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Discussion
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the bottom of all these noble races the beast of prey, the splendid
blond beast, prowling about avidly in search of spoil and victory; this
hidden core needs to erupt from time to time, the animal has to get
out again and go back to the wilderness (GM, I).
About slavery, Nietzsche says that a healthy aristocracy accepts
with a good conscience the sacrifice of untold human beings, who, for
its sake, must be reduced and lowered to incomplete human beings,
to slaves, to instruments (BGE, 258).
About war, Nietzsche says, One must learn from war: one
must learn to sacrifice many and to take ones cause seriously enough
not to spare men (WP, 982).
And about violence in general, Nietzsche says, approvingly, The
beginnings of everything great on earth [are] soaked in blood
thoroughly and for a long time (GM, II:6).
Remarks such as these should give pause to any identification of
Rands views with Nietzsches, given Rands vehement opposition to
slavery and the zero-sum conflict view of the world.
Nietzsche has become part of the philosophical canon and Rand
is becoming so. Commonly the two are identified, and this is why the
issue of the intellectual relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and
Ayn Rand is an important one. Nietzsche is usually interpreted as an
arch-individualist, as anti-altruistic, and as an iconoclast outside the
mainstream. The same points are true of Rand. So to many casual
readers a simple identification of Nietzsche and Rand follows.
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one should sacrificially restrain ones interest in wealth for the sake of
others. Another form holds that others need for basic wealth is in
conflict with ones desire for luxuries, so one should in principle
sacrifice luxuries and act charitably.
Egoism is the position that wealth is a value that must be
produced, so one should commit to producing the wealth one needs.
Yet ones being productive is also beneficial to others, given that
production creates value for mutually-beneficial trade.
Generalizing from wealth as an example to policies for all of lifes
values: Selfishness holds that one should intentionally pursue ones
self-interest at the expense of others. Altruism holds that one should
intentionally selflessly pursue others interests at ones own expense.
And egoism holds that one should intentionally pursue ones selfinterest, which has as a consequence the possibility of mutuallybeneficial transactions with others.
Altruism
Selfishness
Egoism
Intent
Selfless
Self-interest
Self-interest
Consequence to
self
Sacrifice
Benefit
Benefit
Consequence to
other(s)
Benefit
Sacrifice
Benefit or
neutral
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A Nietzschean Sketch
God is Dead
For thousands of years humans have been religious, but in the
modern world religion has become a shadow of its former self.
Nietzsches dramatic phrase, God is dead, is meant to capture the
personal and shocking quality of this revelation (GS, 108, 125). For
those raised religiously, religion personalized the world. It gave them a
sense that the world had a purpose and that they were part of a larger
plan. It gave them the comfort that, despite appearances, we are all
equal and cared for and that upon deathinstead of a cold gravea
possible happily-ever-after ending awaits.
But in the modern world we find it hard to believe that anymore.
We have seen the dramatic rise of science, which has offered less
comfortable answers to questions religion traditionally had a monopoly on. We have thrown off the shackles of feudalism with its
unquestioning acceptance of authority and knowing our place. We are
more individualistic and naturalistic in our thinking (GS, 117).
But in historical time all of this has happened very quicklyin the
span of a few centuries. For millennia we have been religious, but
come the nineteenth century even the average man has heard that
religion may have reached the end of its journey. For most of us,
even the suggestion of this hints at a crisis.
Imagine a thirteen-year old who is awakened in the middle of the
night to be told by strangers that both his parents have died. He is
suddenly an orphan. As long as he can remember his mother and
father have been presences in his life, looking after him and guiding
him, sometimes firmly, but always a benevolent protection and
support in a world that he is not yet able to handle on his own. Now
they are gone and ready or not he is thrust into that world alone.
How does the young teen handle that sudden transition?
Culturally, Nietzsche says, we are like that young teen. For as
long as we can remember our society has relied upon God the Father
to look after us, to be a benevolentand sometimes sternguiding
force through a difficult world. But now, suddenly, we are orphaned.
We wake up one morning to discover in our heart of hearts that our
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Nihilisms Symptoms
Most people avoid the issue, sensing that even to raise it would
be to enter dangerous territory. They sense that the game might be
up for religion, but out of fear they shut off their minds and will
themselves to believe that God is still out there somewhere. Life
without religion is too scary to contemplate, so they retreat to a safety
zone of belief and repeat nervously the formulas they have learned
about faith. Now, says Nietzsche, it is one thing for a medieval
peasant to have a simple-minded faith, but for us moderns such a
faith has a tinge of dishonesty about it.
Slightly better to Nietzsche, but not much, are the socialists of the
nineteenth century (Z, 1:11; TI, Skirmishes of an Untimely Man,
34). Socialism is on the rise, and many socialists have abandoned the
religion of their youthbut only halfway. Most socialists accept that
God is dead but then they are very concerned that the State take
Gods place and look after them. The mighty State will provide for
us and tell us what to do and protect us against the mean people of
the world.
Think of it this way: The Judeo-Christian tradition says this is a
world of sin, in which the weak suffer at the hands of the strong, that
we should all be selfless and serve God and others, especially the sick
and helpless, and that in a future ideal worldHeaventhe lion will
lie down with lamb, and the inescapable power of God will bring
salvation to the meek and judgment to the wicked.
The socialist tradition says this is a world of evil exploitation, in
which the strong take advantage of the weak. But we should all be
selfless and sacrifice for the good of others, especially the needy
From each according to his ability, to each according to his need
and the forces of history will necessarily bring about a future ideal
world that will end all harsh competition, empowering the oppressed
and eliminating the evil exploiters.
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Both religion and socialism thus glorify weakness and need. Both
recoil from the world as it istough, unequal, harsh. Both flee to an
imaginary future realm where they can feel safe. Both say: Be a nice
boy. Be a good little girl. Share. Feel sorry for the little people. And both
desperately seek someone to look after themwhether it be God or
the State.
So where, asks Nietzsche, are the men of courage? Who is willing
to stare into the abyss? Who can stand alone on the icy mountaintop?
Who can look a tiger in the eye without flinching?
Such men exist. Every generation produces its occasional
magnificent mensparkling, vital men who accept easily that life is
tough, unequal, unfair, and who welcome asserting their strength to
meet the challenge. Those who have unbending wills against anything
the world can throw at them.
But such magnificent men seem to be few and far between in the
nineteenth century, and Nietzsche wonders why. And he looks back
on past cultures where the magnificent men dominated: strength was
prized and inequality was a fact of life. Assertiveness and conquest
were a source of pride. He names the Japanese feudal nobility as an
example, with their samurai code of honor, and the Indian Brahmins
who rose and imposed their caste system, the Vikings who raided
ruthlessly up and down the European coast, the expansionist Arabs
and of course the awesome Roman Empire (GM, 1:11).
What explains this stark contrast? Why do some cultures rise to
greatness and unabashedly impose their will upon the world while
other cultures seem apologetic and urge upon us a bland conformity?
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(TI, Skirmishes of an Untimely Man, 33, 35). Some, to use Nietzsches language, are born to be masters, and some are born slaves.
There is a continuum here, but one cannot do anything about
which type one essentially is. There is a brute biological fact here:
Our traits are evolutionarily bred into us. Just as a sheep cannot help
but be sheepish and a hawk cannot help but be hawkish, each of us
inherits from our parents a long line of inbuilt traits. It cannot be
effaced from a mans soul what his ancestors have preferably and
most constantly done (BGE, 264). Biological determinism is for
Nietzsche a consequence of a more general metaphysical determinism:
the single human being is a piece of fatum from the front and from
the rear, one law more, one necessity more for all that is yet to come
and to be. To say to him, Change yourself! is to demand that
everything be changed, even retroactively (TI, Morality as AntiNature, 6).
The master types live by strength, creativity, independence,
assertiveness, and related traits. They respect power, courage,
boldness, risk-taking, even recklessness. It is natural for them to
follow their own path no matter what, to rebel against social pressure
and conformity (GM, 1:6). And by contrast the slave types live in
conformity. They tend to passivity, dependence, meekness (BGE,
199). It is natural for them to stick together for a sense of security, as
herd animals do.
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and the sheep can agree on morallytheir natures are different, as are
their needs and goals, as is what feels good to them. Of course it
would be good for the sheep if they could convince the wolves to be
more sheep-like, but no self-respecting wolf will fall for that. As
Nietzsche puts it amusingly:
That lambs dislike great birds of prey does not seem strange:
only it gives no grounds for reproaching these birds of prey
for bearing off little lambs. And if the lambs say among
themselves: these birds of prey are evil; and whoever is least
like a bird of prey, but rather its opposite, a lambwould he
not be good? there is no reason to find fault with this
institution of an ideal, except perhaps that the birds of prey
might view it a little ironically and say: we dont dislike them
at all, these good little lambs; we even love them: nothing is
more tasty than a tender lamb. (GM, 1:13)
Nietzsche argues that the same holds for humans. The divide
between strong and weak, assertive and timid, runs right through the
human species. Consequently, the right question to ask is not: Is
such and such a value really valuable? But rather: What kind of person
finds this value valuable? Ones moral code, Nietzsche holds, is a
decisive witness to who he is, to the innermost drives of his
nature (BGE, 6). Moral judgments, he says, are symptoms and
sign languages which betray the process of physiological prosperity or
failure (WP, 258; see also D, 542 and BGE, 221).
Genealogy
So: ones moral code is a function of ones psychological makeup, and ones psychological make-up is a function of ones biological
make-up.
The biological language and examples show that biology is crucial
to Nietzsches views on morality. Nietzsche was a precocious fifteen
years old when Charles Darwins Origin of Species was published in
1859. Much of the intellectual world was moving away from thinking
of the world in terms of timeless absolutes to viewing it in terms of
process and change, and Nietzsche is among the first to apply
evolutionary concepts to morality: Moral codes are part of a biologi-
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cal types life strategy of survival, and the more one looks at the
history of morality evolutionarily and biologically, the more one is
struck by dramatic changes in moral codes across time.
And this is the key problem, Nietzsche argues, when we consider
the altruist and egoist moral codes, for the historical record shows a
disturbing inversion. Formerly, we prized above all excellence and
power, and we looked down upon the humble and the lowly. Yet
now the meek, the humble, and the common man are the good,
while the aggressive, the powerful, the strong, the proud are evil
(GM, 1:4). Somehow the morality of the weak has become dominant,
and the morality of the strong has declined.
This moral inversion is dangerous: the traits of strength and
power, i.e., those that ennoble man, are now condemned; and the
traits of ordinariness and modesty, i.e., those that weaken man, are
praised. Morality, accordingly, has become a bad thing; or, more
paradoxically, morality has become immoral. As Nietzsche puts it,
So that precisely morality would be to blame if the highest power
and splendor actually possible to the type man was never in fact
attained? So that precisely morality was the danger of dangers?
Accordingly, Nietzsche argues, we need a critique of moral values,
the value of these values themselves must first be called in question
and for that there is needed a knowledge of the conditions and
circumstances in which they grew, under which they evolved and
changed . . . (GM, Preface:6). The morality of the weak has
somehow become dominant, and the morality of the strong has
declined. How is this rather paradoxical state of affairs to be
explained?
Part of the story is bio-psychologicalin terms of what morality
resonates with what psychological type of person one is. But part of
the story is culturaland here there is a history lesson. [U]nder
what conditions did man devise these value judgments good and evil?
and what value do they themselves possess? (GM, Preface:3).
Different moral codes develop under different survival circumstances,
so Nietzsche searches history for the survival circumstances that
enabled and necessitated the development of the altruistic, slave code.
In the West, Nietzsche finds the slave moralitys roots in the JudeoChristian tradition (GM, 1:7), in a decisive set of events that occurred
early in Jewish history, before the time of Moses: the enslavement of
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the Jews in Egypt. The significant result of the Jews being enslaved
for a long time was the development and internalization of a moral
code suitable for surviving slavery.
Suppose that you are a slave: how do you survive? By contrast,
what actions will kill you? What actions will increase your chances of
staying alive? And if you have children who are born into slavery,
what survival strategies will you teach them?
In order to survive, a slave must obey the master. This does not
come naturally. So the first lesson is: you must stifle your nature.
Suppose the master strikes youthe desire for revenge comes
naturallybut you have to stifle it. Suppose the master tells you to
waitbeing inactive does not come naturallybut you must suppress
your desire for activity. Suppose the master tells you to do something
you do not want to doyou must override your desire to do what
you want and obey. Generalizing, you must train yourself to restrain
your natural impulses and to internalize a humble, patient, obedient
self. You know you must do this because slaves who do not end up
dead. Consequently, Nietzsche asserts, slave virtues have survival
value: obedience, humility, forgiveness, and patience are good for
slaves. And those are the traits slaves will drill into their children if
they want them to survive. Over time, the slave virtues become
cultural values.
Thus, Nietzsche argues, the slave values became the internalized
cultural values of the Jews and were precisely what enabled them to
survive their long enslavement (GM, 1:14).
In every generation many people are sheep-like and do not
especially mind being slaves. But others resent it, and here the story
Nietzsche tells becomes darker. Some of those slaves are living
human beings with a human beings desire to live, grow, express who
one isall humans have the will to power. But what if they cannot
express it? Then they must live in constant frustration: in order to
survive they must direct their natural strength and assertiveness against
the expression of their own strength and assertiveness. This naturally
leads them to resent the master stronglybut they also start to hate
themselves for doing what the master says and for their own role in
suppressing themselves. But, psychologically, hating oneself causes
unbearable pressure inside: the outward discharge [of the instincts]
was inhibited . . . [and] turned backward against man himself.
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(3) Altruism as a tactic of the weak to get support from the strong;
(4) Altruism as a strategy of the weak to get power over the strong in
order to rule them; and
(5) Altruism as a strategy by the weak to destroy the strong out of
envy, hatred, or revenge.
Nietzsche and Rand both recognize Type 1 altruism. History
provides many examples of monastic and religious communities that
isolate themselves and live communally. The key organizing concepts
of such communities are collective assets, solidarity, and conformity.
Both Nietzsche and Rand also recognize Type 2 altruism. Nietzsche
regularly invokes herd-animal metaphors and examples to illustrate
the instinctual or strategic practice of seeking safety in numbers
against a qualitatively superior enemy. All the sick and sickly
instinctively strive after a herd organization as a means of shaking off
their dull displeasure and feeling of weakness; the ascetic priest
divines this and furthers it (GM, 3:18). Rand illustrates Type 2 in The
Fountainhead in the official philosophy Ellsworth Toohey uses when
preaching to the massesfor example in his speech to the strikers of
the building-trades union (F, I:9). The key concepts in Tooheys
speech are unity, the aggression of the owners, and the consequent
role of unions as a self-protection agency to fight back.
Type 3 altruism appears in Nietzsches writings as a danger to the
strong: The weak and the poor use altruistic morality as a tool to
make the stronger serve them; that is a danger to the strong, Nietzsche argues, because it will sidetrack them from their proper selfdevelopment. The sick represent the greatest danger for the healthy;
it is not the strongest but the weakest who spell disaster for the
strong. Nietzsches reason for this is that W hat is to be feared,
what has a more calamitous effect than any other calamity, is that man
should inspire not profound fear but profound nausea; also not great
fear but great pity (GM, III:14). Pity then leads the strong to feel
obligations of charity, compassion, and to devote themselves to
succor.
A parallel version of Type 3 altruism appears in Rands Atlas
Shrugged, in the case of the strategy that Reardens mother and brother
pursue to ensure that he will continue to support them. They speak
the language of obligation, pity, and compassion, and, despite his
inarticulate reservations and inchoate feelings of ickiness, Rearden
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of Heaven and the stick of Hell. Rather the purpose is to send ones
enemies to Hell. Here again Nietzsches quoting St. Thomas Aquinas
is relevant: In order that the bliss of the saints may be more
delightful for them and that they may render more copious thanks to
God for it, it is given to them to see perfectly the punishment of the
damned (GM, 1:15n.).
In Atlas, Rand provides many examples of Type 5 altruism.
Lillian Reardens treatment of Hank is not a misguided attempt to get
attention or to repair a failing marriageit is a constant attack on
Reardens identity and worth. The same is true of James Taggarts
treatment of his wife Cherryl: his goal is to destroy her childish and
naive belief in the nobility of man. Taggarts strategy was only
semi-explicit to himself during most of Atlas, but Rand has Taggart
realize its full import consciously toward the end of Atlas during the
torture of John Galt. Knowing that further torturing Galt will kill
him, thus destroying Galts ability to help them, Taggart exclaims: I
dont care! I want to break him! I want to hear him scream! I
want. Rand the narrator goes on to explain Taggarts nihilistic
self-revelation: It was not his incommunicable soul or his love for
others or his social duty or any of the fraudulent sounds by which he
had maintained his self-esteem: it was the lust to destroy whatever
was living (AS, III:9, 1145).
This sub-theme in Atlas is continuous with Rands earlier novel,
The Fountainhead. Toohey explains further to Keating the real strategic
purpose behind his various power tactics of communal organizing, his
critique of individual creativity, the promotion of mediocrities such as
Keating, and so on. Keating asks whinily, What do you want?
Toohey snaps. Howard Roarks neck. Toohey then elaborates: I
dont want to kill him. I want him in jail. You understand? In jail.
In a cell. Behind bars. Locked, stopped, strappedand alive (F,
4:13, 688). Toohey is not seeking any positive value, only the
destruction of an excellent human being.
Toohey is a fictional character, of course, but it is worth remembering Nietzsches nonfictional quoting of Aquinas, as above, and that
Aquinas is in good company, so to speak. Nine centuries earlier, St.
Augustine (426 CE/1984, The Saints Knowledge of the Punishment
of the Wicked, 943) had included the spectacle of Hell as one of the
viewing pleasures for those in Heaven: the good go out to see the
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strategy is neither to side with the Wynands against the Tooheys nor
to side with the Tooheys against the Wynands; Roarks strategy is
independent creative production and trade with those who recognize
his value as an independent creator and producer.
Perhaps not everyone can be as creative and productive as a
Roark. For Rand the fact of inequalities of abilities does not change
the moral facts involved. The egoism of the weak, in contrast to
Nietzsches thesis, is to respect and admire the strong, to promote their
freedom, and to be aware of the overflow benefits to come to them
from the strong. The average person may not be able to design and
build as well as Roark can; yet thousands of average people can, with
productive effort, earn the money in order to live in one of Roarks
buildings, and thousands more get the aesthetic benefit of seeing
Roarks buildings even if they do not get to live in them.
In Atlas Shrugged, Rand uses the example of a janitor who makes
a decent living working in a factory. The janitor did not create a
factory, including its ability to pay his salary. The janitor adds value
to the enterprise and so earns his pay: he is a value to the factorys
creators. At the same time, the factorys creators have added value to
his life: the opportunity to make a living at that job. The abilities and
skill sets differ, and there is a harmony of values that enables win-win
trade. That, Rand argues, is the fundamental truth about the relationship between stronger and weaker: properly conceived, it can and
should be mutually beneficial. Rand puts it this way in Galts speech:
In proportion to the mental energy he spent, the man who
creates a new invention receives but a small percentage of his
value in terms of material payment, no matter what fortune
he makes, no matter what millions he earns. But the man
who works as a janitor in the factory producing that invention, receives an enormous payment in proportion to the
mental effort that his job requires of him. And the same is
true of all men between, on all levels of ambition and ability.
The man at the top of the intellectual pyramid contributes
the most to all those below him, but gets nothing except his
material payment, receiving no intellectual bonus from others
to add to the value of his time. The man at the bottom who,
left to himself, would starve in his hopeless ineptitude,
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one best and to whatever degree ones energies and abilities allow. It
is not the scale of ones abilities that is primarily morally significant;
it is the fact that ones abilities are ones own abilities and that one has
committed to using them to achieve ones own life. In that respect, being
a moral giant is within the reach of any of us. Altruism, by contrast,
encourages the less-talented to disrespect themselves, to make comparative judgments as fundamental to their self-worth, to see themselves
as relatively helpless or as victims, and to plot and act against the
more talented.
In Part One of this essay, we have concentrated on the negative
that is, Nietzsches and Rands critiques of altruism. Now we will
turn to their positive programsi.e., what they take a proper egoism
to entail.
Rands Egoism
To see this, let us begin with a highly-abstracted list of twelve
components that are integrated into Rands advocacy of egoism:
o The life of the individual is the standard of value.
o Values are objectivethey are identifications of an individuals
survival needs.
o Individuals have free will.
o The volitional capacity is the capacity for reason.
o Reason is competent to know reality and is an individuals
fundamental tool for surviving and flourishing.
o Reason gives individuals the power to shape their characters,
to develop or alter their habits, to control their actions.
o The development of reason enables individuals to be creative
producers, rather than merely hunter-gatherers from the environment
or parasites upon each other.
o Consequently, individuals are self-responsible both psychologically and existentially.
o Consequently, individuals are both ends in themselves and the
means to their own ends.
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(GM, Preface:2).
Yet we will not here begin with soil chemistry and root development. Rather I will simply assert (and be prepared to argue on
another occasion) that Nietzsches metaphysics and epistemology are
radically different from Rands, and that those differences lead to
substantial differences and outright oppositions in their views of
human nature and ethics. As evidence of the latter, we will sample
representative quotations that indicate that Nietzsches and Rands
positive ethical systems are at the very least not members of the same
species and more likely not even members of the same genus.
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278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
Conclusion
My hope is that this essay will contribute to putting to rest the
traditional, widespread, and careless identifications of Nietzsches and
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Rands works
D Daybreak (1881)
289
Notes
1. This is to define altruism neutrally, as against the common terminological
confusion of labeling altruist any action that has a positive social result. Altruism
is one thesis about what is necessary to achieve positive social results.
2. Cf. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Supplement, Q. 94, Articles 1 and 3:
Whether the blessed in heaven will see the sufferings of the damned? and
Whether the blessed rejoice in the punishment of the wicked? In Article 3,
Aquinas qualifies the rejoicing by stating that it is in reaction to the justice of Gods
punishment of the wicked.
3. Keeping in mind that toward the end of The Will to Power, Nietzsche argues
that the new masters will thus combine the physical vitality of the aristocratic masters
with the spiritual ruthlessness of the slave-priests of Christianity: the new masters will
be Caesars with the soul of Christ (WP, 983).
4. Rand later mentions the pyramid of ability in The Establishing of an
Establishment, Part II, ARL 1:17 (22 May 1972), 76.
5. Nietzsche also advances another hypothesis about altruism, one that
interprets it not as the egoism of the weak but the nihilism of the weak: Not to
seek ones own advantagethat is merely the moral fig leaf for quite a different,
namely, a physiological state of affairs: I no longer know how to find my own
advantage. Disintegration of the instincts! Man is finished when he becomes
altruistic. Instead of saying naively, I am no longer worth anything, the moral lie in
the mouth of the decadent says, Nothing is worth anything, life is not worth
anything. Such a judgment always remains very dangerous, it is contagious:
throughout the morbid soil of society it soon proliferates into a tropical vegetation
of conceptsnow as a religion (Christianity), now as a philosophy (Schopenhaurism) (TI, Skirmishes of an Untimely Man, 35). GS 119 also speaks of those
who desire only to be a function of others. Nietzsche thus seems to have two theses:
(1) Egoism is universal and natural since all organisms have the will to
power; but not all are equal, so altruism is the power strategy pursued by
the weak to achieve their egoism.
(2) Egoism is not universal, since some organisms are physiologically sick
beyond repair; this causes a will to nothingness and a consequent moral
nihilism; so altruism is the will to nothingness of the weak.
6. Here I am using liberalism in the philosophical sense, not the provincial
American sense. Rand generally puts the word liberal in scare quotes when
discussing its contemporary American use; for example, Extremism, or The Art
of Smearing (CUI, 178), and The New Fascism: Rule by Consensus (CUI, 209).
7. In a journal entry dated 2 January 1946, Rand had written that the period of
peace was brieferDuring the eighteenth century the trend of mens thinking was
toward free enterprise, and as a result we got the nineteenth centurya period of
achievement, progress and prosperity unequaled in history: a period during which
there were fewer government controls than at any other time, before or since;
andmost important to our subjectthe longest period of peace ever recorded
(between the times of Napoleon and Bismarck) (Top Secret, Chapter 9 of JAR,
290
31415).
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