engine configuration, one
must first identify the performance objectives. These
performance objectives involve minimum requirements or
target values for the operational characteristics that the
customer deems important. Meeting the performance
objectives means that the engine will meet or exceed
customer expectations over its useful life. In the heavyduty truck market, the performance related objectives
typically involve horsepower, torque, and fuel economy.
These performance objectives can be extremely
application and/or customer dependent, however. For
117
118
Air Consumption
Consider the work done by an internal combustion
engine depends on the amount of energy released
when a mixture of air and fuel burns. If the engine does
not induct the largest possible amount of air, work
output will be limited, no matter how much fuel is
added. Therefore, after an engine has been designed
and constructed, it is desirable to measure air
consumption in cubic feet per minute (ft3/min) in the
English system and in cubic meters per minute (m3/
min) in the metric system to ensure that restrictions are
not present in the intake and exhaust systems that
would prevent free breathing of the engine.
Moreover, a knowledge of the quantities of air and fuel
consumed by the engine enables the air-fuel ratio to be
computed and the variation of engine performance with
variation in air-fuel ratio to be studied. The accepted
method to measure air consumption at DDC is to
measure the inlet depression at the entrance to a
calibrated flow nozzle. The depression is then related
to an airflow through use of a chart that has been
generated using complex airflow equations.
Bosch Smoke
In order to evaluate the opacity of exhaust smoke, DDC
uses a device called a Bosch smoke meter. A small
quantity of exhaust at the operating point in question is
drawn through a special filter paper and the relative
smudge left on the filter paper is compared to
standards. Smoke ratings are expressed in arbitrary
units for the particular brand used. In the case of the
Bosch smoke meter, Bosch 1 indicates light smoke,
Bosch 2 indicates medium smoke, and Bosch 3
indicates medium heavy smoke. Bosch 1.5 is generally
considered the beginning of the visible smoke range.
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
Volumetric Efficiency
The volumetric efficiency (NV) of an engine is defined
as the ratio of the actual mass of air inducted by the
engine on the intake stroke (mA) to the theoretical
mass of air that should have been inducted by filling
the piston-displacement volume with air at atmospheric
temperature and pressure (mT). Equation 5.3 can be
used to calculate the volumetric efficiency.
Equation 5.3
mA
Nv = -----------mT
turbocharged engines such as the DDC Series 60 12.7
liter engine, the volumetric efficiency can be greater
than unity.
Mean Effective Pressure
The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is defined
as the theoretical constant pressure which can be
imagined as exerted during each power stroke of the
engine to produce power (or work) equal to the brake
power (or work). The BMEP is a function of engine
speed, power, and displacement and can be computed
as follows:
Equation 5.4
BMEP = (bhp) x 792,000
DxN
Where:
D = Total piston displacement (in.3)
N = Engine Speed (r/min)
The parameter of mean effective pressure shows how
well the engine is using its size (displacement) to
produce work, and thus this parameter is valuable for
comparative purposes.
119
Performance Comparison
For comparing the performances of engines, a number
of standards are available:
Correction Factors
The work or power output of the engine at full throttle is
directly related to atmospheric conditions; if the engine
is operated in a region of low barometric pressure,
120
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
121
X CD x AV x SV2) x SV
Where:
CR = Coefficient of rolling resistance
Figure 5.2 Effect of Injection Timing
MV
122
CD
= Drag coefficient
AV
SV
= Vehicle speed
Test Description
The majority of attributes that affect engine
performance such as intake and exhaust port size and
shape or combustion chamber geometry, for instance,
are determined during the design phase of a new
engine. There are several components, however, that
cannot be exactly defined until a prototype engine is
built and performance testing has begun. The two
components that tend to have the most dramatic effect
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
123
124
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
125
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
DURABILITY TESTING
Customers expect their engines to operate for a
minimum of 750,000 miles and preferably for 1,000,000
miles. Ensuring that an engine will meet these
expectations falls into the realm of reliability, durability,
and in some respects abuse testing. Statistical
methods of monitoring and predicting life and reliability
are basic in the evaluation of engines today, of these,
Weibull techniques are the most prevalent.
In all cases, it is critical that results be generated faster
than real world testing. Assuming a truck runs 24 hours
a day, 365 days a year at 55 miles/hr (89 km/hr), this
still equates to 568 days (1.56 years) to accumulate
750,000 miles, and 757 days (2.08 years) to reach
1,000,000 miles. These prolonged testing times cant
be tolerated if an engine manufacturer is going to
remain competitive.
Testing programs to establish the durability and
reliability of an engine can take many forms. For
example, the entire engine can be run either in steadystate or through a programmed cycle to gage
tribological characteristics. Subsystems of the engine
can be tested on fixtures or as part of the entire engine
to evaluate specific failure modes. External factors
such as lubricant and fuel quality or composition also
need to be evaluated to ensure that the engine will
operate successfully with whatever is used by the
customer.
Finally, actual in service testing of the engine will often
uncover deficiencies that are not detectable by
laboratory testing. During the development of the DDC
Series 60 engine, all of these test techniques were
employed to evaluate the reliability and durability of the
engine.
127
128
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System Integration and Engine Development
129
130
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System Integration and Engine Development
131
132
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
133
NOISE DEVELOPMENT
Noise development was considered from the
conception of the DDC Series 60 engine and continues
today. With the intended market of the DDC Series 60
engine being the on-highway truck, meeting noise
levels was a necessity dictated by passby test
standards adopted by truck OEMs and the EPA.
Because the truck standards dictate total truck noise
and not engine noise, a noise goal for the engine had
to be developed. DDC used its knowledge of engine
and truck noise sources to set a goal of 77 dB(A)
maximum sound pressure level for the engine at 50
feet (15 m) away from a microphone.
Component Testing
Determination and optimization of engine and
individual component sound levels are performed in the
laboratory. Sound is generated and measured in
134
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
however, method
determination.
yields
critical
component
135
VEHICLE TESTING
Vehicle testing is an extremely important part of engine
development. It is necessary to perform extensive
testing of the engine in the vehicle to avoid a
devastating mistake: developing a product without
testing it in real world conditions. Experience has
proven that not all conditions are duplicated in the test
cell.
There is some essential data that a test cell can not
provide, such as engine driveability, although computer
simulation programs such as ADAM provide assistance
in this area. A parameter such as driveability is directly
linked to engine features such as the turbocharger and
electronic control calibration. As development of these
items takes place, it is necessary to concurrently test
the vehicle with the development in order to eliminate
the possibility of developing an engine that performs
unacceptably in the customers vehicle application.
The DDC Series 60 engine was tested extensively in
vehicles at a controlled test site as well as at customer
locations throughout the United States. Vehicle testing
takes place concurrently with engine development, in
order to maintain or improve parameters such as
driveability while meeting emissions standards and fuel
economy goals.
Figure 5.12
136
Startability is
Equation 5.7.
quantitatively
estimated
by
using
Equation 5.7
S = T800 x (Total driveline reduction) x R
(10.7 x W)
Where
S = Startability index
T800 = torque available at 800 r/min (lbft)
W = Gross vehicle weight(lbs)
R = wheel speed (r/mile)
There is a minimum recommended startability index for
the different applications of the DDC Series 60 engine.
Combinations of the above startability index
parameters that meet the index requirement for the
specific application may then be run on ADAM.
As can be seen from the above equation for the
startability index, the T800 value is very important for
startability, and therefore driveability. This value (the
torque available at 800 r/min) is available on DDC
Series 60 engine performance data sheets.
The capability of the engine to be geared for steadystate running at higher engine speeds has an impact
on driveability. Running at higher engine speeds allows
the operator to shift less, which may improve driving
technique. Less shifting encourages the driver to use
the torque available at lower engine speeds when
pulling grades. In some cases running at higher engine
speeds is discouraged due to a penalty in fuel
economy.
The performance of the vehicle on grades is a
significant part of vehicle driveability. This is tested by
driving the vehicle on a grade, from a rolling start and
also from stop. The DDC Series 60 engine is tested in
this manner at a controlled test site with hills that have
138
137
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System Integration and Engine Development
139
138
140
139
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
Unaided Starts
A typical temperature target for unaided starts, that is,
engine starts not assisted by external devices, is 32F
(0C). Because of the electronic governing system,
DDEC, the DDC Series 60 engine is capable of
unaided starts at 15F (-9C). The DDEC system
senses a cold start condition via the engine oil
temperature.
Devices for
temperature:
glow plugs
fuel heater
increasing
combustion
chamber
fuel heater
141
140
142
141
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
1.
Radiated Susceptibility
2.
Radiated Emissions
3.
Conducted Susceptibility
4.
Conducted Emissions
143
142
2.
3.
144
143
Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
145
144
FLYWHEEL TESTING
Equation 5.9
NC = N T x (SSPEC / SACT).5
Where:
NC = Corrected Burst Speed
NT = Observed Burst Speed
SSPEC = Minimum
Tensile
Strength
on
Drawing
SACT = The
Actual
Tensile
Strength
From Burst Specimen
The test procedure above does not consider heat or
torque output, however, the severity of stress induced
by rotational velocity 2.5 times actual service velocity
has been found to provide adequate safety factor for
typical heavy-duty diesel flywheels.
Flywheel Torque Capacity
146
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System Integration and Engine Development
ABUSE TESTING
Therefore,
complete
build
and
tear-down
measurements are performed to insure the engine or
component conforms to specifications. Engine and
component instrumentation should continuously record
test conditions throughout the experiment. Statistically
significant test samples are used to confirm failure
modes and account for engine and component
variability. Test data should be correlated with known
field failures. Extensive failure studies are performed
by the engineer, who may also involve metallurgical
and chemical analyses, as appropriate.
Failure analysis can become very complex. Failed
components and component fragments must be
gathered for inspection. Detailed evaluations may
involve: scanning electron microscope examination, Xray photography, and magna flux inspections of failed
metallic components. Test data must be reviewed for
anomalies which may have induced or resulted from
failure. In some cases, it is possible to recognize
imminent failure before a catastrophic component
damage results. Used oil analyses and real time test
data are useful tools for both post mortal and predictive
failure mode identification. Once a catastrophic failure
has occurred, multiple failure modes may exist.
Therefore, it is important to separate
147
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Section 5
System Integration and Engine Development
149
SECTION 6
EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Before a family of engines can be sold in the U.S. truck
market, the engine manufacturer must conduct emission
certification tests in a facility approved by the EPA. The
engine dynamometer test procedure, test conditions,
measure methods and test fuels are prescribed in the
Federal Register. Family certification requires testing of
two data engines that are run for 125 hours prior to an
emission test and one engine run to 1,000 to 1,500 hours
to determine emission deterioration factors. The
emissions from the data engines with deterioration factors
applied from the hour accumulation engine must comply
with the EPA standards.
The EPA emission standards for 1993, 1994, and 1998
are illustrated in Table 6.1 for the emissions of
hydrocarbons (HC) carbon monoxide (CO) oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) expressed in
CO
NOx
PM
1993
1.3
15.5
5.0
0.25
1994
1.3
15.5
5.0
0.10
1998
1.3
15.5
4.0
0.10
Table 6.1
CO
NOx
PM
1993 STANDARD
1.3
15.5
5.0
0.25
0.10
2.4
4.9
0.15
0.05
2.2
4.7
0.13
0.09
2.3
4.8
0.19
0.08
1.8
4.7
0.18
151
150
FUEL ECONOMY
Several measures are used to determine if fuel
efficiency goals have been met. The first is to run a full
load curve over the engine speed range to measure the
brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) which is
measured in pounds per hour and divided by the
horsepower produced resulting in units of lbs/bhphr.
Figure 6.1 shows a representative full load curve with
horsepower, torque and fuel consumption.
load but also for "part load". This "fuel map" can be
used in vehicle computer simulations to calculate
vehicle fuel economy in miles per gallon. A typical "fuel
map" is shown in Figure 6.2.
152
151
NOISE
Heavy duty diesel truck noise is regulated by the
Federal requirements. Overall vehicle noise is
regulated at 80 dB(A) with noise generation and
measurements being accomplished according to a test
such as SAE J366.
As mentioned in previous sections, vehicle noise is
composed of chassis noise, engine noise, exhaust
noise, wind noise, and tire noise. By far the most
significant noise contribution is due to engine and
exhaust noise. Exhaust noise attenuation is the joint
responsibility of the engine and truck manufacturer.
Noise results for the entire J366 test cycle for a 1994
12.7 liter DDC Series 60 engine rated at 2100 r/min
and 430 BHP are shown in Figure 6.5. This represents
a test result of 79.5 dB(A) which is 1/2 dB(A) below the
regulated standard. The 79.5 dB(A) level represents a
production highway truck. An example of lower noise
154
152
Figure 6.5
Section 6
Measuring Your Success
Rated
r/min
Sample
Size
Average
dB(A)
2100
50
78.9
1800
28
77.3
2100
15
78.9
1800
11
78.2
2100
18
79.2
1800
38
77.9
Difference
1.6
0.7
1.3
Noise Level
79.0 dB(A)
79.4 dB(A)
80.6 dB(A)
bhp/r/min
Sample Size
Average dB(A)
450/2100
79.7
425/2100
34
79.3
400/2100
24
79.3
365/2100
10
79.1
350/2100
30
78.9
Table 6.6
RELIABILITY
Reliability is measured by different people using a
variety of scales. The truck driver knows it as road calls
or down time. The dispatcher knows it as down time
and time to repair. The fleet maintenance manager
knows all the above plus some measure from analysis
such as mean time between failures (MTBF), cost per
mile, failure per truck, etc. The engine manufacturer
also has measures of reliability:
1.
155
153
2.
3.
156
154
DURABILITY
Durability in the heavy truck industry is known as miles
to overhaul or miles to in-frame overhaul. Overhaul is
required due to wearout of components which result in
some or all of the following symptoms: low power, poor
fuel economy, smoke (black, blue or white), high oil
consumption, high crankcase pressure (heavy
breathing) noise, oil analysis signals, vibration or
failure. Premature wearout of engines can
Section 6
Measuring Your Success
DRIVEABILITY
This aspect of acceptability is more difficult to quantify;
it is not as measurable as the previous four criteria. In
this case the measurement can be horsepower, torque,
torque rise, lugging ability, maximum vehicle speed,
not having to change to another gear etc.
Our experience indicates that to have good driveability
you must have 25% torque rise, at least 500 r/min of
operating range and the truck must be properly
matched with a transmission.
COST
Figure 6.9
157
155
SUMMARY
In conclusion the success of a diesel engine is
measured by several factors:
must
demonstrate
158
156
SECTION 7
Summary
159
157
Acknowledgements
161
158
Bibliography
Section 1
Heywood, John B., Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New
York, 1988
Section 3
"Code of Federal Regulations," Parts 86 to 99, Office of
the Federal Register, National Archives and Records
Administration, Washington D.C., 1993
Hower, M.J. , Mueller, R.A., Oehlerking, D.A., and Zielke,
M.R., "The New Navistar T 444E Direct-Injection
Turbocharged Diesel Engine," SAE Technical Paper
930269, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale,
PA, 1993
Real, J.D.; Anders, J.H.; Bosch, D.J., and VanAlstyne,
R.J., "Design and Application Evaluation of an Innovative
Cooling System in Medium and Heavy Trucks," SAE
Technical Paper 892469, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1989
Section 4
Alfano, D.L., "Turbocharger Application," SAE Technical
Paper 862051, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1986
Vehicle
Braking,
Pentech
Press
163
159
Biblography
Section 5
Heywood, John B.: Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals, Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Company,
New York, 1988
Obert, Edward F.: Internal Combustion Engines and Air
Pollution, Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York,
1973
Section 6
Henriksen, Brian S., "Detroit Diesels New Low
Emission Series 50 Diesel Engine,"presented at the
24th Meeting of Bus and Coach Exlperts, Scientific
Society of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest,
Hungary, 1993
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161