Alternating Current Circuits by Chorcoran

ALTERNATING-CURRENT
CIRCUITS
RUSSELL M
Professor of Electrical
Engineering,
Kansas State College
GEORGE F. CORCORAN
of Electrical Engineering Department
University of Maryland
Generated on 2015-09-12 17:53 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
Professor and Chairman
THIRD EDITION
NEW YORK
LONDON
JOHN WILEY
CHAPMAN
&
&
SONS.
HALL.
INC.
LIMITED
Ubrary
COPYRIGHT,
1938,
1943,
1951
BY
RUSSELL
M. KKKCHNER
and
iiK F. CORCORAN
All
Rights Reserved
This book or any part thereof must not

in any form unthoitt thi~
written permission
of the publisher.
be reproduced
PRINTED
IN THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

Experience with the second edition has suggested a number of changes
and additions of importance to students majoring in either power or
communication work.
Although these additions add some material
to the text, it is possible to omit them without breaking the continuity
The addition of the loss
or theoretical structure of the subject matter.
and phase characteristics of elementary four-terminal networks at the
close of Chapter IV, for example, is a subject of considerable importance
to communication majors but is not essential to an understanding of
the material that follows.
In Chapter V the material pertaining to the Q of electrical circuits
has been revised to make this subject more directly useful and under
The nodal method of circuit analysis is
standable for the reader.
first
of its importance to the engineer
for
the
time
because
included
engaged in the analysis and design of vacuum tube circuits.
An additional method of wave analysis which reduces materially
the amount of labor required to analyze certain classes of waves has been
incorporated in Chapter VI.
A method of designing tuned coupled circuits to have a specified
decibel variation over a specified band width has been included in
Also incorporated is the subject of polarity markings
Chapter VII.
employing a dot-marked terminal.
The three-origin vector diagram of a polyphase circuit which is
particularly useful to power engineers has been added to Chapter VIII.
Minor changes have been made throughout the text in an attempt to
aid the student to grasp more readily the principles presented.
The end-of-chapter problems have been rather completely revised,
and additional problems have been included.
We wish to express our appreciation to all who have submitted
criticisms and suggestions concerning the first and second editions,
particularly to Professor E. M. Strong of Cornell University, Professor
W. B. Shepperd of Pennsylvania State College, and Professors H. R.
Reed and H. W. Price of the University of Maryland.
R. M. K.
G. F. C.
November,
1950
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

This book is primarily written as a textbook for courses in alternat

ing-current circuits as offered to junior electrical engineering students by
most engineering colleges. It is assumed that the student has finished
the usual courses in differential and integral calculus, or at least has
An endeavor has
some knowledge of differentiation and integration.
been made to arrange the material in a logical sequence so as to lead the
student gradually from the simple to the more complex analyses in al
ternating-current circuits.
The method of presentation is an outgrowth of the teaching experience
which the authors have had at several institutions, and an effort has
In carrying out this idea, free
been made to produce a teachable book.
Also a
use has been made of illustrative examples and line drawings.
number of illustrative oscillograms of actual circuit performance have
been included.
In order that many of these oscillograms may be made
the basis of further study, rather complete legends have been given.
Problems for which answers are given have been included in many
places in the text material immediately following the presentation of
certain principles. These problems are primarily intended as exercises
which will help the student determine for himself whether he has a work
able knowledge of the principles involved. The sequence of the prob
lems at the end of the chapters corresponds to the order in which the
The end-of-chapter problems, therefore,
text material is presented.
form a suitable list from which regular assignments may be made.
To make the book more useful to the student, and to the practicing
engineer, it was deemed desirable to include a greater amount of ma
terial than can be covered in the average college course as now given,
provided such subject matter could be omitted without loss in conti
nuity and without affecting the students' preparation for studying suc
ceeding chapters.
With the exception of the fundamentals of symmetrical components
in Chapter XIV which are necessary to understand Chapter XV, any

part or all of any chapter after Chapter X can be omitted without af
fecting the students' preparation for studying succeeding chapters.
Beginning with Chapter XI the remainder of the text is, for the most
part, made up of extensions and applications of the principles studied
vii
CONTENTS
I. General Concepts and Definitions
II.
III.
Instantaneous
Applied]
Current
Power
and
(Sinusoidal Voltage
12
Effective Current and Voltage Average Power
IV. Vector Algebra (As Applied
to
A-C Circuit Analysis)
V. Sinusoidal Single-Phase Circuit Analysis
VI. Non-Sinusoidal Waves
VII.
VIII.
97
Coupled Circuits
211
Balanced Polyphase Circuits
262
X. Alternating-Current

63
161
IX. Unbalanced Polyphase Circuits
XI.
42
Measurements
308
364
Determination of Circuit Parameters
393
Transmission Line Calculations
410
XIII.
Electric Wave Filters
436
XIV.
Symmetrical Components
490
XII.
XV. Power
XVI.
System Short-Circuit
Calculations
521
Transient Conditions
548
Index
587
IX
CHAPTER I
GENERAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Early History.
The first successful electrical power system in the

United
probably Edison's direct-current installation in
New York City. This station was performing creditably in 1885.
Alternating-current power systems began commercially with the Great
Harrington (Massachusetts) installation in 188(5.
During the decade 1907-17, which followed the invention of the
three-electrode
vacuum tube, sustained oscillatory currents at high
became a reality.
These high-frequency oscillatory or
frequencies
alternating currents are easential to all modern radio, television, and
radar forms of communication.
The outstanding advantage of a-c systems (as contrasted with d-c
systems) is the relative ease with which alternating potential differences
can be generated, amplified, and otherwise transformed in magnitude.
The result is that, at the present time, approximately 95 per cent of
the electrical energy consumed in the United States is generated, trans
mitted, and actually utilized in the form of alternating current. In
the power field the annual energy consumption amounts to about 300
In the communication field several thousand
billion kilowatthours.
broadcast stations (of the AM, FM, and television variety) employ
alternating potential differences to generate their carrier waves.
Generation of Alternating Potential Differences. When magnets
are moved relative to electrical conductors as shown in Fig. 1, there is
induced in the conductors a potential difference or emf . In accordance

States
was
with Faraday's law,
e =
or its equivalent
N'Blv and the
For the instant depicted in Fig. 1, the applica

emf varies with time.
tion of one of the rules for finding the magnitude and direction of an
induced emf will show that the emf induced in the armature conductors
is zero, since at that instant no flux is being cut by these conductors.
One-eighth revolution later, however, the induced emf is of maximum
magnitude and of such a direction as to establish a voltage rise from
terminal a to terminal d. One-quarter of a revolution after the position
shown in Fig. 1 the induced emf will again be zero. Three-eighths of
a revolution from the reference position the emf will again be of maxi
1
Ch.
magnitude but so directed as to establish a voltage rise from ter

minal d to terminal a.
Thus the terminals a and d of the generator l>ecome alternately
positive and negative relative to each other, and a time-varying potential
mum
N2
d- terminal
s,
N,
a-terminal
(6)
of the revolving field type.

(a) A four-pole, four-conductor a-c generator
Developed diagram showing method of connecting conductors .1, 13, C, and D.
Pole faces are toward the reader.
Fin.
1.
(6)
difference
of the general nature shown
in Oscillogram.
(page
7)
is
developed.

In communication systems, vacuum tubes (working in conjunction

with suitable electrical circuits) produce alternating currents of higher
Output
terminals
Fio.
2.
Circuit arrangement of a simple triode oscillator.
than those obtainable with rotating equipment.

A com
mon triode oscillator circuit is shown schematically in Fig. 2.
The
across
the
developed
terminals
is
output
a-c energy
actually derived
from the d-c supply voltage labeled EM, but it is not expected that the
reader will understand the conversion from direct current to alternating
current which takes place in Fig. 2 until after he has studied the subject
The only purpose in mentioning the triode
of electrical resonance.
this
is
to
stage
oscillator at
acquaint the reader with the fact that high
frequencies
DEFINITION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
Ch.l
frequency alternating currents can be produced with very simple circuit

configurations.
Many simple circuit configurations other than that
shown in Fig. 2 may be used for this purpose.
Definition of Alternating Current. An alternating current, as the

name implies, goes through a series of different values both positive
and negative in a period of time T, after which it continuously repeats
this same series of values in a cyclic manner as indicated in Fig. 3c.

+10
Fin. 3.
Wave forms of three a-c variations.
In the current
is the period
A.I.E.E. " Definitions
nating current is defined in terms of a

terms of an
(or duration}
of one cycle.
of Electrical Terms," an alter
periodic current, and the latter in
oscillating current.
"An oscillating current is a current which alternately increases and

decreases
in magnitude with respect to time according to some definite
law.
"
A periodic current is an oscillating current the values of which recur

Thus
intervals of time.
at equal
= 70
sin
(ust
+ ai) +
72
sin (2at
+ a2) +
(1)
4
where
= the
IH,
co
I\,
=
instantaneous value of
1%,
2ir
= constants
i, "2
(T
periodic current at time
(positive,
Ch.
t
negative, or zero)
being the period).
" An
alternating current is a periodic current, the average value of
which over a period is zero. The equation for an alternating current
is the same as that for a periodic current except that IQ = 0."
4
In Fig. 3a, t = 10 sin ut

Examples.
sin (Sat + 90) amperes; and, in Fig. 3r,
Period and Cycle.

is the smallest
amperes; in Fig. 36, t = 10 sin

= 10 sin at + 4 sin 2ut amperes.
tat
The period of an alternating current or voltage
value of time which separates recurring values1 of the
The period of time which separates these re

alternating quantity.
curring values is shown in Fig. 3 as T, the symbol normally employed
to designate the period of one cycle of an alternating quantity.
One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating
Thus Figs. 3a and 36 each depict one cycle.
quantity is called a cycle.
A cycle is sometimes specified in terms of angular measure since, as
will be shown presently, u in equation (1) actually represents angular
velocity. One complete cycle is then said to extend over 360 or 2ir
radians of angular measure.
Frequency. Frequency is the number of cycles per second. Unless
"
"
"
cycles
otherwise stated, the term
implies cycles per second."
In the rotating machine of Fig. 1, it is apparent that a complete
cycle is produced in the armature conductors when these conductors
are cut by the flux from a pair of poles or, in this case, one-half revolu
tion of the rotating field. Each conductor will be cut by two pairs
of poles in one revolution of the field structure, and two complete cycles
of emf will be developed in the armature winding per revolution.
In general, for a p-pole machine the number of cycles per revolution
is p/2, and, if the speed of rotation in revolutions per second is repre
sented by rps, the equation for frequency is:
/
Since
is the
cycles per second
time (or duration) of one cycle, it
-;
cycles per second
is
(2)
plain that:
(3)
if T is expressed in seconds.
"
recurring values " is implied in this definition,
The mathematical meaning of
namely, that at least one complete set of values intervenes between two recurring
1
values.
Ch.
abscissa is its wave form or wave shape.

It has been shown that the
passage of a pair of poles past a given reference point on the stator of
Fig.
produced
a complete
cycle of generated
or induced
emf.
This
corresponded to 2ir electrical radians, or 360 electrical degrees.

In
other words, one cycle occurs in or occupies 2ir radians, or 360. The
abscissa, instead of being expressed in terms of time in seconds, can be
and is quite frequently expressed in terms of radians or degrees.
Thus
one cycle occurs in 2w radians, or 360.
Angular Velocity or Angular Frequency. In the preceding article
a complete cycle was seen to correspond to 2w radians.
The time for
a complete cycle was denned as the period T.
Hence the angular
velocity co in radians per second is 2ir/T. Therefore:
2tf
(4)
Equation (4) specifies angular velocity in terms of frequency, and this

velocity is called electrical2 angular velocity or angular frequency.
If equations (2) and (4) are combined:
a,
2*/
2* ? (rps)
[27T
(rps)]
(5)
(5) shows that electrical angular velocity equals (pairs of

poles) times (mechanical angular velocity) in generators of the type
shown in Fig. 1.
Equation
Currents Represented by Sine Waves.

Whereas the foregoing has referred to waves of any shape, the usual
attempt is to secure a sine wave.
Oscillogram 1 is a photographic
record of the potential difference produced by a so-called sine-wave

Alternating Voltages and
generator.
Many of the alternating waves met with in practice approximate

Alternating- voltage and -current calculations
(The method whereby non-sinusoidal
waves are expressed so as to be calculated according to the laws of sine
A true sine wave is shown in Fig. 4.
waves is explained in Chapter VI.)
The equation for it is
a sine wave
very closely.
are therefore based on sine waves.
i
2
= lm sin
u>t
(6)
Mechanical angular velocity, 2*-(rps) radians per second, is not to be confused

with electrical angular velocity.
In Fig. 1 the two are related by the factor p/2,
but in vacuum tube oscillators of the type shown in Fig. 2 the electrical angular
velocity or angular frequency is denned almost solely by the inductance and capaci
tance employed at the Xi and A'3 positions in the circuit.
ALTERNATING POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
tl40-
OSCII.LOGRAM
1.
Einf
of a sine-wave
generator.
in radians and is called the time angle, i is the

instantaneous value of current, and Im is the maximum value of the
Since o>/ represents an angle, equation (6) may
sinusoidal variation.
be expressed in terms of radians
or
where at is expressed
Thus
degrees.
i
where

Equation
is
= Im sin
in
(6)
degrees
expresses
(7)
or
the
radians.
current
sinusoidal variation with respect

whereas equation (7) ex
presses
it as a function of angular
as a
to time,
measure.
Potential
Difference.
Alternating voltage or potential dif
ference may take the form of a gener
ated (or induced) emf or the form of
Alternating
abbreviated p.d.
FIG. 4.
Sine wave may be expressed

as Im sin a or as ! sin at.
potential drop, sometimes
In the interest of clear thinking these two forms of
Instantaneous
distinguished from one another.
will
be
by e, and
designated
induced
emf's
values of generated
or
instantaneous values of potential drops by the symbol v. Similarly Em
and Vm will be used to distinguish a maximum value of induced voltage
Corresponding distinctions
from a maximum value of potential drop.
will be made between other particular values of induced voltages and
voltage drops.
voltage
should
be
Ch.
Phase. Phase (as the term is defined by the A.I.E.E.) is the frac
tional part of a period through which time or the associated time angle
In the case of a simple
ut has advanced from an arbitrary reference.
sinusoidal variation, the origin is usually taken as the last previous
Thus
passage through zero from the negative to the positive direction.
is
from
where
of a period (or 30
the origin)
one phase of a sine wave
the ordinate is one-half the maximum ordinate; another phase is
of a period (or 90 from the origin) where the ordinate has its maxi
mum positive value; and so on for any other fractional part of T (or of
uT
2ir).
i-Imsin(wH-0)
Flo.
5.
Phase angle 9 of a sine wave.
In accordance with the above definition, the phase angle of a single

wave is the angle from the zero point on the wave to the value at the
Thus i = Im sin (o>< + 6) represents

point from which time is reckoned.
The phase of the wave
a sine wave of current with a phase angle 6.
=
The
from which time is reckoned (i.e., when t
0) is i = Im sin 6.
angle 6 is the phase angle of the current with respect to the point where
t = 0 as a reference.
These principles are illustrated in Fig. 5.
The phase angle when used in connection with a single alternating
quantity merely provides a simple analytical method of starting the
variation in question at any point along the wave. As such it is of
little importance in steady-state analysis in contrast with its great
usefulness in the analysis of transient conditions.
Phase Difference. The phase angle is a very important device for
properly locating different alternating quantities with respect to one
For example, if the applied voltage is
another.
v =
Vm sin ut
(8)
and it is known from the nature and magnitude of the circuit parameters
that the current comes to
a corresponding
point on its wave before the
Ch.I
PROBLEMS
voltage wave by
degrees, the current can be expressed as
= 7m
sin
(oit
(9)
6)
Figure 6 illustrates the phase positions of v and i for 6 = 45. The

current in this case is said to lead the voltage by 45, or the voltage is
said to lag the current by 45. A given alternating quantity lags
another if it comes to a certain point on its wave later than the other
one comes to the corresponding point on its wave.
Another way of
saying the same thing is that the positive maximum of the leading

Fio.
6.
Illustrating a case where the
wave leads the wave by 9 = 45.
quantity occurs before the positive maximum of the lagging quantity.

Thus it is said that there is a phase difference of 45 between the two
The angle of phase difference is the difference of the phase
waves.
Thus, if e = 100 sin (oo< + 45) and i =
angles of the two waves.
15), the angle of phase difference is 45
10 sin (<
(-15) = 60.
Oscillogram 2 illustrates the actual phase relation between an applied
sinusoidal voltage and the resulting current that flows in a particular
circuit. Inspection of the oscillogram will show that the current lags
the voltage in this particular case by approximately 60.
Oscillogram
3 illustrates a case where the current and power waves are distinctly
non-sinusoidal.
PROBLEMS
(a) What is the frequency of a 20-pole alternator when running at 360 rpm?
what speeds should a 4-pole alternator run to yield 25, 30, 50, and 60 cycles?
2. How many poles are required on an alternator which runs at 150 rpm to
develop 50 cycles per second?
1.
(fa)
At
3.
At
what speed must a 28-pole alternator run to develop 60 cycles per second?
10
OSCILI.OCHAM
2.
Angle of lag ot i with respect to v approximately
Ch.
60
Photographic record of voltage and current for a circuit containing
re

sistance and inductance.
Oscillographic records of the no-load current and no-load power taken

OSCIU.OGRAM 3.
by the primary of an iron-core transformer. The applied voltage variation, n, is also
shown.
Ch.
PROBLEMS
11
4. What is the mechanical angular velocity of the machine in Problem 3? What

is the electrical angular velocity?
5. Express as a sine function of time a 50-cycle alternating current which has
What is the angular velocity of this current wave?
a maximum value of 10 amperes.
6. Express an alternating current of 10 amperes maximum value which has an
angular velocity of 377 radians per second as a cosine function of time. What is
the frequency of this wave?
7. Express the equation
from the positive maximum
when time is reckoned from
8. The time variation of
t
of the current wave of Problem 5 if time is reckoned

value of the wave. Also express it for each possibility
the negative 5-ampere value of the wave.
a voltage wave is given by e = 100 sin \57t volts, where
is expressed in seconds.
(a) What is the maximum value of the voltage?
(b) What is the frequency of the voltage variation?
(c)
If
e = 100
sin (157J + 30), what is the maximum value of the voltage? the
frequency?
9. What are the maximum and minimum rates of change of the voltage depicted
in Oscillogram 1, page 7, if the maximum voltage is 140 volts? Express results in
volts per second.

10. At what instantaneous
value of current is the 60-cycle current wave i =

sin
at the rate of 3265 amperes per second?
amperes
changing
10
(6) At
(wt 30)
2260 amperes per second?
11. Find the maximum value of a 50-cycle current wave that is changing at 2000
amperes per second at an instantaneous value 30 from the maximum value of the
wave.
sin (ut
30) and i = 10 sin (ut 60), what is the angle of
the
current and voltage waves? Which wave leads?
between
phase difference
of
angle
Find
the
13.
phase difference between v = 100 cos (ut 30) and i =
12.
If
v = 100
14.

Which wave lags?

60).
voltage has for its equation v = 100 cos wl. Write the
wave of 10 amperes maximum which leads the specified voltage
Let angular measure be expressed in radians in this particular
15. In the presence of an audio signal (or tone) having an
10 sin (at
equation of a current
wave by ^ of a cycle.
case.
angular frequency of
of
a
transmitter
second,
particular
the
resistance
carbon
telephone
radians
per
u
may be represented by the expression:
(Rt
r sin at) ohms
is connected to a battery voltage of E volts through connecting

of RI ohms. The current flowing in the circuit is
resistance
line-wire
This transmitter
(Ki + Rt)
- r sin
ut
Show that the maximum magnitude of the fundamental-frequency
current (i.e., the current component having an angular frequency of

second) is Er/(Rt + /i()2 if the current is expressed as:
= Idc
+ Imi sin
at
7mo
component of
ia
radians per
cos 2wt
where it is assumed that any contributions to Ijc, Imi, and 7m2 due to terms of
higher degree than sin2 ut are negligibly small.
16. Find the numerical values of Idc, Imi, and 7mj in Problem 15 if Rt = 50 ohms,
Ri = 50 ohms, r = 10 ohms, and E = 20 volts.
CHAPTER
II
INSTANTANEOUS CURRENT AND POWER

(SINUSOIDAL
VOLTAGE APPLIED)
The Basic Problems.

The basic problems encountered in a-c circuit
are:
analysis
1. Given the voltage applied to a pair of terminals; find the current
and power passing these terminals.
Given the current passing a pair of terminals; find the voltage

established across these terminals and the power passing these terminals.
They
These basic problems may be solved in a variety of ways.
will be approached in this chapter by way of instantaneous values of
voltage and current, since this method of approach lends itself readily
to simple notation and at the same time emphasizes the physical sig
nificance of the relationships involved.
In order to keep the basic problem at an elementary level, only
sinusoidal time variations and steady-state values of voltage and current
will be considered.
Under these conditions, the relationship between
the voltage across the driving terminals of a linear circuit element and
the current through the element is a very simple one, namely, the
impedance function.
A large portion of this chapter is devoted to the derivation of im
In these derivations, as well as in the calculation
pedance functions.
of instantaneous power, we shall require a clear understanding of the
relationship between the equational or analytical forms of sinusoidal
time-varying quantities and the graphs of these quantities when plotted
against time (or time angle) as the independent variable. Sinusoidal
variations are completely described as functions of time when the
maximum values, angular frequencies, and zero time references are

2.
specified.
If a voltage is described as having sinusoidal wave form, a maximum

Examples.
value of 200 volts, and an angular velocity of 377 radians per second (60 cycles per
second), and it is desired to reckon time from the point of zero voltage where dv/dt
is positive, as illustrated in Fig. la, the mathematical expression for the alternating
voltage as a function of time, /, is:
v = 200
sin 377i volte

12
(1)
Ch.II
THE BASIC PROBLEMS
13
If it is desired to reckon time from some other point along the voltage wave, it
is simply necessary to add to the angle 377< in the above equation an angle equal
to the angular displacement between t' = 0 (dv/dt positive) and the point on the
voltage wave from which it is desired to reckon time.
If it is assumed that time is

+200
-200
Flo.
1.
Graphical representations
of equations (1) and (2)
to be reckoned from the point of positive maximum voltage, the angular displace
ment referred to above is +90, and the expression for voltage becomes:
v = 200
This type of variation
sin (377i +90)
200 cos 3771 volts
(2)
is shown in Fig. 16.
Equations (1) and (2) describe exactly the same type of voltage variation except
for the t = 0 reference.
The current that flows in a circuit as a result of applying a sinusoidal

voltage is governed in magnitude and phase by the circuit parameters
(resistance R, self-inductance L, capacitance C, and mutual inductance
M) and the angular velocity or frequency of the applied voltage. In
one sense of the word the angular velocity is an a-c circuit parameter.
If the circuit parameters are constant, the current that flows will be
INSTANTANEOUS
14
CURRENT AND POWER
Ch.
II
of sinusoidal wave form hut will, in general, differ in phase from the
sinusoidal applied voltage.
Mathematically a particular type of function is required to relate
voltage and current in an a-c circuit.
The one generally employed
is called the impedance function or simply the impedance of the circuit.
The impedance function must tell two important facts: (1) the ratio
of Vm to /mj1 and (2) the phase angle between the waves of voltage
and current.
A special type of notation is required to signify the two
properties of the impedance function in abbreviated form.
One such
type of notation is:
Z /angle
The above expression does not signify the multiplication of Z
/angle. Z is the magnitude of the impedance and in a particular
is represented
by
number of ohms.
a certain
It
and
case
defines the ratio of
V
Applied
voltage
Flo.
Elementary circuit arrangements
of R, L, and C.
The angle associated with Z, if it is positive, defines the

In accordance with
lead of the voltage with respect to the current.
thus
a
positive
adopted
angle specifies the number of
the convention
degrees or radians by which the current lags the voltage.
The determination of the complete impedance function for various
combinations of R, L, and C is the first step in a-c circuit analysis.
The 'combinations considered in the present chapter are shown in
diagrammatic fashion in Fig. 2.
The .R Branch. The consideration of a circuit element which possesses
of course,
hypothetical venture because
only ohmic resistance
inevitably associated with any circuit configu
some self-inductance
However, the case may be approached in practice to a degree
ration.
well
to the accuracy of ordinary measurements.
It
comparable
known that resistance impedes the motion of electricity and causes an
irreversible transformation of electrical energy into heat energy
accordance with Joule's law.
to
/TO-
Ix: shown in Chapter

effective
to
/ettective
III
that the magnitude of the impedance

ralio Vm to Im.
as well as the
It will
the ratio of
in
is
is
is,
Vm

2.
defines
Ch.
II
THE R BRANCH
The impedance of
Impedance.
a simple
15
R branch may be expressed
as:
R /0 ohms
The reason follows directly from Kirchhoff's emf law.
v = Vm sin ut, is applied to a branch of R resistance, Fig.
for dynamic equilibrium is:
v =
Ri
= Vm sin ut
If
a voltage,
3, the
equation
(3)
from which
R
v=Vmsinut
sin ut
-
R
= Im
sin ut (4)
From the above equation it is

^ 3 The R branch_
evident that Vm/Im = R and
that 'the current wave is in time phase with the voltage wave.
is possible to express these facts in the single statement
In
Ri=v
It
R is expressed directly in ohms, in which case ZR is in ohms.

The determination of the rate at which electrical energy
in general, an important problem.
is generated or absorbed
In
symbolized by the lower-case letter p.
stantaneous power
general,
ei
(generated power)
vi
(absorbed power)
The present discussion
confines itself to the determination of instan

indicate that the
power wherein positive values of
circuit under consideration receiving energy from the supplying source.
indicate that the reactive elements of the circuit,
Negative values of
rate which
such are present, are actually releasing energy at
received.
being
greater than the rate at which energy
In the present case, that of the simple
branch, all the energy pro
converted into heat.
duced by the instantaneous
power absorbed
Presumably no reactive elements, inductance coils or condensers, are
given by the product of equations
The instantaneous power
present.
(3) and (4).
a
---
'm'm
follows that
mlm
COS
(5)
cos 2ut,
'
= Vmlm sin2 ut
it
\
\
Since sin2 ut
vi
is
is
is
is
is
taneous absorbed
if

is
is,
Power.
2ul
,,,,
(6)
Ch.II
CURRENT AND POWER
INSTANTANEOUS
16
illustrates the component parts of equation (6). It will te

observed from the above equation that the instantaneous power wave
is a double-frequency variation, with respect to the frequency of the
Figure
current or the voltage,
which has an average positive value of
Vml*
" "
term causes the instantaneous power to acquire periodically

At no time does the power reach instantaneous
zero and Vmlm values.
The cos
2<at
negative values.
cos 2wt

Fio.
4.
Graphical representation
of equation (6).
Photographic records of v, i, and p in a branch which approximates

the purely resistive case are shown in Oscillogram 1.
The oscillogram
illustrates in a graphical manner the relations which have been derived
for the R branch and substantiates the physical fact that voltage and
current are in time phase in a resistive circuit.
The L Branch. If a circuit element of pure inductance, Fig. 5, is
considered, the equation for dynamic equilibrium is :
v
di
L
at
di =
= Vm
sin
sin ut
(7)
<o<dt
(8)
After both sides of the above equation are integrated it follows that:
i
The constant
--y
7 cos
d>L
tat
ct
of integration Ci will be considered
(9)
to
be
equal to
zero
Ch.
II
THE L BRANCH
17
Voltage, current, and power variations in a resistive circuit element.

OSCILLOORAM
1.
R = 25 ohms. If time is reckoned from the point of zero voltage (dv/dl positive) :
V = 141.4 sin 377( volts, t = 5.65 sin 3771 amperes, p = 400 400 cos 754t watts, aver
age power = 400 watts.

since only the steady-state

is to be considered.2
Vm sin
current symmetrical about the zero axis
wt
Fio.
5.
The
branch.
Under the above conditions equation (9) reduces to:
i
1
In
-^sin
uL
(co<
- 90)
= Im sin
(tat
- 90)
(10)
a general analysis, ci would be evaluated in terms of the boundary conditions
is initially closed.
Determined in this manner, fj would
define the transient component of the current.
c\ is neglected here because transient
In a physically
components of the current are not to be considered at this time.
realizable circuit the transient component is of short duration.
under which the circuit
CURRENT AND POWER
INSTANTANEOUS
18
Ch.
II
Inductance opposes the rate of change of current, and

Impedance.
for this reason it is sometimes called electrical inertia.
Since the in
ductance, L, limits the rate at which the current can change, it follows
logically that L actually governs the maximum value of the current in
an a-c circuit which is energized by a voltage of specified angular velocity.
It will be observed from equation (10) that Vm/Im = uL and that
i lags v by one-quarter of a cycle or 90. The impedance of a pure L
branch is according to the convention previously adopted:
ZL
coL/90
The reason for using the positive angle in connection with impedances
that cause lagging currents will become more evident when the rules
of vector algebra and the conventions pertaining to vector diagrams
are considered.
The magnitude of the above impedance, o>L, is called inductive re

actance.
Inasmuch as the inductive reactance is directly proportional
to the angular velocity of the driving voltage, 2irf, it is obvious that
the magnitude of the impedance offered to the flow of alternating
current by a coil of fixed self-inductance, L, is directly proportional to
When u is expressed in radians per second and L is expressed
frequency.
in henrys, the inductive reactance, XL, is in ohms.
= coL =
27T/L
XL

The inductive
Example.
cycle circuit is:
XL
(11)
reactance of a 10-millihenry
2* X
60
inductance coil in a 60-
0.010 = 3.77 ohms
and
Z = 3.77/90 ohms
The inductive reactance of the same coil in
XL
2r X
60,000
a 60,000-cycle
0.010
circuit is:
= 3770 ohms
If a 60-cycle sinusoidal voltage of maximum value equal to 100 volts is applied to

the 10-millihenry inductance coil,
v = 100
sin
3774
volts
and
i
Power and Energy.
inductance
branch
as
100
3.77
sin (3774
- 90) amperes
The instantaneous power delivered to the pure

obtained by multiplying equation (7) by equation
(10) is:
p = vi = [Vm sin
u<]
[/
sin (at
- 90)]
(12)
Ch.
II
THE L BRANCH
19
from which:
p = Vmlm
or
=
' m-*
;
sin ut cos ul)
(13)
sn
(14)
Fio.
6.
Voltage, current, and power variations in a purely inductive branch.
circuit has
presumably adjusted itself to the relative phase relations indicated by
equations (7), (10), and (14).
Under the conditions which have been assumed, namely,
steadystate sinusoidal driving voltage and
purely inductive circuit, the
power variation
symmetrical about the zero power axis. The average
power absorbed
that the inductive
The implication
equal to zero.
been assumed,
the
is
is is
Since steady-state conditions have
= Vm sin at, automatically

The assumption of sinusoidal driving voltage,
=
=
The beginner
imposes the condition of
at the point of
(dv/dt positive).
=
should not confuse the
reference of a steady-state variation with the time
at which
the circuit
is
initially energized.

is
v, i, and p variations in a purely inductive branch.

It will be observed that the power variation is again a double-frequency
variation with respect to the frequency of the driving voltage.
The
fact that equation (14) indicates negative power during the first onequarter of a cycle of the driving voltage, that
from =
to = T/4,
the direct result of the choice of the time reference.3
is,
Figure 6 illustrates the
INSTANTANEOUS
20
+50O warts
CURRENT AND POWER
Ch.
II
_(
-bOO watts
'
Voltage, current, and power variations in a highly inductive circuit

2.
= 60 cycles, XL = 21.2 ohms, R = 1.0 ohm, Vmai =
L = 0.050 henry,
element.
141.4 volts, /max = 6.06 amperes, Pav = 25 watts approximately.
Note the lag of the
wave with respect to the v wave; also the large negative power loops.
Positive power
peaks of approximately 500 watts are present even though the average power dissipated
in the circuit element is only about 25 watts.
OsciLLoouAM
element receives energy from the source during one-quarter of a cycle

of the applied voltage and returns exactly the same amount of energy
to the driving source during the next one-quarter of a cycle. The

of energy delivered to the circuit during a quarter of
a cycle may be obtained by integrating any positive loop of the power
wave, for example, integrating p between the limits of t = T/4 and
exact amount
WL
>T/2
f>T/2
t/r/4
Vml
-V
V
o
2
COS
m'
2w
Since Vm =
uLIm
LI
(15)
Ch.II
THE C BRANCH
21
If L
is expressed in abhenrys and Im in abamperes, the above energy

If L and Im are expressed in henrys and amperes respec
ergs.
is in
tively, WL
is given in joules.
Oscillogram 2 illustrates the relative phase relations in a circuit
which approaches, to a fair degree of accuracy, the purely inductive
arrangement that has been described mathematically.
The C Branch. If it is assumed that a sinusoidal voltage, Vm sin wt,
is applied to an ideal condenser as indicated
in Fig. 7, the expression for steady-state equi
librium is:
v =
= Vm
sin ut
(16)
H
/
v = Vmsino>t
equation is differentiated
with respect to time, it follows that :
When
the
above
at
= Vmu
cos
(17)
Fio.
7.
The C branch.
or
t =
sin (at
+ 90)
= Im
sin (ut + 90)
(18)
The ratio of Vm to Im in the pure C branch is l/coC,

current
leads the applied voltage by one-quarter of a cycle or
and the
90. In accordance with the convention which has been adopted, the

Impedance.
impedance of the C branch is:
The magnitude of the impedance,
1/uC, is called capacilive
reactance,
and it is evident from the nature of the expression that capacitive re

actance is inversely proportional to the frequency of the driving voltage
and also inversely proportional to the capacitance of the condenser, C.
circuit in which no condenser is present has infinite capacitance
and, hence, zero capacitive reactance.
The impedance of a condenser causes the current to lead the voltage
by 90, whereas the impedance of an inductance causes the current to
lag the voltage 90. The effects of the two types of reactive elements
as regards the phase of the resulting current are exactly opposite.
If, in the expression for capacitive reactance, w is expressed in radians
per second and C is expressed in farads, the resulting capacitive re
A series
If
actance is in ohms.
Ck.
II
of the condenser is expressed
in
CURRENT AND POWER
INSTANTANEOUS
22
the capacitance
microfarads (abbreviated /if), the expression for capacitive

takes the form:
reactance
10"
,
v = =- ohms
AC
fa)C,,f
The capacitive reactance of a 15-^f condenser in a 25-cycle circuit
Example.
Xc
and
106
2r X
Zc
25
= 425
15
/-
is:
= 425 ohms
90 "ohms
The capacitive reactance of the same condenser to
a 250-cycle
driving voltage
is:
106
If a 25-cycle sinusoidal voltage of maximum value equal to 200 volts is applied

to the 15-^f condenser:
v = 200 sin (1570 volts
and
i
Power
sin
200
(157<
+ 90) amperes
The instantaneous power
and Energy.
to
delivered
the C
p = vi = [vm sin
wt]
p = Vmlm (sin
tat
cos
^^
2<o<
[Im sin (ut
+ 90)]
(19)
from which:
(20)
tot)
or
p =
sin
(21)
is,
The phase relations of v, i, and p in a purely capacitive branch are

shown in Fig. 8. The double-frequency power variation
as in the
In the present
pure
branch, symmetrical about the zero power axis.
case the condenser receives energy from the source during the first
quarter of a cycle of the voltage variation and returns the same amount
during the second quarter cycle, etc. The average power absorbed
over an integral number of half cycles
obviously, equal to zero.
The amount of energy received by the condenser during
quarter
the
integrating
be
determined
by
power wave over any
cycle may
positive loop; for example, integrating equation (21) between the limits
a
is,

branch is:
a.//
THE C BRANCH
23
Vml
Fio.
8.
of I = 0 and
Voltage, current, and power in a purely capacitive branch.

=
r/4.
=
774
y mlTm
Jo
sin 2wt dt
Vmln
(I)
* m*
2co
Since Im = aCVm,
Wc
(22)
is
is
are expressed in volts and farads respectively, the above

for energy
in joules.
the maximum amount of
We
energy stored in the electrostatic field of the condenser at any one time.
Comparison of equations (21) and (14) will show that the capacitive
element receives energy from the supplying source during the periods
which the inductive element returns energy to the source, and vice
versa.
When capacitive elements and inductive elements are both
in general, a natural tendency for
present in a given circuit, there
Fm and
expression
is,
in

We
INSTANTANEOUS
24
CURRENT AND POWER
Ch.
II
to exchange energy.
In certain circuit arrangements
relatively large amounts of energy oscillate between the electromagnetic
the
elements
fields of the inductances
and the electric fields of the condensers.
Voltage, current, and power variations in a highly capacitive circuit

OSCILLOGKAM 3.
= 00 cycles, Xc = 18.4 ohms, R = 1.0 ohm approx., VmK =
clement.
C = 144 jtf,
141.4, /max = 7.6 amperes, Pav = 25 watts, approx.
Note the lead of the i wave with
respect to the c wave.

Oscillogram 3 illustrates the v, i, and p variations in a branch which

approaches, to a close degree of accuracy, a purely capacitive circuit
element.
The
RL Branch.
If
it is assumed that a sinusoidal driving voltage,

Vm sin ut, is applied to a series combination of a
resistive element and an inductive element, Fig.
9, the equation for voltage balance is:
v =
Ri + L
=
Vm sin
at
(23)
This is one form of Kirchhoff's emf law ap
It states that
plied to instantaneous voltages.
drop
instantaneous
voltage
across
the re
Fio. 9.sistive element plus the instantaneous voltage drop
across the inductive element equals the instantaneous voltage drop across
The RL branch, the
the
RL
branch.
of equation (23) for i in terms of the

and circuit parameters requires a certain knowledge
A straightforward solution
applied voltage
//
CA.
THE RL BRANCH
25
differential equations on the part of the reader which is not essential

The problem in which we are particularly
to the problem at hand.
interested at this point is the evaluation of the ratio Vm/Im together
with the time-phase difference between the voltage and current in an
RL branch.
Provided that R and L are constant, a current of sinusoidal
wave form will flow in the branch if a sinusoidal voltage is applied.
A critical inspection of equation (23) will help to establish the mathe
matical reasons for this physical fact.
of
- 140 sin (377t49)
-14O--

volts
Illustrating the manner in wliirh the voltage drop Ki across the resist
OBCILLOGRAM 4.
ance and the voltage drop uLi across an inductance coil combine to equal the applied
92.5
R/,na
21.1 ohms.
voltage r.
R = 18.5 ohms connected in series with XL
= 106 volts, Fmax = 140 volts.
volts,
If it
branch consisting of
element, L, then:
a series
Ri + L
a resistive
di
at
= voltage
Im sin ul, flows through

element, R, and an inductive
is assumed that a sinusoidal current,
applied,
(24)
or
RIm sin ul + toL/m cos ul
(25)
(24) and (25) state that the instantaneous component

drops, Ri and L di/dt, add together to form the combined
Oscillogram 4 illustrates the
drop across the RL branch.
Equations
voltage
voltage
manner in which the
Ri
component
(uLIm cos ul ) combine

particular RL branch.
ponent
(RIm sin ut) and the
to equal the applied
L di/dt
voltage
com
(v) in a
CURRENT AND POWER
INSTANTANEOUS
26
Ch.
II
is,
Since sine and cosine waves are 90 out of time phase with respect
to one another, the RIm and the coL/m components may be related as
as the two right-angle sides of
right triangle.
shown in Fig. 10, that
(coL)2
VR2 +
(coL)2
equation
(26)
(co/y)2
10,
From Fig.
(coL)2,
VR2 +
si
COS COI
co<
2
sin
Im
If
both sides of the equation are divided by VR2

(25) takes the following form:
wLIra
V 'R2
(27)
(coL)2
and
FIG.
The addition
K/m and uLIm.
o\n
of
10.
coL
i!
(28)
V'R'2 + (wL)2
v
Then:
+
cot
V R2
(29)
(coL)2
ImVR2 +
(coL)2 sin
6)
from which:
(co<
(co<
VR2 +
RL
(coL)2
branch by
(30)
6)
= Vm sin
Fm/ 7m, (2)
=
(1)
in the
i1
is
9)
ImZ sin
X
It
thus shown that
uL/R, and (3) leads
tan"1
8.
Impedance.
=
VR2 +
tan
(31
ZKL
The above expression for ZKL implies that the numerical
ratio of
Vm
V/i2 +
(coL)2
given in ohms.
In determining the phase angle
of course, only necessary that coL and
is,
case
is
is
is
is
V/i2
to 7m in the RL branch
(uL)'2 and that the current lags the
uL/R. In general,
applied voltage by the angle whose tangent
in henrys, in which
expressed in ohms, o> in radians per second, and
it
be expressed
in similar
0,
branch
in which
is
The expression for the impedance of a pure

=
obtainable from ZKL by assuming that
units.

i>
or
at once
case
ZKL
II
Ch.
THE RL BRANCH
reduces to
R/0.
If
the assumption
is made
27
that R
= 0,
ZRL reduces
immediately to the expression which has previously been derived for

the impedance of a pure L branch, namely, o)L/90.
An examination of the two factors which combine to form ZRL will
show that R is the factor which directly impedes or opposes tjje flow
of current, whereas coL is the factor which impedes or opposes any
For a resulting sinusoidal current these two factors
change in current.
act in time quadrature with respect to one another.
For example,
when the current is zero the R factor has zero effect and the L factor
has its greatest effect because it is when i = 0 that [di/dt] for a sine
wave is at its maximum value.
When the current is at its maximum
value, Im, the R factor has its greatest effect and the L factor has zero
effect because [di/dt] for a sine wave is zero at the point of maximum
current. It is the time quadrature nature (90 time-phase displace
ment) of the individual impedance effects that makes possible a simple
vector algebra method of analyzing a-c circuits.4
If R = 20 ohms and L = 0.056 henry, the 60-cycle impedance of the RL

Example.
branch which is formed by placing R in series with L is:
Z = \/202 + (377
= 29.

If
It will
tan"1
~-
sin (377() volte
sin
200
(3771
= 6.87 sin (377
taneous
0.056)2
1/46.5 "ohms
v = 200
t =
- 46.5)
- 46.5) amperes
be observed that the instantaneous current is obtained from the instan

voltage (200 sin 3770 and the impedance function (29.1 /46.S") by two
distinct operations which are performed in a single step.

These are:
(a) The maximum magnitude of the voltage (200) is divided by the magnitude
of the impedance (29.1) to obtain the maximum magnitude of the current, 6.87
amperes.
(6) The correct angular displacement of the current wave with respect to the
voltage wave is obtained by subtracting the impedance angle (46.5) from the
time angle of the voltage wave, namely, 377(.
Note: In evaluating the correct angular displacement between the instantaneous
current and voltage waves in terms of the impedance angle, it is better to combine
the angles in such a way us to yield the relation between current and voltage waves
which arc known to exist from a knowledge of the physical characteristics of the
circuit.
This
process
should
not
be
obscured
by any
elaborate
mathematical
conventions.
4
The vector algebra method of analysis
is considered in Chapter
IV.
INSTANTANEOUS
28
CURRENT AND POWER
Ch.II
The instantaneous power or, as it is sometimes called,

Power.
instantaneous volt-amperes, delivered to the RL branch may be
tained from :
p = vi = [Vm sin (oil + 0)]
After the sin (o)< + 0) term is expanded,

written in the following forms:
= Vmlm sin2
' m'
cos
o>/
cos
+ cos
to/
+ Tm/m (sin
'in*
[cos
cos
2w<]
sin
o>/
(32)
be
0]
cos
o>/)
sin
-^
[sin 2co/j sin
(33)
= Vmlm sin W
[sin at cos
sin ut]
ob
the above equation can
-(-
[7m
the
11.
of
Graphical representation
It should
of equation (33) for the particular case of
fi
Flo.
= 30.
plain that the average value with respect to time of either

the [cos 2ut] or the [sin 2wt] term
equal to zero when considered over
time interval equal to an integral number of cycles. The average
value with respect to time of the power when considered over an integral
number of cycles
therefore, equal to:
is
be
ml
cos
'
is,

is
Figure 11
graphical representation of the component parts
equation (33) together with the resultant graph of instantaneous power.
Ch.
II
REAL POWER AND REACTIVE POWER
The above expression for average power may also
29
obtained by finding
the average value of the right-hand member of equation (32).
'm sin (at
Jo
0)/m sin at dt
-f-
rT
1
~m
P&v =
be
(34)
^=cos0
(cos
2w<)
Instantaneous
cos
Vmlm
Power.
I
,
Real
real
power
the first two terms
refers
"
to
cos
is
Real Power and Reactive Power or Reactive Volt-Amperes.

detailed analysis of the component parts of equation (33) will aid in
treated in terms of real and
understanding why electrical power
reactive components and why these two components are sometimes
represented as the legs of a right triangle.
on the right-hand side of
is
equation (33). Reference to Fig. 11 will show that these two terms
power variation which contains
combine to form an instantaneous
no negative values; hence this portion of equation (33)
called the
real power.
instantaneous
Unless qualified to mean instantaneous
"
cos
8,
the expression
the average value of the total in-
instantaneous
reactive
m
Vmlm
under the
reactive
power,
2u>t)
instantaneous
sin
is
(sin
variously
quadrature
power,
volt-amperes, etc., for the reason that the area
(sin 2ut) sin
~|
instantaneous
called
*"
right-hand side of equation (33),
stantancous power with respect to time.

[See equations (33) and (34).]
The third term on the
Reactive Power or Reactive Volt-Amperes.
curve
represents
the energy
which
is
oscillates between the driving source and the reactive (either inductive
or capacitive) elements of the receiving circuit. It will be observed
that portion of
from Fig. 11 that the instantaneous reactive power
the total instantaneous power variation which has equal positive and
negative loops, and which contains the sine of the phase angle between
and as a factor.
Unless qualified to mean instantaneous reactive power or instantaneous
reactive volt-amperes, the expressions reactive power and reactive volt-

real power refers only to
real power,
CURRENT AND POWER
INSTANTANEOUS
30
amperes refer simply to
sin
0,
the maximum instantaneous value
of the third term on the right-hand side of equation (33).

Units of reactive volt-amperes in the practical system
called vars.
(See pages 54 and 55.
V"
volt-amperes,
I" sin
of units are
"
Both the real power,
Volt-Amperes.
II
Ch.
cos
8,
reactive
the
and
are important quantities, and they are often
8,
TT
measured independently, a wattmeter being used to measure
Jm
cos
&
volt-ampere meter, called a varmeter,
and a reactive
measure
f m^m
being used
to
sin
9.
The real power and the reactive power may

Vmlm
" m
of the circuit, namely,
the volt-amperes
be combined
to yield
y' m'/
illustrated graphically in Fig. 12 and will l>e
encountered in later chapters in a more
volt-amperes
universally used form.
The above relationship
Consider the KL circuit whose

Example.
current,
and power variations are
v j cos 0
Power -nun.
depicted in Oscillogram 5.
R = 19.7 ohms,
= 21.1
,
, u i .
,,
ohms, and
uL
v = 141.4
sin 3774
Flo. 12. Relation of power, reactive
volts.
volt-amperes, and volt-amperes.
voltage,
Let it
Vl9.72 +
The instantaneous current
rrent is:
141.4
sin (377(
28.85
current
21. 12
//
- 47)
tan"1
19.7
= 28.85
236 cos 754<
/47 ohms
- 47) amperes
by equation (33):
253 sin 754f watts
236 cos
754/]
253 sin 754(

236 watts
253 vars
is
[236
is
this expression,
called the instantaneous real power
the instantanemis reactive volt-amperes
the real power

the reactive power or reactive volt-amperes.
is
In
= 4.9 sin (377<
The expression for the instantaneous power

= 236
required to evaluate the

the instantaneous power from
be
and
is,
the instantaneous
pressions for
above data.
is

Reactive
is
ex
the
THE RlJC BRANCH
Ch.ll
Voltage, current, and power variations in an RL circuit.

OSCILLOGRAM 5.
R = 19.7
"in. i- connected in aeries with L = 0.056 henry, XL = 21.1 ohms, Vmax = 141.4 volts.
laaa = 4.90 amperes, Pav = 236 watts.
If
The RLC Branch.
form,
wave
that:
L -
VL =
RIm sin
=
at
<at
(35)
uLIm cos
(36)
and
FIG.
J i dl
fm sin ut dt
The voltage applied to the branch
reason
cos
RLC
branch.
(37)5
coC
physically, the sum of the three

In the form of an equation:
component voltages.
RIm sin
The
13.
to/
+ uLIm cos
is,
t>C
sThe
ut
cot
lm cos
for neglecting the constant of integration
the footnote on page 17.
(38)
similar
to that given
(at
is
Ri
VR
in

current of sinusoidal
sin at, is assumed to flow through the
RLC branch shown in Fig. 13, it is plain 5
a
INSTANTANEOUS
32
CURRENT AND POWER
Ch.
II
or
RIm sin ut +
uL
\Im cos at =
(39)
The combination of the sine and cosine terms of the above equation
may be effected in the same manner as outlined for the sine and cosine
terms of equation (25).
- M
In the present case RIm and
are considered as the two legs of the right triangle shown in Fig. 14.
It will be remembered from
the discussion of the purely

inductive and the purely capacitive branches that these two
reactive
elements cause exactly
opposite phase displacements
of
the current with respect to the

voltage.
FIG.
14.
Illustrating
the manner in which

drops #/, aLIm, and
Since
uL
has
trarily been considered to
arbi
be a
positive quantity, it becomes

the three voltage
! combine to form the voltage drop necessary to consider 1/wC a
wC
It should
negative quantity.
Vfl + (aL
1/uC')2 /.
be recognized that, of and by
is
nothing
inherently
negative about the quantity 1/wC.
itself, there
The fact that it acts oppositely to the quantity o>L in governing cur
rent flow requires that 1/uC be treated negatively if wL is treated
positively.
If equation (39) is manipulated as indicated on page
Impedance.
26, the impedance of the RLC branch is found to be:

"(HZ.C)
If R
(40)
in henrys, C in farads, and w in radians per second,

Given R, L, C, and to, the complete impedance function
Z is in ohms.
The general expression for 2(RLC) is of considerable
can be evaluated.
importance in a-c circuit theory because all the impedance functions
which have thus far been treated are directly deducible from this
is in ohms,
expression.
In a branch where uL
1/coC,
is
negligibly small as tampared with R and

to be equal to zero, in which
the oiL term may be considered
Ch.
II
THE RLC BRANCH
33
case the branch reduces to a resistance and capacitance
branch.
1
The negative angle implies that the current wave lags the voltage
wave by a negative angle. The correct physical interpretation is that
the current wave leads the voltage wave by the angle whose tangent
With respect to its terminals the RLC branch will, in general, simulate
If wL > 1/uC, the
the Ijehavior of either the RL or the RC branch.
RLC
terminals the RLC branch, under the condition of uL = l/toC, responds

If R is assumed to be a fixed
as would a purely resistive branch.
quantity, the above condition may be obtained by the proper adjust
ment of L, C, or co, and when toL = 1/uC the impedance of the branch
will be a minimum.
- "
4,
'
0.056
^10'
=
377
henry, and C = 50
'
= 0.056
'
If R = 10 ohms,
Example.
RLC branch at 60 cycles is:
the
the impedance of
'"'1
53-0)
10
33.4/tan"1 (-3.19)
= 33.4
/-72.6
ohms
= 200 sin 377 volts

=
200
33.4
sin (3771
If
72.6) amperes
= Vm sin
= Im sin <at and
Power. Since
6), the expression
(at
for the instantaneous power delivered to the RLC branch takes the

branch responds to an impressed voltage at its terminals exactly

as would an equivalent RL branch, the inductive reactance of which
is (coL 1/cdC). Similarly, if 1/uC > uL, the RLC branch will respond
to an impressed voltage at its terminals exactly as would an equiva
lent RC branch, the capacitive reactance of which is (l/<aC L).
In either of the cases referred to, there will be interchanges of energy
taking place between the two reactive elements.
The singular case, wherein coL = l/(7, is of particular interest
With respect to its
because the impedance here reduces to fl/0.
CURRENT AND POWER
INSTANTANEOUS
34
22
Ch.
II
same form as equation (33), namely,
V I
p = 1^12? cos
*-2
[cos 2ut] cos
VI
-^
[sin
2
2ut]
sin
(42)
In the present
case 0 may presumably take any value between +90

The average power delivered to the RLC branch is in any
and 90.
m
case
cos
0.
instantaneous
equation (34).]
[See
rvmim
-
volt-amperes
reactive
The maximum value

.'
sin 2ut sin
"I
0
is
of the
directly
factor causes the instantaneous

reactive volt-amperes
to be alternately positive and negative, the
absolute meaning of the sign of the reactive power term is not highly
significant.
According to the convention of signs which has been employed in
the present discussion,
positive reactive volt-amperes that
positive coefficient of [sin 2ut] in equation (42) indicate inductive
reactive
reactive
whereas negative
volt-amperes,
power indicates
These signs are merely the result
capacitive reactive volt-amperes.
Further consideration
of choosing u>L positive and 1/uC negative.
of signs of reactive power will be given in the next chapter.
Since the sin
2ujt
is
~\
sin
2co/
equal
to zero at all times when
is,
that
when
o>L =
i,
is
it
is
6)
If
is
is
L,
R,
is
i1,
0,
l/toC. In this case the reactive volt-amperes

required by the inductive element are furnished by the capacitive
element, and vice versa.
Relatively large amounts of energy may
oscillate between the reactive elements even though the RLC branch
simulates
purely resistive branch at its terminals.
Oscillogram
illustrates the variations of
and
in a particular
RLC circuit. In the case shown o>L < l/'wC and the lead of the current
with respect to the voltage
clearly indicated.
It should be understood from the foregoing
Impedance Functions.
analyses that impedance functions for any combinations of
and
are independent of the point on the wave from which time
reckoned.
In addition, the functions are entirely independent of whether the
made the dependent wave.
voltage or current wave
Thus in the
=
/, sin <i>t was assumed and the voltage
RL branch
current wave
= Vm sin
=
wave
was
found to lead the current by
(wt
=
t&n 1(uL/R).
a voltage
assumed impressed upon
Vm sin ut
the circuit, the impedance function
the same, and
states that
=

sin
"' m
Vmlm
The term
0.
is,
proportional to sin
Ck.
II
COMBINATIONS
OF INSTANTANEOUS
CURRENTS
35
6.
Voltage, current, and power variations in an KLC circuit,
OSCIU.OGRAM
ohms, L = 0.042 henry, C = 78 pi, XL = 15.8 ohms, Xc = 34 ohms, Kmax
volts, /max = 5-23 amperes, Pv = 275 watts.

the voltage wave must lead the current by tan1(uL /R).
ft = 20
= 141.4
Hence
the
current wave may be written as i = 7m sin (ul 6). Similar interpre

tations apply to any combination of R, L, and C. When the impedance
function is found, the relation between the voltage drop and the current
is thereby determined.
If one is assumed, the
other may be determined from the impedance
function as illustrated by the examples in the
j
^
~
preceding articles.
Instantaneous Currents Combine Algebrai
cally. The concept of adding instantaneous
voltage drops across series elements to obtain FIG. is. Instantaneous curthe total voltage applied to a series circuit has
ous current away from
been considered.
Kirchhoff's emf law applies
the Junctlonto a-c circuits if instantaneous values of voltage
Likewise Kirchhoff's current law
or their equivalents are considered.
applies to a-c circuits provided instantaneous values of current or their
Figure 15 illustrates the principle in a
equivalents6 are employed.
Kirchhoff's current law states that the current flowing
simple case.
toward a junction, which in the present case is i, is equal to the current
flowing away from the junction, namely, i\ + i^.
SSdTiTfiSS^
The equivalents referred to
instantaneous
values.
are the vector forms that are employed
See Chapters
III
and
IV.
to replace
INSTANTANEOUS
36
CURRENT AND POWER
Ch.II
go.
OsciLLoaRAM
In
7.
Photographic records of the applied voltage and the three branch cur
rents of the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 16.
general:
.*' i "u ,m! a junction
or, if current away from the junction is considered

(43)
from the junction
as negative
current
toward the junction:

ward a junction
If
= 0
the currents
(44)
are measured
by
which do not respond to

instantaneous values, the combined
in general, will not
measurements,
satisfy the above current law, for
j
LI
the simple reason that the devices
employed fail to account for the rela
tive phase positions of the currents
Flo. 16. RiL\ branch in parallel with involved '
RtCi branch.
Oscillogram t shows how the in
stantaneous currents i\ and i% of Fig. 16 add algebraically to yield
the resultant current i.
The analytical method of finding the expres
sion for i from i\ and i2 will be explained in Chapter VI.
devices
Ch.
II
PROBLEMS
37
PROBLEMS
1. (a) Find the instantaneous value of a sinusoidal alternating current having
a maximum value of 90 amperes, 60 after the current passes through its zero value
going positive; 225 after the current passes through its zero value going positive.
(6) Find the difference in time between the 60 value of current and the 225
value of current if the frequency is 50 cycles.
2. The current through a particular filter choke may be represented approxi
mately by the equation:
= 1.0 + 0.50 sin 18851
= 1.0
0.10 cos 3770* amperes
or
+
0.50 sin a 0.10 cos 2a amperes
where a = 1885< radians if I is expressed in seconds.

(a) What is the frequency of the sine term? of the cosine term?
(6) What are the maximum and minimum values of current?
(c) Graph the current t with respect to time ( or with respect to angular measure a.
3. A voltage v = 150 cos 314/ volts is applied to a purely resistive branch of
= 30 ohms.
(a) Write the expression for t as a function of time, employing numerical coef
ficients.
Ant.: i
(6) What
is the frequency
= 5 cos 314i amperes.
of the voltage and current variations?

AM.: 50 cycles.
(c) Write the expression for p as a function of time, employing numerical coef
ficients.
Ana.: p = 750 cos2 314J = 375 + 375 cos 62& watts.
(d) What is the frequency of the power variation?
4.
current
/Ins.:
= 5 sin (1101
of 20 ohms.
(a) Write the expression for
+ 30) amperes flows in
of time employing
numerical coef
(6) What is the frequency of the voltage variation?

(c) Write the expression for p as a function of time, employing
numerical coef
v as a
function
100 cycles.
a purely resistive branch
ficients.
ficients.
(d) What is the frequency of the power variation?
5. A voltage v = 100 cos (ul + 60) volts is impressed upon a pure resistance
circuit of 10 ohms.
(a) Write the equation with respect to time of the current wave and employ
coefficients.
(6) Find the equation with respect to time of the power wave.
(c) What is the maximum instantaneous power?
(d) What is the minimum instantaneous power?
numerical
(e) What is the average value of the power wave?

6. (a) What is the maximum time rate of change of a 60-cycle alternating current
of sine form, the maximum value of which is 10 amperes?
(b) If this current flows through a pure inductance of 100 millihenrys, find the
maximum value of the voltage across the terminals of the inductance.
INSTANTANEOUS
38
7.
8.
A voltage drop
CURRENT AND POWER
II
Ch.
voltage v = 150 sin 3774 volts is applied to a particular circuit element,

and it is found, by oscillographic analysis, that i = 10 cos 377 1 amperes.
Make
a sketch of the v and i waves.
Find the nature and magnitude of the circuit param
eter.
An*.:
v = 100
= 0.0398
henry
sin (377i + 30) volts is across a pure inductance of
henry.
(a) Use numerical coefficients and express the current through the coil as a function
of time.
0.02654
(b) Find the equation with respect to time of the power wave.
as a single sine function.
Express the result
What is the average power?

(d) What is the first value of time at which maximum energy is stored in the
inductance?
(e) What is the maximum amount of energy stored in the inductance during a
cycle? State units.
9. A current of 5 sin 300/ amperes flows through a pure inductive branch of
(c)
0.2 henry.
(a) Find the impedance function and express numerically.

(6) How many joules arc stored in the magnetic field alxmt the inductance when
= 0.05 second?
(c) Write the expression for v as a function of time employing numerical coefficients.

10. A voltage v = 200 cos (157f + 30) volts is applied to a particular circuit
element, and it is found, by oscillographic analysis, that i = 5 sin (1571 150)
Find the nature and magnitude of the circuit
amperes. Sketch the v and i waves.
parameter.
11. A voltage v = 100 sin 377( volts is impressed on a pure capacitance of 530.5 ni.
(a) Write the expression for i as a function of time employing numerical coef
ficients.
(b) Find the expression for the power wave as a function of time, employing
numerical coefficients.
(r) How many joules are stored in the condenser when the current is zero? when
the current is a maximum?
12. A voltage v = 200 sin 377( volts is applied to an inductive branch, and the
maximum current is found, by oscillographic analysis, to be 10 amperes.
(a) Find the value of
in millihenry's.
Ans.:
If it
53.1 millihenrys.
is known that this inductance coil actually possesses 1.0 ohm resistance,
(b)
what is the true value of L, assuming that Vm = 200 volts and Im = 10 amperes?
An*..-Ltrue = V202
l'2/377 = 53.04 millihenrys.
13. R
ohms and L
henry are connected in series and energized by
a 25-cycle sinusoidal voltage, the maximum value of which is 150 volts.
(a) Find the complete impedance expression for the RL branch.
(b) Write the expression for the supply voltage as a function of time, making
10
v = 0
= 0.05
(ilv/dt positive) at I = 0.
(c) Write the expression for current as a function of time, assuming that the
voltage in (b) is applied to the branch.
Employ numerical coefficients.
(d) Write the expression for the instantaneous power delivered to the branch
as a function of time.
Express the result in three terms a constant term, a single
cosine term, and a single sine term. What is the average power?
Ch.
II
PROBLEMS
39
(e) What are the reactive volt-amperes or vars?
(J) Sketch the v, i, and p variations in rectangular coordinates.

14. R = 10 ohms and L = 0.05 henry are connected in series and energized by
voltage, the maximum value of which is 150 volts.
(a) Find the complete impedance expression for the RL branch.
a 25-cycle sinusoidal
Ans.: 12.7/38.2" ohms.

t1
(b) Write the expression for the supply

= 75 (dv/'dl positive) at 1 = 0.
voltage as a function
Ans.:
of time, making
v = 150
sin (1571 + 30) volts.

of time, assuming that the
Employ numerical coefficients.
voltage in (b) is applied to the branch.
Ans.: i = 11.8 sin (1571
8.2) amperes.
(f) Write the expression for current
as a function
(d) Write the expression for
the instantaneous
power delivered to the branch as

a function of time.
Express the result in three terms a numlxjr, one cosine, and
one sine term.
What is the average power delivered?
Ans.:
16.
p = 695
820 cos 3141 + 328 sin 3141 watts.

=
695
watts.
Pav
resistive element of 30 ohms is connected in series with an inductance coil,
the self-inductance of which is 50 millihenrys and the ohmic resistance of which is

A voltage v = 100 cos 377 1 volts is connected to the series branch.
4.5 ohms.
(b)
18.
What is the capacitive reactance of an 800-MMf condenser at 6 megacycles?

A resistive element of 151 ohms is connected in series with a condenser of
iii
reactive power?
(e) What is the inductive reactance of the branch in ohms?
16. A current i = 10 cos 1571 amperes flows in an RL circuit containing R = 15
ohms and L = 0.0637 henry.
(a) Write the equation of v as a function of time, employing numerical coefficients.
(b) Write the expression for the power wave as a function of time.
17. (a) What is the capacitive reactance of an 8-^f condenser at 60 cycles?
500-cycle sinusoidal voltage, the maximum value of which

capacitance.
15
volts, energizes the RC branch.
=
reference at
(a) Write the expression for the supply voltage, choosing the
of
point
the
maximum positive voltage.
(c.)
Evaluate ZRC completely.

Evaluate the expression for
Evaluate the expression for
i.
(b)
is
which corresponds to the product of voltage

and current employed here, and express all trigonometric terms with exponents no
higher than unity.
= Im sin at flows through a given RC branch.
19. Assume that the current
(d)
where
T/
Vm sin (o><
8)
= ImZ sin (at
6)
Show that the voltage across the branch is:

v

(a) Evaluate the expression for i.

(b) Evaluate the expression for p.
(c) Write the expression for the real power as a function of time, employing numer
ical coefficients.
What is the average value of the instantaneous real power?
Write
the
expression for the reactive volt-amperes as a function of time,
(rf)
What is the average value of the instantaneous
employing numerical coefficients.
INSTANTANEOUS
40
CURRENT AND POWER
Ch.
11
and
20. A resistance of 10 ohnis is in series with a 303-Mf capacitor.

If the voltage
drop across the capacitor is 150 sin (220t 60) volts, find the equation with respect
to time of the voltage drop across the entire series circuit.
Find also the expression
, for the current at any time (.
21. A 2000-cyclc alternating
voltage of sine form when impressed across the
terminals of a condenser establishes a current of 0.01 ampere (maximum value i.
If
the maximum value of the voltage is 20 volts, find the capacitance of the condenser
in microfarads.
22. Consider a series RLC branch wherein R = 10 ohms, L =0.10 henry, and
C is 200 juf.
Assume that the current i = 10 sin (1570 amperes flows through the
RLC branch.
(a) Write the expression for the voltage drop across R, namely, Ri, employing
(6) Write the expression for the voltage drop across L, namely, L di/dt, employing
(c) Write the expression for the voltage drop across C, namely, q/C, employing
Express
(d) Add (a), (6), and (c) to find the voltage drop across the RLC branch.
the result as a single sine function of time.
is the numerical value of the impedance of the series RLC branch?
Assume that the current i = Im cos u( flows through a given RLC branch.
Show that the voltage across the branch is:
(e)
23.
What
V =
ImZ
B =
tan"
COS (ut
9) = Vm COS (ul
0)
and
24. In the following exercise, it is assumed that a coil having L henrys of inductance
and R ohms of scries resistance is placed injuries with a condenser of C farads of
/if
A current of i = Im sin((/V LC) amperes flows in the circuit.

capacitance.
Show
that the energy ,'L + tec = constant, and evaluate this constant.
26. A resistive element of 20 ohms, an inductance coil of L = 300 milliherirys
and RL = 10 ohms, and a condenser of 50
capacitance are connected in series to
RLC
is
i,
is
= 100 sin 157/ volts

voltage
branch.
applied to the RLC branch.
the numerical value of ZR/.C?
(a) What
employing numerical coefficients.
(6) Write the expression for
(c) Write the expression for /), employing numerical coefficients, and express all
trigonometric functions with exponents no higher than unity.
form an
('/) What
(e)
What
is is

where
the average value of the power delivered to the branch?

the maximum value of the reactive volt-amperes?
Ch.
II
PROBLEMS
41
(f) Write the expression for the voltage drop across the 20-ohm resistive element
as a function of time, employing numerical coefficients.
(3) Write the expression for the instantaneous power delivered to the 20-ohm
resistor as a function of time, employing numerical coefficients.
26. A voltage v = 282.8 sin 500* volts is applied to a series circuit, and the result
ing current, is found to be i = 5.656 sin
of this series combination is known to be

10O /if.
36.87) amperes. One element

which has a capacitance of
Determine the magnitudes of the other series elements present.
(500(
a capacitor
CHAPTER
III
POWER
Except for the maximum values of sinusoidal wave variations atten

tion has been given only to general instantaneous values of current and
The only practicable method of measuring instantaneous
voltage.
values of current, voltage, and power is by means of an oscillograph,
a very useful instrument in many respects but one which is relatively
It was shown in the previous
inaccurate, cumbersome, and costly.
chapter that instantaneous values are inconvenient to manipulate
analytically, and in general they fail to specify concisely the magnitudes
of the quantities involved. In this chapter the values of currents and
voltages usually dealt with will be considered.
Ampere Value of Alternating Current. Alternating currents are
defined so as to make applicable to them essentially the same laws that
govern heating and transfer of power by direct current. An alter
nating current which produces heat in a given resistance at the same
average rate as 7 amperes of direct current is said to have a value of 7
The average rate of heating produced by an alternating
amperes.
1
CT
current during one cycle is I Ri2 dt. The average rate of producing
heat
by 7 amperes of direct current in the same resistance is RI2. Hence
by definition
7 =
and
ll fT
. / I i2
\Ti/o
dt =
Vaverage i2
(1)
1,
it,
The current given in equation (1) which defines the alternating current
in terms of its average rate of producing heat in a resistance is called
the root mean square (abbreviated rms) value.
It is also called the
The
effective or virtual value.
graphical evaluation of the rms value
of an alternating current is illustrated in Fig. 1.
When the equation
of the wave is not known or when it is inconvenient to determine
the
of evaluating equation (1) be
graphical means, suggested by Fig.
comes
useful method to employ.
a

EFFECTIVE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AVERAGE
42
Ch.
Ill
AVERAGE
VALUES
43
Problem 1. Find the effective value of a current that starts at zero, rises instan
taneously, then remains at a value of 20 amperes for 10 seconds, then decreases
instantaneously, remaining at a value of 10 amperes for 20 seconds, and then repeats
Ana.: 14.14 amperes.
this cycle.
The rms value of an alternating current may be measured with the

ordinary dynamometer type of meter. This meter consists of two
The force tending to turn
coils in series, one of them being movable.

Flo.
1.
Graphical evaluation of nun value.
the movable coil from any fixed position is proportional to the product
of the currents in the two coils. Since the coils are in series and the
same current flows hi each, the force for any given position of the coils
is proportional to t2. Since the coil has a relatively high inertia, it
cannot follow the variation in the force produced, and therefore takes
a position corresponding to the average force or average i2. If a suit
able square root scale is placed under the pointer, the pointer will
indicate the square root of the average square, or the rms value.
Other
types of a-c ammeters are also used to indicate effective values of current.
(See Chapter X.)
Alternating Volt. An alternating volt is the value of a wave of
alternating potential which maintains an alternating current of 1 rms
ampere through a non-inductive resistance of 1 ohm.
It therefore
follows that the volt value of a wave is measured by the square root of
the average square of the instantaneous values of the voltage wave.
Average Values. The average value of any a-c wave which is sym
metrical about the zero axis is zero. However, when average value is
applied to alternating quantities, it usually means the average of either
the positive or negative loop of the wave.
This value represents the
d-c equivalent for electrolytic action of the alternating wave abode,
Fig.
2,
if the wave were commutated
(or rectified) and made the same
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AVERAGE POWER
44
Ch.
Since the average ordinate multiplied by the

as the wave abcfe.
is equal to the area under the curve, it follows directly that
base
(2)
i dt
Average value
Ill
t\
2.
di
(3)
I
i.
the average values of the positive and negative loops are different,
Displaced a-c wave
equivalent to a symmet
rical a-c wave and a d-c component.
that the dotted wave

direct current Idc.
is
value of the cross-hatched
Inspection will show

the sum of the alternating wave 7oa and the
wave in Fig.
is
FIG. 3.
taken over
complete cycle represents the
d-c component in the wave.
For example, the average
of

Rectified a-c wave shown dotted.
the actual average value

value
/(i+r/2)
is
If
Fio.
Average value
is
0. is
applicable only when the wave passes through zero

For any other condition the tune
at which the
zero must be determined and the
instantaneous value of the wave
average value found from
Equation (2)
at the time =
Idc.
Ch.
Ill
FORM FACTOR
Effective and Average Values of

equation (1) the effective value of
equation of the wave is not known,
When the equation is
graphically.
generally to be preferred.
Consider
t = Im sin
_
(rms)
For a sine
In
general,
the symbol
current.
Sinusoid. Through the use of

any wave may be found. If the
the integration must be performed
known, the analytical solution is
a
the sinusoid,
tat
_-^ _M _
toave, therefore,
the rms value is 0.707 times the maximum.

/, and unless otherwise specified
is written simply as
/(rm,)
45
refers to the effective
or rms value of an alternating
The average value of a sinusoid over one-half cycle is

J.v
CT/2
/
"o
/m sin ul dt =
-2 Im
ir
= 0.636/m
(5)
Problem 2. A resultant current wave is made up of two components, a 5-ampere,

d-c component and a 60-cycle, a-c component which is of sinusoidal wave form and
which has a maximum value of 4 amperes.
(a) Draw a sketch of the resultant current wave.
t
(b) Write the analytical expression for the resultant current wave, choosing the
= 0 reference at a point where the a-c component is at zero value and where di/dt is
positive.
Ans.:
t =
[5 + 4 sin (377<)1 amperes.

(c) What is the average value with respect to time of the resultant current over a
complete cycle?
Ans.: /Sv = 5 amperes.
(d) What is the effective value of the resultant current?
Ans.:
Form Factor.
value of a wave.
/eM = 5.75 amperes.
Form factor is the ratio of the effective to the average

Hence, for a voltage wave, e, which has equal positive
and negative loops:
Form factor
(6)
T/2
edt
46
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AVERAGE
POWER
Ch.
Ill
Equation (6) is subject to the same limitations as those explained for

It gives
equation (2). Form factor has very little physical significance.
no certain indication of wave shape or wave form. Although a peaked
wave will usually have a higher form factor than a flat-topped wave, it
cannot be conclusively stated that one wave is more peaked than another
That form factor tells nothing of
because it has a higher form factor.
the shape of a wave is evident from the fact that a sine wave and the
wave e = Em sin tat + (5/l2)Em sin 5ut, shown in Fig. 4, have the
^Resultant
Fundamental
Pro. 4.
Form factor of dotted wave is the same as that of a sine wave.
However, form factor does give some

indication of the relative hysteresis loss that will exist when a voltage
Also some use is made of
is impressed on a coil wound on an iron core.
form factor in determining effective voltages induced in such coils when a
known non-sinusoidal flux wave is
present in the iron core.

same form factor, namely,
1.11.
Problem 3. Find the form factor of

the sawtooth wave form shown in Fig. 5.
Hint: Between the limits of t = 0 and
expres
t = T = 3 seconds, the analytical
In a
sion for the voltage iae = 50t volts.
Time
Fio.
5.
Seconds
Sawtooth wave form of voltage

for Problems 3 and 4.
case of this kind,
Ana.:
1.155
The crest, peak, or amplitude factor is the

Crest or Peak Factor.
ratio of the maximum value of a voltage wave to the effective value.
A knowl
For the dotted wave shown in Fig. 4 the crest factor is 1.85.
when
an
using
is
ordinary
necessary
factor
voltmeter
edge of this
Ch.
Ill
REPRESENTATION OF SINE WAVES BY VECTORS
47
to measure a voltage employed in insulation testing. The dielectric

stress to which insulation is subjected depends upon the maximum value
of the voltage attained. Since waves of the same effective value may
have different maximum values, it is obvious that a knowledge of crest
factor is required when making dielectric tests. The crest factor of a
sine wave is
Em
Problem
4.
Find the crest factor of the sawtooth wave form shown in Fig.
5.
Arts.: 1.732.

Representation of Sine Waves by Vectors. It has previously been

stated that an attempt is made to secure sine waves of alternating cur
rents and potentials.
Alternating-current computations are based upon
the assumption of sine waves of voltage and current.
When nonsinusoidal quantities are encountered, they are expressed in terms of a
number of sine components of different magnitudes and frequencies, and
these components are then handled according to the methods applicable
In general, it would be cumbersome continually to
to sine waves.
handle instantaneous values in the form of equations of the waves.
A
more convenient means is to employ a vector method of representing
The vectors may then be manipulated instead of the
these sine waves.
sine functions to secure the desired result.
"A
Time or angular measure -
(a)
Fio.
6.
Projection of a revolving vector represents a sine wave.
The sine wave of current
= Im sin
co<
is shown
in Fig.
6a.
All
the
ordinates of this wave at the various times t may be represented by the

projection of the revolving vector OA on the vertical axis of Fig. 6b.
This projection is Im sin wt if OA has a magnitude of Im. This is the
equation of the wave shown in Fig. 6a.
48
POWER
Ch.
Ill
If
two sine waves are related as shown in Fig. 7, each may be repre
sented by the projections of counterclockwise1 revolving vectors on the
vertical. A little study will show that the angle of phase difference for
the two waves must also be the angular displacement between the two
Fio.
Addition of sine waves by the use of vecton.
7.
vectors OA and OB representing them.

If OA and OB are added vectorially, a resultant OC is obtained whose projection on the vertical will
represent the instantaneous values of the algebraic sum of the sine
waves
A and B.

Example 1.
An wooes:
Add the following currents
ti
= 5 sin ut
ii
= 10 sin (ut
Sum
=io
as waves and as vectors:
+ 60)
ii+ij=5sinoi* + 10sin(wi +
= 5 sin ut
= 10 sin ut
10 sin at cos 60
+ 8.66
60)
10 COB ut sin 60
cos ut
Refer to the right triangle shown in Fig. 80.

and divided by 13.23, there results
If
the previous equation is multiplied

8.66
10
= 13.23 [cos a sin cat
r sin a
= 13.23 sin (ut
+ a)
= 13.23 sin (ut
+ 40.9)
cos ut]
Counterclockwise is assumed the positive direction of rotation of vectors. The

counterclockwise direction of rotation has been arbitrarily used by engineers in the
United States and many foreign countries. Some foreign countries have used clock
To avoid errors the student must always consider counterclockwise

wise as positive.
One vector is said
as the positive direction of rotation of all vectors in this book.
to be ahead or leading another when it is farther advanced counterclockwise than the
other.
Ch.HI
Ai
REPRESENTATION OF SINE WAVES BY VECTORS
49
A wave of relative phase represented by sin orf will be represented by a

the
along
reference axis. Positive angles will be assumed to be measured
vector
counterclockwise. The two waves are then represented by vectors, as shown in
The sum will be found by adding x and y components.
Fig. 86.
vectors:
8.66
10
<)
Fio.
= 5
8.
10 cos 60 = 10
= 10 sin 60 = 8.66
Sum =
Since the resultant
\z
is counterclockwise
Vl*
(positive)
+ 8'66*
from the reference,
the equation
may be written as
from
in example
+ 40.9)
1
Subtract
t'i
Problem 6.
t'j
to <= 13.23 sin (at
by both methods shown above.

Ans.: 8.66 sin (at
90).
divided by
V2.
Thus maximum values of the vectors could be handled
to obtain the effective

and the resultant divided by v
value.
Instead, all the initial vectors could have their maximum values
multiplied by 0.707 and the resultant of these would then be the result
divided by
V2.
If
the latter
procedure
is
ant maximum
vectorially
followed,
Vectorial
can be considered to represent effective values.
customary, in which case the results
representation of effective values
is
the vectors
are
given directly in terms of effective values, the ones usually desired.
In drawing vector diagrams certain conventions must be observed.

The vectors
First,
convenient reference axis should be established.
have their relations to one another fixed but they may be represented
In Fig.
the vectors OA and OB were con
with respect to any axis.
7,

is
is
It
apparent that these coplanar vectors are merely convenient rep

time.
resentations of sine waves, the independent variable of which
As such, they are time vectors and do not have any meaning so far as
When the lengths of the two vectors
space relations are concerned.
represent maximum values of the waves respectively, the resultant vec
tor will represent the maximum value of the resultant of the two waves.
Effective or rms values of voltages and currents are ordinarily used;
For sine waves these have been shown to be equal to the maximum value
50
sidered to revolve in order to represent the waves.

was obtained by adding the two vectors when
POWER
Ch.
Ill
The resultant OC
OB was along the axis
of reference.
Obviously, the same result would have been obtained had
OA and OB been added when stopped in any other position with respect
to the reference axis, provided their magnitudes and the angle 6 between
them were not changed.
Second, it must be observed that counterclock
wise is considered the positive direction of rotation of vectors and that a vec
tor rotated through an angle of lead or ahead of another vector must be
It then follows that an angle of lag from a
rotated counterclockwise.
given axis must be in the clockwise direction. A vector thus rotated
is said to be behind the axis in question.
To illustrate the use of these conventions, the vector diagrams of
voltage and current for a pure resistance, pure inductance, and a pure
The waves shown on Oscillogram 1,
capacitance circuit will be drawn.
page 17, for a pure resistance circuit, indicate that the applied voltage is
in phase with the current.
With current
I
~f
taken as, or along, the reference axis the
is
shown
hi
9.
vector diagram
Fig.
V
.
?
It was shown in Chapter

and experi| f
mentally illustrated in Oscillogram 2, page Fro. 0. Resistance branch and
vector dia*m20, that the wave of voltage drop across
This
a circuit containing only inductance leads the current by 90.
relation is illustrated vectorially with the current as the reference in
Fig. 10 of the present chapter.
**
AV-IXt
'v-rxc
Applied V
Flo.
10.
Inductance
branch
and vector diagram.
Flo.
11.
Capacitance branch and

vector diagram.
Reference to Oscillogram 3, page 24, will show that Fig.
of the pres
ent chapter represents vectorially the relations previously explained for
the purely capacitive circuit.
Current was taken as the reference in the three previous diagrams.
This was not necessary. The current could just as well have been drawn
at any angle with respect to the reference axis, but for any particular
case the relation between current and voltage must remain the same,
that
the resistance drop must always be in phase with the current,
the drop across the inductance must always lead the current by exactly
is,

II
11
Ch.
Ill
DIAGRAMS
VECTOR
51
90, and the drop across the capacitance must always lag the current by
exactly 90. The reference axis that appears to be the most convenient
for the particular problem at hand should be chosen.
Vector Diagrams as Determined by Resistance and Reactance Drops
and Impedance Functions. If a current i = Im sin ut is assumed to flow
in a circuit containing R and L, Kirchhoff's emf law states that
v = Ri + L di/dt.
Therefore t; = RIm sin ut
+ ImL<a cos ut. Since RIm sin ut is of the
same phase as Im sin ut, the resistance drop
is shown in phase with the current in the
vector diagram of Fig. 12. It will also be
noted that ImLu cos ut is 90 ahead of Im
Fio. 12. Addition of volt- sin ut. Hence it is so drawn on the vector
age drop., across L and R.
The vector ^j^ of these two CQm.
diagram
ponents is the resultant applied voltage V. The angle between V and I
The same relation between V and I is obtained from
is 0 = ian~1uL/R.
the impedance function Z[Q. As explained in Chapter II, a positive
angle 0 means that the applied voltage leads the current or that the
current lags the applied voltage by the phase angle 0. Thus the rela
tion of V and I shown in the vector diagram could have been shown
t

IR
USFio.
Fio.
13.
Addition of voltage
drops across C and R.
14.
Addition of voltage
L, C, and R.
drops across
directly from the impedance function where the angle tells the phase
and V/Z gives the magnitude of I. It should be noted that effective
values were used exclusively in Fig. 12. Through the same procedure
the student can show that Fig. 13 represents the vector diagram for an
R and C circuit. The vector diagram of the R, L, and C circuit combines
the vector diagrams in Figs. 12 and 13 the results of which appear in
Fig.
14.
Problem
ance,
377
6.
60-cycle current
henry inductance, and
of 15
amperes flows in a circuit of 5 ohms resist
farad capacitance.
'' X lo
Draw the vector dia-
gram, and calculate the applied voltage and the phase angle between it and the
Ans.: 106 volts; angle 45.
current.
52
Ill
Significance of Currents Flowing in the Direction of Voltage Rises and

Drops. If the potential becomes greater in the direction of tracing a
circuit, a voltage rise is being encountered.
For example, assume the
polarities of a circuit at some instant to be as indi
+
cated in Fig. 15.
When tracing from a to 6 through 4- n;
the generator, the tracing is in the direction of indirection
I
creasing potential (from minus to plus) or in the direc/"^^\
T
tion of a voltage rise. In a similar way, when tracing /rvlv
through the load from c to d, the tracing is in the di
rection of a fall of potential or a voltage drop.
Since
" pump," the current will flow
the generator is the
from minus to plus through the generator, whereas in FIO. 15. PoUriti
a-c generator
the external circuit it flows from plus to minus.
It of an load
at some
.,
and
.
.
.
. _
is evident, then, that a current flowing in the general
instant.
direction of a potential rise represents electrical power
generated or delivered.
Also, when the current flows in the direction of a
potential fall or drop, as it does through a load, power is being consumed
or taken.
If, then, a voltage rise is assumed positive, the generated
power would be positive. A voltage drop is then negative and, since
the same current flows in the direction of the voltage drop through
These are the
the load, the power determined would be negative.
usual conventions employed when power generated and power con
sumed are simultaneously considered.
If a voltage drop is assumed
positive, then positive current in conjunction with the positive drop
would yield positive power and under such conditions power absorbed
is positive.
It is immaterial which conventions are used ; that which is
most
the
Physically, the same results
expedient is the one to choose.
are obtained. Although the above conventions are the most common,
it is possible to establish other systems.
If a voltage rise is assumed positive, the question sometimes arises:
Will generated power still be positive if the tracing direction is reversed?
The answer is yes, as may be shown by the following consideratioa*.
Assume the tracing direction in Fig. 15 is bade.
Then a voltage drop
is encountered in the tracing direction through the generator.
Since a
voltage rise was considered positive, this drop through the generator
will be negative.
Since current flows through a generator in the general
direction of increasing potential, the current will be in a direction
opposite to that of the tracing direction.
Hence it must be called a
negative current. The product of the voltage drop through the gen
erator, which was negative, by the negative current (opposite to the
tracing direction) is positive. The sign of power generated is there
fore unchanged.
Similarly, it may be shown that the sign of the power
.,,,,.,

Ch.
Ch.
Ill
POWER, REAL AND REACTIVE
53
by the load is unchanged.

Hence the choice of the tracing
direction does not affect the signs of generated and dissipated power.
These are fixed by the signs assumed for voltage rises and drops in
conjunction with the current.
Power, Real and Reactive. In Chapter
it was shown that the
general expression for average power, when waves of voltage and current
dissipated
II
are
nm
" "*
sinusoidal, is
cos
Since the maximum value of a sine wave
8.
ft
divided by the square root of 2 is the effective value, the equation for
average power may be written
^
-^ cos
V2 V2
e =
vi cos e
(7)
When V is in volts and 7 is in amperes, the power is expressed in watts.

As previously shown, the power in a single-phase circuit is not con
stant.
The instantaneous power from equation (33), Chapter II, is
p =
' m*m
cos
--
' m*m
cos
f,
cos 2wl
---
-\
'm*m
2
sin
sin
2cat
,rt\
(8)
The first two terms of the right side of equation (8) represent instan
taneous real power.
When 2wt is an odd multiple of IT, the value of the
real power is

s0
2F/cos0
is a multiple of 2ir, real power is 0. Hence real power in a

single-phase circuit fluctuates between 0 and 2 VI cos 0 and has an
The third term of
average value of VI cos0 (shown in Chapter II).
the right-hand member of equation (8) represents what has been called
instantaneous reactive power, or, preferably, instantaneous reactive
volt-amperes. Its equation is
When
2w<
Px =
(J^
sin
<M
sin 2wt
Thus instantaneous reactive volt-amperes fluctuate between

and
sin
0.
Whereas
yr
-|
(9)
sin
the average value of the instantaneous
reactive volt-amperes is zero, the maximum
value is
V" I"*
m
sin
0.
This is
54
POWER
the value referred to when reactive volt-amperes are considered.2
Px
^ -%sin
V
\/2
VI
0 =
sin
Ch.
Ill
Hence
(10)
It is phun that reactive volt-amperes as determined from equation (10)

will be positive when 6 is positive.
As interpreted from vector dia
grams when current is taken as a reference, Fig. 16, 6 is positive when the
If voltage is taken
voltage leads the current or for inductive loads.
along the reference, Fig. 17, 6 is positive when the current leads the
In the former case reactive volt-amperes are posi
generated voltage.
tive for inductive loads or lagging currents, whereas in the second case
positive reactive volt-amperes are obtained when the load is capacitive or
Fio.
16. Angle 8 ia positive when voltage

leada current if current ia along the reference axis.
FIG.
17.
Angle
leada voltage
erence axis.
0 ia
if
positive when current

is along the ref
voltage
where the current leads the voltage.
Another basis for determining the

II. At the 1934 Paris meet
ing of the Committee on Electrical and Magnetic Units the convention
was adopted whereby reactive power caused by a lagging current is to be
considered negative.
Until this convention comes into general use it will
be necessary to distinguish in some suitable and definite manner whether
the reactive power in question is caused by a leading or a lagging current.
This can be done by following the quantity by the words " leading
"
or " lagging reactive volt-amperes."
Reactive voltâmperes are expressed in vars, a term coined from the
" volt amperes reactive." Reactive voltfirst letters of the words
amperes considered over a period of time represent oscillations of
Their function is to supply
energy between the source and the load.
the energy for magnetic fields and charging condensers, and to transfer
this energy back to the source when the magnetic field collapses or when
Although reactive volt-amperes, as such,
the condenser discharges.
input
to the generators, they do necessitate a
energy
no
average
require
certain amount of generator volt-ampere capacity and thereby limit the

sign of reactive power was given in Chapter
It should be recognized that this discussion refers to components of the resultant

These components do not exist as separate entities but they are con
power wave.
Actually a single wave,
venient components to consider for purposes of analysis.
as shown in Chapter II, is the only power wave which has a physical existence.
2
Ch.
Ill
VOLT-AMPERES
55
available power output of the generators.

Reactive volt-amperes
cannot be transferred without incurring a copper loss. Although this
i2r loss is caused by the transfer of the reactive volt-amperes, it is not
a part of the reactive volt-amperes.
Reactive volt-amperes are due to
quadrature components of voltage and current and as such represent
zero average power.
These additional losses must be supplied by an
average energy input to the alternators.
From equation (33), Chapter II, instantaneous real power was found
to be Vmlm cos 0 sin2 tat. This may be considered to consist of a voltage
Vm sin ut and a current (Im cos 6) sin tat, which is in phase with the
voltage. The current Im cos 6 is called the in-phase component, power
component, active component, or energy component of current with
In terms of root mean square values the power is
respect to voltage.
due to a voltage V and a component of current cos 6 in phase with V,
as shown in Fig. 18. Since the product of the voltage V and energy
cos 6 is VI cos 8, the same expression as equacomponent of current
Vsin'
Fiu.
In-phase and quadrature com18.

ponents of current with respect to volt-
10. In-phaae and quadrature com

ponents of voltage with respect to current.
age,

Fio.
tion (7) for power, it is evident that power may be determined in this
manner. If cos 8 is grouped with V, then V cos 9 may be viewed as the
in-phase component, active component, energy component, or power
component of voltage with respect to current, as shown in Fig. 19.
Obviously, power may also be obtained by multiplying the in-phase
component of voltage with respect to current by the current. Sim
" out-of-phase component," quadrature
sin 0 in Fig. 18 is the
ilarly,
component, or reactive component of current with respect to voltage.
This component multiplied by the voltage gives reactive volt-amperes,
Also, V sin 0 is the
as may be seen by comparison with equation (10).
or
wattless
of
reactive,
component
voltage with respect to
quadrature,
current. This component of voltage multiplied by current also yields
the reactive volt-amperes, or vars.
The product of effective voltage by effective current in
Volt-Amperes.
A larger unit is kilovolt-amperes,
an a-c circuit is called volt-amperes.
a
number
of volt-amperes may rep
Obviously,
kva.
given
abbreviated
resent any number of different values of power, depending upon the
value of cos d in equation (7). Cosine 8 is therefore a factor by which
56
volt-amperes are multiplied to give power.

power factor. As an equation
Power factor = cos
Ch.
Hence cosine
Ill
is called
power
(ID
volt-amperes
to equation (10) will show that sin 0 is the factor by which

volt-amperes are multiplied to yield reactive voltâmperes or vars.
Hence sin 6 is called the reactive factor.
Reference
= sin 0 =
Reactive factor
Since
sin2
factor
Vl
cos2
6=1,
reactive factor
(12)
volt-amperes
=
VI
(p.f.)2
and power
(r.f.)2.
(lcos0)V
Power
Reactive
volt-amperes
Fro. 20.
Relation of power, reactive volt-amperes,
and resultant volt-amperes.
If the current and each of its two components in Fig. 18 are multi
plied by V, a relationship between power, reactive volt-amperes, and
volt-amperes is obtained, as shown in Figs. 20a and b. Hence
=
v (power)2 + (reactive va)2
This relation is very useful in problems involving correction of power

factor.
IR=V,
IXC=VC
Fro. 21.
R,
L,
and
C in
series and the corresponding vector diagram.
jif
Example 2. One hundred and ten volts are applied to a series circuit consisting
of 8 ohms resistance, 0.0531 henry inductance, and 189.7
capacitance.
When
the frequency
60 cycles, calculate current, power, power factor, vars, reactive
Also calculate the voltage drop across each circuit ele
factor, and volt-amperes.
is

Volt-amperes
ment.
The circuit and vector diagrams
are shown in Fig. 21.
O.
VOLT-AMPERES
777
=
Xr
= 8 ohms
2ir/L
2ir/C
7 =
XL
- Xc
= 20
_
Abo
Reactive va =
VI
= 72fl =
VR =
It will
VI
IR
14 = 6 ohms
Vs2 +
= 10 ohms
61
8
IR R
_=_=_=0.8
cos 0 = 110
sine = 110
va =
II2 X
X
= 110
= 11
11
0.8 = 968 watte
8 = 968 watts
YT
11
/.I
11
= 110
= 1210 =
11
10
= 726 vars
V968S
8 = 88 volte
VL
7Xt
= 11
20 = 220 volte
Vc
7XC
= 11
14 = 154 volte
be noted that
= 14 ohms
= 11 amperes
IR
F7
- 20 ohms
0.0531
2*60X189.7X10-"
Vfl2 + X 2
110
= 2,r 60
XL
57
the arithmetic
sum of these three voltages is much greater
Alternating voltages of the same frequency can be added

be added vectoriatty with due regard for phase relation.
Thus
than the applied voltage.

but they must
= 88 volte in phase
with
with
'
,-,
Therefore
Example
V882 +
662 = 110 volte, which checks the applied voltage.
Given the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 22, find
3.
7,
The impedance functions of branches
jo
are
/53.170 ohms
-i_ _
and
Solution.
power consumed.
7i
100
I2
is
7.07
drawn as shown in Fig. 23.
The vector diagram
= 10 amperes
Ii

220 154 = 66 volts in quadrature
/-46
ohms
7i,
/;,
and total
58
Ch.
Ill
The mil-rents may be added by using z and j/ components or by the cosine

law. The former will be used and a tabulation of results made. The z-aris will be
Any other position may be used.
taken along V.
This is arbitrary.
It
../
x components
cos
(-53.17)
/i
/I /i
= 6
components
sin 45 = 10
72
= 10
72 cos 45
sin (-53.17)
Current
= 16.13 amperes
= 100
= 100
16 = 1600 watte
= 102
/22#2
14.14*
7i2fli +
= GOO + 1000
= 1600 watte
en
100 volts
ssn
FID. 22.
5/1
Parallel branches.
FIG. 23.
Vector diagram of Fig. 22.
is
it
Vector Combination of Voltages. Thus far, only currents have been

added and subtracted
vectorially. Since vector combinations are
based upon the assumption of .sine waves,
apparent that sinusoidal
For example,
voltage waves can be added and subtracted vectorially.
the coils shown in Fig. 24 are assumed to have induced voltages which
0(
Fio.
24.
Coils in which a-c voltages
are
Fio.
25.
induced.
Voltages induced in coils of

Fig. 24.
by 45, as shown in Fig. 25. The voltage EW

of Fig. 24 are connected.
In general, the dif
ference of potential between two points of
winding or circuit
found
by adding all the potential drops (rises are negative drops) encountered
in tracing through the winding from one point in question to the other.
is
and
desired when
l'
are phase-displaced
is

X 2>
= F/ta-phaae
22
An alternative
Vl62
is
16
=
Ch.
Ill
PROBLEMS
59
This statement follows from the definition of potential difference.
The
voltages are denoted by subscripts, and the order in which the subscripts
are written must be the same as the order in which they are encountered
Thus for Fig. 24, when 1 and 2 are conas the circuit is being traced.
Fio.
26.
Eu
nected, Ei2'
If l'
for Fig. 24 when

are connected.
Eu/ +
were connected
EH- +
E2'2-
1' and
Fio.
27.
Ea
for Fig. 24 when

are connected.
1' and
E22'. This vector addition is shown in Fig. 26.

to 2' in Fig. 24, the emf E12 would be E12 =
This result is obtained by adding the voltage vectors,
EH and E2'2, as shown in Fig. 27.

Problem 7. Two coils on the armature of an alternator are displaced 60 electrical
The emf of each coil is 100 volts.
What is the resultant emf of the two
degrees.
coils when connected series adding and also when series subtracting?
173.2 volts, 100 volts.
Ana.:
PROBLEMS
Power is then cut off
8. An elevator motor takes 20 amperes for 15 seconds.
If rated full-load current of the
seconds, after which the cycle is repeated.
What is the
is 12 amperes, will it overheat on a continuation of this cycle?
equivalent continuous current which will yield the same average rate of heating?

for 45
motor
9. A motor takes 50 amperes for 10 seconds, after which power is off for 20
It then takes 60 ainperes for 5 seconds, after which power is cut off for
seconds.
What will the continuous rated current have to be so that the motor
1 minute.
will not overheat?
10. (a) What is the average value of the pulsating current shown in Fig. 28?
(6) What is the effective value?

(a) If the current shown in Fig. 28 flows through a d-c ammeter in series with
an a-c ammeter, what will be the reading of each instrument, assuming perfect
calibration of the instruments?
11.
(6)
If the
resistance of the circuit is constant (the pulsating current being produced

be employed in finding
by a pulsating voltage), which of the above readings should
the power by the T2/? formula?

12. (a) If the current shown in Fig. 28 flows through a 5-ohm resistance, what
number of joules of heat energy is produced each cycle? what number of gram
calories?
(6) What power is dissipated in the above resistance over any integral numtor
of cycles?
13. The plate current of a triode operating as an oscillator takes the general
form shown in Fig. 29.
60
Ch.
Ill
SO amp.
15 amp.
110 amp.
_L
*---0.4 }--- 0.5
[4
| 0.3-j---0.5
Seconds
*j
One cycle
FIG. 28.
(o) What
>(<-0.3-M
See Problems 10, 11, 12, and 24.
-,
\t
One cycle
FIG. 29.
Seconds
>J >j
amp.
1(P
See Problem 13.

a
current in
is
circuit starts at zero and increases linearly until

value of 12
It then drops to zero in negligible time and repeats the cycle.
What will an a-c ammeter in this circuit read?
15.
current starts abruptly at 10 amperes and decreases linearly to zero and
Find the rms value without changing the orientation of
then repeats this cycle.
14.
amperes
attained.
e.
the wave from that given.

16. Find the rms value of
current in terms of radius
whose instantaneous
above and below the .r-axis.
values make semicircles of radius
17. Calculate the form factor of the current wave in Problem 14.
= 100 sin ul
00 sin (5ut + 30) volts by integration.
18. Find the rms value of
= 100 sin ul + 60 cos 3u(.
19. Calculate the form factor of
= 100 sin at 40 sin 3u( volts.
Calculate the form factor of the voltage wave in Problem 20.

not
Find
wave other than that given in the text which
22.
which has the same form factor as a sine wave.
21.
is
Find the rms value of
20.

-T
What
is is is
the frequency of oscillation depicted in Fig. 29?

the average value of the pulsating current?
the effective value of the pulsating current?
(c) What
Note: The current during the first
X 10~4 second shown in Fig. 29 may be
=
represented by the equation
X 104( amperes. Utilize symmetry.
(6)
sine wave
but
Ch.
Ill
23.
PROBLEMS
Calculate
61
the peak factor of (a) a sine wave, (b) a rectangular wave, (c) a
symmetrical triangular wave whose positive and negative halves are symmetrical
about their respective midordinates if the angle at the peak is 60, and (d) a tri
angular wave whose angle at the peak is 90.
24. Calculate the crest factor for the wave shown in Fig. 28.
26. Calculate the crest factor and form factor of a wave whose
and
positive
i->
negative loops are semicircles.

26. The respective branch currents flowing toward a junction of two parallel
= 20 sin
branches of a circuit are ii = 30 sin (ul + 60) amperes and
(u>(
20)
Find the resultant current leaving the junction in terms of a single sine
amperes.
ii
Find also the effective value of the current.

wave.
= 40 sin (wt 40) amperes combines with a
27. One branch current of
resultant of 50 sin (wt + 80) amperes. Find the
second branch current to yield
Find also the effective value.
equation of the second branch current.
motor requires 25 amperes and 220 volts at
lagging power factor of 0.88.
28.
Find the power, vars, reactive factor, and the volt-amperes taken.
is
is
29.
motor requires 10 amperes and 220 volts at a power factor of 0.8 lag.
Find
the power, reactive volt-amperes, reactive factor, and the volt-amperes required.
= 200 sin (at + 30), and the current
=
30. The voltage of a circuit
What are the average power, volt-amperes, and power factor?
50 sin (at + 60).
is
it
motor takes 15 amperes and 220 volts at a lagging power-factor angle of

31.
Find the Dumber of watts, vars, and volt-amperes
72 when running at no load.
taking.
32. How many resultant volt-amperes will lie taken from the line when the two
motors in Problems 28 and 31 arc operating simultaneously as stated from the same
the resultant line current and power supplied?

What
33. One motor takes 250 amperes at 0.8 power factor lag while another motor
line of 220 volts.
the re
What
takes 50 kw at 0.5 leading power factor from
the power factor of the combined
sultant line current for these two motors? What
leading or lagging?
Is
loads?
= 200 sin at volts, and the current
=
circuit
34. The voltage of
50 cos (ut 30) amperes. What arc the average (K>wer, vars, and power factor?
t
is
is
varmeter in circuit indicates (500 vars, and a wattmeter in the same circuit
36.
Find the volt-amperes, power factor, and reactive factor of the
shows 800 watts.
volts at
circuit
has
ohms resistance and 20 millihenry"
inductance.
If
series
36.
circuit.
110
60 cycles are impressed, calculate the current and power.

a
ohms resistance, 48 ohms in

parallel circuit consists of
reactance, while the other branch con
ohms and
resistance of
ohms. Find the
capaeitive reactance of
sists of
current delivered to the combination when 100 volts are impressed across the entire
circuit. Calculate the total power and that consumed by each branch.
and of wattmeter W of
38. (a) Find the readings of ammeters J\, 1, and
Fig. 30. Compare the reading of H' with i2R\ + I^Rj.
IiRi, IiXii, Itfl*, and 12X02(b) Draw the vector diagram of V, I], !,
2
40 ohms capaeitive
I,
7,
37. One branch of
ductive reactance, and

a
r,
<l
represents
potential drop from a to
through the circuit
(c) Assuming that
to
or Vjr.
branches, find the potential drop from
to a through the circuit
represents a potential drop from
(d) Assuming that
to
or Vdcbranches, find the potential drop from
c,

it
is
is
is
line.
62
FIG. 30.
Work Problem
39.
henry,
RI
38
ohms, and
10
= 120 juf-
Find the readings of the ammeter
40.
additional
branch
Ill
8 ohms,
L\
= 0.025
and of the wattmeter W in Fig. 30 if an

with the R\L\ and flsCj branches.
in parallel
R^La is placed
=0.12 henry.
Find readings of the ammeter
R$ = 15 ohms and L*
41.
Ch.
Sec Problems 38, 39, and 40.
if the parameters lire changed to RI
Cj
POWER
and of the wattmeter
W in Fig.
31
for
the
parameters specified.
V = 100 volts
60 ~

Fio.
31.
See Problem 41.
42. A type of alternator much used in laboratories has six coils spaced about the
The two leads of each coil are brought
armature at intervals of 30 electrical degrees.
out to a terminal board, making available six voltages.
Because of the 30 electrical
degrees of space displacement of the coils on the armature,
the individual coil voltages have phase differences of 30.
Let Fig. 32 represent the six coils, and assume that adjacent
12845
?
i
S5
r*
ex
\
2'
\
4'
5'
coils in the figure are electrically adjacent

nator armature.
Assume also that the
sinusoidal and that leads 1,2, 3, 4, 5, and
ing ends of the coils, and that EII is
3
\
6'
coils on the altercoil voltages are

6 are correspond
30 behind EZ/J,
behind 3/3, and so on.

(a) Draw the vector diagram of Ei/i,E2'2,E3'3, 4/4, 515,
and Ee'e when EI/I is laid off along the +j-axis.
Each
coil has an effective emf of 50 volts.
E;>/2 is 30
Fio.
32. Six coils of

generator.
a-c
Adjacent coila are
displaced 30 electri
cal degrees.
an
l'
is connected to 3.
(b) Find EIS/ when
is connected to 3'.
(r) Find EIS when
(</) Find the greatest voltage that can be obtained by connecting all coils in series.
(e) Draw the vector diagram that represents the three voltages, E^/, 34*, and
P, assuming that
is connected to 2, 3' to 4, and 5r to 6.
l'
l'
CHAPTER IV
VECTOR ALGEBRA
(AS APPLIED TO A-C CIRCUIT ANALYSIS)
The Operator j.
quantities normally employed

in a-c circuit analysis to simplify calculations are added and subtracted
like coplanar vectors, they are usually referred to as vectors.
It is well known that a plane vector can be specified in magnitude
and direction in terms of its i-axis projection and its y-axis projection.
For example, if the x-axis projection of the vector A in Fig. 1 is known
as XA and the j/-axis projection is known as y,\ then the magnitude of
the vector A is :
Since
the complex
A = VxA2 + yA*
(1)
From the geometry of Fig. 1 it is plain that the angle, 0A , between the
direction of vector A and the direction of the positive x-axis is:

(2)
'A=
Fio.
Resolution of vector A into its

x-axis and y-aiis components.
1.
In order to specify
Fio.
-JA
2.
Effects produced by successive
applications of the operator
upon a
vector A, the original position of which
ia along the +i-axis.
a vector in terms of its x and y components
means must be employed
some
to distinguish between the x-axis projection
and the y-axis projection. Inasmuch as the +2/-axis projection is

+90 from the + x-axis, a convenient operator for the purpose at hand
is one which will, when applied to a vector, rotate it 90 counterclockwise
without changing the magnitude of the vector.
VECTOR ALGEBRA
64
CA.
IV
be an operator which produces 90 counterclockwise rotation

Let
of any vector to which it is applied as a multiplying factor. The
physical significance of the operator can best be appreciated by first
considering that it operates on a given vector A, the direction of which
is along the +x-axis. Then, by definition, when the vector A of Fig. 2
a new vector, j'A, 90 counterclockwise from A, will
is multiplied by
If the operator is applied to the vector jA it will, by
be obtained.
definition, rotate jA 90 in the counterclockwise direction. The result
is jjA. = j2A as shown in Fig. 2. Also from Fig. 2:
J2A
Hence:
-A
J2=-l
and
j = ^1
(3)
If
the operator is applied to the vector j2 A the result isj'3A = jAThe vector j3A is 270 counterclockwise from the reference axis, di
rectly opposite the vector jA in Fig. 2. If the vector j3A, in turn,
is operated on by j, the result is j4A = j2j2A = A. It will be observed
that successive applications of the operator to the vector A produce
successive 90 steps of rotation of the vector in the counterclockwise
direction without affecting the magnitude of the vector.
From Fig. 2 it is apparent that multiplying A by yields jA,
Hence
a vector of identical magnitude rotated clockwise 90 from A.
is an operator which produces clockwise rotation of 90.
The Cartesian Form of Notation. A vector in any quadrant can be
completely specified in a cartesian or rectangular form of notation, as

shown below.
o ja'
(4)
where a is the z-axis projection and a' is the y-axis projection of the vec
tor.
In any
case the
magnitude of the vector A is :
Voa +
a'2
(5)
The phase position of a first-quadrant vector is conveniently described

in terms of the positive acute angle measured in a ccw direction from
In equation form :
the -f-i-axis to the position of the vector.
The
phase
position of a fourth-quadrant
vector is conveniently
Ch.
IV
THE OPERATOR
(cos 0
j sin
9)
described in terms of the negative acute angle measured in a cw direction

from the +x-axis to the position of the vector.
=
tairl
(7)
A fourth-quadrant vector can, of course, be specified in terms of the

positive angle (360 64th). where 04th is the magnitude of the angle
measured in a negative or clockwise direction from the -fx-axis to the
position of the vector.
Phase positions of second- and third-quadrant vectors are easily lo
cated in terms of the a and a' components by first finding the acute
angle, the tangent of which is a /a, without regard to sign, and then sub
tracting this angle from or adding it to 180, depending upon whether
the a' component is positive or negative.
Figure 3 illustrates how vectors in any quadrant can be specified in
In
components.
magnitude and phase position in terms of real and
determining the phase angle it is necessary to know the individual signs
of the a and a' components in order to locate the angle 0 correctly.

Axis of reals
-a'
a*
3rd. Quad, vector
Flo.
3.
4th. Quad, vector
Vectors in any quadrant can be specified in terma of their real (z-axis)
andj
(y-axis)
components.
The Operator (cos 6

sin 6). Reference to Fig. 3 will show that
the a>axis projection of a vector in any quadrant is A cos 0. The angle
8 may be measured either positively or negatively from the +x-axis in
determining the i-axis projection, since cos 6 = cos (6).
The j/-axis projection of the vector in any quadrant is A sin 8 if 0
is measured in the ccw direction from the +x-axis. The j/-axis pro
jection is A sin 6 if 8 is measured in the cw direction from the +x-axis
to the position of the vector. Therefore,
A (cos
is equivalent to the form shown
j sin 0)
in equation (4).
(8)
The plus sign is
VECTOR ALGEBRA
66
Ch.
IV
if 6 is measured counterclockwise from the reference axis, the minus

sign if 0 is measured clockwise.
used
Equation (8) shows that (cos 6 + sin 0) operating on a real magni

tude A, that is a vector of A units magnitude along the +x-axis, rotates
this vector through a +0-angle from its initial position. Similarly the
operator (cos 0 sin 8) rotates the original vector through a 0-angle.
It may be shown that the operator (cos 0 sin 6) rotates any
vector to which it is attached as a multiplying factor through +6 or
9 degrees, depending whether the plus or minus sign is employed.
Consider a vector in an initial position such that a = A cos a and
a' = A sin a.
A (initially) = a + ja'

Let A' = A [operated on by (cos
A (cos a +
j sin a)
(9)
j sin 0)].
A'
A (cos a +
A'
j sin a) (cos + j sin 0)

(10)
+ j cos a sin + j sin a cos 8 + j2 sin a sin 0)
(cos a cos
sin a sin
0) + j (sin a cos 0 + cos a sin 0)]
[(cos a cos
[cos
(a +
0)
j sin
(a + 0)]
(11)
Equation (11) shows that A' is a vector equal in magnitude to the

vector A but advanced 0 degrees from the A position since it now makes
an angle of (a + 0) with the reference axis.
In similar manner it may be shown that the operator (cos 0 sin 0)
rotates any vector to which it is attached through 0 degrees.
sin 0). An important
Exponential Form of the Operator (cos 0
relationship is contained in the following equation :
(cos
0j
sin
0)
= <&'
(12)
Equation (12), known as Euler's equation, follows directly from an

inspection of the Maclaurin series expansions1 of cos 0, sin 0, and e'9.
Certain functions, among which are cos (9), sin (6), and **, can be expanded
The theorem states that:
into series form by means of Maclaurin's theorem.
1
where /(0) is the particular function of 0 that is to be expanded, /(O) is the value of
this particular function when 6 is set equal to zero, (0) is the value of the first deriva
is the value of the second deriva
tive of the function when 8 is set equal to zero,
tive of the function when 6 is set equal to zero, etc.
/"
Ch.
IV
POLAR FORM OF THE OPERATOR
67
Expanded into series form :
|.l-
e2
-+...
04
06
(13)
All quantities involving even powers of j reduce to real numbers since

j2 = 1, j* = 1, j6 = 1, etc. All quantities involving odd powers
of reduce to first-degree j terms because j3 = j, j5 = j, etc. If the j
terms are properly evaluated, equation (15) may be arranged as follows:
t'e = cos
Therefore
In
a similar manner
it may be shown that

0
r>B = cos
(17)
sin
(18)
0)
j sin
(19)
sin 6). The exponential

Polar Form of the Operator (cos 6
6
sin
is
often
written in a simplified
very
of
operator
the
form
6)
(cos
form.
It
has been shown that:

y* =
(cos
j sin 0)
Therefore:
Ati9 =
(20)
j sin e)
(21)
rU
/g
(22)
Ae**
A /=fc*
(23)
e*
/fl
By definition
A (cos
ri
/-e
and
gin
(cos
(24)
e)
sin
= (cos
(cos
0)
Therefore:
(25)
6)
(26)
sin
0)
(cos
sin
/-g
Ar*
A('a
and

6+j
A (cos
Ae'e =
and
j sin
(16)
(27)
VECTOR ALGEBRA
68
Ck. IV
is
j_9_
Equations (26) and (27) state the equivalence of the three forms of
notation that are commonly employed to define a given vector in mag
nitude and phase position. Graphical representations of equations (26)
and (27) for particular values of A and 6 are shown in Fig. 4. The
exponential and polar forms are identical by definition and find their
greatest use in the processes of multiplication, division, extraction of
Both these forms express
roots, and raising vectors to given powers.
A
a vector in terms of polar coordinates.
simply a shorthand or
form
of
if is
indispensable
the
is
form.
The rectangular or cartesian form,
(cos sin 8),
in the processes of addition or subtraction of vectors
vector algebra
employed.
[ft
symbolic style of writing At'e. Common usage distinguishes between

the polar
the two forms by calling Atie the exponential form and
1.
+j'4 where the

Problem
Write the equivalent polar form of the vector
Illustrate the vector by means of a diagram.
numbers refer to unit lengths.
Ana.: St'63-'0 =
/53.1".
is
Write the symbolic polar

given in the form of 10e~J120.
Problem 2.
vector
and cartesian forms of the vector, and illustrate, by means of a vector diagram, the
magnitude and phase position of the vector.
Ans.:
70
-5
.78.66.
9.397
^71-3.42
10
-j
9.397
Fio.
FIG. 5.
Addition of the vectors
and B.
Vectorial representation of equn4.

tions (26) and (27) for the case of A =
= 70.
10 units and
Axis of reals
6
10
/-120
is
5.
is
B,
is
Addition of Vectors. The vector sum of two vectors

and
defined in magnitude and phase position by the
third vector which
diagonal of the parallelogram which has for two of its sides the vectors
The particular diagonal of the parallelogram thus formed,
and B.
which represents the vector sum,
indicated in Fig.
+

10/70.- 3.42+
10
Ck.
IV
ADDITION OF VECTORS
69
Each vector may be considered as having a tail and a head. If the

arrow heads in Fig. 5 indicate the heads of the vectors, then the vector
sum of two vectors is the line which joins the tail of the first vector and
the head of the second vector after the second vector has been placed so
that its tail coincides with the head of the first vector.
The fact that
A + B = B + A
(28)
is
obvious from the definition that has been given for the vector sum of
two vectors.
The process of adding two vectors may be extended to include any

number of vectors simply by first adding any two of the vectors involved
and then adding to this vector sum, which is in itself a vector, the third
The order in which the addition is carried out is immaterial.
vector, etc.
For example:
A+B + C = B + C + A=C + A + B
(29)
Vectors are written in the rectangular (a + ja') form when addition
performed, since the exponential or polar forms do not lend
is to be
to the
themselves
= c
If A
process.
= a
+ ja', B
= 6
+ jb',
+ jc',
A + B + C=
(a
c)+j(a'
b'
c')
and
addition
(30)
c)2
+ (a' +
bf
V(a +
+ c')2
(31)
B,
c)
(a
The phase position of the resultant vector is:
B
+
(6
- 3)
5+jll.2
6/120
-3
5.2)
vector is:
V52 +
11.22 = 12.27 units
with respect to the +z-axis is:
BC = tan"1
i^
5
The position of the vector
The magnitude of the
and
J6
+
- -
/36.9"
be required to add
-f
= 10
(8
it
Let
Example.
and
= tan-1 2.24 = 65.95
in the above
The process that has been given for the
example may be negative.
addition of three vectors can, of course, be extended.
Any or all of the component parts of the vectors A,

The magnitude of the resultant vector is:
+J52Q
VECTOR ALGEBRA
70
Figure 6 illustrates the vector addition of
A and B
IV
Ck.
for the particular values that
have
been employed in this example.

C= 12.27/65.95=
5+ jl 1.2
B-6/120" c'
=-3+j 5.2
Flo.
Problem
3.
Vector addition in a particular numerical case.
6.
Add the vectors
14
/60 and
tangular and polar forms, and illustrate,

tion that has been performed.
20
/1 5.
State the result in both
by means of a vector diagram, the opera
Ans.: 26.3 + J17.3

Problem 4.
= 31.5 /33.3S".
Given the following three vectors:
= 40>120, B = 20
find A + B + C and illustrate

means of a vector diagram.
/-40,
C = 26.46 + JO
the three vectors, together with their vector sum, by
4ns.:
21.78
+ j'21.78
= 30.8
/45".
vector
and
A' =J2A{8=
-A
A
IB
becomes
J_Q_
Subtraction of Vectors. In ordinary algebra the operation or process

of subtraction is accomplished by changing the sign of the quantity
to be subtracted and proceeding as in addition. In vector algebra the
vector which is to be subtracted is rotated through 180 and then
added.
To rotate a vector through 180 the operator j2 = 1 may be
applied or 180 may be added or subtracted from the original phase
rotated through 180
Thus a vector A = A
angle of the vector.
+ jb' rotated through
B'
f(b+jb')
dh 180
180 becomes
-b -jb'
is
is
C.
Figure la illustrates the subtraction of vector D from vector

D = E.
After
Symbolically, the operation may be indicated as:
the vector which
to be subtracted has been rotated through 180,
the vector thus resulting
added to the vector from which the sub
traction
being made.
is

rec
Ch.
IV
SUBTRACTION
OF VECTORS
71
illustrates the subtraction of vector C from vector D.

It will be observed that (D C) is of equal magnitude and ISO'1
removed from (C D). In general
Figure
76
(C-D)
Flo.
-(D-C)
(33)
Illustrating vector subtraction.
7.
The vector difference of two vectors might have been defined in

terms of one of the diagonals of the parallelogram formed by the two

vectors.
Figure 8 illustrates the

particular diagonal which represents
vector difference.
The diagonal con
cept is useful in certain types of
vector diagrams,
but for general
calculations the method which has
previously been described is to be
preferred.
Examples.
Vector difference
A-B
Given the vectors
= 21 (cos 160
30/60
and
- jein
FIQ. 8. The diagonal which defines the

vector difference between two vectors.
(The senae or direction of the diagonal
is dependent upon the particular vector
difference in question.)
160)
it be required to subtract vector B from

vector A. The first step is to write the
vectors in cartesian form.
let
= 30
/60
= 21 (cos 160
A - B
= (15
= 30 (cos 60
+J26)
= 34.75
For the particular
case
- jsin
+/33.18
considered,
160)
j sin 60)
=
(-19.75
= 15
-19.75
- J7.18)
+ J26
-/7.18
= 48 /43.6
the vector
difference
(A
B)
is somewhat
VECTOR ALGEBRA
72
Ck.
IV
greater in magnitude than either of the original vectors.

This condition is in general
true if the original vectors are separated by more than 90.
Let it be required to subtract vector A from vector B.
(B
- A)
(-19.75
- J7.18) -
(15
+;26)
-34.75
j'33.18
= 48
/223.60
Problem 6. Draw a vector diagram showing the vectors A and B of the above
illustrative example, together with the vectors (A B) and (B A).
Problem
6.
= 42^200
= 20
/-40
C = 24.25 +./1 4
B analytically and draw the vector diagram.
In a-c circuit
Multiplication of Vectors and Complex Quantities.
analysis it is often desirable to operate on a vector current with an
impedance function so that the resulting voltage may be obtained.
Similarly, it is sometimes desirable to operate on a vector voltage with an
admittance function, i.e., the reciprocal of the impedance function, to
The process of operating on a time vector
obtain the resulting current.
current (or voltage) with a complex impedance (or admittance) func
tion is called complex or vector multiplication.
The complex product of two vectors, A and B, in so far as a-c circuit
analysis is concerned, is a third vector which has a magnitude equal to
AB and a phase position with respect to the reference axis which is
equal to the sum of the individual phase angles of A and B, namely,
(a A + as). It will be shown presently why this particular definition
of a complex product is especially
C-AB- 6^140
to the vector manipula
suited
B-3/10(f
tions that are universally em
A
ployed in a-c circuit theory.
graphical interpretation of the
definition is given in Fig. 9 for
the particular case of A = 2/40
and B = 3/100.
/40 + 100 =
6,
AB
9
is
AB
or
i(.
Illustrating vector multiplication.
9.
jg
Analytically,
the complex
or
vectQr product (ag
usually
most
conveniently
when
can
be
formed
the
vectors
of
two
called)
For example, the
vectors are expressed in exponential or polar form.
in
Fig.
simply
and
vectors
shown
product of the
Fio.

find (A + C)
MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES
IV
Ch.
73
From the definition which has been given for the complex product
evident that the order
in which the multiplication
That is:
immaterial.
AB
Furthermore,
sion to
it is
is carried out is
BA
(34)
the definition which has been given is capable of exten
For example,
any number of vectors or complex quantities.
ABC = ABC /a A +aB + ac
(35)
and
ABC
BCA = CAB, etc.
(36)
The vector product of two vectors expressed in rectangular style

formed by taking the cross-products of the component parts as
in ordinary algebra.
The proper interpretation must, of course, be
If the vectors are given as A =
given to the terms which involve j.
o + jo' and B = b + jb', the vector product is formed exactly in accord
ance with the rules of ordinary algebra.
can be
AB = (a + ja')
(6
+ jb')
- a'b') + j
(ab
(a'b
+ ab')
(37)
The magnitude of the resulting vector is
(ab
- a'b')2 +
+
(a'b
2aba'b'
+ ab')2
a'2b'2
a'2b2
a2b'2
AB
(38)
is thus shown to be equal to the product of the mag

It remains to
nitudes of the vectors whose product is being formed.
be shown that the phase angle of F as defined by the real and
compo
The magnitude of
nents
of equation (37) agrees with the definition that has been given
From equation (37) the phase
vector product of two vectors.
of F takes the following form:
for the
angle
+ ab'
a'b
a_
t
= tan
.tl (a'b + ab')
= fan
AB
^^^^^
a,
a',
=
cos
as
It is evident from the definitions that have been given to
A a'
a
= sin UA, = cos UA, = sin ag,
b'
that
and
b,
AB
6'

= <?A2B2
+ 2a'bab' +
and
---- VECTOR
ar = tan
ap =
_,1
sin
<XA
cos ag
+ cos ax sin
cos
a\
cos
sin
cos ^
Ch.IV
<XB
a A sin as
tan-
+ as)
(OCA
ar
OLB
Sin
tan"'
a*l
Therefore:
ALGEBRA
tan (aA
74
a,)
+ OB
aA
(39)
Equations (38) and (39) show that the vector product of two
may be formed by ordinary algebraic multiplication when the
are expressed in cartesian form.
Example.
= 1.532
- 3.798)
-0.670
4.525)
j'3.855
40 =
6/140
The graphical representations of the vectors
and
are given in Fig.
and
-J4
Find the complex product of

A
7.
j2.954)
- jO.670 + J23.798
9.
-4.597
jl.286) (-0.521
j'4.525
by the algebraic multiplication
(-0.799
and
B,
(1.532
-0.521 + ;2.954
j(
-0.799 +
AB
it
100)
+ J1.286
+.; sin
(cos 100
+ Jain 40)
(cos 40
A,
= 6.0
/180
+J3
by algebraic multiplication of the cartesian forms and draw the vector diagram.
and
to polar form and perform the multiplication process, BA.
Change
Arts.: 22
37 = 23.09 /17.650.
= 30
/-120,
jD
+ j20,
= 20

B
8.
Problem
(6)
(A
(o)
C,
perform the following indicated operations:
A
+
B
+
B)C,
(c)
ABC.
together with the vectors which represent

the results of the above indicated operations.
Ana.: (a) 11.67 /-31", (6) 39.05
50.2, (c) 4242 -75.
/-
Draw a vector diagram of A, B, and
C,
of
a-c
Division of Complex Quantities (or Vectors). For the purposes
carried
circuit theory the division of one complex quantity by another
is

factors
Given the vectors:
let
be required to find the vector product of
of the cartesian forms.
Problem
vectors
DIVISION OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES
Ch.1V
75
algebraically, as shown below, when the quantities are expressed in

exponential form.
out
A*"
A,,__j
A..
B
(4Q)
B,
is
is
is
is
B,
is
A,
is,
the process of dividing one vector,

by second vector,
results in a third vector, the magnitude of which
the quotient of
the magnitudes of the vectors
and
namely A/B. The phase
position of the resulting vector with respect to the reference axis
the
algebraic difference between the individual phase angles of the vectors
with respect to the reference axis, namely, a^ B. It should
and
be noted that the angle of the vector in the denominator
always sub
the
of
the
vector
in
tracted from
the numerator.
angle
Due regard
taken for the inherent signs of the individual phase angles, UA and
OB, during the process of forming the algebraic difference.
In symbolic
carried out as shown below:
polar form division
That
B A
aA
(40a)
20/60.
5(30."
"F-A/B-4/300
GO
Examples.
10.
The
Vector division in two particular numerical cases.

of division in two particular
processes
The graphical
and Fig. 106.
interpretations
B A
FID.

C-iae"
20/60
5/30"
cases are shown below.
4/30
of the above operations are contained in Fig. 10a
VECTOR ALGEBRA
76
Ch.
IV
The process of division can
be carried out very conveniently when the vectors

in
or
exponential
polar form.
However, it is entirely possible and in
are expressed
to
cases
desirable
the
perform
operation with the vectors expressed in rectangu
some
lar form. If A = o + ja' and B = 6 + jb', then
(fc-jV)
(b+jb')(b-jb')
A_o+ja/_ (a+X)
b+jb'
Both numerator and denominator of the above expression are multiplied by (6 jb'),
the conjugate of (6 + jb'). The conjugate of a given vector is a second vector, the
real component of which is identical with the real component of the given vector and
the part of which is equal in magnitude but reversed in sign from the component
of the given vector.

The purpose of multiplying both numerator and denominator of equation (41)
by the conjugate of the denominator is to clear the denominator of its component.
This rationalization process reduces the quotient A/B to a more intelligible form.
If the operations indicated in equation (41) are performed, the equation reduces to:
_A
a'b')+j(a'b-ab')
(ab
B~
By
a process which
(62
6'2)
is somewhat similar to that employed on page 73
shown that:
A
5
B
I tan
B
[_
~ gs)"l
f8in (g*
1
Lcos (ax
<*B)J
A
R
B
it
may be
~ aB
----
(43)
If A = 10 + j'17.3 and B = 4.33 + J2.5, let it be required to find

Example.
by the method given in equations (41) and (42).
A
B
A
B
_"
~
10+J17.3
4.33
(43.3
(10+./17.3)
(4.33
+ J2.5)
j(75
+ 43.3) +
-25)
(4.33
"
+ j'2.5
(4.33
4.332
A/B
- J2.5)
- J2.5)
2.52
Reduced to polar form:
Problem
9.
V3.4652 +
2.02
/tan"1
-JL
= 4.0
/30
Given A = 40 /105 and B = 5 + .78.66, find
A/B,
and draw a vector
diagram illustrating A, B, and A/B.

Ana.:
Problem
10.
4/45.
20+j20,
= 30
/-1200,
C = 5 +>0
perform the following indicated operations:
c,
Draw
a vector diagram of A, B, and C, together
with the vectors which represent the
results of the above indicated operations.
Ans.:
(a) 1.56
/ -50.2.
(6)
5.3/195.
EXTRACTING THE ROOTS OF A VECTOR
Ch.IV
77
Raising a Vector to a Given Power. A vector or preferably a com

plex quantity may be raised to a given power n, where n is an integer,
by multiplying the vector by itself n times. For example, if A = A /a A,
An =
AnlnaA
(44)
The nth power of A is a vector whose magnitude is An and whose phase

position with respect to the reference is not A. The concept of successive
applications of a given operator follows directly from the successive
Obviously the process involved
multiplication of the operator by itself.
with
or operator in exponential
most
the
vector
easily
accomplished
is
or polar form.
From the rules which have been given for multiplication it is evident
that:
A"Bn = AnBn/naA + naB
(45)
An operator which is commonly used successively is the one which

Example.
This operator is:
rotates a given vector through +120.
a =
1 (cos 120
j sin 120)
In polar form:
-0.50
+>0.866
a -1/120
a = 1/120

a2
1/240
as = 1 /360
= 1
a4 = 1 /480
= 1
/120
/0
a3-i/360
The above operators are widely used

in three-phase circuit problems be
cause, under balanced conditions,
individual phase voltages
the
cur
(and
rents) are displaced from one another
by 120. Figure 11 illustrates a, a2,
Incidentally,
and a3 diagrammatically.
the three values indicated in Fig. 11,
- - + j - J f - - - j - J
>
, and
aU/2401
FIG. 11.
(-0.50 +
(1
operator =
the
yo.866), together with a8 and *.
Illustrating
+ JO), are the three roots of
be
cause each of these roots cubed equals unity.
Problem
11.
Raise the vector (8.66 +j'5.0) to the second power;
Ans.:
power.
100/60;
to the fifth
100,000
/ISO".
Extracting the Roots of a Vector. The inverse of the process of

raising a vector to a given power is employed hi the extraction of the
If A = A UA it follows that one of the
roots of a particular vector.
n roots of "N/A is
VA
//n
because the latter value multiplied by itself
VECTOR
78
ALGEBRA
The remaining (n
n times will equal A.
Ch.
IV
1) roots are found by adding

radians or 360? degrees to UA before the division by n is performed.
q is any integer and is used as 1, 2, 3, , and (n 1) to obtain the
It should be noted that the addition of any multiple
remaining roots.
of 360 to the angle of the vector does not change the vector although it
does provide a systematic method of evaluating the (n I) remaining
In this method only positive magnitudes are employed, as:
roots.
2irq
b0,l,V..(n-l)]
(46)
The cartesian form of the above equation is:
A/A
Vyi
L
cos (
j sin I
"'"*
Let it be required to find the square roots of A where

Example.
For convenience the vector is first transformed into polar form.
A
The first root is:
Vs.082 +
V/ 9.0
/770
The second root is: V9X)
8.45S2
3.08
//tan"1 ^^
= 3.08
(47)
+ J8.455.
/70
= 3
/35.
//70
-t- 360
= 3 /215".
the vector A together

be noted that either
by itself yields the vector A.
12 illustrates
Figure
with its two roots.

root multiplied
= 9.0
/J
)
Problem
12.
It will
Find the cube roota of the
+JO),
and draw a complete vector

diagram of the vector and its three roots.
Aug.:
2/0, 2/120, 2/240.
vector
(8
The Logarithm of a Vector. Certain

definitions in long-line and recurrent net
work theory utilize logarithms of vector
quantities. The general concept of the
logarithm of a vector is similar to that
The logarithm of a vector A
of the logarithm of an ordinary number.
In other words, the logarithm
is the inverse of the exponential of A.
=
At'9 to the base is defined as the power to which <
of the vector A
must be raised to equal At'9. By definition:
log, Ati6 = log,
It
A + log,
tje = log,
A + J6 log,
t = log.
will be noted that the logarithm of the vector A
A + JO
(48)
A /B is itself
Ch.
IV
IN POLAR FORM
IMPEDANCE EXPRESSED
79
/70", let
be required to find log, A.
log, 52 lT<F = log. 52 +

13.
70
= 3.95
jl.22
Perform the following indicated operations:
(3
15
/70
- j4) +
g<
'
Problem
= 52
it
Example.
If
0,
A,
is
is,
vector. In rectangular form, when the logarithm is taken to the base ,

the logarithm to the base of the
the real component is log, A ; that
and the
component
magnitude of the vector
(radians) in mag
the phase angle of the vector
must be
nitude. In this connection,
considered in radians.
(8
Draw a vector diagram including each of the three original vectors together with the
log,
+ jo) and the vector which represents the result of the indicated operations.
Ans.: 0.60+J3.07.
III
it
is
If
is
a
it
II
is
it
is
II
>
/e
The abbreviated form is:

it
is
is
Impedance Expressed in Polar Form. It was shown in Chapter

that the currents and voltages in an a-c circuit can be conveniently
With the aid of vector algebra
represented as coplanar vectors.
a simple matter to represent these currents and voltages analytically.
However, the great benefit to be derived from the use of vector or com
the simple algebraic relations that can be established
plex algebra
between the voltages and currents by using the impedance function
Although the impedance function may take
as a complex quantity.
not a vector in the same sense that alternating
the form of a vector,
From an algebraic point of view the
voltages or currents are vectors.
merely
complex quantity which properly relates
impedance function
one to the other.
As such
and
vector
currents
vector voltages
most important operator in circuit analysis.
The physical considerations concerning the impedance function have
the polar form of the im
and III.
been explained in Chapters
manipulated
pedance function which was used throughout Chapter
of
the
results
with
the
rules
vector
algebra,
in accordance
obtained will
has been shown that the
For example,
agree with physical facts.
series RLC branch is:
impedance function of
(50)
VECTOR
80
ALGEBRA
Ck.
IV
where +8 represents a lead of the voltage with respect to the current

If a vector voltage
or a lag of the current with respect to the voltage.
=
V
V /a is applied to the above branch the resulting current is:
V/a
V/Z
The vector quotient

magnitude
and
results in a vector current which is
degrees behind
V/Z
V regardless of the position that V

Thus
with respect to the reference axis.
in
has
is correctly defined in mag
nitude and phase position.

In a similar manner it may be shown that IZ = V. If it be assumed
=
that a current
Inflows through an RLC branch, the impedance
of which
isZ
Z/fl,
IZ
(I Iff) (Z/0)
(IZ]/(B +
e)
(52)
The vector product IZ yields a vector voltage V, which is (IZ) in mag

nitude and 8 degrees in advance of the current I. It will be remembered
that 6 has been defined as

If
uiL < 1/coC,
is a negative
angle, in which case
V actually
lags I.
A given RL branch has R = 3.5 ohms and L = 0.092 henry. Find

Example.
the vector current which flows through the branch if a 60-cycle voltage, V = 110 /30
volts, is applied to the RL branch.
(The phase angle which is associated with V
For simplicity it might have been taken
is wholly arbitrary in a simple series circuit.
as zero degrees. )
Z =
3.5*
= 34.8
Figure
+ 077 X 0.092)
'
j/tan--
o.O
110/30
13 is a vector diagram of
at 60 cycles?
o
/84.250 ohms
V and
I for
the particular
considered.
Problem 14.
and C = 78 M/-
(377
RL branch that has
been
An RLC series branch consists of R

12.9 ohms, L = 0.056 henry,
() What is the vector or complex impedance of the RLC branch
(6)
If
a 60-cycle vector current,
= 10
/30 amperes, flows through
the branch, find the vector voltage V across the terminals of the series branch.
Draw
Ch.
IV
IMPEDANCE EXPRESSED
vector diagram illustrating
the vector positions of
V with respect to I.
(a) 12.9 + .7 (21.1
34)
the phase angle of
Ana.:
(6)
182.4
IN CARTESIAN
/-15
= 12.9
and
- j!2.9
FORM
81
and the magnitude of
= 18.24
volts.
/-
45 ohms.
is,
Impedance Expressed in Cartesian Form. The cartesian form of the

impedance function of a given branch or circuit
in general,
R+j(XL-Xc)
(53)
is
of the branch or circuit with re

to the terminals considered and (XL Xc)
the equivalent
reactance of the branch or circuit with respect to the terminals con
where
the equivalent resistance
is
spect
sidered.
y-Ri-H(XL-xc)I
- 110/30
Volt*
0-Tan1 &=*
in
Vector diagram of
and
particular RL series circuit.
Pio.
14.
Vectorial addition of drops equals

applied voltage.
In accordance with previous definitions, XL = 2irfL and Xc =
simple method of showing the validity of equation (53)

vector diagram in which are represented the RI, XLI, and
I.
I;
I;
is
2irfC
to employ
Xcl voltage
drops which combine vectorially to equal the applied voltage V.
In order to agree with physical facts: (1) the RI drop must be in
phase with
(2) the XLI drop must be 90 hi advance of
(3) the
Xcl drop must be 90 behind
Reference to Fig. 14 will show that the voltage
RI
RI
or
(XL
(54)
(55)
which the complex impedance function is:
Iy
from
- Xc)/ vectorially
j(XL - XC)I

Flo. 13.
3.16 /-54.250 Ampere.
I,
I- V/Z
(56)
VECTOR ALGEBRA
82
Ch.IV
- Xc)
- Xc)2
V#2 + (XL
/tan-1
(57)
+ j(XL
is,
is,
Obviously the relations stated in equations (54), (55), and (56) are
independent of the vector diagram position of I.
The cartesian or rectangular form of the complex expression for Z
can be transformed to the polar form of Z by the method of complex
algebra, and the transformation
of course, reversible.
The rectangular form of the impedance function

in general, essential
in combining impedances because impedances cannot be added or sub
tracted in polar form.
is
is
of
The terminals of an a-c generator which has an internal resistance

Example.
ohms are connected to
ohms and an equivalent internal inductive reactance of
of which
10 ohms, the uL of which
20 ohms,
particular RLC series branch, the
is
EB
The current that flows in the
[10+j(20-40)]
= 18.44
/-49.40
arbitrarily chosen to coincide with the

= 500
JO
= 500
/(T
- U,
V,
V,
= (500
EB
= 500
Vt
(500
axis.
volte
500/0"
18.44
/0)
or
(2)
JO)
(27.1 /49.4)
588.3 - yi47
= (27.1
/49.4)
as a voltage drop across the exter
V,
- 171.3/121
/OJ
+
(1)
reference
series circuit is:
The terminal voltage of the generator considered

nal circuit is:
ohms
- j!4
Z]

= 12
B,,
/71.6" ohms
+ ZRLC
(2+j6)
= 6.32
series circuit is:
Z< =
The generated emf, ,

Therefore,
j6
The total impedance of the
Z,
Z,
is
is
40 ohms.
If the magnitude of the internally generated
and the 1/uC of which
emf
500 volts, find the current that flows in the series circuit and the terminal
voltage of the generator.
The internal impedance of the generator is:
(6.32 /71.6")
(-88.3 +J147)
= 606
/-14"
(22.36
/-63.40)
volte
Ch.
IV
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
83
OF VOLTAGES
A vector diagram illustrating E0, I, \lig, IXg, and V,, is given in Fig. 15. It will
be observed that the terminal voltage of the generator (V0) is greater in magnitude
than the internally generated emf (Ea) owing to the manner in which the vector
voltage
lXa
subtracts from (E, IRg) to form vector V,.
, J=;27.1/49.4amperes
DC
V0=606 volts
Flo.
Voltage relations for a generator supplying a leading power-factor load.
15.
(a) Draw a vector diagram illustrating Ee, I, IR, Kt, KC, and V,
of the above numerical example and show how IR, IX/,, and DCc combine vectorially
to form VB.
(6) Calculate the total power generated and the total power absorbed by the
Problem
external
16.
RLC
branch.
Ans.:
Compare Val cos
Total
plus
power = 8810 watts;
PRa with Eal
cos 6 I
branch power = 7345 watts.
Addition and Subtraction of Voltages and Currents. Correctly

written, the complex expressions for voltages and currents specify both
the magnitudes and relative phase positions of these quantities. There
fore, in complex form:
1. Voltage drops in series may be added to obtain the combined
If the combined voltage
voltage drop of the series elements considered.
drop and one component are known, the remaining voltage drop may
be determined by subtracting the component in question from the
combined voltage drop.
2. Generated emf's connected in additive or subtractive series may
be added or subtracted, depending upon the relative polarities of the
terminals which are joined together to form the series connection.
Series connections of generated emf's will be considered in more detail
when polyphase systems are studied.
84
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Ch.
IV
3. Two or more currents flowing away from a junction may be added

to find the current flowing toward the junction, or vice versa.
Circuit Directions of Voltages and Currents. It has been shown that
the average power absorbed by a branch or circuit is:
VI cos 01
(58)
V is the magnitude of the voltage drop across the branch or circuit,
where
is the magnitude of the current flowing through the branch or

circuit in the same circuit direction as that which has been
taken for the + V direction.

is the angle of lag (or lead) of
I with
In a normal
respect to V.
dissipative type of branch or circuit,
will not be as great
as 90.
Similarly, the average power generated by a generating device is:
is the magnitude of the generated voltage,

is the magnitude of the current flowing in the same circuit
as
that which has been taken for the -\-E direction.
the angle of lag (or lead) of
I'
is
direction
the generating device
actually delivering power.
1E
case
will
be
is
90
is
is
than
In
with respect to E.
in magnitude.
This, in general,
the condition
that exists when only one generator
present.
Average neg
ative generated power indicates that the generating device in
question
actually absorbing power from some other
less
generator.
is
is
is
is
the
single generator connected to a dissipative branch
If
shown in Fig.
circuit
direction
assumed
be
to
from
to
through
+E
the generator, the positive circuit direction of the current
from too
to
through the generator, and from
through the dissipative branch.
voltage drop through
The positive circuit direction of
dissipative
branch demies the positive circuit direction of the current through
In Fig. 16, therefore, the +V direction
the branch, or vice versa.
to
With the aid of these ele
from
through the external branch.
mentary concepts, the correct phase relations of all quantities involved
16.

(59)
,
0
El cos 01
is
where
CH.
IV
CIRCUIT DIRECTIONS OF VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
may be
If Eg
conveniently determined.
85
is taken as reference,
E
'-gen
V =
Average generated power =
EJ[
(60)
IZgen =
(61)
cos a
(62)
Average power absorbed by the external branch =

Thus
VI cos
(0
a)
(63)
it will be seen that the current hi a series loop may be associated
with the generated
voltage to obtain the generated power and with a
particular voltage drop across a given part of the circuit to obtain the
by this particular part of the circuit.

the current hi a series loop having only
specified,
to
flow in the positive direction of voltage
assumed
generator and in the positive direction of voltage drop
portion of the circuit.
power absorbed
one generator
is
rise through the
through the load
U+v
+ E Generator
Illustrating an arbitrarily
16.
assigned positive circuit direction
of the generated voltage, E, together
with the resulting positive circuit
directions of 7 and V.
Flo.
Flo.

Unless otherwise
17.
Two
generated
emf's
connected
in parallel with respect to the load ter

minals. Ei and Ej are in subtractive series
with respect to the series loop which joins
the two generators.
Figure 17 illustrates two a-c generators which

Example of Two Generators.
in parallel with respect to the load terminals but are connected in subtractive series with respect to the series loop joining the two generators.
If no load
is placed across the load terminals, the series loop is the only path in which current
are connected
If it
is assumed that the generators are driven
by separate prime movers

by separate voltage regulators, it is entirely possible for the voltages
to differ in magnitude and phase position.
-10 with respect to the load terminals.
Let EI = 1350 /IT volte and 2 = 1300
flows.
and controlled
The impedance of each generator is (1 + j3) ohms and each of the series loop con
Find the magnitude and phase position
necting lines has (2 +
) ohms impedance.
of the current which circulates in the series loop under the above conditions.
The resultant generated emf which acts to send current through the series loop in
jl
the
+E\ direction
E, = E1
is:
(1350
+jO)
(1280
>226)
= 70
j'226 volte
The positive circuit direction of E, is the same as that which has been arbitrarily
E* has been employed in
denning E,.
assigned to EI, since the vector difference EI
86
Ck.IV
VECTOR ALGEBRA
The current that flows in the direction of Er is:

Er
6+jS
(70+./226) (6-jB)
Zioop
= (22.28
The power generated by the

Pai
+ J7.96)
EI
= 1350
= 23.65 /19.65" amperes
generator is:
23.65 cos 19.65
The power generated by the E2 is:

Pet
= 1300
=
23.65 cos [180
= 30,110 watts
(10
+ 19.65)]
-26,750 watts
calculating the power generated by the Ej machine, either the voltage or the cur
The
rent is reversed in phase position so that the Ej and I circuit directions coincide.
physical interpretation of the negative generated power found for machine 2 is that
machine 2 is actually receiving power from machine 1. A vector diagram of EI, E:.
Er, and I is shown in Fig. 18.
In

-E,
Fio.
18.
Vector diagram of two-generator problem.
Fro.
19.
In general, a circulating current between the two generators may exist as a result
of difference in the magnitude of the two generated voltages, or a difference in phase,
or both.
A further insight into the power relations of the circuit arrangement shown in
Fig. 17 may be obtained by adding to the power absorbed by machine 2 the total
PR loss of the series loop and comparing the result with the total power generated
by machine
1.
(23.652
6) + 26,750
= 30,110 watte
The physical
interpretation of the above equation is that machine 1 generates

watts, of which 3360 are dissipated in the form of heat in the resistance of
the series loop and 26,750 watts are absorbed by machine 2 in the form of electro
magnetic motor power.
30,110
Power Calculations Employing Complex Forms. If voltage and

current are expressed in rectangular complex form, the average absorbed
or generated power may be calculated in terms of the components of the
REACTIVE VOLT-AMPERE CALCULATIONS
Ch.IV
voltage
and current which are involved.
87
Reference to Fig. 19 will show
that:
VI
(V cos .)
- 8i)
(0B
[cos 8, cos
(64)
VI cos
+ sin
(6i
sin
+ (F sin 0.)
cos 0f)
0,)
(/
VI cos
cos 01
0,-]
0,-
(7
or
VI
6,
sin
(65)
0,-)
In rectangular form
0,-
j'7
and
sin
+y
(66)
ji'
(67)
in equation (65) are employed,
it
of
JV one,
the above components
cos
0,
V
7
coa6. +
If
V=
= vi
voltage in question
+ v'i' (absorbed power)
is
a
the
If
follows that:
= ei
(68)
generated voltage:
+ e'i' (generated power)
(69)
Due regard must be taken for the sign of each component in equations
(68) and (69) when these power equations
jio
= ei
amperes, the power generated is:
(30
e'i'
= (200) (30)
= 6000
+ (40)
(-10)
400 = 5600 watts
the magnitudes of
and then making use of the more amiliar relation
I,
6
I
The same result could, of course, be obtained by first evaluating
and
is
is
tion of
E,
-IE
EI cos
01
Reactive Volt-Ampere Calculations Employing Complex Forms. Re

active volt-amperes or reactive power, PX, may also be calculated in
terms of the rectangular components of the voltage and current in
If the vector voltage and the vector current shown in Fig. 19
volved.
jv'
ji'
considered
are

(200
it
If, at
certain stage in the solution of a problem,
found that
+j'40) volts and that the current flowing in the positive circuit direc
Example.
=
are employed.
VECTOR ALGEBRA
88
As defined in Chapters
Ch.
IV
II and III:
Px
VI sin
(70)
In accordance with a convention which is in common use, 0 is the

angle of lead of the voltage with respect to the current. If this conven
tion of signs is employed, reactive power is a positive quantity for
quantity for leading currents.
(See
Chapter III, page 54.) If the angle 6 in equation (70) is considered as
the angle of lead of the voltage with respect to the current, then:
currents and a negative
=
=
- 0i)
cos 0, cos
(V sin 00) (/
0V
sin 0i)
sin
(7
From the definitions which have been attached to v,
cos 00
(71) reduces directly to:
/30
= (173.2
(71)
0<)
and
equation
- vi'
(72)
jlOO) volte and
= 200
v'i
Example.
If
Px
i,
(V cos 00)
vf,
VI sin (6,
VI (sin 0V
t',
Px
= 10
/60
(5
lagging
>8.66)
Px
- v'i - vi' +
amperes, find the real power, the reactive volt-amperes, and the total volt-amperes
involved.
vi
v'i' = 866 + 866 = 1732 watts
500
1500 =
-1000 vare
l'\
Vp*
+ Px*
Vl7322
7,
Va
(-1000)*
= 2000 volt-amperes
is
I.
is
The Conjugate Method of Calculating Real and Reactive Power.

The question naturally arises as to the significance of the product of
The answer
to be found in the
vector voltage and vector current.
to
the
product of two complex numbers.
definition that has been given
The magnitude of the product of voltage and current, even in complex
and
form, represents the volt-amperes which are associated with
The component parts of the cartesian expression for VI are, however,
For this reason, vector voltage times vector current
meaningless.
cannot be used directly to calculate real power or reactive volt-amperes.
sometimes employed in the determination
method of conjugates
It affords
of real power and reactive volt-amperes.
convenient
means of calculating these quantities when both the voltage and current
are expressed in cartesian form.

is
merely indicates that the reactive power in

The minus sign in connection with
leading current.
the result of
question
The volt-amperes associated with and can be obtained directly from the product
or as follows:
of
and
IV
If
TRANSMISSION
EXPRESSED
that
the conjugate of the current,
NUMBER
AS A COMPLEX
is,
Ch.
the cartesian
89
expression
of
+ jv')(i
is
ji'
(vi
ji')
ji')
and
and:
=
v'i')
(v
is
The conjugate of
+ jv'
Let
(i
is
is
is
the current with the sign of the component reversed,

multiplied by
form,
in
the
result
the voltage
cartesian
complex quantity the real
the real power and the
part of which
part of which
the reactive
volt-amperes.
j(v'i
- vi')
(73)
is
- jv')
multiplied by
ji')
(v
the conjugate of
(i
+
If
or
(vi
in complex form, the result is:
v'i')
- j(v'i - vi')
(75)
or
or
the same
The sign of the reactive
conjugated.
is
regardless
of whether
The real power, as obtained by the method of conjugates,
is
(76)
= 173.2 + j'100 volts and

= 5.0
Given
Example.
;8.66 amperes, find the
real power and the reactive volt-amperes by the method of conjugates.
Employing
the conjugate of the voltage:
- jlOO)
= (173.2
= 1732
J1500
= 866
PT.
(5.0
j'500
+ j'8.66)
+
866
jlOOO
capacitive vars when the conjugate of the voltage
is
This above result may lie interpreted, in light of equations (75) and (76), to mean
= 1732 watts and that Px = +1000 vars.
The positive sign indicates
that
used.
)2
Transmission Expressed as
The term " trans
Complex Number.
"
will be used here as
general designation of the effect (say
mission
receiver station produced by
generator at
the current or power) in
In
low-power communication
the sending station.
(See Fig. 20.
is
If
associated with either the generator or load,

any scries or shunt reactance
within
the
four-terminal
network for the purposes of analysis, thus
be
placed
may
more
case
than
general
apparent from the diagram.
20
making Fig.
is
it

is
is
volt-amperes, however,
or
dependent upon the choice of the
To be consistent
conjugate as shown by equations (74) and (76).
with convention of signs employed in equation (70), the conjugate of
To be in accordance with the conven
the current must be employed.
tion adopted by the Committee on Electrical and Magnetic Units, the
In either case
conjugate of voltage must be employed.
(See page 54.
vi', the sign of which
=
a
v'i
matter
of
definition.
Px
VECTOR ALGEBRA
90
Ch.
IV
networks, particular attention centers on the change in magnitude (and

the phase shift) of the receiver current relative to the receiver current
which could be obtained under optimum conditions of operation.
These relative changes are due to two causes, namely:
(1) R2 in Fig. 20 not being equal to the generator resistance RI, the
latter being fixed by the generator characteristics.
(2) The network intervening between the sending-station generator
E\ and the receiver-station resistance R%.
I,
(Generator'
> impedance)
2
Network
Intervening between
generator
and load
Four-terminal
Vi
5 R2 (load)
*
Sending
station
20.
fi
Vi
i
r\i)
Fio.
F"
1'
]
Receiving
station
network intervening between a generator
and a resistive load.
The intervening network will usually take the form of a transmission

transformer, selective filter, attenuator, or amplifier. Various
combinations of these basic four-terminal networks may be employed
between the generator terminals (11' in Fig. 20) and the receiver
terminals 22', but until the detailed operation of these devices has
been studied we shall represent them simply as a box having four
terminals as shown in the figure.
It will be accepted here, subject to later proof, that the most efficient
possible transmission between E\ and R% will occur when the impedance
'
looking to right of terminals 1 1 is equal to R\, that is, when V\ /I\ = R\.
(Amplifiers are excluded from the foregoing statement because these
Under
devices draw power from sources other than the E\ generator.)
this condition of operation the generator resistance is said to match
and
the impedance looking to the right of terminals

line,
ll'
'Kmatched)
The ratio of the powers entering and leaving the network under the
condition that Vi /I] = R\ is
Power entering terminals
11
Power leaving terminals 22'
If
'
(#1 /2) (#1

VÎ-2
now we define the transfer impedance from
(R-z
E\ to
R->
/2ft i )
(77)
under any condi
Ch.
IV
TRANSMISSION
tion of operation
EXPRESSED
AS A
COMPLEX NUMBER
91
as
ZT
Ei
~
(78)
*2
we note that the value of ZT which will make the power ratio of equation
(77) unity is
2Vfl^
Zrcopt, =
In other
terminals
words, for fixed values of
(79)
R\ and R2, all the power entering
in Fig. 20 will leave terminals 22' if the intervening
11
nefr-
work is such that EI /I2 = 2 VR^.

In describing the transmission characteristics of an arbitrary fourterminal network of the kind shown in Fig. 20, it is desirable that
the receiver current, I2, be measured relative to its optimum value,
EI /'2VRiR2.
Both the magnitude and phase of I2 relative to this

base can be measured in terms of the real and
components of the
transmission constant, y, if the latter is defined as
,-_
^(general)
A2 (general)
(80)
where ZT = Et /I2 for any arbitrary intervening network.

a is the attenuation (to be described in more detail later).
/3 is the phase shift (also to be described in detail later).
The transmission constant
thus defined
as a
logarithmic measure of
Ei/2VRiR2 in Fig. 20 is considered to be a

a
constant, it is plain that is a logarithmic measure of /2(0pt)/^2(gencrai) and
that ft is the phase angle difference between I2(generai) and I2(opt)- The
phase angle of Iztopt) would normally be zero, since the reference would
normally be EI = Ei/0 and I2(opt) is in phase with EI, being equal to
1T relative to

is
ation can
be
It will
a.
Attenuation,
written
a
Since
ZT(opt).
from equation (80) that the attenu
as
log,
Attenuation in this
be noted
\olilr
"(general)
- log, -3**(Opl)*"6
*
(general)2
case is an inverse
^2
nepers
fnt -\
(81)
logarithmic measure of the power
received bykfl2 under general conditions of operation to that which is

The fact that
received by K2 under optimum conditions of operation.
in the definition of Y makes a = 0 if
^22(generai)^2 is equal to /22(0pt)#2, and as the former decreases in value
owing to losses in the intervening network a grows larger logarithmically.
logarithmic measure is employed
If log,
is employed
as in equation (81), the units of a are called nepers.
ALGEBRA
VECTOR
92
Ch.
Another common definition of attenuation as it applies

transmission characteristics is
db
= 10 log,0
{f2^'
IV
to general
decibels
(82)
*2 (general)*^
Plainly
lOlogioA:
(No. of)adb
201og,0/f
= 8.686
2.303
The above relationship indicates that

It is a matter of indifference
the number of decibels per neper is 8.686.
which unit of attenuation is used, since engineers generally understand
that the decibel is by definition a unit of attenuation which is 8.686
times smaller in magnitude than the neper, there being 8.686 decibels
of attenuation for each neper of attenuation in any particular specifica
tion of attenuation.
Phase Shift,
In taking the logarithm indicated in equation (80)
will be noted that
is any power
ratio.
-^!1_
selected
= logt
as
of the reference
Regardless
(general
reference,
E!
if
Thus,
is
A2 (general
selected,
0(opt)
specifies
and
the phase difference
In Fig.
/3
/3
is
is
is it
is
If
If
I2
I2
between
under optimum conditions and
under general operating
conditions.
the evaluation of a
to be carried no further than that shown
j/3
in equation (83),
matter of choice whether
stated in radians
or degrees.
must be
to be expressed in polar form, however,
expressed in radians.
fti
= 100
is
it
let
is
20,
l'
ohms, #2 = 25 ohms, and assume thai

connected directly to terminal
directly to 2'. Let
and terminal
be required to find the attenuation and phase shift relative to the optimum oper
ating conditions.
to be employed, we note that
equation (80)
Examples.
terminal
V 100
factual,
If

ft
log,
jfi
a +
/3
it
/3.
where
25
10
IV
Ch.
TRANSMISSION
EXPRESSED
COMPLEX NUMBER
AS A
93
Thus a = 0.223 neper or 1.938 decibels. This attenuation results from flj not being
equal to R\.
/3 = 0 since no phase difference exists between the two conditions of operation.
As a check on the arithmetic we might employ equation (82) as
-,,i
db = 20 logio
adb = 201ogio
As a second example of the

ohms,
It
- ^(opt)
125
MI
= 20 log
= 20
100
use of equation
EI
#> = 100 ohms, and that, for
= 1.938 decibels
0.0969
volts, V2 =
10/0
is required that the transmission constant,
Y>
V2
=
-5-
-3.53
/-45
0-
ampere
283/45 ohms
1.04
volts.
3.53/-450
1/?_0
0.0353/-45"
"
10/0
= 25
be found from the above data.
10/0
factual)
R\
(80) let it be assumed that
+ J45

or
y
= a + jft =
log, =^<S-
log,
I2(rtuai)
,7/-
0.0353
45
= 1.04
+ J0.785 radians
Thus
y
If Y
= 1.304/0.647
(radians)
1.304/37.05
is specified in polar form as above, we obtain a and /3 as the real and
j terms
directly by changing the polar form of ^ to rectangular form.
A significant point which should not
be overlooked
in the foregoing
of attenuation and phase shift is that, as applied to the fourterminal network shown in Fig. 20, these quantities were obtained from
discussion
r (general)
12
(opt 1^2
.,
2
where Z^^pt) was an arbitrarily selected base which yielded maximum
power delivered to the load resistance, R^.
(It was assumed that R\
was fixed by the characteristics of the
fixed by the characteristics
E\ generator and that
R%
was
of the receiving device.)

The base selected
when we wish to take account
here is that which is normally employed
VECTOR
94
ALGEBKA
Ch.
IV
of the possible mismatch between RI and R2 as well as the loss and

It
phase shift introduced by the intervening four-terminal network.
also permits the possible mismatch between RI and R2 to be rectified
by the intervening network if the latter is designed for this purpose.
In general circuit analysis, attenuation and phase shift are used in
a wide variety of different ways to describe loss (or gain) and phase
Attenuation and
difference relative to other arbitrarily selected bases.
phase shift are meaningful quantities only when the base is clearly
understood, since attenuation and phase shift are measures of power
loss (or gain) and phase relative to the base which is selected as being
most appropriate for the problem at hand.
PROBLEMS
16. Perform
(6)
the
- (-12+J6)
J8.66);
following
- J3)
(a)
-operations:
j!2)(-5 + J8);
indicated
(30-./20);
(5
(16
(c)
(-1
+ jS) + (2 j"4);
(d) (-5 +J8.66) -5-
+ J2).
17. Two impedances, Zj = 2 + j3 ohms and T.I = 3 f7 ohms, are connected
Find the equivalent impedance of the two
in a circuit so that they are additive.
in polar form.
18. Write the cartesian and polar expressions for a vector, the magnitude of which
(5
(e)
(2
is 100 units and the phase
H-
position of which is:

(d) 180 behind the reference axis.
(e) 60 ahead of the reference axis.
(/) 120 ahead of the reference axis.
(a) 30 behind the reference axis.

(6) 45 behind the reference axis.
(e) 120 behind the reference axis.

(g) 210 ahead of the reference

19.
axis.
Find the magnitude and angular position with respect to the reference axis
of the vectors which are represented by:

(a) 8.0 + J6.0.
(6) -10 +,;10.0.
(d) -57.36 + J81.92.

(e) -76.6
J64.3.
(c) 38.3 -J31.14.

20. (a) Rotate the vector
(/) -50.0
(8.66
;'5.0)
through
j'86.6.
+40 by multiplying it by the
correct operator.
(b) Rotate the vector
(-5.0 j'8.66) through -30.

of () and (6) in both cartesian and polar forms.
the
results
Express
(c)
21. Perform the following indicated operations:
sin 36.87)(0.1+>60).
120) (cos 36.87
(a) (8 + j6) (10
-j
/-
[34.2 + j94][10t~f30H30(cs
-[20/401150
60 +
(cos 30 +
22. Express each of the following
(a) [V/4.5
4
(O
j sin 30)]
- J7.79 + Iogt10/172"].
(040+J342)
j sin 00)]
as a single vector in cartesian and polar forms:
--
(-8.66 +J5.0)(50/-100)(2ej70)
Ch.
IV
PROBLEMS
95
second if u = 377 radians per second.

(d) 50-i"' at t =
j3
23. Find all possible roots of:

Se*50
10/45
24.
shunt
(-4.047
- jl.732
line is Z0 = 10/68 ohms, and the
The series impedance of a transmission

impedance of the line is Zi, =
- J2.94)
25,000/ 90 ohms.
(a) Find the characteristic impedance of the line which
is defined as Zo =
(6) Find the propagation constant of the line which is defined as

26. A vector voltage of 125/40
ZQZ6.
VZa/Zi,.
volts is impressed across a series combination
reactance.
Find the magnitude and
phase position of the current with respect to the reference axis employed in stating
the vector voltage.
26. Two impedances, Zi = (1 j3) ohms and Z2 = (3 + J6) ohms, are con
The magnitude of the current through Z\ is known to be 10
nected in parallel.
of 2.0 ohms resistance and
8.0 ohms inductive
amperes.
(a) Find the complex polar expression for the current through Z2 with respect to
Ii
10/0
as a reference.
Ii
+ 12 in cartesian form.
(6) Find Io =
diagram of V, Ii, Ij, and Io, employing
vector
Draw
a
(c)
27.
The characteristic
Ii
as reference.
zi2
/
filter is Zor = /ZiZ2 +
impedance of a T-section
>
above definition of Zor.

28.
Express log,
/125/-90
^ /
in rectangular form.
5/90
A /is.:
l+-+
4Z2
,(
Zl
4Z2
X 103/-90
1000/90
100 /0_ volt's,
in polar form.
Vm =
31. Given the equation:
where
jV/2.
4Z2
795/+90", evaluate a and
- ZI
= 15/8CT ohms,
4Z2 =
29
if
25.14/-900 ohms and

Find a and in Problem
30.
Zi
1.61 =F
circuit analysis is:
0.
is useful in filter
\^-
An equation which
29.
If

where Z\ is the full series arm impedance and Z2 is the shunt impedance of the filter
If Zi = 30/86.0 ohms and Z2 = 10.0/-90 ohms, find Z0r from the
section.
10/-30
amperes. Express Vm
VECTOR
96
ALGEBRA
CA. 7V
(o) Solve the following equation for a and for 6:
= 200
5fl/-45
JO) +
/-tf
sin 0)
find
ft
J50 = 100 (cos
10)
/3:
20+ JIO
ft
(a
(100
Given:
equation for a and for
(6) Solve the following
(c)
+a) + jb
(12
32.
and
8.
Plot
(6)
33. (o) Plot At+lat and At~iut in polar coordinates for o> = 157 radians per second
= 0.010,
= 0.015,
= 0.020, and
= 0.005,
= 0.04 second.
at
in polar coordinates and also in rectangular coordinates
(r
)
versus ut for one complete cycle.

Show that a simple harmonic oscillating variation, such as
cos ut, can be
represented by two oppositely rotating vectors, each of which has the same angular
velocity as the oscillating vector and each of which has a magnitude equal to onehalf the magnitude of the oscillating vector.
= 100 J50 volts across

=
voltage
circuit causes
current
(a)
amperes to flow. Calculate the power absorbed by the circuit, employing
34.
2
jS
equation (68).
(6) Calculate
j2
I I
if if
V V
= 50 + jlQO volts and

= 6
power
amperes.
= 50 + j'100 volts and
= 8
j3
Calculate
power
amperes.
(c)
36. (a) Calculate the vars for each of the parts of Problem 34, employing equation
(72).
(6)
How should equation (72)
be modified to yield the present standard
signs for
vars?
= 40
38.
vi
io.62 =
In Fig.
Vr-
20, page 90,
is
by the method of conjugates.

+
is
+ J8)
5/30 amperes, and the current through branch
real power, P, and the reactive volt-amperes, Pt, supplied to
amperes. Find the

the parallel combination
Note: Check results against
p;2.
fti = 200
ohms, ft2 = 20,000 ohms, and V2 = (0.1 /114.6)Ei.
p^1
R->
and the intervening network.
For the circuit shown in Fig.
21,
-J2Z
>
and
40.
!i
Find the attenuation and phase shift which arc produced by the combination of the
mismatch of RI and R and the intervening network.
39. In Fig. 20, HI = 200 ohms, R = 20,000 ohms, and I = Ei/4000 amperes.
Find the attenuation and phase shift which are
produced by the combination of the mismatch of
= 5.Y,
Fro. 21.
See
= 10X, and
= 2.Y,
X,
versus R, employing
X/2,
_9
of
R 2
and
Plot
0,
R+jX -J2X
R

through branch
is
36. Calculate the power and vars by the method of conjugates for each part of
Problem 34.
37. The voltage applied to two parallel branches
40/80 volts. The current
Problem
40.
CHAPTER V
SINUSOIDAL SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Impedances in Series.
A series circuit of three impedances is shown
in Fig. 1.
In a circuit of this kind it is evident that only a single current
X<
RI
Flo.
can exist
Impedances in series.
at any instant and that the current throughout all impedances
is the same.1
Kirchhoff's emf law states that

1.
Vt + V2 + V3
or
V = IZi + IZ2 + IZ3
and
V = I(Zi +
Z2
+ Z3)
(1)
(2)
=
IZ
(3)
(3) shows that series impedances are added in complex form

Thus
obtain the equivalent impedance.
Equation
to
Z = Zx + Z2 + Z3 = (Ri + jXi) + (R2 + JX2) + (R3 + JO)

Z = (Rl + R2 + fl3) + J(Xl + X2) = R + jX
or
(4)
(4) shows that the resultant resistance R of a simple series

circuit is obtained by arithmetically adding the separate resistances.
When it is remembered that inductive reactances are considered posi
tive and capacitive reactances are negative, equation (4) also shows that
the resultant reactance X of a series circuit is the algebraic sum of the
Equation
separate reactances.
If current is taken
of
a
as the reference, the vector diagram of the circuit
Fig. 1 appears as shown in Fig. 2. Such a vector diagram is called

funicular or string diagram. Another type of vector diagram which
1
The assumption
that the current is confined to the series circuit.

currents are neglected.
is made
wdlian space displacement
97
Max-
SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
SINUSOIDAL
98
This is called a
the same circuit is shown in Fig. 3.
represents
Ch.V
polar
diagram. The distinguishing characteristic of a string vector diagram

is that certain component vectors are combined head-to-tail to form a
resultant vector as, for example, the component voltages IRi, IXi, IRs,
V=IZ
Fio.
or string
Funicular
diagram of circuit in Fig.
Fio.
vector
2.
3.
1.
Polar vector diagram of circuit

in Fig. 1.
IRs are combined head-to-tail to form the resultant
1X2, and
In
vector V.
a polar vector diagram, all vectors
voltage
are started from
common origin as shown in Fig. 3.
Z3
+Z.)
ZB)
+ R2 + Ra +
(5)
Z2
I(Zi +
Rn)
(6)
and
R2
R3
the current and the voltage.
In Chapter
IR
it
Hence,
III
for
angle
power factor
series circuit,
= cos
Power factor
shows
Rn
angle was shown to be the phase
the impedance
was shown to be the cosine of this angle.
Fig.
-----
xa-
=
Lt
+ Rn
(8)
between
II
X2
In Chapter
Xl
/tan_!
-\
-X2
(7)

Either type of diagram may be used since they represent the same
thing. The one which appears to be the simpler in any particular case
should be used. In certain cases the funicular diagram shows the
quantities to better advantage, whereas for others the polar diagram is
more suggestive of the relationships and more convenient to use.
In general, for a series circuit of n impedances
SERIES RESONANCE
Ch.
99
Example L Calculate the current, voltage drops Vi, Vt, and 7j, power con
sumed by each impedance, and the total power taken by the circuit with the constante shown in Fig. 4.
The impressed voltage will be taken along the reference
axis.
4n
3/1
Flo.
V
4.
2/1
Circuit for example
+jO
100
8-n
6/1
1.
100(12+j5)
Y!
IZj
= (7.1 + J2.96) (4
Vs = IZ2 = (7.1
V,
IZ,
= (7.1
+ J2.96)
+J2.96)
(6
(2
+J3)
- j8)
= 19.53
= 66.27
- J39.06
+ jO)
V
= 14.2
+ j5. 92 volts
= 100
+ jO
+ j33.14 volts
volts
volts
Note that the drops are added vectorially to check the impressed voltage.
p,
Pi
= 6
ft/2
X
X
Pa = 2
4(V/7.12 +
= 4
2.962)2
7.692 = 237 watte
7.69*
= 365 watte
7.692
= 118 watte
Total power
The total power is also (vi +
Problem 1.
v'i')
100
7.1 = 710 watte.
(a) Find the current through the circuit in Fig. 5 and the voltage
drops Voi, Vi,,., and VcdGenerated on 2015-09-15 19:32 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

= 710 watte
Am.:
1 =
10/0^ amperes, Voi
= 20
- j40
= 44.7
/-63.45
volte.
Vie = 30 +>110 = 114 /74.75 volte.

volte.
Vf = 20 +jO = 20
/0
(6) Draw a string

on the diagram.
(c)
vector diagram
of Vo4, Vi,c, and Vc* including
both
and
Draw a polar vector diagram of Voi, Vic, V^, V, and I.

2/1
-|
WW-|
V= 98.98/45
volts
Fio
Problem
(VI
2.
Calculate
cos 0), and from
5.
See Problems 1 and 2.
the total power dissipated
(vi + v'i').
in Fig. 5 from
Ans.:
(7'fl),
from
= 700 watte.
Series Resonance. A series circuit containing R, L, and C is in

resonance when the resultant reactance is zero.
Since the drop across
SINUSOIDAL
100
CT.
the inductance leads the current by 90 whereas that across the con
If they
denser lags the current by 90, the two drops are opposite.
are made equal as in Fig. 6, the reactive voltage
IR
Fio.
6.
Vector dia-
gram of series cir

cuit in resonance.
drops neutralize and the impressed voltage is

This condiequal only to the resistance drop.
Inspection of the
tion is called series resonance.
vector diagram of Fig. 6 shows that the applied
The power
voltage is in phase with the current.
is
and
the
circuit
is
in
unity,
factor
resonance.
Thus for series resonance
IX L
IXc
or
XL
Xc
(9)
Since 2irfL = 1/2-irfC at the point of series resonance, the series

frequency is
/m =
resonant
(10)
where fm is in cycles per second when L is expressed in henrys and C in

It is apparent that series resonance can be produced in a series
farads.
circuit by varying either L, C, or /. The current is always given by

For any value of current the drop across the resistance is

VR
(12)
Similarly, the drops across the inductance and capacitance

tively
VL
IXL
Vc
iXc
are respec
and
VXc
^
(14)
The general characteristics of a circuit in resonance are the same regard

less of which parameter is varied to produce resonance.
For instance,
Ch.
SERIES RESONANCE
101
the power factor at resonance is 1. The power is simply the

The current is V/R, the maxi
impressed voltage times the current.
mum possible value for the resistance which is in the circuit.
The
general shape of the current curve before, at, and after resonance is
shown in Fig. 7.
Resonance occurs at the point C. Limited as it is
only by the resistance of the circuit, the current at the resonant point C
will be large if the resistance is small.
When the resultant reactance is
Hence
large as it is at point A there will be only a small current flowing.
in all cases
Variation of current with fre

quency in the range aeries resonance.
Flo. 7.
FIG. 8. Effect of resistance on current

variation in the range of series resonance.
rapid rise in current from point A to point C. Conversely,

when the resistance is large, the amount of the change in current from
In the former case the current peak will be
point A to C will be small.
sharper than in the latter, as illustrated hi Fig. 8. Hence the small
resistance is said to give sharp tuning and the large resistance broad
More accurately, the ratio of L to R governs the sharpness
tuning.
of tuning.
This is shown later. The preceding statements are true
for all methods of securing resonance.
The various ways of securing
resonance will now be considered hi somewhat more detail.
When L is varied to produce resonance,
Varying Inductance.
a series
of curves shown in Fig. 9 is obtained. Equations (11),
of the current and poten
(12), (13), and (14) are the equations
tial drop curves shown.
It will be noted that Vc becomes a
maximum at resonance whereas the maximum value of VL occurs after
resonance.
This result is expected. Since Vc =
c and Xc is con
stant, the maximum drop across the condenser will occur when the
In the case of VL = IXL, both 7 and XL
current is a maximum.
are increasing before resonance and the product must be increasing.
At resonance,
is not changing but XL is increasing, and hence the
drop is increasing. The drop continues to increase until the reduction
This point can be deter
in the current offsets the increase in XL=
0.
Differentiating equation (13) and setting
mined from dVL/dXL

there is a
IX
SINUSOIDAL
102
Ch.
the result equal to zero yield
dVL

I'M.
(R2+
9.
(XL- XC)2]*F- VXL#R*+ (XL-XC)2]^2(XL-XC)
Series reasonance
by varying /,.
is varied to produce resonance in a series circuit containing

= 60 cycles, find the voltage drop across
Xc
L at resonance and also when the drop across L is a maximum if 1000 volts are
impressed.
Example
2.
= 100 ohms,
For resonance
/,
1000
-^
As
Km. 10.
Impedance diagram showing
the power factor angle 8 as L is varied
in an RLC series circuit.
= 200 ohms, and
XL
Xc
Z = 100 + J200
j'200
= 100
+ JO
ohms.
= 10 amperes.
VL (at resonance)
IXL
= 8.94
200 = 2000 volts.

1002
200s
200
1000
(for maximum
Maximum VL
= 10
R* + Xc2
For maximum VL
= 200.
VlOO2 +
(250
250 ohms.
= 8.94 amperes.
200)2
250 = 2235 volts.
The variation in phase angle between V and

from the impedance diagram in Fig. 10.
as
is varied is easily obtained
The angle can be seen to vary from tan~l
SERIES RESONANCE
Ch. V
(a negative angle) when
factor varies from
L
72
103
is zero to +90 when L becomes
= (when
is 0) to 0 (when
o.
Hence the power
L becomes infinite).
Problem 3. (a) Find the value of inductive reactance and the value of inductance
which will make the power factor of the above series circuit equal to 0.866, current
leading.
Hint:
Problems
of this type are most easily solved when it is recognized that
tanfl.
Ans.:
XL
= 142.3 ohms,
= 0.377 henry.
(b) Find the value of inductive reactance which will make the p.f. equal to
current lagging.
Am.:
XL
0.866,
= 257.7 ohms.
Varying Capacitance.
When C is varied to produce resonance,
curves as shown in Fig. 11 are obtained.
As before, the equations
curves
are
of these
equations
and
(13),
(11), (12),
(14).
Here the drop across the in
ductance is a maximum when
the current is a maximum,
The
since XL is constant.
maximum drop across the con
denser occurs before resonance.
At
resonance,
Xc
is decreasing
the
current is not
changing (slope being zero).
The drop IXc must, therefore,
Consequently,
be decreasing.
the drop must have been a
maximum before resonance. At
resonance the drops across the
inductance and the capacitance
The
are equal and opposite.
conditions for maximum Vc
may be determined analytically
by setting the first derivative
of equation (14) with respect Fio. ll. Series resonance by varying capacitance.
to C or Xc equal to zero,
similarly to the procedure illustrated when L was varied. This deri

whereas
vation is left to the student.

The impressed voltage equals the IR drop, the power factor is unity,
For zero capacitance the
and the current is a maximum at resonance.
is therefore zero.
infinite
and
the
current
is
reactance
For
capacity
SINUSOIDAL
104
infinite capacitance
SINGLE-PHASE
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
the capacity reactance
is zero and the current is
The phase angle between the current and the applied
voltage varies between the limits indicated in Fig. 12.
et
tor varies from

Resonance
Ch.7
The power fac
C is zero.
when C is infinite, to zero when
is usually obtained by varying capacitance
since
it
is
only necessary to make alternate plates of a condenser movable to

This is easily and simply accomplished,
secure variable capacitance.
and the variation of capacitance can be made extremely smooth and
gradual.

Problem 4. When varying C to produce resonance in a circuit containing 100

ohms resistance and 200 ohms inductive reactance at 60 cycles, find the maximum
drop across the capacitance if the impressed voltage on the circuit is 100 volts.
Ana.:
223.5 volte.
To oo as C
becomes 0
Fio. 12. Impedance diagram indicating range

of power factor angle 0 as C is varied in an
RLC series circuit.
Fio.
13.
Series resonance
frequency.
by varying
When frequency is varied to produce resonance,

Here neither the inductance
nor the capacitance has the maximum drop across it at resonance.
Inspection of Figs. 9, 11, and 13 will show that this method of securing
resonance partakes of both the methods previously discussed.
The
these
curves
by considering the principles previously
student can explain
The current is zero for both zero frequency and infinite fre
presented.
Varying Frequency.
the curves shown in Fig. 13 are obtained.
Ch. V
SERIES RESONANCE
105
quency. The phase angle between current and voltage varies between
90 to +90, as may be seen by studying the impedance triangles por
trayed in Fig. 14. It will be observed that, for all methods of producing
resonance, the current is a maximum and dependent only upon the
and the resis
of the circuit, that the
power factor is 1, and that the
power is a maximum and equal
to the volt-amperes at the point
of resonance.
impressed voltage
ToXL oo
tance
in
-T W/Wv--
L-O.l
henry
c=100^f
100 volts
From XC~OO
FIG. 14. Impedance triangle indicat

ing variation of phase angle from
90 to
+90 aa frequency is varied
in an RLC series circuit.
Fit!. 15.
Circuit for example 3.
Example 3. For the circuit arrangement and constants shown in Fig. 15 calculate
the frequency, power, power factor, and voltage drop across each part of the circuit
at resonance.

l^c ijaixio
m
0.000100
XL
XO.l
2x50.4
Check:
= 31.6 ohms
2r
= 100
Vl*
va
VL
Vc
"
0.0001
100
watte
VR
50.4
(31.6
cycles
31 .6
- 31.6)*
ohms
= 100 amperes
100 = 10,000 watts

10,000
100
100
100
1 = 100
100
31.6
= 3160 volts
100
31.6
= 3160 volts
volts
5.
(a) What is the resonant frequency of a series circuit consisting of
resistance,
150 microhenrys, and 200 p/if capacitance?
(6) What is the
2 ohms
= 300 microhenrys,
=
C = 100 niiil
L
and
ohms,
R
3
if
frequency
resonant
kilocycles?
1000
the
combinations
at
each
of
of
impedance
is
the
(e) What
Ant.: (a) 920 kilocycles, (6) 920 kilocycles, (c) 147 ohms and 294 ohms.
Problem
SINUSOIDAL
106
Ch. v
The Series RLC Circuit as a Selector. Even though the RLC circuit
passes all waves of finite frequency to some extent, it has been shown to
As Fig. 7 shows,
have the lowest impedance for the resonant frequency.
the RLC circuit passes frequencies near the resonant frequency more
The circuit thus has selective proper
readily than other frequencies.
ties. The band of frequencies which is passed quite readily is called

Angular velocity
Fro.
16.
The
RLC sfcries
branch, as
a band selector, graphed

and C = 4.0
henry,
the pass band.
for R
10 ohms,
= 0.01
/if.
The pass band is sometimes arbitrarily considered to
be
the range of frequency over which the current is equal to or greater than
V/V2R,
as indicated in Fig. 16.
mined.
From equation (11)
Within this range, the power (PR)

is equal to or greater than V2/2R. This range will now be deter
7 =
(16)
The maximum current (V/R) and the maximum power V2/R occur
at the resonant frequency or when
(On
VZc
(17)
THE SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AS A SELECTOR
Ch. V
where o>m is 2ir times the resonant frequency

velocities at which .
.-
V2R
fm-
Let uz
be the
107
angular
(called the half-power points)
Then
V
+ (o>xL-
From which #
In a
l/LC.
RLC
(18)
1KC)2
l/uxC).
(<axL
When solved for ux the above equation yields
selective
Hence,
(R /2L)2 is usually much smaller

this term, equation (19) becomes
branch,
neglecting
u, fl/2L
But
VI ILC
frequency.
is the angular velocity

Therefore
Vl/LC
corresponding
wm
*-*-=*
and, if only positive values of
o>m
o* =
than
(20)
to the resonant
(20
are considered,
*m!
(22)
o>m
(23)
Let
o>i
and
= m
<->2
The width of the pass band
as shown on
(24)
LLi
Fig.
16 is
-n
Aw =
o)2
a!i
radians per second
(25)
The frequency range for the pass band, as here defined, is A/ = /2 /i

= R/2irL.
The per unit band width is denned as A///m. If we arbi
trarily select a band width other than that shown in Fig. 16, as we
shall have occasion to do later, we make appropriate changes in our
definition of A/.
SINUSOIDAL
108
Ch. V
Let it be required to find the decibel (db) current response at the

half-power points of Fig. 16 (relative to the response at cam) if by definition we take
Example
4.
db =20 log
1
R
where
the current response at ary point on the graph shown in the figure.
7 is
Since
F/V2fl
at the points in question:
V
db = 20 log
2fi
-^
-20 log
1.414
-3
The above arithmetic shows why the half-i>ower points are sometimes referred
to
in the literature as the 3 db points.
it
Q.
is
is,
The Q of a Series Circuit. The degree of selectivity of a circuit,

that
the narrowness of the band width shown in Fig. 16,
usually
in
of
the
symbol
terms
several
Although
different
expressed
forms
appear in the literature, they are all intended to
of the definition of
We shall employ the following definition
convey the same meaning.
since
ties in closely with experimental procedures:
._*_ 25 .&
1
16
In the
for the meanings of
case of the series
R,
equivalent series circuit resistance

negligibly small in comparison with the
of
customary to speak of the
coil,
at
the
coil
will
be
resonated
being that
condenser of suitable size.
Q
is
the
it
com.
the total equivalent series resistance of the circuit.
is
R,
and
(26)
A/
RLC circuit
s~
where
coi, w2,
A&>
Since
of the condenser
usually
series circuit resistance of the
the coil alone, the assumption
some specified frequency with
is
Fig.
02
per unit band width l>etween the half-power

of the coil required.
Find the
to be 0.02.
=
Aw
<*m
Per unit band width
The
16
is
Example
points in Fig.
6.

See
(or 3 db)
If
--
THE
CA.
the coil to l>e employed
OF A SERIES CIRCUIT
has an inductance
frequency is 20 kc, find the values of
R.
2r X
of 10 millihenrys
and the resonant
R, and C.
20,000
0.01
= Sir = 25.1 ohms
'
<+n*L
109
4T2 (20,000 )2
0.01
0.00633
ID"6 farad
The use of Q (or the reciprocal of Q) in circuit analysis will take on

and significance in radio-frequency circuits where
more importance
constant than in low-frequency circuits where R, is

essentially constant.
[It should be noted that Re has been tacitly as
In analyzing
sumed constant in equation (27) as well as in Fig. 16.]
Q, is essentially
radio-frequency circuits near resonant frequency,

obtain greater accuracy by writing
tuned
we
F7
as
Z =
wm
1/VLC,
r[R.
- + j./
,
o>mL
o>m
\_<mL
or
(28)
since Q
is considerably more
constant
over
reasonable
frequency
than is R,. It is plain that F = (ta/tam um/ui).

If L, C, and Q in equation (28) are essentially constant, then
F = (u/a)m Wm/w) is the only variable involved, and it should be
plain that the current response versus o> will take the same shape as
that shown in Fig. 16 since in one case the response is based upon

range centered on um
/=
and
the other upon
low-frequency case we assume that R, is constant, which is

essentially true, and in the high-frequency case we assume that L/CQ2
is essentially constant.
Cases arise where neither assumption is justi
fied, but cases of this kind are reserved for more advanced courses.
In the
SINUSOIDAL
110
Ch. V
Circle Diagram of Series Circuit. Circle diagrams are often employed

as an aid in analyzing the operating characteristics of circuits which
under some conditions are used in representing
transmission lines
and some types of a-c machinery. The basis of representing a series
circuit by means of a circle diagram will be derived with reference to
Fig. 17.
The resistance R of the circuit in Fig. 17 will be considered a variable,
whereas the applied voltage and reactance will be assumed constant.
FIG.
Fio.
17.
Scries circuit
with variable B.
18.
constant
Circle diagram of Fig. 17 for

V and X but with variable R.

The power factor angle is designated by 6. If R is zero,

is obviously
/
/X,
to
V
and
this
value
of
will
V
if
X
inductive.
by
90
is
equal
lag
As R is increased from its zero value, the magnitude of
(See Fig. 18.)
I becomes less than V/X and 6 becomes less than 90 and finally, when
R equals >, / equals zero and 8 equals zero. The fact that the locus
of the vector I traces out a semicircle, as indicated in Fig. 18, may be
seen from the following derivation.
In general,
and
or
"I
e
(29)
-X
(30)
X
sin
(31)
Substituting (31) in (29),

(32)
For constant V and X, equation (32) is the polar equation of
circle
Figure 18 shows a plot of equation (32) with respect

and for positive angles 6, representing inductive
These conventions are employed because
loads, measured clockwise.
are
the
ones
most
used for such circle diagrams in
commonly
they
of diameter
to V
V/X.
as a reference
CIRCLE DIAGRAM OF SERIES CIRCUIT
Ch. V
111
a-c machinery. Since la in Fig. 18 is 01 cos 6, it is apparent that la

is proportional to the power consumed by the circuit. If the diagram
is drawn to a certain current scale as 7 amperes per inch, the watt scale
must be VI watts per inch.
transmission line circuit in which the capacitance and

leakance are assumed negligible may be represented by Fig. 19, where
R and X are, respectively, the series resistance and reactance of the
If R is constant and RL is varied
line and RL is the load resistance.
=
the current follows the equation 7
(V/X) sin 6 as in the previous case.
The distance la in Fig. 18 again represents the total power consumed
by the circuit, but the total power dissipated is consumed in both R and
RL. The power dissipated by each resistance can easily be represented
on the diagram.
simple
Ii
Fio.
19.

assumed
If the
Series circuit, R and X

/>';. variable.
constant,
resistance
RL
Fio.
20.
Circle diagram of Fig. 19 for constant

V, R, and X and variable ftj,.
is assumed to be zero,
all power must
be dissipated
in the resistance R. For this condition the power is represented by 6c

in Fig. 20 and Ob represents the corresponding current.
For some
finite value of RL other than zero, the current is OI\ and the total
power consumed is proportional to I\a. Of this total, da is the amount
consumed in R and I\d is dissipated by RLTo prove that da represents
the power dissipated in R it is only required to show that da and be
are proportional to the respective squares of the currents OI\ and 06
for the two conditions.
From similar triangles

Since
da
Oa
be
Oc
Oa = 07 j cos a07i
=
/]
07,
~0~e
(07,
)2
~OT
SINUSOIDAL
112
Oc = 06 cos cOb = Ob
and
Ck. V
=
Oe
Oe
(OIi)2
da
6c
"
Oe
''^
(Ob)2
(Ob)2
Oe
Therefore, for any current such as 01 \, I\d represents the power

consumed in RL, da shows the watts lost in R, and the total power
input to the circuit is given by I\a. If I2Ri, is considered as the out
put of the circuit (the power transmitted by the line), the efficiency
must
l>e
Efficiency
output
lid
input
I\a
The power factor at the input end is cos 8. It is also

The maximum power that can be transmitted by a circuit like Fig. 19
under conditions of constant R and X occurs when the extremity of
O/i in Fig. 20 coincides with the point of tangency to the circle of a
It is a matter of simple geometry to show
line drawn parallel to Ob.
that V times lid under these conditions yields the result for maximum
power as given by equation (59) if Xr = 0 [which requires that k in

equation (59)
be zero].
Since
lid
may be employed
as a quantitative
measure of the power delivered to the load resistance RL, it is plain

from Fig. 20 that this load power varies from zero (when RL = 0) to
a maximum and back to zero again (when RL = ).
The details of circle diagram constructions which apply to circuits

in Fig. 19 may be readily comprehended from a
numerical problem like the following.
of the kind shown
Refer to Fig. 19. R and X are constant at the values R = 2 ohm?

6.
= 3.464 ohms.
V is constant at 346.4 volts.
= V graphically in a vertical position to any convenient voltage
off
Lay
0V
(a)
scale as, for example, 100 volts per inch.
Problem
and
(6) Lay off Oe (of Fig. 20) equal to V/X in a horizontal position to a scale of
not more than 20 amperes per inch.
(A scale of 10 amperes per inch will give more
accurate results.)
(c) Lay off Ob (of Fig. 20) equal to 7 when Rj. = 0.
Am.:
= 346.4/4
= 86.6 amperes, 60 behind V.
(d) Draw a tangent to the semicircle which is parallel to 06 and construct OI\
What is the magnitude of the current and what
from 0 to this point ot tangency.
Am.:
I = 50 amperes, p.f. = 0.86.
is the p.f. at this point of operation?
that
can
be
is
to Rrf
power
What
the
maximum
delivered
(e)
Ans.: Pmal = V X /I^BM = 10,000 watts.
Ch.
PARALLEL BRANCHES
113
Parallel Branches. When impedances are connected in parallel, as

in Fig. 21, the same voltage V is impressed across each impedance.
The current in each impedance is therefore
=
and
From Kirchhoff's current law,
Ii
V(y,
+ I2 + I3
Y3)
= VY0
(33)
symbol Y represents the reciprocal of impedance and is called

Equation (33) shows that the resultant current flowing
through several impedances in parallel is the product of the voltage
where the
admittance.
21.
I1'
1
Fio.
Impedances in parallel.
In
sum of the reciprocals of the several branch impedances.
other words, the voltage
multiplied by the sum of the admittances
the several branches.
Equation (33) shows that admittances are
will be remem
added for parallel branches.
For branches in series
bered that impedances are added.
Since both admittance and im
all
additions involving either of them
pedance are complex quantities,
must be made in complex form.
Arithmetic addition should not be
In only one case
arithmetic addition correct, and in this
attempted.
If equa
case the addition in complex form will give the same result.
tion (33)
to
solved for impedance Z0 by obtaining the ratio of
we obtain
is
and the
Y,
J_
Yo
I,
is
is
it
of
(34)
Equation (34) shows that the resultant impedance of several parallel

Since the
the reciprocal of the resultant admittance.
branches
the reciprocal of im
unit of impedance
the ohm and admittance
is
is
is

i"
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
SINGLE-PHASE
114
SINUSOIDAL
pedance,
the unit of admittance is the reciprocal
spelled backwards).
The Parallel Equivalent
of a Series Impedance.
to change
becomes desirable
a series branch
Ch. V
ohm or mho
(ohm
Cases arise where it

as shown
impedance
in
Equivalent
Circuits
I=y=g_jb=-i-ji
Fio.
22.
rip
The parallel equivalent of a series impedance,
RI +

Fig. 22a to its parallel equivalent (shown in Fig. 226).

Therefore
lence, Y of Fig. 22a must equal Y of Fig. 226.
Y_
JX..
For equiva
=_L+_L
R, +
Ap
JX,
Rp
JXP
or, upon rationalizing,
R,
Rs
R,
Xs~
-f-
X,
(35)
/(Rt2 + X,2) is called the conductance of the series impedance Z, and

is denoted by the symbol g.
Xs/(Re2 + X,2) is called the susceptance
of the series impedance Z, and is denoted by the symbol 6.
Employing
Re
the symbols g and
6,
we have
TIf
---
(36)
The physical significance of g and 6 may be interpreted as follows.

equation (36) is multiplied by V to obtain the current I, we have
V3-jV6
--.;
V
PARALLEL BRANCHES
Ck. V
It will
115
that Vg shown on the vector diagram, Fig. 226, is the

component of current in phase with the voltage and is the current
V jRp in the resistive branch of the parallel equivalent of Z;.
Also
V6 shown on the vector diagram is the component of current in quad
rature with the voltage and is the component V/XP in the inductive
branch of the parallel equivalent of Z,.
Hence the conductance 1 /Rp
of the resistive branch of the equivalent parallel circuit is the conduct
ance g of the admittance Y = g jb = 1 /Z,, and the susceptance
1 IX
f of the inductive branch is the susceptance b of the admittance
=
Y
1 /Z,.
It is important to observe that conductance g in the circuits
of Fig. 22 is the reciprocal of Rp but not of R,.
Similarly susceptance
is the reciprocal of Xp but not of X,.
Since g and 6 are components of admittance and either g, b, or Y
multiplied by voltage yields a current, they are all expressed in the
same units, namely, mhos.
If the admittances in equation (33) are expressed in terms of their
be seen
conductances and susceptances, we have

=
V(0i
- jbi
+ ft +
02
0a)
- jbz + - j(bi +62 +

9s
63)]
V(<70
- jbo)
(37)
Equation (37) shows that conductances may be added arithmetically

the resultant conductance while susceptance must be added
That algebraic
to obtain the resultant susceptance.
algebraically
addition of susceptances is required is evident from the expression
X l(R2 + X2) for susceptance when it is remembered that X may be
positive or negative depending upon whether it is inductive or capacitive,

to obtain
respectively.
For the circuit of Fig. 23<i with the parameters shown, the following
(a) conductance and susceptance of each branch; (6) the resultant
conductance and susceptance; (c) the vector diagram.
Example 6.
are desired:
- j8
= 6
I
Yj
from
Ii
Zi
= 16
-- -
Ii
= 22
= 10
+ J12
/-53.2
amperes
20/36.9 amperes
j'4 = 22.35/10.3
(6"J'8)
(6+J8) (6-J8)
= 0.06
amperes
- jO.OSmho
which
gi = 0.06 mho,
61 =
0.08 mho
SINUSOIDAL
116
method,
or, as an alternative
ffl
Ch. V
~~
z3
~~
Tnn
100'
'
"'*
""
5^2
Zt2
~ _8_
TOO
100
4+J3
0.16
(4-j3) (4+J3)
+ j0.12mho
from which
= 0.16 mho,
-0.12 mho
62 =
or, as an alternative method,
R*
-3
Z?
25'

Fio.
(a) Circuit for example 6.
23.
(6)
26
Vector diagram of (a).
The vector diagram

Another way to obtain the resultant current is shown below:
g = Q\
6 =
bi +
= g
=
92
62 =
- jb
VY
and
0.08
= 0.22
Y! +
l>e
0.12
- j( -0.04)
= 100 (0.22
Or admittances may
+ 0.16 = 0.22 mho
= 0.06
+ jO.04)
-0.04
mho
= 0.22
= 22
+ jO.04 mho
+ J4
= 22.35
/10.3 amperes
added as follows:
Y2 = 0.06
>0.08
VY
+ 0.16 + J0.12
= 22
= 0.22
+ J0.04
+ ;4 amperes
The calculation of admittances from the reciprocals of impedances

and their addition in complex form is generally the most direct pro
cedure.
Experience has shown that students make fewer errors in
signs when following this procedure.
Instead of representing admittance in general as g jb and then
using g = R/Z2 and b = X /Z2, many prefer to call it g + jb and then
IN PARALLEL BRANCHES
RESONANCE
Ch.V
117
Both give the same result for ad

In either case, X is substituted as a positive value for in
mittance.
In a dissipative circuit con
ductance and negative for capacitance.
To avoid confusion in signs it is best to
ductance is always positive.
obtain admittance from 1 j(R + JX) rather than from calculations of
conductance and susceptance.
Knowing how to calculate arid use
conductances and susceptances expedites the solution of some types
of problems,
although they may be solved by other means. The
special case of two parallel impedances Zi and Z2 occurs often in electrical
For this case, YI = 1 /Zi and 2 = 1 /Z% . Hence
engineering.
to use g
R/Z2 and
v
Y
b as
X/Z2.
= +
7
Z
and
-=
Zj
-f-
2i%
which is analogous to the much used expression for

the resultant of two parallel resistances in direct currents, is very useful
in alternating currents.
When all reactances are zero, the expression
reduces to the d-c case of RiR2/(Ri +
This expression,
Problem 7. Three impedances Zi, Zj, and Zs are connected in parallel across
voltage the magnitude of which is 40 volts.
& 60-cycle
Zt
(a)
(6)
Find g\t 61, gt, 6j,

Find the resultant
(o) What
component
= 10
+ JO,
Z2 = 20 + J20,
= 30
j'40 ohms
gt, and 63.

g and the resultant ft of the three parallel branches.
Am.: g = 0.137, 6 = 0.009 mhos.
is the in-phase component

of the resultant current?
of the resultant
Ans.:
Resonance
Z3
in Parallel
current;
the quadrature
Vg = 5.48 amperes, Vb = 0.36 amperes.
Branches.
Parallel
branches
containing
inductance and capacitance are in resonance when the reactive current

in the inductive branch is equal to the reactive current in the capacitive
branch.
The resultant reactive
therefore zero.
current for the circuit
as a whole
is
For resonance
VbL
bL
Vbc
= bc
(38)
Hence the resultant current flowing is in phase with the applied voltage,
the power factor of the whole circuit is 1. This is sometimes called

Figure 24 shows a circuit and the cor
unity-power-factor resonance.
From an inspection
responding vector diagram for this condition.
of the vector diagram it will be noted that the reactive components of
Only the components
current contribute nothing to the total current.
It
of current in phase with the voltage exist in the resultant current.
and
SINUSOIDAL
118
Ck. V
inferred from this that the resultant current is a minimum

This is true if the condiiclances are constant. It is ap
at resonance.
true
if the conductances are negligibly small, as they
proximately
An example will be
usually are in selective circuits as used in radio.
considered later wherein minimum current does not occur at resonance.
might
be
FIG. 24.
Circuit and corresponding
The parameters
may
be seen
when
possible
vector diagram for parallel resonance.
of variation
the susceptances
to make
are replaced
equation (38) true

by their equivalent
values, as shown in equation (39).

1
2wfL
(39)
(27T/L)2
The quantities that may be varied are L, C, f, //,, or RC.

In the following discussion L will be
Resonance by Varying L.
varied by a means which will not change the resistance of the inductive
circuit. Let 0V, Fig. 25, be the voltage impressed on a circuit like
A current, Ic, will then flow in the condenser
the one shown in Fig. 24.
branch whose parameters are held constant.
When L is zero, the
the
inductive
branch
is
V
current through
/RL and it is in phase with
The applied voltage is equal to II.RL under these
the applied voltage.
conditions. When L is increased from zero, the current through the
inductive branch lags V by the tan~* (X^jRi,}, as illustrated in Fig. 25
For any value of //,, the //,/?/. drop and the I L^-L drop must
by 01 L.
add at right angles to give the applied voltage.
These component
Since they are always at right
drops are OA and AV, respectively.
0V,
the locus of the /L/?/, drop must be
angles and their sum must be
Since //, is proportional to the 1 I.RL drop and in
a semicircle OA V.
the locus of IL must also be
semicircle.
phase with
When the //,/?/, drop coincides with the diameter of its circle, the
it,

R,? +
Ch.
IL
of the latter must,
FIG. 25.
the
semicircle
/c
OIi,B with
as
is varied
in the circuit shown in Fig. 24.
IL, this addition
by drawing
the left extremity of its diameter starting at
+
is performed
FIG.
26.
Locus of OC, the resultant current to the circuit of Fig. 24 as
shown in Fig. 26.
For example,
is varied.
is
is
as
particular sum of c and L is

represented by OC.
As L is varied, the locus of the resultant current
to
increased from
Hence, as
therefore, the circle IcCb.
'he resultant current varies from Ob to Oe, which
one point of reso
Jc
is,

Locus of
resultant current is
the
119
must also coincide with the diameter of its own circle.

The
therefore, be V /RLHence the dotted
drawn with V /R^ as a diameter must be the locus of ILSince
current
diameter
circle
RESONANCE
SINUSOIDAL
120
SINGLE-PHASE
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Ch. V
to
Neither of the resonant points gives either a maximum or minimum
The minimum current
current^but they do yield unity power factor.
is OIm, the value where the resultant current is normal to the circle
IcCb. For any particular problem the values of Ic, QC, and 1 cb,
nance; thence to Od, which is a second resonant point; and then
which is equal to V
jRi,
can be calculated directly from the parameters.
Any other values of current can then

calculated trigonometrically
from the geometry of the figure. A few facts should be observed.
First, if V /2RL (the radius of the circle IcCb) is less than Ic sin 6c,
parallel resonance cannot be obtained regardless of the value of L.
FIG. 27.
be
Locus of resultant current to the circuit of Fig.

as C is varied.
24 is the
circle adce
This is in contrast to the series circuit, where some value of L will yield
for any value of R or C. Second, if V 11RL = Ic sin 6c,

Third, if V /2Ri. > Ic sin 0c,
there will be only one resonant point.
Fourth, if the resistance of the
there will be two resonant points.
minimum
current would occur at resonance.
inductance were zero,
Note that for this condition the conductances would be constant for
the two branches.
Through a similar procedure to that
Resonance by Varying C.
outlined above, the student can develop the graphical representation
for the case where resonance is produced by varying C while RL, L, RC,
are held constant.
The graphical representation is shown in
and
Fig. 27. The locus of the resultant current is the circle adce. Again
it will be noted that resonance which occurs at d and c is not the condi
tion for minimum current.
Minimum current occurs at Im, where the
If Rc is zero, the radius
resultant current is normal to the circle adce.
resonance
Ch. V
RESONANCE
121
of the circle adce becomes infinite, or, what is the same thing, the current
/c is in quadrature with the voltage V. Under this condition there is
but one point of resonance and it corresponds to minimum current.
The conductance of the condenser circuit is zero, whereas that of the
inductive branch is constant.
This constant conductance makes the
current at resonance a minimum, and hence the impedance a maximum.
Since most selective circuits employ constant inductance and variable
capacitance and the resistances of the capacitive branches are very
small, maximum impedance or minimum current at resonance is practi
cally realized in these circuits. Since at resonance the current is simply
the conductance times the voltage impressed, it is evident that the
power factor is 1. An inspection of Fig. 27 will reveal the manner in
which the phase angle 8 between the resultant current and the applied
voltage varies as the resultant current follows the circle adce. Between
points d and e, leading power factor obtains.
Resonance by Varying Frequency.
From equation (39) the frequency
for parallel resonance is found to be

-^^
[Rr2C
RC C
L~\*
LJ
is imag-
inary and therefore no real frequency will yield resonance.

The same
situation results if both inequality signs are reversed.
If RI, and RC
are equal, equation (40) for resonance becomes
which is the same as that for series resonance.

This equation is also
=
=
correct when RL
0 and may therefore be used as a close ap
RC
It should be apparent
proximation when RL and RC are very small.
that there are values of RL, C, RC, and L in a parallel circuit for which
parallel resonance is impossible, regardless of frequency.
This is in
contrast to the series circuit containing R, L, and C where there is
always some real resonant frequency for any values of the three pa
The trends of various quantities as frequency is varied from
rameters.
a value too small to produce resonance to a value higher than that re
quired for resonance are shown in Fig. 28 for a condition where resonance
is obtainable.
Resonance by Varying RL or Rc. When equation (40) is solved for
122
SINUSOIDAL
RL, the following equations result.

LCw2
r,\ -i- /
nJc --L)+L
C
RL
- LV +
-Re2-
CA. V
(41)
(42)
(43)

When the parameters are such as to make the expressions under the
It is
above radical positive, RL takes on definite positive values.
Fio.
28.
Parallel resonance by van, ing frequency.
thus shown that within limits there are definite values of RL which
will bring the circuit to resonance at some particular values of frequency,
L, C, and RC- Also, for resonance,
Rc
(44)
Equation (44) shows that, for those values of parameters which make
the quantity under the radical positive, resonance may be produced by
choosing the proper value of RC.
In contrast to the series circuit, where resistances
have no part
in
determining the frequency of resonance, the resistances of a parallel

circuit are of signal importance in determining the frequency of reso
nance, even to the extent of making resonance either possible or im
possible to attain.
Physically this can be understood when it is re
membered that, with a certain quadrature component of current in
SIMPLE FORM OF WAVE TRAP
Ch. V
the condensive
branch, some sufficiently large value of
123
RL will prevent
in the inductive branch from flowing, which is as

much as the quadrature current in the condensive circuit even when
the inductance is zero.
Under such conditions it is apparent that
inserting inductance will do nothing but make the current in the in
ductive branch still smaller and hence contribute nothing toward
making resonance possible.
Such a case was discussed with reference
to Fig. 26 when /c sin 6c was greater than V /2RL- Figure 26, which
is simply a vector diagram, shows that L sin OL. can never be made as
large as /c sin Oc if F/2/?/, is less than /c sin 8c. A similar situation
obtains for the condensive branch.
a resultant current
Problem
ohm,
Xc
= 10 ohms,
RL
L as X L is varied,
= 6 ohms, and the impressed voltage 100
Draw the vector diagram and show the locus of
8.
when Re =
volts for a circuit as shown in Fig. 24. Repeat the problem when RL is changed
to 4 ohms. What is the largest possible quadrature component of current in the
inductive branch as XL is varied in each case? In which case can resonance be
produced?
Why?
Ana.:
8.33 amperes, 12.5 amperes, resonance for 4-ohm case only.
Simple Form of Wave Trap. Resonance phenomena

in the foregoing articles form the basis upon which
many circuits used in both wire and wireless com
They are especially adapted to
munication operate.
selective circuits such as those for filters and oscil
lators. A parallel combination of capacitance and
inductance, along with its incidental resistance, can
be made into an effective band eliminator, suppressor,
or wave trap. The impedance of such a branch
(from a to b in Fig. 29), where the resistance of the
capacitance is negligibly small and RL is very small
compared to L, is most easily found by taking the
Since the
reciprocal of the resultant admittance.
branches are tuned for parallel resonance, the result- Flo
Thus
ant admittance is conductance only.

Ym =
and
Since
7m
7?z,2 "^
as presented
Simple form
of wave trap.
29.
(45)
_
Ym
RL
(46)
u2L2,
Zm =
(47)
124
In
SINUSOIDAL
a previous article
it was shown that when RL
RC
= 0 the
Ch. V
resonant
frequency is practically
--
or
-^-
(48)
Substituting (48) in (47) gives the impedance at resonance:

(49)
When used as a wave trap, the parallel combination of inductance and

capacitance is placed in series with the antenna lead as shown in Fig. 29.
At the resonant frequency the dynamic resistance of the wave trap is
very nearly equal to L/RL [equation (49)]. Experience has shown
that within the standard broadcast band the dynamic resistance at the
frequency fm can be made about 10 times the impedance at frequencies
20 kc from fm. Thus the wave trap acts as a band suppressor or
eliminator.
Problem 9. A typical coil used in the broadcast band for a wave trap like that
in Fig. 29 has L = 250 X 10~6 henry and a ratio of reactance to resistance at 10*

cycles of 170.
following:
Assuming
the resistance of the condenser to be zero, calculate the
(a) C to produce resonance at 1000 kc from equation (39).

(6) C to produce resonance at 1000 kc from equation (48).
(c) Impedance of the wave trap from a to 6 when adjusted for parallel resonance
at 1000 kc.
(d) Impedance of the wave trap to 990 kc when in resonance for 1000 kc.
(e) The ratio of the impedances for (c.) to (d).
Ans.:
101.3
nrf,
101.3
nrf,
ohms, 75,100 ohms, 3.56.
267,000
A Singular Case of Parallel Resonance. For some values of the

RL, RC, L, and C connected as in Fig. 24, the circuit is in
resonance for all frequencies.
This may be shown as follows. From
parameters
equation (39) the condition for parallel resonance is
uL
o>2C2
coC
or
flcVC2 +1
RL*
Li
+ u2C2Rc2
2r
1- co
-l j+
O
2r.p 2
CRC
co
(^
THE
CH.V
OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS
125
of frequency an inspection of equation (50) will

show that the following two conditions must be imposed simultaneously.
To be independent
Condition
Condition 2
Hence
CRC2
RL
Vc
or
Rc
\c%
for resonance at all frequencies

=
RL
Since
or
Rc
the circuit is in resonance
(51)
mittance must be the resultant conductance

= 1
/LC
v
rm
0), its ad
and, because RL = RC,
(resultant susceptance
Therefore
gm
L
2
fi
Vc
^.C
-t-
2
I-
fi
\c
- jc
^L
I~L
and
Vc
(52)
is
RL = RC
when
circuit arrangement
in resonance for all frequencies
to all frequencies.
a
the equivalent of that shown in (a).
Circuits.
In vacuum tube circuit analysis one
frequently encounters the circuit arrangement which reduces essen
coil and condenser connected
tially to that shown in Fig. 30<z, namely,
current source. In the practical cases
parallel and energized with
of Parallel
The
VL/C
(b)
Circuit shown in (fc)
is
FIG. 30.
like that in Fig. 24
and offers the same impedance
(a)
in

is
Equation (52) shows that the impedance of the circuit

also inde
pendent of frequency. The preceding demonstration has shown that,
SINUSOIDAL
126
which will

the resistance of the coil,
be encountered,
compared to
Ch. V
R,, is very small
therefore
<aL;
P 2 *f
<?;
K,
,2T2
a)
Under these conditions the transformation of the series R, and L to

a parallel combination of g and bi, as suggested in Fig. 22 transforms
Fig. 30a to that shown in Fig. 306, where
Q
bi, ~
It
should
and
that
_L
R>
^2^2
and
be = coC
and 6c are magnitudes of the inductive

respectively.
Where purely reactive
susceptances,
be noted
capacitive
6^
branches are placed in parallel, as in Fig. 306,
= g
+ i(bc
analogous to Z
it is convenient to write
fr/J and thereby obtain an expression which is directly

R + J(XL Xc)- In Fig. 306 we find
,.,
= =
==
(53)
Comparing the above equation with equation (16), we observe a

correspondence which allows us to interpret Fig. 16 as the voltage
This response has a maximum value of
response versus oj.
/g, and
the analysis following equation (1(5) can with a few obvious changes in
notation be employed to determine the band width of the selective
circuit shown in Fig. 30.
Since g in equation (53) corresponds to R in equation (16), and
C to L, and L to C, we may write for the parallel circuit

Ao>
o>2
o>i
(54)
(_/
either by analogy with equation (25) or by direct computation.

Employing the same definition of Q as given on page 108 (namely,
Q = Wm/Aoj) and remembering that o>,,, ~ 1 /VLC when the resistances
of the parallel branches are small relative to the reactances, we find that
for the parallel circuit

u
gwm
In elementary analytical calculations, it
is
quite customary to
(55)
treat
THE
Ch. V
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
OF
127
is,
both R, of equation (27) and g of equation (55) as constants, that

Neither of these approximations, however,
independent of frequency.
as constant
agrees with the physical facts as accurately as treating
over a reasonable frequency range centered on the resonant frequency,
fm, since R, increases with increases in co. Over certain ranges of the
radio-frequency band, R, varies almost linearly with respect to co, and
under these conditions we may set R, = ku with the following results.
coL
Q, = -
R,
constant
/.CO
QP
coL
,,2r2
CO Li
=
constant
it
is
it
will be assumed that the coil has

series resistance,
Example 7. In Fig. 30a
R,, of 25.1 ohms and self-inductance of 10 millihenrys.
This coil
to be resonated
at 20 kc with the condenser C.
Let
be required to find the equivalent parallel circuit resistance, \/g, the tuning
of the parallel circuit, and maximum voltage response per millicapacitance, the
7.
ampere of current
- 62,900
IM
ohms
20,000)!
0.00633
10~6
farad
= 50
0.001
= 62.9 volts per milliampere
Maximum voltage response
AW
"
is
if
is
is
certain class of vacuum tube, namely, the pentode, can under

certain operating conditions be made to function as current source
supplying up to several milliamperes of alternating cvirrent simply by
energizing one of its electrodes (the control grid) with a small a-c voltage.
often considerably less than
volt in
Since this small a-c voltage
magnitude,
plain that large voltage amplifications may be obtained
the current source
from the circuit configuration shown in Fig. 306
Moreover this circuit has a reasonable
pentode.
takes the form of
band
width between the 0.707Fmax points
of
selectivity
since
the
degree
on the response curve
it

0.01(2*
SINUSOIDAL
128
On this basis of reckoning,
Ck. V
the per unit band width is
-A co
2510
2r X 20,000
= 0.02
Series-Parallel Circuits.
The series-parallel
circuit illustrated in
Fig. 31 is a combination of the series and parallel circuits which have
been discussed
previously. The principles
previously considered apply to the analysis
of series-parallel circuits.
These are (1) im
Z,
pedances in series are added in complex form
and (2) admittances of those branches which
are in parallel must be added in complex
form. To illustrate, consider Fig. 31. The
admittances of impedances Z^ and Zs are
added in complex form, and the reciprocal of
the resultant admittance is then the equivalent
impedance of section B. An alternative method
of finding the impedance of section B, as was
previously shown, is to use ZB = 2,iL-3
Through a similar procedure the
(Z4 + Z5).
A is determined.
The im
pedances of section A, section B, and Z\ are
impedance of section
Fio. 31.
Impedances
series-parallel.
in
in series and are, therefore, added in complex

This procedure yields the equivalent or resultant impedance Z,
of the series-parallel circuit.
The current I may then be found from

form.
V/Z..
Determination
of Branch Currents and Voltages.
After the resultant
the process is reversed to determine branch

The general procedure is to subtract the voltage
drop calculated for the known current and the impedance through
which it flows from the applied voltage to obtain the voltage drop
across the remainder of the circuit, or to calculate the drops across
various sections from the resultant current and the equivalent impedance
of the branch through which the current flows.
For example, in Fig. 31.
the drop across section A is the product of equivalent impedance Z.t of
that section and the current I. The current through each of the parallel
impedances is then determined by dividing this drop by the impedance
of the particular branch or, if the admittances have been determined,
by multiplying the voltage drop across the branch by the particular
branch admittance. A similar procedure can be followed for section B.
current
is determined,
voltages and currents.
and so on.
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Ch. V
129
Example 8. Calculate current, power, and power factor for each impedance
shown in Fig. 32, and the total current and power and the power factor of the whole
combination.
1
6-J8
= 0.06
+ jO.08 mho
0.16
- jO.12 mho
Y/e
YP<, =
0.22
- jO.04 mho
'"
(0.22
(0.22
-jO.04)
+J0.04)
(0.22 +J0.04)
= 4.4
+ jO.8 ohms
i.6n
3/1

Fio.
An
alternative
32.
Circuit for example 8.
method is:
6-J8
Z^+Z,,,
4+J3
= 4.4
+ jO.8 ohms
Ze/ + Z/B = 1.6 + J7.2 + 4.4 + J0.8 = 6 +
100/0
w + t,'i'
- 6 - j8
= 10
/-53.2
=6X100+0X8
or
= (6
Ve/ = Ie/Z,/
= 73.8/24.4
- I./Z,/
- J8)(1.6
volts
44.7/-42.80 volts
= 100
j8 ohms
amperes
= 600 watts
+ J7.2)
= 67.2
- 67.2 - J30.4
+ J30.4
= 32.8
J30.4
Or, more directly,

=
V/fl
/-42.8
lab =
+j0.08)
10.3 amperes
- J30.4)(0.16 - J0.12)
-79.7 amperes
= 8.95
-70.
= 8.95
- J30.4
-J8.8
Ld
(32.8
-)-
= 1.6
32.8
volts
jO.8 = 4.48
led = V/oY.d
The
+ jO.8)
= V/0Y,,t = (32.8 r- j30.4)(0.06

= 4.4
or
- j8)(4.4
IZ/0 = (6
= 44.7
a.
SINUSOIDAL
130
- j8 - 4.4 - jO.8
= 1.6
- J8.8
"amperes
]>owers in the various branches may now lie determined in terms of principles
v'i'
= 144.32
Pcd
= 320 watts
Pf,
(67.2) (6) + (30.4)
Pc!
/V
Pee
= 100
(-8)
Pcd +
= 600
120
0.6 lead
Pff
= 160
320 + 160 = 600 watts
= 0.8 lag
Problem. 10. Study through the details of the above example and draw vector
voltage scale of 25 volts per inch
V,/, Lj,, I,<j, and V/9. Employ
diagram of V,
amperes per inch.
and a current scule of
2
I,
to exaggerate
the effect of some
of
It has been shown that for certain conditions

Series-Parallel Tuning.
parallel resonance yields maximum impedance and that series resonance
minimum impedance.
These
gives
facts suggest that
combination
these two phenomena may be used
cer
tain frequency and minimize the effect

that
An arrangement
another.
shown in Fig. 33. Th>
does this
Fio. 33. Series-parallel tuning circuit.

is
known as series-parallel
procedure
tuning. To illustrate, assume that two waves, one of 10,000 cycles
and the other of 20,000 cycles, are impressed at ab and that
L,
it
is
of

243.2
watts
= 403.2
= 160 watts
+ 82)(1.6)
= P,lt>
((\-
Check:
(-30.4X-8.8)
+ 267.52
(-30.4X0.8)
= 120 watts
24.32
(32.8)(1.6)
= 52.48
or
= (32.8)(4.4)
= vi
/Ju*
previously considered.
SERIES-PARALLEL TUNING
Ch. V
131
is desired to detect the 10,000-cycle wave at D. Obviously as much

10,000-cycle current through D as can be obtained is desired, and as
little as possible of the 20,000-cycle wave is to be tolerated. Hence
the parallel branches of capacitance and inductance are adjusted for
parallel resonance at 20,000 cycles. Then the 20,000-cycle wave en
counters a high impedance, and little current due to it will flow through
D. For the 10,000-cycle wave a little thought will show that the
parallel circuit acts as an inductance.
If a capacitance is placed in
series with the parallel circuit de and its reactance for the 10,000-cycle
frequency is made equal to the equivalent inductive reactance of the
parallel circuit de for this same frequency, the circuit from a to b will
be in series resonance for the 10,000-cycle wave. The current through
D for the 10,000-cycle wave, therefore, will be large, whereas parallel
resonance from d to e for the 20,000-cycle frequency will allow only a
small 20,000-cycle current to flow through D.
Example 9. Assume L\ to have 0.005 henry inductance and 50 ohms resistance.
Neglect resistance of the condensers. Parallel resonance for 20,000 cycles obtains
when
fez, = be
uO.005
502
u2 (0.005 )2

= 2*- 20,000
where
= 12.57
104
50
e
50* +
=
2,i,
For
-^50
radians per second
50
0.005V
= 7946 ohms
10,000 cycles,
YCI
= J2*- 10,000
1.257 10~8
50+ ,0.005X2.10,000
Yd.
Zd* =
YCI + YL1
105
49.2-J231
= 49.3
10~s
j79 X
10~5
- J231
mho
10~6
mho
Since 413 ohms is the equivalent reactance of the divided circuit, a condensive
reactance of 413 ohms is required to produce series resonance. Then 2at, = 88.1
ohms for 10,000 cycles.
For
SINUSOIDAL
132
20,000
Ch. V
cycles,
J413
=
Zad =
= 7946
Zab
7946
88.1
ZOMO.OOO
J206.5 ohms
or
j'206.5
7946 ohms approximately
= 90.2
Hence for equal impressed voltages across ab, the value of the 20,000-cycle current
be about
of the value of the 10,000-cycle current.
will
The student should devise the explanation to show that if the 10,000and the 20,000-cycle wave detected,
an inductance would have to be substituted for the condenser between
cycle wave is to be suppressed
a and d.
.^,-^Lw
vvvv-vjjjouc--
FIG. 34.
'V
Co
l(2
j,^
See Problem 11.
is
is
it
is
is
small resistance presumably)

to be placed in series with Ro to accomplish the
above-stated tuning effect.
(a) Solve for LI, which will put the parallel circuit be into parallel resonance at
15,000 cycles.
c
to
at 45,000 cycles with L\ set
(6) Calculate the equivalent impedance from
Is be predominantly capacitive or predominantly
at its 15,000-cyclc resonant value.
inductive at 45,000 cycles?
(c) What type of reactance (inductive or capacitive) must be placed in senes
with Ro to put the branch ab into series resonance?
Calculate the value of Lo or
required to put the branch ab into series resonance at 45,000 cycles.
Co which
(d) Assuming that the branch 06 has been put into series resonance at 45,000
the actual impedance from a to
at 45,000 cycles? at 15,000 cycles?
cycles, what
Outline the above procedure for the reverse tuning effect, that
is,
is
is
for circuit ab
pass 15,000 cycles and block 45,000 cycles.

= 2.17 or 0.0835 millihenry.
Use 2.17 for lower conductance.
Ans.: (a)
= 0.69 J79.9 ohms, predominantly capacitive.
(6) Zfc
= 0.283 millihenry.
(c)
(d) ZoMs.ooo = 20.69 ohms. Zaku.ow = 1103 ohms.
LI

is
of
/if
is
is
Problem 11. The circuit ab of Fig. 34

to pass
45,000-cycle current with
minimum impedance and
to block a 15,000-cycle current as effectively as possible,
RI, the resistance
are fixed.
fto = 20 ohms, R\ = 40 ohms, and Cj = 0.05
the Cj branch,
assumed to be negligibly small. L\
capable of being varied
over the required range,
being assumed that the resistance of branch
40 ohm?
when LI
set at the desired value.
Either a fixed Co or fixed Lo (of negligibly
to
Ch. V
IMPEDANCE MATCHING AND POWER TRANSFER
133
A common
Impedance Matching and Maximum Power Transfer.
problem in impedance matching is to determine the load impedance
which will allow the maximum power to be
transferred to the load from some generating
device having a constant generated voltage, Eg.
Let Fig. 35 represent such an arrangement and
consider R\ to represent the sum of the internal
resistance of the generating device and the
resistance of the connecting lines. Also assume
Fio. 35. Generator con
nected to a load through
X\ to be the combined reactance of the line and
line impedance.
internal reactance of the generating device.
The solution is obtained by expressing the power at the receiver alge
braically and then finding the maximum value of the expression.
Let
the receiver impedance be represented by Rr and Xr. If the receiver
is a two-terminal network, RT and XT are its equivalent series parameters.
Thus
In order to
Pr
V(R1 + Rr)2
I2Rr
Eg Rr
(Rl +
Rrf
+ (Xi + Xr)
(56)
make the derivation easily applicable to all conditions, the
ratio of XT JRT will

Ea
be represented
XT
Pr
by
k.
Then
kRr
and
E2Rr
(57)
Setting dPT/dRr = 0 and solving for Rr give

(58)
"vR\+X\.
Substituting equation (58) in equation

where Z\ =
(57), expanding the terms in the denominator, and simplifying give
Ea
2Zi
Equation
of
Vl
k2
(59) gives the maximum power for any value of k, the ratio
To find the value of k that yields the greatest maximum
XT/Rrit is necessary simply to set dPm^/dk
power,
(59)
+ 2(Ri +
= 0 and
solve for k.
SINUSOIDAL
134
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
SINGLE-PHASE
Ch. Y
Then
k =
f1
KI
(60)
Substituting equation (60) in equation (59) yields

* max max
""
2
'
(O 1 }
It
is obvious from equation (61) that the greatest maximum power will
occur when the minus sign is used or when A; = Xi/Ri.
For this case
?
Je
. rj
MI-; , max
4/t i
Since Rr cannot be negative in a dissipativc network, Xr must be minus

Hence Xr is condensive if Xi is inductive, and
to make fc negative.
vice versa.
Also for this condition, from equation (58),
+ X,2
Vi
xfiRf
Rv
VRi2 + X,2
VR^
Also for the greatest maximum power Xr
(Xi/Ri) R\
~î-
and
the
xf
kRr
(Xi/Ri)
impedance
reactances
In short, the receiver impedance
opposite signs.
Rr
must equal
must be of
must be the conju
As would be
Since RI and Rr
expected, the circuit is tuned for series resonance.
are equal and the current is the same in both, one-half the power input
is dissipated in the generator and line, and one-half is given to the
receiver.
The efficiency of transmission for the greatest maximum
power
is,
gate of the combined
generator
and
line
impedance.
therefore, 50 per cent.
Constant potential power systems are not designed to operate on

transfer, but most low-current circuits
Impedance matching
therefore, of considerable
are so designed.
in
all
communication
and much attention has
networks,
importance
been given to this phase of circuit analysis by communication engineers.
jl
is,
the basis of maximum power
ohms and
generating device has an impedance of 0.5
Problem 12.
At what load will maximum power
connected to a load by a line of 1.5
j'4 ohms.
If the generated voltage 20 volts, what the power received
transfer be realized?
Find the line loss and
by the load when adjusted for maximum power transfer?
is
is
is
Ziottd
ohms.
Ptine loss = 37.5 watts.
= 50 watts at receiver.
Pgen Ices = 12.5 watts
Pmaxmax
Am.:
j5
loss in the generating device.

2

the receiver
Hence
plus line impedance,
the generator
THE SUPERPOSITION
Ch. V
Problem
13.
If
THEOREM
a load impedance having a ratio of
X/R
135
= 5 is used at the end
of the line in Problem
Wliat
An*.:

12, find the load impedance for maximum power transfer.

power the load can receive?
For positive k, P = 3.675 watts. ZL = 1.056 + J5.28 ohms.
For negative k, P = 45.2 watts. ZL = 1.056
ohms.
j'5.28
is the maximum
inductors, capacitors, vacuum tubes, and

Networks.
Resistors,
sources of emf may be linked together in all conceivable forms.
Most
of the combinations, and almost all of those which contain emf's in
more than one branch, cannot be solved by simple series-parallel circuit
Such combinations
theory alone, as previously outlined in this chapter.
Networks that contain sources of emf or
may be classed as networks.
power are sometimes called active, whereas those that do not contain
any internal emf's or sources of power are called passive networks.
Networks are said to be linear when the current in all branches is
Thus
directly proportional to the driving voltage or emf impressed.
a network containing iron-core inductance coils and resistances that
vary with current strength are non-linear. Networks may be com
Bilateral elements are those
posed of bilateral or unilateral elements.
resistance, and capacitance which
circuit elements like inductance,
transmit current equally well in either direction. Unilateral elements
are those circuit elements like rectifiers and vacuum tubes which transmit
effectively in only one direction.
Through the application of a few simple network theorems, certain
combinations of circuit elements which are not solvable by ordinary
series-parallel circuit theory directly may be solved quite readily.
The Superposition Theorem. The current which flows at any point
or the voltage between any two points in a linear network, as a result
of the simultaneous action of a number of emf's distributed throughout
the network, is the sum of the currents or voltages at these points
which would exist if each source of emf were considered separately,
each of the other sources being replaced at that time by their internal
This theorem states that each emf in a network may be
impedances.
treated as acting independently and the current in any branch of a
network due to the simultaneous action of all emf's is the vector sum
of the currents in the particular branch produced by each emf acting
It is important to keep all circuit elements closed or con
separately.
All the emf's except the one for
nected as they are in the network.
which currents are being calculated are assumed to be zero. Any
impedances associated with the source of emf must be left connected
in the network whether the emf is assumed to be zero or whether it is
the one considered as an independent driving voltage.
SINUSOIDAL
136
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
SINGLE-PHASK
Example 10. Calculate the current in branch

Assume
Solution:
Z6/
- J3
ref
+ led
= Zo*,
+ Zc/
= 5.69
+ jO.462 ohms
-7
= 17.43
5.69 + jO.462
- j3 +
jl. 417
for the network of Fig. 36.
= 3.69
+ 2 + j4)
j3 +
= 1 +
+ JO
100
Ibcl
(3
be
36.
-f
./0.462 ohms
3.69 + jO.462
amperes
Fio.
CH. V
See example
10.
Now assume
Eal =0

50/30
=
=
- fi.5
lf,2fa
It,i
= 15.77
2 +
Zed
+ Zro =
Z/
4.5
1,62
-J3
(1
Z,a =
+ j5 +
+j3)(2+j4)
2+ j4
- jS +
+ jO.5
+ jO.5 ohms
= 4.5
j'2.5 ohms
5 + .78.34 amperes
(5+j8.34)(1.5+j0.5)
16^
1.5
= 1.5
= Ibd
- Us
- J8.917 amperes
= 17.43
in
a>
= 1.66
j'7.50 amperes
- jl.417 -
1.66
- J7.SO
in
Ec','-100
Ecf|/=100 /90
Fio.
Problem
14.
37.
Sec Problem 14.
Calculate the current in branch ac for Fig.' 37.
Ans.:
lac = 1.76
j3. 14 amperes.
Ch.
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
If
Reciprocity Theorem.
in a
a
network
current
137
any source of emf, E, located at one point
of linear bilateral circuit elements,
composed
produces
at a second point in the network, the same source of emf,
point will produce the same current
E, acting at the second
at the
first point.
E=ioo
/a
FIG. 38.
Sec example
11.
The application of the above theorem may
l>e illustrated as follows.

shown in Fig. 38.
The reciprocity theorem states that, if 100
volts are inserted in be and branch ef is left closed, the current flowing in ef will
then be exactly the same as the current that flowed in be when this same voltage
was applied at ej.
To verify this theorem the current in be will be calculated for
the 100 volts at ef.
Example
11.
Given the network

Z,0 + Zoc = 2
Vt,
100
7
Zec
a
R7 +
8.67
- j2 +
+ jO
- jl.732)(6.67
S\ + J26
3
= 8.67
+ jl.33 ohms
'
j. jl.33
i
I^Z^ = (11.27
6.67 + J3.33
+ J3.33)
+ j4
= 81
+J26
volte
ampe
Now assume that 100 volts are inserted in branch rb and that ef remains closed.
ff will be calculated by a procedure similar to that shown above.
The current in
Zra/
= 3
+J4 +
V0/ = (18.6
l,f
1.352
-J9.02)
- jl.892
(1.352
=
13.88
= 4.352
- jl.892)
which is the same as the current Ij,c above.
+j2.108ohms
= 8.07
j'9.84 amperes
-J47.4
volts
138
SINUSOIDAL
CA.
From the reciprocity theorem it follows that the ratio of the ernf in
branch 1 of a linear bilateral network to the current it causes in branch
2 is the same as the ratio of a voltage placed in branch 2 to the current
it would cause in branch 1. This ratio of voltage in one branch to
the current in another branch is called the transfer impedance.
Problem 16. Make use of the first set of calculations for Fig. 38 when the emf
is inserted in fe and with the aid of the reciprocity theorem find the current in/f if
Verify your result by actually calculating the
100 volts are inserted in branch ad.
current in fe when 100 volts are inserted in branch ad.
Ans.:
2.6
+j8.1
amperes.
Thevenin's Theorem. If an impedance Z is connected between any

two points of an energized network, the resulting current I through
this impedance is the ratio of the potential difference V between these
points, prior to connection, divided by the sum of the connected im
pedance Z and the impedance
Z0, where Z0 is the impedance
of the rest
of the network looking back into the network from the points across-
which impedance Z
must be assumed to be
Example 12.
In evaluating
all sources of emf

zero and replaced by their internal impedances.
is connected.
For the network shown in Fig.
Z0
39 the voltage drop at 06 is found
as follows:
100/0
_00
=

Vcd =Va6
10/90" amperes
(10/90)(20/-90)
Now suppose that the current through

a
j 10
200/0 volts
a load impedance
Zj,
30/0 ohms
con
to TheVenin's theorem, the current is Vdi

divided by the suin of the load impedance and the
impedance looking into the network at ab.
Thus
the impedance looking into the network at ah (de,ignated by Zo) when the emf in the branch ef i>
According
nected across ab is desired.

j 10
assumed zero is:

.,.,
FIG. 39.
See example
This result may
12.
According
200 /0_
(J10)(-;20)
to Thevenin's
theorem:
amperes
be chocked by the usual series-parallel circuit
Z,j
(30+jlO)(-j20)
30 + .;10
- J20
= 12 ?16 ohms
theory as follows:
Ch.
THE NODAL METHOD
Y
Zrf,
X~
jlO
T^
12
12
jG
Vr(, = (6.667
= 6-667
- J66.67
j
oO ~|~ 10
- j6 ohms
= 12
+ >3.333 amperes
- J16)
+ j3.333)(12
133.3
- j!6
139
= 3.333
= 133.3
- J3.333
which is the same as that obtained by Thevenin's
- j66.67
= 4.72
volts
-45
amperes
theorem.
jsn
J5/1
J20/1
Fio.
See Problem 16.
40.
In
Problem 16.
the circuit of Fig. 40, the impedance of the generator is assumed

Find the impedance Z looking
into the terminals 06 as employed in applying TheVenin's theorem.
As may be
Calculate the current in a load
easily shown, the drop across ab is 150 0 volts.
low enough so that it may be considered to be zero.
impedance
Zj,
= 10
j7.5 ohms connected across ab.

Ans.: Zo = J7.5 ohms,
IL
15
'0 amperes.

The Nodal Method.
The method ordinarily employed in analyzing

circuits consists in establishing the necessary number of voltage equi
librium equations and solving for the currents.
In many cases, par
ticularly in vacuum tube circuits, it is desirable to employ current
equilibrium
for
the
equations
method,
known
method,
consists
writing
and
The
voltages.
as
the
solve
nodal
essentially
in
Kirchhoff s current law at
or junctions of the net-
*|
the nodes
number of
times to effect a solution for
in which We
Various
voltages
required
work
the
might
be interested.
..
latter
Voltage sources may he transformed

Flo_ 4l
to equivalent current sources shown in Figs.
42 and 43.
In its simplest sense, a node of

a network is any accessible terminal
difference with respect to the other
work shown in Fig. 41 might be
Only
having nodes a, b, c, and d.
which is at a significant potential

In this sense, the net
terminals.
a four-node network
considered
the junction points (c and d) of
SINUSOIDAL
140
the network, however,

independent
SINGLE-PHASE
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
need be considered
Ck. V
nodes since the number of
nodes is the number of junctions minus one.
This will
become more evident as we proceed.
Before the nodal method of analysis can be applied to voltage sources

having internal impedance, these voltage sources must be transformed
to equivalent current sources in accordance with the following principles.
(If a specified voltage source is assumed to have zero impedance,

follows that the potential difference
generator
between
the
terminals of
it
the
is specified and hence does not enter the analysis as an un
known potential difference. )

In order to illustrate the transformation of a voltage source having
internal impedance to an equivalent current source, let us suppose
that Zi of Fig. 41 is actually the internal impedance of the Ea voltage
Let Vc be the potential
generator, thus eliminating point a as a node.
of node c relative to node d.
Applying Kirchhoff 's voltage law we have
IxZi +
Vc = E0
(63)
or
FIG. 42.
Equivalent
of Ea voltage
current source
source of Fig. 14.
FKJ. 43. Equivalent current source

of Et voltage source of Fig. 41.
in
2,\
If Ea and Zl are specified quantities, equation (64) states that the

current flowing into node c (/i) is equal to a specified current (Ea/Zi)
The specified current (E0/Zi) may be con
minus a current (Vc/ZJ.
sidered as a current source across nodes c and d, provided that a Zi path
is placed in parallel with this source to account for the (Vc/Zj) current
in equation (64). Thus the voltage source Ea in series with
shown
in Fig. 41 may be replaced with the circuit configuration shown
similar manner the E& source and the impedance Zo
Fig. 42. In
be
replaced with the configuration shown in Fig. 43.
may
a

It will be observed in equation (63) that the inclusion of the potential

of node d (Vd) is unnecessary and in general any node may be selected
as a reference node from which to reckon all other nodal potentials.
THE NODAL METHOD
Ch. V
141
If
now these equivalent current sources are used in Fig. 41 instead

the voltage sources, Fig. 41 takes the form shown in Fig. 44.
Em
of
ploying Fig.
current equation for the node c can

terms of voltage drops and admittances as follows:
44, the
jVc
Y3VC
written in
Y,Ea + Y2E6
Y2VC =
(current leaving node c)
be
(65)
(current entering node c)
Vc can be obtained from equation (65) directly in terms of known

quantities and all currents thereby calculated.
FIQ. 44.
Example
Transformation of the circuit shown in Fig. 41.
Assume the data for Fig.
13.
to be as follows: Ea = 100
41
/(T
volts,
E6 = 50/90 volts, Zi = 5/0 ohms, Z2 = 10/36.9 ohms, andZ3 = 20/53.1 ohms.

the voltage Vf and currents Ii,
From equation (65),
Find

Vc(Yi
+ Y2 +
\5/!
Y,)
YjE., + Y2E,,
20/53.1
10/36.9"
Ye (0.2 + 0.08
- jO.06
Ve = 71.6/27.76
I2, and Is.
+ 0.03
volts
100/0
50/90
5/0
10/36.9
- jO.04)
= 20 +
<
I3 = VCY3 = (71.6/27.76)(0.05/-53.1)
As
seen from Fig. 42,
I,
E0Y,
and, from Fig.

12 = EfcYj
- VcYt
(0.2/0)
(O.I/ -36.9) (50/00
(100 10^
VCY2
-4.05 +
j'5.134
3.58/ -25.34 amperes
- 71.6/27.76)
43,
5/53.1
= 7.35
>6.66 amperes
- 71.6/27.76)
amperes
The nodal method of analysis
usually superior to the mesh-current

method if the number of nodes (after transformation to current sources)
If AT represents the
does not exceed the number of meshes or loops.
is
142
SINUSOIDAL
Ch. V
number of nodes in a network, only N I independent node equations

are required, and these are obtained by applying Kirchhoff's current
law to N I nodes.
To arrive at the method of formulating a general system of nodal
First,
equations, assume that Fig. 45o is the network to be solved.

FIG. 45o.
FIG.
replace
456.
the voltage
A network having two
voltage
sources.
Transformation of circuit shown in Fig. 45a.
sources by constant-current sources as shown in
Fig. 456. Assume one node as the reference node, node 4 in this case.
The output of the constant-current generator a is Ea Z0 = Ii. Sim
ilarly the output of constant-current generator b is E(,/Zb = I3. To
obtain the current in any impedance, the voltage drop across the im
The voltage drop can al
pedance is multiplied by the admittance.
Remembering that
ways be obtained in terms of the nodal voltages.
THE NODAL METHOD
Ch. V
the voltage drop from node
143
to node 2 is the sum of the drops encoun

tered in going from node 1 to 2 by any path, we may write V12 = V14 +
Hence I12 = (Y!
Application of KirchV42 = V!
V2.
V2)Y12.
hofl's current law to node 1 yields
1
YV! +
Y^
+ Y12(VL
V2) + Y13(V!
or
(Ya +
The
Y! +
+ Y13)V!
Y12
Y12V2
sum of all the admittances from node
- V3)
It
(66)
Y13V3
I,
(67)
to all other nodes is called

the self-admittance and is designated by Yn. The admittance of the
impedance connecting node 1 to any other node, say n, is called
the mutual admittance, Yln. Thus Y12, Y13, etc., are mutual admit
tances. When these notations are used, equation (67) becomes
Y,,V,
Similarly, for node
Y33 = Y13
3,
+ Y3 +
Y23
Y22V2
An extension of equations
system of nodal equations

Y,,V,
- YnlVj
Y21V,
Y13V3
= Ix
(68)
i
Y33V3
where
Y12V2
Y32V2
+ Y6.
Y21V!
- Y3IVt
= I3
And, for node
- Y23V3
(69)
2,
= 0
(70)
(68), (69), and (70) will yield the general

for an n-node system as follows.
+
- Yn2V2 - Yn3V3 -
I,
Y12V2
Y13V3
YlnVn
Y22V2
Y23V3
Y2nVn = I2
As previously defined, Ii, I2,
+ YnBVn
and
= !
General system
>of
nodal
equations
! are the output currents
of
toward the various nodes.

The nodal voltages in the general system of equations above may be
After some practice with these systematic
solved for by determinants.
forms of solution, the determinant forms can be established from an
inspection of the network after all specified voltage generators have
to equivalent current generators.
The writing of
been transformed
the current equations as shown above can therefore be dispensed with
and the analysis reduced to a simple routine procedure.
In order to appreciate fully the usefulness of the nodal method, one
should apply it to vacuum tube circuits where the plate-to-cathode
path of the tube functions as a current sink (or negative current source).
This application, however, presupposes an elementary knowledge of
the functioning of a vacuum tube, and for this reason the following
the constant-current generators
directed
SINUSOIDAL
144
Ch. V
may be omitted without loss of continuity by those readers

who have no knowledge of the performance of a vacuum tube.
example
Example 14. The Equivalent Plate Circuit of a Vacuum Tube. For the present,
we may accept the fact that the plate current, it, of a vacuum tube as shown in
Fig. 4Ga is a function of both the plate voltage, b, and the control grid voltage, e,.
Both of these potentials are relative to the cathode labeled k, as indicated in Fig. 46a.
Aet
deb
dift
if
+,
(71)
^GC
dec
is
if
where rp = deb/pit
and gm = dit/def
f-
the change in plate voltage

called ea, we have
(72)
Qme,
or plate resistance of the vacuum tube,

For
conductance or transconductance.
called the variational

called the mutual
(a)
(6)
The a-c equivalent of (a)
shown in (6).
is
FIG. 46.
The
particular condition of d-c operation both rp and gm are usually known.
plate current of the vacuum tube so biased that the control grid current
zero
this equation which permits the use of the equivalent
given by equation (72), and
is
is
it
is
circuit shown in Fig.
is
if
if
is
466 for the plate-to-cathode portion of the vacuum tube shown

in Fig. 46a.
In Fig. 46 we may replace the instantaneous values of the e's and the i's with
sinusoidal time variation of cln
assumed and
at no time
effective values
e^
It will be observed that
so large u-s to permit the control grid to draw current.
it
current sink (y,,iCg) in parallel with a resistance

the vacuum tube functions as
path, namely, the rp path in Fig. 46.
In order to illustrate further the application of the nodal method in a numerical
be required to find Kout in Fig. 46 if:
case let
=
Ea
gm = 200
0.5/0 volt
micromhos
Eto
lO^5 mho
gm = 2000
or
lO"6 mho
fin = 0.707 sin 3770/ volt
10~6
=
ffp
Jtb = 50,000 ohms
Gb =
#o = 200,000 ohms
Go = 0.5
10-5 mho
YJI
jaC
= 0.00265
rp = 20,000 ohms

and voltage are
if
dib
the change in plate current Aij,

called ip,
called ep, and
the change in grid voltage Aec
is is
Aet
is
and,
values of current
is
Ait
~1~
If only small changes from the d-c operating

involved, we may write
Yi2
mho
= ;10~5 mho
Applying Kirchhoff's current law to node
- YiiV2
-ffmEj
-ff
-100 X
145
in Fig. 466, we obtain
- V2)
where,
CIRCUITS
EQUIVALENCE OF SPECIAL
Ch.V
10~5
ampere
in this particular case,
YH
YU
jaC
(7+jl)10-5mho
(the self -admittance of node 1) = gp + GI, +
Y2i (the mutual admittance between nodes
and 2)
Applying the current law to node 2:

G0V2 + >,C(V2
-V,)
=0
Y22V2
= 0
or
-Y21V, +
where
Y22 (the self-admittance
of node 2)
= G0
juC
= (0.5 +
jl )
10~5
mho
The detailed applications
of the current law can be dispensed with as soon as the

procedure implied by the subscripts attached to the Y's is understood.
The determinant form of the solution for V2 is:
systematized
Yu
-YM
V,

The amplification
(7+jl)
I,
o
Yn
-Y,z
Y2i
Y2o
-100
-jl
-jl
(7+jl)
-jl
-jioo
100/-900
3.5+J7.5
8.27/65
(0.5
= 12.08
10-'
+jl)
xio-10
'-155
volts
of the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 46 is
,.
12.08/-155
Em
0.5/0
24.16/-155"
which indicates that the magnitude

input voltage and that the output
of the output voltage is 24.16 times that of the

voltage lags the input voltage by 155 or 155/360
part of a cycle.
Equivalence
48
in
of Special Circuits (Wyes and Deltas).
Figures
47 and
show two types of circuits which are very commonly encountered

the reduction of electrical networks.
The first is called a delta
It is possible to substitute a wyeFig. 48 is called a wye.

system of impedances for a delta system, and vice versa, if
proper values are given to the substituted impedances.
Suppose that
it is desired to substitute a wye for a given delta.
The two systems
will be exactly equivalent if the impedance between any pair of lines
A, B, and C, Fig. 49, for the delta is the same as that between the cor
system;
connected
SINUSOIDAL
140
pair for the wye when the third line is broken.

condition is imposed, the following equations are obtained.
responding
Line A open:
Zc + ZB
i +

FIG. 49.
Zi +
ZA + ZB =
Fin. 47.
Zi +
Za
(74)
Z3
Z2(Zl + Za)
Zl +
Z2
Delta.
If this
(73,1
Z3
Zi(Z2 + Z3)
Line B open:
Line C open:
Za)
Ch. V
(75)
Z3
FIG. 48.
Wye.
and delta systems
of
Solution of these three equations simultaneously for ZA, ZR, and Zc

terms of the impedances Z\, Z2, and Z3 gives the following:
in
Circuit for establishment
of equivalence
impedances*.
between
wye
Z,Z2
(76)
Z,
Z.,
Z3
(77)
(78)
CA.
CIRCUITS
EQUIVALENCE OF SPECIAL
(77), and (78), the values of the wye imped
(76),
From equations
147
ZB, and Zc that will replace a system of delta impedances

and Z3 may be found.
ances Z.4,
Zi,
Z2,
results
These
are
remem
easily
when it is observed that the
bered
denominators are all the same and

to
equal
the
sum
three
The numerator
delta impedances.
100 volts
is the product of the two
tor Z.i
which connect
Similarly the numerator
is the product of Z,%
impedances
delta
to Z.4.
for
the
of
ZB
and Z
6.12
10.16/2
It should
that the
noticed
be
pedances
Ho.
special case of balanced
delta im
See example
15.
which are also balanced and equal to
yields wye impedances,
Zy
50.
and
= 3Z
Find / for the circuit and constants shown in Fig. 50. First a
Example 16.
The wye and its corresponding impedances are
substituted for the delta abr.
wye is
shown dotted.
(4
+>12)(4
(1
ZC =
>6)
-0.12
+ J12X3)
(1
-;6)
+ (3+jO)
ZB =
(1
+j\2)
8.6
- jl.2ohms
- J2.W ohms
2.4 + J2.7 ohms
the circuit appears as shown in Fig.

results, the method of solution of
circuit
that
a
series-parallel
is apparent
Combining the parallel branches results
which has been given in a previous article.
in the circuit shown in Fig. 52.
Thus
the above impedances are substituted,
j'4
It
+ J8 ohms
+J8)(3
- J4)
450
81
Znd =
ohms
- J200
+
100
13.245
16
+ jO
-J4)
(6
Zncd = 3
(6
After
51.
(3

ZA =
+J8)
= 4.645
- J3.205
50(9
-J4)
-J4)
(9+j4)(9
- J2.065 ohms
= 7.14
+ jl.76
= 7.355 /14 amperes
SINUSOIDAL
148
CM'
8.6-J1.2
n
2.4 + J2.7
1
' '
C
I
,
^6.12
tJ
Vmj = VLnA
(36.73
= (5.45
-0.64
volts
4- J6.57
+ J33.47 volte
Vuj = Van 4- Vn6 = 63.51

= 56.11
4- J6.57
(1
(56.11
(4
3.19
- J4.96
-J12)
-J12)
+>12)(1
+J3.32)(44-J6)
- ji
+3.93 4-J6.73
accuracy of 7.14 + j'1.76 amperes.

V,* = Vrn +
=
Ic5 =
4- J6.57 volte
0.64 4- J26.9
7.403
j'3.25
+J3. 32 volts
(62.874-J33.47X1
Check:
= 63.51
- j3.33)(-0.12 - J2.16)
- J3.25
4- Vnr = 63.51
= 62.87
- jl.2)
4-J5.09X2.4 +J2.7)
= (1.69
-7.403
V,1C = Van
- J3.33 amperes
4- j'26.9 volts
V,,6 = InuZnk
=
= 1.69
+ jl.76)(8.6
= IZan = (7.14
Vnr = !,.

5.45 + j'5.09 amperes
;8)
-J6.57)(6
(6+j8)(6 -J8)
(36.73
are retraced as follows:
- J2.065)
(7.14 +jl.76)(4.645
- J6.57 volts
- J6.5
= 36.73
Reduction
1*'8- 51-
To find the currents in the various branches, the steps
Va
|4.645-i2.06J
Hcdurtion from Fig. 50.
FIG. 51.
1. M
FIG. 52.
fronl
g 10.16
<
^k
^- ~.6.7
'
| 8.6-11.2
F0.12-J2.16|
;
>0.6
to voiis
V,,(,
-6.763
:
= 0.64
= 3.19
= 7.12
+J1.77, which is within
- J26.9 -
j'4.96 amperes
= 3.93 4- j'6.73 amperes
- J30.15 volts
J'
-2.254
7.403
- j3.25
- jlO.05 amperes
slide-rule
EQUIVALENCE OF SPECIAL CIRCUITS
Ch. V
Ird =
= 5.444
which checks
- J4.96
!<* = 3.19
lab =
= 1.68
+ 2.254 + J10.05
+ J5.09 amperes
Incrf.
IM
149
-2.254
- jlO.05 +
3.93 + J6.73
j'3.32 amperes
There are a few occasions when it is convenient and desirable to

substitute an equivalent delta for a wye. This is simply the problem
of finding the values of Z\, and Z%, and Za that will replace the values
of ZA, and Zg, and Zc in Fig. 49. The solution is obtained when equa
tions (73), (74), and (75) are solved algebraically for the impedances
Zi, Zj, and Z$ in terms of the impedances ZA, ZB, and Zc. It will
usually be found simpler to solve for these quantities from equations
(76), (77), and (78), which were derived from equations (73), (74), and
(75). The solution gives
+ ZflZp +
ZeZ..|
ZcZ.4

Zs =
Z.iZn
+ Z/jZe + ZcZ..i
^
ZA
r-
(80)
(81)
Equations (79), (80), and (81) are easy to write when it is observed
that the numerator of each is the same and equal to the sum of all
possible products of the three impedances when taken two at a time.
The denominator of Zi is the wye impedance that has no connection
to either extremity of Z^ Similar relations obtain for Z2 and Z3.
A
Fia.
Example 16.
53.
See example
FIG. 54.
16.
Equivalent delta of Fig. 53.
Find the delta that will replare the wye system shown in Fig.
(10)(6
148
-J8)
- J64
= 16
(6
- J8)(4
4+;3
- J28 ohms
+ J3) + (10)(4 + J3)
53.
SINUSOIDAL
150
148
148
- J64
From
j'64
= 14.8
14
jo
Ch. V
- j6.4ohms
+ j8 ohnis
these three impedances the equivalent delta is found as shown in Fig. 54.
Two commonly used types of networks are the T and TT configurations

in Fig. 55a and Fig. 556. Viewed as three-terminal
networks, these configurations will be recognized as the wye and delta.
The same formulas derived for changing a wye to an
respectively.
equivalent delta are therefore applicable for changing a T to an equiv
alent IT.
Likewise formulas for changing a delta to an equivalent wye
may be used to change a T to an equivalent T.
shown, respectively,
FIG. 55.
T-
(a)
network,
(6) w
network.
in transmission line and

kind, the T- and ^--sections
shown in Fig. 55 are usually considered as four-terminal networks be
cause these sections are inserted into a two-wire circuit and are con
"
"
"
sidered to have a pair of
input
terminals and a pair of " output
terminals.
The manipulation of T- and ir-sections as four-terminal
networks will be considered in detail in Chapters XII and XIII.
and
ir-sections
filter-section

(6)
(a)
are used extensively
calculations.
5/2
In
cases of this
30/1
8/1
18/1
3/2
100 volts
FIG. 56.
See Problems 17, IS, and 23.
PROBLEMS
the current through the impedances of Fig. 56. Find voltage
across
Draw the vector diagram showing the current and the
ab,
be, and nl.
drops
each
resistance
or reactance.
Calculate the power factor of
voltage drop across
circuit.'
the whole
18. Find all possible values of pure reactance which, when placed in series with
Find the power dis
the circuit of Fig. 56, will make the overall power factor 0.6.
for
this
condition.
the
circuit
in
sipated
17. Calculate
Ch.
PROBLEMS
151
19. A particular 110-volt, 60-cyclc, j-hp, single-phase induction motor has an

efficiency of 60 per cent and a power factor of 0.6 lagging at full load. This motor
is to be used temporarily on a 220-volt, 60-cyclc line. A resistor (non-inductive)
of suitable current capacity and of proper resistance is to be placed in series with
the motor.
(a) What value of resistance is required if the motor is to have 110 volts across
its terminals at rated full load?
(6) Draw the complete vector diagram (Vmotor, IRextenuu, I, and Vune) with Vmotor
as reference.
20. Two single-phase motors are connected in parallel across a 110-volt, 60-cyclc
source of supply.
Motor 1 is a split-phase induction type which takes a lagging
and motor 2 is a capacitor type which takes a leading current.
Find the
total power, the combined line current, and the resultant power factor of the two
current,
motors operating in parallel from the following
Per Unit
Horsepower
Motor
Output
Per Unit
Power Factor
Efficiency
data:
0.60
0.70
(lagging)
0.75
0.95
(leading)
21. A series circuit on which 100 volts is impressed consists of a 10-ohm resistance,
a 5-ohm condenser, a resistance R in which is lost 50 watts, and a reactance X taking
100 inductive vars.
Calculate all values of R and X to satisfy the conditions stated
complex form.
(b) Draw the complete vector diagram with V'iamp as reference.
(r ) What is the power factor of the combined lamp and choke coil in series?
23. Find the inductance or capacitance which may be inserted in the circuit of
Fig. 56 to put the entire circuit in resonance. Frequency 60 cycles.
rectangular
If
the impressed voltage on a series circuit containing 5 ohms resistance,

reactance at 60 cycles, and a variable capacitance is 100 volts,
find the maximum drop across the capacitance and the value of the capacitance
for this condition.
instead of the 5-ohm resistance,
100-ohm resistance
(6) Repeat the calculation
24. (a)
if,
100 ohms inductive
Compare the results in the two cases.

circuit dissipates 800 watts and also requires 1000 volt-amperes
100 volts.
Find the equivalent series resistance and
when the impressed voltage
possible reactances of this circuit.
used.
25.
series
is
is
26.
The frequency range of the pass band as previously
denned in this chapter

All resistance
of 200
is
a coil with
(6)
is
is
is
of 50
100 cycles when
coil having
used.
for an RLC circuit
assumed in the coil.
of the circuit
(a) Find the upper and lower frequency limits of the pass band.
If

and the corresponding currents for each of the combinations.

22. A toaster operates at 115 volts, 60 cycles, and 10 amperes and absorbs 1150
A choke coil is to be wound with a ratio of XL to R of 5, so
watts at its terminals.
that, if placed in series with the toaster on a 230-volt, 60-cycle line, the toaster will
have 115 volts across its terminals.
State Z in polar and in
(a) What is the impedance of the choke coil required?
used at the same resonant frequency as in (a), what
will be the frequency range of the
pass band?
152
'
SINUSOIDAL
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
SINGLE-PHASE
Ch. V
Given the RLC series circuit shown in Fig. 57.

(a) Find the resonant frequency of the series circuit.
(6) Find the Q of the series circuit at the resonant frequency.
27.
1000/3
100 ml)
V- 100 volts
Fio.
(c)
See Problem 27.
57.
At what angular velocities do the half-power points occur?
(d) Assuming that L is varied to obtain resonance, at what value of L would

Assume the frequency in this case to be constant at 159 kc.
VL
be maximum?
.31.25/1
V-100
volts
Fia.
Sec Problem 28.
58.

(a) What are the values of X L that will produce resonance?
(6) Find the magnitude of the maximum impedance obtainable with this circuit.
Assume that the frequency is held fixed.
(c) If RL is changed to 30 ohms (Re remaining the same) and L and C are made
9 millihenrys and 10 juf, respectively, what is the impedance looking into the circuit
28. Given the
at 100 cycles per second and 10,000 cycles per second?

(d) At what frequency will the circuit as designated in part (<) be in resonance?
29. In the following exercises, it is assumed that a coil having L henrys of in
ductance and K, ohms of series resistance is placed in resonance with a series con
denser C, so that
um
1/VLC.
(a) Show that Q, = t+nL/R, is

reactive factor (of the coil)
^power factor (of the coil)
(6) Show that
Power factor (of the coil) =
g.2 +
(c) Show that
,=
RI-
where w is the reactive energy stored in
dissipated power of the circuit.
w = (Li~/2)
Note:
and C at any time and
Rl=
is the average
constant.
+ (C'V2/2)
with an impedance Zj = 3 +j7.
What is the overall power factor?
Find the resultant impedance of the combination.
31. If 100 volts are impressed on the parallel impedances of Problem 30, find I\,
30.
An impedance Z\
= 8
j5
is in parallel
PROBLEMS
Ch. V
153
Draw the vector diagram of the circuit, showing

/2, and the resultant current.
each current, and the voltage drop across each parameter.
32. An impedance load consisting of 12 ohms resistance and 16 ohms inductive
reactance is connected across a 60-cycle, 100-volt source. Find the capacitance of
a condenser which may be paralleled with this load to bring the power factor to 1.
Assume negligible resistance for the condenser.
33. Work Problem 32 if a final power factor of 0.8 instead of 1 is desired.
Obtain
solutions for leading and lagging power factors.
34. Find the value of pure resistance which would be required in parallel with
the impedance load of Problem 32 to bring the resultant power factor to 0.8.
36. A capacitor branch having a ratio of X to R of 5 is paralleled with an impedance

The power factor
consisting of 4 ohms resistance and 3 ohms inductive reactance.
of the resulting circuit is 0.8 lead. Find the size of the capacitor in microfarads if
the frequency is 60 cycles.
36. A single-phase load on 200 volts takes 5 kw at 0.6 lagging power factor.
Find
the kva size of condenser which may be connected in parallel writh this motor to
bring the resultant power factor to 1.
37. Work Problem 36 if it is desired to bring the power factor to 0.9 lag instead
of to 1.
38. The load of Problem 36 is operated in parallel with a synchronous motor
that takes 8 kw at 0.5 leading power factor. What are the resultant current supplied
by the line and the power factor of the combination?

Over the period of a year, an industrial establishment takes an average load
at a (current) lagging power factor of 0.80.
(a) What is the annual fixed charge on the kva capacity required to serve this
establishment if 1 kva of installed capacity (boiler, generator, transmission line, and
transformers) costs $200? The fixed charge (consisting of interest, taxes, and
39.
of
2000 kw continuously
may be taken as 8 per cent of the investment.

part
Repeat
(6)
(a) assuming that the power factor of the establishment is unity.
40. What value of resistance should be placed in parallel with a 50-/if condenser
(Neglect the resistance
to give a combined power factor of 0.6 on a 60-cycle system?
of the condenser. )
41. Find the series-circuit resonant frequency of a 100-microhenry inductance

depreciation)
and
a H HI-M|Uf capacitance.
200 volts
60 cycles
Fio.
59.
See Problems 42, 43, and 44.
42. Find C to produce resonance in Fig. 59.

Re at resonance?
43.
Find the value of C in Fig.
59 which
How much power
is dissipated
in
will yield maximum impedance for the
whole circuit.
44. What minimum value of RC in Fig. 59 would prevent the possibility of attaining resonance by varying (7?
46. A fixed condenser is placed in parallel with a fixed resistance and variable
154
SINUSOIDAL
inductance
of negligible resistance as shown in Fig. 60. Show that the general

XL which will produce unity-power-factor resonance is:
Ch. V
expression for
Xc
Hint:
For unity p.f., bi,
= be-
Ic |/Xc=20ohms
I
R
- 8 ohms
XL (variable)
-V=120volts-
FIG. 60.
Sec Problems 45 and 46.
FIG. 61.
See Problem 48.
46. Refer to Fig. 60.
l\
|~~
(a) Draw a to-scale vector diagram of V, Ic and IKL for XL = 0.

(b) On the above diagram draw the loci of IRL and I for XL variable from 0 to
the values of XL
i/
(c) Determine
which will produce unity-power-factor
resonance either graphically or ana
lytically.
(d) Determine
the minimum value

either graphically or analytically,
and find the value of XL which pro
duces this minimum value of
I.
of
(a)IfL
= 0.050 henry,
48.
= 200 Mf,
0,
FIG. 62.
See Problems 49, 50, 52,

53, and 55.
10,000, 100,000, and 1,000,000 cycles.

= Rc = 1.0 ohm, find the resonant
and/?/,
C
If
If
frequency of the parallel branches shown in Fig. 61.

= 100 ^f, find the value of
= 0.050 henry,
(b)
KL = 20 ohms,
Rc which
will yield parallel resonance of the two branches at frequency of 45 cycles.
= 100 4, RL = 20 ohms, and Rc = 20 ohms, find the value of
that
(c)
will place the branches in parallel resonance irrespective of frequency.
the circuit
49. (a) Transform
shown in Fig. 62 to that shown in
energized with
ll'
If
are
current
1'
is
numerical
63,
Fig.
employing
values of g, &t, and l>c and as
suming that the operating angu
lar frequency
X 107 radians
per second.
(Results which are
per cent will
accurate to within
be considered satisfactory-.)
of Fig. 62
terminals
(b)
is
FIG. 63.
See Problem 49.
of
107 radians
milliamperes (at u> =
veloped across these terminals?
the Qp of the circuit?
(c) What

is
47.
connected
2-nf capacitance
20-ohm resistance.
in parallel with
Plot the magnitudes of the admittance
and impedance of the parallel combinalion against frequency for frequencies of
per second), what voltage
will
be de
Ch. V
PROBLEMS
155
60. Find the resistance component of Z in Fig. 62 in terms of L, R, C, and u,

assuming that R is constant.
n
= flzAng-:
(v-ir-
RVc*
(a) Find the angular frequency at which RZ of Problem 50 has its maximum
value, employing literal values of L, C, and R .
(6) What is the numerical value of the angular frequency for (a)?
Ans.: 4.987 X 107 radians per second,
51.
(c) Compare the above result with the approximate value of 1/N/LC.
What is the maximum numerical value of the resistance component of Z in
Fig. 62 as u> is varied from zero to infinity? (A result which is accurate to within
52.
per cent will be considered satisfactory.)

63. The series resistance of the 20 microhenry
ohms.
54.
What
is the Q of the coil at w
coil shown in Fig. 62 is R = 100
0.1/VXc
and at a =
A coil having L henrys of inductance and R, ohms of
in resonance with
a parallel
l/\/Zc?
series resistance is placed
condenser, C, having no appreciable series resistance
at an angular frequency of wm which is essentially equal to

Show that Qf = umC/g is essentially equal to
/ V LC.
fi2 <3Co>m2L2.
where V is the effective voltage across the parallel branches, w is the reactive energy
stored in L and C at any time, and \~*g is the average dissipated power of the circuit,
jVote: In terms of instantaneous values and letting vf = v, the instantaneous applied
voltage,

w =
Liz.2
ft-2
1
= constant
66. It will be assumed here that the condenser shown in Fig. 62 has a series resist
ance of 10 ohms.
(a) What
(6) What
is the equivalent parallel resistance of the condenser at wm
I/ V LCI
I/ \/LC?
is the equivalent parallel resistance of the two branches at o>m =*
J 20,000
fi
^50/2
, b
()
(6)
FIG. 64.
Given the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 64u, where the voltage generator
20,000 ohms as indicated.
Transform
the
circuit
to that shown in Fig. 046.
(a)
What
is
of
the
the
parallel branches facing the current generator in Fig.
Qp
(6)
646 at u = 5 X 10' radians per second.
(r) Compare the result obtained in (l>) with the Q of the coil itself at a = 5 X 107
66.
has an internal resistance of
radians per second. The coil has a resistance of 50 ohms as indicated.

67. (a) If the generator voltage in Fig. 64a is 200 volts at to = 5 X
10"
radians
SINUSOIDAL
156
Ch. V
per second, what is the magnitude of the current of the equivalent current generator
employed in Fig. 646?
(6) What voltage is developed across the parallel branches by the current generator
at w = 5 X 107 radians per second?
1012
FIG. 65.
See Problem 58.
58. Find the admittance Y (looking to the right of terminals 11 ) in Fig. 65, and
express the result in terms of a resistance Rp in parallel with a condenser C, where
Rv and C are expressed numerically in ohms and microfarads, respectively,
/i
= 0.1'i.
v =100/5.
Hi

..if,
o
**L*
Q
a
r1
FIG. 66.
The /in and /i current generators have the polarities indicated, and the operating
angular frequency is 106 radians per second. Note: Current generators are always
considered to have infinite internal impedance or zero internal admittance.
69. The parameters in Fig. 66 are:
jXLi
Zi
Z2
=Ri+jXLZ =5+jlO
Z,
= R3
Ri
- ;XC2
= 10
= 4
+J30
- J16
(a) Find Ii, 12, Is, Vi, and VM' in complex polar form with respect to applied
voltage (100 /0 volts) as a reference.
(b)
(c)
60.
Draw a complete vector diagram of the above voltages and currents.

Find the watts and vars input to the whole circuit.
Find the power dissipated in each branch of Fig. 66 for the parameters given
in Problem 59.
CA.
PROBLEMS
157
Find the pure reactance or reactances X in Fig.
67 which will make the overall

factor 0.707.
62. A circuit similar to that shown in Fig. 34, page 132, except that LI is constant
while C is variable, is to pass a 45,000-cycle current with minimum impedance and
to block a 15,000-cycle current as effectively as possible.
#o = 20 ohms, RI = 40
The resistance, Rt, of the C% branch is
ohms, and LI = 0.002 henry are fixed.
assumed to be negligibly small.
Either a fixed Co or a fixed Lo (of negligibly small
61.
power
resistance) is to be placed in series with flo to accomplish

(a) Solve for
15,000
Cj
which will put the parallel circuit
be
the desired tuning effect.

into parallel resonance at
cycles.
3/2
in
'ion
ion.
soa
0.05 henry
FIG.
67.
See Problem 61.
FIG. 68.
See Problem 63.
(t) Calculate the equivalent impedance from b to c at 45,000 cycles with Cj set
resonant value.
Is be predominantly capacitive or inductive
at 45,000 cycles?
(c) Must an inductance Lo or a capacitance Co be used to put the branch 06 into
at its 15,000-cycle
series resonance
for
45,000 cycles?
Calculate its value.

put into series resonance at 45,000 cycles,
(d) Assuming that branch ab has been
what is the actual impedance from a to 6 at 45,000 cycles? at 15,000 cycles?

63. Given the circuit
shown in Fig. 68, determine the impedance looking
into
terminals ab at 1592 cycles per second.
A generating device has an impedance of 0.5 + j\ ohms and is connected

by a line of 0.25 + j2 ohms.
At what load will maximum power transfer
be realized?
If the generated voltage is 20 volts, what is the power received by
the load when adjusted for maximum power transfer?
Find the line loss and the
loss in the generating device.
66. (a) If the resistance of the load in Problem 64 is fixed at 0.75 ohm and only
inductive reactance is permitted in the load, for what value of load reactance will
64.
to a load
load power to the load be realized?

What is the maximum load power under these conditions?
66. Work Problem 64 if the receiver impedance is restricted to pure resistance.
67. If a load impedance having a ratio of X/R = 5 is used at the end of the
line in Problem 64, find the load impedance for maximum power transfer.
What
is the maximum power the load can receive?
68. Calculate
theorem if E\ = 100/0 and
12 in Fig. 69 by the superposition
maximum
(6)
Et
= 50
in
of
in
60 volts.
The voltage V = 100/0 volts is removed from branch 1 in Fig. 66 and inserted
branch 3. If the upper terminal of Zi is connected to the lower common terminal
Zi and Zs, calculate the current Ii. How does this compare with Is as calculated
Problem 59? By what theorem could this conclusion be reached?
69.
SINUSOIDAL
158
70. Calculate
V in Fig.
70 if
EI =200/0^
volts.
Ch. V
Then use Thevenin's
theorem
to calculate the current in an impedance Zot = 1.46 + J6.78 ohms if it is connected
X-10/1
Pure
X
M
T-
FIG. 69.
5/1
5/1
2.5/1
r^W^-r- iTTBTl
o*
4=1
5/J
5/2
FIG.
See Problem 08.
VW
70.
See Problem
L_4b
70.
Verify the result by calculating the current in ab by the ordi

nary methods of circuit reduction without employing ThcVenin's theorem.
to the terminals ab.
Eg i=50 /26.59" volts
E,2=100 /T/volh
t(
Z0,-l+jlohms
FIG. 71.
See Problem 71.
Given the circuit shown in Fig. 71.

(a) Using the superposition theorem, determine the current through the resistor
marked ,4.
theorem, determine the current through an impedance
(6) Using Thevenin's
Z,A(= 3 +
presumed to be placed across terminals 06.
ohms) that
72. In Fig. 726: Ri = 105 ohms, #2 =
X 10"1 ohms, rp(of the tube) = Iff1 ohms:
5
wuf; *<(of the tube)
= 20; 0m(of
the tulie) =
1Q-3 mho.
frequency
is
Find the voltage, Fa, relative to ground

106
if
Cgt = Cpk = 40 MM?, Cgp =
EI
1/0 volt.
n/rf
The operating angular
radians per second.
gi = l/Ri, gp =
mho, which
l,rp,
l/Rz;
gz =
ju,CBt = jaCpk =
hint that
10~5
j4
726:
= 0.5
is
X KT5 mho,
and jaCgj,
a
the problem should probably be
solved on the nodal basis, employing E\ as
known voltage.
(looking to the right of the EI generator terminals in
73. Find the admittance
Fig. 726), and express the result in terms of
resistance Rp in parallel with a con
where Kp and
are expressed numerically in ohms and microfarads, re
denser
In Fig.
.Vote:
spectively.
The parameters and the operating angular frequency are given in Problem 72,
this problem has l>ocn worked V2 will l>e known voltage of 15.6/159.32 volts.
and
a
if
74. Reduce the impedances shown in Fig. 73 to a single equivalent series impedance.
Find the current in brunch
ab.
Derive the expressions shown

equations (79), (80), and (81), page 149.
76. Find the equivalent delta system of impedances which will replace the wye
an, bn, en, in Fig. 73.
77. Find the voltages V,j, V,,/, and V/,/ in Fig. 74.
What
the phase displace
ment between these voltages?
is
in
75.

is
j'd
71.

Ch.V
PROBLEMS
__
Fm. 72.
100 volts
FIG. 73.
159
COP
(a)
5/1
SINUSOIDAL
160
Ch. V
What relationship l>etween the Z's of Fig. 75 will make /j = 0 regardless of

Hint: A simple method of solution is to transform the
the magnitude of Einl
ZirZyZ\ and Z^-Zi-Z^ deltas to equivalent wyes and make the 24 and Z& legs of
the latter the negatives of each other to produce a short circuit across the load.
78.
10 /60ohm
200 ^0 volts
10/0
10/60"
10/0
FIG. 74.
ohm
See Problem 77.
T;

i m
Fio.
76.
See Problem 79.
What relationship between the Y's of Fig.
70 will make the voltage V3 (relative

equal to zero regardless of the magnitude of /in?
80. What explanation can be given for the following current ratings of a 15,000volt, 200-M^f transmitting condenser?
79.
t<>ground)
4 amperes at
600 kc
5 amperes at 1000 kc
6 amperes at 1500 kc
CHAPTER VI
NON-SINUSOIDAL WAVES

Complex Waves. The circuit theory that has been presented in the
foregoing chapters has been based upon sine-wave variations of voltage
and current, and only sine waves have been considered in the calcula
tions. In many branches of electrical engineering non-sinusoidal waves
are as common as sinusoidal waves, and in all branches non-sinusoidal
1.
r-wavc form of voltage generated by a particular alternator, t-wave
Note the relatively
form of current which flows through a capacitive circuit element.
p-wave form of instantaneous power.
larger harmonics in the current wave,
E = 120
volts (KB.), / = 3.9 amperes (eff.), Pav = 20 watts, = 60 cycles.
OSCILLOCIRAM
waves must occasionally be given attention.
Examples of non-sinusoi
dal waves are shown in Oscillograms 1, 2, and 3. Even though the
voltage wave in Oscillogram 1 is nearly sinusoidal, the current through
the capacitive circuit is greatly distorted. Also in Oscillogram 2 the
current is non-sinusoidal even though the impressed voltage is practically
1C1
NON-SINUSOIDAL
102
WAVES
Ch.
VI
Iron Core
60~

OSCILLOURAII
2.
Distorted current wave, i, results when a sine wave of voltage, t, is im

pressed on a particular coil with an iron core.
I Line -to- neutral

voltage ol a
3 phase alternator)
OsciLUKiUAM
3.
Wave form produced
by an open-slot
'
type of generator.
Ch.
VI
WAVE ANALYSIS
163
a sinusoid. Oscillogram 3 shows the effect on the voltage wave form

of an alternator due to open slots. The predominant harmonic in this
case can easily be determined
by the methods discussed in this chapter.

The method of making circuit calculations when non-sinusoidal wave
forms are encountered will also be given.
Most non-sinusoidal waves found in electrical engineering can be
expressed in terms of sine-wave components of different frequencies.
Under these conditions each sine component may be handled according
to the laws governing the calculations of sine waves. The results of all
component analyses are combined according to certain laws to form the
composite or final analysis.
There are, however, certain limitations
to representing non-sinusoidal waves in terms of sine components.
Any periodic wave which is single-valued and continuous except for
a finite number of finite discontinuities, and which does not have an
infinite number of maxima or minima in the neighborhood of any point,
may be represented by the sum of a number of sine waves of different
As an equation, the above theorem takes the following
frequencies.
form and is known as a Fourier series :

= /GO -ô + AI sin x +

+ Aa sin 3x + B3 cos 3x +
BI
cos x
+ A% sin 2x + B2 cos 2x
+ An sin nx + Bn cos nx
(1)
Except in special cases an infinite number of components are theo

retically required.
Practically, however, only a few terms are neces
in
most
instances
because of the relatively small effect of the
sary
terms of higher frequency.
Since the wave which is represented by
equation (1) is made up of a number of sine waves of different fre
It is apparent that each com
quencies, it is called a complex wave.
ponent of this wave is sinusoidal and that each component in itself may
be handled by the methods previously outlined for calculating sine
The facility with which sinusoidal components of a complex
waves.
wave may be manipulated is sufficient justification for expressing a
non-sinusoidal wave in such terms as equation (1) even though the
equation of the wave may be known in terms of some other function
of x.
Wave Analysis.
Usually, a photographic record of the wave will be
through
oscillographic
analysis or other means. The deter
obtained
mination of the Fourier equation which specifies a particular wave is
Wave analysis consists simply of determining
called wave analysis.
the coefficients AQ, AI, BI, etc., of equation (1). These coefficients
are determined by some operation on equation (1) that will eliminate
all terms except the desired quantity. Then the desired coefficient
Thus, to determine AQ, it is necessary simply to
may be evaluated.
WAVES
NON-SINUSOIDAL
164
Ch.
sin 2x dx
'o
52 cos 2x dx
A8 sin 3x dx
/>2ir
lwdx
Jo
= 2irA0
m
W
2ir/0
JQ
f&*
dx
+
I
ô
X2'
dx
r2*
+
n\
Bn cos nx sin x dx
2ir
= ,
cos 2x) dx =
of the general type:
rsin mx sin nx dx
f^cos mx sin nx dx
0,
dx, which
when m and n are different integers,1
0,
sin 2x sin
'o
X2T
xdx=
X2
/.2
sin2
area
There are four other types
They are
terms.
represents the
is
complete cycle.
sine wave for
it
is
zero since
of
A0 sin x dx
obvious that
under
J52cos2xsinxdz
Jo
An sin nx sin
/.2
B3 cos 3x sin x dx
A3 shi 3x sin
/o
is
Aisin2xdx
A2sin2xsinxdx +
icosxsinxdx
,.2*
when m and n are different integers,2
and
dx =
0.
cos x sin
(d)
(c)
This may
be readily
proved by substituting
sin (mx
nx)
for sin mx sin nx ite equivalent
cos (mx
nx)].
i[cos (mx nx)
readily
proved by substituting
This may be
2

''o
/2
/2ir
It
r2'
'o
A0sinxdx+
r2'
ysinxdx=
J0
integrated
Thus
2w.
to
X2'
To find A1( equation (1) may be multiplied by sin x dx and

from
(2)
C2' ydx
A0
and
f*
A0/dx
Jo
Bn cos nx dx
"o
-2,
or
An sin nx dx +
X2r
/2
/o
'o
/o
Bs cos 3x dx
Bicosxdx
"o
2v, as
XA2
Aisinidx-f
A0dx+
'o
J&T
+
I
ydx=
f2
multiply the equation by dx and to integrate between 0 and

shown below.
fa*
f&*
VI
sin (mx
nx)].
for
cos
nu sin nx ita
equivalent
Ch.
VI
WAVE ANALYSIS
The student should prove statements a,
If
operations indicated.
165
b, c, and d
by carrying out the
the above facts are used, equation (4) reduces
to
y sin x dx =
A\ir
"o
or
(5)
To
BI, equation
evaluate the coefficient of the cosine term
plied by cos x dx and integrated from 0 to 2ir.
ry
cos x dx =
+ I
BI
AZ sin
J0
If
A)
cos3
xdx +
3a:
AO cos x dx
"0
(1) is multi
Thus
A i sin x cos x dx
+ I
**Q
A2 sin 2x cos x dx
i/o
cos x dx
+ I
B2 cos
B3 cos 3z cos x dx
'o
An sin nx cos x dx +
+ I
c,
cos x dx
Bn cos nx cos x dx
the relations stated above in o, b,
2i
(6)
and d are used, equation (6)
becomes

Xy
or
cos
xdx
BI
BI
- /
Jo
cos2
xdx
= BITT
y cos x dx
(7)
y sin 2x dx
(8)
Similarly,
1
~
A^
f2'
7T /o
,BZ =
-i
r2'
y cos
2i dz
7T t/Q
A3 =
-i
BS =
-i
AB =
-i
Bn =
r2'
r2'
yswZxdx
(9)
(10)
cosSxdx
(11)
ysianxdx
(12)
y cos nx dx
(^^)
IT t/Q
r2'
7T t/o
IT /n
NON-SINUSOIDAL
106
WAVES
Ck. VI
Various analytical and graphical methods may be employed to eval

Two general
of equations (3), (12), and (13).
methods are outlined below.
If the equation of y in terms of z is known in some
Analytical Method.
mathematical form, the wave may be analyzed analytically. Tliis
method is the least laborious but it cannot be employed if the function of
x is not known analytically.
The function of x employed need not
throughout its entire range represent the particular wave to be analyzed.
It is necessary to have the function of x only over the interval of perio
dicity, namely, 2ir. Not even a single function of x is necessary.
Several
different ones may be used and the complete integral from 0 to If
may be obtained from a sum of the integrals of the several functions,
each taken over the interval in which it follows the curve to be
uate the coefficients
analyzed.
The details connected
with writing a Fourier series to represent
specified wave form are illustrated by the following examples.

Example 1. Let it be required to write the Fourier series which will represent
the sawtooth wave form shown in Fig. 1. It will be observed that this wave form is

2T
FIG.
A type of
1.
47T
wave which is easily analyied by analytical methods.
simply a straight-line variation, ranging from y = T to y = +r over one complete

cycle. This straight-line variation may be expressed analytically (between * = 0
= 2ir) as:
and
It should be noted that the above analytical expression for y in terms of x gives no
indication of the various harmonics which are present in the wave, whereas a Fourierseries representation of the wave will yield this information.
From equation
=
(3) :
^J0
The fact that An
2*
(X~
is zero could have been determined by inspection of
is obvious from the figure that the negative half of the wave is equal
positive half.
Fig. 1 since it
in area to the
rf
ANALYTICAL METHOD
TT)
if
C2r
x sin nx dx
j
sin nx dx = I
r\_Jo
xcosnx
x sin nx dx =
Therefore:
if
An =
xcosnx
n
T|_
From equation
=- IC2'
*Jo
x cos nxdx =
sin nx
r\_
all the coefficients
/'
i
,
fx
A<
i"
3x
sinusoidal
- sin
-J
etc.
IT2lr * cos
nxdx
Jo
Jo
are
- sin 4x +
/2T
ircosnzdz
Jo
= 0
and the Fourier equa
+-
sin nx
= here
25T
t-
Half-wave rectification of a eine wave.
See example
2.
be required to write the first four terms of the Fourier series

From Fig.
plain that
the wave form shown in Fig.
between
the
limits
of
and
2r
as
two
func
analytically
separate
may be expressed
is
2,
it
2.
[between
[between
a (or
a (or wt) =
<><)=
and a (or
tat)
and a (or ud) = 2ir]
x]
ind
/ sin
That is:
tions.
it
Let
Example 2.
which will represent
here
IT
FIG. 2.
nx dx = 0 for
* sin
(for all integral values of n)
etc., in equation
becomes:
cos nx~|2"'
r2'
Jo
cos nx dx
sin nx
orX
It-.i,
- sin 2x
j/
sin x
n' Jo
2,
tion of the wave shown in Fig.

=
T2r
cos nx~|2*
= 0
; I
i
is
Hence
-J
Jo
Jo
Therefore:
values of n.
= Ifx
~PW
nx dx
T2'
of the right member and
may be proved by differentiation
B*
sin nx
*\_Jo
C2r
for all integral
Aj
if

ir) cos nxdx = I
(x
Jo
as
(13):
Bm
AS =
i
1
1-
whence
AI
n2
of the right member and
be proved by differentiation
all integral values of n.
-; sin nx
(-
Jo
as may
IC2' T sin
- If2*
I (x
*JO
An
(12):
(1
)
From equation
167
f*. VI
WAVES
NON-SINUSOIDAL
168
From equation (3)
Ch. 1!f
= 0.3187,
From equation (5):

i
(7m
sin a) sin a da +
= 0.5007.
T |_2j
Jo
From equation (12) it follows that A?, A3, At, etc.,

AB
(7m
(0) sin a da
are all zero because:
= 0 (for n ^ 0 and n
sin a) sin na da
XI)
The above evaluation of An is evident if (sin a sin na) is replaced by its equivalent
Thus AI, A3, A4, etc., are zero because:
cos (n + l)a].
l)a
$[cos (n
An
-i
C*
I ilcos
JO
sin (n
(n
- l)a
cos (n
- l)a _ sin
(n +
+ l)a] da
1 )a~\r
(n
- 1)
(Im sin a) cos a da +
Jo
(n + 1)
jfor
= Q
9^ 0
land n ^
From equation
(0) cos a da
(13) :
(7,,.
sin a) cos na do
f*/ sin
T,,,!"
, [Jo \
7mf
T
cos (1
2(1
(a + na)
2
+ n)a
+ n)
'
sin (a
- na)\
2
cos (1
2(1
- ra)a>
- n)
<fa
ffor n X 0
land n X
Jo
Bn =
[_~
_ ?/ji
3r
= _0.2127n
TT
-2
7m
For n 2:
Jo

From equation (7):
2J
Ch.
FOURIER ANALYSIS OF WAVES
VI
Similarly for n = 3,
Bj
10)9
= 0
and f or n = 4,
B4 = -0.0424/,,
The Fourier series which represents the wave form shown in Fig. 2 is therefore:
=
0.318/m + 0.500/m sin a
- 0.212/m
-
cos 2a
- 0.0424/m
sin
coe 4a
a-0.2121,,, cosfca
0.0424 Im cos 4 a
-.61-
Fio.

If
the above
3.
Components of haU-wave rectification.
four terms are combined graphically
See example
2.
as shown in Fig. 3, the resultant
fair degree of accuracy.

Fourier series will, of course, improve the cor
between the resultant wave of Fig. 3 and the original wave form.
wave approaches the original wave form shown in Fig. 2 to a

The inclusion of more terms in the
respondence
1.
(a) Write the Fourier
which represents the wave form
shown in Fig. 4 out to and including
Note: e = 100
the A3 term of the series.
a = 0 and a = r, and e = 0
between
Problem
100
series
between
a =
Jf
and a = 2r.
Ans.:
e = 50
+
(b)
3"
63.7 sin
Fio.
4.
or
ort
2T
See Problem 1.
21 .2 sin 3a volte.
Show by means of a sketch the manner in which the above three components
the flat-topped wave shown in Fig. 4.
combine to approximate
Fourier Analysis of Symmetrical Triangular and Rectangular Waves.

Symmetrical waves of triangular and rectangular shape are shown in
Since these wave forms are
Figs. 5 (solid lines) and 6 respectively.
it is convenient to
often used in the analyses of certain basic problems,
have the Fourier equations of these waves readily available.
NON-SINUSOIDAL
170
WAVES
Ch.VI
To facilitate analyzing, the triangular wave
may
be considered to be composed of several pieces, namely, the straight
lines
Triangular Wave.
If the point slope form of equation for

oa, ac, and cd.
applied, the equations of these lines will be found to be :
Voa
Flo.
Vac
r-
2;
Symmetrical triangular wave with

a maximum value of 1.
6.
ycd =
FIG.
straight
line
is
Symmetrical rectangular
6.
wave.
Applying equations (3), (12), and (13) gives:
--
4sinni(fi
-- il
T2' /2x
J3rl2\ir
\-2\cosnrdx +
\[
I \
--
T3lr/2/-2x
-If r*l22x
cosnxdx+l
*
T
T [Jo
J*I2
cos nx dx
Jo
\(
- r2*
/ \
sinnxdx+ C3*l2/-2x +2sinnxdx+l C2* /2x

-If C*l22x
*
ir [Jo
Jin V
./3/2\lr
Bn =
=
sin nx dx
] \
Jo
ir
C2*
AH =
<
cosnidr
It
fa
'
"'
72
ir2\
52
32
follows:
Evaluation of the above for various values of n by ordinary calculus

Fourier series as
methods gives the equation of the wave in terms of
('
is
possible to determine from inspection,

will be shown later how
that, in certain classes of waves as typified by the above example, the
terms represented by Bn must be zero.
it

-K
jib
C2* /2x
C2r
If fI/22z
C3*l2/-2x
\
\
--4
Vdx
Ao-i/
/
-dx+l
(_f-+2)fa+/
J,I2
*
2f[Jo
2r/0
J3w/2\r
Ch.
VI
GRAPHICAL METHOD
171
The results of the above analysis may be generalized and the equation
of a symmetrical triangular wave written as
y = AI sin
<at
-y sin
o
3<
-j
sin
5
-j
sin 7ut +
7
etc.
(14o)
where x of equation (14) has been replaced by ut and AI equals 8/V2

times the maximum ordinate of the triangular wave.
Theoretically,
there is an infinite number of terms and the progression continues as the
first four terms indicate.
The rectangular wave is much used in the analysis
Rectangular Wave.
of a-c machinery and has for its Fourier equation:
357
y = AI sin ut + sin
4
3co< H
where A i = -times the height
sin
5oj<
sin 7ut
of the rectangle.
etc.
(15)
Again there is an
Tf
infinite number of terms which may be written as indicated by the first

four terms shown. Figure 7 shows a graphical representation of the first
three terms and illustrates
that a fair approximation
to the resultant wave is
obtained by the addition of
very few terms.
Addition of 1st, 3rd, & 5th

'
harmonics
Problem 2. Analyze the rec

tangular wave shown in Fig. 6
by the analytical method to prove
the validity of equation (15).
Graphical Method. A sec

ond method of evaluating
equations (3), (12), and (13)
involves the evaluation of the Fio. 7. The addition of only three harmonica gives
a fair approximation of the rectangular wave.
integrals by a step-by-step
method. The equation of y in terms of x is usually unknown, and for the
majority of waves encountered it would be very cumbersome and labori
ous to establish equations which would yield pieces of the wave.
It is
under these conditions that the step-by-step method (sometimes called
the graphical method) or its equivalent is employed.
The details of this
method follow.
Equation (3) is simply
Suppose the wave of Fig. 8 is to be analyzed.
It is found by dividing
the average height of the curve over 2ir radians.
the area under the curve by the base. Any method of determining the
area, such as counting squares or by use of a planimeter, may be em
NON-SINUSOIDAL
172
If
ployed.
ck. vi
WAVES
the areas of the positive and negative loops are the same,
A0
Hence for waves having adjacent loops of the same shape and
area with respect to some horizontal axis, the constant A0 when present
simply indicates how much the whole wave has been raised or lowered
from symmetry about the axis of abscissas. For graphical analysis,
equation (5) may be written
is zero.
AI
2l
- V sin
1
ir
x Ax
(16)
Interval
l\
XO^ \
-27F-
Flo.
8.
Preparation of a wave for analysis by the graphical method.
Let 2ir radians in Fig.
divided into m equal parts.
8 be
Then

and x, the distance to the midpoint of the fcth interval, is k
or (k
%)
2ir
m
Ai
=
m
/2jr\
M I
\m I
Equation (16) now becomes
A,
-:
IT
27T~|27T
2w
TT o
2
m
sn
(17)
Similarly,
(18)
and
TO
(19)
The first form of equation (17) shows that A i is l/ir times the area under
a new curve, which would be obtained by plotting corresponding ordinates
Ck.
VI
GRAPHICAL METHOD
173
of the original curve multiplied by the sine of the angle to the ordinate in
question. For An the ordinates of the new curve would be obtained by
multiplying selected ordinates of the original curve by the sine of n times
An
the fundamental angular distance to the respective ordinates.
Looked at in another
analogous procedure is employed for cosine terms.
way, equation (17) indicates that A\ is twice the average ordinate of the
new curve, which would be obtained by plotting corresponding ordinates
of the original curve multiplied by the sine of the angle to the ordinate in
question. Multiplying and dividing equation (16) or (17) by 2 makes
Thus
this statement evident.

Similar interpretations may be drawn regarding the other coefficients of

the Fourier series. The summations are best carried out in tabular
form, and for this purpose a more or less standardized system is used.
The tables which are used are called analyzing tables. One form of
analyzing tables for odd harmonics up to and including the seventh are
shown in heavy type on the following pages.
(The light type refers to
specific values for an illustrative example.)
It will be shown in a subsequent article that waves having symmetrical
Under
positive and negative loops cannot contain even harmonics.
these conditions it is unnecessary to evaluate AZ, B%, A, B^, etc. Also,
when the wave being analyzed consists of odd harmonics only, it is
Since the
necessary only to take the summation over the first 180.
summation over the second 180 would be the same as that over the first
180, the total summation over 360 can be obtained by multiplying
If m is taken as the number of intervals
the summation over 180 by 2.
hi 360, the summation over 180 may be multiplied by 4c/m instead
of multiplying the summation over 360 by 2/m as shown hi equa
tion (17). Whereas equations (17), (18), and (19) indicate that the
midordinate of the interval selected should be used, it is customary to use
the ordinate and the angle corresponding to those given in the tables.
When the intervals are as small as 5, the difference between the two
schemes is negligible.
Example 3. Given the experimentally determined wave form shown in Oscillogram 4. Find the Fourier equation, employing analyzing tables similar to those
'
given on pages 175-178.
Ordinates at every 5 are constructed as shown in Oscillogram 4.
Solution.
The
magnitude of each is scaled and set in the column for ordinates opposite the corre
The product of the ordinates and the
sponding angle in the column for angles.
corresponding sines and cosines of n times the angles are obtained and tabulated as
shown in the analyzing tables on pages 175-17S.
NON-SINUSOIDAL
174
WAVES
Ck. VI
Wave form
to be analyzed
Ordmates
erected and measured

each 5 interval

OSCILLOGRAM
For the particular wave which
AI
= 82.45 units
BI
A3 =
4.
at
180
Sec example 3.
is being analyzed:
.4 5 =
-5.38
units
-22.11 units
BS =
-3.65
units
-0.92 unit
AI
= 2.01 units
B^
B3 = 26.2 unite
The Fourier equation of the wave
is, therefore,
t = 82.45 Bin wl
26.2 cos 3w(
2.01 sin 7ul
22.11 cos ut
5.38 sin Surf
-1.29
- 0.92 sin
-
units
&at
3.65 cos 5o>
1.29 cos 7ut
The fundamental frequency in this particular
Therefore
case is 60 cycles per second.
u is equal to 377 radians per second.
The actual number of terms in the Fourier equation in any particular case can
usually be reduced because it is always possible to combine sine and cosine waves
For example, consider the general wave
of the same frequencies.
y =
A i sin
+ A3 sin
u>( +
3ut
BI
cos wt +
B3 cos 3wt
Az sin
2wl
+ ZJj
cos 2o><
Ch.
VI
ANALYZING TABLES
175
466
FUNDAMENTAL
Products
Angle
Ordix to
nate
(y sin xl
sin x
.0872
.1736
.2688
.3420
.4226
.6000
.6736
.6428
.7071
.7660
.8192
.8660
.9063
.9397
.9669
.9848
.9962

1.0000
.9962
.9848
.9669
.9397
.9063
.8660
.8192
.7660
.7071
.6428
.6736
.6000
.4226
.3420
.2688
.1736
.0872
.0000
Sum of
products
0.5
1.7
3.5
5.6
8.2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
16
17
18
19
23.5
27.8
32.4
38.1
43.9
51.0
59.1
67.5
76.4
86.2
20
94.1
101.5
106.0
106.4
102.7
21
22
23
24
26
93.5
80.4
64.6
50.4
37.2
25.6
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
36
36
16.9
10.1
5.5
2.4
0.6
0.0
oroi~
D&tfl
nate
(v)
6"
10
16
20
26
30
36
40
46
60"
66
60
66
70
76
80
85
90
96
100
106
110
116
120
126"
130
136"
140
146
160
155
160
166
170
176
180
10.9
13.5
16.6
19.9
1484.2
No.
Meas.
ordi-
5.9
23.6
25.9
28.1
30.7
33.9
37.4
42.0
46.7
52.8
60.0
67.7
76.4
86.5
95.5
105.1
112.8
117.4
118.5
114.2
104.9
91.4
78.3
65.0
51
COS X
10.0
13.4
16.4
19.4
21
Products
(y cos x)
40.0
29.4
21.3
14.0
71
0.0
.9962
.9848
.9669
.9397
.9063
.8660
.8192
.7660
.7071
.6428
.6736
.6000
.4226
.3420
.2688
.1736
.0872
.0000
-.0872
-.1736
-.2688
-.3420
-.4226
-.6000
-.6736
-.6428
5.9
9.8
13.0
15.4
17.6
18.9
19
19.9
19.9
19.7
19.4
18.7
17.7
16.0
13.7
10.4
5.9
0.0
38.6
49.6
59.3
65.5
67.4
64.6
60.0
53.2
44.3
36.3
27.6
20.6
- .7071
-.7660
-.8192
-.8660
-.9063
-.9397
-.9669
-.9848
-.9962
13.8
7.1
0.0
-1.0000
659.2
-398.0
1484.2
-3W.O
36
-22.11
27.2
261.2
7.5
16
WAVES
NON-SINUSOIDAL
176
Ch.
466
THIRD
Products
(y sin 3x)
sin 3x
.2688
.6000
.7071
.8660
.9669
1.0000
.9669
.8660
.7071
.6000
.2688
.0000

-.2688
-.6000
-.7071
-.8660
-.9669
-1.0000
-.9669
-.8660
-.7071
-.6000
-.2688
.0000
.2688
.6000
.7071
.8660
.9669
1.0000
.9659
.8660
.7071
.6000
.2688
.0000
Sum of
products
Ordinate
No.
1.5
14.2
18.8
2
3
4
6
6
7
5.0
9.5
21.8
22.8
22.4
29.6
Meas.
ordi-
oroi~
n&tc
10.9
23.4
37.4
52.0
65.5
76.4
83.7
82.8
74.4
56.4
30.4
0.0
6
10
16
20
26
30
36
40
46
60
66
60
66
70
76
80
86
90
96
100
106
110
116
120
126
130
136
140
146
160
166
160
166
170
176
180
26
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
36
36
64.6
67.9
62.8
51.1
38.7
25 5
15.1
7.0
1.8
0.0
Products
(y cos 3z)
cos 3x
nate
10
11
12
13
14
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
52.5
576.7
Angle
x to
8
9
19.9
15.4
8.8
0.0
HARMONIC
5.9
10.0
13.4
16.4
19.4
21.8
23.6
25.9
28.1
30.7
33.9
37.4
42.0
46.7
52.8
60.0
67.7
76.4
86.5
95.5
105.1
112.8
117.4
118.5
114.2
104.9
91.4
78.3
65.0
51.1
40.0
29.4
21.3
14.0
7.1
0.0
.9669
.8660
.7071
.6000
.2688
.0000
-.2688
-.6000
-.7071
-.8660
-.9659
5.7
8.7
9.5
8.2
5.0
0.0
-1.0000
-.9669
-.8660
-.7071
-.6000
-.2688
-.0000
.2688
.6000
.7071
.8660
.9669
1.0000
.9669
.8660
.7071
.6000
.2688
.0000
-.2688
-.6000
-.7071
-.8660
-.9669
-16.6
0.0
22.4
47.8
74.4
97.7
113.6
118.5
110.4
90.9
64.6
39.2
16.8
0.0
10.4
14.7
15.1
12.1
6.9
0.0
-1.0000
833.4
593.3
6.1
12.9
19.9
26.6
32.8
37.4
40.6
40.5
37.4
30.0
17.5
360.9
+472.5
30
111
2(472.5)
38
= 26.2
VI
CA.
VI
ANALYZING TABLES
177
456
FIFTH HARMONIC
Products
(y sin 6xi
Ordi-
sin 6x
.4226
.7660
.9669
.9848
.8192
.6000
.0872
-.3420
2.5
7.7

.2588
.6428
.9063
1.0000
.9063
.6428
.2588
-.1736
-.6736
-.8660
-.9962
-.9397
-.7071
-.3420
.0872
.6000
.8192
.9848
.9669
.7660
.4226
.0000
Sum of
products
13.0
16.2
15.9
10.9
2.1
-.7071
-.9397
-.9962
-.8660
-.6736
-.1736
nate
No.
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
26
26
27
28
29
8.9
19.9
28.8
33.8
32.4
24.1
8.1
13.7
38.6
61.4
76.4
78.5
61.4
27.2
19.6
67.4
102.7
114.0
5.7
25.6
32.7
98.5
64.6
26.8
30
31
32
33
34
36
36
29.0
20.6
10.7
3.0
0.0
552.8
Angle
x to
Meas.
ordi-
oroi~
nfltc
nate
df)
6
10
16
20
26
30
36
40
46
60
66
60
66
70
76
80
86
90
96
100
106
110
116
120
126
130
136
140
146
160
166
160
166
170
176
180
5.9
10.0
13.4
16.4
19.4
21.8
23.6
25.9
28.1
30.7
33.9
37.4
42.0
46.7
52.8
60.0
67.7
76.4
86.5
95.5
105.1
112.8
117.4
118.5
114.2
104.9
91.4
78.3
65.0
51.1
40.0
29.4
21.3
14.0
7.1
0.0
649.6
Products
(y cos 6x)
cos 6x
.9063
.6428
.2688
-.1736
-.6736
5.4
6.4
3.5
- .8660
-.9962
-.9397
-.7071
-.3420
.0872
.6000
.8192
.9848
.9669
.7660
.4226
.0000
-.4226
-.7660
23.5
24 .4
3.0
34.4
46.0
51.0
46.0
28.6
0.0
- .9669
-.9848
-.8192
-.6000
-.0872
.3420
.7071
.9397
.9962
.8660
.6736
.1736
-.2688
-.6428
-.9063
19.9
10.5
18.7
36.6
73.2
101.6
111.1
96.2
35.8
64.6
59.2
10.0
73.6
64.8
44.3
23.0
5.1
5.5
9.0
6.4
0.0
-1.0000
554.2
-96.8
2.8
11.1
18.9
619.9
-65.7
-96.8
B,
-3.85
NON-SINUSOIDAL
178
WAVES
Ch.
456
SEVENTH HARMONIC
Products
(y sin 7x)
sin7x
.6736
.9397
.9669
.6428
.0872
-.6000
-.9063
-.9848
-.7071
-.1736
.4226
.8660
.9962
.7660
.2688
-.3420
-.8192
3.4
9.4

.2688
.7660
.9962
.8660
.4226
-.1736
-.7071
-.9848
-.9063
-.6000
.0872
.6428
.9669
.9397
.5736
.0000
Sum of
products
13.0
10.5
1.7
10.9
21.4
24.4
19.9
5.3
14.3
32.4
41.9
35.8
13.7
20.5
55.5
76.4
70.9
32.6
27.2
86.5
117.0
102.7
48.3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
26
18.2
64.6
77.1
59.0
25.6
3.5
18.9
20.6
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
13.6
34
4.1
0.0
618.5
nate
No.
1
2
-1.0000
-.8192
-.3420
Ordi-
35
36
x to
Meas.
ordi-
ordi-
nate
nate
(y)
Angle
6
10
16
20
25
30
36
40
46
60
65
60
66
70
76C
80=
86
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
136
140
145
160
166
160
165
170
176
180
Products
(y cos 7x)
cos 7x
5.9
10.0
13.4
16.4
19.4
21.8
23.6
25.9
.8192
.3420
-.2688
-.7660
-.9962
-.8660
-.4226
28.1
30.7
33.9
37.4
42.0
46.7
52.8
60.0
67.7
76.4
86.5
95.5
105.1
112.8
117.4
118.5
114.2
104.9
91.4
78.3
65.0
51.1
40.0
29.4
21.3
14.0
7.1
0.0
582.3
.1736
.7071
.9848
.9063
.6000
.0872
4.8
3.4
4.5
19.9
30.2
30.8
18.7
3.7
30.0
-.6428
-.9669
-.9397
-.6736
.0000
.6736
.9397
.9669
.6428
.0872
-.6000
-.9063
-.9848
-.7071
-.1736
.4226
.8660
.9962
.7660
.2688
-.3420
-.8192
3.5
12.6
19.3
18.9
10.0
51.0
49.6
89.8
56.5
38.8
0.0
101.6
72.5
10.2
59.2
103.5
103.2
64.6
27.5
13.6
44.3
39.9
22.6
5.5
4.8
5.8
0.0
-1.0000
575.8
599.0
-23.2
36.2
30.2
A,-
X2
2.01
X 2 = -1.29
VI
VI
Ch.
GRAPHICAL METHOD
179
In Fig. 9 the vector OA of magnitude A i may be taken to represent the sin at.
Remembering that the cosine wave leads the sine wave by 90, the vector OB may
be used to represent the cosine term. The vector sum OC of the two vectors OA
and OB, therefore, represents the sum of .disinud and BI cos at in both magniID
sin
at
tan"1
+ tan
also lags the cos ut
The equation of the combi-
+ B^.
is
it
and
ut
cos
- tan"1
^
J
nation is
(at
The magnitude OC
position by tan"1
uA
by tan-1 -
leads the sin
j1
j
It
tude and phase.
cos cot
sin tot
Flo.
9. Vector representation
of sin ml and cos u><and their
sum OC for particular mag
nitudes A\ and B\.
10.
vector representation of the positive and negative sines and cosines forms
The
Fio.
con
it
cos cot
cos cot
8.66
>+sfnt
Vector representation of waves

shown in Fig. 10.
Fio.
cot
12.
Combination
sin tat
sin (at +90") gives the +cosM that cos (wt 90) gives the sin ut,
ualizing Fig. 11, all similar relations become apparent.
In like manner,
+ 8.66 cos at]

laid off on Fig.
of
8.66 cos at.
By vis
etc.
Fio.
-sin
if
cos cot
sin tot
1
1
.
sin
wt
There are also other equivalent expressions for the resultant wave.
is
It
1
a
2.
is
single trigonometric term, the values would be

to be reduced to
The vector addition would then be performed
as shown in Fig.
be seen to lead the cos at by 30 or to kg the
may
OC.
OC
the
resultant
to obtain
any
60.
by
ut
also
leads
the
sin
+sin wt by 120". Thus the equation of OC
60),
-10
sin
or
10
sin
30),
10
cos
the
following:
one of
M
(at +
(at + 120).
1
1

is
venient way to find trigonometric relations and to make combinations of these waves.
For instance, the waves are shown in Fig. 10. The corresponding vector representa
shown in Fig. 11. In Fig. 11
can be seen that the
tion of the same waves
NON-SINUSOIDAL
180
WAVES
Ch. VI
Example 4. Express the equation obtained from the analysis of the wave of
The results of the analysis
Oscillogram 4 in terms of positive sine components only.
show that:
Ai
Bi
82.45
-22.11
A3 =
-0.92
#3 =
At, =
-5.38
B5 = -3.65
A1 =
2.01
Ci
C3 =
26.2
C&
-1.29
B7 =
With respect to the +sin
= 85.50 unite
(-22. II)2
v/82.452 +
\/(-0.92)2 +
26.22 = 26.2 units
\/(-5.38)2 + (-3.65)2
C7 = V2.012
= 6.50jinits
+ (-1.29)2 = 2.39 units
u( position of Fig. 11 as a reference:
ai
= tan~l
a,
= tan~'
06
= tan
22 11
'
26 2
0.92
-3.65
~
= tan~'
02.45
1 29
= tan"1
-28.5
= tan"1 0.678
-15
tan"1 -0.268 =
= 92
= 214.2
tan-' -0.642
-32.7
It will be noted that the individtial signs of the coefficients B and A must
sidered in the evaluation of the phase angles.
The equation for the wave form shown in Oscillogram 4 is:
t = 85.50 sin (u<

6.50 sin (5oj(
It is desirable to draw figures,

This exercise is left
monics.
any wave analysis is whether
combined to yield the original
- 15) +
26.2 sin (3o,/
be con
+ 92)
+ 214.2) + 2.39 sin (7ut
- 32.7)
similar to that shown in Fig. 12, for each of the har

to the student.
The final test of the correctness of
the component parts found by the analysis can be
' ' '
wave.
Problem 3. Evaluate i in the above equation at 30 intervals of ut throughout

Compare the general wave shape
one-half cycle, and plot the resultant curve.
thus found with that of the original wave form shown in Oscillogram 4.
Problem 4. Express the equation for the wave shape shown in Oscillogram 4
in terms of positive cosine components.
Wave Analysis (Second Graphical Method). Although the funda

mental basis of the previous method of analysis is simple, there are a
number of methods which require less time for numerical computationOne of these shorter methods follows.
Equation (1) may

y =
/(z)
-ô
be
written in the following form:
A\
sin x + A2 sin 2x + A3 sin 3x
'
+ An sin nx + BI cos x + B2 cos 2x + B3 cos 3x

H
If
q is a
----- h Bn cos
nx
number equal to the order of the harmonic which is
(20)
under
VI
Ch.
SECOND GRAPHICAL METHOD
181
investigation and f(ir/2q), /(3ir/2g), etc., are the values of y = f(x) at

x = ir/2q, x = 3?r/2g, etc., it can be shown that the following relations
are true.3
<>

2g(B, +
+ flB, + )= /(O)
- /-
+/(-)
-/(-'
When equations (21) and (22) are used, it must be remembered that the
subscripts 3g, 5q, etc., represent the order of the harmonic obtained by
multiplication of 3 times q, 5 times q, etc. Thus, if q is 3, B3q would be
Bg, B5q would be Bi5, etc.
Before proceeding to employ equations (21) and (22), it is necessary
to estimate the maximum number of harmonics required in the analysis.
The procedure is then to start with the highest harmonic and substitute
the ordinates at the various angles indicated by the right members of
equations (21) and (22). Since it is unlikely that all ordinates required
will be given, it is usually necessary to plot the resultant wave in order
that the required ordinates may be read from the curve. The necessity
of having a graph of the curve will usually entail no extra work in
practice because the method will usually be applied only when the
resultant wave is obtained from an oscillogram similar to that illus
trated in Oscillogram 4, page 174. After the harmonic coefficients are
determined, An is evaluated by substituting x = 0 in equation (20).
Thus
/(O)
= A0
+ Bj + B2 + B3 +
+ Bn
/(O) is read from the curve and, since everything except
(23)
AQ has been
As an example of the procedure,

determined, AQ can be calculated.
the wave employed in example 3 will be analyzed.
Find the harmonic coefficients through the seventh harmonic for
Example 6.
the wave given in Oscillogram 4, page 174, by employing equations (21), (22), and
(23).
3
"Advanced Mathematics
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2nd edition,
See
for Engineers,"
1947, p. 202.
by Heddick
and
Miller, John
NON-SINUSOIDAL
182
For the seventh harmonic,
9=7
WAVES
and equation
Ch. VI
(21) is used as follows:
-'(5) -'GO
Xote that, since the seventh harmonic is the highest required, Ayq =
are all zero.
4.-17 =
-/(38.570) +/(64.29)
/(12.860)
- /(90
-/(141.40) + /(167.2*) -/(H)3) +/(218.7)

+ /(270) -/(296) +/(321.5)
/(347)
= 12.4
24.5
+ (-24.5)
+ 40.5
(-40.5)
76.4 + 117.0
(-76.4)
74.6
An,
-U9, etc ,
- /(244.30)
17.5
- (-12.4)
(-117.6) + (-74.6)
(-17.5)
= 25
A7
14/?7
??
=/(0) -/(25.7) + /(51.4) -/(77.1) + /(103) -/(128.70)

+ /(154.3) -/(180) + /(205.5) -/(231.30) +/(257)
-/(283) + /(308.7) -/(334.50)
= 0
0 + -20 + 32
56
20 + 32
56 + 101 -107 + 41

Bi
1.79
101
-18
107 + 41
- = -1.286
Because the wave is symmetrical about the 180 point, even harmonics cannot
If, however, equations (21) and (22) arc used to find the sixth harmonic,
zero will l>e obtained.
Equations (21) and (22) are now used to calculate ,45 and B$ as follows.
exist.
w)
+ /(234) -/(270) +/(:)(

=
15
33 + 76.4
+ (-113)
= 2(15
A 5 =
-5.72
33
(-26)
+
7G.4
113 + 26
-/(342)
(-15)
113 + 26) = 2
(-33)
(-28.6)
(-76.4)
-57.2
SECOND GRAPHICAL METHOD
Ch.VI
=/(0)
- /(324)
+ /(216) -/(252) +/(288)

= 0
24 + 49
110 + 68
=
=
-0
(-24)
183
(-49) + (-110)
(-68)
-34
-3.4
Determination of As and H3:
6^3
=/(30)
=
=
21.8 -
-/(00)
76.4 + 51.1
-7
-/(210) +/(270)
/(330)
(-21.8) + (-76.4)
(-51.1)
+ /(150")
A3 = -1.167
,.,, = 0
fl3
37.4 + 118.5

2(Ai
Substituting
AI
+/(240)
(-37.4)
- (-118.5)
- /(300)
= 162.2
+27.03
For the fundamental,
(2Xl)(Ai
-0
-Aj
(21) and (22) become
equations
A,,
-Art
- A3 + At - A7)
-/f-'()
=/(0)
-/(270)
= 76.4
- (-76.4)
= 152.8
the values of As, As, and .1? found previously and solving for .4i gives
= 82.74.
ID a similar way
(2
H\ may
2(Bi
1)
he found as follows.
(Hi + Ba +
+ 27.03
3.4
#6
=/(0)
#7)
1.286)
Bi
The foregoing method
method
IK
-/Or) =0
= 0
=
-22.34
easy to apply and entails less labor than the
employing analyzing
tablets.
with different wave shapes and
The accuracy, however, will vary
will also
be dependent
It will
upon the estimate
that the deter

mination of the fundamental depends upon the values of the harmonics
It is therefore desirable to start with a high
previously determined.
enough order of harmonic so that any higher-order components will be
If only a single
negligible so far as engineering accuracy is concerned.
of the
number of harmonics
required.
be noted
NON-SINUSOIDAL
184
WAVES
Ch.
VI
Fio.
13.
Wave with unsymmctrical positive and negative loops.
Fio.
14.
Wave with unsymmetrical positive and negative loops.
Degrees of Symmetry of Non-Sinusoidal Waves. Non-sinusoidal

waves may have symmetrical positive and negative loops, as shown in
Fig. 8, or the loops may be unlike, as shown in Figs. 13 and 14. As indi
cated in the article on wave analysis (page 173), certain types of
symmetry in a wave form will automatically eliminate the need for
evaluating certain coefficients in the Fourier series which represents the
wave.
When the variation from zero to
180
is repeated
(except for sign)
between 180 and 300, the wave is said to possess half-wave symmetry.
as having
wave
of this kind is described
in
a wave
way,
another
Expressed
symmetry.
[f(x +
f(x)]
Fig. 13, ir radians
has half-wave symmetry when any ordinate, such as
to that
magnitude
distant from another ordinate, such as a,
equal in
for
but opposite in sign.
at point
Thus, the ordinate at any point
=
is
b,
ir)
Mathematically

harmonic of some desired order is required, the method employing the

The error in
analyzing tables may save time and be more accurate.
the method employing analyzing tables depends only upon the size of the
intervals chosen and, obviously, approaches zero as the size of the
interval is decreased and the number of them is increased.
The deter
mination of any one harmonic is independent of the determination of
any other harmonics when analyzing tables are employed.
NON-SINUSOIDAL
186
WAVES
Ch. VI
monies pass through zero values at the same time, and, further, if all
even
harmonics are absent. This fact is illustrated graphically in Fig. 17. The
second harmonic, shown dotted, adds to the fundamental to the left of the
midordinate of the positive loop and subtracts from it on the right-
Resultant
2nd
Fio.
15.
Harmonic
Effect of second harmonic in destroying half-wave symmetry.

hand side. All the odd harmonics are symmetrical about the mid
ordinate a when they pass through zero at the same time as the funda
mental.
If the zero-ordinate point of the complex wave is chosen as a
FIG.
16.
Wave with positive and negative loops symmetrical about the midordinate
(quarter-wave symmetry).
reference, it is plain that only odd sine terms can be present in
the
equation of a complex wave having quarter-wave symmetry.

Waves of Same Wave Shape.
Waves are of the same wave shape
if they contain the same harmonics, if the ratio of corresponding har
monics to their respective fundamentals is the same, and if the harmonies
are spaced the same with respect to their fundamentals.
Express!
Ch.
VI
WAVES OF SAME WAVE SHAPE
187
in another way, for two waves of the same form the ratio of the magni
tudes of corresponding harmonics must be constant, and, when the
fundamentals are in phase, all the corresponding harmonics of the two
waves must be in phase. The test is to note whether the ratio of cor
responding harmonics is constant and then to shift one wave so that the
If the phase angles of corresponding harmonics
fundamentals coincide.
in the two waves are then the same and if the first condition is also
fulfilled, the waves are of the same wave shape or wave form.
FIG.
sin
(3u<
- 60)
- 60)
= 10 sin (at
50 sin (3at
= 100 sin (at +

30)
two waves are of the same shape:
150)
25 sin (5ut
2.5 cos (5u(
+ 40)
- 140)
all harmonics of the current wave are one-tenth of the corresponding har
monics in the voltage wave, the first requisite
fulfilled.
Next, the fundamentals
should be brought into phase by shifting the current wave forward 90 or the voltage
wave backward 90.
The current wave will be shifted by adding 90 to the phase
Shifting the fundamental of
wave by a corresponds
angle of its fundamental.
to shifting the nth harmonic by na.
This may be verified by referring to Fig. 17.
changed to the position marked a, thus shifting the
Suppose the reference axis
is
is
Since
is
is
a
It
shift of 90, or one quarter cycle for the fundamental.

wave ahead. This
shift of three quarter cycles for the third harmonic, or 270 and five quarter cycles
Hence, to maintain the same relation l>et\veen the
for the fifth harmonic, or 450.
= 10 sin (at
+ 30)
150
270)
450")
(:W
sin
sin (3w(
120)
- 60)
= 10 sin (at + 30)
sin (3ut
140*
2.5 cos (5at
60 + 90)
= 10 sin (at
t'
fundamental and all harmonics in the current waves,

X 90 or 270 will be added
90 or 450 will be added to the fifth harmonic.
Then:
to the third, and

Determine whether the following
Example
6.
is
if
i.s
Symmetry about the midordinate, a,

17.
maintained
all odd harmonics are
zero when the fundamental
zero.
The second harmonic shown dotted will destroy
this symmetry as will other even harmonics.
2.5 cos (Sat
+ 310)
2.5 sin (5u< + 40)
The corresponding harmonics of the current and voltage waves
are hence in phase,

Ch.
VI
EFFECTIVE VALUE OF NON-SINUSOIDAL
Figs.
18, 19, and 20
Fio.
18.
Fio.
19.
Fio.
20.
WAVE
show the effect on wave shape of shifting a harmonic.
189
NON-SINUSOIDAL
190
WAVES
Ch.
VI
Since
*ml
V2
7 =
*m2
T
/i,
V/02 + 7i2 +
T
= /2,
\/2
722
+ /32 +
etc.
742
- -
+ /n2
(28)
Equation (27) is used when the maximum values of the harmonics are
given, whereas equation (28) gives the equivalent expression if effective
It is obvious that similar expres
values of the harmonics are available.
sions hold for voltages.
Example 7.
Find the effective value of the voltage wave used in
/1002 + 502
252
= 81
example
6.
volts
It should be noted that the effective value is the square root of the sum of the squares
of the maximum values divided by 2, irrespective of the phase angles or signs of the
A similar statement is true when effective values of the harmonics
harmonics.
are used in equation
(28).
For one method of analysis in a-c machinery, known as the Blondell two-reaction
method, it is necessary to have the effective value of the rectangular wave given
For this wave, effective value equals Ai-r/4. .
by equation (15), page 171.
Power Due to Non-Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents.

sion for average power in general was given as
-o
The
expres
eidt

When
e =
i) +
Emi sin (at +
Em2 sin (2ut
+ a2) +
Em3 sin
(3o>/
3)
-|
----
and
= 7ml sin
(at
/)
CT
7m2
("" si"
Em3 sin (3wf
7m2
sin (2at + 2') +
(wt
+ 3)
+ ai) +
H
----
sin (2ut + 2') +
7m3
7m3
sin (Sat + 3') +
'
E'"'2 si
[/mi sin (at +

sin
(3a>^
/)
a,')
+
] rf(
(29)
Upon expansion, this yields products of terms of unlike frequencies and

As shown on page 1(34 the integral
products of terms of like frequencies,
of the products of terms of unlike frequencies taken over a complete
This leaves only the product of
cycle of the lower frequency is zero.
terms of like frequency, such as:
1
CT
I A sin (mat + a) B sin
1 t/O
(mwt
+ a
,
)
dl
CA.
WAVES ARE NON-SINUSOIDAL
POWER WHEN
VI
191
which gives
4^
Ju
Emilmi
-
---
Em3lm3
(a
-a')
) H
---
(29) becomes
Thus equation
COS
cos (ai
- ai
(30)
EmllmZ
cos (a3 03 ) +
fl
cos (aa
/,
a2 )
(31 )
Or, since
Eili
Em\Im\
Em\ Im\
cos (i
a/)
+ 3/3cos(a3
- s')
E-Jz
COS (a2
a2')
(32)
non-sinusoidal is the algebraic sum of the

powers represented by corresponding harmonics of voltage and current.
No average power results from components of voltage and current of
unlike frequency, provided that the time interval chosen is equal to an
The
integral number of cycles of the lower-frequency variation.
foregoing statement can be proved either mathematically or graphically.
Average power when waves are
Find the power represented by the following:
Example 8.
t = 100 sin (ul + 30)
= 20
sin
(a>/
- 30)
50 sin (3a>( + 60) + 25 sin Sal volts

15 sin (3w<
_ (_3(nl
+
10
X-
cos [-90
25
- 324.75
= 500
= 283.5
+ 30) +
- 60) amperes
[60-
10 cos (5u/
cos
30)
(-60)]
108.25
watts
An alternative method of obtaining the power for the third-harmonic

follows.
--
e} =
-50
t3 = 15
Pt
50
sin (3wt + 60) = +50 sin (3wt
sin
(3w<
15
- 120) volte
+ 30) amperes
cos
(-120
- 30)
= 375 cos 150 =
-324.75 watts
components
NON-SINUSOIDAL
192
Problem
Ch.
VI
Find the power delivered by the following:
7.
e = 100
WAVES
sin
wt
= 30 sin (at
- 80) - 50)
sin
50 sin (5o>(
+ 60) +
20
40 cos (7ut
(5o><
10
+ 30) volts
sin (7ot + 60) amperes
Ans.:
Volt-amperes are determined
Volt-Amperes.
watts.
1083
by the product of the
effective voltage and effective current.

Find the volt-amperes for the waves in example
Example 9.
Va
El
:-
*/i
'^- -
-v/
&
8.
= 81
19.03
= 1541 volt-amperes
In general,
Volt-amperes =
""
lEml2~ + Em22 + Em32 "+ etc.
\~
~2~
//mla
7m22
+ 7 ms2^^-
~2~
(33)
Power Factor. Power factor for non-sinusoidal waves is defined as

the ratio of the power to the volt-amperes.
Hence
Power factor
)/!
cos (i
a/)
2^2 cos (2
Ef + E22 +
E32
az') + E3I3 cos
\//!2 +
+ etc.
(a3
aa'
V + /32 + etc.
+ etc.

(34)
Example 10.
Find the power factor for the waves given in example

= 283.5 watts
Power from example 8

Volt-amperes
8.
from example 9 = 1541

=
Power factor
283
^1541
= 0.1837
The conditions under which the power factor is unity when waves are non-sinus
oidal arc found from equation (34). To make the power factor 1, the numerator
Hence
(power) should be as large as possible.
cos (ori
oil')
= cos (aa
aj
= cos (03 03
)
+ etc.
= 1
Then
f
+
E?
Ef
+ etc.M/!2 +
722
/32
+ etc.)
This expression can equal unity only if E\jl\ = Bs//2 = Ea/IaTo simplify the algebra, consider only the fundamental and one harmonic.
C*.
VI
EQUIVALENT SINE WAVES
E\Ii
193
-|- Ezl% =
2//2, EiI2
= >/! and the alxn-e expression Incomes 2A'22/!2 = 2fi22/i2,
the premise is true.

Hence, to have unity power factor,
the voltage and current waves must l>e of the same wave shape and in phase.
Even
though the voltage and current waves pass through zero at the same instant, the
power factor cannot be unity if any harmonic in one wave is absent in the other, or
when its magnitude makes the wave shapes different.
under which conditions

Equivalent Sine Waves. Occasionally equivalent sine waves are

used for certain calculations and comparisons.
They must be used with
discretion because calculations based upon them are usually in error
An equivalent sine wave of current or voltage is
by varying amounts.
a sine wave the effective value of which is the same as the effective
value of the non-sinusoidal wave which is being represented.
When
sine
of
non-sinusoidal
waves
equivalent
corresponding
voltages and
currents are found, the phase angle between the equivalent sine waves
is made such that the power and power factor are the same as those for
the actual waves.
Whether the equivalent angle of phase difference
is one of lead or lag is determined by the angle between the fundamentals
If the fundamental of current lags the fundamental
of the two waves.
of voltage, the equivalent sine wave of current must lag the equiva
If the fundamentals are in phase and the
lent sine wave of voltage.
power factor is not unity, the sign of the angle of equivalent phase
difference is indeterminate.
Example
in example
11.
Find the equivalent sine waves for the current and voltage given
8.
Effective voltage =
\j/1002
Effective current
-v/
Power factor from example
10
/202
502
152
252
102
= 81 volts
= 19.03 amperes
= 0.1837
The angle of equivalent phase difference
Since the funda

mental of current lags the fundamental of voltage, the angle 79.4" is an angle of
lag of current with respect to voltage for the equivalent sine waves. The equivalent
sine waves of voltage and current, respectively, are:
is cos""1 0.1837
e =
V2
81
V2
19.03 sin (ut
sin ut volts
= 79.4.
- 79.4) amperes
As indicated before, the use of equivalent sine waves in non-sinusoidal circuit analysis
to large errors, particularly in operations involving the addition
will generally lead
NON-SINUSOIDAL
194
WAVES
Ch.
VI
or subtraction of the waves. Equivalent sine waves are sometimes used in specify
ing the deviation from a sine wave.
Problem
Find the equivalent sine waves for the waves given in Problem 7.
Ana.:
118.8 sin ut volts; 37.4 sin (( + 60.8) amperes.
8.
Deviation Factor. Deviation factor is the ratio of the maximum

between corresponding ordinates of an actual wave and an
difference

FIG. 21.
Deviation of a distorted wave from an equivalent sine wave.
equivalent sine wave of the same length to the maximum ordinate of

the equivalent sine wave when the two waves are superposed and
shifted along the axis so as to make the maximum difference a minimum.
For example, Fig. 21 shows a non-sinusoidal wave and an equivalent sine
wave of the same period and length.
These waves are shifted in such a
way that the maximum difference between corresponding ordinates is as
small as possible.
In this particular case the maximum difference is alt.
The ratio of ab to the maximum value Em of the equivalent sine wave is
Deviation factor is sometimes used for specifi
the deviation factor.
A deviation factor of about 0.1 for commercial
cation purposes.
machines is usually allowable.
Series Circuit Analysis when Waves Are Non-Sinusoidal.
The
procedure is most readily understood from an example.
R-6fl
(7)
VWWÔOOOO>
L=0.05 henry
Example 12. Given the circuit with

the parameters shown in Fig. 22.
When u is 377 radians per second and
the voltage r = 141.4 sin tat + 70.7 sin
+ 30) -28.28 sin (Sat

20)
volts is impressed, find the current,
Fio. 22. See example 12.
7, that an ammeter would read. Also
find the total power dissipated and the effective value of the voltage drop across
Also find the equation of the current wave.
the inductance.
Since the inductive and condensive reactances are different for different frequen(3u<
SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
a.V'/
195
Subscripts 1, 3, and 5 will designate

Either maximum or
respectively.
If maximum values are used, maximum currents
effective
values may be used.
vrill result; when effective voltages are used, effective currents result.
Whichever
are used, the result can always be easily changed to give the other if desired.
Since
cies, each
the
harmonic must be handled separately.

third, and fifth harmonics,
fundamental,
values of the harmonic components of voltage in this particular case

convenient numbers to handle, the solution will be negotiated through
of effective values immediately.
the effective
are more
the use
Fundamental
l
Ri
XLI
volu
100
V2
= 6 ohms
= 377
= 18.85 ohms
0.05
106
37788
Zi
= 6
II,
Ii
leads
PI

VLI
+ J18.85
Fl
177
1U
Vj
= 102
=
10
/I
~v
- J26.85
I\XL\
or
10 ohms
= in
10 amPercs
\6
by tan"1
- J8
= 6
= 53.12
6 = 600 watts
= 10
18.85
= 188.5 volts
Third Harmonic
V3 =
Rt
\/2
= 6 ohms
3
- J8.95
Z3 = 6 + J56.55
50
48.1
13
= 6 + J47.6
47.62 = 48.1 ohms
V62 +
=
/3 =
= 56.55 ohms
8.95 ohms
18.85
1 .04
lags V3 by tan"1
amperes
= 82.8
P3 = 1.042 X 6 = 6.48 watta

VLS = 1-04
56.55
= 58.9 volts
or
NON-SIXUSOIDAL
196
WAVES
CA.
VI
Fifth Harmonic
TB
28 28
V2
= 20 VoltS
SB = 6 ohms
XL& =
Xct,
5XLi
Xci
= =
5
Z6 = 6
O\J
18.85
26.85
-
5
+ J94.25
V62 +
/s
= 5
= 5.37 ohms
- J5.37
FLB
= 6
+ J88.88
= 0.225 ampere
If?Rb
S8 H8
-^
= 86.1
= 0.2252 Xf> = 0.304 watt
= 0.225
= 21.2 volts
94.25
/total
V/i2 +
Ptoui
PI +
VL
Vl88.52 +
/32
/62 =
VlO2 +
58.92
21.22 =

13 =
\/2
1.04 sin (3ut
or
i3 =
\/2
1.04 sin (3w
Also
is
=
=
V39510
- V2
- Vi
0.2252
+ 53.12) +
+53.12) +
30
0.225 sin (Sat
0.225 sin (5at
1.47 sin (3w<
1.47 sin (Sat
V2
10
= 10.05 amperes
= 606.8 watts
= 198.8 volts
sin
the
of voltage by 53.12,
(u>(
+ 53.12).
Similarly,
- 82.8)
- 52.8) amperes
- - 86.1)
The complete equation is:
Parallel
of current leads the fundamental
Since the fundamental
= 14.14 sin (at
1.042
P3 + PB = 600 + 6.48 + 0.304
equation of the fundamental of current must be

for the third harmonic,
t = 14.14 sin (at
or
88.8S2 = 89 ohms
I6 lags V6 by tan"1
PS, =
= 94.25 ohms
20
- 106.1) amperes
- 52.8) - 0.318 sin (Sat - 106.1)
- 52.8) +0.318
sin (Sal +73.9) ampcnsi
Circuit Analysis when Waves Are Non-Sinusoidal.
This
is not appreciably different from the preceding series-circuit problem.

Example 13. Given the circuit shown in Fig. 23, with the 60-cycle constants as
shown.
When a voltage v =141.4 sin at +70.7 sin (3u( +30) -28.28 sin (5wf.-20)
volts is impressed, find the ammeter value of the total current, /, the current in
each branch, power dissipated by each branch, total power dissipated, and the
equation of the resultant current.
<a = 377
radians per second.
CA.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
VI
197
Fundamental
141.4
100 volts magnitude
V2
Vi
= 100
J^n
I/fi
Pabi
+J15)
100(5
_,,
I/,i
+ JO volts
100
Lti
= 2
= 9.62
tai
- jl.925
+ e'i'
= 100
or
or
= 100
= 962
9.62
6.33 amperes
9.82 amperes
= 11-62 + j'4.075
12.33 amperes
or
of voltage by tan"
leads the fundamental

= ei
+J6
4.075
= 19.4
11.62
2 = 200 watts
watts
f
.ion
10.fi
"
1

FIG. 23.
with
Circuit
cycle parameters.
FIG.
60-
Circuit
of
parameters
24.
showing
cycles.
Fig. 23
at
180
Third Harmonic
The circuit with the parameters for the
the reactances need be
third harmonic
is shown in
Vi
24.
Only
= 50 volts magnitude
the reference axis for the third harmonic.

(The most convenient
type of analysis.)
in
this
case
axis should be chosen in any particular
Take Vs along
reference
Fig.
changed l>efore proceeding as before.
V3 = 50
Io43
+ JO volts
50
=
5
- j5
50
I/s
= 5 +
10+jB
J5
= 3.68
= 8.68 + J2.79
or
- J2.21
or
7.07 amperes
or
4.3 amperes
9.11 amperes
NON-SINUSOIDAL
198
If, 3 leads V3
WAVES
Ch.VI
2 79
= 17.85
by tan"1 ^
8.08
= 50
5 = 250 watts
Pcd3 = 50
3.68
= 184 watte
lion
:
Flo.
jio/i
d
Circuit of Fig. 23 showing parameters
25.
at 300 cycles.
Fifth Harmonic
The circuit with parameters for the fifth harmonic is shown in Fi. 25.
Vt
Let
2828
= 20 volts
V2
VB = 20
Io6
+ jO volte
20
5 "~
jo
= 2.94
20
I/,6
= 3.94
+J1.763
+ jO.763
lfeb loads V6 by tan"1

Pabf, = 20
2.94
20
1 =
Ammeter value of total current =
ji
or
or
or
3.43 amperes
1.414 amperes
4.01 amperes
= 10.95
3.94
= 58.8 watts
20.0 watts
A/I 2.33"
+ 9.112 + 4.012
= 15.9 amperes
Ammeter value of current in ab = \/6.332 + 7.072 + 3.432

= 10.1 amperes
Ammeter value of current in cd = v/9.822 +
4.3'-'
1.4142
= 10.81 amperes
Pab = 200 + 250 + 58.8
Prd
Total power dissipated
= 962
= 508.8 watte
+ 184 + 20 = 1166 watte
= 1674.8 watts
t'A.
ADDITION
VI
Since
AND SUBTRACTION
COMPLEX WAVES
OK
lfe\ leads Vi by 19.4, the equation for the fundamental

voltage wave 141.4 sin at by 19.4.
Hence
199
of the current wave
must lead the
ii
V2
12.33 sin (at
+ 19.4) amperes
Similarly
is =
=
it
and
V29.ll
V29.ll
- \/2
V2
sin (bat + 30 + 17.86)

sin (3ut + 47.85) amperes
- 20 + 10.95)
4.01 sin (5wi
4.01 sin (5o>( + 170.95) amperes
+ 5.67 sin
(5u(
19.4)
12.9 sin
(:W + 47.85)
171) amperes
Addition and Subtraction of Complex Waves.
These operations are
by reversing
the sign of the term
To illustrate, consider the bifurcated
sin
- 40) amperes
(3<
10) + 10 sin
(3o>*
= 15 sin
(at
+ 30)
00) amperes
13,
or
iz
t'2
From Kirchhoff's laws,
i?
t'2.
= 10 sin
(wt
Given
26.
t'i
in Fig.
i3
circuit shown
Find
performed
subtracted and then adding.
i\
to be
is
Subtraction
similar.
i\-
sin cot
Fio.
Bifurcated line.
FIG. 26.
Vector diagram for currents of fun

damental frequency in Fig. 26.
27.
The solution
primes on
is
wave whose equation
of the phase sin
tat
as the reference.
will follow the vector diagram of Fig. 27. The number of

symbol will indicate the order of the harmonic represented.
= 10 (cos 30
= 15
(cos 10
-I./
-8.66
;5
lml'
sin 30) = 8.G6 +
j j
Consider
Fundamental

+ +
= 17.45 sin (at
t = l +
if,
Therefore
sin 10) = 14.75
j5
- J2.6
NON-SINUSOIDAL
-I*,/
Im2'
= 9.74 sin
f2'
= 6.09
+ Ims'
- 51.3)
(w<
WAVES
- j'7.6
or
Ch. VI
9.74 amperes
amperes
sin
200
cot
-c
,,,
Fio.
Vector diagram for third harmonic currents in Fig. 26.
28.
Third Harmonic
wave of the phase of sin
Then
will be taken as the reference.
the third-harmonic currents appears as
3o><
the vector diagram representing
or
- Imi"
J8.66
-3.83 + J3.214
+
.78.66
sin 60) =
5
Ina'"
140) =
10 (cos 60
jsin
Imt"
3.83
- J3.214
= 8.83
+ J5.446
10.37 amperes
^2
12
in
= 9.74 sin
(ut
- 51.3)
10.37 sin
(3o>/
12
The complete solution
31.6) amperes
= 10.37 sin
(3w<
is
i2'"
'"- If -"
31.6) amperes
of
it
is
If
is
Introduction of Harmonics Due to Variation in Circuit Parameters.

Harmonics in current wave may exist even though the voltage causing
very thin filament
pure sinusoid.
For example, consider
the
wire which has
high temperature coefficient of resistivity.
wire
will heat and cool during
sufficiently thin so that
cycle as
it

Ima'" =
(cos 140
Imi'"
shown in Fig. 28.
Ch.
VI
MODULATED
WAVES
201
29.
Shape
of
tj
wave
flatter than
sine wave owing to resistance
with current.
a
Fio.
is
i2
it
i'i
the current varies from zero to a maximum, the resistance will vary
during the cycle. At the maximum point a on the voltage wave, Fig. 29,
the resistance will be higher than at point b. The current at a will,
therefore, fall below the value that would permit it to be proportional
to the voltage.
The wave
shows the current wave for a constant
resistance, whereas the dotted wave
shows how
will vary when the
resistance increases for the higher values of current during a cycle.
increasing
is
is
if
is
is
it
2,
is
it
is
of

is
very common example of harmonics in a current wave occurs when

sinusoidal voltage wave
impressed on an inductance coil with an iron
As the current increases, the resulting operation on a higher
core.
part of the magnetization or saturation curve causes the inductance to
When the inductance becomes less, the inductive
become smaller.
reduced and the current, therefore, rises more rapidly
reactance
otherwise would. Thus the current wave becomes more peaked
than
This
shown by Oscillogram
than a sinusoid.
page 162, which was
taken for an iron-core coil.
When the voltage on some device
to be reduced and
desired
series resistance cannot be used
the
to maintain the same wave form,
not sinusoidal. The drop across the resistance will be
current wave
non-sinusoidal, and this drop subtracted from an original sine wave
non-sinusoidal wave across the device.
In
voltage will result in
non-sinusoidal voltage
general, but not invariably, the subtraction of
non-sinusoidal voltage will result in
non-sinusoidal wave
drop from
from
the
of different shape
original.
combination of
Modulated Waves. Modulated waves consist of
waves of different frequencies and are, therefore, classified as complex
The transmission of radio intelligence
or non-sinusoidal waves.
usually accomplished by means of some combination of carrier and audio
202
NON-SINUSOIDAL
WAVES
Ch. VI
Graphical representations of a carrier wave of relatively

high frequency and of a modulating wave of relatively low frequency are
The carrier frequencies
shown in Fig. 30a and Fig. 306, respectively.
employed in the program broadcast band range from 540 to 1(300 kc,
and the modulating audio frequencies usefully employed at the trans
mitter range from about 30 to 10,000 cycles.
frequencies.
(a)
(6)
Carrier Wave Unmodulated
Modulating
Wave (One and one-half cycles)
r
^miK
Wave; illustrating
Modulated
one and one-half
cycles of modulation

FIG. 30.
The carrier and modulating waves may be combined in a network at

the transmitter in such a manner that useful variations in the resultant
Some of the basic principles
amplitude or frequency are obtained.
involved may be understood by considering the case where the carrier
frequency is generated by an ordinary type of alternator rather than by
a vacuum tube oscillator. The carrier voltage will be represented by
ec
sn
(35)
where AQ is the maximum magnitude of the carrier voltage and o> is the
Either AQ or o> may be varied in accordance
carrier angular velocity.
with the intelligence to be transmitted, thus producing amplitude or

frequency modulation. In the case of the ordinary alternator, A0'
could be made to vary by changing the field current sinusoidally and the
resultant wave would correspond generally to that shown in Fig. 30c or
in Oscillogram 5.
Amplitude modulation may be investigated conveniently by letting
AQ' of equation (35) take the form (A0 + Em sin u\t), where Em is the
Ch.
VI
MODULATED
WAVES
203
maximum amplitude of the modulating wave that is effectively superim
the carrier and oil is the modulating angular velocity. Em is

a measure of the degree of modulation (for a fixed value of --10) and usu
ally has values ranging from 50 to 100 per cent of A0.
Percentage
modulation is defined as
posed on
-p- X
"0
where the
A's
- X
100
-"-Q
refer to the amplitudes shown in Fig. 30c.
OSCILLOGRA.M
Photograph of a sinuxoidally modulated
5.
In general, the equation of

mftx
100 =
e =
sinusoidally modulated wave is:
(A0 + Em' sin
= A0 sin
wave.
u>t
u\l) sin
ut
+ Em' sin urf sin
(30)
<al
The product of two sine waves of different frequencies may be expressed

in terms of the following two well-known trigonometric relations.
cos (ut
uit) = cos
ut cos
uit + sin ut sin u\t
(37)
sin ut sin
(38)
cos (ut + uit) = cos ut cos uit
a>i<
Subtracting equation (38) from (37) gives

cos (at
&>i<)
cos
(ut
Substituting the value of sin

(36) gives
e
= AO sin ut
co<
sin
cos (ut
coiO
o)i<
'
= Ao sin ut +
(39)
coi<
from equation (39) in equation
--E
'
'
-^-
= 2 sin ut sin
cos
27r
uit)
cos (ut +
'
(f-fi)t----
cos 2*
(/ +
/i)<
(40)
NON-SINUSOIDAL
204
WAVES
Ch. VI
The first term, A0 sin ut, is of

(40) consists of three terms.
the same frequency as the original wave before modulation.
This
Equation
wave is called the carrier wave, and its frequency the carrier frequency.
fi)t, has a frequency equal to
(Em /2) cos 2ir (/
the difference between the carrier frequency and the modulaN
The second term,
(/
/i),
This frequency (/ /i ) is called the lower side-band

ing frequency.
The third term, (Em /2) cos 2ir (f -\- fi)t, represents a
frequency.
frequency equal to + f\, the sum of the carrier and modulating fre
It is called the upper side-band frequency. Each of these
quencies.
three frequencies can be separated from the others in the resultant wave
If a carrier wave is modulated by a
by the use of appropriate niters.
complex wave, each harmonic of the modulating wave gives rise to an
upper and lower side-band frequency.
Hence, in general, there are
The type of modulated
several different frequencies in each side band.
wave presented above is primarily given as an example of non-sinusoidal
waves.
There are other types of modulated waves, but further dis
cussion of them is beyond the scope of this text.
10
1-10 amperes
between X 0

and X=?r
3r
i= 5
amperes
between x
and X=ZTT
Fio.
31.
PROBLEMS
9. (a) Employ the analytical method to determine the coefficients of the har
monics through the third harmonic for the wave shown in Fig. 31.
(6) Write the Fourier series in terms of sine components for the wave.
indicating the manner in which the components
(c.) Sketch the components,
combine to approximate the original wave shape shown in Fig. 31.
10. (a) Employ the analytical method to determine the coefficients of the har
monics through the fifth harmonic for the wave shown in Fig. 32.
(6) Write the equation of the wave through the fifth harmonic.
(c) Sketch the components, indicating the manner in which the components com
bine to approximate the original wave shown in Fig. 32.
Ch.
VI
PROBLEMS
A certain current wave has

a positive direction to a value
It then
3 until 120 is reached.
then remains at zero value until
11.
in
and
BI
205
a height of 1 from 0 to 30, then increases linearly
of 3 at 60, after which it remains at a height of

decreases linearly to a value of zero at 150 and
360.
The cycle is then repeated. Find AO, A.\,
of the Fourier series terms which represent this wave.
10
3V2
2>r
-5
Fio.
12.
See Problem 10.
current wave is defined over one complete cycle by the following data:
x (in degrees)

32.
(in amperes)
x (in degrees)
-2.000
195
15
+0.149
+3.000
+6.364
+9.660
210
30
45
60
360
375
+0.149
225
240
255
+12.098
270
90
+13 000
+ 12.098
285
120
135
150
165
180
+9.660
+6.364
+3.000
+0.149
-2.000
(in amperes)
-3.613
-5.000
-6.364
-7.660
-8.634
-9.000
-8.634
-7.660
-6.364
-5.000
-3.613
-2.000
75
105
300
315
330
345
(a) Employ the analyzing tables on pages 175 to 178, evaluate the Fourier series
coefficients Ag, A\, BI, AI, B, and A^ of the above wave form, and write the Fourier
series in equational form.
(Note: Evaluations based on 15 intervals will be suf
ficiently accurate in this case since the actual Fourier series contains no terms beyond
Call any coefficient zero which is no greater in magnitude than the
the AI term.
probable arithmetical
error involved.)
NON-SINUSOIDAL
206
WAVES
Ch.
VI
Graph each of the components and combine
these components to form the re

Check various values on the resultant graph against the original data.
13. Employ the method of equations (21) and (22) and evaluate the Fourier
(b)
sultant wave.
for the wave given in Problem

Write the following equation in terms of three sine components only:
series coefficients through the third harmonic

14.
v = 4.0
16.
2 sin 3ut
3.0 cos wt
7.66 sin 2ut + 6.43 cos 2ut
1.5 cos 3wt
Given an a-c wave form as defined by the following table of measured ordinates:
Ordinate
No.

sin at
12.
Degrees
Measured
Ordinate
Ordinate
No.
Degrees
Measured
Ordinate
95
0.0
0.8
19
20
100
7.4
10
1.7
21
105
8.0
15
2.7
22
110
9.0
20
3.6
4.5
23
115
10 5
24
120
12 0
5.6
6.9
8.2
9.7
25
125
13 2
26
130
14 0
27
135
14 0
28
140
13 0
29
145
30
150
11.8
10.0
25
30
7.1
35
40
45
10
50
11
55
10.7
11.0
12
60
11.0
31
155
13
65
10.4
32
160
9.8
9.2
8.5
7.8
7.0
33
165
8.0
5.8
4.0
34
170
25
35
175
1.0
36
180
0.0
14
70
15
75
16
80
17
85
18
90
Negative loop similar to positive loop.
(a) Graph the wave and analyze it by the Fourier series method for fundamental
the third, the fifth, and the seventh harmonics by the use of analyzing tables.
(6) Write the equation of the wave in terms of its sine and cosine components.
(r) Write the equation of the wave in terms of sine components only.
(d) Synthesize the components graphically, and compare the resultant with the
original wave.
16. Employ equations (21) and (22) instead of analyzing tables, and find the
sine and cosine coefficients of the Fourier series to include the seventh harmonic
for the wave in Problem 15. Express the resultant wave in terms of four sine
components only.
17. Given an a-c wave form as defined by the measured ordinates shown on
page 207.
Analyze the wave by using equations (21 ) and (22) for the first seven harmonics,
and write the Fourier series equation for the wave.
Ch.
VI
PROBLEMS
207
Measured
Degrees
Measured
Degrees
Ordinale
Ordinate
-0.6064
100
10
0.1736
110
20
120
130
0.4966
0.4200
40
0.9484
1.4139
1.4428
140
0.5669
50
1.149
150
0.8832
60
0.79
160
1.1420
70
170
SO
0.5937
0.6154
1.0880
0.6064
IK)
0.737
30
0.7848
0.6767
180
Negative loop similar to positive loop.

18.
Show whether the following waves have symmetry with respect to the positive
and negative loops:

e = 100
sin (at + 30)
50 cos 3u<
25 sin (Sat + 150) volts
t = 20 sin (at + 40) + 10 sin (2at + 30)

19.
Does either of the waves in Problem
ordinate of the positive and negative loops?
18
5 sin (5at
possess
- 50") amperes
symmetry
20. Are the following waves of the same wave form or shape?
v = 100
= 50 cos (at
21. Are the following

- 60 sin
sin (at + 70)
- 60)
30 sin (2at
- 30')
+ 70)
- 20) +
- 60) (at
50 sin (3o>/
10
+ 60)
Give reason.
+ 30 sin (3at
15
- 90)
(live
reason.
25 cos (Sat
sin (3at + 15) + 5 sin (5al
- 60)
(3w<
cos
two waves of the same wave form?
e = 100 sin (ut
t = 20 cos
(2at
about the mid-
Why?
- 30) volts
- 70) amperes
22. Find the effective values of the voltage and current waves of Problem 18.
23. Find the effective value of:
v = 100
sin (at + 30)
20 cos
- 30)
(5at
40 sin (2at
- 30)
+ 40 sin (Vat + 30)
24. A complex wave has harmonics of the following effective values: fundamental
Find the voltmeter
100 volts, third harmonic 70 volts, and fifth harmonic 50 volts.
of
the
wave.
complex
value
25. The Fourier representation of the current variation shown in Fig. 31 is:
= 2.5 H
+
Compare
Tt
sin x +
30
sin 9i +
9r
30
OT
30
30
or
7-r
.
sin 3x + sin 5z + sin
7i
the effective value of the current as calculated by equation (27), page 188
only the first six terms of the series given above), with the true effective
(employing
value.
30
NON-SINUSOIDAL
208
WAVES
Ch. VI
26. The current flowing through a particular

filter choke is: t =5 +2sini
amperes, where x (= 7544) represents angular measure. Sketch the wave shape
of this current variation.
(a) What are the maximum, minimum, and average values of current?
value of the a-c component satisfy the relation:
(6) Does the maximum
I Hit:,:' = 0.5 (/,;,, /mid)?
(c) What is the effective value of the current: i = 5 + 2 sin x amperes?

Assuming that a pulsating direct current is composed of a d-c component
(Idc) and a single-frequency a-c component, the general expression for the current
variation is: i = Idc + /mcae) sin x.
27.
(a) If only the average and effective values of the pulsating current were known,
would it be possible to find the maximum value of the a-c component, Im(ac)1
(b) The average value of i = Ijc + /m(oo sin x is 4 amperes, and the effective
value is 5 amperes. Find /m<oc)28. Considering only second harmonic distortion, the plate current of one class
of amplifiers (with sinusoidally varying grid-cathode excitation) is given by the
equation:
= /o
+ /mi sin
/m2 cos 2*
/(,
where /0 = h + /m2, h being the steady plate current with no a-c grid excitation.
(a) Sketch the wave form of the current variation for /o = 0.2, I,n\ = 0.1, and
Indicate the value of
on the sketch.
/m2 = 0.01 ampere.
are
(/mM),
(/min), and average values of the
What
the
maximum
minimum
(6)
Does the average value of current (/o) satisfy the
wave form sketched in (a)?
/o
relation: 0.5(/mal + /min)?

29. liefer to the plate current variation
given in Problem 28, namely,
/mi sin x
--
/m2 cos 2x
f0
+ Im\
/mi
/min (with a-c grid excitation)
2/m2
/&
/mx (with a-c grid excitation)
/o
it
2/mo
(/max
~ 2/6
/min)
"
4
'm2 =
/ml = 0.5 (/ma* /min)

T
''
100
Ib
(6) Show that the ratio of /mj to Im\ expressed in per cent is:
=
/min)
called the per cent second harmonic distortion, and,

Note: The above ratio
may be readily measured under the conditions
since the values of /max, /min. an(l
of steady grid bias, the above relation
sometimes used to determine the percent
second harmonic distortion where unsymmetrical positive and negative peaks
of
is
/&
is
/o
plate current are encountered.

(c) Determine the per cent harmonic distortion from (/m2//mi) X 100 and
= 0.2, Imi = 0.1, and /ma = 0.01 ampere.
from the equation given in (6)
0.01 ampere.)
(/t = 0.2
if

is
If
known that the average value of plate current changes from the steady
(a)
=
with a-c
value
to the average value
/m2 (with no a-c grid excitation)
grid excitation, show either graphically or analytically that:
Ch.
VI
PROBLEMS
209
"
"
in the
straight
portion of the plate current-grid
voltage characteristic of a vacuum tube, the equation for the plate current some
times takes the general form
30. Because of irregularities
= Ib + /mi sin
i+
7m3
sin 3y
h is
the plate current corresponding to fixed values of grid-cathode and plateFind the maximum, the minimum, and the average values of i
= 0.2, /mi = 0.07, and 7m3 = 0.005 ampere.
31. Calculate the power represented by the voltage and current in Problem 18.
32. Calculate the power represented by the current and voltage of Problem 21.
where
if
/(,
cathode voltages.
- 25.36)
+ 30) -
50 sin (3u(
= 100 sin
33. Calculate the power factor for the waves in Problem 18.
34. Determine the power factor for the waves in Problem 21.
36. Determine the equivalent sine waves for the voltage and current in Problem 18.
36. Find the deviation factor for the voltage
58.92)
is
^f
branch containing
ohms resistance in series with an inductance of 0.00796
in parallel with another branch consisting of a resistance of
ohms in series
6
is
39.
henry
if
= 100 sin ((
50 sin (3U(
voltage
37.
30 cos 5ut volts
60)
resistance of
ohms in scries with
capacitance of 88.4
and an
impressed on
Find the ammeter value of the current, the power
inductance of 0.01061 henry.
dissipated by the circuit, the power factor of the whole circuit, and the voltage drop
o> = 377 radians per second.
across the capacitance
= 10 sin (wt
current of
38.
60) + sin (2ut +20) amperes flows in
a series circuit consisting of ohms resistance, 10 ohms 60-cyclc capacitive reactance,
Find the equation of the impressed
ohms 60-cycle inductive reactance.
and
voltage wave, a = 377 radians per second.
a 60-cycle capacitive reactance of 16 ohms. For a voltage of = 100 sin (w(+30)

50 cos (3orf 30) volts impressed on the combination, find the equation of the
u = 377 radians per second.
current wave required by the combination,
e
ul +
10 cos
10
(2w/
sin
(2o>
- 60)
- 30)
10 cos
sin (3u/
(3w<
t = 15 cos
30)
= 20 sin (ut
ti
40. Find the ammeter readings in each branch and the supply line to the circuit
of Problem 39.
41. Determine the power dissipated in each branch of the circuit of Problem 39
and the total power taken by the whole circuit.
42. Calculate the power factor of the whole circuit in Problem 39 and the power
factor of each branch.
43. The following two currents flow toward a certain junction:
- 40) amperes
50) amperes
i\
ii
is
What
the ammeter or
Find the equation of the current leaving the junction.
effective value of each of the three currents?
from
in Problem 43, and find the equation of the resultant.
44. Subtract
ohms resistance,
certain impedance, Xi, consists of
ohms
45. At 60 cycles
ohms inductive reactance in series.
Another identical
capacitive reactance, and
is
is
is
connected in parallel with Z\.

third 60-cycle impedance (con
impedance, Zi,
ohms inductive reactance in series)
connected
sisting of 1.5 ohms resistance and
If voltage = 100 sin 377(
in series with the parallel combination of Z\ and Zi.
50 sin 3(377t
impressed on the entire series-parallel circuit, calcu
30) volts

with
NON-SINUSOIDAL
210
WAVES
Ch.
VI
late: (a) the total rms current taken, (6) the rms current in each branch, (r) the
equation of the current in branch Z\, (d) the total power consumed, (e) the power
factor of whole circuit.
46. The wave form given in Fig. 33 consists of a fundamental
one and only one other Fourier series term.
f(x)
^^./
TIT
|
180
90
*-X
Fir,. 33.
AI
sin x and
|\
term
270
>
ym
X
See Problem 46.
(a) What are the numerical values of the coefficients of the two terms?
Note: It is suggested that the problem be
(6) Write the equation of the wave.
solved by inspection and checked by the second graphical method of analysis, given
is
i(45)
= t(135)
= 18 milliamperes
t(55)
= t(125)
= 49 milliamperes
i(65)
= t(115)
= 73.5 milliamperes
t(75)
i(105)
= 90.5
t(85)
i(95)
=99 milliamperes
milliamperes
if
where t(45) means the value of at ut = 45.

Find the effective magnitude of the fundamental component of voltage developed
u =
across the parallel branches
Compare this
X 107 radians per second.
is is
value of voltage with the third harmonic voltage developed across the parallel
branches, recognizing the fact that the branches are tuned to the third harmonic.
= lOn
the same for the fundamental and third harmonic.
(a) Assume that
=
constant,
being 10f2 for the fundamental.
(6) Assume that
uL/R
Q

is
(fc
>
on pages 180-184.
47. A condenser having 20 ppf capacitance is connected in parallel with a coil
having 20 microhenrys inductance and a series resistance as specified in (a) and
below.
This parallel combination
energized with a pulse of current which
zero
for 140 < at < 40 during each cycle. The pulse reaches a maximum value of
100 milliamperes at at =90 and
CHAPTER VII

COUPLED CIRCUITS
In electrical-engineering literature, the term " cir
Terminology.
cuit " is used in a variety of ways. At times it is employed to designate
a single branch of an electrical network ; at other times it is used syn
" network " to mean a combination of two
onymously with the term
or more branches which are interrelated either electrically or magneti
cally, or both. In the present chapter the term " circuit " is employed
to mean " any complete electrical loop around which Kirchhoff's emf
law can be written."
Two circuits are said to be " coupled " when they are so related that
energy interchanges can take place between them.
More specifically,
this means that a potential difference appears in either of the two
circuits which are coupled, if and when the other is energized. The
circuits involved may be coupled conductively, electromagnetically, or
Various combinations of these principal modes of
electrostatically.
coupling may exist between circuits. However, the great majority
of the circuits in actual practice are coupled either conductively or
electromagnetically.
Coupled circuits interact upon one another, and in general the
movement of electricity in any particular circuit is governed, not only
by the circuit parameters of that circuit, but to some extent by
the parameters of all circuits to which the circuit in question is
coupled.
Conductively Coupled Circuits. Two circuits which are conductively
coupled are shown in Fig. 1. In a circuit arrangement of this kind,
circuit 1 may be viewed as the driving
or primary circuit and circuit 2 as the
receiving or secondary circuit. Z12, the
impedance of the branch which is com
mon to both circuits, is called the mutual
impedance between circuit 1 and circuit
FIG. i. Conductively coupled
2.
The mutual impedance may consist,
uta'
theoretically, of a pure resistance, a pure
inductance, a pure capacitance, or some combination of these circuit
elements.
211
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
212
Ch.
VII
If the exciting voltage and circuit parameters of Fig. 1 are given, the
currents, component voltages, and component powers can be evaluated
by simple circuit analysis.
In general the " mesh current " method of solution1 is particularly
well suited to coupled circuit solutions. If this method of attack is
employed, I\ and I2 are considered as the currents which flow around
the complete loops of circuit 1 and circuit 2, respectively.
The posi
tive circuit directions assigned to /i and 72 are, of course, arbitrary.
If positive circuit directions are assigned to /i and I2, as shown in Fig. 1,
the actual current in the Z12 branch in the +/i direction is I\ I*
The details of the " mesh current " method of solution as applied to
Fig. 1 are given below.
By definition :
Zi +
Z22 = Z2
If
the circuit parameters
Zi2
= Z2i
Z12
(Impedance of circuit
to
/i)
Z21
(Impedance of circuit
to
72)
are constant,
(Mutual impedance between circuits
The application of Kirchhoff's emf law to circuits

results in:
Z22I2 =
and 2 of Fig.
(1)
E!
(2)
elementary determinants, the expressions
for
and
22
EjZ2
-Z122
(3)
become
22
I2
Zn
-Z21
!>21
,,
22
is
The above method

generally applicable and may be extended
include any number of coupled circuits.
to
by
ID general circuit analysis many of the disagreeable details can lie avoided
It sometimes referred to as Maxwell's " cyclic cur
making use of this method.
"
"
See
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,"
rent
method.
by Maxwell,
Vol.
3rd edition.
1,
is

Employing
and 2)
-Z21l!
- Zi2I2
+
Zali
It
It
Zn
C*.
VII
MUTUAL IMPEDANCE
Let it be assumed that, in Fig.
Example 1.
Zn
= 10
+ JO ohms, and Zz
EI
1:
213
= 100
/0 volts, Zi
= 3 +
J4
jS ohms.
= 4
The impedance of the gener

ator is considered to be negligibly small, or else its impedance is included in Z\.
ohms,
Zn
= (3 +
j4) +
(10
+ JO)
= 13
= 14
Z2i = (4
- J8) +
(10
+jO)
ZnZ22 =
219/-12.6
= 214
ZnZM
Zi22 = 114
- j8
- J47.8
- J47.8
= 123.7
'-29.7)
13.6/17.1 ohms
= 16.1
ohms
/-29.70
/-22.7
13'
123.7/-22.7"
12 =
+ j4
amPeres
(100/0) (10/0)
Ii
The current in the Zi2 branch in the direction of
Ii2
= 13.0 (0.992
= (12.9
= 5.45
- ;0.122) - 8.08
- jl.59) j'4.71
/ -40.8
The total power generated by the generator
Ii2
(0.922
(Ii
Ij).
+ jO.386)
+ >U2)
(7.45
= 7.21
is
EI
amperes
is:
-IB,
Pgm = 1/1 cos
Jl,
= 100
13.0 cos
(-7)
= 1290 watts (approximately)

The total power absorbed by the network is:
h*Rl +
IfRi
IiSRit
= 13.02
8.082
7.212
10
= 1288 watts (approximately)

1.
Solve for l\, Iz, and Iu in the above illustrative example by first
Draw the vector
the coupled circuits to an equivalent series impedance.
diagram of EI, Ii, 12, In, Vi2, illustrating vectorially that Vi2 = EI IiZj.
Ans.: Given in the above illustrative example.
Problem
reducing
Mutual Impedance. Before proceeding with particular types of

coupled circuits, we shall state some general definitions which will be
useful later in this chapter and also in radio courses where the coef
ficient of coupling plays a far more prominent role than it does in a
first course.
The mutual impedance
between,
say, circuits
per unit
as the ratio of the voltage
and 2 of a general
developed in circuit 2
current in circuit 1 when all circuits except circuit 1 are opencircuited.
This mutual impedance has already been employed in the
If linear bilateral circuit elements are em
foregoing section as Z2\.
ployed in the coupling of the two circuits, it should be plain that Z12,
network
is denned
COUPLED
214
CIRCUITS
the ratio of the voltage developed in circuit
Ch.
VII
per unit current in circuit
with all circuits except circuit 2 open-circuited, is equal to Z2i.

The definition given above for mutual impedance between two
and
circuits can be generalized to apply to two pairs of terminals,
22', as shown in Fig. 2 where the network in the box may be any con2
ll'
circuit
Fia.
2.
Circuit 1 coupled to
circuit 2 through an arbitrary
network not shown.
FIG.
Circuit
3.
to circuit
1 coupled
ll'
If, for example, the terminals

figuration of impedances.
Fig. 3 are selected, we would find upon measurement that
" &
a *o
Va(tfa +
Ra(Ri,
through a
and 22' of
RaRb
*"C
flfc
+ fte)
RC)
"li
21
T!
set of resistances.
Ra
Rb + Rc
is
set of resistors.
equivalent
In many networks, particularly in the field of radio, the direct currents
must be confined to specified paths and a-c energy
transferred from
Circuits
coupled
Ra-C-Rt,
network.
through
Fio.
5.
1
Circuit
C2
C,
Circuits
4.
r-
coupled
~Z
Circuit
'
*)
FIG.
.1,
C3 V
I.
\f
FT"
li.
through
network.
one circuit to another
If
5.
is
In Fig.
4,
through the agency of an electric or magnetic

for example, a-c energy may be transferred from
to circuit
circuit
by way of the electric field existing between the
plates of the coupling condenser, C.
particular form of capacitive coupling
shown in Fig.
the
field.

is
is
where V&
the voltage developed across Rb (terminals 22') and Va
the voltage drop across Ra.
The same result would have been obtained
had the IT set of resistors (Ra Rb Rc) been transformed to an
Ck.
VII
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
coupling reactance
circuit
215
and circuit 2 is denned as the

in circuit 2, namely, the voltage across C2, per unit
current in circuit 1, this coupling reactance is:
between
voltage developed
Fl
:
"coupling
where
7T~
vo
A
X,
X2 + X3)
+ X2
V\ is the voltage across Ci and the X's are the capacitive re

of
actances
the
between circuit
CcUpHng =
respective
The
condensers.
coupling
capacitance
and circuit 2 (or vice versa) is:

=
"A'COUI)ling
(I/cod) + (1/C) + (1/C8)
c
Ci
Show that the voltage

in
circuit 2 of Fig. 5 is:
current flowing
Problem
2.
V
where
Xi
1/wCi,
Xj
4-
-4-
r j---
i-|C2
ClC>2
^3
developed
across condenser Ci per unit
coupling
and X$ = 1/wCs.
= 1/wCi,

Problem 3. Consider Ra, Ri,, and Xc of Fig. 4 to be a coupling device between

circuit 1 and circuit 2. Show that the coupling impedance between the two circuits
is:
^coupling
77,
7T~.
Y*
ii
where Vj) is the voltage developed itcross
7
^coupling
Kb by
Ii,
or
-V
1"
12
where
Va is the voltage developed across Ra by Iz.
ll'
Coefficient of Coupling. Given two pairs of terminals,

and 22',
'
shown in Fig. 2.
The coefficient of coupling between circuit 1 1 and
circuit 22' will be denned as:
as
COUPLED
216
CIRCUITS
Ch.
where Z12 is the mutual impedance between circuits 2 and
Zn'
is the impedance
Z22<
is the
seen looking into terminals

minals 22' open-circuited.
Example 2.
ll'
ll'
Z21
Consider terminals
seen
ll'
and 22' of Fig. 3.

1 and 2.
= 2,n.
with
looking into terminals 22'

open-circuited.
impedance
terminals
1.
VII
ter
with
Let it be required to
find
the coefficient of coupling l>ctween circuits
It
has been shown that
Rafa
Ra
Ra(Rb
Ka
~\~**6 ~"t~
"c
Rb(Ra + Rc)
RnRb
\/Ra(Rb +
Rc)Rb(Ra
+ Rc)
It should be noted
is unity.
that, with the general definition of coupling coefficient which has been given, k may
IK; complex and greater than unity.
In most cases, however, the coefficient of cou
pling is real and less than unity as in this example.

If, for example, Rc
Fia.
6.
= 0, the coefficient of coupling
Illustrating the four component fluxes ^>n, $12, #22. and <pzi into which
resultant magnetic field is separated for the purpose of analysis.
the
Magnetic Coupling. If a portion of the magnetic flux established

by one circuit interlinks with a second circuit, the two circuits are
coupled magnetically and energy may be transferred from one circuit
to the other by way of the magnetic field which is common to the two
circuits. The practical operation of many devices depends upon this
type of coupling.
Mag
Separation of Magnetic Flux into Hypothetical Components.
netic coupling between two individual circuits is shown in Fig. 6. For
the purpose of analysis, the total flux which is established by i\ , namely,
Ch.
<j>i,
VII
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
is divided into two components.
part which links with circuit

The second component
circuit 2 and circuit
1.
One component of fa is that

but not with circuit 2, namely, fai.
of fa is fa%, that part which links with both

In a similar manner, the flux established by
is separated into two components
J2
217
for the sake of detailed analysis.
By definition:
fa
fai + faz
(5)
(6)
and
<t>2
(5,
part of fa which links only with the turns of

This
the leakage flux of circuit
with respect
1
1.
1.
1.
fa which links with the turns of circuit
1.
the mutual flux produced
by circuit
2.
This
with respect to circuit
is
the leakage flux of circuit
the fractional part of
It should
ii
6.
i^
that the actual flux established by

or
does not conform to the simple configurations shown in Fig.
For
example, part of fa\ links with only a fraction of* the total turns of
circuit
and likewise a part of fa% links with only
fractional part
a
flux
which,
of the turns of circuit
when linking
hypothetical
fai
with all the turns, N\, produces the same total flux linkages as the true
Similar concepts are held for the other
flux linkages in question.
component fluxes, and, when used quantitatively in this manner, they
represent accurately the true condition of affairs as regards induced
be recognized
is
2.
1,
voltages.
Mutual Inductance.
In
order to describe
the magnetic
is
is
It
is
interaction
between circuits or between portions of the same circuit, the circuit
introduced.
called the coefficient of mutual
parameter M
inductance, or simply mutual inductance, and
dimensionally equiva
L. The similarity between
lent to the coefficient of self-inductance,
the concept of mutual inductance of (or between) two circuits and the
concept of self-inductance may be shown in the following manner.
For the purpose at hand we shall define the self
Refer to Fig.
6.

This
is
fai
fa which links only with the turns of circuit
the fractional part of

2.
</>22
2.
2.
the fractional part of fa which links with the turns of circuit

This
the mutual flux produced by circuit
is
faz
and a recapitulation
is
the fractional
circuit
to circuit
#21
given below:
is
of
fai
<t>22
fluxes are shown in Fig.
The four component
their definitions
inductance of circuit
LI
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
218
1
as:
N\<t>\
r flux linkages of circuit

:
*i
VII
Ch.
(7)
with respect to circuit
(8)
is:
1
flux linkages of circuit
N2<t>i2
Also the mutual inductance of circuit

3/i2 =
*2
ill)
flux linkages of circuit
Ni<t>2\
3/2i
J2
On the same basis of reckoning, the mutual inductance of circuit

with respect to circuit 2 is:
If
characteristics in equations (7), (8), and (9) are not straight

3/2 1, and M\2 are variable circuit parameters and for
certain types of analyses can best be written in the forms:
the
lines,
<f>/i
then
LI,
(7a)
3/12
^V2
(8.)
dii
is
of
is
proportional to the current (i.e., permeability

constant), both self-inductance and mutual inductance in equations
(7), (8), and (9) are constant and as such are very usefid circuit pa
rameters in classical circuit theory.
the
Under the condition of constant permeability, the reluctance
fixed quantity and (R2i = ^12mutual flux path ((R2i or (R|2)
constant which depends for its value upon the units

=
evaluating
the permeability
ployed in
KNi/<R. Therefore,
constant, 3/2
and M\% are constant
the mutual flux path
3/2i = 3/i2 = 3/. This fact may also be proved in terms
field when both circuits are
energies stored in the magnetic
of
if
<t>
is
where
ergized.
em
of
ll
12
is
a

If, however, the flux
ai2
and
the
en
VII
Ch.
MUTUAL REACTANCE
219
If the permeability of the mutual flux path is not constant, neither

3/2i nor Af 12 will be constant and the following method of representing
mutually induced voltages in terms of

Unless
otherwise
of ferromagnetic material
absence
stated,
loses much of its effectiveness.
will
be
Af 12
M.
M2i
The units in which mutual inductance is expressed are identical with
the units in which self-inductance is expressed, usually the henry or
millihenry. If the flux linkages in equations (8) or (9) are expressed
in weber-turns (108 maxwell-turns) and the current is expressed in
amperes, M is given in henrys.
=
assumed, in which case
4.
Refer to Fig. 6, page 216, and assume that the L\ coil consists of
turns and that the Lz coil consists of 500 turns.
(a) What is the mutual inductance between the two circuits (in millihenrys) if
amperes in circuit 1 establishes a total equivalent flux (<t>i) of 30,000 maxwells
Problem
50
27,500 maxwells of which

(6)
What
link with the turns of the

of the
is the self-inductance
will cause a corresponding
LI
= 3 millihenrys.
will manifest
itself in circuit
generated or induced voltage the value of which is:
612

(b)
is evident that any change in i2 of Fig. 6

In accordance with Lenz's
change in 4>2i-
law, any time rate of change of

a
coil?
It
Mutual Reactance, X\f.
form of
LI
coil?
(a) MI-> = 27.5 millihenrys;
Ans.:
the
L\
,.
-Ni
021
j-
or
at
where e\2 is considered as a voltage

as a voltage drop.
vw =
,.
Ni JT
at
in
(12)
rise or generated
voltage and
vi2
is considered
Similarly any change in

e
It
ii will
-Na
manifest
~
/It
or
v,i
itself in circuit
= N2
-^
at
is through the agency of these mutually induced
phenomenon
known
as
mutual inductance can
2 as:
(13)
that the
into account
voltages
be taken
in circuit analysis.
The basic equations of voltage for the two circuits shown in Fig.
dt
dt
6 are
51
(14)
(15)
and
dt
If
the permeability of the flux paths
'
dt
is assumed constant,
the above
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
220
VII
Ch.
can be written in more convenient forms, since:
equations
JV,,
L,t,
/.
AT,
= 1/21*2
.-.
ATt
= L2i2
.: N2
L,
3/2i
atP-
at
= L2
(16)
(1")
-T7
at
(18)
at
'
(19)
at
Equations
manner:
(14) and
therefore,
(15) may,
R' ' i '
'
L2
dl
be
M 12
dt
written in the following
= e
(loo)
Mi2
at
= w3/i2/m
cos
tat
XMJmi
cos ut
(20)
an
called the mutual reactance and
XM- It
of
the
of
mutual
which
the
ratio
voltage
function
expresses
impedance
It will be noted that the voltage
inductance to the exciting current.
Hence the
of mutual inductance leads the exciting current by 90.
vector expression for the mutual reactance is:
juM
(oA//90
(21)
configurations in which M may possess either

negative sign will be considered presently.
Circuit
XM
is
is
In general, taM
positive
or
An inductance coil has

resistance of 10 ohms, a self-inductance
neighbor
mutual inductance of 0.02 henry with respect to
of 1/37.7 henry, and
voltage of 50 sin 377t volts
impressed across the
ing coil.
(A/i2 = A/21.)
Find the ohmic value of the mutual reactance and
terminals of the primary coil.
6.
Problem
is

i\
If,
It will be observed that the effects of mutual inductance are entered

for
into the basic voltage equations as voltage drops (+M di/dt).
=
due to mutual
example,
Im\ sin wt, the voltage drop in circuit
inductance is:
the effective value of the voltage across the open-circuited

boring coil.
Ans.:
XM
= 7.54
terminals of the neigh
ohms, F2 = 18.85 volts.
VII
Ch.
COEFFICIENT OF MAGNETIC COUPLING
Problem
6.
221
Let the effective values of the primary voltage and current of Prob
Vi and I\, and draw a vector diagram illustrating Vi, Ii, R\i\,
lem 5 be known as
jXtili, jXjtlit
and EZI.
(Note: Considered as a generated voltage, 21 is 180out
of phase writh jXu1\, since the latter is a component voltage drop in circuit 2 in the
same sense that R\\ and
are component voltage drops in circuit 1.)
jXnIi
Ans.:
Vi
= /0
V2
volts,
Ii
2.5/-450
"
'
amperes, E2i = 18.85/-1350 volts.
Coefficient of Magnetic Coupling. The fractional part of fa which

links with N2, fa2/fa, and the fractional part of fa which links with
Ari, (fai /fa), are indices of the degree of coupling that exists between
two windings. Where the windings are widely separated or are so
situated in space that these fractions are small, the coupling is said to
With closer proximity and proper orientation of the windings,
be loose.
<t>i2/<t>i and fai Ifa approach unity as a theoretical upper limit.
The coefficient of coupling between two windings which individually
possess LI and L2 units of self -inductance is defined as:
Iffa2\/fai\
V\fcA*i/
==
KMiyii/Ny) (M2ii2/Ni)
'."
==
(LiiijNi)
(L2i2/N2)
l/Mi2\/M2i
\\TrA~L7
(22)
Under the condition of constant permeability, fa2 /fa

fai /fa and
=
=
the permeability
M. Therefore,
constant,
JV/ia
M2i
if
is
- JfPVF)
-=
(23)
is
the geometric mean of the fractions (</>i2/0i) and (fail fa)

fcjvf
or between the fractions (Af/Li) and (M /L2). Numerically the co
efficient of coupling in practical installations may range from approxi
mately 0.01 between certain types of radio circuits to as high as 0.98
or 0.99 between iron-core transformer windings.
Thus
3.
Let the number of turns of the two windings shown in Fig.

be
It will be assumed that 6000 maxwells link with the
and Nt = 500.
per ampere of exciting current t'i, of which 5500 also link
turns Ari, of circuit
with Ar2. Under the assumption of similar concentrated windings and of constant
permeability of the flux paths, 60,000 maxwells will link with the turns A'z, of circuit
per ampere of exciting current ?o, and 55,000 of these flux lines will also link
Example
= 50
2,
1,
Ni
is
to specify the coefficient of

with N\. The purpose of this numerical example
coupling in terms of the fractions (#12/01) and (<t>ii/<t>2) and also in terms of the
For
ampere of primary exciting current and
fractions (A/i2/I/i) and (3/21/^2).
for

ampere of secondary current:

<i
= 6000 maxwells
= 5500 maxwells
<(>12
to
foi
= 60,000 maxwells
= 55,000
maxwells
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
222
Af
zi
500
is
VII
0.003 henry
t>0,000
'
Ch.
10-
10-* = 0.30 henry
x 10-.
= 0.0275 henry
0.0275 henrv
0.0275
V/0.003
= -
0.30
0.917
Problem 7. The individual self-inductances of two windings are 0.094 henry

The coefficient of coupling l>et\veen the windings is 0.805. Find
and 0.0108 henry.
of the two windings.
inductance
Ant.: 0.0256 henry.
the mutual
Problem 8. A winding of 1000 turns has a (<*M/'I) characteristic of 9400 max
wells per ampere and is coupled magnetically to a second winding of 338 turn,*.
Assuming constant permeability of the flux paths and similar concentrated winding.
find LI, LI, and M in Henrys if the coefficient of coupling is 0.805.

Ana.:
LI
= 0.01)4
henry, L^ = 0.0108 henry,
= 0.0256 henry.
Circuit Directions and the Sign of M. If only one circuit of an a-c

network includes a generating device, the positive directions of the
currents may be arbitrarily assigned if it is understood that the positive
circuit direction given to the current through the generator arbitrarily
When
defines the positive circuit direction of the generated voltage.
network,
is
device
in
an
present
than
one
electrical
generating
more
the relative polarities and time phases of the generating devices with
respect to the common branches must be taken into account in assigning
the positive circuit directions of the currents in the coupled circuits.
In a given circuit or portion thereof the voltage of mutual inductance.
Mdijdt, may aid or oppose the voltage of self-inductance, Ldi'dt.
If more than one circuit is involved, the currents are first given their
When the positive circuit directions of
positive circuit directions.
the currents have been determined from the relative polarities of the
several generating devices (if more than one generator exists), or when
the positive circuit directions of the currents for a single generator have
been arbitrarily assigned, the sign of M is considered positive if in
a given winding the induced voltage of mutual inductance acts in the
VII
Ch.
CIRCUIT DIRECTIONS AND THE SIGN OF M
223
same direction as the induced voltage of self-inductance. If the in

duced voltage of mutual inductance opposes the induced voltage
of self-inductance in a given winding, M is considered as a negative
quantity.
In
as
determining the sign of
M,
each particular case must be analyzed
to the relative positive circuit directions of the currents, the relative
modes of winding of the coils involved, and the actual physical place
It will be shown later
ment of one winding with respect to the other.
that the sign of M between circuits which are not electrically connected
and which are energized with a single generator in one circuit is wholly
dependent upon the arbitrary positive circuit directions which are
assigned to the currents in the separate circuits.

FIG.
7.
Illustrating a particular case wherein the voltage of mutual inductance acts in

circuit opposition to the voltage of welf-inductance in a given coil.
Example
Consider the hypothetical arrangement ()f the two circuits shown in

the clockwise direction around circuit 1 is taken as the positive circuit
direction of ii, the generator emf possesses a positive circuit direction from 6 to a
through the generator. The latter direction fixes the positive circuit direction of io as
around circuit 2.
counter-clockwise
By Lenz's law, the voltage of self-inductance in the LI coil ronsvlcred as an indufed
Fig.
7.
4.
If
roltagf acts in a counter-clockwise direction around circuit 1 when di\/dl is positive.

If the positive circuit direction of 12 and the modes of winding of the coils are con
sidered, it is plain that voltage which is induced in the LI coil by the variation of
<(>->iis a
clockwise direction around circuit.
when di/dt or
d<t>*\/dt is
positive.
Since M di^/dt acts oppositely to L\ dii/dt in circuit 1, M must be considered

Another way to determine the sign of A/ is to
negative if LI is considered positive.
call Af positive if the mmf's caused by the two currents combine to increase the
total flux. If the mmf's oppose, the sign of M is negative. The general equation
for voltage equilibrium in circuit 1 is:
Problem
9.
Show,
by means of detailed
and independent
analysis,
that
the
224
COUPLED
general equation for voltage equilibrium
Rtit +
CIRCUITS
in circuit
Li-j2-M.
Ch.
VII
of Fig. 7 is:
= eba
Instead of showing the actual modes of winding, a conventional

method employing a dot-marked terminal, as shown in Fig. 8, is often
used to yield the same information.
This
practice has been used for many years in
the marking of iron-core instrument trans
formers, where the dots are known as po
The dots are placed so that
larity marks.
a current entering the dot-marked terminal
of any coil will produce a magnetomotive
FIG. 8. Dot marks used to
force and corresponding flux in the same
define relative polarities of
direction around the magnetic
circuit.
two coils.
Thus in Fig. 8 a current entering the
dot-marked terminal of coil 1 causes a counter-clockwise flux in the
magnetic circuit and a current entering the dot-marked terminal of coil
2 also causes a counter-clockwise flux in the same magnetic circuit.
Hence the dots alone are sufficient to determine the relative modes
-îRnr rnnrî
Fio.
9.
Dot marks
indicate M.
10.
Mode of wind
ing and physical place
ment indicate M.
FIG.
Fio.
11.
Dot marks
indicate
of winding. The use of this convention is illustrated in Fig. 9. If

a current entering the dot-marked terminal of coil 1 is assumed to
produce a flux through the coils from left to right, this same current,
since it is leaving the dot-marked terminal of coil 2, would cause a flux
from right to left through the coils. Therefore, for the purpose of
setting up an equation of voltage drops, M must he considered negative.
Hence the relative modes of winding must be as shown in Fig. 10. If
the coils of Fig. 9 were marked as shown in Fig. 11, a current entering
the dot-marked terminal of coil 1 would also enter the dot-marked
terminal of coil 2, the mmf's of the two coils would be additive, and
the sign of M would be positive.
Mutual Inductance between Portions of the Same Circuit. Mutual
inductance may be a significant factor in governing the flow of electricity
in a single-series circuit where two or more portions of the circuit are
A particular example is shown in Fig. 12. The
coupled magnetically.
Ch.
VII
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
225
arrangement consists of two magnetically coupled inductance coils

connected in electrical series. Individually the coils possess Ln and
Lib units of self-inductance together with Ra and Rb units of resistance,
respectively.
If the coils are wound in the manner shown in Fig. 12, it is apparent
that, in coil a, the voltage
.,
di
acts in the same circuit direction

the voltage
as the

acts in the same circuit direction
FIG.
Two inductance
12.
Likewise
voltage Ladi/dt.
d<t>ab
as
Ltdi/dt.
coils connected
Hence
is positive.
series-aiding.
Considered as voltage drops, the component voltages referred to

above have circuit directions which agree with that of the applied
voltage, v. Considered as voltage rises, the induced voltages are, of
course, in circuit opposition to the applied voltage, v.
The facts involved can he stated in equation form as follows:
Rai + La
dt
at
Lb- +
dl
Mab
at
= v
(24)
If
the mutual flux path is of constant permeability, the above equation

reduces to:
(Ra + Rb)
If
i +
(La + Lb + 23/)
at
varies sinusoidally with time and if all circuit parameters
(25)
are con
(Ra +
will
Vll
Ch.
(25) may be written in terms
stant, equation
follows :
It
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
226
of effective
Rb)l + ju(La + Lb + 2M)I
values
as
(26)
that M enters into the voltage equation in exactly the

Hence uM is a mutual reactance.
The equivalent
of the series circuit shown in Fig. 12 follows directly from
be noted
same manner as
impedance
L.
equation (26).
2M)}2
(27)
tan
Equation (27) may also

Ze = (Ra
(Ra +
written:
be
= Za
+ Rb) + jco(La + Lb + 2M)
Zb
+ 2ZM
(27o)
where
Z0 = Ra
Zb =
Rb+ juLb
the two coils were connected
with
and
together
ZM = 0
in the opposite
polarity opposite to that shown in Fig.

terms in the above equations would be reversed.
a
is,
If
+ juLa,
sense, that
12, the signs of the
tlio
2.V/
sul (tractive series:
Lf(,uW = La + Lb
- 2.U
The value of M may, therefore, be found experimentally

since, from the above relations:
by measuring
/.
the two coils are connected
in
If
i<(ub)
,.
it
Let
be required to find the coefficient of coupling, the equivalent
and the magnitude of the current in a circuit arrangement
impedance,
series-circuit
that
shown
in
12 if:
Kig.
similar to
Example
6.
Ra = 1.0 ohm
La = 4.0 millihenrys
= +3 millihenrys
u> = 1000
Rb = 6.0 ohms
Lb = 9.0 millihenrys
(n) The
coefficient of coupling
radians per second
= 40.5 volts, the applied
voltage
is:
V LaLi,
v'4 X

= La
6.
An inspection of equations (25), (26), and (27) will show that

Example
equivalent inductance of the two coils connected in additive series Ls:
Ch.
VII
INDUCTIVELY
COUPLED
PARALLEL BRANCHES
227
(6) The equivalent series-circuit impedance is:
Z,
= (1 + 6)
+Lb+ 2M)
+; (1000) (0.004 + 0.009 +
= 7 + J19
= 20.25/69.8
= (Ra + Rb) + ju,(La
0.006)
ohms
(c) The series current is:
R.IS
40.5
A vector diagram of V, I, V,,, and V(,

is shown in Fig. 13 together with the
component voltages of Vn and V&.
I,
V,
is,
Problem 10. Find the magnitude

KKI. i;{. Vector diagram
of the current in the above example
M =
if the two coils are connected in subtractive series, that
vector
the
of
positions
Draw a vector diagram illustrating
=
Ans.:
various Rl and A'l component voltages.
M2\
di>2
6.
millihenrys.
and the
Va, V&,
4.09 amperes.
Reference to Fig. 14
/dt acts in circuit opposition to
LI dii /dt.
of two inductance coils which are coupled magnetically.

shown and the assumed positive directions of currents
Similarly, in coil
In equation form:
2,
is
FIG. 14. Parallel arrangement

For the mode of winding
as indicated, M
negative.
M\zdi\ldt
acts in circuit opposition to L2di2/dt.
will
be noted
If
is
Itf
1U 12
ll
(29)
that the individual branch currents have been employed
in the above equations.

the circuit parameters
assumed,
--
are constant and
the above equations
may be
sinusoidal variation of
written in terms of effective
a
It
l2
D
K212 -\- Li2
(28)

will show that, in coil
1,
Mutual Inductance between Parallel Branches.
of example
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
228
values as follows:
- juMl2
- jwMIi
(R2 +jo>L2)I2
(Ri
+juLi)Ii
Ch.
VII
(30)
(3D
Let
(32)
(R2 + jwLo) = Z2
0
-f jaM
(33)
ZM
(34)
With the above abbreviations, equations (30) and (31) reduce to:
- ZM12
Z^
-ZMli
(35)
Z2I2 =
(36)
The individual branch currents, Ii and I2, may be found from

simultaneous solutions of equations (35) and (3(5).
the
-ZM
V
V
V(Z2 + ZM)
Z2
-ZM
-ZM
(37)
Z2
z,
V
V
V(Z, + Zjtf)
(38)

Z2
T T. _L
V(Z,
T.
-4-
Z2
2Z.v/)
(39)
The equivalent impedance of the two parallel branches shown in Fig.

for the case of negative M is:
--
In
Example 7.
the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 14 it will be assumed that:
7^1
= 3.3 ohms
L2 = 0.0108 henry
Li
Ri
= 0.094 henry
= 0.775 ohm
be required
to find
I,
-0.0256 henry
u = 377 radians per second
V
Let it
(40)
2Z M
Zl
Ii,
!>,
50/0 "volte
and the total power spent fn the two parallel
branches.
Zj (individually)
Z2
(individually)
Zjtf = 0 +
juM
= 3.3
+ J35.4 = 35.5/84.7
= 0.775
= 0
+ j'4.07
j'9.65
ohms
4.17/79.25
9.65/90 ohms
ohms
Ch.
VII
THE AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER
229
Arote: Z.v is herein considered as inherently positive since the appropriate negative
signs have been introduced into equations (30) and (31).
Z,Z.,
1 =
50/0
~~
V(Z2+ZA/)
Z1Z2
11 =
46.4/-540
*
1.078/54
Ze
11
63.6/140
Zj,,2
amperes
(50/0^) (13.73/86.8)
""
63.6/140"~
Z.v2
10.8/-53.20 amperes
2 ~~
V(Zi+Z.i,)
ZiZ2
(50
"
AT) (45.1/85.8)
63.6/140
Z.i/2
7-54.2 amperes
12 = 35.4
VI
ij
= (6.46
46.4/-540
II"RI +
cos
e\
= 50
46.4
cos 54 = 1365 watte

Check:
+ I2
1Q.8/-53.20 + 35.4/-54.20
-J8.65) +
- J28.8)
(20.8
= 27.26
- J37.45
amperes
722ft2
= 385 + 973
= 1358 watts
Problem 11. Assume that the inductance coils in the above illustrative example
are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 14, except that the terminals of one coil
are reversed from that shown in the figure.
Show that, under these conditions:
Ze = 3.095/61. 40 ohms
16.16/-61.40 amperes (V
11 = 4.43
12
= 20.4
/-
/-
as reference)
222.1 "amperes
57.30 amperes
VI cosO
Jl
= 386 watts
Draw the vector diagram of V, I, Ii, and
I2, and illustrate
the manner in which the
three component voltages in each branch combine vectorially

voltage, V.
The Air-Core Transformer.
to equal the applied
In the conventional transformer ar
rangement shown schematically in Fig. 15, the individual circuits are

not connected electrically. Circuit 1, energized by means of an alternat
ing potential difference, is called the primary. Circuit 2 is called the
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
230
secondary.
circuit
As
Ch.
VII
coupling between the circuits,

which is equal to:
a result of the magnetic
2 has induced
in it
a voltage
(41)
The magnitude of the voltage induced in circuit 2 is proportional to

the number of secondary turns, N2, and is dependent upon the degree
of coupling between the two windings.
FIG.
15.
Conventional air-core transformer arrangement.
is
If
t'i
is
L)
(42)
(La
= !
M2l
(43)
1
2
(7?2
L,
+
If

i'2
The sign of M in the conventional transformer arrangement is de

pendent upon the arbitrary choice of the positive circuit direction of i"2.
The majority of writers prefer to use the positive circuit direction of
For the relative
i2 which allows them to employ the positive sign of M.
modes of winding shown in Fig. 15, the positive clockwise direction of
requires the use of +M, since under these conditions M2idi2/dt
acts in the same circuit direction as LI di\ jdt in the primary winding.
If the counter-clockwise direction around circuit
taken as the positive
then,
of
of
M
i2,
must be considered negative.
course,
circuit direction
The resulting solutions will be identical in either case, except that all
secondary currents and voltages will be reversed in sign.
Experience
with detailed solutions will convince the reader that the two different
methods of attack yield identical physical results.
the positive circuit directions arc employed as indicated in Fig. 15,
the mathematical analysis of the ordinary air-core transformer may
be carried out as follows:
assumed to have sinusoidal wave form and all circuit parameters
are constant,
the above equations
may be written in terms of effective
Ch.
VII
values as follows:
+
For the
sake of simplicity
jL, )Ii
ju
f L
231
(44)
= 0
I2
(45)
in writing, the following abbreviations are
adopted:
2i\
= (R\ + joiLi)
(Individual
Z2
= (R2 +
(Individual secondary winding impedance)
(47)
Zjf
(Mutual impedance assuming no core loss)
(48)
(0
juL2)
juM)
primary winding impedance)
(46)
(General expression for load

impedance)
Equations (44) and (45) become:
Z^
+ ZM12
ZMli +
(Z2
Y!
+ Z)I2
(44)-(50)
= 0
(45;
The simultaneous solutions of the above equations for

I,
v,
ZM
(Z2
zL
(Z2- hZ)
z,
Vj
ZM
- HZ)
Vi(Z2
Z,(Z2 + Z)
Ii
and I2 yield:
-ViZ.M
Z,(Z2 + Z)
(52)
(53)
(Z2- I-Z)
ZM
If Ij
has been evaluated, it may, in certain

to solve for I2 directly from equation (51).
la =
(Z2
The secondary
terminal voltage,
load
the
impedance, is:
V2 = ZI2
Also:
V2
cases,
-ZA/II
_v
convenient
(54)
+ Z)
or the voltage
be more
- Z2I2
Zi(Z2+'Z)M_ZA/2
which appears across

(55)
(56)
The above relations follow directly from equations (51) and (53).
Equation (55) shows that the secondary circuit may be thought of
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
232
Ch. VII
voltage equal to Z.Îi, from which the

internal secondary impedance drop, Z2l2, must be subtracted in order
to obtain the .secondary terminal voltage, V2.
The equivalent impedance of the transformer
Equivalent Impedance.
arrangement shown in Fig. 15 referred to the primary side is defined
as the ratio of the applied voltage to the primary current.
Thus:
an induced
as experiencing
i =
V,
Zt(Z2 + Z) -Z.v2
(7
71
T 4)
(^2 -i-
'
A more convenient form of the above equation is:
Z2
M
if2
"2M
Equations (57) and (58) show that the air-core transformer,

respect to its primary terminals, is reducible to an equivalent
circuit.
It will
Example 8 (for Z = 0).
Li
= 0.094 henry
Zi
+ J35.4

Z2 = 0.775
--
Vi
9.65/90 ohms
Z,
(3.3 + ,35.4)
Z,i
= (3.3 + J35.4)
V,
- J22.1)
= 7.50 + j'13.3
= 15.27
/'60.55" ohms
60.55
(3.28/119.45)(9.65/90)
4.14/79.25"
Z2
I2 = 7.56
(4.20
93.1/0
50
15.27
50/0 volts
ohms
4.14/79.25
Zjif = 0 + j'9.65
,- Zl
35.5/84.7 "ohms
=
+ J4.07
henry
a = 377 radians per second
L2 = 0.0108 henry
=
= 0.0256
Z = 0
#2 = 0.775 ohm
= 3.3
series
be assumed that, in Fig. 16a:
Ri
= 3.3 ohms
with
'130.2 amperes
The total power dissipated in the two circuits is:
Vi/i
Ii-Ri
cos 0
= 50
3.28
+ /222 = 3.282
X
3.3
cos
(-60.55)
7.662
= 80.8 watts
0.775
= 81.0 watts
The vector diagram of Vj, It, I2, and Zjfli is shown in Fig. 16i. In
ticular case shown in Fig. 166, the voltage induced in circuit 2, Z.uli, is
the prbalanced
Ch.
VII
233
If the counter
entirely by the internal secondary impedance drop, namely, 22X2clockwise direction around circuit 2 had been taken as the positive circuit direction,
1 2 and Z.i/Ii would appear on the vector diagram 180 from the positions shown in
Fig. 166.
(5)

FIG. 1 6. Voltage and current relations in an air-core transformer the secondary of which
Note the manner in which -Yn/i, Ri/i, and Z.w/2 combine vectois short-circuited.
1 to balance the applied voltage Vj.
Oscillogram
1 illustrates
the instantaneous variations of v\, i\, and 12 for the
The salient features of the numerical solution are clearly
numerical case.
shown. The primary current lags the applied voltage by approximately 60, and
Within
the secondary current lags the primary current by approximately 170.
the limits of oscillographic accuracy, the maximum magnitudes of i\ and t2 agree
with the results of the above numerical example.
above
Example
9 (for Z = 14.6 +./21.2
It will
ohms).
be assumed that in
RI
= 3.3 ohms
LI
= 0.094 henry
Z = 14.5
RI
= 0.775 ohm
u = 377 radians per second
\i
L2 = 0.0108 henry
Zi
= 3.3 +
J35.4
Z2 = 0.775
+j'21.2ohms
50/OJ volts
= 35.5 ,/84.7 ohms
+ J4.07
Z.w = 0 + J9.65
= 0.0256 henry
4.14/79.25 ohms
9.65/90 ohms
Fig.
17a:
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
234
Ch.
-10-
VII
60
OSOILLOCJKAM 1. Illustrating the time phase relations of primary and .secondary currents
of an air-core transformer with respect to the applied voltage wave.
(For a shortSee Fig. 16a.)
circuited secondary.
01 = 70.7 sin 3771 volts.

Zi = Zi
Z.,r
'
35.5/84.7
+
Z2 + Z
Z,i
= (3.3 + J35.4)
Z,i
= 33.0/81.4
V,
12 =
+ (1.63
- J2.7)
93.1/0
15.28 + J25.3
= 4.93
+ J32.7
ohms
50/0
(1.515
(Z, + Z)
/98.6)(9.65/90)
29.6/58.9
I2 = 0.494 /1 29.7 amperes

= I2Z
V2 (terminal voltage)
V2 = (0.494/129.7)
(25.7/55.6)
12.7/185.3 volta
The input power to the primary terminals is:

os e T1 = 50
1.515
X cos81.4c
-hi
50
1.515
0.1495
= 11.3 watts
VII
Ch.
235
The power delivered to the load is:

fioad = VV-2 cos
= 12.7
~|V2
Jl.
0.494
12.7
0.565
0.494 cos 55.6
= 3.55
watts
The efficiency of this particular air-core transformer working under the conditions
stated above is 3.55/11.3 or 31.4 per cent.
/-81.40 amperes
1.515
TO
FIG.
17.
Voltage and current relations in an air-core transformer the secondary of which

is loaded as shown in (a).
Figure
176 is a vector diagram of
Vi, Ii,
Z.vli,
Io, and V->.

Oscillogram 2 illus
trates the variations of vi, i'i, and tj for the particular case under discussion.
The
phase positions of the primary and secondary currents with respect to the applied
voltage are shown in rectangular-coordinate
form and agree with the calculated
-2.0
Illustrating the time-phase relations of primary and secondary currents

2.
OSCILLOGRAM
(For an induetiveSee Fig. 17a.)
tvpe load placed across the secondary terminals of the transformer.
n represents tile applied voltage wave (effective value = 50 volts)
represents the primary current wave (effective value =1.5 amperes)
represents the secondary current wave (effective value = 0.5 ampere)
j2 t'i

2.0-
COUPLED
230
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VII
-2.0-
Illustrating the time-phase relations of primary and secondary currents

OSCII.LUGRAM 3.
(For a resistivetype load placed across the secondary terminals of the transformer. See Problem 12.)

values of these quantities.

Likewise the wave shape and maximum
voltage and current waves are discernible.
values of the
Problem 12. Let the load impedance in the above numerical example be replaced
an impedance the value of which is 28.15/0 ohms.
with
(a) Show that, under this condition of operation,

ZeJ
11
35.5/79.5 ohms
= 1. 409
12 =
/ 79.5"
0.465/182.4
amperes
(Vi
as reference)
amperes
(6) Find the power input, the power output, and the efficiency of operation.
Ans.: P(n = 12.8 watts, Pout = 6.08 watts, efficiency = 47.5%.
diagram of Vi, Ii, IiZ.i/, 12, I2/S:, Ii(jwLi), and Vj.
Draw
a
vector
(c)
the
results
obtained with those shown in Oscillogram 3. OscilloCompare
(d)
gram 3 is a photographic record of the variations of v\, ii, and i% in the air-core
transformer arrangement considered in this particular
problem.
Transferred Impedance. One of the primary considerations

in
communication circuits is that of transferring maximum power from
It has been shown in
a low-power generating device to a receiver.
Chapter V that maximum power is transferred (for a fixed generator
VII
Ch.
TRANSFERRED IMPEDANCE
237
is
:
is
R,
is
if
is,
voltage) when the impedance of the receiver (in complex form) is the
conjugate of the impedance of the generator and associated transmission
jX for
JX, then 7,^. should equal
lines. That
Zgen =
For impedance matches which will prevent
maximum power transfer.
reflection losses, Zgen = Zrec. (See Chapters XII and XIII.)
At audio frequencies, iron-core transformers may be used successfully
for transforming voltage magnitudes and for matching impedances,
but at radio frequencies air-core transformers are generally used. In
relatively
iron-core transformers where the coefficient of coupling
placed across an A^-turn
high and where (o>L2)2 ^ R2'2, resistance,
secondary, may appear at the terminals of an JVi-turn primary as
"
"
used because
may appear
(N\ jNzfR, approximately. The term
several conditions must be fulfilled simultaneously before the (N\ JN2)2
factor can be used successfully, as will be shown presently.
Classical methods will be employed to show how an impedance
placed across the secondary terminals of an air-core transformer appears
at the primary terminals in modified form.2
Reference to equation (58) will show that the equivalent impedance
of an air-core transformer referred to the primary side
jX2
(59)
predominantly
\R2
o>23/2
I) \
,..,
,..,,
jL,
(Ri
Ze,
it
where Z2' = (Z2 + Z), the total secondary impedance.

Since Zm2 = u>2M2, and Z2' = R2 -\- juL2 (for
follows that:
inductive secondary circuit),
juL2
(60)
Rationalizing equation (60) yields:
ju
I"
w\
LLi
R,'2 +
"
22'
u2M2R2'
"
<JM2L
2L2'
R2>2
It will
be observed that R2 appears at the primary terminals in modified

form, namely, as:
It should
be recognized that classical methods are applicable only where A/2i =
Where iron-core transformers are involved, the (Ni/N%)~

constant.
often used as an approximation, but since detailed analyses of iron-core
transformers are usually considered in a-c machinery courses they will not be given
3/12
factor
here.
is a

(K2
JX,)
(R, +
Z2
Z1--
Zel =
If
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
238
Ch.
with azLz' ', if LZ
VII
NzfaHz, that is,

if all of LZ' is concentrated in the secondary winding, and if M = \^LiL2',
RZ' is very small
compared
then RZ' appears at the primary terminals as:
approximately
RZ'
N2/

Thus, if a high value of RZ is to appear at the primary terminals at

an apparently reduced value, N\ /N% must be made less than unity by
the appropriate amount.
The above transfer factor, (N\/Nz)2, can
be theoretically approached only in the case of an ideal transformer
Even with unity coupling.
the coefficient of coupling of which is unity.
R2' is not actually transferred by the exact square of the turn ratio,
NI jNz, as is sometimes supposed. In the iron-core transformer the
conditions required to make (Ni/Nz)2 the correct transfer factor are
fulfilled to a degree which makes calculations fall well within engineering
As a result, it is customary to
accuracy when this factor is applied.
use this factor in iron-core transformer practice.
Equation (61) reveals another interesting fact, namely, that the
effective inductance at the primary terminals of a loaded transformer
approaches zero only when Rz'2 is negligibly small compared with
u?Lz'2 and when LZ is entirely concentrated in the secondary winding.
Under these conditions and if the coefficient of coupling is equal to
unity,
transformer, in which
Example 10. Given sin air-core (or constant-permeability)
For the particular arrangement considered:
I = 500 and A' = 5000.
Ri
Ri
LI
= 0.03 henry
1.0 ohm
L2 = 3.0 henrya
= 0.275 henry
Z =
At
= 10 ohms
90/0 ohms
265.5 cycles per second, u = 1067 radians per second and
X.u
X.\r
uM
1667
0.275
= 458.4 ohms
= -158.4'2 = 210,000
Z2' = (10 +J6000) + (90 + JO) = 100 +j5000ohms

210,000
100+ ,5000
Zei =
(1
+ J50) + (0.84
- ;42)
= 1.84
+ J8.0
8.2/77 "ohms
Vll
Ch.
PRIMARY
UNITY-POWlill-FACTOIl
= (100 + J5000)
It will be noted that "L-i

j42) ohms.
(0.84
RESONANCE
ohms appears at the primary
239
terminals
This result emphasizes the wide discrepancy
that may
exist between ideal transformer operation and that actually obtained in an air-core
transformer the coefficient of coupling of which is 0.917.
Under ideal conditions, the load impedance, Z = 90/0 ohms, would appear at
as
primary
the
terminals as
ffi
90 =
500"
90 = 0.90 ohm
The ideal conditions
referred to are: (1) perfect coupling, and (2) zero resistance in

transformer windings.
The reactive term in Ze[ may, of course, be neutralized with a series condenser
the primary circuit if a low resistive impedance at the primary circuit terminals
the
in
is desired.
A generator which develops 10 volts (effective) at 2(55.5 cycles

Problem 13.
which has an internal impedance of 2 /0 ohms is to be used to energize the
and
That
ways:
with the generator terminals directly across the terminals
the 90-ohm load.

(b)
Through the transformer of the above example and
the capacitive
reactance of which
is
8
of
(a) Directly.
is,
90-ohm load resistance of the above example in the two following
a primary series condenser
ohms.
Find the power delivered to the 90-ohm load in (a) and in (6).
Ann.:
(a) 1.063 watUs; (6) 5.13 watts.
the total secondary
circuit resistance.
is
is
RI'
L^'
the total secondary
circuit self-inductance.
Zel=Rel+jXel
(62)
Series
"
R2'2 +
Primary Capacitor.
W\
Primary
[Xl
"
where
unity
R^
power
xA
factor
can
be
obtained by introducing a capacitor in series with the primary, which

has
capacitive reactance equal in magnitude to the inductive reactance
a

in of
Resonance. The inductive reactance

Primary Unity-Power-Factor
Zei caused by the introduction of a transformer may be neutralized
If, upon evaluation in a par
any one of several different ways.
ticular case, Zel possesses an inductive reactive component, suitable
neutralizing capacitors may be placed in either the primary or the
secondary circuits, and these capacitors may be arranged either in
For the sake of
series or in parallel with the transformer windings.
in
the
in
let
be
written
form
analvsis,
given
equation (01).
Ze\
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
240
Ch.
VII
represented in equation (63).
Parallel Primary Capacitor.

A capacitor, placed in parallel with
the primary terminals, can be used to produce primary unity power
factor. It is simply necessary to make the susceptance (be) of the
parallel capacitor equal in magnitude to the susceptance (&L) of Yel,
where:
y el
._
J?
_i_
-,'V
=~
Rel
__ J
Xei
2 _i_
The inductive susceptance of the uncompensated transformer looking

into the primary terminals is given by the
component of the above
The capacitive susceptance of the parallel primary capacitor
equation.
must, therefore, be equal to:
bd (parallel)
Secondary Capacitors.
v
JT"
Under the assumptions

concerning equations (61), (62), and (63),
X2'
that have been made
is an inductive reactance.
The introduction of a capacitor in series with the secondary circuit

or the introduction of a capacitor in parallel with the secondary load
terminals will tend to neutralize the original inductive reactance and
cause the net inductive X2 to be smaller in magnitude.
If R2'2 is
not too great, the lower value of X2' increases the magnitude of the
subtractive term of equation (63), namely,
XM2X2'
Provided R2'2 is sufficiently small in comparison with X2'2 to permit
the required increase in the above expression, Xei may be made equal
to zero with the proper adjustment of the secondary capacitance.
The
correct value of secondary capacitance to employ in a particular case
However, the general algebraic expres
is not difficult to determine.
sions for the proper sizes of capacitors are of rather awkward algebraic
form. In the circuits where this type of tuning is employed the desired
by means of a variable condenser
effect is very often accomplished
which can be adjusted experimentally to the proper capacitance.
Adjustment of J\I. Assume that X\ or X2 of equation (63) possesses
Ch.
VII
PARTIAL RESONANCE
a capacitive reactive component
241
which is at least large enough to make
<"'
when the two windings are in their position of closest coupling. If now
XM is made smaller by decreasing the coefficient of coupling, Xei will
take on positive values, thus indicating a resulting inductive reactance.
In general, the capacitive element employed would be adjusted to
make Xei slightly capacitive for the condition of maximum XM. The
primary current could thus be made to lead or lag the primary voltage
by adjusting the degree of coupling between the two transformer
windings.
Example 11. Let it be required to find the condenser of proper size to place in
parallel with the primary terminals of Fig. 17a to produce primary unity power
factor. The circuit parameters, and so forth,1 are given on page 233. For the case
considered: ^^. = 3.3 + j'35.4, Z., = 0 + J9.65, andZ2' = (Z2 + Z) = 15.28 + ft 5. 27
ohms at 60 cycles. Without the condenser:
Zei = 4.93 + j'32.7 ohms
= (0.0045
= 79.3
^
^
= "H =
(parallel)
377
mho
is to be used:
2/C
10~6
farad = 79.3
Find the primary series capacitance to employ in the above example

Ans.: 81.1 /if.
to produce primary unity power factor.
14.
Problem
16.
Solve equation
Problem
16.
Can
Problem
(63) for the value of
X*'
which will make Xe\ = 0.
secondary series capacitance be employed in example
11
to
is
produce primary unity power factor?

Ang.:
too large for the specified values of A'i and XM.
No; R</
Partial Resonance. In the coupled circuits of the type shown in

Fig. 18, the two chief concerns are usually: (a) maximum value of
(and of Vcz) for a given value of V\; (b) sharply defined peak of
72 for variable X2, XM, or w.
2
In considering
the salient
features
a slight modification in notation
is

fee
1
Neglecting the resistance of the capacitor which
-,0.0299)
/if
4 93
of these tuned
desirable.
coupled
circuits,
Thus far we have dis
COUPLED
242
CIRCUITS
Ck.
VII
tinguished between the impedance of the primary winding (Zt), the

impedance of the secondary winding (Z2), and the impedance of the
It is plain from the development preceding equations (52)
load (Z).
and (53), page 231, that no restrictions have been imposed on the nature
of 1\.
of the
T-i is simply the equivalent series-circuit impedance
Z
is the equivalent series-circuit
primary circuit. Similarly Z2 +
The equations in the remainder
impedance of the secondary circuit.
of this chapter will be simpler to write and easier to grasp if Zi is under-
Rj
>
[
1
V,
-)
Xc2^
I
I
FIG.
18.
Z2 is understood
to
be the
Thus:

Z,
Z2
=
=
Zji/ =
\
/
,1
T+
of the primary circuit and
if
total series impedance of the secondary circuit.
- Xci)
- XC2)
R2 + j(XL2
fl, +j(XLl
jXv
Ri
+jXl
(68)
R2+jX2
(69)
(70)
(as before)
current I2
page 231] becomes:
jwM
The equation for the secondary
[as given in
equation (53),
-V,Z.V
jX1)(R2 + JX2)
or
+j(R,R2
For simplicity in writing, let
a =
v\
A double-tuned circuit arrangement.
to be the total series impedance
I2 =
'
/_.,"
tstood
XiR2 + X2R!
and
b =
R,R2
(71)
(72)
- X^2 + Xu2
Then:
a2
(73)
Ch.
VII
PARTIAL RESONANCE
243
The magnitude of I2 is:
j
/2 =
v
v
VlX
or
/2
VX12R22+X22R12+R12R22+2R1R2XM2+X12X22-2X1X2XM2+XM4
(75)
In solving for I2,
are involved,
however, is useful in determining maximum values of I2 that can be

obtained by varying any one of the parameters.
Partial resonance in coupled circuits is obtained when any one param
eter is so varied as to cause maximum effective secondary current, I2,
under the condition of constant applied voltage, V\.
From equation (75) it is evident that partial resonance can be obtained
by adjusting any one of the five parameters: RI, R2, X\, X2, or XM(For fixed values of R\, L\, C\, M, R2, L2, and C2, partial resonance
Partial resonance
may be obtained by adjustment of the frequency.)
will obviously be produced by adjusting any parameter which appears
only in the positive terms of the denominator of equation (75) to zero.
Hence partial resonance obtains, theoretically, when either R\ or R2
is equal to zero. Practically, neither R\ nor R2 can be zero and, as
will be shown presently, the value of RiR2 determines the optimum
value of /2 that can be obtained.
The values of X\, X2, or XM which will produce partial resonance
may, in general, be found by differentiating the expression for I2 [as
given in equation (75)] with respect to the proper X and equating
rf/2 /dX equal to zero. For example, the value of Xi which will produce
partial resonance may be determined by equating dIil<iX\ equal to
zero and solving for X\ in terms of the other parameters.
Thus:
The only useful relationship which can

Xi(/Z22 + X22)
Urea)
be derived
=
- 2X2XM2]
lt-2
v
-r A
(76)
from the above is:
X2AV
produce partial resonance
X\ which will
The value of
+ X22)
(77)
is,
22
(t A i

it is often
more convenient to use equation (71) than equation (75). This is
particularly true where X\ or X2 is equal to zero. Equation (75),
where numerical values
therefore:
COUPLED
244
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VII
to equation (63), page 239, will show that the above value
In making
of Xi is also the unity-power-factor-resonance value of X\.
this comparison it should be recognized that R2 and X2 of equation (78)
mean the same as R2' and X2 of equation (63) because of the shift in
notation which was made at the beginning of this section.
In a similar
manner, it may be shown that the value of X2 for partial resonance is:
Reference
-*2(res)
X\XM
2 i v 2
Kl (- Jii
_
~"
X\XM
7 2
L\
fjn\
C'y)
The interpretation of the above equation is that X2 must have the

If X\ = 0, then X2 should be
value stated to produce maximum 1%.
tuned to zero to produce maximum I2 for a fixed value of XM . If the
primary circuit is not tuned to XL\ Xci = 0, then the secondary
Where sharpness of sec
must be detuned to the value XiXju2 /Zi2.
of
more
than
an
is
tuning
importance
optimum
value of I2, the
ondary
primary is often purposely detuned to effect a pronounced peak in the
72 versus Xcz graph.
(See Problem 17, page 247.)
If Xi and X2 are both equal to zero (by virtue of XL\ Xci = 0
and XL.Z
Xc2
0), equation (75) reduces to
If, now, XM is varied by changing the coefficient of coupling between

the coils, the optimum value of /2 is obtained when
dXiu
or when
XM
(jiM
Under these conditions:
VRiR2
(called critical coupling)
vlVRjT2
(82)
vl
The relationships stated in equations (78), (79), (82), and (83) are
of considerable importance in voltage amplification in radio circuits.
Some of the essential features involved are illustrated numerically in
For
the following examples and in graphical form in Figs. 19 and 20.
fixed values of the other parameters, there is a value of XM or a coef
ficient of coupling which will produce maximum 72 as shown in the
graphs of Fig. 19.
Frequency responses of coupled circuits for fixed
Graphs
values of R\, L\, Ci, M, R2, L2, and C2 are shown in Fig. 20.
of 72 and Fez versus Xc2 are reserved for student exercises.
PARTIAL RESONANCE
2345678
1
0.05

Flo. 19.
0.10
0.15
Mutual reactance in ohms

0.25
0.20
Coefficient of coupling
0.35
0.30
0.40
9
0.45
Variation of secondary current with coefficient of coupling for different values

of primary impedance.
See example 12.
V, = 10 VOltS
Ohmic values are given at unit CO

Curve 1 is forX|i=l ohm at unit ti)
Curve 2 is for Xn=2 ohms at unit W
Curve 3 is forXM=3 ohms at united
0.8
Fio.
20.
1.0
1.1
0.9
Per unit angular velocity (w)
1.2
1.3
Frequency responses of double-tuned circuits.
In this
Z2 = 4
j'10 ohms
case the primary
- 40) ohms
+ j(40
19
XM
variable
is not tuned and the secondary is tuned,
40 ohms at the frequency of the impressed voltage,
Vll
under the follow
that
is,
= 1
Zi
CA.
(a) Consider the coupled circuits shown in Fig.
Example 12.
ing conditions:
Xa
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
246
A'cj
V\.
of equation (71) for V\ 10 volts and for various values of XM will

show the manner in which
varies with the degree of coupling between the coils.
The results of a scries of such calculations are shown in the lower curve of Fig. 19.
It will be observed that, for Zi = + jlO ohms,
attains a maximum value at
coefficient of coupling of 0.325.
Closer or looser
XM equal to 6.5 ohms or at
l<i
Solutions
coupling than 0.325 results in lesser values of

Calculations will show that in this case
Vc2(mx)
= 1-063
7
2
/j
and hence of V'c2 = l^Xct'
40 = 42.52 volts
JO ohms
.565 amperes.
with
at
XM
equations
=
Z2 =
JO
ohms
(82) and
of
+ JO ohms,
(83),
XM
attains
/2
accordance
is
maximum
to a variable XM when
variable
its optimum
value
Vflifo.
Fc2(OPt)
= /2(0pt)
Xci
= 2.5
40 = 100 volts
is
is
is,
it
uL/R)
is
(or
Fc2(opt)
is
of the coils in this case

will be observed that
equal to 10, and
of the coils.
That
equal to the driving voltage (10 volts) times the
This fact
10 = 100
volts.
generally
true where
fc2(opt> = ViQ = 10
X LZ = 4Jfti, provided that both primary and secondary circuits are tuned to
adjusted to its critical value,
resonance and provided that the coupling reactance
The
Under these conditions,

,
and
Thus
will
,,
RiR*
ViQ
be seen that the voltage developed across the secondary condenser
of
XL\
namely, \^R\R>i.
it

In
The
40 = 62.6 volte
(c) The upper graph of Fig. 19 shows the response

both primary and secondary are tuned.
Zi
variable
of
= 1-565
V'c2(mM)
XM
/2
/2
maximum value at XM = 4.3 ohms of

attains
value of the secondary condenser voltage is:
Z2 =
ohms
j'4
Zi
is
7
2
is
to variable XM when the primary

partially tuned
(6) The response of
ohms of capacitive reactance
shown in the middle graph of Fig. 19. In this case,
employed in the primary circuit and
VII DOUBLE-TUNED CIRCUIT
Ch.
ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN
247
the coupled circuits shown in Fig. 18 may be equal to Q times the applied voltage.
example, the Q of the coils is 50, a voltage amplification of 50 can be obtained
simply with the aid of the tuned coupled circuits.
As indicated in Fig. 18, the
voltage developed across the secondary condenser may be applied between the
control grid and cathode of a vacuum tube in order to obtain further voltage ampli
If, for
fication.
Example 13. The response of a coupled circuit to a constant driving voltage of
variable frequency is shown in Fig. 20 for three different values of XMSince
the critical coupling at unit angular velocity is 2 ohms, the graphs shown in Fig. 20
represent couplings which are less than, equal to, and greater than critical coupling.
In these graphs, unit angular velocity is called the angular velocity at which
XLI Xci = 0 and at which XLI Xcz = 0. At unit angular velocity,
Zi
At
= 1 +
j(W
other values of
w,
Z2 = 4 +
10),
the XL'S and
XM
j(40
- 40)
XM
= 1, 2, or 3 ohms
as u, and the
vary directly
Xc's
vary in
versely as w.
For coupling less than critical coupling the maximum value of the secondary
current is less than for critical coupling, and for couplings greater than critical
coupling the current response is generally similar to the double-peaked curve shown
in Fig. 20.
If
/j
peak of
versus w is desired, the coupling should not be
than
and
critical coupling,
the Q of the coils should be as high as practicable.
greater
If the Q of the coils is made higher than that used in Fig. 20, the peaks of the curves
will be sharper and more clearly denned. Sharpness of tuning is particularly im
a single pronounced
portant in radio receiver circuits.

Problem
17.
In
the coupled circuits shown in Fig. 18, page 242:

RI
Graph 7j and
= 1.0 ohm
R-i = 4.0 ohms
XLI
10
ohms
XLI
Xci
= 10 ohms
Xcz
XM
= 2 ohms
KCZ versus
Vi
Xcz between the limits of
= 40 ohms
is variable
= 10 volts
Xci
= 20 ohms and
Xcz
60 ohms.
Ans.:
= 2.5 amperes at Xcz = 40 ohms.

= 102 volts at Xcz = 41.7 ohms, approximately.
x)
/2(mx)
The fact that circuits of this kind tune more sharply but to lesser peak
Note:
values when one member is partially detuned may be shown by repeating the above
problem using Zi = 1 + j'4 ohms rather than Zj = 1 + jO.
Double-Tuned Circuit Analysis and Design in Terms of f/fo fo/f.

The double-tuned circuit shown in Fig. 21a is widely used in radio
engineering practice, and it is the purpose of this section to derive
design equations which will specify the Q's of the circuits and the co
efficient of coupling in terms of the band width and the degree of irregu
larity which can be tolerated in the response characteristic. The current
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
248
- deg +
=
( d ib
oeg
of a vacuum tube.
^ det,
ip =
or
gmeg
deb
--
in parallel with Rp is the plate circuit representation
(gmEg)
See
/)
generator
VII
Ch.
Kp
Ret
|R:
_L
RP|
iU
|C'fLnTM^L
EmE
page 144.
(a)
FIG. 21.
The actual double-tuned circuit shown in (a) transforms

readily to that shown in (6).
where
w0
1/vLnCii
wo
fo J_
is
Wherever inductive and capacitive reactances are combined as shown

simplified considerably by letting
in Fig. 22 the analysis
l/Vl/aJjCM under
be
the assumption that the
tuned to the same frequency.
denned
above
is
primary and secondary circuits will

as
It will be noted that
(84)
the difference
between two dimensionless
|-< Band width
Response curve of double-tuned

= V/^j
the center fre
is
23.
circuit.
/0
FIG.
>|
* Frequency
ations
of inductive and capacitive reactances
relative to variations
in
quency.
frequency.
fo
it
J\
fi
/2
is /2
As shown in Fig. 23,

will be called the band width and
will be assumed that

small compared with /n.
For narrow
band responses of this kind, #2 has
value of Emilt within the pass
band at
- V^
and/2 are the frequencies (other than/o) at which the

of Em\n.
See Fig. 23.
In this connection
EZ, has values
response,
it
where
/i

quantities (///o and /0//) which individuallv characterize the vari-
will
be
Ch.
noted that, if Fmjn symbolizes
/i,
/i
If
the value of
AND DESIGN
where E2 = mjn, say at
we let a =
;Qi,
=
6=1
# +
/l
/n
/i
/2
fo
/i
fo
fo
(85)
to fo.
/2 is small compared
Zn(in Fig. 216)
/Q2, and k =
jULu
M /VLnL22:
^J
o,0iLn(a +
+ JF22)
Z12
= Z2i =
Since
249
then
Fmia
if
ANALYSIS
LH
jwM
= L22
(86)
(87)
= jiak
in this
jFn)
\/LnL22
case, we
1
(88)
may write
a>02
22
where
wo2
= V
LI lL22C'i
16*22
and

Fit
Employing the loop current method of analysis in Fig. 216 and treating
gmEg as a known value of current, say //, circulating in the left-hand
loop, we have
.
QmEg
=
/y
I,
si
(89)
= 0
The output voltage is
- F2)
b)F]
(90)
-jItkVLuL22
2 =
tiiC
(91)
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
250
Ch.
VII
particularly in the region shown in Fig. 23

if
the per unit band width is small, we may
o>o
in equation (91) and obtain
Since we are interested

where any u is close to
set
<o2 /wo2
C22[(/c2
At
to
MO,
- F2) + j(a + b)F]
ab
the center angular frequency
= 0
(92)
and
(93)
Consider now the ratio of the magnitudes of E2 and E0 and let

ratio u>/u>0 again be reckoned as unity. Under these conditions
'
'
F4 + (a2 +
- 2k2)F2
b2
the
(94)
+ a6)2
(Jt2
or
-i
C1
f\jn
F* +
(a2
(k2
b2
(95)
+ ab)2

From equation (95) it is plain that the shape of the E2 curve (reckoned
in per unit values relative to E0) will be determined by the relative
magnitudes
of
a2
b2
and
If
2fc2.
curve is obtained since, as
a2
^ 2k2,
b2
then
a single-
than 0
(/ different from /0), the E2/E0 curve will decrease continuously from
its maximum value of unity, the value of E2 /E0 when F = 0 or when
peaked
takes on values greater
/o-
If, however,
a2 + b2 < 2k2, the denominator of equation (95) takes

on a minimum value of E2/En takes on a maximum value where /(F2) =
F4 + (a2 + 62 2k2)F2 is a minimum.
This minimum may be found
from
(2A-2
or where
F2 = Fmax2 =
- -
9J-2
n2
2-^1
a2
b2)
= 0
h'2
(96)
Ch.
ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN
251
When plotted versus actual frequency, the response takes the form
shown in Fig. 23 or, when plotted versus F, the form shown in Fig. 24.
We may write an expression for (F/2/F/o)max = #max from equations
(95) and (96), and, since Emin is taken as unity, we may write
1
E min
-a2
(2k2
i(k2
where Fmin2 =
It follows that
(2k2
. 2
a2
(97)
b2)2
ab)2
2
/22 a
"
J?
62)2
min
o6)2
b2).
[See
Fig.
a&)2
24
and
(98)
equation (95.)]
(99)
2(k2 + Ob)
and
(100)3
E0
- /2)//0

a2 -b2 = (/i
Fmin = V2k2
of the pass band where Ei/E^ =
Fio.
24.
response curve,
b < 2k'.
a' +
is the value of
at the edge
j/o versus the variable F for

(F = ///0
/o//.)
(100) is a convenient working equation since it includes

a, a measure of the response irregularity which can be tolerated within
Equation
the pass band
(/i
fa).
specified
(/i fa),
From
and Fmin, a measure of the pass band width
a design
point of view, a and Fmjn would normally be

and k, a, and b would then be so chosen
(at least indirectly),
These results are due to Dr. T. C. G. Wagner of the University of Maryland who
has developed design formulas for double-, triple-, and quadruple-tuned circuits,
*
CIRCUITS
COUPLED
252
Ch.
that the specified values of a and fi /2 would

final design.
See Problem 43, page 261, and example
be
14
VII
obtained in the
for applications
Example 14. Let it be required to design a double-tuned circuit which will have
unit band width [(/j /j)//o] of 0.05 and a ratio of EmuL to EO^ equal to 1.25.
If we make a = b (Qi = Qz), we may readily show that:
fc2
a per
mm2
1.
Fmi^ =
and
rS"^
and
a2 =
ab)
= '052
mln2
1,
since a = Fmia-/2(k?
under discussion
2fc2
= -25
--
16
or
4a
a2
4a
ft2.
In the particular case
lsee equation
(86)]
a = 0.6
-0025(0-4)
- a2254(1-6)
= 0.000417
= 0.00167
and
and
fc
62
a2
Thus
Qi
= Q2 = 49
- 0.041
1.
I\
2, is
a
90 degrees.
the induced voltage due to
Thus, on the vector diagram,
E2/e
flux lags the flux
caused by 02/?, E.w
N(d<t>/dt),
is
by
are assumed.
Since
and
+ is
I2
Ij
is is
2
1
is
I2
Ii

/2
Component Fluxes and Voltages in the Air-Core Transformer.

Fig
ure 25a shows diagrammatically the flux components in an air-core
in the secondary produces an mmf which
transformer. The current
may be considered to cause two component fluxes one the leakage flux
only, and foi, which links both
022, which links the turns of winding
The same conditions regarding the flux linkages as
and
windings
apply to the present discussion, namely,
explained on page 217 for Fig.
component
which, when linking all the turns of
hypothetical
that 4>22
produces the same total flux linkages as obtained from the
winding
The current
causes two component
true flux linkages in question.
fluxes, #12, which links both windings, and 0n, which links winding
on page 233 and application of Lenz's law
only. Reference to example
the
reason for the phase angle shown between
way
in
general
will reveal
in the vector diagram (Fig. 256). The component fluxes pro
and
are also shown.
It plain from Fig. 25o that the
and
duced by
= <t>iz +
The total flux through
resultant mutual flux
4>M
$21
=
=
Also the total flux through
winding
4>M
<fotf
$22
<t>2
$12=
=
All these combinations are
winding
4>M + <t>u
<i + 4>2i<f>iR
Equal numbers of turns on windings
shown on the vector diagram.
Ck.
VII
COMPONENT
FLUXES AND VOLTAGES
253
and E22 by #22.

The resultant induced emf in winding 2 is
therefore E2#.
Because of the resistance R2 of winding 2 the terminal
voltage must be less than E2 by the I2ft2 drop as shown.
Hence V2 is
the secondary terminal voltage.
It is seen to be ahead of I2 by the
secondary load power-factor angle.
by
<t>.\r,

FIG. 25.
Vector diagram of the air-core transformer.
The voltage drop impressed on winding
must be equal to the sum
Thus one component of the total

which is equal and opposite to the induced
drop must be the drop
voltage Eift (not shown) in winding 1 caused by all the flux linking that
The remaining component drop is the IiRi. Hence Vi =
winding.
l\Ri + ( EIR). The components of EIR are the voltage drops
En and E.\n, which overcome the induced voltages due to the

primary leakage and mutual fluxes, respectively.
The leakage flux <22 is (even for all practical purposes in iron-core
transformers) proportional to the current I2. E22 is an induced voltage
The voltage E22 is opposite to
rise and is directly proportional to I2.
It is thus in the
E22 and therefore leads the current by 90 degrees.
direction of a reactance drop, and, since it is proportional to the current,
a constant reactance may be multiplied by the current I2 to represent
correctly the drop E22. Such a reactance which may be used to
of all the drops through winding
1.
EIR,
replace the effect of the leakage flux is called a leakage reactance, and the
CIRCUITS
COUl'LKD
254
Ch.
Vll
The vector diagram

corresponding drop a leakage reactance drop.
which is commonly used is shown in Fig. 26. Only the flux <(>.\{in Fig. 25
is shown, and the drops E22 and Eu are replaced by their correspond
ing leakage reactance drops I2X2 and
Flo.
26.
Commonly used vector diagram
IiXi,
respectively.
for the air-core transformer shown in Fig. 25.

Leakage
Reactance. Leakage reactance

times the leakage inductance. This may
referring to Fig. 25a, leakage inductance
or
e22
Ar2
Dividing equation (102) by equation
may be denned
be
N2
shown
as
as follows.
2ir/
By
(101)
(102)
dt
(101) gives
at
For sine waves

(103)
and
COS
Hence
(104)
h.
vn
THE AIR-CORE AUTOTRANSFORMER
Also
255
V2
The magnitude of the leakage reactance drop has been denned equal
Therefore
to 22 = /2W^S2 = IiX%.
X-2 = a)Z/S2
Since
cos
e22
co/.
in equation (104) is a voltage rise, the drop is e22 = Lszulmz

Because this voltage drop is 90 degrees ahead of the current
(equation
pression
(105)
103),
for
the
ex-
complex
leakage
reactance
j +I
must be
X2
(106)
The Air-Core Autotransformer.

Two inductance coils arranged as
shown in Fig. 27 are called an
If the driving
autotransformer.
voltage is applied to the terminals
autotrans
terminals ac,
former functions as a step-up volt
FIG. 27.
Air-core autotransformer con
age device; whereas, if the driving
nected as a stcp-up voltage device.
voltage is applied to the terminals
ac and the load connected to terminals ab or be, it functions as a stepThe mathematical analysis of the air-core auto
down voltage device.
transformer is reserved for student exercises.
(See Problems 35, 36,
and 37 at the end of this chapter.)
the
the

across
and the load connected
ab
bc
R=5/l
Flo.
28.
See Problem 18.
PROBLEMS
18.
In Fig.
28,
E,
= 100
/0_
volts and E2
100 7 + 120
volts.
The physical
meaning of the foregoing statement is that the EZ generator develops a maximum

generated
emf
(v/2 X
100 volts)
in its arrow direction
of a cycle or 120 before
COUPLED
256
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VII
the EI generator develops its maximum generated emf in its arrow direction.
As
suming that the resistances and reactances given in Fig. 28 include the generator
impedances, find Ii, I?, and Iij.
In Fig.
19.
V22'
2, page 214,
4/0 volts (with terminals
plied to terminals
terminals
Vn'
it is found experimentally
22'
6/0
11 ) is
(with
6/0
terminals
22' open-circuited)
volts.
ll'
Ii
that
when
Ij
1/90 ampere
EI
6/0"
When a voltage of
open-circuited),
and
(the voltage ap
volts is applied to
1.5/90 amperes
and
volts.
(a) Find T,i\ and Zi2 from the above data.

(6) Find the coefficient of coupling between the two circuits.
(c) Draw a circuit configuration that might actually exist within the
and that is consistent with the specified data.
Circuit
ll'2'2
box
Circuit 2
FIG. 29.
See Problem 20.
20. Find the coefficient of coupling between circuits 1 and 2 in Fig. 29.
Hittt:
Transform the abc delta to an equivalent wye, and then determine Zi2 or Zji of the

equivalent circuit.
Circuit 2
FIG. 30.
See Problem 21.
21. Show that the coupling coefficient between circuits
to zero if
w =
l/VRiKCiC?,
Ra = Rb, R^ =
and 2 in Fig. 30 is equal
2Ri, and Ci
= 2C2.
22. Figures 31a, 316, and 31c are the approximate equivalent circuits that are
sometimes used in making voltage amplification calculations in resistance-coupled
Show that the expressions given for E-> in terms of nEg are correct
audio amplifiers.
for each of the three configurations.

23. Two air-core inductance coils possess, individually, 60 and 30 millihenrys
Measurements show that, if the two coils are con
self-inductance, respectively.
nected in additive series as shown in Fig. 12, page 225, the equivalent self-inductance
of the combination
is 120 millihcnrys.
Ck.
VII
PROBLEMS
257
Cb
-If-
I
Rc<
Re
-p
M,
^=
juC,Rp+l
(c)
Approximate equivalent circuits of resistance-capacitance
coupled amplifiers.
Problem 22.
(a) is for low-frequency range, (b) is for intermediate-frequency
range, and (c) is for high-frequency range where the impedance of the blocking con
denser Cj may be neglected.
FIG. 31.

See
(a) If the coils are connected in subtractive series, find the equivalent self-in
ductance of the combination.
(fa) Find the coefficient of coupling between the coils.
24. Two inductance coils are connected in additive series.
For 100 volts im
pressed on the combination,
the current is 5 amperes and the power consumed is
200 watts.
When the coils are reconnected in subtractive series and 100 volts are
Calculate the mutual inductance if the frequency for
impressed, 8 amperes flow.
the above measurements is 69.5 cycles.
If
24 have equal resistances and the voltage drop

volts for the additive series connection in Problem 24, (a)
calculate LI and L*i and the drop across coil 2 for this condition; (6) also calculate
the coefficient of coupling.
26. The individual self-inductances of the two windings shown in Fig. 6, page
26.
across
the two coils in Problem
coil
1 is
36.05
216, are 0.100 and 0.050 henry,
The coefficient of coupling between

respectively.
is 0.56.
If the current in the 0.100-henry winding is a 60-cycle sinus
oidal variation, the maximum magnitude of which is 10 amperes, find the effective
value of voltage induced in the 0.050-henry winding its a, result of the current varia
tion in the 0.100-henry winding.
Also find the magnitude of the rms induced
the windings
voltage in the 0.1-henry winding.

27. In Fig. 32, ejw = 141.4 sin 113U volts and
ecd
= 70.7 sin (113U
- 90)
volts.
COUPLED
258
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VII
(a) Find /6a and Icd, assuming that Fig. 32 correctly represents the modes of
winding as well as the physical placement of the two inductance coils.
The internal
impedances of the generators may lie assumed to be negligibly small.
(b) Find the power generated by each generator.
(c) Draw a vector diagram of EM,
and IfcaXjf.
I&a,
liaRi, I&nX/,i, Erd,
I<.rf, IrrfR2,
IfrfX/,2,
1,-iX.tf,
28. Branch 1 of two parallel branches consists of a resistance of 2 ohms in scries

with an inductive reactance of 3 ohms.
Branch 2 consists of a resistance of 5 ohms
in series with an inductive reactance of 12 ohms. The coefficient of coupling be
tween the two inductances is 0.8, and the inductances are wound so that the mmf's
100 volts
8/1
= 0.40
kM
FIG. 32.
due to
/i
FIG. 33.
See Problem 27.
and /2 taken in the same direction
See Problem 29.
If
from the junction are additive.
/j, /2, the power supplied
100 volts are impressed on the two parallel branches, find
to branch 2, the power supplied branch 2 electromagnetically, and the

voltage drop across only the inductance of branch 2. What is the phase angle
lictween the latter drop and the current in branch 2?
Find the current
29. The coefficient of coupling for the coils in Fig. 33 is 0.5.
conductively
in the resistance.
30.
In
the coupled circuits shown in Fig. 18, page 242,

HI
= 4.0
ohms
Rj
Xz,i=40ohms
31.
72
In
100 ohms
A'C1 = 40 ohms
Xct
= 120 ohms
= 60 ohms
FI
= 100 volte
XM
Find
= 10 ohms
and Vcz.
the coupled circuits shown in Fin. 18, page 242,
KI
A"
= 4 ohms
/.i = 40 ohms
= 10 ohms
XLZ
= 100 ohms
ohms
Xc2
= 120 ohms
= 50 ohms
Vi
Xci =40
XM
Rt
= 100 volts
Find the equivalent primary impedance, Z,\, of the coupled circuits and the ohmir
value of the secondary-circuit impedance referred to the primary terminals.
How
many ohms reactance does the secondary reflect into the primary, and is it in
ductive or capacitive?
32. Assume that an 83-^f capacitance is placed in series with the primary of
Fig. 17a.
Except for the insertion of the 83-,uf capacitance into the primary circuit,
Find the value of A/ which will produce
the parameters are as given on page 233.
unity-power-factor
resonance.
VII
C*.
PROBLEMS
259
Show that the partial resonance which can be obtained by adjustment of

secondary reactance, Xz (in coupled circuits of the kind shown in Fig. 18, page
242), occurs when A'2 = XiX^/Z^.
(See equation 79, page 244.)
34. Circuits 1 and 2 are inductively coupled.
Circuit 1 consists of 2 ohms resist
ance in series with a coil of 16 ohms reactance and negligible resistance.
Circuit
2 consists of 10 ohms resistance in series with an inductance coil of 100 ohms re
33.
the
actance and a condenser of 100 ohms.

(a)
If
the coefficient of coupling is 0.05, what is the drop across the condenser
when 10 volts are applied to

(6)
If a condenser
(o;Li =
circuit
is placed in series
1/uCi), what will
1?
with circuit
1 so as
to tune circuit
be the drop across the condenser in circuit 2
to resonance
for the
same
coefficient of coupling as l>efore?
If
(6), what will
the coupling can be adjusted in part

(c)
drop across the secondary condenser?
36.
l>e
the greatest voltage
Write the general differential equations for voltage equilibrium in the two
shown in Fig. 27, page 255, in terms of Rab, I'ot, Rtc, LI,,, M, K, and L, and
and
ij.
Note that this
is
the branch currents
i'i
circuits
essentially two parallel branches
which are coupled.
and
12?
L,,b = 0.07 henry
ohms
Ii,
I2, and
Ii
If
100/0 volts, find
supplied and that dissipated in each of circuits

diagram of the voltages and currents.
= 0.00 henry
= 377 radians per second
I2.
Also calculate
and
the total
power
Draw the complete vector
(a)
FIG. 34.
See Problem 38.
Given the circuit arrangement shown in Fig.

is
34a, where the gmEg current

of
pentode which has
with
a-c
circuit
the equivalent
generator in parallel
Rp
grid.
voltage of Eg volts applied to its control
= 382 microhenrys, and Cn
(a) If Rp = 750,000 ohms, RL = 12 ohms, Ln
adjusted to resonate the LuCn parallel branches at 500 kc, find RU of the equivalent
38.
is

= 10 ohms
Lhc = 0.01 henry
Vi
= 0.02 henry
Rt>c = 0.5
2.
Rai, = 4.0 ohms
What circuit considered earlier
L R
Ij.
in
and
Ii Ii
Solve the equations thus found for

this chapter has similar equations for
37. Assume that, in Fig. 27, page 255,
/2.
/i
36. Assuming that v\ varies sinusoidally,

write the general voltage equations
for Fig. 27, page 255, in terms of the effective values of the branch currents,
and
COUPLED
2f)0
(b)
(c)
CIRCUITS
What is the Q of the coil itself, namely, wmLu/RL, at 500 kc?

What is the Q of the Cu-RuLn parallel combination of Fig. 296 at
(d) Can
where
/i
=
Zu
Znli
in Fig. 346 be evaluated from the relation
R\\ + j{ "i/n
--
VII
Ch
(Io)
500 kc?
1>
wCn/
) ?
wCn/
39. In Problem 38, it has been shown that the current generators of Fig. 346 and
Fig. 35 can be replaced by equivalent voltage generators which have voltages of
-do)
Fio.
35.
See Problems 39, 40, 41, 42, and 43.
Show that the equivalent primary impedance (including the reflected impedance
from the secondary) which the equivalent voltage generator in Fig. 35 sees is:
Io
M&U
jfu)
(a +
cA-2
-\
"wlWmzCO
fc
\u>ml
(_<>_
2
-l
= (
<<)
+Jr22)J
OVi2\
,'l,
The results of Problem 39 are to lie employed in the following exercises,

voltmeter across L\\ of Fig. 35 will read a maximum value when
(a) Show that
open-circuited and that this voltage will be
Cn adjusted to 1/Lnor loop
where
[-
(o,Lu).
2
is
if
40.
is

where
...
Ch.
VII
PROBLEMS
261
(b) With CH left at the value found above (1/Liiwmi2), show that the voltmeter
(which is across the LU coil) will read a minimum value of
when C22 is adjusted to

m.
(c) Show that, if the experimental procedure outlined in (a) and (6) is followed,
the coupling coefficient between the two coils is
41.
In Fig.
microhenrys;
35:
o =
= L22 = 500 microhenrys;

Ru/wmiLu = b = Rw/temzliii
LU
Cn
= C22 = 2000
= 0.01.
J ;
= 8.66
(a) Find the magnitude of the voltage across the C22 condenser per milliampere of
/o at u = um = 1/vZ/nCn radians per second.
(b) Will the voltage found in part (a) be the maximum value of EI if the frequency
is varied slightly about the value wm specified above?
42.
(a) Make a sketch of
versus
for the circuit shown in Fig. 35
employing the circuit parameters specified in Problem 41.

sketch at
a. = 1.01(W
or F = 2 X KT2
a. = 1.00707am
= 1.0050%,
a = am
using equation
\/2 X
or
or
= 10~2
or
= 0
10~2
(95), namely:
1

Calculate points for this
F' +
(a2
(fc2
+
+
b2
a6)2
(6) Make a sketch of ECM per milliampere of /o versus u/wm employing the results
It may be assumed that the response curve is symmetrical about the
of part (a).
center frequency .
43. Design a current-fed double-tuned circuit like that shown in Fig. 35 which
has a per unit band width of 0.02 centered at um = 106 radians per second. Use
LH = L22 = 500 microhenrys. The permissible variation in the response curve over
the pass band is 1.2516 decibels reckoned from #mtn as reference,
(a = 0.5)
=
Note: Where Qi
Q2, a design of this kind amounts simply to specifying some
appropriate value for the Q's of the coils and then calculating the coefficient of cou
pling to employ between these coils to meet the conditions imposed. In this case,
Fmb?/a = 0.0004/0.5 = 2(fc2 + ab) = 2(fc2 + a2). In a more general ca.se, one of
the Q's may be chosen almost arbitrarily. Then Fmm2/ = 2 (A? + ab) and Fmin2 =
for fc and the other Q to meet the

b2) may be solved simultaneously
(2t? a2
specified values of Fmta and a.
CHAPTER VIII
BALANCED
POLYPHASE CIRCUITS

Generation of Polyphase Voltages. Polyphase voltages are generated

in the same way as single-phase voltages.
A polyphase system is
several
simply
single-phase systems which are displaced in time phase
from one another.
The single-phase systems which form the polyphase
systems are generally interconnected in some way.
In Fig. 1 is shown a single coil aa' on the armature of a two-pole
machine.
When the poles are in the position shown, the emf of con
ductor a of coil aa' is a maximum, and its direction is away from the
If a conductor is placed 120 from a at position b, it would
reader.
Flo.
1.
Elementary three-phase generator.
Fia.
2.
experience maximum emf in a direction away from the reader when the
north pole axis was at b, or 120 later than when the pole axis was at a.
In like manner, the maximum emf in the direction away from the reader
for a conductor at c would occur 120 later than that at b, and 240
later than that at a. The placement of such conductors and the coils
of which they are a part are shown in Fig. 2. Thus the coils aa', 66',
and cc' would have emf's that are 120 out of time phase, as pictured in
Fig. 3. This system is called three-phase because there are three waves
of different time phase. In practice the space on the armature is
For instance,
completely covered with coils (except in single phase).
the conductor of another coil could be placed in the slot to the right of
conductor a in Fig. 2, and another to the left. The one to the right
would have an emf which would lag that in a by the same angle that the
The sum of the three emf's would give a
one to the left would lead.
resultant emf of the same phase as that in a. Conductors for phase a
262
Ch.
VIII
GENERATION OF POLYPHASE
VOLTAGES
263
is
e'.
The distance
would cover the periphery from d to e and from d' to
The emf of all the coils in series for
from to
called phase belt.
is
the whole phase would have the same phase relation as the emf of the
center conductor of the phase belt. For this reason only the center
It apparent that
conductors of the phase belts will be considered.
any number of phases could be developed through properly spacing the
coils on the stator.
Fio.
3.
Waves of emf generated by a three-phase
generator.
is
is
b,
is
is
3,
is
's

is
is
In general, the electrical displacement between phases for a balanced

n-phase system
360/n electrical degrees. Three-phase systems are
the most common, although for certain special applications
greater
used.
For instance, practically all mercury-arc
number of phases
Most
rectifiers for power purposes are either six- or twelve-phase.
modern
Practically all
rotary converters are six-phase.
generators
also invariably used for transmitting
are three-phase.
Three-phase
In general, three-phase apparatus
more
large amounts of power.
efficient, uses less material for
given capacity, and costs less than
single-phase apparatus. It will be shown later that, for a fixed amount
fixed distance at
fixed line loss with a
of power to be transmitted
more economical in the
fixed voltage between conductors, three-phase
use of copper than any other number of phases.
In the development of the three-phase voltages in Fig.
clockwise
was assumed.
rotation of the field structure of the alternator in Fig.
This assumption made the emf of phase lag that of a by 120. Also,
In other words, the
by 120.
the emf of phase lagged that of phase
and came to their corresponding
order in which the emf of phases a,
called the phase order or sequence
maximum values was abc. This
reversed, the order
abc.
If the rotation of the field structure in Fig.
would
attain
maximum
corresponding
their
voltages
in which the phases
BALANCED
264
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
VIII
Ch.
(a)
Flo.
is
it
is,
The phase sequence would be acb. This means

would be reversed.
that the emf of phase c would then lag that of phase a by 120 instead
In general, the phase sequence of the
of by 240 as in the first case.
voltages applied to a load is fixed by the order in which the three-phase
lines are connected.
Interchanging any pair of lines reverses the phase
For three-phase induction motors the effect of reversing the
sequence.
is
to reverse the direction of rotation. For three-phase
sequence
in general, to cause a completely different
unbalanced loads the effect
hence when calculating such systems
set of values for line currents
essential that phase sequence be specified or confusion may arise.
(b)
Coils having induced emf's shown in part (ft).
4.
is
Fio.
6.
Resultant emf shown in
2
E
cos 30*
(6)
(a)
(6)
for connection
of coils shown in (a).
From the information given

would be impossible to know
whether terminal a should be connected to terminal
or terminal
But
were stated that the emf from
to
60 out of phase with that
as shown in P'ig. 46, the way to connect the coils would be
from to
Under such conditions, double-subscript notation
definitely fixed.
is
is
if
it
d.
it
angle.
very convenient.
The order in which the subscripts are written denotes the direction
Thus the emf from to in Fig. 4a
being traced.
in which the circuit
is

is,
is
it
Vector Diagrams and Double-Subscript Notation. When drawing

imperative that directions
vector diagrams of polyphase circuits
in which the circuit
For example,
being traced be noted and recorded.
let us assume that the two coils shown in Fig. 4a possess induced voltages
or emf's that are 60 out of phase and that the coils are to be connected
in such
manner that the emf's add at
60
in additive series, that
VIII
Ch.
TWO- AND FOUR-PHASE
SYSTEMS
265
may be designated as Eaj, and that from c to d as E^. (See Fig. 46.)
If d is connected to a as shown in Fig. 5a, the emf from c to b is determined
by adding all the emf's in the directions encountered as the circuit is
traced from c to b. Hence EC6 = EC(j + Ea& as shown in Fig. 56. This
procedure will be further illustrated in succeeding articles.
Problem 1. In Fig. 4a, connect terminal
voltage Eod with voltage <.& of Fig. 56.
to terminal
and compare the resultant
Ans.:
Problem
ECO
if E
2.
120
E^
= <.
(a) Connect terminal d to terminal 6 in Fig. 4a and find the voltage

volts.
Ea& and Erd have the same vector relation as shown in Fig. 46.
60 volte.
Ans.: Eca = 120
(6) With terminal
/-
d connected to terminal 5 as above, find Eac.

Ans.: Sac = 120
/120" volts.

vector diagram is simply a means of representing certain electrical

quantities that are related by a circuit. A vector diagram therefore
must always be drawn in conjunction with a circuit. Sometimes
circuits may be visualized instead of actually drawn, but without a
definite picture of the circuit represented a vector diagram means
nothing and cannot be intelligently drawn. It should be clearly recog
nized, however, that a circuit vector diagram of voltages and currents
represents time-phase relations and not space relations of the circuit.
This means that the space configuration of a circuit diagram is hi no
way indicative of the time-phase relations of the voltages or currents.
E-3
Ecd
E,d
= 100/30 vote
*-E,b= 100 Z volts

(b)
(a)
Fio.
if
6.
See Problem 3.
Problem 3. Find the magnitude and vector position of voltage EOT in Fig. 60
Eo and Ec(j are displaced from each other by 30 in time phase as shown in Fig. 66.
An*.: E,.0 = 51.76 /105 volte.
Two- and Four-Phase Systems. A two-phavse system is an electrical

system in which the voltages of the phases are 90 out of time phase. A
two-phase system is pictured by the drum and Gramme ring windings
in Figs. 7 and 8. From the position of the coils on the armature in
Fig. 8 it can be seen that the emf's of the four coils are related hi time
BALANCED
266
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
VIII
If the zero terminals of coils aO and cO are con

phase as shown in Fig. 9.
nected, the emf from a to c is Ea0 + E0c. This operation is shown in
Fig. 10. Likewise, when the zeros of coils bO and dO are connected
Fio.
7.
Elementary drum-type two-phase
Fio.
8.
generator.
Elementary
two-phase
Gramme ring-type
generator.
EM + E0d- This is also shown hi Fig. 10. The emf 's Eac and EM
are 90 apart hi time phase, and the system shown in Fig. 8 constitutes
A two-phase system is the equivalent of two
a two-phase system.
separate single-phase systems that are separated 90 in time phase.

-bd
Fio.
9.
Emf's
of coils on generator
Fig. 8.
A four-phase
and a two-phase
in
FIG.
10.
iseries
Resultant
connected
emf's of two coils in

as shown in Fig. 8.
system differ only in internal connec
Thus if connection is made between the two windings at n and n ,

The vector diagram
of phase or coil voltages is shown in Fig. 9. Since there now is an elec
trical connection between the two groups of coils that constituted the
two-phase system, there will be emf's between terminals d and a and
also between b and c, as may be seen by studying the diagrammatic
This connection is called
representation of the coils shown in Fig. 11.
The voltages Eda, Eab, Ebc, and Ecd are called the
a four-phase star.
line voltages, while voltages E0a, E0j,, E0c, and Eod are called the phase
voltages, or voltages to neutral. From the circuit it is evident that
tions.
the system would be called a four-phase system.

BALANCED
208
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
Inspection of the star system shows that line and phase currents must be
identical, and the same thing is true regarding line and phase voltages in
the mesh.
Icd=Ib
I
'0.
Eoo"E|,c
Fio.
15.
Vector diagram of emf's of the
four-phase mesli shown in Fig. 14.
Sometimes
a two-phase
Fio.
16.
Vector diagram of currents of the
four-phase mesh shown in Fig.; 14 under
conditions of balanced load.
system is used with only three wires.
When
this is done, one wire is common to both phases. The circuit diagram
of Fig. 8 when connected for such use is shown in Fig. 17, and the
vector diagram is shown in Fig. 18. It will be noted that this is essen
tially half of the four-phase system shown hi Fig. 11 when line wires
are connected to points 0, d, and c.
oooooooo
T
Fio.
Two-phase three-wire
17.
system.
Fio.
18.
Vector diagram of voltages

Fig. 17.
for
2,
c'
b',
c,
a',
a, c'.
in
is
is
is
c,
it
b',
is
is
b,
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Systems of Generated Emf's.

The genera
If
tion of three-phase was explained at the beginning of this chapter.
the
six wires were connected to terminals a,
and
of Fig.
six-wire, three-phase system.
Such a generator
system might be called
could be loaded with three independent single-phase loads.
Though
not used, one that
widely used may be derived from
such a system
and
by making a common connection between terminals a',
Four wires are all that would then be necessary, three for terminals
and one for the common connection a'b'c'. Such a system,
and
shown diagrammatically
four-wire, three-phase system,
called
now extensively used for a-c networks and
Fig. 19. This system
rapidly displacing the formerly much used d-c networks in the down
6,

dr
Ch.
VIII
THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE SYSTEMS
town areas of large cities.

the
neutral.
The common wire connecting to n is called

Lighting loads are placed from line to neutral ; motor and
other three-phase
power
loads are connected
between
the three lines
The generated voltage waves of this system are shown in

Fig. 3, and the vector diagram that portrays the same thing is shown
in Fig. 20. The three voltages shown are called phase voltages or linea, b, and c.
FIG.
19.
kb
Fio.
Three-phase fourwire system.
20. Line-to-neutral
voltages of Fig. 19.
FIG. 21. Line voltage equals

phase voltage times V3
in the wye connection.
They are sometimes called the wye voltages of the

The
system, and the connection of Fig. 19 is called a wye connection.
c
are
called
the
line
between
terminals
and
or
terminal
a, 6,
voltages
Under balanced conditions they are definitely related to the
voltages.
phase voltages, as the following shows:
to-neutral
voltages.

Efca
= E(,n -f- Ena
This combination is shown in Fig.

where
Fio. 22.
Line and phase voltages

wye connection (Fig. 19).
voltage is considered
as
E.
of the
Fio.
21
the magnitude of the phase
23.
Alternative representation
Fig. 22.
of
Hence line voltage in the balanced three-
star or wye connection is the V3 times the phase voltage and

makes an angle with the component phase voltages of either 30 or 150,
The complete vector diagram
depending upon which are considered.
Figure 23 shows the same
showing all line voltages is given in Fig. 22.
phase
270
BALANCED
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
system in terms of a polar vector diagram of phase voltages and a
lar diagram of line voltages.

Oscillogram
as obtained from an actual load.
VIII
funicu
shows these relationships
141-
100-
-100

-141
Illustrating the 30 angular displacement between the phase voltages

OSCILLOGRAM I.
and the systematically labeled line-to-line voltages in a balanced, three-phase,
wyeEffective value of each line-to-line voltage is 100 volts.
connected load.
When the system is balanced, the currents in the three phases are
all equal in magnitude and differ by 120 in time phase, as shown in
Fig. 24. The phase of currents with respect to the wye voltages is
defined by the circuit parameters in any par
An inspection of Fig. 19 shows
ticular case.
that line and phase currents are identical. The
current in the neutral wire is obtained through
the application
of Kirchhoff's
current law.
Thus
in'n = Ina
*nb
Inc
If
the system is balanced, Ina, Inb, and Inc are

equal in magnitude and displaced from one an
other in time phase by 120 as shown in Fig.
I rib
Fio.
24.
Currents in i
balanced-wye system.
Under these conditions it is apparent that the current in the neutral

is zero since Ina + In6 + Inc = 0.
24.
Ch.
VIII
THE DELTA CONNECTION
271
Problem 4. (a) Draw a polar (or single-origin) vector diagram which will
represent the same phase voltages and the same line voltages as shown in Oscillogram
1 using Vtn as reference.
Specify the effective magnitude of the phase voltages, the
sequence of the phase voltages, and the sequence of the line voltages.
Ans.: F/phase = 57.7 volts.
Phase voltage sequence: an-bn-cn.
Line voltage sequence: ab-bc-ca.
Draw
a
vector
which will represent the same
polar
single-origin)
diagram
(6)
(or
phase voltages as shown in Oscillogram 1, namely Van, V(,n, and Vcn, together with the
line voltages Via, Vcj, and Voc, using Vcn as reference.
Specify the sequence of these
line voltages.
Ans.: Line voltage sequence: ba-cb-ac.
Three-Phase, Three-Wire Systems. The usual three-phase system

In this event loads are not placed between
consists of only three wires.
the lines and neutral, and the neutral wire is therefore not brought out.The balanced relations discussed in the previous article are obviously
unaffected by omitting the neutral wire and therefore apply to the
three-phase, three-wire system.
The Delta Connection. If only three wires are used, the three-phase
system may be connected in mesh similar to the four-phase system
Since
previously considered.
Eno
for the three-phase
system,

connected as shown in Fig.
Fio.
25.
+ En6 + Enc
the three coils shown in Fig.
25, and no
Delta connection of the

shown in Fig. 19.
= 0
coils
19 can be
current of fundamental frequency
Fio.
26.
Phase currents for the balanced

delta of Fig. 25.
will flow around the series circuit of the three coils.

mesh connection is called a delta connection.
It
This three-phase
will be noted that star

and mesh are general terms applicable to any number of phases, but
wye and delta are special cases of the star and mesh when three-phase is
Inspection of Fig. 25 shows that phase voltages and line
considered.
voltages are identical but that line and phase currents are different.
The vector diagram of phase currents for a balanced load is shown in
Fig. 26. Line currents are found through the application of Kirchhoff's
BALANCED
272
current law.
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
VIII
Thus
loa' =
Ifco
+ lea
This operation is carried out in Fig. 27.
For a balanced system, line
current is the V 3 times phase current in magnitude and is out of phase

with the component-phase currents by either 30 or 150, depending
Fio.
27.
Combination of phase currents
gives line current for Fig. 25.
Fio.
28.
Vector diagram of currents for
a balanced delta is shown in Fig. 25.

The complete vector diagram of currents

upon which are considered.
for the three-phase balanced delta connection is shown in Fig. 28.
Oscillogram 2 shows the relations discussed above as obtained from an
actual load labeled as in the accompanying circuit diagram.
Oscillographic study of a balanced, delta-connected, unity-power-factor

OBCILLOOBAM 2.
The line-to-line voltages (or phase voltages) together with the phase currents and
load.
line currents are illustrated.
VIII
Ch.
THE n-PHASE STAR AND MESH
273
It
2,
is
is
is
it
2,
if
is,
should be understood that all the vectors on a vector diagram like

changed individually
a reversal in the order of subscripts accompanies
through 180, and,
this change, the resulting vector diagram will represent the same thing
As applied to the circuit shown on Oscillogram
as does Fig. 28.
for
immaterial whether Iaj
example,
considered to flow hi the direc
tion of Vak or whether Ija
considered to flow in the direction of V(,0.
Those who prefer to consider line voltages ao, ca, and be rather than line
voltages ba, ac, and cb will label a circuit diagram like that shown on
whereas those who prefer to consider line voltages ba,
Oscillogram
ac, and cb will employ \tm, lac, and Ic& as the delta-phase currents.
that shown in Fig. 28 may be reversed, that
6.
Refer to Oscillogram 2. Draw a complete vector diagram of V,,^,,

VM, lah fco I lo'o- lyb, and Ic>c employing V^ as reference. From the scaled
determine the effective values of line (or phase)
ordinates given on Oscillogram
voltage, phase current, and line current.
= 100 volts;
=
= 3.5 amperes;
amperes.
Ans.:
Problem
/i
Ip
2,
V"6e.
The n-Phase Star and Mesh. The circuit and vector diagrams of
two adjacent phases of an n-phase star system are shown in Figs. 29
FIG. 30. Line-to-neutral voltages of adjacent phases of an n-phase star (Fig. 29) .
Two adjacent phase* of an

n-phaso star.
30, respectively.
The line voltage
E06
is
and
Eon
-f
En;,.
Remembering
that the angle of phase difference between voltages of adjacent phases
n>
of phase voltage Ep, the general

calculation of the line voltaSe can be understood from
shown
ISP' the vector relations
^,EpS,n!L'
voltage
Enb
current are identical.
Hence
is
From the circuit of Fig. 29
it
Fio. 31. Combination of line-to-neutral voltages

to give line-to-line voltages in an n-phase star.
&L
~ Âp Sin
180
(
1
360/n, and calling the magnitude
is
is

Fro. 29.
evident that line current and phase
BALANCED
274
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
From the circuit and vector diagrams shown for part of an n-phase mesh
system in Fig. 32, the use of previously outlined principles will show that
E0
.
1L = 21 p sin
and
Fro. 32.
180
Circuit diagram of adjacent phases and corresponding vector diagrams
for an
n-phase mesh.
Example 1. The line currents issuing from a balanced four-phase, mesh-con

nected generator (like that shown in Fig. 14, page 267) are known to be 70.7 amperes
in magnitude.
Let it be required to find the magnitude of the phase currents employ
ing the general relationship stated in equation (2).

70.7_
2 sin
180
70.7
70.7
2 sin 45
1.414
50 amperes
Problem
6.
Find the magnitude of the line currents issuing from a balanced sixmesh-connected generator if the phase currents are known to be 100 amperes
in magnitude.
Illustrate solution by means of a vector diagram.
Ana.:
IL = Ip =* 100 amperes
phase,
Problem 7. Find the voltage between adjacent lines of a balanced twelve-phase,

star-connected system if the phase voltages are 50 volte in magnitude.
Illustrate
solution by means of a vector diagram.
Ana.: 25.88 volts.
Problem 8. Find the voltage between alternate lines of a balanced

star-connected system if the phase voltages are 132.8 volte in magnitude.
Ans.:
six-phase,
230 volte.
Balanced Wye Loads. When three identical impedances are con

nected to a common point, n, Fig. 33, they constitute a balanced wye
If balanced three-phase voltages are impressed on such a load,
load.
jt would seem that all impedances should have equal voltage drops
Ch.
VIII
WYE LOADS
BALANCED
275
across them and that the ratio and phase of line and phase voltages
should be the same as those discussed for the wye-connected generators.
Application of Kirchhoff's laws as discussed in the next chapter shows
Hence the voltage drop Vp across each impedance

of the line voltage is
that this is true.

in terms
The current, power, etc., may then be found in accordance with singleAs a general rule, all balanced three-phase cir
phase circuit analysis.
cuits are calculated on a per phase
basis in exactly the same manner
calculations
as the corresponding
are made for any single-phase cir
cuit. If this procedure is followed
is important that per phase
a it
values of V and
are not con
fused with line voltages and line
currents even though line currents
in a wye connection are the same
as the phase currents, and the line
voltages in a delta connection are
Fio.
33.
the
Balanced wye load.
circuits are calculated

were made for single-phase circuits.

three-phase
same as the phase voltages.
As a general rule, all balanced

per phase just as the calculations
Given the line voltages VL in Fig. 33 as 220 volte balanced threeand A" of each phase 6 ohms resistance and 8 ohms inductive reactance.
Find the line current, power per phase, and total power.
Example 2.
phase, and
VL
220
Vi
7=
V3
127
127
Vd2 +
= 127 volts
= 12.7 amperes
82
Power per phase = JP2RP

Total power = 3 X 968 =
= 12.72
6 = 968 watts
2904 watts
The example given could have been worked by means of complex

numbers. Since there was no need for the vector expressions of voltages
and currents, it was simpler to use magnitudes only. When it is neces
sary to combine the line current due to some particular load with that
from another load, the vector expressions or their equivalents are required.
To illustrate the vector method of handling the above example, assume
BALANCED
276
POLYPHASE
the phase sequence V^, Vcb,
It
F^.
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
This means that V^ lags V^, by
would be possible to use any line voltage or any phase voltage

The vector diagram of a similar set of voltages to those^
as a reference.
here
is
shown in Fig. 22 where E is used instead of V.
required
The
phase voltage of phase na will be taken as the reference (sometimes
called the standard phase).
Thus:
120.
VM
= 127
Vni, =
VBC
+ jO volts
= 127 (cos 120
127/-1200
= 127
/120
-63.5 + ./110
-j
-63.5
sm 120) =
- jllO volte
volts
If
the vector expressions for line voltages are desired, they may be obtained by the
following procedure.
V| =
63.5 +J110 + 127 + JO = 190.5 +
VBa
127
7.62
-63.5
Vni,
-J110
-jlO.16
= 12.7
127/-120
6+J8
127/120
10 /53.13
vi + v'i'
127
/ -53.13
12.7
volte, etc.
amperes
/-173.130
amperes
= 12.7 766.87 amperes
7.62 = 968 watts
or
127
JUO
12.7 cos (120
- 173.13)
= 968 watts

The vector diagram of the voltages and currents for this load as drawn from the
vector solution is shown in Fig. 34.
Fro. 34.
Vector diagram of load in example 2.
Balanced Delta Loads. Three identical impedances connected as

shown in Fig. 35 constitute a balanced delta load.
The voltage drop
across each impedance is known when the line voltage is given.
Hence
Ch.
VIII
DELTA LOADS
BALANCED
277
the phase currents may be determined
directly as VP/ZP.
The magni
tudes of the line currents are simply phase currents multiplied by ^/3.
Example 3. Reconnect the impedances given in example 2 in delta, and calcu
late phase current, line current, phase power, and total power.
(R = 6 ohms and
X = 8 ohms per phase.)
VL =
IP
/L
= 220 volts
Vf
,
220
= 22 amperes
V62 + 82
X 22 =
Vi
38.1 amperes
Power per phase = 222 X 6 = 2904 watts.

Total power = 2904 X 3 = 8712 watts.
Alternative vector solution using sequence Vto,
Use
VC6, Va(:.
V&o as
the reference
voltage.
Vio = 220 /_p_ volts
Vrf, = 220
volte
/-1200
Vac = 220 /120 volte

220
1*0
/0
22
10 /53.130
220/-120
= 22
10 /53.13'
220
/120
10 /53.13

220
FIG. 35.
/-53.13
/-173.13
= 22 /66.87
22 cos 53.13
= 3
= 8.65
-21.85
j'2.63 amperes
+ j'20.2 amperes
Flo.
36.
Vector diagram for load of example 3.
2904 = 8712 watte.
!' = !<*
1'6 = Itc
- j!7.6 amperes
2904 watte
Balanced delta load.
Total power
= 13.2
+ !,
+
Ibo =
- J22.8
/-143.130 amperes
jl5 =38.1 /-23.13 amperes
+35.05
-30.5
= 38.1
lo'o = lot + lac = -4.55 +;37.8 = 38.1
The vector diagram of this delta load

Fig. 36.
/ 96.87
amperes
as drawn from the vector solution is shown in
BALANCED
278
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
CA.
VIII
Three-Origin Vector Diagram of a Balanced Three-Phase System.

Figure 37 shows a polar vector diagram of a three-phase balanced
unity-power-factor wye load.
Figure 38 shows a vector diagram of a
Inb=It>b'
Fio.
Polar vector diagram of unity -power-factor, balanced
37.
wye-connected
load.
A comparison of these two

unity-power-factor delta load.
will
that
show
the phase relation between line currents and line
diagrams
Therefore a single vector diagram
voltages is identical for both loads.
can be used to represent the relations between line currents and line

balanced
Fio.
Polar vector diagram of unity-power-factor, balanced delta-connected load.
38.
voltages
for
a balanced
delta-connected.
connection
If it
load whether
the load is wye- or
In other words, it is not necessary to know which
is used in order to represent properly the phase relations of
line voltages and currents.
to use
three-phase
This fact makes it convenient in many
three-origin vector diagram which is explained
as
cases
follows.
is remembered that a vector can be translated without changing
its value, the line voltages for the above loads may
be arranged
to form
Ch.
VIII
THREE-ORIGIN
VECTOR
DIAGRAMS
279
as shown in Fig. 39.

Also the line currents may be
from
the
of
the
drawn
corners
triangle so formed as indicated. The
three corners comprise the three origins; hence the name of the diagram.
It will be observed that, at unity
power factor, line current 70o' bisects
the angle at origin a made by the line
voltages at that point. A similar situa
tion obtains for the other line cur
rents.
The bisectors of these angles
may therefore be called the unitypower-factor positions of the line cur
rents for a balanced three-phase load
regardless of delta or wye connection.
If a load having a power-factor angle
cc'
of 6 is to be represented, it is necesSary only to let the three line currents Fia. 39. Three-origin vector diagram
of
<****> <aiA Une
swing from their unity-power-factor
line, vâ,
currents
(Ibb , *cc , laa). .
,
.
lhat this
positions by the angle 0.
true
is
evident
from
a
is
study of the changes in Figs. 37 and 38 when
a load having a power-factor angle 9 is represented.
To show how the
three-origin diagram might be used to represent a three-phase load,
study the following example.
a closed triangle,
Unity-power-factor

line current
Fia.
Example
40.
4.
I aa'
position of
Three-origin vector diagrams
for both sequences of line voltages.
balanced three-phase, 0.6 p.f. lagging load takes 10 kva at 200
volts. Show the vector diagram of the line voltages and currents.
The load is represented by the circle, and the lines are labeled a, b, and c, as shown
in Fig. 40. Assume F&c as a reference, and complete the line voltage triangle as
shown in (6) or (c) according to the sequence desired. The bisectors of the angles
are shown dotted and are the unity-power-factor positions of the respective currents
leaving points a, b, and r. The actual power-factor angle for the load is cos"1 0.6 =
BALANCED
280
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
53.1, and the currents are therefore drawn lagging their unity-power-factor posi
Had the load operated at a leading power factor, the
tions by this angle, as shown.
currents would have swung ahead of their unity-power-factor
positions by 53.1.
The above type of diagram lends itself to a simple visualization of line voltages
and currents for a balanced three-phase load and contributes to an easy understand
ing of operating conditions in individual transformers for certain types of connec
tions when supplying balanced loads. They may also be used to effect the proper
combination of line currents from several balanced three-phase loads independent
of whether the loads themselves are delta- or wye-connected.
It should be recog
nized from this discussion that, as far as phase relations between line currents and
line voltages are concerned, one is at liberty to assume a delta- or wye-connected
Also, if
load even though the actual type of connection is known or unknown.
convenient, the directions of the currents shown in Fig. 40 may be reversed and
so labeled.
Power Calculations in Balanced Systems. The determination of

power in balanced polyphase systems is based upon calculations per
If the voltage per phase is Vp, the phase current Ip, and the
phase.
angle between them 0P, the power per phase is:
PP=Fp/pcos0p
(3)
The power for all phases of an n-phase system is:
P,
nPp
nVpIp cos0p
(4)

The universality of three-phase warrants the development of equation

Con
(4) to give power in terms of line current It, and line voltage VLThen
sider the wye connection.
Pt = 3Fp/pCos0p
3-p/
(5)
For the delta connection:
Pi
3FP/P cos0p = 3FL^cos0p

(6)
The equations for power in terms of line voltages and line currents for
balanced three-phase loads whether delta- or wye-connected are identical
and equal to
VZVjJi.
cos
0P.
balanced three-phase power,
In this
it must
expression,
be remembered
V 3Fi/L
that
6P
cos 0P, for

is the angle
between phase voltage and phase current and not between line voltage and
line current.
Problem
9.
Three-phase
on a balanced wye-connected
line voltages of 2300 volts magnitude are impressed

load which consists of 100 ohms resistance per phase
Ch.
VIII
REACTIVE VOLT-AMPERES
281
in series with 173.2 ohms inductive reactance per phase. Find the line current
and the total power taken by the three-phase load. Calculate PI as 3IPZRP, as
3V pip
cos
ep,
and as
VSKi/i
cos 6P.
Ans.:
IL
Ip
= 6.64 amperes,
Pt
= 13.22 kw.
Problem 10. Repeat Problem 9, assuming that the three impedances are con
nected in delta (rather than in wye) across the same line voltages.
Ans.: IL = 19.92 amperes, Pt = 39.66 kw.
Volt-Amperes.
The volt-amperes of a balanced three-phase
system
are defined as the sum of the volt-amperes of the separate phases or
three times the number of volt-amperes per phase.

v&t = 3vap =
In
Hence
3V plp
terms of line voltage and line current, volt-amperes are:
For delta:
3VL-=3VLIL
(7)
For wye:
3IL
(8)
V3
VLIL
For an n-phase system under balanced conditions the" total volt-

amperes are n times the volt-amperes per phase.
Reactive Volt-Amperes.
The reactive volt-amperes for a balanced
three-phase system are defined as the sum of the reactive volt-amperes
for each phase, or three times the reactive volt-amperes per phase. In
terms of line voltage and line current the reactive volt-amperes or
reactive power is:
For wye:
For delta:
Px
Px
3FP/P sin
6P
VIVLIL
sin
%VPIP sin
Op =
V3VLIL
sin 6P
= 3
VL
- IL sin 0P
V3
(9)
ep
3F/, ^ sin
V3
Bp
(10)
Summarizing for either balanced delta or wye, the totals for the systems
are:
V3VLILcos6p
(11)
va
\/3>L/i
(12)
px
V3VLIL
sin
Bp
The sine of the angle between phase voltage and phase current (sin
is called the reactive factor of a balanced system.
(13)
0P)
BALANCED
282
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
Problem 11. Three-phase line voltages of 440 volts are impressed on a balanced
delta-connected load which consists of 8 ohms resistance in series with 6 ohms induc
tive reactance per phase.
(a) Find the volt-amperes per phase, the reactive volt-amperes per phase, and
the reactive factor of each phase.
Ana.:
vap = 19,360, rvap = 11,616, r.f. = 0.6.
of
volt-amperes
system, the total reactive volt-amperes
Find
the
total
the
(6)
of the system, and the reactive factor of the system.
Ans.: va( = 58,080, rva, = 34,848, r.f. = 0.6.
Power Factor.
The power factor of a balanced three-phase

when the wave forms of voltage and current are sinusoidal, is
system.
denned
as the cosine of the angle between phase voltage and phase current inde
that the volt-amperes of equation (12) are equal to

va
It
is delta or wye.
pendent of whether the connection
^(V3VLILcos8p)2 +
V3FL7L Vcos2
Bp
sin2 ep =
From equation (11),
should
be noted
Vp2 + Px2.
V%VLIL
Thus
(14)
p.f. = cosflp =
(15)
V3Fz,/z,
From equation (13),

r.f. = sin

From equations (15) and (14),

p.f. =
^X
V3Fi/L
6P
Example
5.
5-horsepower,
(17)
VP2 + PX*

r.f.
(16)
PA'
VP2 +
220- volt,
/V
(18)
three-phase motor has an efficiency

Find the line current.
of
85 per cent and operates at 86 per cent power factor.
Power input
V3V'i,/L
p.f. =
4390
V3220 X
0.85
= 4390 watts
= 13.4 amperes
0.86
The combination of a
Balanced Three-Phase Loads in Parallel.
number of balanced loads which are in parallel may be effected through
changing all loads to equivalent delta loads and then combining the
phases according to the law governing
impedances of corresponding
parallel circuits. Also all loads may be changed to equivalent wye loads
Ck.
VIII
THREE-PHASE LOADS IN PARALLEL
BALANCED
the power of the several loads may be added arith
to these methods,
volt-amperes may
and the reactive
metically
In addition
of corresponding phases paralleled.
and the impedances
283
be added
The total volt-amperes will then be obtained as
algebraically.
VP2 + Px2-
A 3-phase motor takes 10 kva at 0.6 power factor lagging from

Example 6.
It is in parallel with a balanced delta load having 16 ohms
of 220 volts.
resistance and 12 ohms capacitive reactance in series in each phase.
Find the total
volt-amperes, power, line current, and power factor of the combination.
a source
Assume motor to be Y-connected.
Solution a.
= phase current
Motor line current
-z
= 26.25
amperes
V/3220
=
Equivalent impedance per phase of motor
\/3 26.25
= 4.84 ohms
X 0.6
X 0.8
= 4.84 cos 9 = 4.84
.Y = 4.84 sin
9 =
4.84
= 2.904 ohms
= 3.872 ohms
Zp =
Equivalent wye of delta load

(5.33
/o
5.33
-J4) (2.904
+ J3.872)
-j\ +2.904 + J3.872
220
"
' 91
= 5.33
j4 ohms
ZiLiL ohms
= 32.5 amperes
-V/3 3.91
va =
v/3
= 12,370 volt-amperes
X 32.5
220

p.f.o = cos 17.1 = 0.955
P
Solution
b.
= 12,370
0.955 = 11,810 watts
Assume motor to be delta-connected.
Motor line current
Motor phase current
10,000
V3220
=
9fi oc
'
\/3
= 26.25 amperes
Equivalent impedance per phase of motor
= 14.52 cos 9 = 14.52
= 14.52
= 15.14 amperes
15.14
0.6 = 8.712 ohms
= 14.52 ohms
0.8 = 11.616 ohms
The delta-phase impedance of 16 J12 is now paralleled with the motor phase
1.616 = 14.52 /53.1".
impedance 8.712 +
jl
16
/o
\/3
j'12
220
1 1.73
+ 8.712 +
n.73/17,7oohms
j'11.616
= 32.5 amperes
The rest of the requirements

Solution
c.
are now obtained
For the delta load,
= 11*
Px
= H2
16
12
X
X
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
BALANCED
284
phatie current is
as in solution
a.
220/V161 +
122
= 11 amperes.
for all phases
3 = 5810 watts
3 = 4360 vars
Ch. VIII
for all phases (capacitive)
For the motor
= 10
0.6 = 6 kw
px
= 10
0.8 = 8 kilovars
Summation of power = 5.81

Summation of kilovars
kvao =
Vll.812
12,370
/o =
X/3220
11 81
(inductive)
+6
= 4.35
= 11.81 kw
8 =
3.65 kilovara
+ 3.652 = 12.37
= 32.5 amperes
= -956
Of the three solutions,

should be employed.
for the quantities
that which is most convenient
given

Single-Phase and Balanced Three-Phase Power. A comparison of

the variation with respect to time of instantaneous single-phase and
As
three-phase
power brings out certain fundamental differences.
shown in Chapter II, single-phase power follows a double-frequency sine
law with respect to time plus a constant.
The instantaneous power for
each of three phases, when currents and voltages are sine waves, of a
balanced three-phase system is given by the following general equations.
Vmlm sin ut sin (ut

0)
pa
Pb
= Vmlm sin
(ut
PC
= Vmlm sin
- 120) sin
- 240) sin
(ut
- 240 (ut
(cot
120
The total three-phase power is

PS
Pa + Pb + PC
- 120) sin
- 240) sin
(ut
+ sin (ut
+ sin
p3 =
- 240 (ut
(tat
120
6)
0)
6)
6)]
1.5Fm/mco80
For single-phase, say phase

P\
= Vmlm
[sin ut sin (at
6)
(19)
a,
= Vmlm sin ut sin

(ut
0)
^^ cosO
- ^^ cos (2ut -
6)
(20)
(19) shows the instantaneous value of three-phase power to

be independent of time.
In other words, balanced three-phase power
Equation
Ch.
VIII
POWER MEASUREMENT IN BALANCED
SYSTEMS
285
under steady-state conditions is constant from instant to instant. In

contrast, equation (20) for single-phase power shows it to follow a
double-frequency variation with respect to time.
This comparison is
graphically illustrated in Fig. 41.
/Th ree phase power
.Single phase power
Average value of
single phase power
'<! cycle)
Fio.
41.
Comparison of variations of single- and balanced three-phase
Power Measurement in Balanced Systems.

reading proportional to
coil, the voltage across
between this voltage and
circuit is the sum of the
A wattmeter
42.
A wattmeter in
gives a
the product of the current through its current
its potential coil, and the cosine of the angle

current. Since the total power in a three-phase
powers of the separate phases, the total power
00
Fio.
power.
(b)
each phase may be used to measure
three-phase
power.
could be measured by placing a wattmeter in each phase, as shown in

Fig. 42. It is not generally feasible to break into the phases of a deltaTherefore the method shown in part (a) of Fig. 42
connected load.
is not applicable.
For the wye load shown in part (b), it is necessary
to connect to the neutral point. This point is not always accessible.
Hence another method making use of only two wattmeters is generally
This con
employed in making three-phase power measurements.
BALANCED
286
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
VIII
nection is shown in Fig. 43. To show that two such wattmeters may
be used to measure power, the readings of each will be established and
their sum compared with equation (11), which has been shown to be
correct for balanced three-phase power.
It is important to take the
direction of the voltage through the circuit the same as that taken for
current when establishing wattmeter readings.
Thus if the current coil
of Wa, Fig. 43, is considered carrying current Ian, the potential across
the voltage coil should be taken from a through the circuit, which in
Fio.
Connection of two wattmeters to measure three-phase
43.
power.

this particular case is Vac. Figure 44 shows the vector diagram of the
From
voltages and currents for a balanced system like that of Fig. 43.
this figure the power represented by the currents and voltages of each
wattmeter is:
(0
- 30)
(21)
Wb = Vbclbn cos (0
+ 30)
(22)
Wa =
Vajan cos
In equations
(21) and (22) the subscripts serve only to assist in seeing

which voltages and currents were used. Since the load is balanced,
Dropping
Vac = Vbe, Ian = Ibn and only magnitudes are involved.
the subscripts gives
Wa =
Wb =
Wa +
Wb =
VI cos
VI
V/3Wcos0
[cos
(9
- 30)
cos 30 + sin
VI cos
(0
- 30)
VI
(23)
cos
(6
(24)
VI cos
+ 30)
(0
+ 30)
sin 30 + cos
cos 30
- sin
sin
30]
(25)
Wa + Wj, correctly measures the power in a balanced threeof any power factor. As will be shown later, the algebraic
system
phase
sum of the readings of two wattmeters will give the correct value for
Hence
power under any conditions of unbalance,
wave form, or power factor.

Ch.
VIII
POWER MEASUREMENT IN BALANCED
SYSTEMS
287
(0-30)
Vbc=Vbn+VflC
(b)
Flo. 44.
Alternative ways of drawing the vector diagrams for a power-factor angle

the system shown in Fig. 43.
of
BALANCED
288
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
For each value of 6 (i.e., for each power factor) there is a definite
ratio of Wa/Wb. If the ratio of the smaller to the larger reading is
always taken and plotted against the corresponding cos 6 (i.e., power
This curve is shown
factor), a curve called the watt ratio curve results.
in Fig. 45. Reference to the vector diagram of Fig. 44 and the curve
of Fig. 45 shows that at 0.5 power factor one wattmeter reads zero.
For the case under discussion 0.5 lagging power factor makes Wb read
zero, while 0.5 leading power factor makes Wa read zero.
When the
power factor is zero, each wattmeter has the same deflection but the
The foregoing facts are easily deducible
readings are of opposite signs.
from the vector diagram shown in Fig. 44 and also follow from equations
It is essential in the two-wattmeter method that the
(23) and (24).
proper sign be given the wattmeter readings and that the sum be taken
algebraically.
1.0
0.866
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
1.0
Wan ratio

FIG. 45.
Watt ratio curve for two-wattmeter method of measuring

only tp balanced loads).
power
(applicable
There are several ways to determine whether a wattmeter reading

should be taken positive or negative.
One of the best methods follows.
Refer to Fig. 43. Open line a. Then all power must be transferred to
If wattmeter b is connected so that it
the load over lines b and c.
"
up scale," it will then be known to have this deflection when the
reads
power it reads is going to the load. Next reconnect line a and op>en
line b. Then connect Wa so that it reads up scale. Now close line 6.
If at any time after this cither wattmeter needle goes backward against
the down-scale stop, power through this wattmeter channel is being
transferred to the generator and this power must be of opposite sign
to that registered by the other.
Either the potential or current coil
will have to be reversed to secure an up-scale reading.
The foregoing
test is applicable under any conditions of loading, although it may not
always be feasible because of the necessity for opening the lines.
A second test applicable only when the load is practically balanced
Ch.
VIII
POWER
MEASUREMENT IN BALANCED
SYSTEMS
289
is to disconnect from the common potential point c of Fig. 43 the poten

tial coil of the wattmeter which has the smaller reading and connect
it to the line containing the current coil of the other wattmeter. If
the needle goes against the down-scale stop, the wattmeter reading
was negative.
The foregoing is best explained through a consideration
of the circuit diagram of Fig. 43 and the corresponding vector diagram
of Fig. 44. As previously shown, Wa reads the power represented by
Since the angle
Vac and 7on while Wb reads that due to Vbc and /(,.
between
/<,
and
is
than
larger
the
angle
+
Vbc
30)
(6
30) between
(8
Vac and Ian for the load represented by Fig. 44, wattmeter Wb will
have the smaller deflection.
If the potential coil of Wb is now removed
from line c in Fig. 43 and connected to line a, the meter will deflect
because of the potential Vba and current /&.
The angle between
V^ and Ibn is seen to be (0 30) or the same as that between the volt
age and current for wattmeter Wa.
Wa and Wb will then read alike.
Furthermore, since Wb was connected to read up scale when the angle
between its voltage and current was less than 90, it will continue to
read up scale when it receives the potential Vba- If, however, the
power factor was below 0.5, the angle (8 + 30) on Fig. 44 would be
more than 90. If the wattmeter Wb were made to read up scale under
such conditions, it would reverse its deflection when given the potential
Vba as outlined above since it would then be subjected to a voltage and
current of (6 30), which is less than 90 out of phase. When the
potential coil connection of Wb is moved from line c to a in Fig. 43,
this wattmeter receives a potential of Vba, while that for Wa (taken
similarly from the line containing the current coil) is Vac. These
potentials are in the same order or direction around the diagram.
Hence the potential coils are said to be connected in the same cyclic
order about the circuit, and under these conditions both wattmeters
would be expected to show the same deflection.
This was found to be
true in the above analysis.

Example 7. In a circuit like that shown in Fig. 4.3, Wa reads 800 and Wi, reads
When the potential coil of Wt is disconnected at c and connected at
400 watts.
a, the needle goes against the down-scale stop.
The test indicates that Wt, is reading 400 watts. Hence:
Solution.
P
Watt ratio
From
= Wa
=
Wb = 800
J~
+ (-400)
= 400 watts
-0.5
watt ratio curve like that shown on
page
288,
the power factor may be
determined directly as 0.19.

The power factor, cos 6, could also have Ijeen calculated
from a simultaneous
BALANCED
290
solution of equations (23) and (24) since:
cos 8 = cos I tan
This relation
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
_,'
V3
(Wa
Ch. VIII
- Wb)\
Wa + Wb
is made apparent in the next article.
Reactive Volt-Amperes.
The reactive volt-amperes in a balanced
circuit may be expressed by:
three-phase
Px
This may
>/3 (Wa
follows:
be shown as
V3 [VI
Wb) =
VSVI
+ sin
cos
(0
(Wa
Wb)
- 30) -
[cos 6 cos 30
VI
+ sin
(26)
cos
(0
sin 30
+ 30)]
cos
cos 30
sin 30]
sin
This is the same
A3
equation (13) for reactive power given on page 281.

Since the ratio of the reactive volt-amperes, V3FL/Z, sin 6, to the power.
\/3 V L!L
cos
6,
as
is the tan
6,
it follows from equations (25) and (26) that
V3 (W.
,
tan(? =

where
Wb)
is the power-factor angle.
Example 8. The power factor in the preceding example could have been easily
calculated by means of the relation stated in equation (26).
Thus:
- Wb)
px
N/3 (Wa
(P
wa + Wt
va = Vl>'~ +
p.,
. vaP
= 800
I'x-
^.
2114
\/3
[800
(-400)]
= 2078 vans
400 = 400 watts)
\/4002 +
20782 = 2114 volt-amperes
0.19
Systems. If a three-phase,
four-wire
system is balanced, the fourth wire or neutral will carry no current.
The system is the same as when the neutral is omitted, in which case it
It can there
is the same as a balanced three-phase, three-wire system.
as
shown
for
the
three-wire
system.
fore be mctered
An
previously
Under any other conditions three meters
other method is given later.
or their equivalent are necessary. Unbalanced systems are considered
in the next chapter.
Delta Systems. The measurement of power in a three-phase system
was discussed with reference to a wye-circuit diagram and the corre
Three-Phase,
Four-Wire
Ch.
VIII
GENERAL n-WIRE BALANCED
SYSTEM
291
When it is remembered that a delta system

spending vector diagram.
can always be replaced by an equivalent wye system, the preceding
Furthermore only
discussion will be seen to apply to the delta system.
were
involved
in
the
discussion of the
and
line
currents
line voltages
two-wattmeter method of measuring power, and there is no difference
between these quantities for the delta and wye systems.
Oscillograms 3 and 4, which were obtained from a delta system as
shown and labeled in Fig. 46, may be profitably studied.
c7^
Fid.
46.
Circuit arrangement
for which Oscillograms
3 and 4 were taken.
to Oscillogram 3.
(a) If the line-to-line voltages have
of
maximum values
155.5 volts and the delta-line currents
have
instantaneous
instantaneous maximum values of 14.14 amperes, find the average power readings
of the wattmeters W,â'a and \Vcb-c'cGenerated on 2015-10-03 20:38 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610
Problem
12.
Refer
(6) Draw a vector diagram indicating all currents and voltages shown on Oscil
logram 3. Use Vnft as reference, and include the delta-phase currents lab, If*, and
lea which are not shown on the oscillogram but which combine to form the deltaline currents !' and Ic-c.
Ans.:
(a) Wab-a'a = Wcb-c'c = 952.6 watts.

(6) ab-bc-ca sequence of line-to-line voltages; lot in time phase with Voj,;
la-o lags Vof, by 30; Ic'c leads Vrf, by 30".
General n-Wire Balanced System. The total power taken by a

balanced n-phase system is n times the power per phase. A single
wattmeter connected to measure the product of the current, potential,
and the cosine of the angle between the current and potential may be
The wattmeter
used to obtain the power of a balanced n-phase system.
reading obtained is multiplied by n. If it is not possible to break into
a phase of a mesh-connected load or to obtain the neutral of a starconnected one, power may still be measured with a single wattmeter.
For the n-phase system, n equal resistances may be connected in star
A neutral is thus established, and power is
and then to the lines.
measured as though the neutral wire of a star system were available.
BALANCED
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
Oscillographic representation of all voltages and currents involved in the

3.
two-wattmeter method of measuring balanced three-phase power at unity power fac
tor. In (a) the sequence of line-to-line voltages is shown.
TM is the voltage not used.
In (b) Watâ'a is a graph of the instantaneous driving torque of the wattmeter element
. .
which is operated by fat and
graph of the instantaneous driving
In (c) WA-fic
torque of the wattmeter element which
operated by et and i,',.
OSCILLOORAM
is
is
a
i',,

292

Ch.
VIII
GENERAL n-WIRE BALANCED SYSTEM
293
OSCILLOOBAM 4. Osoillographio representation of all voltages and currents involved in

the two-wattmeter method of measuring balanced three-phase power at 0.5 p.f. lag,
the condition under which one wattmeter reads zero. In the upper oscillogram, the
The voltage rfa is the voltage not used in
sequence of line-to-line voltages is shown.
the two-wattmeter method in this case. (In the center oscillogram, Wah-*'* is a graph
of the instantaneous driving torque of the wattmeter element which is operated by
In the lower oscillogram! u;i, .'. is a graph of the instantaneous driving
rot and i,,/,.
torque of the wattmeter element which is operated by va>and v..
BALANCED
294
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
The method is shown in Fig. 47. If the number of phases is even, as, for
example, in Fig. 47, only a single resistance is necessary provided that
the potential coil of the wattmeter can he connected at the midpoint of
this resistance.
The resistance must he connected between two lines
The wattmeter reading must
having the largest potential difference.
If
be multiplied by n, the number of phases, to obtain the total power.
To load
I1 n,. 47.
method
power to an n-phase balanced load (load not shown).
for measuring
the number of phases is even, the potential coil may be connected
from
the line containing the current coil to the line which yields the highest
potential difference.
multiplied by n/2.
The total power is then the wattmeter indication

These connections may be used only for balanced
systems.
All
Required to Transmit Power under Fixed Conditions.
systems will be compared on the basis of a fixed amount of power trans
mitted a fixed distance with the same amount of loss and at the same
In all cases the total weight of
maximum voltage between conductors.
to
the
number of wires, since the
will
be
directly
proportional
copper
distance is fixed, and inversely proportional to the resistance of each
Since
First, three-phase will be compared with single-phase.
wire.
the same voltage and power factor are to be assumed, the same respec
tive symbols for these quantities for single- and three-phase will suffice.

Copper
PI
VI i
P3
V/3F/3 cos 8
cos
Since
Pi =P3
VI r
cos
e =
Ii
VSVI3
V37,
cos
Ch.
VIII
COPPER REQUIRED TO TRANSMIT POWER
Also
/!*#!
or
2 = IS2R3
D
K\
2
IT
613
R3
2V
295
i1
07 2
613
3/32
Copper three-phase
No. of wires three-phase
R\
Copper single-phase
No. of wires single-phase
R3
The above shows that the same amount of power may
transmitted a
fixed distance with a fixed line loss with only three-fourths of the amount
of copper that would be required for single-phase, or one -third more
copper is required for single-phase than would be necessary for threephase.
Comparison of Three-Phase with Four-Phase.
be
Pa = V3F/3COS0
P* = 4-/4cos0
(Note:
is highest voltage between any pair of wires.)
V3F/3
cos

/3
R3
= 4
74
cos
Therefore
_2_
V/3
___
4/42~4X3~
Copper three-phase
Copper four-phase
313
414
If other systems
This is the same relation as shown for single-phase.
are compared with three-phase in this manner, it will be found that
three-phase is more economical in the use of copper than any other
number of phases.
When a fixed amount of power is transmitted a fixed distance with a
fixed loss for the same voltage to neutral, there is no difference between
The
any of the systems. Consider three-phase and single-phase.
is
half
the
between
neutral
lines.
This
voltage
single-phase
voltage to
BALANCED
296
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch. VI II
point is called the neutral, since the potential from either line to it
is the
same.
3Fn /3
COS 6
h "
nj
- --
013
Ri
Copper single-phase
--
Comparison
2/,2
/Is
3/32
R3
Copper three-phase
2p
-2
27,/i
cos
2/ 2R
--x2X9
2
3
(for same voltage to neutral)
itnth n-Phase for the Same
of Three-Phase
Voltage
to
Neutral.
n/3 cos0 =

Copper three-phase
:
Copper n-phase
n /n2
--n
3
cosfl
/a
nVJn
~
32
(for same voltage to neutral)
There is no difference in the amount of copper required between any of

the systems if the voltage to neutral is fixed and if the same amount of
power is transmitted a fixed distance at a fixed line loss.
Two-phase transmission was not considered in the above comparisons.
When it is recognized that two-phase is the same as two independent
single-phase systems, it is evident that two-phase, four-wire trans
There
mission requires the same amount of copper as single-phase.
are twice as many wires, but each is only one-half of the cross section of
those necessary for single-phase.
Problem 13. Refer to Fig. 48. Find the ratio of the copper required for twophase, three-wire transmission to that required for three-phase, three-wire trans
mission under the following conditions, all imposed simultaneously.
(a) A fixed amount of power transmitted.
(6)
The
same distance.
(c) With the same total line loss.
Ch.
VIII
IN THE WYE SYSTEM
HARMONICS
297
(d) With the same highest line voltage between any pair of lines in the two systems.
(e) With the same current density in the three two-phase conductors.
Hint:
From condition
(a):
P2( = 2yp2/2cos9 =
From condition
(d):
1%
From condition
(c):
2/22#2
From condition
(e):
Area of
From condition
(fc) :
RI< =
\/3
V2
P3< =
3Vp3/jcos9
7s
+ (V2/2)2fl2'
/S2<
wire =
= 3/32fl3
\/2 X
area of fl2 wire
Ana.:
V2
1.94.
I,
r(o)
Two-phase
System

Flo.
I3
(6)
48.
--* 1
Three-phase
System
See Problem 13.
Harmonics in the Wye System. An emf generated in a conductor

will be sinusoidal only when the flux cutting the conductor varies
In a-c generators it is rather difficult, if not
according to a sine law.
entirely impossible, to obtain an exact sine
wave of distribution of the field flux. The
slots and teeth change the reluctance of the
path for the flux and cause ripples in the flux
wave. Even if the distribution of the field flux
were sinusoidal at no load, the distribution
OOOOOOW^-a
would be altered as the load came on, owing
to the effect of the armature reaction of the
current in the armature. The result is to
induce in each phase an emf wave that is some
what distorted from a true sine wave. In
modern machines this distortion is relatively
Diagrammatic
Fio. 49.
sketch
of a wye-con
Through certain arrangements of the
small.
nected generator.
inductors on the armature and through cer
tain ways of connecting them, some of the harmonics in the wave are
reduced or are made to cancel entirely. When iron-core transformers
are connected in wye, or any other way for that matter, the exciting
current cannot be sinusoidal even though the impressed voltage is a
BALANCED
298
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
VIII
sine wave. This is due to the varying reluctance of the mag

circuit with the consequent requirement of more ampere-turns
to produce a given change in flux when the core operates at the higher
flux densities.
It therefore becomes of some importance to consider
the effects of certain harmonics of currents and voltages in the phases of
a three-phase system in affecting the line voltage of the system.
Assume that the emf induced in phase a of the wye-connected genera
tor diagrammatically shown in Fig. 49 is
perfect
netic
ena
= Emi sin
tat
Em7 sin
Em3 sin
(3u><
+ 3) +
Em5 sin (5wl
+ a5)
+ aj)
(7<*t
(28)
The sequence ena, enb, enc will be used. Hence the fundamental of emf
in phase nb will lag that in na by 120, while that in phase nc will lag
As usual, a shift of one degree for the fundamental
phase na by 240.
will be a shift of n degrees for the nth harmonic. Then
enb
= Emi
sin (ut
Em5 sin (5ut
= Eml sin
(ut
Em5 sin
(5co<
= Eml sin (ut

Em5 sin (5ut
120) + Em3 win

a5
- 600)
(3o><
- 360)
- 840)
at +
<*3
Em7 sin (7
a7
120) + Em3 sin (3f + 3)
+ as
- 240)
- 240)
5
Em7 sin
Em3 sin (3ut
(7a><
120)
(29)
a7
- 240)
(30)
+ 3)
120) + Em7 sin (7ut
The equations of the phase voltages show that all third harmonics are
in phase. Also the phase sequence for the fifth harmonic is reversed
from that of the fundamental. The sequence of the seventh is the same
TABLE I
DISPLACEMENT BETWEEN
VARIOTJB
Displacement
HARMONICS
in electrical
IN THE
PHASES
OF FIG.
49
degrees
Harmonic
11
13
Phase
Phase
120
240
120
240
120
Phase
240
120
240
120
240
that for the fundamental. In general it will be found that the funda
and all harmonics obtained by adding a multiple of 6 to the
fundamental will have the same sequence. These are first, seventh,
thirteenth, nineteenth, twenty-fifth, and so on. In like manner, the
fifths, elevenths, seventeenths, twenty-thirds, etc., have like sequences
as
mental
Ch.
VIII
HARMONICS
IN THE WYE SYSTEM
299
Also the third, ninth, and

to that of the fundamentals.
multiples of the third will be found to be in phase. These results
are tabulated in Table I.
The relation between the fundamentals and
third harmonics in each phase for
= 0 in equations (28), (29), and
a3
(30) is shown in Fig. 50.
The line voltage of the wye may be
found by summing up the potentials
encountered in passing through the
circuit between the line terminals in
With reference to Fig. 49,
question.
but opposite
all
nil
iii
Cfco
enb3- enc3
ena
FIG. 50.
harmonic must be handled

The combination of ebn
separately.
and ena is shown by vector diagrams in
Each
mental,
sin (ut
eba
is 30 ahead of
+ 30).
Since
ena.
<,
For the third harmonic,
Fundamental and
monic voltages,
Fig.
third har-
For the funda
51.
= Emi sin tat,

e^ = \/3mi
e^ = 0. For the fifth, e^

Fifth harmonics
Flo.
51.
Line voltages in Fig. 49 are found for each harmonic separately.
The
by 30. Hence eba!, = V3EmS sin (5al + a5
30).
seventh harmonic vector diagram is similar to that for the fundamental.
The complete equation for the line voltage e^ is
enat
sin (ut + 30)
+ V3Em7 sin
(7orf
sin (5ul
+ 30)
30)
(31)
BALANCED
300
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ck.
Similarly,
eac
mi
sin (ut + 150) + V3Em5 sin (5ut +
+ \/3m7 sin (7ut +

=
ecb
V3ml sin
a7
- 90)
(ut
+ V3m7 sin (7ut +
a5
VIII
150)
+ 150)
(32)
+ V3Em5 sin
- 90)
(5a><
a5
+ 90)
(33)
The vector diagram of the third-harmonic voltages shows that the third
harmonics in the two phases between any pair of terminals are in oppo
The third harmonics cannot contribute anything
sition and cancel.
to line voltage, although they do contribute toward the total voltage
The rms magnitude of the voltage
between one terminal and neutral.
to neutral in the example just considered is
The rms magnitude of the voltage between terminals is

Em52
Em72
The ratio of line and phase voltage of a wye connection can be the Vs
only when there is no third harmonic or its multiples in the wave of

phase voltage.
Consider next the harmonics in the current waves for the wye.
Kirchhoff's current law applied to the wye connection without a neutral
wire connected states that
ina
inb
+ inc = 0
Under balanced conditions this equation can be fulfilled only when
the
three currents are equal in magnitude and 120 apart in time phase, or
when the magnitudes of each current are equal to zero.
Since the third
harmonics and their multiples are the only ones that are not 120 apart,
each of them must be zero to fulfil the conditions imposed by Kirchhoff's
current law. The vector diagrams for the harmonics of current appear
exactly as those for phase voltages in Fig. 51. If, in each phase, e is
If the third
replaced by i, the diagrams will represent currents.
This
harmonics of current do exist, there must be a neutral connection.
neutral or fourth wire furnishes the return path for the third harmonics
of each phase.
Since all third harmonics,
in accordance with the
diagram in Fig. 51, would have to be in phase, their arithmetic sum
A third-harmonic pressure or voltage may
would flow in the neutral.
Ch.
VIII
IN THE DELTA SYSTEM
HARMONICS
301
exist in each phase, but, unless a path through the neutral is provided,
the three pressures do not have a closed circuit upon which they can
act and, therefore, no third-harmonic current can flow.
In a balanced
wye-connected circuit without neutral con- ^
nection, therefore, all harmonics except the
third and its multiples can exist. In a
four-wire, three-phase circuit (neutral wire
connected) all harmonics in the current wave
can exist.
Harmonics in the Delta System. If
three coils having induced voltages as given
by ena, enb, and enc in the previous article
are connected in delta, those voltages that FIG. 52. Coils of Fig. 49 reconnected in delta,
do not add to zero around the loop will
in
cause a circulating current to flow.
Under any circumstances,
the delta of Fig. 52, the sum of the three terminal voltages taken in the
Expressed algebraically,
same direction around the delta must be zero.

Vca
Vab
Vbc
= 0
(34)
Because the sum of the generated emf's, ena + en\, + enc, is equal to
zero for all except triple-frequency voltages and its multiples, no circu
latory current of other than triple frequency and its multiples can exist.
Hence there will be no impedance drops at no load, and the generated
voltages for all except the third harmonic and its multiples will appear
For the third harmonics and its multiples the
across the terminals.
Since the third-harmonic generated voltages of
situation is different.
all phases of a three-phase system were shown to be equal and in phase,
enat
enb,
enc,
= 3m3 sin
(3o><
+ a3)
This current multiplied

will cause a current to circulate in the delta.
by the impedance of the loop will be equal to the resultant thirdharmonic voltage 3Em3 sin (3co< + ay). Since the terminal voltage is
equal to the generated voltage minus the internal drop, there will be no
third-harmonic voltage between terminals in the delta if the phase emf's
In this way equation (34) is fulfilled for
and impedances are balanced.
the third-harmonic voltages.
There is no third harmonic in the terminal voltage of the wye; neither
is the wye connection subject to a third-harmonic circulating current.
In the wye the third-harmonic voltages between terminals do not appear,
as the result of their being in opposition between two terminals and
In the delta, the third-harmonic voltage does not appear
neutralizing.
in the terminal voltage because it is short-circuited by the mesh connec
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
BALANCED
302
VIII
Ch.
tion and is consumed in the form of internal impedance drop. The

equations of the terminal voltages of the delta generator or transformer
at no load are the same as the generated voltages of each phase with the
third-harmonic voltage and its multiples omitted. Thus
Vca
= Em\ sin at
Vab
= Eml sin
(ut
Em7 sin (7ut
= Eml sin
vbc
120) + Em5 sin (out + a5
120)
- 240) +
(at
- 240)
at +
Emb sin (out
Em7 sin (7
sin (out + a5) + Em7 sin (7at
Em!>
a5
+ a7)
- 240)
(35)
(36)
120)
(37)
<*7
Compare equations (35),
(30),
and
with equations
(37)
(28),
(29),
and (30).
All harmonics of current are possible in the phases of the delta,
it is simply
iea = /mi sin ut
If
Thus for phase
a closed series loop.
7m7
Im3 sin (Sut
+ a3) +
co,
7mS
Fig.
52, we may have
sin (out
+ o5)
sin (7ut + 07)
(38)
the sequence is such that phase ab lags ca by 120, the currents in
other phases are found by displacing the fundamentals by the usual

and the nth harmonic by n times this angle.
iab
= /mi sin
(ut
+
since
7m5
7m5
120) +
sin (5ut + a5
= 7ml sin
(ut
sin (out +
- 600)
a&-
Im5
- 360)
- 840)
(lut +
sin (Sat + 3
240) +
7m7
- 240) + sin
sin (out + as - 120) +
7m7
sin
a7
sin (7ut + a7
(Sal + 3)
7m3
The line currents are obtained
120=
Thus
120) + Im3 sin (Sat + a3)
ibc = /mi sin (ut
7m3
the
7m7
sin (7 at + a7
120)
(39)
240)
(40)
in terms of phase current
as indicated
below.
These
operations
vector diagrams
ia'a =
la'a = lac
lab
ib'b = iba
ibc
ic'c = ica
icb
similarly to those illustrated in

for voltages.
The results are
are performed
of Fig. 51
V3/m, sin (ul
+ VS!m7 sin (7ul +
the
150) + V/37m5 sin (out + 5 + 150)

a7
150)
(41)
Ch.
VIII
HARMONICS
ib'b =
V/3/mi sin (ut + 90) + \/3/m5 sin
+ \/3/m7 sin
Ve
IN THE DELTA SYSTEM
V3/ml sin
+ V3/m7 sin
(7a><
(<
- 30)
(7a><
<*7
(5co<
+ as
303
- 90)
+ 90)
(42)
+ \/3/m6 sin
(5u*
+ 30)
30)
(43)
(42), and (43) show that no third-harmonic currents

can exist in the lines of a delta.
The third-harmonic current in one
Equations
(41),
phase coming to a line connection exactly equals the third-harmonic

current in the other phase leaving the junction.
This leaves no thirdharmonic current to flow in the line connection.
The magnitude of the phase current is
+
The magnitude of the line current is
-4
IL
ml
The ratio of line to phase current can be the v3 only when no third-

harmonic currents exist.

Example 9. Only fundamentals and third harmonics arc assumed to exist in
the volt-ages of a wye connection like that shown in Fig. 49. Voltmeter readings
as follows are obtained: Vna = 150, V'ta = 220.
Calculate the magnitude of the
third-harmonic voltage.
Solution.
Since
neutral is 220/V3
Vha
=
Vna =
contains
only
fundamental
voltage,
F3 = "v/1502
127.
VVi*
V',2
or
1272
the fundamental
to
= 79.9
The possibility of a third-harmonic circulating current in a delta

makes this connection for a-c generators somewhat less desirable than
the wye, although there are several other more important factors that
make wye connection for generators predominate.
Although the thirdcurrent
is
undesirable
in
the
delta
harmonic
generator it is desirable in
transformers, since there it acts as a component of the magnetizing
current for the core which is essential if a sine wave of flux and induced
Some high-voltage transformers which are
voltage is to be obtained.
connected wye on both primary and secondary have a third winding
to allow a third-harmonic circulating cur
which is delta-connected
BALANCED
304
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
VIII
rent to flow, thus supplying the transformers with the necessary tripleof magnetizing current. A delta-connected
frequency component
winding of this kind is called a tertiary winding.
PROBLEMS
What is the phase voltage and also the voltage between adjacent lines of
six-phase star connection if the greatest voltage between any pair of lines is 156
14.
volts?
Find
15. The voltage between adjacent lines of a twelve-phase star is 100 volts.
the voltage to neutral, the voltage between alternate lines, and the greatest voltage
between any pair of lines.
16. Find the phase current in a six-phase mesh if the line current is 10 ampere*;
also for a twelve-phase mesh for the same line current.
Adjacent coil
17. Given six coils each having an induced voltage of 63.5 volts.
voltages are 60 apart.
In how many ways may you connect these coils to form a
balanced three-phase wye system of voltages if all coils must be used for each system
and if the magnitude of the line voltages of each system must be different?
What
are the line voltages for each wye system?
18. A generator has six coils, adjacent coils being displaced 30 electrical degrees.
If each coil voltage is 1 14 volts, show how to connect them and calculate the line
or terminal voltage for three-phase star.
Repeat for three-phase mesh.
Repeat
for two-phase, where line voltage is taken as the phase voltage.
19. A generator has six coils, adjacent coils being displaced 30 electrical degrees.
If all coils are used to form a three-phase mesh, what must be the emf of each coil
to yield balanced three-phase voltages of 230 volts each?
If all coils arc connected
for three-phase star, what must be the emf of each coil to give an emf l>etween lines
of 230 volts?
20.
Draw vector diagrams which represent the currents and voltages shown in
3 and 4, pages 292 and 293, and label them in accordance with the

Oscillograms
labeling on the oscillogram.

21. Three-phase line voltages of 230 volts are impressed on a balanced wye load
Find
having 16 ohms resistance and 12 ohms reactance in series hi each phase.
If the three impedances are reconnected in delta
the line current and total power.
and placed across the same line voltages, what are the line and phase currents and
the total power?
22. A current of 10 amperes flows in the lines to a twelve-phase mesh-connected
load having 5 ohms resistance and 8 ohms capacitive reactance in series in each
Draw the vector
phase. What is the voltage between alternate lines on the load?
diagram of the voltages and phase currents of two adjacent phases, and also show
the line current from the junction of these two phases.
balanced wye load consists of 3 ohms resistance and 4 ohms capacitive

per phase. Balanced three-phase voltages of 100 volts eai-h
are impressed across the lines at the load.
If the load is connected to a generator
through three lines of equal impedance, each line containing a resistance of 1 ohm
and an inductive reactance of 4 ohms, find the voltage at the generator terminals.
24. A balanced wye load having 8 ohms resistance and 6 ohms inductive reactance
23.
reactance in series
in series in each phase is supplied through lines each having 1 ohm resistance and 2
ohms inductive reactance. If the sending-end voltage between lines is 250 volts,
what will be the voltage between lines at the load?
25.
balanced delta load contains a resistance of 12 ohms and a capacitive re
Ch.
VIII
PROBLEMS
305
If the balanced impressed line voltages

actance of 16 ohms in series in each phase.
on the load are 115 volts each, calculate the line and phase currents.
26. A balanced delta load having 18 ohms resistance and 24 ohms capacitive
reactance in series in each phase is supplied through lines each having 1 ohm resistance
and 2 ohms inductive reactance. If the line-to-line voltage at the sending end is
Also find the total
250 volts, find the line-to-line voltage at the load terminals.
power consumed by the load.
27. A balanced wye inductive load takes 5.4 kw at- 0.6 power factor at a line
It is in parallel with a pure resistive balanced wye load taking
voltage of 200 volts.
Find the resultant line current supplied the combination.

The total power supplied two balanced three-phase loads in parallel is 12 kw
One of the loads takes 10 kva at 0.8 power-factor lead.
at 0.8 power factor lagging.
The second load is a delta-connected balanced load. Find the resistance and re
If the unknown
actance per phase of the delta load if the line voltage is 230 volts.
5 kw.
28.
load were wye-connected, what would be the resistance and reactance per phase;?
29. Each phase of a delta load has 6 ohms resistance and 9 ohms capacitive re
Each phase of a wye load has 8 ohms resistance and 6 ohms in
actance in series.
The two loads are connected in parallel across threeductive reactance in series.
Calculate the resultant line current, the total
phase line voltages of 100 volts.
power consumed, and the power factor of the combination.
30. A three-phase, 5-hp, 220-volt induction motor (balanced load) has an ef
It is
ficiency of 86 per cent and operates at 86.6 per cent lagging power factor.
paralleled with a three-phase resistance furnace consisting of three 36-ohm resistances
Find the kilovolt-amperes demanded by the combination, the
connected in delta.
power factor, and the line current.
31. A three-phase generator supplies balanced voltages of 230 volts each at its
terminals when it carries a load which requires 10 amperes. If the power factor
at the generator terminals is 0.8 leading, calculate the voltage at the load if the load
is connected through lines each having 1 ohm resibtance and 5 ohms inductive re
actance.
32.
balanced
three-phase load requires
10 kva
at 0.5 lagging power factor.
Find the kva size of a condenser bank which may be paralleled with the load to
bring the power factor of the combination to 0.866 lag, and also to 0.866 lead.
33. If the line voltage for Problem 32 is 230 volts and the frequency 60 cycles,
find the capacitance in microfarads of condensers required in each phase of the
What capacitance is required if they
condenser bank if they are delta-connected.
are wye-connected?
34. Three 15 /60-ohm load impedances are connected in delta and supplied by
If the
lines, each line containing 1 ohm resistance and 1 ohm inductive reactance.
line voltages on the supply side of the line impedances are balanced three-phase of
Also calculate the
115 volts each, find the voltage across the load impedances.
power loss in the supply lines and the power dissipated by the load itself.
36. If the current through each of the load impedances in Problem 34 is 20 amperes,
find the required voltage on the supply side of the line impedances.
36. The motor M in Fig. 53 has 2300 volts balanced three-phase voltages im
Calculate
pressed at its terminals and takes 120 kva at 0.6 leading power factor.
the line volts, power input, and the power factor at a, 6, c.
37. If the motor in Fig. 53 is removed from the circuit and balanced three-phase
line voltages of 2300 volts each are impressed at a, b, and c, how many volts will
appear between lines at the motor end of the line?
BALANCED
306
o.5+j
ViA
looo/i
bo
1}
p
~"
in.
0.5+ j
'TflT*
-N
-1000/2.
250/2
0.5+| 2/2
1000
**
POLYPHASE
I50-"
CIRCUITS
VIII
2/1
1000/2
0.5+ j 2/1
Nd
1000/2
250/1
*
0.5+ j 2/1
0.5+J2/2
Ch.
1000/2
Fio.
53.
38. A three-phase resonant shunt is connected to three-phase, 2300-volt lines to

furnish a low impedance for a certain frequency so as to reduce the inductive inter
ference with a telephone line. The shunt consists of three 10-kva, 60-cycle, 2300-
In series with each line terminal from the delta

volt capacitors connected in delta.
of 2.5 millihenrys.
At what frequency does this three-phase com
offer minimum impedance?
Assume that resistances of
bination resonate, that
condensers and inductances are negligible.
is,
is an inductance
(a) Three coils each having 36 ohms resistance and 100 millihenrys inductance
Find the microfarad capacitance of each condenser which
maybe placed in each of the three lines from the delta to produce resonance (unity p.f.)
frequency of 800 cycles. This
of the system as a whole for
a type of resonant
shunt sometimes connected to power lines to reduce inductive interference with
telephone circuits.
(6) Assume that the capacitors calculated for each line in (a) are removed and
Find how many henrys of inductance would be required
connected in delta.
39.
in
is
are connected in delta.
each line from this delta to bring the
to
in each phase.
41.
balanced
three-phase load
kw and 20 reactive kva. Find
takes
the readings of two wattmeters prop
erly connected to measure the total
5
power.
42.
In Fig.
54 find the reading of
Also calculate the total re

WR.
taken by the
active volt-amperes
the ratio of the
load. What
total reactive volt-amperes taken to
FIG. 54. See Problems 40, 42, and 43.
the reading of WR!
43. Prove that the ratio of the reading of WR of Fig. 54 to the total reactive voltamperes obtained in Problem 42 will obtain for all balanced loads when the impressed
is
voltages are sinusoidal balanced three-phase.

balanced three-phase
44. (a) Calculate analytically the power-factor angle for
circuit in which two wattmeters properly connected to measure three-phase power
read +1000 and +800 watts, respectively.
a

power factor of the combination
unity at 800 cycles.

40. Find the readings of Wa and
Wt, in Fig. 54 for the sequence V^,
Vne, Vnb- Find the power dissipated
CA.
PROBLEMS
77/7
Also calculate the angle if the meters read
(b)
307
+1000 and 800 watts, respec
tively.
Two wattmeters measuring power to a balanced three-phase load read

watts, respectively.
How many volt-amperes does the load take?
46.
and 400
1200
At
what power factor?
Each phase of
a balanced twelve-phase star-connected load consists of 3 ohms

and 4 ohms inductive reactance in series.
Balanced twelve-phase line
voltages of 51.76 volts between adjacent lines are applied to the load.
Calculate
the line current, power factor, and total power consumed by the load.
47. The voltage induced in phase no of a 3-phase wye-connected generator is
46.
resistance
ena
If
= 127 sin ut + 50 sin (3o><
- 30)
the sequence is <,, enb, e,,e, find the equation
voltage
angle.
eat.
Note:
Phase voltages of polyphase
+ 30 sin (5ut + 40)

with respect to time of the line
generators differ only in phase
If
the phases of the generator in Problem 47 are reconnected in delta, what

the
equation with respect to time of the line voltage across phase no?
aill be
wye-connected
generator has a generated voltage per phase which contains
49. A
fundamental,
third, fifth, and seventh harmonics.
only the
The line voltage as
a
voltmeter
is 230 volts; the voltage to neutral
by
measured
48.
Calculate the magnitude of the third har

volts.
generated
voltage.
the
monic in
emf
of a delta generator with one
induced
60. The
delta
as shown in Fig. 55 contains
open
of
the
corner
to
the seventh.
A voltmeter
up
only odd harmonics
volts,
and,
2500
across
when
66'
negligible
across ac reads
current flows, 1800 volts. Find the reading of a voltmeter
is 160

connected from a to 6 .
61. The induced phase voltage of a delta generator with
one corner open as shown in Fig. 55 contains odd harmon-
FlQ
g5
gee prouems
50 and 51.
A voltmeter connected from

up to the seventh.
volts,
2500
and
from a to c it reads 2200 volts when negligible cur
a to 6' reads
What should it read from 6 to 6'?
rent flows.
ics
Fio.
52.
Figure
56.
56 shows a generator
See Problem 52.
connected to a balanced pure resistance load.
An ammeter in the neutral reads 15 amperes, and the wattmeter shown reads 600
A voltmeter shows a balanced line voltage of 230 volts. Find the line
watts.
currents to the load and the voltage from line to neutral at the load, assuming that the
generated voltage contains only fundamental
and third harmonic components.
CHAPTER EX
UNBALANCED
POLYPHASE CIRCUITS
Unbalanced Loads. The previous chapter developed the method of

calculating the currents hi the various branches of balanced polyphase
In the
loads when the impedances and impressed voltages are known.
present chapter, methods of calculating the various branch currents will
be developed when known voltages are impressed upon unbalanced
Any polyphase load in which the impedance in one or more
loads.
phases differs from those of other phases is said to be unbalanced. Even
though the load impedances of the various phases are identical, one of
the methods of calculating unbalanced loads must be employed if the
voltages impressed on the load are unequal and differ in phase by angles
which are not equal.
Some of the simpler types of unbalanced loads
which are solvable by rather simple direct methods will be considered

first.
Unbalanced Delta Loads. If the three-phase line voltages across the

terminals of an unbalanced delta load are fixed, the voltage drop across
The currents in each phase can there
each phase impedance is known.
The
line
directly.
fore be determined
currents can be found by adding vectorially the two component currents coming
20 n
toward or flowing away from the line
100 volts
terminal in question as was done in series- 100 vo ts
The following
parallel circuit analysis.
a.
a
example will illustrate the procedure.
100 volts
Given the unbalanced delta load

shown in Fig. 1. Calculate all currents for the
three-phase balanced voltages shown on the
Example 1.
h *
*-
FIG
Unbalanced delta load,

See example
1.
figure, if the voltage sequence is ab-ca-bc.

Since the voltages shown are assumed to be maintained at the terminals a, 6, and c,
Take some phase
the complex expressions for the phase voltages may be established.
Therefore,
voltage as a reference, say Vat for this example.
Vot = 100 -r-ju"
Vb,.
= 100
l\ 20"
VM
= 100
/-120
308
-50 + ,786.6
=
-50
,786.6
volts
Ck.
IX
WYE LOADS
UNBALANCED
--
Then
ioo+yo
Vo
.78
-j
--
-50+j'86.6
The line currents are:

la'a = lab + lac = 6
= 9.26
=
lc>c =
/-23.40
amperes
I6c =
IM + Id, = -2.5
15.89 -j'12.186 =
38
amperes
= 20 /156.90 amperes
./4.33
- J8 + 2.5 +
-6 +
+
-24.39 +J15.856
lVb = I6o
^gg^,
+J7.856
18.39
-2.5
20
Zca
.8 = 1Q
309
>4.33
= 8.5
- J3.67
+/7.S56
18.39
= 29
/146.9" amperes
^4.33
20
18.39
/-37.3
- /7.8S6
amperes

Unbalanced Wye Loads. If the load voltages at the terminals a, b,

and c of an unbalanced wye load like that shown in Fig. 2 can be assumed
to remain constant at their specified values, then the phase currents of
an equivalent delta which replaces the wye can be found directly as
shown in example 1. The line currents to this equivalent delta are
obviously the currents in the phases of the wye load.
Fio.
Example
2.
Conversion from a wye-connected load to an equivalent

delta-connected
load.
balanced set of three-phase voltages is connected to an unbalanced

The following values are
set of wye-connected impedances as shown in Fig. 2.
assumed to be known :
2.
Vot = 212 /90 volts

Vc = 212
/-150
Vca = 212
/-30
The line currents
Zm = 10 + JO ohms
volts
volts
IQ',,, Ib'b, and
Zrn = 0
jlO
ohms
- j20 ohms
Ir'r are to be determined by the wye to delta con
V, page
method.
(iSee Chapter
making wye to delta conversions.)
version
Z6n = 10 +
134, for the general theory
involved
in
UNBALANCED
310
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
In
Fig. 2 the equivalent delta impedances may be expressed

impedances as follows:
+
ZimZm
+
(ZgnZ6n
Numerically,
Zco =
and
in terms of
Ch.lX
the wye
ZcnZqn)
the equivalent delta impedances are:

=
ortn
- j30)
= (30
^1
= 21
.2/45 ohms
U5 +J15)
-j'SOO
(0
m-L.
m
10 + JlO
= 42.4
The load currents in the equivalent delta are:
V,
212
/90-
Vbc
~
212
/-1500
Ii
iT2
5.0
7-45
42.4
/-105
/ -90
30 '
Zea
/-45 ohms
amperes
The actual line and load currents are:

la'a = lot
= 10
= 5
Ic'c ^
lea
/45
/-105
1. : ~~ Âc
= 7.07
/60
10
= 3.66
/60
7.07
/45
/15 amperes
= 14.56
7-105
/-125.10
= 11.98
amperes
/66.2" amperes
As a single check on the above arithmetic

Ib'tZbn] be compared with the originally
let the calculated value of [

specified value of Voi, which was
volts.
= (35.4
+ J9.48)
= (0.05
+j21 2.1)
(35.35
212
- j'202.6)
volts
The conversion of a wye to its equivalent delta along with the solution
of the delta as illustrated in the above example will usually require
an equal or greater amount of work than the direct solution of the wj'e
employing two simultaneous equations obtained by the application of
Kirchhoff 's laws.
Ch.IX
DELTA AND WYE LOADS
COMBINED
311
Vector diagrams of the voltages and currents involved in the fore

going example are given in Fig. 3.
Vbn
Fro. 3.
Problem

Ana.:
1.
Vector diagrams for example 2.
Determine the values of Von, Vim, and Vm in example 2.
Von = 36.6
/15; V^
= 205.6
/-80.1";
Vcn = 239.6
/-23.80
volts.
Problem 2. Determine the power dissipated in each of the three phases (on,
and en) of example 2.
Ans.: Pm = 134; P^ = 2120; Pcn = 0 watts.
Problem
Vfc, = 212
Zfcn
3.
Find the magnitudes of lo'a,
/-30,
and V,a = 212
= (10 + j'10), and Zcn = (0
Ans.:
/-150
Ib'b, and !,.'
As in example
volts.
- ;20) ohms.
// = 13.65;
in Fig.
/(,/&
= 6.20;
if Vat>
= 212 /90,
2, Zm = (10
Ic>e = 7.54
bn,
+ JO),
amperes.
Combined Delta and Wye Loads. Delta-connected loads are some

times operated in conjunction with wye-connected loads as shown in
Fig. 4. If the three-phase, line-to-line voltages V0(,, V^, and Vco remain
sensibly constant irrespective of load conditions, a relatively simple
solution may be effected by first converting the wye load to an equivalent
delta load. The two parallel deltas may then be combined to form a
single equivalent delta-connected load and the equivalent delta currents
calculated directly as
T
"ah
fIfccCeq)
'be
6c(eq)
'co
-ca(eq)
UNBALANCED
312
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
The above currents may be combined in the usual manner to find the
The details are reserved for student
line currents la,a, I^b, and lc,c.
analysis.
General Circuit Theory. The solutions ordinarily desired in a circuit
investigation are: (1) the branch currents, (2) the various component
voltages, and (3) the various component
Ob
powers, both generated and absorbed.
viously, a certain minimum amount of in
formation concerning the circuit or network
must be available before the desired solu

tions can be effected. This information may
take various forms, for example:
1. Specification of all generated emf's and
all circuit parameters.
of individual phase loads FIG. 4. Delta and wye loads on
2. Specification
J
i,
.
.
the same system of voltages.
c !
i
at particular voltages and power factors.
(If the generating equipment is to be considered, the line and genera
tor impedances must also be known, either directly or indirectly.)
3. Isolated facts from which items 1 and 2 or some combination

thereof can be evaluated.

The conventional or classical method of solving unbalanced polyphase
circuits does not differ basically from generalized d-c circuit solutions,
and the same general rules are applicable. A brief review of generalized
network theory will be presented at this point.
1. If the current in each branch of a network is treated as a distinct
dependent variable, the same number of independent relationships
must be established between these branch currents as there are branches.
A branch is considered to be the complete series element between any
two junction points of the network.
current law may be
2. Under the above conditions, Kirchhoff's
than
the
network
less
times
possesses junc
one
applied independently
tions.
The basic requirement in this connection is that (J
1) inde
where
is
the
number
of
pendent current equations be established,
junctions present in the network.
3. The remaining number of relationships required to effect a solu
tion is obtained by applying Kirchhoff's emf law to the closed paths of
Kirchhoff's emf law must be applied independently as
the network.
many times as the network has individual branches less the number of
The basic requirement is that
times the current law has been applied.
1)] independent emf equations be established, where B is

is the number of junctions in the network.
the number of branches and
[B
(J
Ch.
IX
GENERAL CIRCUIT THEORY
313
Incidentally, only [B (J 1)] independent emf equations can be

written for a particular network.
A few simple rules aid greatly in writing the necessary and sufficient
equations to solve a network. In establishing current or junction equa

tions, the first junction should be chosen which will include the least
Then continue setting up junc
possible number of unknown currents.
in
careful
to
include
each succeeding equation as
tion equations, being
few unknown currents as possible which have not been previously incor
This procedure is continued as long as at least
porated in an equation.
one unknown current not previously used may be incorporated in an
equation. It is desirable to place some mark on the current as it is
used in the network to indicate that it has been employed in an equation.
I.V
Load
FIG.

A similar
procedure
5.
A simple three-branch network.
should
be followed when establishing loop or emf
equations. The simplest loops should be chosen and as few additional

unknown currents as possible should be included in each succeeding emf
equation. When no unknown currents not previously used remain, the
If the
necessary and sufficient loop equations will have been established.
above rules are followed, no more and no less than the necessary and
sufficient current and emf equations can be established.
It must be remembered that, basically, Kirchhoff's laws apply only
to instantaneous currents and voltages.
But it has been shown that
sinusoidal components of currents and voltages can be manipulated in
terms of their complex or vector expressions and that the results obtained
are equivalent to those obtained when instantaneous
values are
employed. Kirchhoff's laws may, therefore, be written in terms of com
plex currents and voltages provided that the laws are applied individually
to each harmonic component which is present in the particular wave
forms under investigation.
In networks that contain not more than three or four branches it is
entirely feasible to derive general expressions for each individual branch
current. These expressions can then be employed to effect individual
current solutions.
The process will be illustrated. General expressions
for the branch currents, Ia,a, Ib>b, and lc'c of Fig. 5 will be derived.
POLYPHASE
UNBALANCED
314
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
in the network shown in Fig. 5, Kirchhoff's current law can be applied independently only once. Kirchhoff's
emf law can be applied to each of the three closed paths, but only two
The three independent
of the resulting equations will be independent.
equations which will be employed in the proposed derivation are:
Since there are but two junctions
(Zc'a'
+ Ivb + Ic'c
â'a
+ Z0e)Ia'a
Zft'J,
Z&c)Ib'i>
= 0
(1)
Zc'clc'c = Ec'o'
(2)
= Ec'6'
(3)
ZC>CIC'C
Equations (1), (2), and (3) may be solved simultaneously for Ia'a,
One of the simplest and
and Ic'c in any one of several different ways.
most straightforward methods of effecting solutions of simultaneous
When not more than
circuit equations is the determinant method.
three-row, three-column determinant theory is involved the determinant
Any simple
method of solution is extremely compact and concise.
reorganization of the basic equations which will reduce the order of the
In general, the order
determinant involved should not be overlooked.
of the determinant can be reduced by systematically eliminating certain
The number of simultaneous
currents from the voltage equations.
equations is thereby reduced and the solution simplified. For exam
ple, any one of the three currents can be eliminated from equations (2)
and (3) by substituting for it its value in terms of the other two currents.
Thus IC'c can be eliminated by substituting for it its value ( I0'0 !&'&)
The device of eliminating certain currents by means of substituting
current equation relations into the voltage equations is an expedient
which can be employed frequently. It may be employed when labeling
the diagram as illustrated on page 325.
Upon the elimination of Ic'c from equations (2) and (3) the following
relations are obtained :
+ Za'a +
Zac
ZC'CI&'6 = Ec'o;
(4)
Zc'c)I&'6 = Ec'f,'
(5)
+ Zr'C)Ia'a +
-f-
Zc'cla'a + (Zc'6' + Zj/j,
Zj,c
(Zc'a'
For the sake of simplicity in writing, the following abbreviations will
Zb'b
Zac
Zfcc
+ +
(Zc'6'
Z0'a
(Zc'o'
+ +
be adopted
Zj
(6)
= Zy
(7)
Zc'c = Zc
(8)
Zc'c) =
Zc'c)
Zila'a
Zcla'0
Equations (4) and (5) then become:

ZCI&'6 = Ec'a'
(9)

(Ze'b1
la'o
Zalvb
= EC'6'
(10)
Ch.
IX
GENERAL CIRCUIT THEORY
315
Simultaneous solutions of the above equations for I0/0 and
lo'o =
Ec'o'
Zc
EC'6'
Z2
Zi
Zc
Zc
Z2
Zc
Ec'6'
Zi
Zc
Ze
Z2
Zc
Ec'6'Zi
Ec'
Zc
yield :
(11)
(12)
Ic'c can be evaluated in terms of I0'0 and
Ic'c = lo'o
(13)
After the branch currents have been determined, the component volt
For example, the load voltages are:
ages and powers follow directly.
Voc =
(14)
(15)
The powers generated by the individual alternator phases are:

We'o'fcen.)

We'fc'(gen.)
= -^c'o'/o'o
= Ec'b'Ib'b
COS 0
COS 6
Jla'a
Jlt't
(16)
(17)
General expressions may also be written for the generator impedance

voltage drops, line drops, etc.
It should be noted that the above analysis is of a fairly general
character. Although the individual impedances are given particular
form in Fig. 5, no limitations as to the nature of the individual imped
It is understood of course, that the actual
ances have been imposed.
circuit parameters involved in an analysis of this kind must be constant.
No limitations other than sinusoidal wave form have been imposed
upon the nature of the driving voltages EC'0' and EC'j,'. These voltages
might represent any two generated voltages of sinusoidal wave form
because at this stage of the analysis the voltages in question have not
In fact, the
been restricted as to magnitude or relative time phase.
voltages EC'O' and Ec'f,< could be d-c driving voltages and the derived
Therefore the generalized deriva
expressions would hold equally well.
tions contained in equations (11) to (17) inclusive apply to any network
of the type depicted in Fig. 5.
UNBALANCED
316
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.IX
Example 3.
It will be assumed that the generated voltages in Fig. 5 are: E =
1 00
/(T volts and Ec/6' = 100 /90 volts. These voltages represent a two-phase
system of generated emf's, the phase sequence of which is c'b' c'a'.
The par
ticular impedances that are to be considered will be assumed to have the following
numerical values:
= Zc'b>
Zc/0'
"
Z0'a = Z&'6 = (1
= (2
Ze>c
Zac =
fl )
ohms
+ J2) ohms
(12+j21.2)ohms
- j'16.6) ohms
= (15
Zkc
+.;'3)ohms
(1
Branch currents, load voltages, and generated powers are to be determined.
Employing the abbreviations adopted in equations (6), (7), and (8):

+J27.2
= 31
Z2 = 19
-jlO.6
= 21.7
Zc = 2.0
+ j'2.0
Zi
16
.5/59.5" ohms
= 2.83
/-29.20
ohms
/45 ohms
The common denominator of equations (11) and (12) for this particular
example is:
Zc* = (684
la'a =
/30.3")
(100/0)
2450
(21.7
(8 /90^) = 680 /29.7
3.60

680 /29.7
- J3.14)
(100
It'6
amperes
Ic'c =
=
+./3.90) amperes
la'a
-(1.76
= 0.94
Ii'6
- J3.14) -
- jO.76
= 1.21
Vac = Ia'*Zac = (3.60

= 87.8
(2.83
4.75 /124.70
/29.7
(-2.70
(100/0)
/29.7~
680
680
V6c
/ -60.7
/_9(n (31.5/59.5)
3230 /154.4"
(100/90) (2.83/45)
680 /29.7
/- 31.0
= (1.76
/-29.2)
(-2.70 +
/-
./3.90)
39.0 amperes
/ -60.7)
(24.4/605)
,7-0.2 volts
= IvfcZfc,.
= (4.75
/124.70) (22.4
= 106.4 /76.8 volts
/-47.90)
/45)
numerical
Ch.
IX
POSITIVE CIRCUIT DIRECTIONS
317
Figure 6 is a vector diagram of the voltages and currents.

f"
= 100
r
L
IE,
+
lla'a
-IV
1.76
ei + e'i'
= 100
= 176 watts
IEC
Jfc'6
3.90 = 390 watts
The total power generated is:

176
390 = 566 watts
The total power absorbed or spent in the entire system is:

(3.602
14)
(4.7S2
17)
(1.212
2) = 567 watts
Obviously, the small discrepancy between the generated power and the absorbed
power is the result of the approximate manner in which the calculations were per
formed.
Problem
Work through all details of the above numerical example for the
of voltages.
Let
4.
opposite phase sequence

/ = 100
/90 volta and

Ia/0 = 2.79 /33.4",
Fio.
6.
V6
E<./y = 100
= 4.54 /24.7,
/O" volts
Ans.:
Ic/c = 7.32
P total = 566 watts.

/-152 amperes
vector diagram of the voltages and currents involved in example 3.
Positive Circuit Directions.
great deal of needless confusion exists
in the minds of many students relative to the correct positive circuit

The
directions of the quantities involved in polyphase circuit analysis.
basic principles concerning circuit direction have been presented in the
These priaci
earlier chapters.
(See pages 52-53, 222-223, and 264.)
UNBALANCED
318
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
pies are, of course, entirely applicable to polyphase circuits as well as to

single-phase circuits.
In
general, all generated
emf's in polyphase
systems
relative polarities and angular positions with respect
have specified
to one another.
This information must be known either directly or indirectly if the circuit

For example, if a three-phase alternator
investigation is to proceed.
is connected in wye it may be assumed that the individual phases are
connected subtractively at a common junction as shown in Fig. 7.
It is only by means of sub tractive polarities that a three-phase, wyebalanced line-to-line voltages.
Unless
phase generated emf's of a threeThe
phase machine may be assumed to be 120 apart in time phase.
sufficient
a
facts
are
for
the
specification
of
positive circuit
foregoing
directions in the network shown in Fig. 7.
connected
machine
otherwise
specified,
can
give
the individual

Generator
FIG. 7.
three-wire
three-phase
A positive circuit direction may

generated
emf.
network.
(See pages 319-320.)
be arbitrarily
assigned to any one
For example, if the a phase generated emf in Fig.
either En/a/ or Ea<n/ may be taken as positive.

One of
these having been selected as positive, the positive circuit directions
is considered,
of the other systematically labeled emf's are fixed because of the rela
tively fixed polarities that the generated emf's bear toward one another.
If // is taken as positive then En>&/ is positive because, in tracing
from n' to a' to b' to n' ', the two voltages must be in circuit opposition.
In a similar manner En>c' must be taken as positive if / is originally
selected as positive.
Thus either of the two following systems of gen
erated voltages may be employed in analyzing the network shown in
Fig. 7.
(1)
', En
or
(2)
n', Ec'n'
Ch.
IX
In
319
the simple case shown in Fig. 7, one and only one source of emf
in each branch.
The obvious procedure is to assign to the

individual branch currents positive circuit directions which agree with
It should be noted, however,
those assigned to the generated voltages.
that this obvious procedure is not necessary. The positive circuit
directions of the currents can be arbitrarily assigned some in the
Due considera
direction of their generated voltages and others against.
tion must be given to the assigned positive directions of the currents and
voltages, particularly during the establishment of Kirchhoff's current
If all quantities are entered into these equations
and emf equations.
with their proper signs then the current solutions obtained will be those
To obtain the
for the currents in the arbitrarily assigned directions.
expression for current in the opposite direction through any particular
branch it is simply necessary to reverse the sign of the branch current
originally found.
If two or more emf's in any one branch are connected in additive
series then the positive circuit direction assigned to the current in this
branch will probably agree with that which has been assigned as the
If a branch contains
positive circuit direction of generated voltage.
two generated voltages which are connected in subtractive series it is
plain that the positive circuit direction of current will agree with the
positive circuit direction of one emf and disagree with the other.
Two general methods are employed in writing the basic Kirchhoff
equations of a given network. One is to affix arrows on the circuit
diagram which designate the assumed positive circuit directions of the
currents and voltages; the other is to employ double-subscript notation
which automatically states the positive circuit directions of the currents
The two schemes are entirely
or voltages that are being considered.
equivalent, and each has its particular field of usefulness.
The Wye-Wye System with No Neutral Connection. The threegenerator shown in Fig. 7 is connected to a
pbaê, wye-connected
three-phase, wye-connected load through line impedances Zaia, Zb>b,
and Ze'c- The Kirchhoff current and voltage equations for this par
ticular network can be written in terms of double-subscript notation as
is present

THE WYE- WYE SYSTEM
follows:
la'a
Ifc-6
Zan)Ia'o
le'e = 0
(Zn'j><
(18)
Zb'b
(19)
(Zn'6/
Z(,/fc
+ Zbn)Ib'b ~ (Zn'c' + Zc'c + Zcn)Ic/c

= En,b>
- Env
(20)
UNBALANCED
320
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
IX
The tracing directions employed in writing equations (19) and (20)

are indicated in Fig. 7.
Equations (18), (19), and (20) may be solved
simultaneously for Ia/0, Ib>b, and Ic>c in a manner almost identical with
that employed in solving equations (1), (2), and (3) of the present
chapter.
In manipulating equations (19) and (20) either analytically

numerically, it is convenient to adopt the following abbreviations:
E/0,
En,b, = Eb,a,
or
Fig. 7)
(See
(21)
/;,/ En/c' = Ec'6'
Z'.' +
Z0'a
ZB>6'
Zb,b
Z'e'
Zc'c
+
+
+
(22)
Zon
= Za
(23)
Zbn
= Zb
(24)
Zcn = Zc
(25)
If the above abbreviations are adopted and if Ie>c is eliminated

equation (20), equations (19) and (20) reduce directly to
Z0I0'o Z&Ij/f, =
from
Efc/af
(26)
ZJa'o + (Zt + Zc)Ib,b = Ee,v

Problem 6. Solve equations (26) and (27) explicitly
the E's and Z's, employing determinants.
'"'
_- EW
(Zfc
+ Zf ) +
E,<t<Zb
!<,'
and Is'j, in terms of
Eya. (Zt +
ce
aa
Ze)
+ Ec/yZt
In symmetrically arranged networks
Single-Subscript Notation.
the kind shown in Figs. 7 and 8, single-subscript notation may be
of
used
(Z,
Z,)I.
(Z,
Z2)I6
Ie
la +
Ifc
to advantage and is actually preferred by some circuit analyzers over

double-subscript notation in those cases where no ambiguity can possibly
The scheme usually employed is to consider the positive circuit
arise.
directions of both the E's and 7's as being out from the generator thus
giving load voltage drops (Vi, V2, and V3) as shown in Fig. 8. If arrows
are placed on the circuit diagram as in Fig. 8, the positive circuit direc
In terms of singletions of the E's, I's, and V's are clearly defined.
subscript notation, the basic equations for the network shown in Fig. 8
are:

""
for
(27)
(Z, + Z2)I6
= E0
(Z. + Zs)Ie
= Efc
- Eb
- Ec
(28)
(29)
(30)
IX
SINGLE-SUBSCRIPT NOTATION
The relation
(Z, + Z3)IC
V:
<
Ic
Tracing direction
for equation (30)
Flo.
8.
A wye-wye circuit
(31)
Tracing direction
for equation (29)
Eb
- Ea
(Z, + Z,)Ia = Ec
in place of either equation (29) or (30).
be used
IE
might, of course,
321
*v
Ch.
*-
in which the positive circuit directions are

arrangement
indicated by means of arrows.
If
= E0
(Z, + Z2)I6
(2Zg + Z2
Z3)I6 = E6
(Z,
The common denominator of the solutions for

form is:
Z,)
(Z,
E6
and
is
(29)
Ec
It
Z3)Ia
Ia
Z,)Ia
(Z,
(32)
in determinant
(Z, + Z2)
(33)
(2ZB
can be written as follows
-E0)
(2ZB
Z2)
Z2
+ Zs)
(34)
Z3)
T?
rp
(Jia
- Ia
(Z,
16
"
-Ec)
(Et
After D has been defined, the solutions for the three branch currents
Ic

(Z,
+ +
Ie
is
n'
it
the E's and Z's are known either directly or indirectly

possible
to solve equations (28), (29), and (30) simultaneously for !, I;,, and Ic.
It should be noted that the omission of the connecting line impedances
in the network shown in Fig.
places no serious limitation on the
to n in any
generality of the solution because all impedances from
given branch may be added in complex form to give a single impedance.
If
eliminated from equation (30), the basic relations stated in
equations (28), (29), and (30) reduce to:
iift)
(E;, Ec
(35)
(36)
UNBALANCED
322
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
IX
After the branch currents have been evaluated in any particular case,
the
component
three-phase
powers in the three-wire,
in terms of elementary circuit theory.
and
voltages
system can be determined

Example 4.
In Fig. 8 it will
be assumed
that:
E0 = 1000 + jO = 1000 /CT volte
- j866
E =
-500
Ec =
-500 + j'866
= 20
Zi
+jO
Zs = 30
+j52
+ j8
= 2
volte
= 1000
/-240
volta
= 50.0
/45 ohms
/0 ohms
= 60.0
= 8.25
The following quantities are to

Vs), and (Vj
VO.
IV2
/-120"
= 28.28
+J20
Z2 = 50
Zg
= 1000
/60 ohms
/76 ohms
be evaluated:
Lj,
16,
Ic, Vi, V2, Vj, (Vi V),
Certain voltage and impedance combinations will first be evaluated in order to

simplify the numerical expressions which are to follow.
(E6
- E6)
- Ec)
(Ze
+ Zj)
= 22
+ J28
(Ze
= 52
+ j8
(E0
Z2)
= 1500
= 0
.7866
- J1732
= 1732
/-90
= 1732
= 35.6
= 52.6
/30 volte
volte
/51.8" ohms
/8.8 ohms

(Z, + Z3) = 32 + J60 = 68.0 /61.9" ohms

(2Ze H- Z2
By substituting
+ Zj)
= 84
+ j68
= 108.0
/39.0 ohms
the numerical values of the above impedances in equation
(35.6
/51.8")
(68.0
/61.9")
= 1130
The values of la and
I&,
+ j7225
= 7310
(52.6
/8.8)
(108
/39.0)
/81.1
(33) :
ohms2
determined with the aid of equations (34) and (35), are:

(1732
/30)
(1732
/-90)
(52.6 ,/8.8)
(108/39.0)
7310 , 81. lc
81,110
+ j84,650
117,000/46.2
7310 /81.1~
= 16.0
/-34.90
amperes
UNBALANCED
324
Numerically
1443
the above relation becomes:
+J599
(1000
= 1444
+ JO
+
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
99
>87)
(-500
Ch.
- j866 -
43
j'598
IX
+/181)
(Check)
Vector diagrams of the principal

example are shown in Fig. 9.
voltages and currents involved
(E,-E6)
in the above
(V3-V,)
(V,-V2)
I,
(v2-v3j
Fio.
Vector diagrams for example
9.
4 and
Problem
6.
Exercise for Comparing Solutions by Single- and Double-Subscript Notations in a

Polyphase Network.
Rewrite the above network solution in terms of double-sub
For example,
script notation employing the labels given in Fig. 7.
__ __
//, /(,/, and En'ci of Fig. 7.
E,,, Eft, and Ec of Fig. 8 are, respectively,

8 are, respectively,
(E0-E(,) of Fig. 8 is Eya/ of Fig.
Problem
6.
I0'o, I'6, and lcic of Fig. 7.
7, etc.
Two wattmeters, Wa and Wc, are to
phase circuit shown in Fig. 8 in the following
be connected
into the
three-
manner:
Wa
We
Current coil carries /

Potential circuit across (Vi-V2)
Current coil carries

Potential
/<
Fig.
circuit across
(Vj-Vj)
of
(a) Draw the circuit diagram showing the location of each wattmeter.
(6) Calculate the readings of Wa and Wc from the current and voltage solutions
the above illustrative example.
(c) Compare the sum of the two wattmeter readings with (IazR\ + /t2ftj + /cl/?j),
the total power absorbed by the load, recognizing that slide-rule calculations were
employed in example 4.
(b)
Kirchhoff's current law, when labeling

to eliminate the necessity of writing the
effect
solution. The only equatioa"!
Consider the circuit shown
equations.
in
Through an application of
possible
circuit diagram
usual current, equations to
required are the ordinary loop
is
Wa reads 13,430 watts, Wc reads 29,900 watts.

load 72's = 43,390 watts.
(c)
Ans:
it

!, 16, and Ic of
Ch.
IX
Fig.
SINGLE-SUBSCRIPT NOTATION
325
The currents in the Zi and Z2 branches are labeled la and

Since there
respectively as shown.
only one remaining branch at the
junction of Zj and Z2, the current in
may be written on the diagram
10.
in terms of
method of labeling which eliminates the writing of junction equations.
the currents
I0
Fio.
I,
it
is
Ift
10.
and
It, already assumed,
+ (Z,
Z3)Ia
Z,)
E0
Z2)Ifc
Z2)
E6
I) = Eb
Equations (37) and (38) are
Z2
(2Z9
rearranged
(Z,
Z3)Ifr = E6
(37)
Ec
- Ec
(38)
to be the same as equations (29) and

network consisting of many branches applica
(32) respectively. In
tion of the above principle usually greatly reduces the number of simul
taneous equations to be solved, and therefore makes the task of solving
for the unknowns much less cumbersome.
seen

- (Z,
+ +
(Z,
or
if
and
ZJI.
(Zg
+ +
fact follows from Kirchhoff's current law.

unknown currents, and two independent
attempt at setting up
junction equation
only equations necessary are therefore two
as follows:
(Ia + If,). This

There are now only two
An
equations will suffice.
The
will show its futility.
equations
independent loop
as
Fio.
See Problem 7.
Study the details of the labeling in Fig. 11, set up the necessary
7.
and solve for It,
Ans.: 5.38 j'2.9 amperes.
Problem
equations,
11.
UNBALANCED
326
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
IX
The Wye-Wye System with Neutral Connection. Four-wire, threephase systems similar to the one shown in Fig. 12 are sometimes em
The
ployed in the transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
connection of the point n' of the wye-connected generator (or transformer
bank) to the point n of the wye-connected load distinguishes Fig. 12
from the three- wire, three-phase systems shown hi Figs. 7 and 8.
','
Generator
Z,
EVaSj^nf^gwZQ
TI
Zn
En.bX4!/b
Z
b'
I
Fio.
In
A four-wire
12.
three-phase
system.
general, the details involved in solving for
Ic/c, and Inn.

of Fig. 12 are similar to those which have been presented for the wyeIa<0, !&<(,,
without neutral connection.

If the wye-wye system of
straightforwardly by the determinant method, threerow, three-column matrices are encountered, and a considerable amount
of labor is involved in effecting a complete solution in a perfectly general
Due to the inherent symmetry of the basic voltage equations,
case.
If, for example, Kirchhowever, several simplifications may be made.
hoff's emf law is applied to loops n'a'ann' , n'b'bnn', and n'c'cnn', it is
plain that
wye system

Fig.
12 is solved
"*n o
^TIH
"7i
'
Zan)
(za
-.
'''
***n b
^nn ^*n
(Z,
Z6n)
'
(Z, + Zl + Zcn)
Since
Ift'6
+ Ic'c
= Inn'
(39)
it follows that
.
1
'6'
Inn'Zn
En'c'
1
Inn'Zn
Inn'
(40)
where, for simplicity in writing,

Zan = Za
(41)
Zbn = Zb
(42)
Zcn = Zc
(43)
Ch.
IX
DELTA-TO-WYE CONVERSION
327
The remaining details are reserved for student analysis.

below and Problem 26 at the close of the chapter.)
Problem 8.
Solve equation (40) explicitly for

I,,,/ has been evaluated.
/'
and state in words how to find
In' m !'. and I,-', after
En'o'ZfcZc
.
"'""
'
(See Problem 8
+ En'VZeZa + ',/
Zn(ZZc
System. A three-phase, wye-connected generator

A study of Fig. 13
is shown connected to a delta-type load in Fig. 13.
will show that there are six branch currents, I0'0> I*'6, le'ei lot, I&ci and
The Wye-Delta

Fio.
A wye-delta circuit
13.
arrangement.
Although these six currents might be determined

lea, in this network.
by the conventional method (which in this case involves the establish
ment of three current equations and three emf equations) the problem is
simplified if the delta-connected load is first converted to an equivalent
This type of conversion is given below.
wye-connected load.
Delta-to-Wye Conversion. A particular wye-delta system is shown
in Fig. 14a where all of the impedances, including those of the connecting
The theory involved in making the
lines, are indicated on the diagram.
the
from
delta-connected
load of Fig. 14a to the wye-con
conversion
nected load of Fig. 146 is given in Chapter V, pages 145-149.
As applied to Fig. 14, the generated phase voltages are assumed to be
balanced at 1350 volts each and are assigned the following vector posi
tions for purposes of illustration:
En/0/ = 1350 + JO volts
volts*
En-6/ = -675
Env
- J1170
675
+J1
170
(Zo6
(18.5
Z6c
+ Zca)
+J7.69) ohms
(45)
volts
(46)
The equivalent wye impedances are:

(40
(44)
+ j60)
190
(50
- j20)
+ /40
(47)
UNBALANCED
328
ZbcZab
(Zab
=
POLYPHASE
Zbe
ZcaZbc
Zen =
(Zo6
(23.1
Zbc
+ Zca)
(50
- J20)
(48)
(100
+ jO)
190+^40
j'15.37) ohms
!.'
IX
190+J40
+ j'26.0) ohms
(26.53
Ch.
(100+ JO) (40+J60)
_
~
+ Zca)
CIRCUITS
(49)
,
^w-'oo'1
TI
D.9+J0.5)/)
/N^
(50-j20)fl
(0.9 +j 0.5)^1
(a)

-J15.37)/!
(0.9 +j 0.5)
fi
(b)
Fio.
14.
Illustrating
the conversion of a delta-connected load to an equivalent wyeconnected
load.
The equivalent wye impedances thus determined replace

delta-connected
impedances, and the circuit arrangement
that shown in Fig. 146. If the numerical values of the
and generated voltages are employed, the basic equations
work shown hi Fig. 146 take the following forms:
la'a
I6'fc
+ Ic'c
= 0
the original
reduces to
impedances
of the
- (27.53 + J28.0)lb,b = 2025 + JH70

- (24.1 - jl3.37)Ic.e 0 - /2340
(27.53 + j28.0)Iyfc
(19.5
+j9.69)Ia,a
net^
(50)
(51)
(52)
Ch.
IX
DELTA-TO-WYE CONVERSION
329
The three simultaneous equations stated above can be reduced to two

simultaneous equations by the simple expedient of eliminating one
current from either equation (51) or (52). By substituting for Ic>c
in equation (52) its value ( Ia/0 Ifc't), equation (52) reduces to
(24.1
- j!3.37)Ia/0
+ (51.63 + jl4.63)I6-6 = 0
- J2340
(53)
The two simultaneous equations in !/ and Ib>b, namely, equations (51)

and (53), may be written in polar form as follows:
(21.8/26.4)I0/0
(39.3
/45.5)Iyt,
(27.6/-29.0)Iaa + (53.6/15.8)Ii,/i,
(54)
2340/30
2340
/-
90
(55)
Assuming that I0/0 and Ib'b are to be evaluated with the aid of deter
minants, the common denominator of the two current expressions takes
the form shown below:
D
(27.6
=
(21.8/26.4)
/-29.00
(53.6/15.8)
(56)
2200/29.9 ohms2
-(39.3/45.5)
(2340/30)
(2340

(39.3 /45.5)
/-
(53.6/15.8)
90)
= 70.6
/ -20.4
amperes
(57)
(2340/30)
Ift'6
(2340
62,800
/-
(70.6
=
=
90)
2200/29.9
131. 8
2200 /29.9
I,,,.
/-
/-
20.4)
-(66.2 -.;24.6)
(-39.1 + ./33.S4)
/- /-
= 28.5
(28.5
161.7 amperes
(58)
161.7)
(-27.1 -.78.94)
51.5/139.4 amperes
(59)
After the line currents have been determined, the load potential drops,
the delta-phase currents, and the various component
evaluated in terms of elementary circuit theory.
powers
can be
UNBALANCED
330
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Cfc.
IX
illustrating En/a/, //,<, E,,.v, I.,/... I

E,
/<,/ of the above network solution.
Calculate the total power
Ic'c, E;/,,/, ',., and
generated by the three-phase generator of Fig. 146.
Ana.: Total power generated = 184 kw (approx. )
Problem
9.
Draw a vector diagram
Determine Vab, Vbc, V,, lot, Iic, and lca of Fig. 14a making use
Draw a vector diagram of these
of the calculated values given in the text material.
load voltages and currents and calculate the total power dissipated in the delta-
Problem
10.
connected load shown in Fig. 14(a).
Ana.: Vat
= 1901
Vfc =
V*.
+ J995
-97 - j2322
-1804 +
= 2145
= 2328
j'1327
= 26.1
I6c
-0.975
Ic.,
-40.2 + ./10.47
-J14.25
Problem
= 2240
= 29.7
- j'23.26
Total power dissipated
/ 27.65 volte.
-92.4 volts.
/ 143.6
volte.
/-28.7 amperes.
/-92.4 amperes.
= 23.28
= 41.55
/1 65.4 amperes.
= 176 kw (approx.)
power dissipated in the delta load of Fig. 14a,

loss in lines and generator windings with the total
184
kw.
namely,
(Recognize the fact that slide-rule calculations
power generated,
been
the
above network solution.)
employed
throughout
have
Ans.: Line and generator I*R loss = 8.45 kw (approx.)
11.
Compare
total

namely, 176 kw, plus the total
I2R
Phase-Sequence Effects. The direction of rotation of polyphase

induction motors is dependent upon the phase sequence of the applied
Also, the two wattmeters in the two-wattmeter method of
voltages.
measuring three-phase power interchange their readings when subjected
to a reversal of phase sequence even though the system is balanced.
But the magnitudes of the various currents and component voltages in
balanced systems arc not affected by a reversal of phase sequence.
In an unbalanced polyphase system, a reversal of voltage phase
sequence will, in general, cause certain branch currents to change in
magnitude as well as in time-phase position, although the total watts
and vars generated remain the same.
(See example following.)
"
" refers to
Unless otherwise stated, the term
phase sequence
voltage
It should be recognized that, in unbalanced systems,
phase sequence.
the line currents and phase currents have their own phase sequence
which may or may not be the same as the voltage sequence.
Example 6. The effects of reversal of voltage sequence upon the magnitudes
the currents in the wye-connected load of Fig. 2 are illustrated by the results
example 2 and of Problem 3.
For the ab-ca-bc voltage sequence of example 2, page 310 :
la.' a. = 3.66, /(,';, = 14.56, and 7C/C = 11.98 amperes
For the ab-bc-ca voltage sequence of Problem
3,
page 311 :
Ia'a = 13.65, /y& = 6.20, and Ic'c = 7.54 amperes
of
of
Ch.IX
METHODS
OF
CHECKING VOLTAGE PHASE SEQUENCE
331
Methods of Checking Voltage Phase Sequence.

Sometimes in prac
it becomes desirable and even necessary to know the phase sequence
There are two general methods for
of a particular polyphase system.
checking voltage phase sequence; one based on direction of rotation of
on unbalanced polyphase
circuit
induction motors; the other,
tice

phenomena.
Method One. Small polyphase induction motors which have pre

viously been checked against a known phase sequence can be employed
In two- and three-phase
to test the phase sequence of a given system.
systems, only two different phase sequences are possible, and conse
quently the direction hi which the motor rotates can be used as an
indicator of phase sequence. The principle of operation involves
rotating magnetic field theory which rightfully belongs in the domain
of a-c machinery.
Method Two. In general, any unbalanced set of load impedances
The different
can be employed as a voltage phase sequence checker.
effects produced by changes in phase sequence can be determined
theoretically, and when an effect peculiar to one sequence is noted in
the actual installation, that effect can be used to designate the phase
sequence of the system.
One of the most common devices for
checking phase sequence in three-phase
a' Lamp
systems is the unbalanced circuit ar
shown in Fig. 15. The
rangement
three line wires, the voltage phase
Lamp
sequence of which is to be tested, are
arbitrarily labeled . The free end of one
method
FIG. is. A two-lamp
for
lamp
' is connected to the line marked a.
checking phase sequence in three'
'
phase systems. Lamp a is brighter The other lamp is connected to line c,
13
for ab-bc-ca sequence, lamp
and the inductance coil is connected
. brighter for ab-ca-bc sequence.
to line b as shown in Fig. 15. // lamp
'a' is
ages
brighter than lamp
is ab-bc-ca.
sequence
If
'
c,
lamp
'
'
sequence of the line-to-line volt

'
'
is brighter than lamp
the phase
a,
the phase
c
'
is ab-ca-bc.
The foregoing statements are based upon the results of theoretical

analyses,
the details of which are outlined below.
Assuming that the

lamps are similar, their brightnesses will depend upon the voltages
These voltages may be determined by the Kirchhoff
Zanlan and Zcnlcn.
equation method as shown below.
Ian + I&
len = 0
(60)
(61)
>cn*cn
V(,c
(62)
Upon the elimination of
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
UNBALANCED
332
Ch.lX
from equation (62), there results:
Ien
ZcnU +
(Z&n
+ ZCB)ItB
= Vfcc
(63)
Equations (61) and (63) can now be solved by inspection for !

the result multiplied by Zon. The voltage across the a lamp is:
rv
,_
\_-a
_-an(f-br>
The voltage across the
ên)
and
lamp is:
ZenICB = Vco
ZonIOB
(65)
Example 6. For the sake of illustrating the effect

upon the magnitudes of Z,,,,I,,;, and Z, ,.I. ,,. a numerical
lamps Zan and ZCB of Fig. 15 will be assumed to be
Z/,ri will be assumed equal to 100
ohms magnitude.
of reversal of phase sequence

case will be considered. The
pure resistances each of 100
/90 ohms, that is, a hypo-
thetically pure inductance.

The magnitude of the line-to-line voltages will
taken as 100 volts each and will first be assigned the following vector positions:
be
V,,* = 100 /p_ volts

V6c = 100
/-120
volts
Vc,, = 100
7-240
volts

ZOBIa
(141.4/45;
100
(100
22,380 /63.45
86.4
/-48.45
(100
/-2400) +
volte
(86.3
/-48.45)
23.2 /71.55" volte
(67)
The a lamp is therefore brighter than the c lamp for phase sequence ab-bc-ca.
Now let the line-to-line voltages be assigned vector positions which represent
a reversal of phase sequence,
namely,
Voi, = 100 /p_ volte
Vfcc
= 100
/-240
volte
VM
= 100
/-120
volte
(141.1
/45) +
(100
For ab-ca-bc phase sequence:

ZaBIB
= 100
(100/0)
23.2 /11.550 volte

100
86.4
/-120 +
/-108.450
23.2 /11.550
volte
/-240)
(100 /90)"1
Ch.
IX
The
c lamp is therefore brighter
METHODS OF CHECKING VOLTAGE PHASE SEQUENCE
333
than the a lamp for phase sequence ab-ca-bc. . The

above numerical results would be somewhat different if the resistance of the induc
tance coil had been considered. However, if the ratio (Xi/R} of the coil is rela
tively high, the difference between the lamp voltages
is easily discernible.
Voltage sequence:
ab be ca
(o)
Fio.
16.
A voltmeter method of checking

example
Example
7 and
phase sequence in three-phaae

12 and 13.
systems.
See
Problems
Another convenient form of voltage sequence checker is shown in

consists of a condenser (Xc), a resistor (R), and a voltmeter (Vm).
voltmeter (whose current consumption is negligibly small compared with the
current through Xc and R) is connected between the line labeled b and the junc
tion between Xc and If. Xc and R are connected in series across the voltage Vae
Fig.
The
16o.
7.
It

(or VM) with the condenser connected to the
Xc
= 100 ohms,
141.4
= 100 ohms, and Vai, =
/ 60
Vm + lacR
Vm
(141.4
-167.3
a line and the resistor to the c line.

Vi, = 7, = 141.4 volts:
If
for sequence ab-bc-ca as shown
or
/-1200)
-j96.6
Vm
(1
= V6c
inFig.
166.
/-15) (100/0)
= 193
/ -150 volte
The above result shows that the voltmeter (Vm) reads above the line voltage (in
the ratio of 193 to 141 in this case) for voltage sequence ab-bc-ca. The same gen
eral result is obtained with any combination of Xc and R provided Xc is roughly
equal in ohmic value to A or greater in ohmic value than R.
Problem 12. Show by means of a qualitative vector diagram that the voltmeter
(Vm) of Fig. 16a reads below line voltage for voltage sequence ab-ca-bc.
13.
What is the magnitude of the voltmeter reading in Fig. 16o if
10 ohms. R = 10 ohms, and foi = V.be = Vca = 141.4 volts if the voltage
sequence is ab-ca-bc1!
Ana.; 51.8 volts.
Problem
Xc
UNBALANCED
334
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
The Three-Wattmeter Method of Measuring Three-Phase Power.

The total power delivered to a three-phase, wye-connected load with
W,
Generator
Fio.
17.
Load
The three-wattmeter method of measuring four-wire three-phase
power.
neutral connection can obviously be measured with three wattmeters

connected as shown hi Fig. 17.
Wa measures the an phase power, W0
measures the bn phase power, and Wc measures the en phase power.
sum of the three wattmeter read
therefore
equals
the
total
It
power consumed by the load.
is plain that if each individual
phase of the wye-connected load
is dissipative hi character all the
wattmeters shown hi Fig. 17 will
indicate positive power.
The total power absorbed by
an unbalanced delta-connected
load can be measured with the
aid of three wattmeters as shown
in Fig. 18. Individual
phase
18
The three_wattmeter method of
measuring
individual phase powers in a
powers are measured by the wattload,
delta-connected
meters.
This method of measuring power would not, in general, be used unless the individual phase
FIO
powers were desired.
The Two- Wattmeter Method of Measuring Three- Wire, Three-Phase

Power. Except for inherent meter losses and errors, the three watt
meters connected as shown in Fig. 19 will measure accurately the
general proof of the
power consumed by the three-phase load abc.
foregoing statement will be given, and then certain important deduc
tions will be made therefrom.
The total average power delivered to the three-phase load shown in

ings
The
THE TWO-WATTMETER METHOD
Ch.IX
T is:
Fig. 19 over a time interval
CT
I
(iW'o'o +
Pabc =
I
335
Vtmlb'b
I)
+ PcnVc)
fit
(70)
The total average power measured by the three wattmeters shown in

Fig. 19 is:
1
CT
=
OWo'o + !>60*fr'6 + ^cOV dt
(71)
m I
t/0
4- W,
a'
SPO
Fia.
19.
A three-wattmeter method of measuring tlirec-phasp power which is independent

of the potential and hence of the physical position of the point O.
Under any condition
it
is plain that
Vao

VbO
VcO
=
=
Van- Ifa
Vbn
= cn
(72)
Von
(73)
fOn
(74)
Equation (71) may therefore he written as:

=
m
1
Since (ia
rT
t/o
(iW'a'
naa
i/o
ib'b
dt
(75)
+ Ve) = 0, it follows that

T7"
"mlt/0
1
(o4
"frn^'fc
+ fcnVe)
(76)
It
is thus shown that the three wattmeters in Fig. 19 measure the load
power irrespective of voltage or current balance, of wave form, and of
potential of the point 0. The last fact is highly significant. It

indicates that the wattmeter potential coils need not have equal resist
ances when employed as shown in Fig. 19.
It also indicates that the
the
UNBALANCED
336
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
IX
point 0 can be placed on any one of the three lines, thereby reducing
one wattmeter reading to zero.
Although the proof was based on a
the
entire
proof holds equally well for delta-con
wye-connected load,
A simple way of extending the proof to cover delta
nected loads.
loads is to recognize the fact that any delta load can be reduced to an
equivalent wye-connected load.
(See Chapter V, pages 131-134.)
The practical significance of placing point 0 on one of the three lines
is that only two wattmeters are required to measure the total threeThis expedient is widely utilized in measuring three-wire,
phase power.
three-phase power because it possesses no inherent limitations as regards
balance or wave form.
Vio/61 cos 9
,"
]y
Wb reads
reads
Yd,!.;
cos
]Vl
W,
FIG. 20.
Different
Varl,
cos
P*
VbJn
U-.
8
Wb reads
Pn
circuit positions that the two wattmeters employed

three-phase power can take.
to measure
c,
6,
6,
The two wattmeters used to measure three-phase power may be

or c. The three combina
placed in the circuit as shown in Fig. 20a,
tions are obtained by placing the point
of Fig. 19 on lines a,
and
respectively.
For the relative polarities of the wattmeter coils shown in Figs.

and 20 the instruments will read up-scale
19
is
if
if
If
is
is
positive power
being
Under the condition of sinusoidal wave form of current
metered.
the current through the current
and voltage, positive power indicated
coil in the db direction
less than 90 out of phase with the voltage
which
across the potential circuit in the direction.
one of the
when
as
in
20,
connected
shown
the rela
Fig.
meters reads down-scale
is

a reads
]VM
V*
Ch.IX
THE TWO-WATTMETER METHOD
337
tive polarity of the coils is changed to obtain up-scale reading and this
reading is reckoned as negative power in finding the algebraic sum of
the wattmeter readings.
Other methods of checking for negative
will
be
wattmeter readings
considered presently.
Example 8.
In Fig.
The magnitude of
21, abc represents a balanced three-phase system of voltages.
each voltage is 200 volts, and the phase sequence is ab-ca-bc.
A balanced, 0.8-power-factor, induction motor

load of 6 kw is connected across abc and a
4-kw, unity-power-factor
load is connected
across ab as shown in the diagram.
Let it be required to find the individual
readings of the wattmeters, Wab-a'a and TPcft-c'c,
which are connected to measure the total load
power. The subscripts designate the voltage
and current which are operative in a given
Wcl)_c'.
meter in producing positive up-ecale deflection.

the meter will read down-scale,
Obviously,
three-phase load.
thus indicating negative power if the operative
voltage and current are separated by more than 90 in time phase.
Let Voj be selected as reference. Then :
Fin.
21.
A particular
unbalanced
/-240,
Va6 = 200 /0_, V6c = 200
The
and
volts
current in each phase of the induction motor is:

2000
200
amperes
12.5
X0.8
4000
200
(20+ JO) + (10-/T.5)
= (30
/7.5) amperes
-240
36.9
= 12.5
= (1.5
+j'12.4) amperes
= 12.5
/-1200
(30
= 41.5
1C'
- J7.5) -J2.60
(1.5+J12.4)
-28.5
(-11.5 -./4.90)
-13.0 j!7.3 =
J19.9
156.9
(-11.5 -.74.90)
-3.58 amperes
= 41.6
/-
= 12.5
- j'4.90) amperes
The line currents are:
(-11.5
/83.1"
(30
-J7.5)
= 34.7
21
/145 amperes
(1.5
+ J12.4)
.7
- 36.9
= 12.5
-127 "amperes

is,
and these phase currents lag the applied phase voltages by cos"1 0.8 or 36.9.
unity-power-factor load current
of course, in phase with Voi,. Therefore
The
POLYPHASE
UNBALANCED
338
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
vector diagram of the voltages and currents is shown in Fig. 22. Since the mag
nitudes and relative time-phase positions of the line-to-line voltages and the line
currents are known, the wattmeter readings can be determined.
= Vat/a' a COS 6
IT*
Jlo'a
41.6 cos 3.58 = 8300 watts
200
21.7 cos 67
]Vci
= 200
Ic'c
Fio.
22.
= 1700 watts
Vector diagram of voltages and currents in a particular unbalanced threephase circuit.

(See Fig. 21.)
The other wattmeter
will correctly measure the three-phase
which
combinations
power are:
200
COS
Wac-a'a = Vaja'a
the present example:
'.
41.6
In
cos 63.58 = 3705 watts
COS
34.7
Jl6'6
200
>,
VtJb'b
cos 25 = 6295 watte
Problem 14. Calculate the readings of Wba-b'b and Wca-c'c in the above example
and compare the sum of the wattmeter readings thus found with the total connected
load.
Ans.: Wba-b'b = 5685, Wca-c'c = 4315 watts.
1
The Use of
In general,
Wattmeters to Measure n-Wire Power.
n
wattmeter elements can be employed to measure n-wire power.
The wattmeter elements may take the form of individual wattmeters,
in which case the total power
equal to the algebraic sum of the watt
meter readings; or all movable members may be connected to
common
is

(1) Wac-a'a together with Wbc-b>k

(2) Wba-b'b together with Wca-c'c-

Ch.IX
CHECKING SIGNS OF WATTMETER READINGS
339
shaft in which case the total power is indicated directly on one scale.
The latter type of instrument is called a polyphase wattmeter.
The fact that n 1 wattmeters can measure the power in an n-wire
If the student rec
system can be established in several different ways.
ognizes that any mesh-connected load is reducible to an equivalent starconnected load, be should have little difficulty in devising his own proof.
Methods of Checking for Positive or Negative Readings of Watt
meters. In determining the algebraic sum of the wattmeter readings
in the n 1 wattmeter method of measuring n-wire power, due regard
must be given to the sign of each wattmeter reading.
Only the twowattmeter method of measuring three-phase power will be considered
at this point.
In general, the two wattmeters employed to measure three-phase
(Equal readings occur only at balanced unitypower read differently.
power-factor loads and at singular conditions of unbalance.) Various
schemes are in use for determining the correct sign of up-scale readings
of the wattmeters.
If the power being measured is the power taken by a dissipative type
load, then the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings is always
positive. Under these conditions the higher reading must be positive
In the following dis
and only the lower reading requires checking.
cussion it will be assumed that the lower-reading meter is reading up
scale but that the conditions of balance and power factor are such as
to render the sign of the reading doubtful.
One of the most direct and satisfactory methods of checking signs
which is applicable to loads of any degree of unbalance is that explained
on page 288, Chapter VIII. However, the method is not always
practicable because of the difficulty in opening lines. Another method
of checking the sign of the lower reading is to interchange the two watt
It is assumed
meters, leaving the common potential connection intact.
that the current coils are reconnected without change in polarity.
If
both meters read up-scale in their new positions, both the original
readings were positive. If one meter reads down-scale in its new posi
tion, the original lower reading was negative.
Various other methods have been suggested for checking the sign of
the lower reading, but practically all of them are predicated upon a
certain degree of balance, either of the voltages or currents or both.
The limitations of any method of checking should be well known before
any attempt is made to employ it in practice.
The theory underlying
of
is
similar to the theory of
checking wattmeter signs
the problem
checking the correctness of polyphase watthour meter connections.
(See Chapter X.)
UNBALANCED
340
Ch.IX
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Reactive Volt-Amperes in Unbalanced Four-Wire, Three-Phase

Systems. The reactive volt-amperes of each individual phase of the
load shown in Fig. 23 can be measured with three reactive volt-ampere
meters.
(For a description of a reactive volt-ampere meter and the
Fia.
Measurement of total reactive volt-amperes in a four-wire, three-phase

with three reactive volt-ampere meters.
23.
system
of single-phase vars see pages 374-376.)

Sinusoidal
" reac
wave forms of currents and voltages are assumed since the term
"
tive volt-amperes
as well as any measurements of that quantity are
ambiguous when other than sinusoidal wave forms are encountered.
In Fig. 23:
measurement
The algebraic
Meter
Meter
c reads Fen/cn sin 6
reads
sum of the above
~]V.n
fcnsin^
\
vars
vars
vars
Jlcn
is of practical importance.
readings
Assume the phase angle to be positive
if the current lags the voltage
negative if the current leads the voltage.
and
These conventions are merely
A meter properly connected to

for
reactive volt-amperes will
lagging-current
give
when subjected
to leading-current reactive voltread down-scale
If then in a particular case a meter reads down-scale, the
amperes.
relative polarities of the current and potential circuits of the meter are
The resulting up-scale reading is considered as negative reac
reversed.
in finding the total reactive volt-amperes of the sys
volt-amperes
tive
matters of definition.
tem.
(See page 54.)
readings
With negative reactive volt-amperes
vars of
system may, of course, be negative.
defined as
it
is,
up-scale

Meter a reads VanL m sin0
the total
Ch.
IX
IN UNBALANCED
POWER FACTOR
Example 9.
In Fig.
SYSTEMS
341
23 let
Van = 100 /0_ VoltS
Zan = 25
V6n = 100
/-1200
VOltS
Zfc
VCB = 100
/-240
volts
Zm = 20
/45 ohms
= 50
/0 ohms
/ -60
ohms
The individual readings of the three reactive volt-ampere meters and the algebraic
sum of the readings are to be determined.
'25 /45
= 4.0
100/-120
I'm
/-45 amperes
= 2.0
/-120
= 5.0
/180 amperes
50/0_
100
20
/-240
/-60
amperes
The relative
vector positions of the

phase voltages and phase currents
which actuate the meters are shown
in Fig. 24.
Reactive volt-ampere meter a reads
(100
0.707) = 283 vars
Reactive volt-ampere meter
(100
In (lagging current)
reads
0.0) = 0 var
Reactive volt-ampere meter c reads

Vector diagram of the phase voltages
and phase currents of the four-wire, threephase load shown in Fig. 23 for a particular
set of load impedances.
(100

Flo. 24.
X -0.866)
The algebraic sum of the meter read;
or the
,,
_ 1 50
If wattmeters were to replace the reactive volt-ampere

their readings would be as shown below :
Wa = 100
TT6
= 100
Wc = 100
X
X
X
4
2
5
X
X
X
433 vars
tota, number of vanj ^

meters shown in Fig. 23,
0.707 = 283 watts

1.000
= 200 watts
0.500 = 250 watte
The total number of watts is 733.
Power Factor in Unbalanced Three-Phase Systems. Power factor

in a single-phase system or in a balanced polyphase system has a definite
physical significance. It is the ratio of the phase watts to the phase voltUnder conditions of sinusoidal wave form, power factor is
amperes.
equivalent to the cosine of the time-phase angular displacement between
phase voltage and pha.se current.
In an unbalanced polyphase system each phase has its own particular
UNBALANCED
342
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
"
" power factor as applied

power factor. The result is that the term
to the combined unbalanced polyphase system can have only such
The average of the individual
meaning as is given to it by definition.
of the ratio of total
is
a
indication
general
factors
good
phase power
watts to total volt-amperes in certain cases where the phase loads are
Where both capacitive and inducti%re
all inductive or all capacitive.
effect of capacitive
phase loads are encountered, the compensating
reactive volt-amperes and inductive reactive volt-amperes is not taken
" average " power factor
into account.
Another serious limitation to
concept is that the individual phase power factors are not easily deter
" Average " power factor is
mined in many practical installations.
generally not considered when specifying the power factor of an unbal
anced polyphase
system.
One recognized definition1 called vector power factor of an unbalanced

polyphase
systems is:
Vector p.f.
ZF7cos9
V(2)F/ sin 0)2 + (EF7
F7
cos
e =
VJa
cos
2F7
sin
VJa
sin
00
6a
+ Vblb cos
+ Vblb sin
6b
+ VJC cos
+
06
cos 0)2
VJe
sin
6C H
(78)
-\
(79)
Be
The subscripts employed
in the above equations refer to individual

For example, 00 is the angular displacement between
phase values.
phase voltage and phase current in the a phase of the system.
VI cos t
is the total power consumed by the polyphase load, the power factor of
which is under investigation. F7 sin 0 is the algebraic sum of the
individual phase reactive volt-amperes.
In evaluating F7 sin 6 in
any particular case due regard must be given to the sign of each com

ponent.
It
is evident that the denominator of equation (77) can be evaluated

as if it were the magnitude of a resultant vector, the right-angle com
of which are (F7 cos 6) and (F7 sin 6). This fact is
illustrated graphically in Fig. 25 for the particular three-phase system
discussed on pages 340-341.
Considering watts and vars as the right" vector
angle components which go to form
volt-amperes " it is plain
that:
ponents
VI
\/(F7 sin 0)2
LVI
VJa[6_a +
(F7
cos
0)2/0
(80)
or)
'See American
Standard
Standards Association,
Definitions
August 12, 1941.
VthlJk
+ Ff7e/0c
of Electrical Terms,
(81)
Approved
American
Ch.
IX
IN UNBALANCED
POWER FACTOR
SYSTEMS
343
Power factor, as defined by equation (77), can now be written in any

one of several different ways.
,
Vector p.f. = cos tan
cos
(82)
(LF/COS0)
or
=
Vector p.f.
cos
(83)
magnitude of
Phase b
283
vars
flb-0
283 watts
200 watts
----- SVIco.0 ---283
250
200
Resultant diagram
Fio.
Illustrating the concept of vector volt-amperes in a particular case.
25.
Example
10.
The " average " power factor of the unbalanced load described on
pages 340-341 is to be compared with the power factor as denned by equations (77),
(82), or (83). The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 23, and the previously
determined
values are indicated below.
la,

Von = 100 /p_ VOlts
Vtn = 100
/-120
volte
lim = 2.0
/-45 amperes
/-120 amperes
/ -240
volts
Icn = 5.0
/180 amperes
= 100
= 4.0
a-phase vars = 283
o-phase watts = 283
b-phase vars = 000
6-phase watts = 200
c-phase vars = 433
c-phase watts = 250
^F/sinfl
"EVI
The individual
= 150 vars
cose = 733 watts
phase power factors are:

P.f.0 = 0.707
(result of lagging current)
P.f.6 = 1.000
(result of in-phasc current)

P.f.c = 0.500 (result of leading current)
The
arithmetical
average of the above phase power factors is:

2.207
P.f.v
The power factor of the unbalanced load

Vector p.f.
= 0.736
as defined by equation
733
V(-150)2
733
(733)2
748
= 0.98
(77) is:
POLYPHASE
UNBALANCED
344
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
Inasmuch as the latter determination of power factor recognizes the compensat

" leading " and " lagging " reactive volt-amperes it is somewhat more
ing effect of
"
"
average
power factor.
significant than the
VI sin 6 in a Three- Wire, Three-Phase Circuit

Measurement of
in
factors
three-wire, three-phase systems are very often measured
Power
VI cos 6 and VI sin 6.
F7 cos 0 can be measured with
in terms of
the aid of either two or three wattmeters as shown in previous articles.
It may be shown that 77 sin 0 can also be measured in a three-wire,
three-phase system with either two or three reactive volt-ampere
meters.
Only the two-meter method of measuring F7 sin0 will be
considered.
The two meters shown in Fig. 26 are assumed to be reactive volt-
general
discussion
Rvarneter
(See pages
for
a'<
374-376
I'
is
reads
Vcblc'c sin
9\
Vabla'a sin
lv*l
reads
Jla'J
For the sake of analysis, the above readings will be expressed temporarily
in terms of the complex components of the voltages and currents. In
was shown that under the conditions of sinusoidal wave
Chapter IV
form:
VI
sin
it

is
of the reactive volt-ampere meter

as a measuring instrument.)
The meters shown in Fig. 26 are
connected into the circuit in
man
ner which
exactly like two watt
b'meters in the two-wattmeter method
of measuring three-phase power.
It
will be shown presently that, when
Rva meter
they are connected hi this fashion,
the algebraic sum of the two reactive Fro. 26. The two reactive volt-ampere
meter method of measuring
VI sin in
volt-ampere meter readings
equal
a three-wire, thrce-phase system.
to F7 sin0 of the three-phase
circuit. F7 sin for polyphase system has been defined hi equation
(79) of the present chapter.
Connected as shown in Fig. 26:
i/t
(M)
IX
MEASUREMENT OF 2(77
where
V6n and
r*
= Vcn
0
(f
onion
(v'anian
= Vcblcn sin
(f'cn'cn
and that
Ic>c
= Ien.
V6n.
Ju
bnian
~ Vani
W''an)
an
Vbni on)
(vbni' an
f'&n'an)
Vcni'cn)
(vbnl cn
v'bniea)
noticed that (vbni'an v'bnian) of equation (85)

v'bnicn) of equation (86) can be added so as to yield
+ i'cn) ~ V\n(ian + lcn)
Therefore the siun of equations

(v'anian
in turn
W''an)
(85)
Vcni'cn
be
'on
(v'bnibn
- tw'bn)
(86)
and
(87)
(85) and (86) reduces to
(v'bnibn
Vbni' bn)
cnicn
Vcni'cn)
is
easily recognized as the total reactive volt-amperes

load or V7 sin
No restrictions as to the balance of either voltage or current have been
Two reactive volt-ampere
imposed upon the foregoing derivation.
meters connected into a three-wire, three-phase circuit as shown in
Fig. 26 will, therefore, measure ^,VI sin regardless of the condition of
rather difficult to incorporate
balance.
Although the generality
into the derivation, the algebraic sum of the readings will be equal to
F7 sin whenever the reactive volt-amperes are restricted to those
cases where both voltage and current wave forms are sinusoidal, pro
vided the reactive volt-ampere meters are connected into the threemanner similar to the wattmeters shown in
wire, three-phase line in
which
is
0.
of the three-phase
or
Example 11.
c.
In Fig.
27, abc represents an unbalanced three-phase system of
ages, the phase sequence of which
Vrt
200,
V*
is
Fig. 20a,
b,

Ia>a = !<,
lvot
= ôfr/on SUl
1c6
Vci
i+ji'
Also Va5 = Vfln
'en
and
to Fig. 26 will show that
Reference
It will
v+jvf
345
sin 0)
(v
Ch.
<A-bc-ca.
= 141.4
and
In
magnitude:
Vca = 141.4 volts
volt
UNBALANCED
346
If Vat
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
is assumed to occupy the reference axis position,
Vrf
= 200
/-135,Vca
= 141.4
/0 , Vjc
Fio.
It will
27.
IX
then:
= 141.4
Rva meter a
Ch.
/ -225 volte
A particular
unbalanced
three-phase
load.
be assumed that the load impedances have the values shown on the circuit
diagram, namely,
Zab = 10
Assuming that the line-to-line

delta-phase currents are:
/-60obm8
Zbc = 14.14
/45 ohms
Zco = 14.14
/45 ohms
voltages remain fixed at the values given above, the
200/0"
106 =
= '
10/-60
141.4
/-135

14.14/45
141.4
!,=
From which
la'o = la*
h'b =
Ifcc
lc'c = lea
14.14
lea = 10
lab =
- It*
/-
225
/ISO" amperes
= 10
/90 amperes
/45
+J7.32
= 12.4
-20 - jl7.32
= 10
= 10
+jW
/36.2 amperes
= 26.45
= 14.14
/-
139.1 "amperes
/45 amperes
The voltages and currents are represented graphically in Fig. 28.

The meters shown in Fig. 27 are assumed to be reactive volt-ampere meters,
the present example concerns itself with the predetermination of their readings.
Reactive volt-ampere meter a reads:
VaJa'a sin
= 141.4
0 |
JVi
12.4
sin -81.2 = -1732 vars
reads:
= 141.4
26.45 sin 4.1 = 268 rare
and
Ch.
IX
RELATIONS AS FOUND FROM MAGNITUDES
VECTOR
The algebraic sum of
the meter readings is:
-1732 +
The
actual value of
currents is:
347
V7
"EVIsine
sin
S as
(200
(141.4
268 =
-1464 vars
determined from the individual phase voltages and
X 20 X 0.866) + (141.4 X 10 X
X 10 X 0.707) = -1464 vars
0.707)
Problem 16. If the reactive volt-ampere meters shown in Fig. 27 are placed so that
the current coils carry 70'aand Ic'c, what will be the individual meter readings in vars?
It is assumed that the potential circuits of the meters are connected in such a manner
that the algebraic sum of the readings will be equal to V7 sin 6.
Ans.: Meter a reads 1464 vars; meter c reads zero.
Problem
16.
What is the power factor of the unbalanced load shown in Fig.
as determined from
,VI
sin
and
V7
27
cos 0?
Ans.:
0.939.

\v
Flo.
28.
Vector voltages and currents in the throe-phase
Vector Relations as Found from Experimentally Determined Magni

tudes of Current and Voltage. Time-phase relations in unbalanced
polyphase systems may in some instances be determined from ammeter
and voltmeter readings.
If, for example, the magnitudes of the three
line-to-line voltages of a three-wire system are known, the relative
time-phase angular displacements of these voltages can be determined
from a graphical layout of the kind shown in Fig. 29. Unique determi
nations of the phase angles require a knowledge of the time-phase
sequence of the voltages in question.
Three-Phase, Line-to-Line Voltages.
The basic relation involved in a
graphical layout of line-to-line voltages is:
Vca = 0
(88)
Therefore the vector voltages Vab, Vtc, and Vca form a closed triangle and
their relative angular positions may be determined either trigonometri
UNBALANCED
348
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
cally or graphically from a closed triangle of the kind shown in Fig.

Applying the law of cosines to one of the triangles shown in Fig. 29:
IX
29.
2VabVbc
/3
= cos
-il
The actual vector positions of the

three voltages with respect to a
common reference may be written
as follows if the sequence is known
to be ab-bc-ca:
Vbe =
Vca =
F6c/-(180-)'
Study of Fig.
29 will
show
if the sequence is ab-ca-bc,

Vie =
Vea
W(180 -)
I (180 +
/3)
as reference.
then
and Vca
with respect to Vofc

Fio.
29.
Graphical
construction
for
de
termining phase relation between three

Graphical Layout.
of
measured line voltages..
One vector voltage may conven
iently be placed along the +x-axis position and used as reference. For
Then, (1) an arc,
the case shown in Fig. 29, Vab is chosen as reference.
equal (to scale) to Vbc, is swung from the head of Vai,; (2) an arc, equal
The two arcs thus
(to scale) to Vca, is swung from the tail of Va6described will, in general, intersect at two points as shown in Fig. 29
Details

that
the
and the actual time-phase sequence of the voltages will determine

which of the points should be used. If the sequence is ab-bc-ca, and if
the arcs are swung in accordance with the directions given above, the
lower intersection in Fig. 29 should be used because it properly locates
A vector drawn from the head of V,u,
Vtc and Vca with respect to Vab.
to the point in question represents V6C. A vector drawn from the point
in question to the tail of Vab represents Vco.
Note: Other schemes such as reversing the sense of the vectors,
laying off Vca from the head of Vab, and the like may be employed and if
The scheme
properly interpreted the correct results can be obtained.
the
associations
permit
given above is preferred here since later it will
Ch.IX
VECTOR
RELATIONS AS FOUND FROM MAGNITUDES
and Va&, V(,n and Vtc, and Vcn and \M at common origins.
notational schemes of this kind are helpful. (See Fig. 306).
of Van
349
Orderly
The line-to-line voltages of a three-phase system are Vab = 160,

and V^ = 120.8 volts.
Find the vector expressions for the line-to-line
voltages with respect to Vab as reference, if it is known that the sequence of voltages
is ab-ca-bc.
Am.: Vai, = 160 AT, VM = 155.5/-135", V6c = 120.8 /1 14.45" volts.
Problem
17.
Vca = 155.5,
The
Six Voltages of a Wye-Connected Load (or Generator).
If
the
magnitudes of the six major potential differences of a wye-connected

load (or generator) are known, their vector relations can be determined.
The line-to-line voltages are laid out graphically as outlined above and
then the phase voltages are properly located with respect to the line
The vector positions of the phase voltages are determined as
voltages.
outlined below.

Flo.
30.
Graphical method for determining the vector relations of voltages

connected
in a wye-
load.
The wye-connected load shown in Fig. 30o will be considered, and it

will be assumed that the closed triangle of line-to-line voltages has been
It is evident from the circuit diagram that
constructed.
on
V6n
V
en
6n
*a&
Vcn = Vtc
Van
~~
* ca
(94)
of balance.
These facts immediately suggest a graphical
From the tail of Vat an arc
method of laying out Von, V{,n, and Vcn.
equal to Van is described ; from the tail of Vbc an arc equal to Vbn is
and from the tail of Vca an arc equal to Vcn is described.
described;
The three arcs should intersect at a point which may be either within
or without the closed triangle of line-to-line voltages.
The degree of
precision with which the arcs coincide at a single point in any particular
case is an indication of the exactness with which the voltages were
measured, provided sinusoidal wave forms of voltage are involved.
irrespective
350
UNBALANCED
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
In order for the relations stated in (94) to be satisfied it is plain that

the phase voltages must be given vector polarities as shown in Fig. 306.

Figure 306 thus becomes a three-origin vector diagram. V0& and Vas
have their tails at one origin; V(,c and Vbn have their tails at a second
origin; and Vco and Vcn have their tails at a third origin.
The line-to-line voltages can be located with respect to one another
and then each phase voltage can be properly located with respect to one
The actual phase angles involved in any par
or more line voltages.
be
determined
may
by either graphic or trigonometric
ticular case
The accuracy of graphic methods can usually be made
methods.
comparable to the accuracy with which six voltages of a dynamic system
can be measured experimentally.
The Six Currents of a Delta-Connected Load (or Generator).
The
the
above
for
relative
locating
described
vector
positions of
method
voltages in wye-connected loads may be employed to find the relative
vector relations of currents in delta-connected
loads.
It should be
noted that ammeter readings of the six currents together with volt
meter readings of the three line-to-line voltages in a delta system do
not yield sufficient information from which a complete vector diagram
The time phase of one current with respect to
can be constructed.
one voltage must be known before the voltage vectors and current
vectors can be properly associated.
Fio.
31.
Delta load for example 12.
The following information

Example 12.
in Fig. 31 is available:
regarding the delta-connected load shown
(1) Fat = 200, Flc = 141.4, and Vca = 141.4 volts.
is 06 bc-ca,
(2) /* = 7.07,
hc
= 10,
Ica = 10, /a/a = 15.8,
The voltage phase

76'6
= 7.07,
and
sequence
lc>c = 14.14
amperes.
(3) Zoi is inductive in character, having a ratio of A' to ft equal to unity.
(4) All load impedances are of a dissipative nature.
Ch.
IX
VECTOR
RELATIONS
AS FOUND
FROM MAGNITUDES
351
The complex expressions for all currents and voltages are to be determined with
respect to Vo& as a reference.
A rough graphical layout of the line-to-line voltages will show that: Vab = 200 /0,
V(K: = 141.4
/-135,
and VM = 141.4 /135 volts.
Regardless of the degree of unbalance:

Io6 lea = Ia'a
lie
lot =
Ivb
I&c = Ic'e
I<w
Hence:
la'o + lyfc + Ic'c = 0
The line currents of Fig. 31 may, therefore, be kid out to form a closed triangle as
shown in Fig. 32. After the closed triangle of line currents has been formed, angles
a and 0 in Fig. 32 may be determined, and hence the vector positions of lc>c and It/6
with respect to laia as reference.
Next, arcs equal (to scale) to lab, he, and Ica are described about the tails of
vectors Ia'a, Ii'6, and lc'c respectively, if lab and !<,/ are to have a common origin,
lie and li,>i, are to have a common origin, and I, and I, <, are to have a common
origin. In the scheme employed in Fig. 32 !/,. must follow !' if

(lot
(a)
Fio.
it
For
32.
Ica) = Ia'a
a'ar-b'b-c'c sequence of line

currents.
(6)
For a'a-c'c-b'b sequence of line

currents.
for determining the vector relations of currents in a deltaconnected load.

See example 12.
Graphical method
study of the basic current relations involved will show why the
Regard
positive directions of lot, If,c, and Ica have been drawn as shown in Fig. 32.
less of the scheme employed the basic current relations must be satisfied and if the
as
should.
graphical layout satisfies Kirchhoff's current law in all respects then a correct inter
pretation of the graphical layout will yield the relative vector positions of the vector
currents.
After the line and phase currents have been laid out graphically the angles a, 0, y,
For the particular case under discussion,
t, and P in Fig. 32 may be determined.
graphical solutions yield the following:
26.5
S =
63.5
26.5
= 18.5
45.0
The relative vector positions may
a. ;.v
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
UNBALANCED
352
be determined directly
from the angles.
For a'a-b'b-c'c
For a'a-c'c-b'b
Current sequence
Current sequence
Io'0 = 15.8 /0
amperes
It/i, = 7.07
/-116.5
le>c = 14.14
/153.5
amperes
15.8/0
"
7.07
14.14
/-153.50
loi
= 7.07
/-26.50
lot
It,
= 10.0
/-71.50
lie = 10.0 /71.5"
lea = 10.0
"
/-161.5
7.07 /26.5
Ic = 10.0/161.5
The above vector positions
Some added infor

are, of course, only relative to Ia/a.
mation is required before the vector currents can be specified with respect to the lineThe necessary information is contained in the origi
to-line voltages of the system.
Z,,t, is such as to cause I /, to lag Vat by 45 .
Therefore
nal statement of the problem.
lot = 7.07
/ 45
amperes (with Vat as reference)
But the vector position of lot in the above a'a-b'b-c'c sequence table is:
lab = 7.07
/-26.5
(with loa/ as reference)
The vector position of

lab (as well as that of all the other currents in the a'a-b'b-cc
sequence table) must, therefore, be rotated through (45 26.5) = 18.5 if
the voltages and currents are to be properly related in a single diagram with V,* as
reference.
In the a'a-c'c-b'b sequence table, Iab appears as a current which is 26.5 ahead
of Ia'a. Since circuit conditions require that lab be 45 behind Va&, all currents in
the a'a-c'c-b'b sequence table must be rotated through 71.5 in order for the
currents to be properly located with respect to Vab as reference.
The vector values referred to Vab as reference are:
For a'a-b'b-c'c
For a'a-c'c-b'b
Current sequence
Current sequence
Voi, = 200
/(T
volts
Vbc = 141.4
/-135
Vco = 141.4
/135
la'a = 15.8
fc/6 = 7.07
/-
18.5
/-135
Ic/c = 14.14 /135

Io6 = 7.07
I*
= 10.0
ICQ =
"
Vab = 200
V(* = 141.4
Vca =
amperes
/jr
/-135
= 7.07
/-71.5
amperes
/45
Ic/c = 14.14
/135"
/-45
lab = 7.07
/-45
/ -90
I6c = 10.0
/0
10.0/180
"
141.4/135
la/a = 15.8
Ivb
volte
"
!, = 10.0 /90
Vector diagrams for both sequences of line currents are shown in Fig. 33. At tto
stage of the analysis it becomes evident that for the magnitudes involved in this par
ticular problem the line current sequence cannot be a'a-c'c-b'b.
Reference to
Ch.IX
VECTOR RELATIONS
353
will disclose the reason. The fact that the current

driving voltage V>,,- violates the assumed condition that
is 135 removed from
Fig. 336
Ii,,
its
each phase of the delta-
load is dissipative in character.

Therefore the actual state of affahs is
by the a'a-b'b-c'c diagram. The process of arriving at the correct
"
"
solutions is sometimes employed in
impossible
solution by the elimination of
minimum
amount of information is available.
practice when a
connected
represented
Vbc
Flo. 33. Vector diagrams of voltages and currents in a particular delta load,
(a) is for
a'a-b'b-c'c sequence of line currents and (6) is for a'a-c'c-b'b sequence of line currents.
See example
12.
The vector diagram of the correct solution in the present case is Fig. 33a.
It is
evident that the phases be and ca are both capacitive in character since the phase
currents lead their respective voltages by approximately 45.
The power spent in
each individual phase of the delta-connected load can easily be calculated after the

correct vector relations have been determined.
in
employed
circuits from amme
ter and voltmeter readings.
In general, vector relations cannot be
ammeter
Unique
and voltmeter readings.
uniquely determined from
determination requires a knowledge of the phase sequence of the volt
ages and one or two other specific facts concerning the unbalanced
system which is under investigation.
The determination of vector
relations from a minimum amount of information finds an important
field of application in checking the correctness of polyphase watthour
The above
example
illustrates the general
finding vector relations in unbalanced
method
three-phase
meter connections.
Vector
Vector Relations Determined from Oscillographic Records.
currents and voltages of sinusoidal wave form
expressions for related
determined directly from an oscillogram of the simultaneous

As far as an unbalanced polyphase circuit is con
cerned, the method is of academic interest only. The many details
attendant upon securing nine or ten simultaneous oscillographic records
cause the method to be of very little practical importance.
may
be
wave variations.
354
UNBALANCED
POLYPHASE
CIRCUITS
Ch.
IX
1 illustrates the simultaneous variations in the line-to

and
the line and phase currents in a particular unbalanced
nne voltages
Oscillogram
This particular oscillogram furnishes the basis

delta-connected load.
for an instructive type of problem, namely, given the experimentally
determined values of voltage and current; find the circuit parameters.
10-

-10-
Photographic records of voltages and currents in an unbalanced threeOBCILLOORAM 1.

phase circuit.
(For use in connection with Problem 43, page 363.) Effective values of
voltages and currents as read with voltmeters and ammeters arc: Vn = 100, F = 101,
= 7.40.
= 3.55,
= 3.97, /3i = 4.95, /,', = 8.35,
and V3l = 103.5 volts.
and /j'j = 1.79 amperes.
In
I?t
Ia
Maxwell's Cyclic-Current Method of Solution.
The neatness and

of the cyclic- or loop-current method of solving circuit
The
problems make it ideally adapted to general circuit analysis.2
chief difference between the loop-current method and the branch-current
method is that in the former a current is assumed to flow around a com
plete loop rather than from junction to junction as in the branch-current
Any actual branch in a network will carry at least one (and
method.
sometimes more than one) loop current.
In general:
compactness
^branch
= Iloop
(95)
where the algebraic sum of the loop currents flowing in a specified branch
is indicated by the summation sign.

2
The loop-current method of solution is particularly well adapted to those cases

involving mutual coupling between different parts of the network and has been
considered briefly in Chapter VII, pages 211-212.
Ch.
IX
In
MAXWELL'S
the application
CYCLIC-CURRENT METHOD OF SOLUTION

of the loop-current method,
355
loop currents are
arbitrarily assigned to complete paths (around which Kirchhoff's emf

law can be applied) until all branches of the network are traversed by at
least one loop current. For example, in Fig. 34 only two loop currents
Fio.
(It and la)
34.
Loop-current method of labeling.
See example
13.
are necessary to traverse all branches, and the actual branch
currents in this case are:

Branch current
In>a>an =
Branch current
In'b'bn
Branch current In'c'cn
Loop current
It
Loop current I2

+
Z2ili + Z22I2 +
Z3ili + Z32I2 +
Z12I2
Ii
(Loop current I2)
Where three loop currents are employed, as in Fig.

equations take the following general form:
Znli +
Loop current
Z13l3
E!
Z23I3 = E2
Zaalg
= E3
(or
36, the basic
voltage
Vj)
(or V2)
(96)
(or V3)
The above equations are simply general compact statements of Kirch

hoff's emf law and since they may be contracted or expanded to accom
modate any number of loop currents the method possesses a generality
not found in the branch-current method.
Furthermore, the notation in
(96) is so systematically arranged that the necessity of even writing
the emf equations may be eliminated as soon as the meanings of Zn,
The determinant forms of the
Zi2, and the like are clearly understood.
solutions for all the loop currents may be written directly from an
inspection of the network which is under consideration.
Ej, E2, and E3 in (96) are the resultant emf's (or voltage drops if
generators are not considered), acting in the tracing direction, hi the
respective loops. The tracing direction around any loop is usually
taken to coincide with the positive direction which has been arbitrarily
assigned to the loop current.
UNBALANCED
356
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Zn is the impedance of loop
to current I1(
Ch.
IX
impedance of
Zi2 is the impedance of loop 1 through which
I2 flows and Z2i is the impedance of loop 2 through which Ii flows. If
the circuit parameters are constant, Zi2 = Z21.
Corresponding mean
ings are attached to Z13, Z^, etc.
The matter of signs is easily taken care of if the self -impedance voltage
drops in (96), namely Znli, Z22I2, and Z&Ia, are taken as positive (by
virtue of tracing the loops in the arrow directions of Ii, I2, and Is).
Then Zi2I2 is positive if both Ii and I2 traverse Z12 in the same direc
tion. If the assigned directions of Ii and I2 are opposite hi the mutual
impedance, Z12, then Z12I2 is considered as negative to account for the
physical fact that the Z12I2 voltage drop acts in opposition to theZnIi
voltage drop in loop 1. Probably the best way of learning how the loopcurrent method goes is to study a few particular cases.
1
Z22 is the
// = 57.7
/-30,
method
En/6/
and
/90
volta
I,,,,,
I;,
Let it be required to find the branch currents
13.
34 by the loop-current
of
if
Example
Kg.
,.
.
loop 2 to current I2, etc.
= 57.7
/-150,
and
= 57.7
En/c/
Z22I2 =
EI
Ej
EW/
En/0/ = 100 /0 volta
/(,/
= EC/,,/
where the minus signs account for the opposite directions of

If the generator impedances of Fig. 34 are neglected:
100/0^+100/90
/90
Without regard for sign, which
100 /O^
be solved directly
/-
141.4
-100/90
-100/90
141.4
.4/45 ohms
for
and
equations
as shown below:
/45
100/0
-100/90
100/-1200
= 0.232 /71.55",
and
19320
/15
22380 /63.450
0.864
5185
-45
22380 /63.45
/-
48.45
ampere
/45
22380 /63.450
-Inc
/90 ohms
/45
I2
120
141.4/45
141.4
T,.---
/45 ohms
Ion
! through
-100/90
100/0
100
and
has been taken care of in the above voltage
Z12 = Z2i = 100
The voltage equations may
= 141
I2
Z22 = 100
= 141.4
Ii
0.332
/-
108.45'
ampere
which
Example 14. In Fig. 35 are shown three load impedances Z,,,:, Z;.,;, and
The an coil
assumed to be coupled
are energized by Vat, Vie, (and, of course, Vca).
is

Zu
-120 volts
= 100
-Z2ili
- Zi2l2
Ii
Zuli
Since only two loop currents are required to traverse all the branch, (96) reduces to
Ch.
IX
CYCLIC-CURRENT METHOD OF SOLUTION
MAXWELL'S
magnetically
357
to the en coil and, as shown in Fig. 35, the coefficient of coupling between
V 3/6. If the network
the coils is assumed to be

method employing Ii and
<0Mac
is to be analyzed by the loop-current

in the directions shown:
I:
VI
V/
0.5 ohm
uLa
The positive sign of M is used here because the coils magnetize along a common axis
in the same direction if wound as shown and if positive values of I] and 12 are present.
Assume V^ = 100 /0 volts and V<,c = 100 /-120 volte.
(See page 222.)
FIG. 35.
For
See example
14.
the network shown in Fig. 35, the basic voltage equations become
Ziili
Zn
= (2
+jl),
= 100
/0_ volts
= V4(. = 100
/-120" volts
+ Zulz =Vot
Z2ili +
Z22I2
Z22 = (2
+J3),
and
Zw
(-2
= Z21 =
+ J0.5) ohms
Note: The minus sign in Zi2 accounts for the fact that I2 flows through Z^ opposite
Ii and +J0.5 in Zi2 accounts for the fact that the (jwMIt) voltage drop acts in the
same direction in loop 1 as the (jwLIi) voltage drop.
to

(100
+ JO)
(-50 -j86.6)
(2+jl)
(-2+J0.5)
(-2+J0.5)
(2+J3)
(-2+J0.5)
56.7+/152
-2.75 +J10
15.6
(2+jl)
(-2+J0.5)
(100
(-2.75 +./10)
- J273
186.6
-2.75 +.; 10
31.8
- J9.15
/-35.8 amperes
+jO)
(-50-J86.6)
12.68
/-161"
-30.15
-jlO.36
amperes
The branch currente follow directly from Ii and I2 as shown in example 13.
Example 16. The network shown in Fig. 36 represents two generators operating
in parallel. An accidental ground on the line leading out from terminal c is assumed
to exist as shown and the problem is that of determining the short-circuit current
Inflc or loop current la in Fig. 36.
A study of Fig. 36 will show that the self-impedances of loops 1, 2, and 3 are,
respectively:
Zn
= (7.28
ZM
= (7.28
Zn
= (4.04
+./18)
+j!8)
+ J7.0)
= 19.4
/68
= 19.4
/68 ohms
= 8.08
/60 ohms
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
UNBALANCED
358
Ch.
IX
Next, the mutual impedances will be obtained from an inspection of Fig. 36 and
minus signs will be affixed to those mutual impedances that carry loop currents of
(Actually these impedances are not negative quantities but when
opposite directions.
associated with oppositely directed currents they produce negative voltage drops as
shown in examples 1 3 and 14. ) On this basis all the currents in (96) may be reckoned
as positive and
Z,2 =
Zji
(3.64
+/9.0)
ZM =
Z32
(0.50
+J3.0)
= Z:n
Zu
Gen. A
-^
-3.04/80.5 "ohms
= 0 (Since loops 1 and 3 have no common
path.)
I'm. 36.

/68 ohms
9.7
See example
15.
For the particular example under investigation it will be assumed that the indi
vidual phase voltages of the generators have the following values:
''
EM
= 4000
/0
Volts
En'6' = Enj = 4000
/-120
volts
= EBC = 4000
/-240
volts
/<;'
The resultant voltages which exist in the three loops of Fig.
EI
- EM + E^ - EB/y
En'6/ +
= >-
E2 =
Enfc
36 are:
= 0
EB/C/ = 0
Enc
3 = Ene
=
-4000
/-240
The equations for voltage equilibrium

(19.4
/68)Ii
-(9.7 /68)Ii +
0
(9.7
/68)I2
= 4000
/-60"
volte
in the three meshes of Fig. 36 are:
=0
+0
(19.4
/68)I2
(3.04
/80.5)I3
= 0
(3.04
/8O5)I2 +
(8.08
/60)I3
= 4000
/-60"
Ch.
IX
PROBLEMS
359
The above equations will l>e solved simultaneously for Ii, Is, and Is with the aid
of elementary determinant theory. The common denominator of each current
.solution is:
(19.4 /68)
(9.7 ,/68)
-(3.04/80.5)
(19.4/68;
-(9.7/68^)
- (3.04/80.5) (8.08/60)
[-2920 - J837] - [(-117.8 - J135.4) + (-733 - J210)]
(-2068 - J492)
2122/193.4
0
=
=
ohms3
The desired current in the present instance
is Inoc or Is.
-(9.7/68)
(19.4/68)
-(9.7/68)
(19.4/68)
(4000
la
/- 60)
1,131,000/76
Problem 18. Find the magnitudes of Ia'n, Iff,, and Ir'c in Fig. 36 utilizing the
calculations of example 15 in so far as they are helpful.
Ans.: la'a
55.6, Ivb = 55.6; and Ic>c = 111.2 amperes.
PROBLEMS
19. An unbalanced delta system labeled abc at the corners consists of
760
10/60 ohms. If
is cb-barac, find the vector expressions for the currents entering the terminals a, b,
and c. The three-phase supply voltages are balanced. Also solve for the opposite
Zbc

Zut, = 10
5/0, and Zca
V,.6 = 100
/O^ and the voltage sequence
sequence.
20. An unbalanced
Zbc = 10 / 30,
load labeled
and Z,.a =
at the corners
abc
8/45 ohms.
Three-phase
consists
of Z0t = 5/40,
balanced
line voltages of
If the sequence is cb-nc-ba, calculate the complex ex

115 volts each are applied.
for
the
line
currents
leaving terminals a, b, and r for Vrj, = 115/0 volts.
pressions
Z..=23/-90ohms
Z8c=23/0ohms
FIG. 37.
See Problem 21.
21. Refer to Fig. 37. VAB and VCB represent a balanced two-phase system of
voltage drops, the magnitude of each being 115 volts. The voltage phase sequence
is AB-CB. VAB is to be used as reference. Find 1AB, ICB, IBB' and draw a vector
diagram of the voltages and currents.
UNBALANCED
360
22.
and
wye-connected
Zcn =
5/
60
set
of impedances
Ch.
consists of Zon = 5/0,
Find the equivalent
ohms.
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
delta-connected
Zfcn
IX
= 5 /60,
impedances ZA
Zi,c, and Zca which can be used to replace the wye-connected set of impedances.
The terminals a'b'c represent a balanced three-phase
system of voltages the sequence of which is b'c'-a'b'-c'a'.
The magnitude of each
linc-to-line voltage is 230 volts.
Find the readings of ammeters placed in the
o a, b'b, and c'c lines.
Fio.
38.
See Problem 23.

24. Assume that the windings c'a and b'c' of Fig. 5, page 313, are the secondaries
of an open-delta bank of transformers in which E(,v = 115/0 and Eey = 115,' 120"
volts.
Note: An open-delta connection is simply the result of connecting
additively two generated or induced emf's, the time-phase displacement
which is practically equal to 120.
(a) Solve for the three line currents, !', !&'&, and lc'c, if
= Z<.'c = 1
10 +
10
jlO
together
between
jl ohms
ohms
- jlO ohms
(6) Find the load voltages Var and V,;,.

(c) Compare the sum total of the power developed by the secondaries with the
total dissipative power of the network.
25. What is the total generated power in Problem 24 if Ecia' = 115/0^ and
Eo/c- = 115 /-1200 volts?
26.
In Fig.
7, page 318,
<' = 100/0^,
>(,'
it will
be assumed that the generated voltages are:
= 100
'-120,
Zn'a'an
(2
Z,,'(,'im = (1
Zn'c'cn
Find the line currents
la'a, I6'6, and lc-c.
voltages and the line currents.
EnV
- jl
100/-2400
volts
and
that
ohms
- J3) ohms
(3 +
j4) ohms
Draw a vector diagram of the line-to-line
Ch.
IX
PROBLEMS
27. Refer to Fig. 12, page 326.
Let it
361
be assumed that the following
quantities
are known.
,/<
En-6'
Env
1000 + JO = 1000
volte
-500 - J866
1000/-120 volts
-500 +;866
1000/120 volts
Za = 20
- J20
= 28.28
/OJ
/-45 ohms
Zkn = 50 + JO = 50.0/Oj; ohms
+ j52 = 60.0/60 ohms

+ jB = 8.25/76 ohms
Zrn = 30
Z,
= 2
Z, =
+jl
Zn = 2.5 +
= 1.41/45
jl
ohms
= 2.70/21.8
ohms
Write the expressions for !/, !/, and lcr>, employ ing detenninantsand the numeri
cal values of the E's and Z's specified above. I'se loop currents Ii = l,ia, I2 = It/;,,
and Is = L'c all returning through line nn'.
(Results may be left in the form of the
ratio of two matrices.)
28. A delta-connected set of impedances consists of Zat = 5/0, Zt,e = 5/60,
and Zra
5/ 60
ohms.
Find the equivalent
wye-connected
impedances
Z0,,,
Zi,n, and Zcn which can be employed to replace the above delta-connected impedances.
Assume that the generator is capable of main
taining a balanced three-phase system of voltages ;,<., E0v, EL.<(,', the sequence of
The magnitude of each line voltage is 100 volts.
which is b'a'-a'c'-c'b'.
=
=
0.5
Ivb =ZC'<.
Za'a
+J0.5 ohm. Zllb = 10/0, Zbt = 10/60, and Z,a = 10/-60"
ohms.
Find Ia'a, It'6, la*, If*-, and Irn with respect to Va't,' as a reference.
Explain, by means of qualitative vector diagrams, the operation of
a threephase-sequence indicator that employs an inductance coil in place of the condenser

Does the voltmeter read atx>ve or below line voltage
shown in Fig. 16o, page 333.
30.
for sequence
ab-ca-bc"!
Devise some scheme for checking the phase sequence of two-phase voltages.
32. Find the reading of a wattmeter which ha* its current coil in the A' A line
and its potential coil across the voltage J'^c in Problem 21 and Fig. 37.
Vab = 200, Vbe = 141.4, and Vfa = 141.4 volts.
Z,,i, = Z),, = Zco = (8 .76) ohms.
Find the reading of each
Sequence ab-br-ca.
Find reading of a wattmeter with its current coil in line a and
of the wattmeters.
potential coil from a to 6; also one with current coil in line c and potential coil from
31.
c to 6.
34. (a) If a wattmeter H has its current coil in line a and its potential coil from
If an
line a to c of Fig. 1, page 308, what will it read for a sequence Faft-V.^-V'tr?
other wattmeter IKj, has its current coil in line b and its potential coil connected
from line 6 to e, what will it read?
(6) If W0 and Wb were varmeters what would they read?
35. (a) Find readings of wattmeters Wa and It's with their current coils in lines
and 6, respectively, supplying the load of Problem 19 if the potential coils are
properly connected so that the sum of the readings will give the total power con
sumed by the load.
(b) Find readings if lt"0 and Wi, are varmeters.
36. Refer to Fig. 39. V0't', V(,v> and Vc>a' represent a balanced three-phase
The voltage
system of voltage drops, the magnitude of each being 200 volts.
a
UNBALANCED
302
is a 6 -6 c -c a .
sequence
CIRCUITS
POLYPHASE
Ch.
IX
Two balanced three-phase loads indicated by the circles

abc as shown in Fig. 39.
In addition to the two
are connected to the terminals
balanced loads, a single-phase, 4-kw,

load
unity-power-factor
is
placed
across the be terminals as indicated.
(a) Find the reading of HVo-ot and
W.Vab
Wt'c-rfc.
If
reactive volt-ampere meters re

HVa-oi and M'r'f-<-6, find their
respective readings.
(r) Find the combined vector power
factor of the composite load.
(6)
placed
37.
Sec Problem 36.
In Fig.
26, page 344,
it will tw
assumed that Va-y, V&v, and Vr-0- rep

of which is
resent a balanced three-phase system of voltages the sequence
Assume
a'b'-c'a'-b'c. Zan = 10 /0_, Z6n = 10 7-60, and Zcn = 10/90 ohms.
line-to-line
voltage of 100 volts.
(a) Find the readings of the two reactive volt-ampere meters shown in Fig. 26.
(6) Find the readings of wattmeters placed at similar positions in the circuit,
namely, at the a'a-ab and the c'c-rb positions.
(c) Find the vector power factor of the unbalanced
load as recognized
by the
A.I.E.E.
"t'l-ab
a'

b'
r'
I-
Balanced
load
1732 watts
p.f.-0.5
lagging
FIG. 40.
See Problem 40.
88. In Fig. 40, Vaj, V(,c, Vea are balanced three-phase voltages each having a
magnitude of 200 volts and a phase sequence of ab-bc-m. Determine the readings
of the two wattmeters shown in the figure.
39. In Fig. 41, <(,<<,: are balanced three-phase voltages with magnitudes
Find the following quantities

of 115.4 volts and a phase sequence of n'a'-n'b'-n'c'.
and express all complex quantities with reference to Vat.
(a) V,*,
Vfcr, Vca.
(6) lab, he, Ira(<0
la' a,
Il>'6,
Ir'c-
(rf) The sum of the readings of the wattmeters

nected as shown.
(c) The
individual readings of wattmeters
Wa,
Wa, H'j, Wc when they are con

Wb,
Wc if the common
point 0
is connected to line b'b.
The line-to-line
voltages of a three-phase system are Vat = 200, V'c = 150,

and Yca
volts.
Write the polar expressions for Vo*, Vb0 and Vco with respect
to Vat as reference for both phase sequences.
40.
120
Ch.
IX
PROBLEMS
FIG. 41.
363
See Problem 39.
41. Refer to Fig. 30n, page 349.

In a particular case it is assumed that, Vat, = 140,
=
=
=
150 ,Van
The sequence
200, VIM = 80, and Vcn = 104.2 volts.
120, Vra
Vhr
of the line-to-line
voltages is ab-rn-bc.
(a) Determine the vector expression for all voltages with respect to Vat, as a
re'erence.
(b) Draw a single-origin vector diagram of the six voltages.
Experiment shows that, in a particular case, the
ammeters read as follows: /,,' = 20, h'b 14, Ie'c 15, lab = 12, /&c = 2, and
lra 15 amperes. Assume that the sequence of the line currents is known to be
a'a-c'c-b'b.
Write the polar expressions for lu>a, It,'b, Ic'c, lab, I6c, and Iea with lot,
as reference.
Write the complex or vector expressions

Refer to Oscillogram 1, page 354.
for Vi, Vaa, and Vsi with V^ as a reference.
44. Calculate the line currents in Problem 26 by Maxwell's cyclic or the loop-

43.
current method.
46. Refer to example 15, pages 357-359, including Fig. 36.
Is by the loop-current method, neglecting
the resistive components of all branch im
pedances for a voltage sequence Ena-En,-Ent,.
(Results may l>e left in the form of the ratio
Solve for
Ii, Ij,
and
of two matrices.)
46. In Fig.
42,
Lnt = Lfh = 0.01 henry

As
the coefficient of coupling is 0.5.
or
sume no resistances
inductances except as
on
the
The sequence of the
figure.
indicated
balanced driving voltages is n a -n b -n c ,
and
and
''
= 57.7
/90 volts. For
FKI. 42.
= 1000 radians
See
Problems 46 and
per second calculate
47.
the line
Use Maxwell's cyclic-current method.

Set up the determinant form of the solution for /,,' in Problem 46 if 3 ohms
pure resistance is inserted in each line to the load and the same sequence and reference
For uniformity in checking results, use
as specified in Problem 46 are employed.
and phase currents for the load.
47.
loop currents as follows:
Loop current
/i
= Ia'acc'
Loop current /2
Loop current /a
= Iainivba
L'ri*'
CHAPTER X
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
The methods employed in measuring alternating electrical quantities

such as those discussed in the previous chapters are many and varied.
In
the present chapter only a few of the basic methods
will be given in
simplified form so that the student may gain some ideas re

garding the functioning of many of the instruments he is likely to use.
For a more extensive treatment of measurements and measuring instru
ments the reader is referred to more complete works on these subjects.1
The Electromagnetic Oscillograph. Alternating current and voltage
measurements can be made under certain conditions with the aid of
a simple permanent-magnet-type galvanometer.
If a very light-weight
ribbon, arranged as shown in Fig. 1, carries an alternating current, it is
plain that the attached mirror experiences a tendency to oscillate
about its vertical axis. The instantaneous turning effort exerted on the
mirror is approximately proportional to the in
stantaneous current flowing in the ribbon, since the
current-carrying conductors are located in a strong
magnetic field which is not appreciably disturbed
by the feeble magnetic field established by the cur
,. ..
rent in the ribbon. This results in an angular des- ^
metallic
mirror
its
flection of the galvanometer
about
vertical
approximately proportional to the inaxis which
FIQ. 1. Schematic
.,
stantaneous current flowing in the ribbon.
arrangementof
the principal
During the actual operation of an electromagnetic
working parts of
,1
ii
u
u
i- LJ.
beam of light is played upon the
oscillograph,
an electromagnetic
oscillograph
galeither
galvanometer mirror and its reflection
viewed or recorded photographically.
Obviously,
for visual observation of the phenomena a succession of reflected light
beams must be presented to the observer.
This
accomplished in
variety of ways with the aid of auxiliary mirrors, which are synchro
nized with the alternating variations under observation. For photo"
Electrical Meters," McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York;
For example: Jansky,
yj'
is
is
is
...
"
" High
" A. C.
&
Commercial A. C. Measurements," Chapman

Hall, London; Hund,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York; Hague,
Frequency Measurements,"
"
Sons, London; Campbell and Childs, Measure
Bridges," Sir Isaac Pitman
ment of Inductance, Capacitance, and Frequency," D. Van Nostrand Co., New York.
Stubbing^,
&

somewhat
364

Ch.
THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOGRAPH
365
graphic recording it is necessary simply to drive a photographic film

or paper past the deflecting light beam in such a manner that the
direction of film travel is at right angles to the direction of light-beam
In some types an oscillating mirror arrangement
travel or deflection.
with a stationary photographic film is employed.
The manner in which oscillograph galvanometers of permanentmagnet type are connected into an electric circuit to measure alternating
current and voltage is shown in Fig. 2. The similarity of operation be
tween the oscillograph galvanometers shown
Igalv.
in Fig. 2 and ordinary d-c measuring instru
ments of the permanent-magnet type is ap
parent.
Shunt
An oscillographic record of an alternating
electrical quantity is a most informative type
Load]
of measurement.
Under favorable conditions,
wave shape, frequency, and tune phase with
Fio. 2. Circuit placement of
respect to other quantities which are recorded
voltage and current gal
simultaneously can be read directly from an
vanometers when the load
impedance
is relatively
The oscillograms shown in the
oscillogram.
high.
previous chapters were taken with an oscillat
As a measuring in
ing mirror type instrument as described above.
strument the electromagnetic oscillograph possesses some very serious
The frequency that can be recorded faithfully must be
limitations.
well below the natural period of the moving element. The oscillograph
galvanometer, as normally constructed, cannot record frequencies
much higher than 5000 or 6000 cycles per second with any degree of
Moreover the galvanometer requires an appreciable current
fidelity.
for full-scale deflection and this is often a serious limitation in certain
low-power or low-current capacity circuits.
Fio.
3.
Schematic arrangement
of the principal working parts of a cathode-ray tube of

the hot-cathode variety.
The Cathode-Ray Oscillograph.
diagram of a cathoderay tube of the hot-cathode type is shown in Fig. 3. A device of this
kind can be used to visualize or photograph alternating currents and
voltages and, when used in this manner, it possesses neither of the two
schematic
366
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
Ch.
in connection with the electro

oscillograph. Under many operating conditions it can be
arranged to draw practically no power from thp circuit which is under
investigation and it will respond up to several hundred megacycles
per second, hence its extreme usefulness as a measuring device in highfrequency communication circuits. Except in certain types of fre
the accuracy obtained with a cathode-ray
quency measurements,
oscillograph is not as high as that obtained by most other measuring
instruments.
The physical principles involved in the operation of a cathode-ray
tube as an oscillograph are listed below.
(a) The cathode or electron emitter, marked C in Fig. 3, is heated by
means of the heater marked H. The energy supply circuit of heater
H is not shown.
(6) The grid, G, ia given a negative potential with respect to the
Its chief function is to control the supply
cathode, as shown in Fig. 3.
of electrons which go to make up the electron beam.
(c) The first anode, A\, being at a positive potential with respect to
the cathode, accelerates some of the emitted electrons in the forward
direction through the tube and starts them on their way toward the
fluorescent screen S. The second anode, A%, further accelerates the
electrons which have passed through the opening in A\.
The second
anode also aids in focusing this stream of electrons to a fine beam which
appears on the screen as a brilliantly lighted spot.
(d) Let it be assumed that an alternating potential difference is to
be observed and that the magnitude is such that this potential difference
can be applied directly to the pair of plates marked P2.
Since the elec
tron beam passes between the plates, the beam will be deflected in a
vertical plane approximately in proportion to the instantaneous po
tential difference which is to be observed.
Without the proper excita
tion on the PI plates to give the electron beam horizontal travel, the
alternating potential difference applied to the PZ plates appears on the
screen merely as a vertical light trace.
(e) An important feature of the cathode-ray oscillograph, particularly
" which is
from a circuit viewpoint, is the " sweep circuit
employed to
If a linear time axis is
give the electron beam its horizontal motion.
desired, a potential difference which is of sawtooth wave form is applied
to the pair of plates marked PI in Fig. 3. With a potential difference of
sawtooth wave form applied to the PI plates, the electron beam moves
horizontally from one side of the screen to the other with practically uni
form velocity and then returns to its starting position in a relatively
small period of time.
The details connected
(See Fig. 7, page 556.)
serious limitations which were mentioned

magnetic

MEASUREMENTS
Ch.
ELECTRODYNAMOMETEH AMMETERS
with sawtooth wave-form production constitute what is essentially
One such set of details is presented
problem in transient phenomena.

on pages 554-557;
(/) With the PI plates deflecting the electron beam horizontally

and the P2 plates deflecting it vertically, the alternating potential
difference which is under investigation appears as a graph in rectangular
coordinates on the fluorescent screen. The assumed uniform time axis is
provided by the sweep circuit voltage and the vertical displacement by
Ob
the instantaneous values of the potential difference being observed.
viously the sweep circuit frequency must be synchronized in some
manner with the frequency which is under test if a stationary trace is
to be obtained. Various different methods have been devised for
interlocking the two frequencies.
Since the electron beam behaves as if it were composed of negatively
charged particles of electricity, the beam may be deflected either
electromagnetically or electrostatically. Various types of measure
ments, other than the one described above, can therefore be made
with a cathode-ray tube. The cathode-ray
oscillograph has become an indispensable
instrument in connection with modern
It is used chiefly in
radio transmitters.
measuring percentage modulation and in
monitoring, although it is also employed
in measuring frequency, checking grid ex
citation, detecting parasitic oscillations, etc.
The
Electrodynamometer Ammeters.
eiectrodynasimple
4.
F*.G.
mometer in which the fixed
of
of
an
operation
eiectrodynaprinciple
niometer instrument has been referred to
MC caTrJ
rent.
in Chapter III, page 43. The air-core fixed
and F' and the movable coil MC,
coils
are connected in series through the hair springs H.
shown in Fig.
the
current
in the MC coil
the same as the current that pro
Since
duces the FF1 field, the force and consequent torque on the MC coil
in any given position are proportional to the square of the current.
Expressed in the form of an equation:
is
4,
Instantaneous torque
= k<t>PF,iMC
=
k(kiiMC)iitc
k2iMC2
(1)
FF', the moving element deflects

instantaneous
to
the
of
the
average
torques because the
proportional
from responding to the instan
coil has sufficient inertia to prevent
With
a radial field produced by
it

367
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
368
taneous variations.
to the
average
MEASUREMENTS
Ch. X
the coil assumes a position corresponding

of the instantaneous current. If a suitable
Hence,
square
square root scale is placed under the pointer, the meter
will show
the
"/average iM c2 or effective value of the current through the coils.

In practice a completely radial field is not attained, and the resulting
deviation of the actual deflection from the theoretical which was pre
viously outlined is compensated for by suitably modifying the scale.
In general, the plane of the movable coil is arranged to move through
an angle of approximately 90 from a position about 45 from the plane
of a fixed coil, through the position where the planes are perpendicular,
to the point where they are again about 45 apart as illustrated in Fig. 5.
This construction results in a large deflection per ampere in the middle
of the scale and smaller movements per ampere at each end. Hence,
the scales are relatively open in the middle and somewhat cramped at
each end.
As a result, an a-c instrument of this kind should not be
used in the lower one-third of the scale range if the greatest accuracy
is desired.
The fact that the entire current in a simple electrodynamometer

must flow through the movable coil, and hence through the
small hair springs, precludes its use for over one or two amperes.
For
shunted
this,
currents larger than
a
electrodynamometer instrument may
be used.
The field FF' and the movable coil are connected in parallel
as shown in Fig. 6 so that only a small portion of the total current may

ammeter
MC
Flo.
5. Relative positions taken by

the movable coil MC and the
fixed coils FF' in an electrodyna
Flo.
6.
Diagrammatic sketch of a shunted

electrodynamometer.
mometer.
pass through the movable coil.
The currents in the two coils will be

proportional and in phase if LMC/RMC = LFF>/RFF>, and the operation
will then follow the laws previously described.
Obviously, this ar
rangement may be used for very large currents even though the current
in the movable coil is limited to small amounts.
Electrodynamometer Voltmeters. The electrodynamometer volt
meter is built similarly to the simple electrodynamometer ammeter
described in the preceding article, except that a high resistance is placed
Ch.
INDUCTION AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS
309
is
is
it
i2,
The coils thus receive a current proportional

to the voltage across the meter, and therefore the meter reads rms volts.
Iron-Vane Ammeters and Voltmeters. Iron-vane type of meters,
especially ammeters, are less expensive and, consequently, somewhat
more common for frequencies in the vicinity of 60 cycles than are
electrodynamometer instruments. Most of them employ the same
general principle, which will be presented with reference to Fig. 7.
The force tending to turn the iron vane is
proportional to the product of the flux es
tablished by the coil C and the magnetism
If, at all
induced in the magnetic vane.
the
flux
in
times,
the magnetic vane
density
is maintained sufficiently low by proper de
sign, the flux produced by the coil and the
corresponding flux induced in the iron vane
will be proportional to the current in the
FIG. 7. Elementary type
The force and corresponding torque
coil.
iron-vane meter.
on the iron vane in any given position will
then be proportional to the square of the current, and the meter thus
operates similarly to the electrodynamometer type previously discussed.
Iron-vane type meters are inherently adapted to measuring larger cur
rents than the electrodynamometer instruments because the movable
element carries no part of the circuit current.
Induction Ammeters and Voltmeters. Throughout the various stages
of their development, induction-type meters have taken several radically
The actual driving or moving element is generally a
different forms.
metal disc or cylinder which is not conductively connected to the electric
circuit under investigation. Eddy currents are induced in the disc or
cylinder by mutual induction. These currents, acting in conjunction
with a magnetic field of suitable time phase and space position, produce
the required driving torque in the movable element.
In induction ammeters and voltmeters, rotation of the moving element
is usually restrained by a spiral spring so that the pointer attached to
In order
the moving element indicates effective amperage or voltage.
necessary to
for the device to register proportional to average
approximate the conditions described in the above article on electroActually, the driving torque of the
dynamometer measurements.
approximately proportional to a product which
induction meter
in
nature
to the product (toW.vc1) of the electrodynamometer.
similar
The relations involved in the induction-type meter are not simple be
cause of the indirect manner in which the disc eddy currents are produced
and because iron cores are employed in the construction of the instru
is

in series with the coils.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
370
MEASUREMENTS
Ch.X
" shifting "

Explanations can be presented either in terms of
"
disc eddy currents."
Inasmuch as the
magnetic fields or in terms of
" disc eddy current" theory involves several interesting circuit concepts,
this form of explanation will be employed here.
From Fig. 8, it is evident that the circuit current flowing through the
F coil can be employed to produce a magnetic flux, say fo, which is
Since
very nearly in time phase with the current that is to be measured.
an iron core is used, <f>p will lag the circuit current by a small angle, as
shown in Fig. 9. This principle is portrayed in Fig. 6, page 399, where
IH would produce the flux corresponding to <f>F.
The time rate of change of fa, namely d<t>F/dt, through the metal
disc will produce eddy currents in the disc which tend to prevent the
change of flux. But these eddy currents, acting in conjunction with
A
<t>F, will not establish a net driving torque in the moving element.
detailed study of Figs. 8 and 9 will show that neither the space position
nor the time phase of the eddy currents produced in the disc by the
ments.
-*I
Fco
'
MI
nn
n n
!

Fia.
FIG. 8. Illustrating the principle of opera
tion of a modern induction-type ammeter.
9.
Relative
time
phase positions of I,
4>F, and EF aite >n the in
duction-type ammeter
shown in Fig. 8.
variation of <t>F, namely IF dic acting in conjunction with fa is proper

to yield a net driving torque.
The eddy currents in question react
magnetically along the same axis in space as <t>F. Hence, no driving
torque could result from the interaction of <j>F and the eddy currents
due to d<f>F/dt even if the time-phase difference between these two
quantities were other than 90. The 90 time-phase displacement
between fa and IF diB< as shown in Fig. 9, can be explained as follows.
Ch.X
INDUCTION AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS
371

The voltage induced in an elemental path of the disc by d<t>F/dt, namely

Ef disc, is 90 behind $F. Since the ratio of R to L of the elemental
path is very high, the eddy currents, 1F di9c. are practically in time phase
with Ej? disc and hence 90 behind <j>F. It will be remembered that the
product of two sinusoidally varying quantities of like frequency which
are 90 apart in time phase yields an average value equal to zero when
considered over an integral number of cycles.
Furthermore, since the magnetic axes of the field fo and the field of
the eddy currents, IF digc, coincide, no torque could be produced regard
However, the induction meter has another
less of the time phase.
field <t>x which will also induce a voltage in the disc, which, in turn,
causes a current Ix disc to flow.
Inspection of Fig. 8 will show that the
magnetic axis of IX&K does not coincide with that of the field fo
and that these currents also flow within the range of the field fo. If
Ix disc and <f>p are not in time quadrature, torque will be developed.
The required phase relation is obtained through the circuit arrange
ment shown in Fig. 8. That this circuit accomplishes the result may
In this diagram
be seen by a study of the vector diagram of Fig. 10.
is
the
divided
circuit
of the
the
across
potential
drop
consisting
VRX
X coil and a non-inductive resistance R. A current IK in phase with
VRX will flow through the resistance while the current Ix through
the X coil, which is highly inductive, will lag VRX by nearly 90. The
sum of these two currents is 7, the current flowing in the F coil. The
current Ix in the X coil produces a field <t>x which lags Ix by a very
small angle, as previously explained.
The flux <f>x induces an emf in the
disc EX disc, which lags the flux pro
ducing it by 90. This emf causes a
current in the disc which is practically
in phase with EX&BC because of the
very low inductance of the disc com
The result is
pared to its resistance.
a current Ix diao which, by proper de
sign, is nearly in time-phase opposi
tion (180) or in time phase with <f>P.
FIG. 10. Vector diagram of the prin
The matter of time phase or timecipal quantities involved in the op
phase opposition of quantities in the
eration of an induction-type ammeter
of the kind shown in Fig. 8.
disc due to the two separate coils is
dependent upon the mode of making
the series connection of the F coil and the X coil. Therefore, a torque
is developed proportional to foix disc, since the phase angle between the
two quantities in a given meter is practically independent of the cur
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
372
MEASUREMENTS
Ch.
Since on the straight-line portion of the magnetization
curve
and at constant frequency <t>p is &iz and ix dine is kî, the instantaneous
as in the electrodynamometer
torque developed is proportional to
Hence, with a suitable scale, effective values are
type of instrument.
indicated.
The induction voltmeter operates on the same principles as the
ammeter, the difference being in the use of a high series resistance to
In
permit connecting the instrument across the source of potential.
duction-type instruments are suitable only for low frequencies and
relatively small frequency ranges.
In addition to those described above, there
Other Classes of Meters.
Thermal-type instruments depend
are several other types of meters.
when
heated by the current,
wire,
stretched
upon the expansion of
for their indication. Another thermal type utilizes the heat produced
by the current to raise the temperature of the hot junction of a thermo
connected to
d-c meter.
Since the
couple, and the thermocouple
approxi
thermocouple voltage
to
the
heating,
mately proportional
and this in turn
proportional to
the average square of the alternat
ing current, the meter indicates ef
suitable scale
fective values
used. Such instruments are mostly
used for high frequencies.
Rectifier-type meters are in fairly
FIG. 11. Schematic arrangement of a
rectifier-type meter,
common use at the present time,
especially for measurement of very
small currents. The alternating current
rectified by means of cop
per oxide rectifiers arranged as shown in Fig. 11, and the rectified cur
Since the alternating current
measured by
d-c instrument.
rent
measured in terms of its average value, the meter must be calibrated for
each wave form for which
used.
Instrument Transformers.
Large values of alternating current are
usually reduced by means of iron-core transformers and then measured
with 5-ampere meters.
Such transformers not only reduce the value of
the current to
magnitude which can be easily measured but also serve
to insulate the meter from the circuit in which the current measurement
desired.
Employment of instrument transformers eliminates the two
chief disadvantages of shunts.
Shunts used with a-c meters, in addition
to permitting the meter to be raised to line potential, are rather inconven
ient to apply since meter will give different indications with shunts hav
ing the same impedance but different ratios of inductance to resistance.
is
is
is
it
is
is

if
is
is
is
is
is
it
i2,
rents.
Ch.
POWER MEASUREMENTS
373
High values of alternating potentials are usually measured by reducing

the potential with iron-core potential instrument transformers to values
which can be read on the 150-volt range of ordinary voltmeters.

Power Measurements.
An electrodynamometer-type instrument is
usually employed in making power measurements in low-frequency
circuits. The circuit current flows through the fixed coils FF1 of
Fig. 12, and a current which is approximately proportional to the
instantaneous circuit voltage is allowed to pass through the movable
UBO
Current
0 ~5|
C
0 C
terminals
M<J
I
0 0
[o~51
0 O
^
MC
o o
Potential
terminals
p'
0 O
o o
LVWWWVW

FIG.
12.
The electrodynamorneter-type wattmeter.
As a result the movable element exerts an instantaneous driving

coil.
torque which is approximately equal to the product of the instantaneous
Except in a power oscillograph galva
circuit current and voltage.
the movable element cannot respond to the instantaneous
variations in driving torque. The ordinary wattmeter indicates a
value which is proportional to the average circuit power.
nometer,
Average torque
(2)
In Chapters
II
= Im sin (ut
III
- 6), then:
and
it was shown
that, if
VI cosB
= Vm sin
tat
and
(3)
MEASUREMENTS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
374
Ch.
The manner in which the coils are connected into a circuit is shown in
Fig. 12.
Unless compensated in some manner, the wattmeter registers at least
In order to determine the actual circuit
a portion of its own loss.
power, the meter loss, which is also recorded, must be subtracted from
the meter reading.
Under normal working conditions the correction
factor involved is of the order of 5 watts.
If the potential circuit of the wattmeter is connected across the
" load " side of the current coils, as shown in Fig. 12, it is evident that
the meter will read (F/pot) watts even when the load circuit is open.
(It is assumed that Ipot is in phase with V.) Therefore, the correction
factor is:
F/pot=Frr-
Jlpot
V2
watts
(4)
/Ipot
The above value should be subtracted from the meter reading to obtain
the true watts taken by the load provided the coils are connected as shown
Inasmuch as Rpol can usually be determined from the lid

data of a wattmeter and V is generally known, the above correction
factor is easily evaluated in any particular case.
If the potential terminals of the wattmeter shown in Fig. 12 are
" line " side of the current coils, as for example at
connected on the
points c and d, the wattmeter measures the loss in its current coil.
The loss involved can be computed if the load current and the resistance
of the current coils are known. It is customary, however, to connect
" load " side of the current
the potential terminals of a wattmeter on the
at points and in Fig. 12.
coil, that
The Induction Wattmeter. An induction-type wattmeter
some
times employed on switchboards and the like. The principle of opera
somewhat similar to that which has been given for inductiontion
type ammeters and voltmeters. More specifically, the principle of
detailed
operation agrees with that of the induction watthour meter,
discussion of which may be found on pages 377-382.
In Chapter
Measurement of Reactive Volt-Amperes.
was
shown that the reactive power or, more precisely, the reactive voltcircuit are:
amperes of
VI
sin
07
it
is
is
is,
12.
III
if
both voltage and current follow sinusoidal variations with respect to

In general, any wattmeter which measures
time.
VI
cosO

in Fig.
Ch.
MEASUREMENT OF REACTIVE VOLT-AMPERES
375
by means of separate voltage and current circuits can be employed to

measure reactive volt-amperes simply by shifting the time phase of one
of the torque-producing quantities 90 from its wattmeter position.
Under these conditions :
VI
cos (0
=F
90) =
VI
sin
When an electrodynamometer instrument is employed
to measure
reactive volt-amperes, an inductive reactance of the appropriate number
of ohms is placed in series with the movable coil rather than the resist
ance shown in Fig. 12. The inherent resistance of the inductance
coil causes the current which it carries to lag V by something less
than 90. The actual current through the movable coil can be shifted

Flo.
13.
Current terminals
Reactive volt-ampere meter of the electrodynamometer type.
to a time-phase position which is exactly 90 behind V by shunting the
movable coil with a non-inductive resistance as shown in Fig. 13. If

the current flowing through the movable coil is 90 behind the circuit
voltage and if both the circuit current and circuit voltage are of sinus
oidal wave form, the average torque developed by the instrument
shown in Fig. 13 is:
Average torque
r1
r Jo
.
tMc<i>pp>
'
r"1
~rJ0
dt
Vm sin (cat
vmia
sin
90)/m sin
KiVI
sin
in'I
(orf
6) dt
(5)
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
376
MEASUREMENTS
Ch.
The meter can therefore be calibrated to read reactive power or reactive

If V and I are in phase, the reactive volt-ampere
volt-amperes directly.
If reactive volt-amperes caused by a lagging current
meter reads zero.
are considered positive, then 6 in equation (5) is positive if V leads I.
With proper adjustment of the relative polarities of the coils, the meter
" up scale " for either
may be made to read
positive or negative reactive
"
"
"
" values may be read
Either positive
or
volt-amperes.
negative
if the meter is designed to read zero at the mid-scale position.
It should be recognized that the quantity " reactive volt-amperes "
" real
differs materially in physical significance from the quantity
power," even though the algebraic expressions for the two are quite
similar under sinusoidal conditions. From the discussions contained in
and
it should be evident that " real power " has a
Chapters
definite physical significance regardless of the wave form of v and t.
The quantity " reactive volt-amperes," however, is merely a hypothetical
component of the total volt-amperes, which under sinusoidal conditions
assumes an algebraic form that is convenient to manipulate in connection
with volt-ampere calculations. It has been shown that, under sinus
" reactive volt-amperes " can be measured as
oidal conditions,
a
discrete quantity, and this quantity is useful when used in connection
" real power " measurements in finding the total
with
volt-amperes
and the power factor of the circuit.
But when other than sinusoidal
the
conditions are encountered
volt-amperes"
"reactive
quantity
becomes rather ambiguous.
Because of the circuit adjust
ment necessary to secure the cor
R
X
rect 90 phase position of IMC with
diagram
Fio. 14. Circuit
of a reactive
respect to V in Fig. 13, it is plain
volt-ampere meter. See Problem 1.
that this phase position is de
The meter, properly calibrated for one
pendent upon the frequency.
frequency, should not be used at a different frequency without first
making the proper adjustment in the shunting resistance Rs.

II
III
4
Problem 1. In Fig. 14: X = 4000 ohms at 60 cycles and X/R = 4; XHC
Find the value of RS which will cause luc
ohms at 60 cycles and A' MC/KMC = 2.
It may be assumed that RS, XMC, and Rue are negligibly small
to lag V by 90.
in denning either the magnitude or phase position of I.Y.
Ana.: 14.1 ohms.
Power factor may be determined from

Power-Factor Measurement.
a meter designed for the purpose and called a power-factor meter
Ch.
THE INDUCTION WATTIIOUH
METER
377
although it is generally more accurate to determine power factor from

The latter method is the
voltage, current, and power measurements.
one usually preferred in experimental or test measurements whereas
the power-factor meter is commonly used in central stations as a cri
terion of machine operation. For the details of construction and
operation of power-factor meters, the reader is referred to works devoted
to meters.2
The Induction Watthour Meter.

The most common form of a-c

for
and
meter
measuring
recording energy consumption is the induction
type watthour meter. It has a current winding and a potential winding
similar to those indicated in Fig. 15a. In general the potential winding
of a watthour meter is connected on the " line " side of the current
winding as shown in Fig. 15a. The moving element usually takes the
form of an aluminum disc in which torque-producing eddy currents are
established. The speed at which this disc rotates should be directly
Under these conditions
proportional to the power absorbed by the load.
the number of revolutions made by the disc in a given period of time is a
A
direct measure of the energy consumed during this period of time.
detailed analysis of the relation existing between disc speed and power
consumed by the load is given below.
Assume that the circuit current, I, flowing
Torque Production.
through the winding on the two current lugs of Fig. 15a establishes a
Fio.
15.
Single-phaae
induction-type
watthour meter.
"
"
flux, 0,-, the polarity of which is up through the disc over one of the
"
"
current lugs when it is down through the disc over the other current
*
Jansky, " Electrical Meters," McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
378
Eddy currents,
lug.
Ii diBO,
MEASUREMENTS
in the
are established
disc
Ch.
by
I.-
" Induction
and these eddy currents lag <j>, by practically 90.
(See
Ammeters and Voltmeters," pages 369-372.) The eddy currents,
disc,
are unsymmetrically located with respect to the flux established
K<f>pli diM cos
Average torque =
I,
I,-
by the potential lug, namely $p, hence

disc and $p are not in space
in conjunction with ^p can
Fig.
Hence,
acting
phase.
(See
156.)
disc
produce an average net driving torque, provided these two quantities
are not in time quadrature.
The potential coil establishes
flux, ^p, which lags the current in the
a
small
angle because of the iron core.
potential winding, Ip, by
(See
But the current in the potential winding lags
pages 399 and 400.)
the line voltage by approximately 80 or 85, owing to the high ratio of
The time-phase
reactance to resistance of the potential winding.
relations of the various quantities are illustrated in Fig. 16a for the case
The average driving torque developed
of a unity-power-factor load.
under these conditions is:
-".'disc
It will
are in tune phase,

and
to the fact that
$p and
disc are not in tune phase, owing principally
by exactly 90. If the meter were to be used
does not lag behind
only at unity power factor, the restraining torque could be properly
adjusted to make the meter read correctly at unity power factor in
However, any
spite of the angular difference between j>p and
diBCdeparture from unity power factor would not be accompanied by a
proportional decrease in driving torque which, of course, should be the
to register correctly at all power factors.
case
the meter
Let
be assumed that the angle between
Error.
Power-Factor
10; also that the power
particular case
disc in Fig. 16a in
4>r and
under investigation drops to 0.866 lag and
factor of the circuit which
With no power-factor error, the meter should hi
again to 0.866 lead.
each case develop
driving torque equal to 86.6 per cent of the driving
assumed in making the
unity power factor. It
at
torque developed
and
and therefore +p
above statement that the magnitudes of
The ratio of the driving torque de
and
disci remain unchanged.
lagging) to the driving torque de
veloped at 0.866 power factor
veloped at unity power factor is:
I,-
is
is
I,
is
is a
Ij
it
if
(/
I,

IP
I,-
be noted in Fig. 16a that, although
Av. torque (0.866 p.f. lag)

Av. torque (unity p.f.)
K<j>pl, -dite cos 40

K<f>pIidiK
cos 10
Ch.X
THE INDUCTION WATTHOUR
MKTER
379
The ratio of the driving torque developed
at 0.866 power factor

torque is:
leading) to unity-power-factor-driving
Av. torque (0.866 p.f. lead)

Av. torque (unity p.f.)
K<t>plj di,c cos 20

K<t>pIi&M
(/
0.954
cos 10
Under the conditions of operation that have been assumed, it is evident

that the meter will register too low for lagging loads and too high for
leading loads. A little consideration will show that the angular dis-
-I
disc
I disc
(a)
No compensating winding and at unity

power factor,
Compensating winding properly adjusted, at unity power factor. Note that

as the angle between V and 7 changes a
similar change in angle between <pp and
(b)
II disc
10.
Vector diagrams of the major quantities involved in the operation of the induc
tion watthour meter.
I,-
placement between $p and I, duo should be identical with the angular

displacement between V and I if accurate results at all power factors
are desired. The obvious method of accomplishing this is to shift
4P back until at unity power factor it coincides with the unity-powerfactor position of auc, as shown in Fig. 166.
Strictly speaking, <f>p in Fig. 16a
Power-Factor Error Correction.
not shifted to correct for the inherent power- factor error of the in
But the useful flux which emanates from the
duction watthour meter.
actually shifted with respect to the flux
end of the potential lug, <t>pu,
compensating
established by the potential winding, $p, by means of
winding, marked cw in Fig. 15o. The phenomena involved can be
explained in terms of coupled circuit theory, since the compensating
magnetically coupled to the
simply an RL circuit which
winding
The addition of the compensating winding actually
potential winding.
slightly ahead of the phase position shown hi Fig. 16a. [See
shifts
equation (61), page 239.] But the compensating winding establishes
very nearly in time phase with the current in the
component flux which
detailed analysis will show that the com
compensating winding.
ponent of flux produced by the compensating winding, namely $cw,
is
Ip
is
is
is
is

Flo.
occurs.
380
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
Ch.
possesses a time-phase displacement with respect to <t>p such that when

combined with <t>pthe result is #, a flux which lags <f>p. The amount
is
is
is
is
is
is,
is
is
is
it

is
is
is
is
is
is
is
if,
of lag depends largely upon the circuit parameters of the compensating

winding. The phase relations involved at unity power factor for a
correctly adjusted meter are shown in Fig. 166. <t>pu may be brought
into its correct time phase by the proper adjustment of Rcw, Lcv>, or
Mp_cw. In practice the adjustment of Rcw is often employed, although
in certain instances the proper phase relations are established by simply
moving the compensating winding with respect to the potential winding.
thus varying the mutual induction between these two windings.
It has been shown by means of an example on page 378 that the
natural tendency of an uncompensated meter is to underregister for
after a compensating winding has been
lagging-current loads. Hence,
meter
still
underregisters at lagging (current) power factors,
installed, the
that the effect produced by the compensating winding
the indication
to reduce Rcw, thereby in
not sufficiently great. One remedy
creasing the component flux, <t>cw If, however, the meter overregisters
at lagging (current) power factors after the compensating winding has
that the effect
too great and /?ctr
been installed, the indication
should be increased.
In order to overcome the effects of friction
Light Load Adjustment.
the watthour meter
provided with
friction-compensating device.
more or less independent of the load current
small torque which
required to overcome frictional effects. An adjustable torque of this
nature may be conveniently developed in an induction watthour meter
"
"
by placing a shading ring directly under a portion of the potential lug.
" shading " ring referred to
shown in Fig. 15a, and
The
marked
The principle of operation of this
for purposes of identification.
device
that
of a " shaded-pole " motor. The
friction-compensating
flux, <t>pu, which emanates from the lower end of the potential lug, is,
of course, alternating in nature. When the flux <f>pu tends to increase
from zero to
maximum value in one direction, the " shading " ring
has induced in
current, the mmf of which tends to prevent the
establishment of $pu mal within the region which
encompassed by the
" shading " ring. When the flux tends to recede from a
maximum
"
"
value to zero, the action of the
to oppose the change
shading ring
of flux, thereby tending to maintain the flux within the region encom
The net effect of the " shading " ring
passed by the ring.
to produce
" shifting '' magnetic field which, cutting across the aluminum disc,
develops the torque required to overcome frictional effects.
The direc
in the direction of the " shift "
tion of the driving torque produced
of the magnetic field, that
from the unshaded portion to the shaded
Ch.
THE INDUCTION WATTIIOUR METER

"
"
381
that the speed of the disc
is
it
cos
VI
proportional to
the disc and the driving torque
is
is
if
is
is
is
If
is
is,
The position of the shading ring

in general, adjustable,
portion.
thereby permitting an adjustment in the amount of auxiliary torque
" creep "
too great, the meter may
developed. If the compensation
"
"
at no load.
the position of the
such as to develop
shading ring
a negative auxiliary torque, the meter may creep backwards at no load.
Full Load Adjustment.
The restraining torque of the induction watthour meter
developed by eddy currents produced in the aluminum
disc owing to the rotation of the disc with respect to one or more per
manent magnets.
These permanent magnets are sometimes called
" drag " magnets. They are not shown in Fig. 15a. The proper amount
of restraining torque can be obtained by adjusting the radial positions
of the " drag " magnets with respect to the disc, or by adjusting
magnetic shunt which,
provided,
placed near the pole tips of the
magnets. Since the restraining torque
proportional to the speed of
follows
proportional to the power passing the meter.
In equation form
Restraining torque
K X
Driving torque
K^VI cos
rpm
K2VI
The revolutions made by the disc in
cos
K2 X power
specified period of time, say Th
hours, are:
rTh
Revolutions (of disc) =
K2p
dt
is
is
is
it
where
the instantaneous power passing the meter.
Calibration. Since the accuracy of the watthour meters which
are in use directly influences the gross revenue of the power companies,
important that these meters be kept in adjustment. The accepted
to compare its registration
method of testing the watthour meter
" rotating standard."
with the registration of
rotating standard
well-calibrated watthour meter with
graduated device for
simply
determining or counting accurately the number of revolutions made by
The range and flexibility of the
its disc in particular length of time.
restraining torque adjustment are desirable features of the induction
They greatly simplify the problem of calibration
watthour meter.
is

rpm (of disc) =
Therefore:
382
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
adjustment.
(For the details connected with watthour meter
calibration see " Handbook for Electrical Metermen," published by the
Edison Electric Institute.)
Measurement of Polyphase Energy. Except for the type of record
ing instruments employed, polyphase energy measurements in a given
circuit are similar to power measurements in the same circuit.
Threewire three-phase energy measurements are based on the two-wattmeter
method of measuring power.
Instead of two meters which deflect
proportional to the product of the voltage, current, and cosine of the
angle between them, two meters are used, the rotating discs of which
run at speeds proportional to the product of voltage, current, and cosine
of the angle between them.
The number of revolutions of such a meter
depends upon the time that power is used, and hence records the energy
consumed.
Three-phase meters, generally called polyphase watthour
The
meters, have two meters or elements mounted on the same shaft.
rotations caused by the two elements are therefore automatically added
algebraically. Two such meters are shown in Fig. 17. The earlier
type had two discs on the same shaft with each element operating on
its individual disc. Most of the present polyphase meters have only
a single disc with both elements operating on the same disc.
A poly
phase watthour meter is connected in a circuit exactly like the two
wattmeters shown in Fig. 43, page 286. The operation will be explained
with the aid of the connection and vector diagrams shown in Fig. 18
which may be seen to be only slightly modified forms of those in Figs. 43
and 44, page 287, which were used in discussing the two-wattmeter
measurement of power.
It will be assumed that the upper element of the watthour meter
shown in Fig. 17 is connected as indicated by Wv in Fig. 18. The lower
element connection is assumed to correspond to WL. Also assume a
balanced load connected to the lines. ' The vector diagram of Fig. 18 is
drawn for such a load.
Since the upper element receives the voltage
the
and
current
it
tends to rotate at a speed proportional to
Voc
Ian
VI cos (6 30). Because the lower element operates from V;,c and !&
it tends to rotate at a speed proportional to VI cos (6 + 30). In time dt
the upper element tends to make a number of revolutions proportional to
VI cos (6 30) dt while the corresponding tendency of the lower ele
ment is proportional to VI cos (6 + 30) dt. Since both elements act on
the same shaft the total number of revolutions made by the meter in
time dt is proportional to the algebraic sum:
and

Ch.
VI
cos
(VI
V%VI
(0
cos
(6
cos
+ VI cos (0 + 30) dt
30) + VI cos (e + 30)] dt
30) dt
0 dt

Ch.X
MEASITIEMEXT OF POLYPHASE
ENERGY
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
384
MEASUREMENTS
Ch.
The total number of revolutions made in the time T\ is proportional
/ \/3F7 cos 8 dt. This will be recognized

'o
livered or consumed in the time T\.
In Chapter IX it
to
de-
as the total energy
was shown that two wattmeters connected
like those
any
shown in Fig. 20, page 336, may be used to measure power under
conditions of power factor or unbalanced load. Since each element

of the watthour meter measures the same quantities as each of the watt
meters, and in addition takes into account the common factor time, the
watthour meter, when properly adjusted and connected, will also record
correctly the energy under any condition of unbalance or power factor

Fio.
(6)
(a)
Connection and vector diagrams for explaining how each element
element watthour operates in measuring energy to a balanced three-phase
18.
two-
of a
load.
which are introduced by saturation of the

magnetic circuit of the meter, friction, etc. Even with these factors
considered, ordinary watthour meters can be easily made to register
within 0.5 per cent of the correct value under practically all kinds of
conditions. An accuracy within 1 per cent is generally satisfactory,
and several state laws allow as much as 2 per cent error.
To illustrate the quantities recorded by the meter for some particular
except for those inaccuracies
unbalanced
a
and
in Fig.
load, assume a single-phase
of Fig.
196.
19a.
The
resistance load between
corresponding
The upper element Wv reads
lower element WL reads

=
=
TI.
r~
f VaJab
Joi, COS 8
[F/cos60
vot
Vi
lines
vector diagram is shown
Vaclab cos
vj\T\,
The
The total reading is
+ VbJba
0
COS 9
-(- F/cosGO0]?7!
i*l
V
VfeJ
TI
Ch.
CONNECTIONS
385
are line voltage and current respectively and Tt is the

where F and
time of operation under the specified conditions. This is known to be
the correct expression for the energy due to the single-phase unity-powerfactor load considered.
Problem 2. An additional resistance equal to !>'/., in Fig. 19a is connected between
points c and b. Find the expression for the energy measured by each element of the
watthour meter. Compare the sum of your answers with what you know to be
correct.
WU
(a)

Flo.
19.
resistance load and vector diagram illustrating quantities measured

by upper and lower elements of a two-element watthour meter.
Single-phase
Connections. Polyphase watthour meters must be correctly con

For instance,
nected into the circuit if the readings are to be accurate.
the upper element referred to in the circuit of Fig. 18a, must be con
nected so that the current coil carries the current Ian when the potential
coil has the potential Fac. Similarly, the lower element must have the
current /& and the potential Fj,c. Of course, both current and voltage
may be reversed without affecting the result.
To aid in connecting the meter properly, polarity marks as shown in
Fig. 20 could be used. Correct connection can then be made by connect
ing line a' a so that the current Iaia
enters at the mark on the cur
rent coil and connecting the poten
tial coil so that the potential from
a to c is the same as that from
on the potential coil to its un
marked terminal. To fulfill the
latter condition, the on the
potential coil must be connected
Flo. 20.
to line a a. Actually, the coils of
most polyphase watthour meters are connected at the factory to the
terminals on the meter such that these marks referred to are on the
" line," as shown in Fig. 21. In the newer
side of the meter marked
386
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
Ch.
meters these line terminals are brought out at the base of the meter.
The polarity markings may then be, and usually are, omitted.
The usual connection of a three-phase watthour meter is then con
It will be noted that Fig. 22
nected into a circuit as shown in Fig. 22.
differs from the two-wattmeter connection in Fig. 43, page 286, only in
the connection of the potential coils to the line side of the current coils.
This arrangement prevents the meter from recording the loss in its own
[
L

21.
Standard terminal connec
tions of vertical two-element meter
where line and load connections are
(Polarity
on the sides of the meter.
marks are omitted in practice.)
Fio.
rtfftJbdoboo"1
Jg
Line
Fio.
22.
o
B
<Q
o
nl_oad
O -'OQOOOOOOO*
o
Connection of two-element meter

in a three-phase circuit.
potential coils. Otherwise, the meter would continue to run and record
the loss in the potential coils even when there was no load on the system.
Under load conditions the energy lost due to the resistance loss in the
current coils will be recorded, but this is relatively very small and it is
zero at no load on the system.
Connections Employing Current and Potential Transformers.
If cur
rent and potential transformers are employed, the same currents and
voltages reduced or otherwise changed in magnitude only must be
If through the use of a trans
applied to the coils of the watthour meter.
former the current coil obtains only one-tenth of the actual line current
at the same phase angle, it is apparent that the meter will register onetenth as much as it would if it were connected directly into the line.
Hence the reading of the meter would be multiplied by 10 to obtain the
A similar relation exists for the
correct amount of energy consumed.
potential circuits. Thus, if 10 to 1 current and potential transformers
are used, the meter reading will have to be multiplied by 100.
A meter connected with potential and current transformers is shown
in Fig. 23. The crosses represent polarity marks and may be used to
trace the directions of voltages and currents.
Thus, if a voltage causes a
current to enter at a polarity mark on the primary, the induced voltage in
the secondary may be considered to cause a current to flow away from
the transformer at a polarity mark on the secondary.
Similarly, a
current entering at a polarity mark on the primary of a current trans
former can be considered as leaving the transformer in the same phase
Ch.
CONNECTIONS
EMPLOYING TRANSFORMERS
387
position but changed in magnitude at the polarity mark on the secondary.
If these directions are followed, Fig. 23 will be found to be electrically the

same as Fig. 22.
In general, the connections as shown in Fig. 23 are not recommended
because it is desirable to ground the secondaries of current and poten
tial transformers and the case of the meter. If the secondaries are
Um
Fio.
23.
Two-element
meter
connected
with current and potential transformers

in a three-phase circuit. (Not recom

mended.)
Fio.
24.
Recommended
connection
of a
two-element
meter
with current and
potential transformers in a three-phase
circuit.
grounded at points a, 6, c, and d of Fig. 23 along with the meter case, the
connections become equivalent to those shown in Fig. 24. Electrically
this circuit is the same as far as the meter is concerned as Fig. 23. Fig
ure 24 gives the connection usually employed because it is less hazardous
to life, under abnormal conditions, than that shown in Fig. 23.
Una
Flo.
25.
r-
Load
0000000050^
Reversed connection
to current coil.
Occasionally incorrect connections are made when watthour meters

In the
are used in conjunction with current and potential transformers.
be
may
case of some faulty connections highly erroneous measurements
obtained. For example, assume that the current to the upper ele
ment was reversed by reversing connections on the primary as indicated
in Fig. 25. If the single-phase load shown in Fig. 19a were being
VaJba
COS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
388
instead of
unaffected.
f Vajab cos 6
L
v.J
TI
Hence the meter
as a whole
cos 120
0^
[VI
F/Ti[-0.5 +
would read
v^bo
VI
0.5]
Ch.
The lower element would be
as before.
71!
COS 0
MEASUREMENTS
COS
cos 60}Tl
= 0
For balanced three-phase loads the upper and lower elements would be
subtractive above 0.5 power factor and additive below 0.5 power factor,
exactly the reverse of that which is correct.
Problem 3. If the above incorrect connection were made when the meter was
connected to the load specified for Problem 2, page 385, determine the reading of each
element of the meter and the total error in the registration of the energy consumed.

Ans.:
-Q.SVITi, 1.5VITi,
50 per cent
registration.
Methods of Checking Correctness of Connections. If the coils in a

meter are correctly connected to the meter terminals at the factory, if
the polarity markings on all transformers are correct, and if the polarity
markings are correctly interpreted, it should be possible to connect the
meter into a circuit correctly without the use of additional equipment
such as voltmeters, ammeters, etc. Because of the possibility of some
one condition mentioned not being fulfilled, it is desirable to know some
methods of checking the correctness of the connections.
First a check should be made to determine whether the upper element
of the meter obtains its potential from the line containing its own
current coil to the line not containing a current coil. The corresponding
All the following checks
check should be made on the lower element.
This connection check having
assume that this check has been made.
been completed, there are quite a large number of checks which might
No one check is always practicable.
be used.
Open-Line Check. If the load is such as to permit breaking one line
at a time, line a, Fig. 24, may be opened. Then all the energy must be
transmitted single-phase to the load between wires c and b. If the coil*
of the active element are correctly connected, the meter must, under
these conditions, run forward if the load is dissipative in character.
Next, line a is reconnected, and line b, the line containing the current
coil of the lower element, is opened. Now all the energy transferred
to the load is transmitted single-phase over lines a and c, and the upper
The meter should therefore run
element must record all this energy.
forward. Then all lines are reconnected and the meter will be known to
This test is equally applicable to direct meter
be correctly connected.

Ch.
FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
389
ing and metering with current and potential transformers.

Further
more, this test is applicable under any conditions of unbalance or power
factor. Unfortunately, the open-line check cannot always be applied.
Open Potential Coil Check. If the load is nearly balanced and the
power factor is above 0.5, both elements of the meter should produce
forward rotation. This is known either from a study of a three-phase
vector diagram or from a study of the watt ratio curve on page 288.
Each element can be checked for forward rotation when operating alone
by de-energizing the other element. This is most readily accomplished
by opening the potential connection to the element to be de-energized.
If the power factor is known to be below 0.5, the check is still applicable
provided it is correctly interpreted. Under 0.5 power factor one element
must produce a torque opposing forward rotation of the meter. There
fore, when the potential connection to one element is opened, the meter
should run forward, and when reconnected and the other opened the
meter disc should rotate backward, or vice versa. When all connec
tions are made, the meter disc should invariably run forward. This
check is equally applicable to installations where the meter is used
alone or in conjunction with current and potential transformers.
Akerman Check. This check is easy to apply, but it has a number of
limitations.
First, the load should be approximately balanced.
For
instance, a difference between the largest and smallest current of more
than 25 per cent of the smallest makes the check questionable.
Next,
the leads must be traced to determine whether the upper element of the
meter obtains its potential from the line containing its own current
coil to the line not containing a current coil. The corresponding check
should be made on the lower element.
The above connections must
be made before proceeding with the remainder of the check.
Then the
potential transformers should be checked to see that the voltage between
leads w and y, Fig. 24, is approximately the same as the secondary poten
tial transformer voltage.
If these conditions are fulfilled, opening
the common potential connection z will permit the disc to continue
forward rotation irrespective of the power factor. Backward rotation
indicates an incorrect connection.
This can be shown through use of
the vector diagram of a balanced three-phase system when it is recog
nized that each potential coil of the meter receives one-half of the line
This check
voltage oft when the common potential lead z is opened.
has the advantage of being independent of power factor.
One of the common methods of measuring
Frequency Measurement.
frequency utilizes the resonant-reed-type frequency meter. These
meters contain electromagnets that are excited by a current, the fre
The magnetic fields established
quency of which is to be measured.
390
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
Ch.
by the electromagnets

are trained upon a number of reeds which, by

in mass, type of suspension, or restraint, possess
virtue of difference
With reeds of proper natural
different natural periods of vibration.
periods, frequencies over a particular range are indicated by the mechani
The tips of the reeds are generally
cal vibration of the calibrated reeds.
reeds
white,
vibrating
appear as white lines opposite a
and
the
colored
calibrated scale which indicates the frequency directly. Meters of this
kind are arranged so that the meter terminals are connected across
the line voltage either directly or through potential transformers.
Another type of frequency meter is similar to utilizing two induction
voltmeter elements on a single disc, so arranged as to produce opposite
One element is connected in series with a resistance and the
torques.
As the frequency increases,
other in series with an inductive reactance.
the current is reduced in the inductive element, thereby reducing its
torque and causing the disc to rotate to a new position under the influ
ence of the resistance element.
The opposite effect is produced by a
If a suitably calibrated scale is employed,
decrease in frequency.
the meter can be made to indicate frequency in cycles.
Since frequency hi alternators is dependent upon speed and poles,
devices which indicate speed can be employed to measure frequency.
In
addition to the foregoing there are several other much used methods of
measuring frequency.
The above methods of measuring frequency are primarily applicable
For the measurement of high frequencies where
to power frequencies.
great accuracy is not required, a wave or frequency meter shown diagrammatically in Fig. 26 is employed.
The RLC circuit equipped with some
[test
(frequency of
indicating device is loosely coupled
which is to be
g M
XL
M XL
c
c
u- u
to the circuit the frequency of which
measure)
y
Maximum cur
is to be measured.
rent is first obtained by proper ad
justment of L or C. Theoretically,
the resonant frequency can be calammeter"*
culated from the circuit parameters Fio. 26. Wavemeter method of messuring high frequencies,
which yield maximum current, but
usually the device is calibrated against some form of standard
frequency meter. The frequency which is to be measured is then
determined by reference to a calibration chart for the particular values
of L and C employed to give maximum current in the RLC loop.
The
operation of the device depends upon its being sufficiently loosely
coupled so that no appreciable reaction in the test circuit results from
the current in the RLC loop.
Ch.
PROBLEMS
391
PROBLEMS
of
4. Assume that the actual current
a d-c component,
current is:
i
A
flowing in a particular circuit is composed

a-c component such that the resultant
I^c, and an additive
permanent-magnet,
= Idc
moving-coil
+ lac
max
s'n
<>'
d-c ammeter and an ordinary
electrodynamom-
eter-type ammeter are placed in series in the circuit.

(a) Which meter reads the larger numl>er of amperes?
(b) Which reading is the more useful if the current in question is employed for
electroplating purposes?
(c) Which is more useful if the current is employed for heating purposes?
6. The lid data of a particular wattmeter are:
Current range, 7.5/15
Voltage range, 100/200 volts
Watt range, 120/240/480 watte
Resistance of 100-volt potential circuit, 2500 ohms
Resistance of 200-volt potential circuit, 5000 ohms
(a) Is the instrument
a unity -power-factor or low-power-factor wattmeter?

the number of scale divisions is 240, find the multiplying factor to be em
ployed with each of the four possible combinations of current and potential ranges.
(c) If the meter reads 160 scale divisions when the highest current range and
highest potential range are in use, convert the reading to watts. If the actual
circuit voltage is 220 volts, find the " corrected " reading of the wattmeter in watts,
"
assuming that the potential circuit is connected on the " load
side of the current
(b)
coils
If
as shown in Fig. 12, page 373.
The 50-volt potential circuit of the wattmeter shown in Fig. 12, page 373, has
a resistance of 2056.5 ohms and an inductance (concentrated largely in the movable
The frequency is 60 cycles.
coil) of 3.4 millihenrys.
(a) By what angle docs the current in the potential circuit lag the load voltage?
(6) Qualitatively what effect does the inductance have on the accuracy of the
instrument, if it is assumed that the instrument has been calibrated on direct current?
Consider both magnitude and phase-angle discrepancies.
(c) By how many parts in a million does the inductance affect the magnitude of
the potential circuit current, and does this magnitude discrepancy cause the instru
ment to read high or low?
(<l) By how many parts in a million does the phase-angle discrepancy caused by

6.
the inductance affect the accuracy at a load power factor of unity, and does this
phase-angle discrepancy cause the instrument to read high or low?
(e) Are the magnitude and phase-angle discrepancies cumulative or subtractive
for load power factors of less than 0.9998 (current lagging)?
7. The induction instrument shown in Fig. 27 can Ije employed to measure
Explain in detail the physical operation of the instrument,
reactive volt-amperes.
and draw a qualitative vector diagram showing V, Ip, <t>p, I, I/e, I.v, E.v disc, and
Ijr dtoc- EX abc and Ix atsc !irc the voltage and current which are induced in the
For the sake of uniformity and definitencss in drawing
disc as a result of d<t>x/dt.
the vector diagram, the following assumptions may be made: (a) XP/RP = 4;
"
= 5; and (</) <t>x in phase with I.\-.
In
(See
(b) <t>pin phase with Ip; (c) X x/Kx
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
392
Ammeters
duction
principles involved
FIG. 27.
Figure
and Voltmeters,"
in induction-type
page
MEASUREMENTS
369,
for a discussion
Ch.
of the physical
meters.)
(See Problem 7.)
Induction-type reactive volt-ampere meter.
used connection to the delta secondary of a

and lighting service from a single trans
power
both
transformer bank for supplying
what percentage of the energy
shown,
scheme
metering
former bank.
For the
8.
28 shows a commonly
used is recorded in the following
cases:
load from a to rf?

(a) A unity-power-factor
A
0.5 lagging power-factor load from a to d?
(6)
A
0.866 lagging power-factor load from a to d?
(c)
(d) A 0.866 leading power-factor load from o to d?
and 9.
to
See Problems
28.
the effect on the meter of a load from

c
What
power factor?
(/) Any load from
(y) Any load from
(e)
is
Fio.
110
no
2?n
b'.
3-wire meter
of less than 0.5 lagging
to dl
to d?
load from a to
.
Note:
3-wire meter reads the
unity-power-factor
(h)
equivalent of the product of the current in its current coil by one-half the voltage
across its voltage coil by the cosine of the angle between the current and voltage.
9. Devise a metering system that could be used to record the energy taken
from the transformer secondary in Fig. 28 for any condition of loading between
any lines of the single-phase, three-wire and the three-phase, three-wire systems.
10. Show by means of a vector diagram that the Akerman check will fail for one
is
if
6.
is
of voltages and not the other,

a 20 per cent lagging power-factor load
connected from o to
in Fig. 24 and at the same lime
like load
connected from
to
sequence

3-phase meter
CHAPTER XI
DETERMINATION
OF CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
Although the circuit parameters R, L, M, and C may be reasonably

constant under certain conditions, their effective magnitudes are often
influenced by temperature, frequency, potential gradient, current den
sity, magnetic density, etc. At low frequencies the parameters can
usually be considered as lumped, and certain effects, such as internal
distributed capacitance, dielectric loss, and capacitance to ground, are of
minor importance and are generally neglected.
Circuit parameters
should, therefore, be measured under conditions which are as nearly
identical to actual operating conditions as possible.
Generally speaking, there are three distinct methods of determining
circuit parameters:
Calculations based on physical dimensions for particular values
of current, magnetic flux, and dielectric flux densities.
2. Calculations based on experimentally determined values of voltage,
current, power, and frequency.
3. Substitution methods whereby the unknown parameter is com
pared with a known standard.
Adequate treatments of these general methods cannot possibly be
A few examples which involve elementary
encompassed in this book.
circuit theory are given below.
Determination of Z by the V, I, P Method.
Except for the sign of
the phase angle, the complete expression for the impedance of a par
ticular branch can be evaluated directly from experimentally deter
" corrected "
mined values of V, I, and P as shown in Fig. 1. If
values of V, I, and P are employed

1.
The impedance thus determined is the effective or equivalent series

circuit impedance between the terminals across which the potential
When other than sinusoidal wave form is
difference is measured.
encountered, the equivalent impedance possesses very little physical
significance except that it specifies the ratio of V to for the particular
wave forms involved.
DETERMINATION
394
Ch.
XI
Because of the dynamical nature of the measured quantities, simul

taneous readings of the measuring instruments are generally taken.
This practice requires that certain corrections be made in at least some

of the meter readings in order to compensate for the circuit disturbances
which result from the insertion of the meters. Also due consideration
must be given to the relative physical placement of the measuring
instruments if a minimum amount of circuit disturbance is to be realized.
For the case shown in Fig. 1 it is assumed that Z is small as com
pared with the impedance of the voltmeter and the impedance of the
potential circuit of the wattmeter. If Z is relatively very small, then
the fact that the ammeter includes in its reading the voltmeter current
and the wattmeter potential circuit current may not be a significant
If Z is even approximately comparable in magnitude to
discrepancy.
the impedance of the potential circuits, then a serious error will be intro
duced into the ammeter reading if the arrangement shown in Fig. 1 is
Under these conditions either a suitable correction should
employed.
be made in the ammeter reading or
the ammeter should be moved to
the load side of the potential cir- o,
^nw^>
'(?)'

cuits.
If
the ammeter
is moved
to the load side of the potential voltage

I
circuit, both the voltmeter and
wattmeter readings will be in error FIG. i. Wattmeter p reads the power loss
"' both the potential circuit of the wattbecause of the extraneous voltage
meter and the voltmeter.
If the
drop across the ammeter.
errors thus introduced are significant, suitable corrections must be made
in the voltmeter and wattmeter readings.
In making either voltage or current corrections, due consideration
must be given to the vector relations of the quantities involved.
If
the
voltmeter are connected on the
the wattmeter potential circuit and
load side of an uncompensated wattmeter current coil, as shown in Fig. 1,
the V2/R loss in the potential circuits should be subtracted directly
from the wattmeter reading to obtain the correct power absorbed by the
load.
Problem 1. Let it be assumed that in Fig. 1 the ammeter reads 2.02 amperes, the
The resistance of
voltmeter reads 114 volts, and the wattmeter reads 37.5 watts.
the potential winding of the wattmeter is 3500 ohms; the resistance of the volt
meter is 2000 ohms. The load is known to be inductive,
(a) Find the value of Z,
Find
Z
the
value
of
after
neglecting all meter disturbances.
correcting the watt
(6)
meter reading for the loss in the potential winding of the wattmeter and for the loss in
the voltmeter,
(c) Find the value of Z after correcting both the wattmeter reading
and the ammeter reading.
Am.:
ohms.
(a) 56.4 /80.6", (6) 56.4/83.2,
(c) 56.7/83.15
Ch.XI
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE
(a) If the resistance of the wattmeter potential circuit of Fig.

and the resistance of the voltmeter is Rv, show that
Problem
RP
395
2.
True power,
r>
where
1 is
- V*
RP +
and W is the actual reading of the wattmeter.
K,
(b) If W is the actual reading of the wattmeter, / the actual reading of the am
the current through the load impedance, show that
meter, and
I,
RpRv/(Rf + Rt).
in-phase component of
f,
(W/V)
The quadrature component of
(V/R).
//
Hint: The
'-\T
/,
where, as before,
vi
These statements carry with them the assumption that the inductive reactances of
both the wattmeter potential circuit and the voltmeter are negligibly small as com
pared with the resistances.
The effective
a-c resistance
of a circuit or
defined as
(2)
"
circuit element
is
Effective Resistance.
For
the effective
resistance
of the load impedance
shown in
is
is
is
it
is
is
can be determined
if
directly from the corrected readings of the

ammeter and wattmeter. Re as found from equation (2) may, in any
particular case, differ materially from the ohmic or d-c resistance.
Owing to electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling with other circuits
or owing to the proximity of magnetic or dielectric material, the effective
Also, skin
greater than the ohmic or d-c resistance.
a-c resistance
effect in the conducting wire itself tends to make Re
greater than the ohmic resistance. Reference to Fig.
will disclose one of the reasons for skin effect. The
internal regions of the wire exhibit
higher imped
ance to the flow of current than the outer regions.
that the current densities are greater
The result
Illustrating
2.
Fio.
internal flux linknear fae surface than near the center of the conductor.
ag6s>
For this reason
customary to use tubular con
very high, since the current naturally con
the frequency
ductors
centrates in a thin outside layer. At power frequencies, skin effect
not an appreciable factor except in conductors of large cross-sectional
area. In conductors smaller than about 250,000 circular mils cross
Fig.

example,
396
DETERMINATION
XI
is practically
lHund, "High-Frequency
Measurements,"
Bessel Functions for Engineers,"

Filters," pp. 104-105.
pp. 140-141
"
is
is,
identical in magnitude to the ohmic resistance, provided skin effect is

For
the only factor which contributes to make Re greater than -BohmiC.
a 250,000-circular-mil stranded copper conductor the increase in resist
ance due to skin effect above the ohmic resistance is about 0.9 per cent.
Another effect is present at high frequencies in parallel cylindrical
The currents con
wires which tends to make Re greater than /?0hmiCof
the
which
are
nearest to one another,
cylinders
centrate on the parts
thus increasing the current densities in these particular parts of the
The phenomenon involved is usually described as " prox
conductors.
However, the manner in which skin and proximity
imity effect."
effects vary with conductor size and shape and with frequency is rather
General quantitative predetermination of these effects
complicated.
involves certain types of functions which are not generally understood
by undergraduates.1
In addition to the increased current density near the surface of a
conductor owing to the higher impedance of the inner paths, the relative
of the con
values of self-inductance and distributed self-capacitance
ductor can materially influence the magnitude of skin effect at the
The self-resonating effect of uncoupled air-core
higher frequencies.
inductance coils at high frequencies and the way in which this phenom
enon contributes to make Re greater than fi0hmic will be better appre
In self-resonating
ciated after pages 401-403 have been studied.
coils Re may become thousands of times larger than fl0hmic and, if
the coil in question is not coupled to other circuits, the increase in
apparent resistance is chargeable to one form of skin effect.
Equation (61), Chapter VII, on page 239, shows that the resistance
of any coupled secondary circuit appeal's at the terminals of the primarj
This additive
circuit as a modified additive resistive component.
R,
is
which
one of the factors
makes
resistive component
of the primary
With air-core coupling between the cir
circuit greater than R0^mic.
cuits, Re may be sensibly constant within certain ranges of frequency
and as such it may be manipulated as a constant circuit parameter.
in certain
For iron-core coupling the core loss due to the mutual flux
Therefore,
constant.
the
effect
of
core
loss
due to the
cases, practically
mutual flux cannot be represented by the loss in an additive series
constant
The usual equivalent circuit representation of
resistance.
fictitious resistive branch which
core loss of this type
placed
across some potential difference of practically constant magnitude.
is

sectional area the effective resistance at power frequencies
Ch.
pp. 263-267, 1st ed.; MacLachlan,

" Electric Circuits and Wave
Starr,
Ch.XI
EFFECTIVE REACTANCE
397
The effective resistance of an iron-clad coil is generally several times

larger than the ohmic resistance of the coil, even at power frequencies,
and the core loss in the adjacent iron is the chief contributing factor.
Since the core loss is a complicated function of the magnetic flux estab
lished in the iron, the effective resistance of an iron-clad coil is a rather
intricate function of the applied voltage.
An understanding of what is actually meant by the term " effective
resistance " and an appreciation of the various factors which cause R,
to be greater than #ohmic are important concepts in a-c circuit theory
as well as in a-c machinery theory.
Effective Reactance. The effective or equivalent series circuit reac
tance of a network or circuit element is defined as :
Xe
VZ,2
Re2
(3)
Re having been determined from physical measurements of

voltage, current, and power, the magnitude of Xe may be evaluated
Ze and
directly from equation (3).

Owing to the fact that Re is greater than

" true " reactance.
ôhmic. Xe is smaller than the
(See page 400 for a
"
"
definition of
true
self-inductance, Ltrue, which combined with
" true "
a> forms what is sometimes called
reactance.)
It has been shown in Chapter VII that the inductive reactance of a
coupled secondary circuit causes the effective reactance of the primary
winding to be less than the individual reactance of the primary winding.
For the coupled circuit arrangement shown in
Fig. 3:
R,
Rl
Xe
Xl
and
R2
- XM2
(4)
(5)
W\, onrr-
The above relations follow directly from equa

tion (61) of Chapter VII, page 239. For the
particular air-core case considered in Fig. 3
no. 3. Reduction of air-core the equivalent reactance of the primary, Xe,
coupled circuits to an equiv- has a definite physical significance and can be
alent series circuit.
defined in terms of conceivable flux linkages.
But where magnetic core losses or dielectric losses cause Re to be greater
than /20hmic X loses much of its physical significance.
Xe is simply a
hypothetical reactance which, if multiplied by the current, forms an
IXe drop such that :
2
V(IXC)2 + (IRe)2
(7Ze)
V,applied
(6)
DETERMINATION
398
CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
OF
Ch.
XI
Example 1. Let it be assumed that, in Fig. 4, the ammeter reads 2.60 amperes,
the voltmeter reads 110 volts, and the wattmeter reads 85.0 watts.
The impedance
of the wattmeter potential will be considered as being 4000 ohms pure resistance
and the impedance of the voltmeter as 6000 ohms pure resistance.
The values of
Ze, R,, and X, are to be determined.
The power supplied to the terminals of the iron-clad inductance coil is:
= 85.0
' ["HO2
V
W
- J/2 + ~jp-~g
2
/coil
2'6
It will
1102"|
eoooj
[4000
79.96, say 80 watts
(See Problem 2, page
12,100
170
MOO*
2400
395.)
= 2.59 amperes
be noted that, whereas the magnitude of the current taken by the voltmeter
and potential
discrepancy
circuit of the wattmeter is approximately 46 milliaraperes, the actual

introduced into the ammeter is only about 10 milliamperes in this par
ticular case.
The desired values can now
be calculated from the corrected meter readings.
80
Xe = V42.52
11.92 = 40.8 ohms
If
the effective inductance, Lc, is denned as Xe/u, it is only necessary to know the
angular velocity of the supply system in order to be able to evaluate L,.
h-M
ron
(a)
Measurement of Ze, R,
and X, by the voltmeter-am
meter-wattmeter method.
FIG.
4.
(6)
Fro. 6. Approximate equivalent cir

cuit of an iron-core inductance
coil.
Vector Diagram of Iron-Clad Circuit Quantities from Voltmeter,

Ammeter, and Wattmeter Readings. Several important concepts in
the field of a-c machinery are dependent upon the equivalent circuit
theory of iron-clad circuits. The iron-clad circuit shown in Fig. 5a
can be represented quite faithfully by the equivalent electric circuit
XI VECTOR DIAGRAM
Ch.
OF
IRON-CLAD CIRCUIT QUANTITIES
399
shown in Fig. 56. The Rh+e branch is a resistive branch which is

theoretically connected in parallel with the pure inductance of the coil in
order to provide a path wherein a number of watts equal to the actual
The subscripts (h + e) used in
core loss can be hypothetically spent.
" and " eddy-current " com
"
connection with J?/,+(J refer to
hysteresis
ponents of the core loss. The fact that the core loss in question is a
function of the flux established by the inductance coil, together with the
fact that the flux established by the inductance coil is to some extent
dependent upon the magnitude of /#0hmi dictates the circuit position
of the hypothetical Rh+e branch.
If the analysis is to be based entirely on experimental readings of
V, I, and P, neither /4+ nor L can be evaluated accurately. An
approximate procedure is employed which is entirely consistent with
the accuracy of the experimental readings and the accuracy with which
In the approxi
Fig. 5b actually simulates iron-clad circuit phenomena.
mate procedure referred to, the applied voltage is thought of as being
balanced by t#ohmio and N d<t>/dt, in which case:
.
d*f>
If
is of sinusoidal wave form and
is assumed to be of sinusoidal wave
form, then:
Iflohmio
+ VL
(8)
d<f>/dt
voltage,
T'L is the voltage corresponding to EIR on the vector diagram shown

in Fig. 25, page 253.
xx
On the basis of sinusoidal wave forms
of
v and i, the vector position of I is de^ÎRe
<-IRohmic termined as
cos-i .
(9)
is,
Assuming that the d-c or ohmic resistance

of the coil is known, the value of VL
approximately
=
1/2
i,
(10)
V,
6.
Vector diagram of iron
clad inductance-coil quantities.
FIG.
6.
The vector relations of the above quantities are illustrated in Fig.

The hypothetical separation of the actual current into its two rightis
The
desirable step in certain types of analyses.
angle components
indicated
the
in
currents
evaluating
component
method employed
by the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 5b.
is

In this equation VL is the effective vector value of the N
DETERMINATION OF CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
400
C*.
XI
The actual core loss is the true watts delivered to the iron-clad circuit
Frequently /2/20hDuc is a negligibly small quantity.
minus 72fl0hmic-
rr
Core loss
Ih+,
(11)
(12)
IA+ and
IM are the right-angle components of I.
Ik+e is
in phase with
behind VL, as shown in Fig. 6.

The present method of iron-core circuit analysis illustrates how the
applied voltage can be broken up into two distinct sets of component
Either:
voltages.
VL and I.w is
90
V
or
Vt
Iflohmic
(13)
V = lRe + IX,
Reference
(14)
to the vector diagram shown in Fig. 6 will show that Rf is

filmic and that L, is less than Ltrw In this latter con
greater than
nection:
L.
IX
-^
L'true
and
(ill
v-
" corrected " ammeter reading

be assumed that, in Fig. 4, the
"
"
is 1.25 amperes, the
corrected
wattmeter reading is 28 watts, the voltmeter read
ing is 100 volts, and Rohmic is 0.2 ohm. The frequency is 60 cycles.
The method of constructing a vector diagram for these particular conditions is
Example 2.
It will
shown below.
Let
V
= 100
/0 volts
28
I
Vi
/-77
= 1.25
= 100
/O^
= (100
= 99.94
Core loss = 28
amperes
/-77)
(1.25
+jO)
(0.056
(0.2)
- jO.244)
+.J-0.244 = 99.95 /O.I 3 volts

(1.252
0.2) = 27.69 watts
27.69
IM
Vl.252
0.2772
= 1.22 amperes
The magnitudes of 1/,+e and IM having been determined as outlined above, these
" in-phase " and " quadrature " positions with respect to
quantities are assigned
VL as shown in Fig. 6. With the aid of these concepts, the physical phenomena
involved in the actual composite electric and magnetic arrangement shown in Fig. 4
are interpreted in terms of elementary electric circuit theory.
Ch.
XI
INHERENT DIFFICULTIES
ENCOUNTERED
401
fi,
Problem 3. Find the numerical values of I!,., L,., and /,,,,. of the iron-clad cir
cuit of the above illustrative example. If the coil consists of 200 turns, find the
maximum value of the magnetic flux in the iron core.
Am.: R, = 17.95
Le = 0.2065 henry; Lilue = 0.217 henry.
Mutual Inductance Measured
in Terms of Self-Inductance.
Self-
inductance
If the terminals of the
meter method or by some bridge method.
two coils shown in Figs, la and 76 are accessible, either general method
may be employed in measuring Leadd and Lesub. Reference to Fig.
parts (a) and (6) respectively will
Leadd
show that the following equations
either
by the voltmeter-ammeter-watt
can be measured
are applicable.
-M
fc
o
M
<o
' ir--"'T2 ^-i
+ L2
from which:
7.
Thus M can
be determined
/-, si iii)
(6)
(o)
Fio.
L2 + 2M
dd
(15)
- 2M
(16)
(17)
Lesub)
directly from two equivalent self-inductance
provided MÂ = Meub = M

Inherent Difficulties Encountered in Making Measurements.
It
often practically impossible to measure circuit parameters by means
In low-power circuit
of the voltmeter-ammeter-wattmeter method.
elements the allowable current may be too small to operate success
In other cases the circuit may
fully normal wattmeter or ammeter.
result of the introduction of meters that
be so radically disturbed as
the measurements made are useless in so far as original circuit parame
concerned.
Vacuum-tube devices which are some
ter determination
times employed to measure voltage, current, and power draw very little
under investigation, and for this
or no power from the circuit which
reason they are useful adjuncts to normal metering equipment in certain
a
is
is
cases.
if
is
Bridge methods are generally to be preferred in making measurements

This
involving low-power circuit elements.
particularly true
the
effective values of the parameters are to be determined at frequencies
ranging from 100 to 2500 cycles. Certain difficulties attend the measure
ment of any circuit parameter at the higher frequencies.
Distributed Capacitance in Inductance Coil Measurements.
Effect
The individual turns of an inductance coil possess capacitive effects
Under conditions of dynamic operation, the turns
one to the other.
are maintained at differences of potential with respect to each other,
and the distributed capacitive effects which are present are represented
of

is
measurements,
402
DETERMINATION
Ch.
XI
in approximate fashion by the discrete condensers shown in Fig. 8a. As

a first approximation the distributed self-capacitance of a coil can be rep
In this case
resented by a parallel condenser, as illustrated in Fig. 86.
the resistance R is practically equal to the straight-wire effective a-c
resistance of the wire which forms
It will be shown
the inductance coil.
presently that the effective resistance
of the coil under certain conditions
may differ materially from the
straight- wire effective resistance R.
If the dielectric loss is an appreciable factor, then the C branch of FlQ g nitrating the manner in which
the distributed self-capacitance of an
Fig. 86 should contain a resistance
of suitable magnitude to account for
this loss. If all stray dielectric and
magnetic losses are assumed to be negligibly small, the equivalent im
pedance of the two parallel branches of Fig. 86 is :
+ Zc
/ ,
\
R+j(aL-^c)

(o>2CL
or
Ze = Re
+ juLe
I _+
- 1)2J
3U
"CR + jVCL
1)
- CR2
|yC22 + (^CL - 1)2J
[ L(l
o>2CL)
(equivalent series circuit parameters)
"1
' 'S
(19)
where
(2CL
'
"
(20)
- o,2CL) - CR2
- I)2
JC2R2 +
(co2CL
The equivalent resistance of the coil as given by equation (20) is a

rather complicated function of frequency since R is in itself an intricate
At low frequencies R does not differ materially
function of frequency.
from .Rohmic if the cross-sectional area of the conductor is not greater
than about 250,000 circular mils. Also for coils of usual design at low
values of u, (u2C2R2) is negligibly small as compared with unity and
Therefore, at very
(o>2CL) is generally considerably lass than unity.
is
only slightly larger than /2ohmic.
low frequencies, Re
But, as the
Ch.
XI
ELEMENTARY
BRIDGE THEORY
403
frequency increases to a point where R varies appreciably with co and

(o>2C2fl2) becomes a significant factor, the exact variation of Re cannot
be conveniently anticipated in terms of elementary functions. Situa
tions of this kind are responsible for the wide differences that exist
between low-frequency and high-frequency measurements.
Reference to equations (20) and (21) will show that, whereas Re is
always positive, Le may under certain conditions vanish or become
negative. Physically, a negative value of L, implies that the inductance
coil is actually functioning as a condenser owing to its distributed
capacitance.
Although advantage may sometimes be taken of this
phenomenon in the design of certain selective circuits at radio fre
quencies, distributed capacitance is usually detrimental.
The point at which the inductance coil ceases to operate as an induct
ance coil occurs when
L(l
o>2CL)
CR2
(22)
or when
(23)

It
should be remembered that the above equation is based upon the

approximate representation shown in Fig. 86. Although the relations
established are only approximate, they serve to portray certain import
ant physical concepts.
Elementary Bridge Theory. Alternating-current bridges which take
the same general form as the familiar d-c Wheatstone bridge are very
The
widely used to measure inductance, capacitance, and frequency.
inductance measurements referred to may be either those of self-induct
ance or mutual inductance.
A simple form of a-c bridge is shown in Fig. 9a. Many of the bridges
employed in practice contain two resistance arms and two impedance
arms. For best results the two resistance arms are accurately calibrated
which are wound so as to reduce self-inductance and selfcapacitance effects. To obtain greatest flexibility the resistance arms
are adjustable, but for certain operating conditions they may take
the form of fixed resistances.
The other two arms of the bridge shown
in Fig. 9a are the impedance arms: one, the standard impedance
(R, + jX,); the other, the unknown impedance (Rz + jXx) which is
to be measured.
Consider the arrangement shown in Fig. 9a. After adjustments of
Rc, Rd, Rt, and X, have been made so that no potential difference exists
resistances
DETERMINATION
404
between points c and d, then
and
CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
OF
Ch.
XI
ICRC
(24)
IC(RZ+JXX)
(25)
Re
(a)
Fio.
9.
(6)
Similar-aiigle bridge with the vector diagram of a particular balanced condition.
Dividing equation (25) by equation (24) and rearranging:

t*
i>

tldKx
~r
n T? v
/ * r*
JKd-A-x = Kcttt
~r
-i i?
JKcA-t
(26)
B,
TT RI
whence
Rx
and
Xx ~-
X*
o
(27)
Rd
(28)
Rd
Equations (26) and (28) show that, if the unknown impedance is

inductive in character, the standard impedance must also be inductive
A vector diagram of the two branch currents and the
in character.
various component voltages for a particular case is contained in Fig. 96.
If the unknown impedance is capacitive in character, then the standard
impedance must also be capacitive in character provided that the arms
Bridges of this general class are called
are arranged as shown in Fig. 9a.
similar-angle bridges.
If the reactive element of the unknown impedance is opposite in
nature to the reactive element of the standard impedance, then the
bridge arms must be arranged as shown in Fig. 10. Bridges of this
general class are called opposite-angle
bridges.
Problem 4. With bridge arms arranged as shown in Fig. 10 and with the adjust
ments made so that no potential difference exists between points c and d, show that
Rz
RcRdR.
and
Xx
RcRdX,
a particular balanced condition. Make all necessary

assumptions regarding the relative magnitudes of the various parameters.
Draw the vector diagram for
Ch.
XI
ELEMENTARY BRIDGE THEORY
405
The elementary forms of bridges shown in Fig. 9a and Fig. 10 are

very useful in making measurements of L, C, and M at frequencies less
than about 2000 cycles provided that these
circuit parameters are practically inde
in
pendent of the frequency employed
making the measurements.
Special forms
of bridges are required if parameters vary
appreciably with frequency, or if the
values of the parameters are desired at
higher than about 2000 or
frequencies
R.+JX
2500 cycles.2
With more elaborate forms of
the bridge, measurements

Flo.
can be made at
frequencies up to about 5,000,000 cycles.

10.
Opposite-angle bridge.
(See Problem 4.)
as the Owen's
bridge.
It
The circuit ar
shown in Fig. 11 is known
The Owen's
rangement
is a versatile
Bridge.
measuring
device inasmuch
in terms of capacitance and resist

ance; or capacitance can be measured in terms of inductance and
resistance.
Also, the equivalent series circuit resistance of the induct
ance coil under investigation or the equivalent series circuit resistance of
a high-loss condenser placed at the C2 position in Fig. 11 can be measured.

as inductance can be measured
Fio.
In
11.
Owen's bridge.
the latter measurement
cannot be made to a
satisfactory degree of accuracy, so the bridge finds its greatest field of
It should be
usefulness in the field of inductance measurements.
" Electrical Engineers' Handbook: Electric Communication and Electronics,"
2
See
general,
however,
fourth edition, edited by Fender and Mcllwain, pp. 11-24 ff., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1950.
406
DETERMINATION
recognized that the unshielded arrangement shown in Fig.

a diagrammatic sketch of an Owen's bridge.
1 1
Ch.
XI
is merely
The arm ac consists of an inductance which has RI units resistance

and an additional adjustable resistance of R\ units. If the condenser
C in arm bd is an unknown capacitance to be measured, then LI may
take the form of an adjustable self-inductance of known magnitude.
If LI is an unknown self-inductance, then C in arm bd usually takes the
form of an adjustable capacitance of known magnitude. Since the
theory of the bridge as outlined below presupposes that arm bd is purely
capacitive, the condenser C should be a low-loss condenser.
The condenser C2 in arm cb may be fixed and need not necessarily be a
Either the resistance R2 in arm be or the resistance
low-loss condenser.
R in arm ad, or both, are adjustable and, if the other parameters are
within certain limits as regards magnitude, complete balance may be
obtained by proper adjustment of R\ and R or of R\ and R2. From
the general equations given below it is evident that various other
methods of balancing may be employed.
When the circuit parameters are so adjusted that point c is at the
same potential as point d, it is plain that
lc
f(Bi
Bi') + jwLxJ
IdR
(29)

and
Dividing equation (29) by equation (30) and making two or three

rather simple algebraic transformations, the following relation is
obtained :
(Ri + R!f) + juLi
RC
+ juCRR2
(31)
Therefore the two sets of conditions that exist when the bridge
balanced
(D
(2)
is
are:
Bi +
D/~r
B/
Li
TT
C2
(32)
CRR2
(33)
The condition stated in equation (32) can be obtained by proper adjust

RI' and/or R. The condition stated in equation (33) can
In practice a true
then be obtained by proper adjustment of R2.
balance can be obtained by making successive adjustments of the
At this point it might be well for the
resistances referred to above.
ments of
Ch.Xl
407
PROBLEMS
beginner to realize that balancing the more elaborate forms of a-c

bridges is an art which requires laboratory technique of a high order.
All too often the amateur confuses positions of " false " balance with
"
the position of " true balance.
Equations (32) and (33) indicate that balance is obtained in an
Owen's bridge irrespective of the frequency of the oscillator. This is
true only when the circuit parameters are absolutely constant since
equations (32) and (33) have been derived employing this assumption.
When the parameters themselves are appreciably influenced by fre
quency, and they are at the higher frequencies, then balance is not
The fact that the effective values of the
independent of frequency.
various parameters are influenced by frequency makes the measurement
of them more difficult at the higher frequencies.
Vector diagram of a balanced Owen's bridge.
12.
= 1600 ohms,
L!
02
- Ri
CRRz
/if
follow directly from equations

=
= 0.192
'"
lO"6
O.o70
1600
799.4
Ri
LI
= 799.4 ohms, and R2 = 326 ohms
vector diagram of the above balanced condition
(32) and (33).
= 30.6 ohms
326 = 0.100 henry

is
The values of RI and
R\
/if
Examples.
In Fig. 11 let R\ and LI be unknown.
The circuit elements, R, R\ ,
and Rz are presumably adjustable, and it is known that C and Cj are low-loss con
densers the capacitances of which are 0.192
and 0.370
At an oscil
respectively.
lator frequency of 1000 cycles, the bridge balances at
shown in Fig. 12.
PROBLEMS
When 150 volts are impressed across a pair of terminals, 10 amperes flow and
are consumed.
What are the impedance, resistance, and reactance,
700
looking into the pair of terminals?
6.

Flo.
watte
DETERMINATION
408
Ch.
XI
In
the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 13, R is a known fixed resistance of

The readings of the three voltmeters are: V = 120 volts, VR = 60 volte,
and Vz = 80 volts. Neglecting the circuit disturbance caused by the voltmeters,
find Z and draw a vector diagram illustrating the various quantities.
What is the
6.
15 ohms.
total power absorbed by the RZ series branch?
T
Fio.
13.
See Problem 6.
FIG.
14.
See Problem 7.
7. In the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 14, R is a known fixed resistance of

30 ohms.
The readings of the three ammeters are: 7 = 8 amperes, lg = 4.0 ampere?,
and /z = 6.0 amperes. Neglecting the circuit disturbance caused by the ammeters,
find Z and draw a vector diagram illustrating the various quantities.

What is the
power absorbed by the Z branch?
8. Coils 1 and 2 are connected in additive series.
When 100 volts at 60 cycles
are connected across coil 1 with the remaining terminal of coil 2 free of any connec
tion, the current input is 10 amperes and the power 500 watts.
The voltage across
the whole of the two coils in series is then 300 volts.
When 100 volts at 60 cycles
are impressed across coil 2 only, the current is 1 ampere and power taken is 30 watts.
Calculate
LI,

L%,
R\, Rt, M, and the coefficient of coupling.
of Fig. 7o the current is 10

and
power
400
consumed by coil 2 is 300
watts,
consumed
is
power
total
amperes,
volts.
When
the
coils are connected as in
the
across
coil
1
is
40
drop
while
watts,
Fig. 76 an impressed voltage of 100 volts at the terminals causes 20 amperes to flow.
9. When
100 volts are impressed at the terminals
the mutual inductance, coefficient of coupling of the two coils if the fre
quency is 60 cycles, and the drop across coil 2 for the subtractive connection.
10. Referring to Fig. 15, show that the
^
equivalent series circuit resistance and
Calculate
capacitance are, respectively, equal to:
Fio.
See Prob
lems 10 and 11.
15.
and
Assume that C is a fixed capacitance of

and that w is constant at 5000 radians
FIG.
16.
lem
See
Prob
12.
per second. Plot the equivalent series

circuit resistance, Re, and the equivalent series circuit capacitance, C,, with respect
to R as R is varied from 5 to 100 ohms.
11. What are the values of the equivalent series circuit resistance R, and the
equivalent series circuit capacitance Ce for R = 5 ohms in Problem 10? also for
= 100 ohms?
An inductance coil possessing L units of self-inductance is assumed to have

RL units of resistance. Tliis coil is paralleled with a purely resistive circuit element
12.
Ch.
XI
PROBLEMS
409
of R units resistance as shown in Fig. 16.

Find the general expressions for the
equivalent series circuit resistance and the equivalent series circuit inductance of
the parallel combination.
Graph Re and Le versus R (between limits of R = 0 and
R = 100 ohms) for the particular case of = 500 cycles per second, L = 0.056 henry,
and RL = 25 ohms.

CHAPTER XII
TRANSMISSION LINE CALCULATIONS
Line Constituents. A transmission line consists of the equivalent of
two or more electrical conductors for the purpose of transmitting
electric energy.
For single-phase transmission the line may consist
of a single conductor with a ground return or of two ordinary wires.
For three-phase transmission, three wires are generally used although
in some installations a neutral wire or its equivalent is employed. The
wires of a transmission line are separated by some dielectric as air for
overhead transmission, or by other insulating materials as in cables.
Since the two conductors are separated by a dielectric, they form a
condenser, the capacitance of which is uniformly distributed along the
wires.
When a difference of potential is applied between the wires,
charging current flows. This effect could be simulated by a large
number of condensers connected between the two wires as shown in
Fig. 1. Va denotes the sending-end voltage, and Vr represents receiverend voltage.
A representation of this kind is approximate because it
shows the shunted capacitance lumped at certain points instead of being
uniformly distributed. Witha
c
b
I
I
I
I
I
T
f~ in reasonable limits of accu~f
|
V, racy it is permissible to make
V,
__
-p
L
-*
L. linecalculationsonthebasisof
Under
FIO.
Distributed shunted capacitance
of a lumped capacitance.
transmission line simulated by a large number of the Conditions
of relatively
i,
shunted condensers.
..
low voltage and relatively
short distances the shunted capacitance can even be neglected without
seriously affecting the accuracy.
In addition to shunted capacitance the line has series resistance and
inductance or inductive reactance.
Thus the sections between con1
2.
w-nsmr^
s/vv-/Twr>-pVVu/TJWxT
to account for series resistance

transmission line.
r-
Modification of Fig.
Is
FIO.
^/v^TTOffV-
i.
-T
and inductance of a
be and b'c', etc., form loops through which flux

will be set up by the mmf of the current flowing in the wires.
These sec
Hence, to account for these parameters,
tions also have resistance.
be
modified
to
should
appear as shown in Fig.
Fig.
Strictly speak
2.
densers, like ab and a'b',

j-T
_._,_.
,_.._.
410
XII
THE T LINE
411
ing, each condenser should be shunted by a non-inductive resistance to

account for any leakage of current from conductor to conductor because
of imperfect insulation, moisture content of the air, and other factors.
On a clear dry day the leakage is so small that it may usually be ne
glected. The greater the number of sections, like those shown in Fig. 2,
into which the line is divided, the more nearly it will simulate the actual
If more than two or
line which has uniformly distributed parameters.
three shunted condensers are used, it is just about as simple to calculate
the line by assuming uniformly distributed parameters instead of con
centrated quantities. Three of the usual arrangements of concentrated
parameters will be considered.
The T Line. The T representation of a line is shown in Fig. 3. When
all the shunted capacitance, C, of the line is concentrated in one con
denser and half of the total series impedance, Z, is placed in each arm
as indicated in Fig. 3, the circuit is known as the no/ninal T line.
It is
called nominal because the representation is only approximately correct.
,
z
When the circuit parameters
.
1
are
multiindicated in Fig. 3
:i_AAA/<iyWF\av^
T
t
plied by certain hyperbolic
|
l
i*
I
correction factors,1 the T
ir
"
"
thus formed represents the
b
line exactly between termi- Fia. 3. T representation of a transmission line.
nals (V, and Vr) and it then
becomes the exact equivalent T. Calling Y the admittance due to the
shunted capacitance C and using the quantities as labeled in Fig. 3, the
determination of V, in terms of the receiver voltage and current is made
Voft =
Vr +
Ir|
as follows.
or
Ir|)
(vr
V.
Ir
Ir
I.
lab = VafcY
" Hyperbolic Functions Applied to Electrical Engineering,"

See
" Electric Circuits Theory and Applications," by O. G. C. Dahl.

Ch.
(1)
by A. E. Kennelly
412
LINE CALCULATIONS
TRANSMISSION
From equation (1),
Ch.
XII
YZ
'-HI+T
(3)
Equations (2) and (3) give the sending-end voltage and current in
As indicated, all quantities in the equations must be ex
complex form.
pressed in vector form. The
receiver current must be prop
erly related in complex form
The
to the receiver voltage.
factor
of
the
load deter
power
mines
and
the
Ir
angle
between
V, and I
Vr
being in
form, power input

Flo. 4. Vector diagram of T representation in may be determined in the usual
Fio. 3.
The vector diagram of
way.
the T circuit of Fig. 3 is shown in Fig. 4.
This diagram follows the
V,
above equations for calculating
and I*.
complex
Problem 1. A 60-cycle, 3-phase line 200 miles long has a shunted capacitance to
neutral per mile of 146 X 10~4 /if, an inductive reactance of 0.78 ohm per wire per
mile, and a resistance of 0.42 ohm per wire per mile. The receiver voltage is 100,000
volts between lines. Use the nominal T line, and find the sending voltage and
current for an 0.8 power-factor lagging load requiring 75 amperes per line at the
An*.
receiver.
/24 amperes.
Line.
If one-half of the total line capacitance is concentrated
at each end of the line and all the series resistance and reactance are
at the center as
concentrated
jj
shown in Fig. 5, the resultant
1
configuration portrays the nomi
Y_Lc ~~nf
v-Lc V,t
2-T2
nal TT representation of a trans
2-p2
Like the T line it
mission line.
d
b
is possible to alter the param- Flo
tr representation of a transmission line.
eters by applying hyperbolic
correction factors to obtain a ir circuit which yields the correct relations
between terminals. A IT circuit thus corrected is called an exact equiva
The

64,600 /7.4 volta, 62.3
TT
lent 7T.
The x circuit is easily solved through a procedure
employed for the T circuit.
lab
lea
Vr2
Ir + Irt
Ir + Vr-
similar to
that
Ch.XIl
Vr + IcaZ = Vr +
I.
Vr(1+?)
= lea
Vr|)
413
V.
(lr
STEINMETZ REPRESENTATION
+ IrZ
(4)
lea
(5)
6,
is
Equations (4) and (5) are the solution of the TT representation of trans
shown in Fig.
mission line. The vector diagram of the IT circuit
and the above calculations follow this diagram.
IcaR
2.
Vector diagram of
TT line
in Fig. 5.
Use the nominal T-line representation and solve Problem

Ans.: 65,300 /7.4 volts, 59.75 /22.2 amperes.
1.
Problem
6.
The Steinmetz Representation of the Transmission Line.
Another
7.
Steinmetz representation of
T*
Fio.
I'
7.
is
representation of the transmission line suggested by C. P. Steinmetz

shown in Fig.
In the
which yields approximately correct results
transmission line.
the total shunted

represents the total series impedance and
figure,
capacitance. The student can work out the details of the solution by
and ir lines. This circuit and
following the methods employed for the
the solution are slightly more cumbersome, but the results are generally

Fio.
TRANSMISSION
414
LINE CALCULATIONS
Ch.
XII
somewhat closer to the theoretically correct values than those obtained
from the use of the nominal T or ir sections.

follow the vector diagram shown in Fig. 8.
Fio.
8.
Vector diagram of Fig.
The calculations
must
7.
Problem 3. Derive the equations for the sending-end voltage and current IB
terms of the receiver quantities for the Steinmetz representation of a transmission
line.

Problem
4.
Solve Problem
according to the Steinmetz representation of the line.

Ans.:
64,900
/7.3 volts, 60.9 /22.9
amperes.
Exact Solution of a Long Line with Uniformly Distributed Parameters.

In the line shown in Fig. 9 let the series impedance per mile be Z, the
shunted admittance per mile Y, and the length of the line considered 1.
Flo.
9.
Circuit used for deriving the exact solution of a

transmission
line.
The elementary voltage drop in the element dl is the current I in the

Considering only
ment times the impedance Z dl of the element.
space variation of V and I,
dV = IZdZ
ele
the
(6)
XII
Ch.
EXACT SOLUTION OF A LONG LINE
415,
The current leaving
the line over the length dl is the voltage
shunted admittance
Y dl for
V times the
Thus
the element.
dl = VY dl
(7)
Equations (6) and (7) are solved for V and
I as follows:
f-IZ
(8)
Differentiating equation (8) with respect to I gives
S-*i
Substituting equation (9) in equation (10),
(11)
This is
a linear differential equation of the second order, the solution of

which can be shown2 to be of the form

V = Cimii +
C2tm*
where C\ and C2 are constants of integration and wii and

the auxiliary equation, namely,
m2 =
roots of
ZY
+VZY
m =
The two roots mi and
r2 are
m2 are
or
-\/ZY
respectively +
VZY
(12)
and
VZY.
There
fore
de"1' +
C2m2'
(13)
From equation (8),
See any book on differential
D. A. Murray,
p. 63.
"if
equations,
such as " Differential
Equations," by
416
LINE CALCULATIONS
TRANSMISSION
Ch.
Differentiating equation (13) and substituting the result in (14)
XII
gives
(15)
The constants of integration C\ and C2 in equations (13) and (15) can

be evaluated from known boundary conditions. In this case the bound
ary conditions at the receiver are assumed to be known. Thus in Fig. 9
when
and
I = 0
(16)
I,
(17)
Vr
(18)
Substituting equations (16), (17), and (18) in equations (13) and
Vr
ir
d+
C2
VY/Z
= cx
(19)
c2
VY/Z
Equations (19) and (20) are now solved simultaneously for

Multiplying equation (19) by VY/Z gives
+ C2 VYTZ"
(15),
(20)
Ci and
Cj.
(21)
Adding equations (20) and (21),
ir + V'Y/Z v,
Cj
2Ci
VY/Z
Vr + r --------
(22)
Subtracting equation (20) from equation (21),

Vr
It
VY/Z
- Ir
2C2
v/Y/Z
in the above equations are complex

The ex
coefficients and might have been written in bold-face type.
I
any
distance
from the receiver are
pressions for voltage and current at
is apparent that
Ci and
C2
Ch.
XII
PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF EQUATIONS
417
obtained by substituting equations (22) and (23) in equations (13) and

(15).
Then
- -^-
-
<~V2YI
(24)
(25)
(24) and (25) may be used as the working equations for the
exact solution of long lines.
Under certain conditions it is convenient
Equations
to have
(24) and (25)

is done as follows.
equations
functions.
This
expressed
in terms
of hyperbolic
From equation (24),

Since the analytic definition of
and
sinh
8 =
cosh
V = Vr cosh VZYl + lr
VzJV
sinh
VZYl
(26)
VY/Z
sinh
VZYl
(27)
.Similarly
1
= 1, cosh
VZYl
+ Vr
Equations (26) and (27) are particularly convenient to use if tables of

complex hyperbolic functions are available; otherwise, equations (24)
and (25) may be more convenient.3
Physical Interpretation of Equations for Exact Solution. Equations
(24) and (25) may be modified somewhat to make their physical
more apparent. Since VZY is a complex expression,
may substitute an expression such as (a + jf)) for it. Also, letting
significance
we
3
See
" Tables " or " Charts of
nelly, Harvard University Press.
Compkrr
Hyperbolic Functwng," by A, E. KCD-
Z0
LINE CALCULATIONS
TRANSMISSION
418
=
VZ/Y
and Y0 =
Vr +
V =
VY/Z,
IrZ\
equations
<-
A + VrY0\ ^,0
+
+
(24) and (25) may be written:
Vr ~ IrZ
/Ir
XU
Ch.
r<+>
'
(28)
- VrY0\
Recognizing that e(a+jW = taV^ and that twe may write equations (28) and (29) as follows:
V =
- -HF=
<"
^-^ - ) t-*'^'
/I,
(30)
-ale-M
(31;
The quantity VZY = (a + j/3) is called the propagation constant.

It determines how the wave is propagated with reference to change in
magnitude and phase along the line.
Equation (30) consists of two
parts.
The first,
J eal
J"', represents
a quantity
that
in
in magnitude (eal increases) as we go from the receiver to the

sending end or it becomes smaller as we proceed from the sending to the
receiver end.
This term must therefore represent a voltage wave which
is being propagated from the sending to the receiver end. Hence it is
creases

called the direct wave or direct component.
The direct component is

As the wave leaves
analogous to a wave started in a body of water.
source
becomes
smaller
and
The
the
it
smaller.
second part of equation
(30) is
'
j ral ~;V".
As we proceed from the load to
the
this component becomes smaller, since I increases and t~"'

Hence this wave must be originating at the receiver, and it
is therefore called the reflected wave.
It is analogous to the phenomena
in a body of water as a wave strikes a bank. A reflection occurs, and a
wave is then seen traveling away from the bank with gradually diminish
ing magnitude.
Since, for a given distance of travel, a determines the
magnitude of the wave, it is a measure of how much the wave is in
creased or decreased in magnitude, or, in other words, attenuated.
For
this reason it is called the attenuation constant or factor. The at
tenuation factor is the real part of the propagation constant. The
factors t-"3' and t~m will be recognized as operators which produoe
The operator "*' causes the direct component to
opposite rotations.
advance in phase from its position at the load as we proceed from the
generator
decreases.
Ch.
XII
PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF EQUATIONS
receiving to the sending end, while
419
;<"
causes the reflected wave to fall

Since /3 determines the
its phase position at the receiver.
change in phase for a given distance I along the line, it is called the
It is sometimes called the wave length constant be
phase constant.
cause it determines the distance along the line over which a complete
This will be explained in more detail later. The
wave is subtended.
loci of the variation of the direct and reflected waves can be represented
The sum od of the direct and reflected
as spirals, as shown in Fig. 10.
waves of voltage at any point along the line such as at pi gives the re
When pi is 90, the direct component
sultant voltage at that point.
of voltage oa is opposite to the
i
The
reflected component ob.
resultant oc, which is the voltage of the line at this 90 or
quarter-wave-length point, may
be very small because of the
effect of the two
cancellation
waves.
A generator producing
a low voltage, if connected at
this point, could subtend a com
paratively high voltage at the
This is essentially a
receiver.
resonance phenomenon and is
e
behind
called quarter-wave
resonance.
creases
until
pi
becomes
180.
impedance.
VZ/Y
then becomes
Hence the quantity Z0 =
is
V impedance2
Vz/Y
is
dimensionally
which
is
an impedance, and the
The reciprocal of
VZ/Y.
is
membered that Z0
it
is
it
pi
is
Here the direct and reflected waves add. This phenomenon

called
increases to 270 the direct and reflected
As
half-wave resonance.
waves are again opposite (as at quarter-wave) and we then have threequarter-wave resonance.
Inspection of equation (28) makes
Surge Impedance.
apparent
must
be
Hence
voltage.
that dimensionally IrZ0
Z0 must be an
obtained when
re
impedance. Further evidence of this fact
an
called the surge im
is
called surge admittance.

pedance of the line. The reciprocal, VY/Z,
offered
to the propagation of a
the
impedance
impedance
The surge
the impedance an advancing wave of
wave along a line. In effect
travels along the line.
as
voltage or current encounters
it is
it
is

fll
As
increases from this 90 Fio. 10. Variation of direct and reflected waves
of voltage with respect to the line angle fil for
point the voltage of the line in
particular case.
TRANSMISSION
420
LINE CALCULATIONS
Ch.
XII
Terminal Reflections.
The receiver voltage Vr is I,Zr where Zr is
the impedance of the load.
If Zr is made equal to Z0 the receiver volt
Then the reflected wave in equation (30)
age Vr would equal IrZ0.
is zero and the equation of the voltage along the line becomes:
- V,^'
^-^V<
(32)
This variation is exponential in character, and no terminal reflections

The voltage, V, increases exponentially in magnitude as we
proceed from the receiving end to the sending end.
Simultaneously
with the increase in magnitude there is a uniform advance in phase of
V with respect to the load voltage Vr. The wave encounters the same
impedance (surge impedance) at the load as it did while advancing
along the line. This termination makes the line behave as if it were
Hence a line terminated in its surge impedance is
infinitely long.
In communication work, terminating
sometimes called an infinite line.
a line in an impedance equal to the surge impedance is sometimes called
matching.
If a long line is short-circuited at the receiver VT = 0 and equation
exist.
(30) becomes
V<"
*->
-'-#'
(33)

Where I is 0,
= direct wave reflected wave
Thus it may be said that the voltage is reflected with a change in

The current wave under the same conditions becomes
Il-=f
=
sign.
direct wave + reflected wave
It follows,
then, that the current wave is reflected with the same sign
or the direct and reflected waves of current add arithmetically at the
receiver.
If
the line is open-circuited at the receiver,
Ir
= 0.
Imposing this
condition on equations (30) and (31) shows the voltage wave to be
reflected with the same sign and the current with a change in sign.
Velocity of Propagation. In the foregoing equations, distance along
The
the line, namely I, has been considered the independent variable.
Ch.
XII
VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
421
other independent variable, time, has been tacitly taken into account
by the use of vector quantities. In the evaluation of the velocity of
propagation the interrelation of time-phase and space-phase effects
must be recognized.
It is evident from the use of ft in the foregoing equations that this
quantity determines the phase shift of V or I per unit length of line, and
The
as such it represents a number of radians per unit length of line.
to
effect
a
or
2ir
radians
of
line
required
complete
cycle
phase
of
length
shift is
X =
2ir
units
(34)
where X and ft are expressed in any consistent set of units. To simplify

visualizing the phenomenon, consider only the voltage wave.
Since X is the distance for a phase shift of 2ir radians, it is the distance
along the line (see Fig. 11) from one zero value say at a on the voltage
wave to a corresponding zero value at b, 2ir radians or 360 from the first
The distance X thus represents the length of line over which
zero point.
a complete space wave or cycle of voltage is subtended, and in conse
As time
quence X is called the wave length of the propagated wave.

Distance
Zero value of
voltage wave
,X
|Receiuer|
-X Units of length_ Angular measurement.

of ZT radians
Flo.
11.
space wave or cycle from a to 6.
elapses, the alternating voltage at point a will rise to a positive maxi

mum, decrease to zero, then increase to a negative maximum, thence to
In this length of time, point b on the wave will have arrived at a

in Fig. 11. In other words, during this length of time, the time for one
zero.
cycle,
I//, all points on
the wave
will have traveled a distance of X.
velocity of travel or propagation must then be

per second.
I//
The
or X/ units of length
Hence the velocity of propagation is
(35)
LINE CALCULATIONS
TRANSMISSION
422
Ch.
XII
is
a +
Since
jjS.
jX
2a/3 =
(36)
Rg + bX
gX - Rb
(37)
(38)
Solving equations (37) and (38) simultaneously for
a2
- jRb + jgX + bX
= Rg
/32
J2ap
9-Jb)
/S2
a2
it
VZY
original substitution, namely,

jb,
=
follows that
and
it
/3
/3.
Equation (34) shows that the wave length for any line is determined by
often termed the wave-length constant,
Hence
the quantity
may be evaluated in terms of the circuit parameters from thf
and
gives
lbX
- bX
is
VwTxZirfL
= .
~ (forr
VLC
and
0)
V-bX
ft
in
it
it
it
is
is
/3
al
If
The two signs before ZY in equation (39) and before bX above resulted
from the solution of quadratic equation. As often occurs, one of such
solutions has no physical reality.
the plus sign were used in the
would be zero, which would in turn
gebraic manipulation above,
Obviously, this
give an infinite velocity of propagation.
impossible.
When making arithmetic computations the proper sign to employ
that which will give a physically possible and plausible result. Had the
would have been necessary to use the
equations been based on + jb,
Since
the shunted susceptplus sign before the ZY and bX above.
ance due to the line capacitance,
must carry a negative sign upon
substitution of a numerical value for
in accordance with the con
ventions employed in this book.
Substituting the value of
above
equation (35) gives
v

g.
is
is,
The preceding derivation shows that all terms in equation (39) are
expressed algebraically and not in complex form. All the quantities
are per unit values, that
per centimeter, per mile, etc.
find
the
velocity of propagation under the condi
It interesting to
negligibly small value of
Im
tions of zero series resistance and
posing these conditions gives
(40)
XII
Ch.
VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
423
In
equation (40) t; is in miles per second if L is expressed in henrys per

mile and C in farads per mile. ' If one further assumption is made in
equation (40), namely, that the inductance due to the flux within the
conductor is negligible, the velocity will be the same as that of light.
This is illustrated by example 2, pages 430-434.
Example 1. An open-wire telephone line has a resistance of 10.26 ohms, an in
ductance of 0.00366 henry, and a capacitance of 0.00822 /if per loop mile (one mile
of outgoing plus one mile of return conductor).
Calculate the velocity of propa
gation for a 200-cycle and also for a 2000-cycle frequency, assuming that the values of
R, L, and C are
At 200 cycles
the same at both frequencies.
= 2ir 200
0.00366
Assume g = 0 in both cases.
= 4.6 ohms per loop mile
= VlO.262 + 4.62 = 11.22 ohms per loop mile

b = -2rfC = -2T200 X 0.00822 X 10~6 = -10.32
= 10.32 X 10"6 mho per loop mile
11.22
10.32
10-
6- (-10.32 X
lO"6 mho per loop mile
10~6X 4.6)
X 10-"
163.5
2T2
r/
At
2000 cycles

b =
=
Y
0
2*
2000
-103.2 X
= 103.2
462
10s = 139,000 miles per second
0.00822
lO"6
10"6 mho per loop mile
10~* mho per loop mile
47.1
103.2
10~
(-103.2 X
nr6 X
46)
2*
= 47.1 ohms per loop mile
-2ir 2000 X
-2ir/C
139
lO"3
0.00366 = 46 ohms per loop mile
VlO.262 +
9610
X1~6
2*- 2000
69.3
If
9.05
693X10-'
j,lal(lnn
..
10-*
parameters per mile to ground or neutral were used, Z would be halved,

b doubled and j3 would be the same.
and
Confusion sometimes arises as to what the velocity of propagation

The velocity of propagation of a voltage or current
refers to physically.
wave is the velocity at which the impulse or pressure travels. It ie
not the velocity of current flow. The velocity of current flow for normal
current densities in copper is very low, although the velocity of the
The phenomenon is somewhat analogous to the
pressure wave is high.
The
application of pressure at one end of a long pipe filled with water.
TRANSMISSION
424
LINE CALCULATIONS
Ch.
XII
pressure appears at the far end of the pipe very soon after it is applied at
the near end.
However, the actual rate of flow of water in the pipe
may be very low, especially if only a comparatively small stream is per

mitted to emerge at the far end.
Determination of Transmission Line Parameters.
1. Inductance.
The inductance per wire is used in transmission line calculations.
It may
Consider two parallel conductors as shown in
be derived as follows.
Fid.
Part of
12.
a two-wire line.
having a radius r and separated a distance D between

centers.
The fundamental equation of inductance when permeability
is constant is
Fig.
12, each
KT9 henry
is in abamperes and < is in maxwells. The field intensity

on
based
the law of Biot-Savart, at a distance of x centimeters from a
long straight conductor carrying a current is 27 /x gilberts per centimeter,
which in air is numerically equal to the flux density. Referring now to
the open-wire line shown in Fig. 12,
where
(Idx)
The total flux that exists outside of conductor A which causes an in
ductive effect on conductor A is
-I
/*
/
where
211
log.
ID-9
L,
dx =
21
is

2.30261
expressed in centimeters.
Iog10-
10~9
henry
(41)
Ch.
XII
TRANSMISSION
LINE PARAMETERS
425
r) to x = (D + r) has some effect

(D
in inducing a net emf in the two conductors connected in series to form
a coil. The effect is due to this flux linking all of conductor A and
only part of conductor B. Integrating between the limits x = r and
x = D includes the full effectiveness of the
flux from x = (D r) to x = D in caus
ing the inductance. This balances the par
tial effectiveness of the flux from x = D
to x = (D + r) which is neglected in
taking the limits from r to D. The flux
from x = (D + r) to x = o links both con
ductors and therefore produces equal and
opposing emf's around the loop. Hence
it has no net inductive effect. Equation
(41) gives the inductance of conductor A
due to all the flux on the outside of con
The flux within the conductor causes
ductor A which is effective.
some inductance which may be calculated as follows.
Assume that the current in conductor A is uniformly distributed
Let
be the current per unit area.
across the cross-section.
Refer
to the cross-section of conductor A shown in Fig. 13. The total current
responsible for the mmf causing flux through the element dx is wx2!'.
The flux included from x
/'
I')
mmf =

If
the permeability of the conductor material is unity, the reluctance of

the flux path formed by the element dx and a length of conductor I is
<R
dtb
= cgs units when x is in centimeters
lax
2irx
2irxl'l dx maxwells
(Idx)
The flux
d<f> links only the fibers of the conductor from the center to a
distance x or Kirx2 fibers. To obtain the flux which links the whole
conductor that produces the same effect as the actual flux which links
Kirx2 fibers, it is only necessary to find the flux linking Kwr2 fibers
(the entire conductor), which is equivalent to the flux d<t> linking Kirx2
Calling the flux in question d<t>e, we have for equivalent linkages
fibers.
d<t>eKfr2
or
d</>e
x2
~2
LINE CALCULATIONS
TRANSMISSION
426
Ch.XII
Hence
d0, =
^2
(2-irxI'l dx)
But TiT2/' is the total current 7.
Therefore
=
The inductance due to this flux is
no-9,
N*..10-9
ê = 1X7UO-9
-y- henry
7/2
Li
+ L2
The inductance per mile

= 0.5
miie
4.6052Z
Iog10^l
10~9
(41 ) and
henry
(42).
(43)
is
\l-
The total inductance of conductor A is the sum of equations
(42)
5280
30.48 10-*
= 0.805 10-*
+ 0.741 X KT3log10- henry
(44)
de
is
(44)
is
It
is
the working equation. Usually the reactance

found by multiplying the values obtained from equation
(44) by the angular velocity 2wf.
The defining equation
Capacitance between Wires and to Ground.
=
for capacitance
Q/V. The defining equation for difference
potential
TF
work
Equation
sired.
of
is
is
2.
charge
is
the
The difference of electrostatic potential between two conductors
work done in carrying
unit charge from the surface of one conductor
to the other.
Work
the product of force and the distance through
the
which the force acts. By definition,
all quantities are expressed
numerically
unit charge
cgs electrostatic system of units, the force on
is
if
in
is

+ 4.6052 X 5280 X 30.48 X VT Iog10-
Ch.
XII
LINE PARAMETERS
TRANSMISSION
427
equal to the electrostatic field intensity. The electrostatic field in

tensity at point p, Fig. 14, at a perpendicular distance of r centimeters
from a long straight wire is found as follows.
Let all quantities be expressed in the cgs electrostatic system of units,
and let a be the charge per unit length of wire. From Coulomb's law
= QQ'/d2 dynes.
Hence the force on a unit charge at point p due
to a length of conductor dl is
_ IXvdl
df
p2
where p is the distance in centimeters from p to dl.
As 8 varies between
minus and plus 90 (on the basis of an infinite length of wire), it is
pd0=dlcos0
df
FIG.
FIG. 15.
14.
apparent that all the components of df parallel to the wire add to zero.
Therefore only the components perpendicular to the conductor need be
added to obtain the resultant force on the unit charge.
df =
df
cos
<rdl
= 3- cos
add
r/cos
0
9 =
erpdO
=
6
ff
- cos
r
- cos
<r
/T/2
_*/>
add
8 i
8 d8
dynes
A
(45)
The force on the unit charge in Fig. 15 is due to the effect of conductor
A (say + charge) and that of conductor B (negative charge if A is
positive).
SA
*B =
-x
(46)
TRANSMISSION
428
LINE CALCULATIONS
(47)
The charge on the line for a length I is
<sl.
'iff log,
Therefore
al
XII
Ch.
4 log,
cgs esu
D ~
(48)
r now represents the radius of the conductor and is not the same
All quantities in equation (48)
in the derivation of equation (45).
where
as
are in the cgs or absolute
electrostatic
system of units, giving C in
esu
or statfarads.
Equation (48) gives the capacitance between two parallel wires.

The capacitance to ground or neutral is usually desired in the calcula
tion of transmission lines. Since the plane of neutral potential is
symmetrically located between positive and negative charges (assuming
a uniform dielectric such as air), the potential between one wire and
neutral,4 or what is also ground potential, is one-half of the potential

The preceding and following equations of capacitance are only approximately

correct because they are based on several assumptions which are only partially ful
This assumption
First, the charge on the conductor is assumed uniform.
filled.
requires in part that the conductors be removed an infinite distance from all charged
Under such conditions the
bodies and that the conductors are circular in shape.
distribution of the electrostatic field is pictured in Fig. 16.
Equipotential surfaces are those in which all electrostatic
lines of force enter and leave perpendicularly.
One
equipotential surface XX' is shown in Fig. 16. This

surface is at a distance halfway between the two con
ductors and is therefore at a potential midway between
the positively and negatively charged conductors.
Such
a surface is said to be at zero potential, and
_,
Fio.
,
16.
_Equipotential ...line
it
is some
times called the neutral plane between conductors, or

If the earth is considered a conduesimply the neutral.
tor and to be at zero potential,
it may be assumed to be
'
,
vv,
the s&mo M the equipotential plane XX . Hence the

potential and capacitance to earth or ground may be
taken the same as that to the equipotential surface XX'
Chareed'OWer
in Fig' 16 Provided D/2
relatively small compared
conductors
with the physical height of the conductor above actual
ground.
Even though all the above assumptions are not completely fulfilled, the
equations given yield results which are sufficiently accurate for most work concerning
XX' is
potential midway between the posilively charged top and

at
"
lines.
For more accurate derivations of capacitance
referred to works on electrostatics and electrodynamics.
transmission
the reader
is
Ch.
XII
LINE PARAMETERS
TRANSMISSION
--- ---
[given in equation (47)] between wires.
Cg =
and
al
2<T
LJ
log,
429
Hence
LJ
2 log,
esu
(49)
Expressed in farads per mile, equations (48) and (49) for the capacitance
between conductors and between one conductor and ground become :
^farada per mile
~_
-- X
1940
-
JT~^
logio
^ g farads per mile ~
3880
IP"11
X IP""
log 10
As long as
(50) and (51) are the working equations.
are expressed in the same units, the actual units are immaterial.
Equations
D and
Equations (44), (50), and (51) form the basis of tables wherein values
of L or C may be immediately determined when the size of wire and
spacings are known. Samples of tables where the quantities are ex
pressed in units per thousand feet are shown in Tables I and II.5
When equations (44), (50), and (51) are applied to three-phase
transmission the distance D is that for equilateral spacing, as shown in
Fig. 17. These equations are often applied to plane spacings, as shown
Equilateral
FIG. 17.
in Fig.
spacing
mission line.
18,
in which
of a trans-
cases
Fio.
is,
18.
Plane spacing of a transmission

line.
D is taken
as the geometric
v DiD2Ds. The results

D
that
accurate for most computations.
mean distance,
thus obtained are sufficiently
Reprinted by permission from "Electrical Engineers' Handbook:

Electric
Power," fourth edition, edited by Pender and Del Mar, pp. 14-39 and 14-34, John
Sons, Inc., 1949.
Wiley
&

TRANSMISSION
430
LINE CALCULATIONS
TABLE
SELF-INDUCTANCE
Millihenry*
Site of
Wire,
cir mils or
A.W.G.
Diam. of
Wire,
inches
1. 0000
FEET
12
18
24
30
0.05750
0.1245
0.1332
0.1456
0.1667
0.1755
0.1879
0.1915
0.2002
0.2126
0.2090
0.2178
0.2512
0.2600
0.2724
0.2 4?
0.2736
0.2301
0.2337
0.2425
0.2548
0.2235
0.2337
0.2388
0.2410
0.2512
0.2563
0.2657
0.2760
0.2810
0.2832
0.2935
0.2986
0.296)
0.2459
0.2529
0.2600
0.2634
0.2705
0.2775
0.2881
0.3057
0.3127
0.3198
0.3193
0.3263
0.3334
0.2846
0.2917
0.3058
0.3093
0.3164
0.3305
0.3269
0.3339
0.3481
0.3405
0.3475
0.3617
0.3447
0.3588
0.3729
0.3622
0.3763
0.3905
0.3758
0.3899
0.4041
0.3871
0.4046
0.4187
0.4329
0.4182
20
25
0.3916
0.4004
0.4127
0.4052
0.4144
0.4263
0.7071
0.06627
0.07863
350,000
250,000
0000
0.5916
0.5000
0.4600
0.08950
0.09976
0.1048
0.1565
0.1667
0.1718
0.1987
0.2090
000
00
0
0.4096
0.3648
0.3249
0.1119
0.1190
0.1260
0.1789
0.1860
0.2211
0.2001
0.2893
0.2576
0.2043
0.1331
0.1402
0.1543
0.2072
0.2213
0.2423
0.2494
0.2635
0.2671
0.2741
0.1685
0.1826
0.1967
0.2354
0.2496
0.2637
0.2777
0.2918
0.3060
0.3024
0.3165
0.3307
0.3199
0.2109
0.2250
0.2778
0.2920
0.3201
0.3448
0.3590
0.3623
0.3765
0.2391
0.3061
0.3731
0 . 3906
0. 1620
12
14
16
0.08081
Size of
Wire,
cir mila or
0.1285
0.1019
0.06408
0.05082
0. 1930
0.2282
0.2353
0.3342
0.3484
line
Wires, center to center
Inches between
0.8660
6
a
10
WIRES*
of each wire of a single-phase or of a symmetrical three-phase
0.2141
XII
OF SOLID NON-MAGNETIC
1.000,000
750,000
500,000

per 1000
Ch.
0.2883
0.3341
0.3482
0.2952
0.3022
0.4012
0.4153
0.2&4
0.3071
0.3122
0.4J23
0.4465
Feet between Wires, center to center
A.W.G.
1,000,000
750,000
500,000
0.2760
0.2847
0.3071
0.2971
0.2935
0.3023
0.3146
350,000
250,000
0000
0.3080
0.3182
0.3233
0.3255
0.3358
0.3408
0.3391
000
00
0
0.3304
0.3374
0.3445
2
4
0.3516
0.3586
0.3728
6
8
10
0.3869
12
14
16
0.4293
0.4435
0.4576
0.4011
0.4152
0.3182
0.3270
0.3393
0.3358
0.3445
0.3569
0.3494
0.3544
0.3502
0.3605
0.3656
0.3678
0.3780
0.3479
0.3550
0.3620
0.3615
0.3686
0.3756
0.3726
0.3797
0.3867
0.3691
0.3827
0.3898
0.4039
0.4045
0.4186
0.4327
0.4181
0.4469
0.4610
0.3762
0.3903
0.4751
0.3159
0.3282
10
0.3494
0.3581
0.3705
15
0.3741
0.3828
0.3952
0.4061
0.3831
0.3814
0.3916
0.3967
0.4163
0.4214
0.4236
0.4339
0.4390
0.4572
0.4475
0.4526
0.3902
0.3972
0.4043
0.4038
0.4108
0.4179
0.4285
0.4356
0.4426
0.4460
0.4531
0.4601
0.456
0.46t>7
0.4737
0.3938
0.4009
0.4150
0.4114
0.4184
0.4326
0.4250
0.4320
0.4462
0.4497
0.4568
0.4709
0.4672
0.4743
0. 4884
0.4808
0. 4C79
0.5020
0.4322
0.4463
0.4292
0.4433
0.4574
0.4467
0.4608
0.4750
0.4603
0.4744
0.4886
0.4850
0.4992
0.5133
0.5026
0.5167
0.5308
0.5162
0.5303
0.5444
0.4605
0.4746
0.4887
0.4716
0.4857
0.4998
0.4891
0.5027
0.5169
0.5310
0.5274
0.5416
0.5557
0.5450
0.5586
0.5727
0 iS6S
0.5033
0.5174
0.5591
0 5732
* The inductances given in this table also apply, with a practically negligible error (about 1 per
cent), to ordinary atranded wirea of the aame croet-Kction.
Line. A 60-cycle transmission

Example 2. Exact Solution of a Transmission
line 200 miles long consists of three No. 0000 solid conductors with 10-ft equilateral
Calculate the sending voltage when the receiver voltage is 110 kv between
spacing.
lines and when the line is supplying a balanced load of 18,000 kw at 0.8 power-factor
Also calculate the sending-end current and the efficiency of the line at 25C C.
lag.
Assume that the conductance to ground is negligible.

LINE CALCULATIONS
TRANSMISSION
432
Reactance per mile = 2* 60
6 =
"C
3880
l^mlle
11T4 = 0.788 ohm
20.9
Ck.
-2r/C
IP""
10_u famd
143Q
10810
-2*60 X
Susceptance per mile =
= g
- jb
Z = r +
VZY
jX
0.254
10~2
1(T /905
= 3.94
X10~5/90
-0.538 X 10-6mho
X KT6 /90
mho
jO.788 = 0.834 /71.050 ohms
0.834/71.05
0.538
= 0.538
10~6
1.05 0.538
V0.834/7
*
For I
= +J0.538
= 0.271
X l<r
1430
- 2.12 X
10~* /80.5
7-9.48 ohms
102
/9.48 mhos
miles,
= 200
Vr = 63,500 + JO volts
Ir = 118 7-36.9 amperes
/63.500 +
Z/Y\

= 47,800
/-36.9 X
118
3.94
j'16,800 volts
= (47i800
- jie.
= (51,300
- jlS.
V
= .54,400
7-19.4" /23.9
= 54,400 /4.5 volts
700
(14,610
= 21,400
/46.9"
= 21,400/23
volts
+r
2
= 54,400 /4.5
/ -23.9
+ 21,400 /23
+ J8355
= 54,200
+ J4270 +
= 73,880
+ J12.625 = 74,970 /9.7 volts
19,680
10J
/-9.48A
XII
Ch.
XII
EXACT SOLUTION OF A TRANSMISSION
LINE
The current at the sending end could be calculated in a similar way.

illustrative purposes it will be calculated from equation (27).
433
However,
for
I.
I, cosh VZYi +
Vr
VY/Z
sinh
VZYJ
The following relations are convenient to use when dealing with hyperbolic
functions
of complex angles:
sinh (x
y) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
cosh (x y) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
sinhj'x
jsinx
cosh jx = cos x
v/ZYJ
= 2.12
X IP"3
/80.5
= 0.424
/80.5
200
= 0.07
+ jO.418
cosh (0.07 + j'0.418) = cosh 0.07 cosh j'0.418 + sinh 0.07 sinh J0.418
= cosh 0.07 cos 0.418
= cosh 0.07 cos 23.9
= 1.00245
= 0.915
j sinh 0.07 sin 0.418

j
+ sinh 0.07 sin 23.9
+
0.9143 + jO.07
0.4051
+ jO.02835
sinh (0.07 + jO.418) = sinh 0.07 cosh jO.418 + cosh 0.07 sinh jO.418
= sinh 0.07 cos 23.9"
= 0.07
0.9143 +
- 0.0639 + jO.406
V. N/YTZ
V,
= 63,500
Vy/Z
sinh
0.254
VZYJ

= (118
I.
/-36.90)
10~2 /9.48
(0.915
0.4051
amperes
161.30/9.48
(0.0639
-0.66 + j'66.3
+./0.406)
amperes
+ yo.0284) = 88.4
- J62.1 - 0.66 +
= 88.4
j cosh 0.07 sin 23.9
jl. 00245
= 161.3
/9.48
=
I, cosh VzYi
- J62.1 amperes
y66.3
= 87.8 + j'4.2 = 87.9 /2.8" amperes

Aa a check on the sending voltage, V, will be calculated by the hyperbolic equation
Vr cosh
V.
= 63,500
= 58,100
= 73,800
VzYf + I, VzTY
sinh
VZYi
X 0.915/1.75 + (118/-36.90 X 3.94 X 102/-9.48)
(0.0639
+ jO.406)
+J1T70 + 15,700 + j'10,880

+ j'12,652 = 74,850 /9.7" volts
P.
= ot
+ v'i'
= 6,490,000
= 73,800
87.8 + 12,652
4.2
+ 53,100
= 6,543,000 watte per phase
Efficiency
- 0.917
If tables of complex hyperbolic functions are available, the hyperbolic solution

greatly simplified.
to
LINE CALCULATIONS
TRANSMISSION
434
Calculation
v =
ZY-(Rg
Rg
XII
of Velocity of Propagation.
ZY
Ch.
= [2.12
10-*]2 = 4.5
10~8
=0
bX
0.538
4.5
10~6
0.788 = -0.424
X 10-" +
4.24
X 10-"
10~B
= 2.09
X l<r
377
2 09
If the resistance and the inductance due to the flux within the conductor are neg
lected, the velocity from equation (40) is
1
V2.01
10-3
1430
X 10-"
= 186,400 miles per second, or the velocity of light
PROBLEMS
5. Solve Problem
1,
page 412, by the exact method of calculating
transmission
lines.
6.
Points A and B arc
150 miles apart and are connected by a parallel-wire
line
having parameters as follows:
iii
Effective
Shunted conductance
negligible.
is
with an impedance equal to its

assumed to be terminated at point
The line
when
Find the voltage, current, and power received at point
surge impedance.
of
mile
consists
of
one
mile
loop
50 volts at 1000 cycles are impressed at A.
(A
Use Vî as reference.
outgoing plus one mile of return conductor.)
7. Calculate by means of the formula the inductance in henrys per mile of
is 7.
feet.
No. 0000 wire with an equilateral spacing of
8. Calculate the capacitance per mile between wires and between one wire and
neutral or ground for the line in Problem
150 miles long and consists of three
9.
3-phase 60-cycle transmission line
No. 0000 wires spaced at corners of an equilateral triangle which are 15 feet apart.
used.
if
is
if
I)
the line
is
at
lagging
if
is
to deliver 138,000 line-to-line volts and 45,000 kw total power at 0.8 p.f.
the receiver.
Calculate the required sending-end voltage, current,
the nominal
S
line
used.
power factor, and efficiency of transmission
Use Vime-to-neutrai as reference.
bottom of page 431 for resistance of No. 0000 wire.
the nominal ir line
employed.
10. Work Problem
the Steinmetz three-condenser method of representing
11. Work Problem
The line
is

Effective
resistance per loop mile at 1000 cycles, 60 ohms

inductance per loop mile at 1000 cycles, 0.0042 henry
capacitance per loop mile at 1000 cycles, 0.00755
is
Effective
Ch.
XII
PROBLEMS
435
12. Work Problem 9 if the exact method of calculating long lines is employed.
13. Calculate the velocity of propagation of the wave in Problem 12.
14. (a) If 138,000 line-to-line volts were maintained at the sending end of the
line in Problem 9, what would be the receiver-end voltage with the receiver end
open? Employ the exact method of solution.
(6) What is the magnitude of the
direct
wave at the receiver?

(c) of the reflected wave?
16. What is the velocity of propagation of the wave in Problem C?
16. What is the attenuation in decibels per mile of the transmission line described

in Problem
6?
CHAPTER
XIII
ELECTRIC WAVE FILTERS

The frequency characteristics of certain types of networks can be
to separate waves of different frequencies.
The separation
may be effected primarily for the purpose of selecting a desired band
of frequencies or for the purpose of rejecting an undesired band. Se
lected bands are called pass or transmission bands, and rejected bands
are called stop or attenuation bands.
Any network which possesses
definite properties of frequency discrimination and which is capable
of separating electric waves of different frequencies is called an electric
wave filter or, simply, & filter.
Selective Properties of Circuit Elements and Elementary Circuits.
Single reactive circuit elements are sometimes employed to pass or
reject frequency bands when only broad discrimination is to be made.
Thus blocking condensers in many vacuum tube circuits discriminate
very satisfactorily between waves of zero frequency (direct current)
Inductance coils can be employed to pass
and high-frequency waves.
direct current and practically eliminate frequencies which are of the
order of 1000 kilocycles.
A high-frequency disturbance can be
High-frequency Line Drain.
line with a condenser arrange
a
two-wire
from
low-frequency,
drained
The condensers constitute a
ment similar to that shown in Fig. la.

employed
(b)
(a)
Flo.
1.
Devices for draining induced disturbances from two-wire lines.
relatively high impedance to the low-frequency line voltage, both lineto-line and line-to-ground.
At the same time a relatively low line-toground impedance is presented to the high-frequency variation which in
the present case is assumed to be the result of an induced disturbance.
436
Ch.
XIII
TYPICAL SMOOTHING
NETWORK
437
is
is
If,
A method sometimes used to drain a

Lore-Frequency Line Drain.
low-frequency induced disturbance from a two-wire line is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 16. The drain coil is ironclad and offers a rela
tively high impedance to current which tends to flow from line-to-line.
however, both lines are raised simultaneously above (or below)
ground potential by induction, the currents which flow from the lines
to ground magnetize the core in opposite directions. With respect to
the induced currents, the two halves of the coil are in series opposition
with the result that the impedances offered to these currents to ground
are relatively very low. The device can be used to drain charges from
telephone lines which are electrostatically induced from neighboring
power lines.
very common form of filter
the
Typical Smoothing Network.
in
2.
This
Fig.
particular type of filter
elementary ir-section shown
section
widely used to give d-c output from rectified a-c wave forms.
Thermionic
rectifier
Fia.
2.
A commonly
network
used filter section.
The output voltage of
the rectifying device, namely, that which appears

terminals of the filter section, will take the following
across the input

general form
v
= Vdc
Vmi sin
(coi<
+ ai) + higher harmonics
the average value of the rectified wave and u\

the angular
where Vdc
velocity of the lowest-frequency component present in the voltage vari
shown in Oscillogram la.
ation. A typical voltage input variation
If, for example, both halves of 60-cycle wave are rectified sym
metrically, the lowest frequency component in the rectified voltage
wave will be that of 120 cycles, in which case ui = 754 radians per
generally equal to the
second. In unsymmetrical rectification u\
being
fundamental angular velocity of the alternating variation which
rectified.
Under ideal conditions the filter section shown in Fig.
is
is
is
is
is

Smoothing
should pass
438
Ch.
XIII
of zero frequency with no attenuation and absolutely stop

waves which are of other than zero frequency. Obviously, these ideal
conditions of operation can only be approached in practice, but the
waves

(b)
(c)
OSCILLOORAM
1.
(a) Rectified a-c wave,

(6) Rectified a-c wave,
(c) Rectified a-c wave,
(d) Rectified a-c wave,
difference
between
no filtering.
choke filtering only.
choke and input condenser filtering.
complete ir-section filtering.
(See Fig. 2.)
ideal operation and actual operation can be made
small by proper design.

See Oscillogram Id.
For full-wave, 60-cycle rectification satisfactory filtering can usually
be obtained if Ci and C2 of Fig. 2 are about 4 or 5 pf each and L is
exceedingly
Ch.
XIII
IMPEDANCES OF FOUR-TERMINAL NETWORKS
about 30 or 40 henrys.
The permissible
voltage regulation will, to a

that can be present
In any case R is
in the inductance coil in any particular instance.
very small as compared with uiL. The result is that, when the irsection is energized with a rectified voltage, it presents a relatively low
impedance to zero-frequency current. The impedances offered to other
than zero-frequency currents are relatively very high.
If, for example, L = 30 henrys and &>i is 754 radians per second, the
series impedance of the filter section to the u\ component of current is
approximately 22,600 ohms. The series impedances to the higherThe series im
frequency components are proportionately greater.
filter
section
to
the
d-c
of
component
of
the
current
may, in a
pedance
particular case, be only 20 or 30 ohms. Therefore, the inductance coil
acting by itself will tend to smooth out the rectified wave as shown in
Oscillogram 16.
The input condenser, Ci, is an important member of the filter section,
although it is entirely possible to design a smoothing network which
does not employ a condenser at the Ci position shown in Fig. 2. It
will be noted that C\ is placed directly across the output terminals of
It provides a relatively low-impedance path for
the rectifying device.
The anode-cathode impedance of the tube may be
all a-c components.
10 or 20 times greater than 1/wiCi, in which case the voltage drop across
Ci is only a small fraction of the total drop due to the a-c components
of the rectified voltage. This aids materially in the smoothing process
but at the same time increases the actual plate current of the rectifying
Filter sections which employ a condenser directly across the
elements.
terminals of the rectifying device are called condenser input sections.1
A complete analysis of the composite circuit shown in Fig. 2 is compli
cated by the presence of the transformer, tube, and load impedances and
will not be undertaken at this time. Actually the smoothing network or
ripple filter shown in Fig. 2 is a particular form of low-pass filter, the
general theory of which is considered on pages 405-409 of the present
large extent,

439
determine
the amount of resistance
chapter.
Most filter sections
Image Impedances of Four-Terminal Networks.
take the form of a four-terminal network, and as such they possess one
pair of input terminals and one pair of output terminals. With this
arrangement of terminals, a filter section can be inserted directly into
a two-wire line.
General four-terminal network theory is rather elaborate and is not
For details see "Electrical Engineers' Handbook: Electric Communication and
Electronics," fourth edition, edited by Pender and Mcllwain, pp. 7-100, 7-108,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950.
1
440
Ch.
XIII
to be suitable first-course material. There are certain as

pects of the subject, however, that are essential to a proper understand
ing of elementary filter theory. One of these is the concept of image
considered
impedances.
Output
Input
t
S^
1
Terminals

FIG.
3.
Four-terminal
network
H2
4-Ztr*.
1
Terminals
Four-terminal network terminated on the image impedance
basis.
The rectangle shown in Fig. 3 is assumed to be any form of fourterminal network, the internal circuit elements of which may or may
not be accessible.
It is also assumed that the individual circuit ele
ments are linear. Circuit elements are linear if effects are proportional
to causes, for example, if currents are proportional to applied voltages.
The image impedances of a four-terminal network are called Zn and
Z12 and are defined in the following manner.
(Refer to Fig. 3. ) If the
impedance across the input terminals (looking into the network) is Zn
when the output terminals are closed through ZJ2, and if the impedance
across the output terminals (looking into the network) is Z/2 when the
input terminals are closed through Zn, then Zn and Z/2 are called the
If a four-terminal network is termi
unage impedances of the network.
nated in its image impedances, Zn and ZJ2, the impedance looking either
way from the input terminals is Z/j and the impedance looking either di
rection from the output terminals is Z/2. The network is correctly
matched when the input impedance is Zn and the output impedance is
Z/2 and under these conditions the network is said to be terminated
on the image basis.
A special case of image impedance termination is employed in ele
mentary filter theory. The assumption is made that Z/j = Z/2, and
this particular value of impedance is called the characteristic impedance
of the filter section.
The image impedance at either end of a given network can be de
termined from the open-circuit and short-circuit impedances.
By
open-circuit impedance, Z^, is meant the impedance looking into one
set of terminals when the other set of terminals is open-circuited.
By
short-circuit impedance, Z,.c, is meant the impedance looking into one
set of terminals when the other set of terminals is short-circuited.
It
can be shown that image impedance at either end of a four-terminal
network is the geometric mean of the open-circuit and short-circuit
impedances.
Ch.
XIII
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCES
441
Thus in Fig. 3:
(1)
and
(2)
Generalized proofs of the above equations will not be given but it

will be shown presently that the relations stated are correct when
Z/i = Z/2, the condition which is of special importance in elementary
filter theory.
Characteristic Impedances of T- and --Sections.
The basic units
of elementary filter theory are the symmetrical T- and ir-sections shown
in Fig. 4. Although both of these sections are essentially three-terminal
networks, they are usually inserted into a two-wire line in the same
manner as a four-terminal network. Viewed as three-terminal net
works, the T-section is a wye-connected set of impedances and the
ir-section is a delta-connected set of impedances.
It should not be sup
posed that the Z\ and Z2 values given in Fig. 4a and Fig. 46 are, in
z,rf-
r=i
zou,-z0i
^>
'-}
^>
Jf~
z.
v2'
(a)
N.
(6)
Flo.
4.
Symmetrical
T-
and ir-sections.
The circuit elements are

equivalent wye and delta values.
in order to make the algebraic ex
usually labeled as indicated in Fig.
of
the
for
several
filtering characteristics the same for both
pressions
the T- and ^-sections.
The series impedance of a symmetrical T-section
composed of two
similar units, each of which
labeled Zi/2 in Fig. 4a. The impedance
labeled Z2 in Fig. 4a called the shunt impedance of the T-section. The
composed of two equal
shunt impedance of a symmetrical ir-section
branches, each labeled 2Z2 in Fig. 46, and these shunt branches are lo
the series and shunt
cated on either side of the series impedance Zi.
ladder structures
impedances are designated in accordance with Fig.
formed by the cascade arrangement of successive sections are generally
similar.
(See Fig. 10 and Fig. 11.)
If the output terminals of the T-section shown in Fig. 4a are closed
through an impedance ZoT, the impedance across the input terminals
is
is
general,
4,
If
is
is

|J!
J
|
Z2
v,'
Zl
2l
2
i-
IS
*-*!
442
(looking into the network) is:
Z2
In order for
Z,-n
to equal Zor,
/Zi
-5-
+ Zor
Ch.XJll
\)
it follows that :
7
-^ +
7
*>
(4)
The above equation may be solved for ZOT and the result stated in terms
of Zi and Z2.
Thus it can be shown that the characteristic impedance of
the T-section
is :
(5)
If the output terminals of the 7r-section shown in Fig. 46 are closed

through an impedance Z0]r, the impedance across the input terminals
(looking into the network) is:

Zin =
In order to
determine
-3
2Z2ZOT
~'
'
(6)
the conditions under which Z,-n is equal to %

= ZOT in the above equation and solve
it is simply necessary to set Ztn
the resulting equation for ZOT. After Z,n has been set equal to
and all fractions cleared, it will be found that:
Zn* (Zi + 4Z2)

From which
the characteristic impedance
Zi + 4Z2
Zn
4ZxZ22
of the v-section is
PI
Equations (5) and (7) are important relations in filter theory because
they define the characteristic impedances ZOT and Zm in terms of the
series and shunt elements out of which the T- and jr-sections are com-
Ch.XIII
posed.
the
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCES
If
443
a filter section is terminated in its characteristic impedance,
impedance
is the same
across the input terminals (looking into the network)

impedance.
as the receiving-end
(The importance of
designing filter sections to have particular characteristic impedances

will become more evident after composite filter sections are studied.)
It should be noted that a given filter section terminated at both ends
in its characteristic impedance is terminated on the image basis and that
in this particular case Z/i andZ/2 are equal. (See Fig. 3.) Reference
to equations (5) and (7) will show that:
ZorZo-r
Zn
and
= ZjZ2
(8)
(9)

Equations (8) and (9) define a rather important relationship that exists
between the characteristic impedances of T- and Tr-sections, the Zt's
and Z2's of which are equal.
Filter theory is based upon Zi, Z2, ZOT, and ZOT to such an extent that
the physical significance of each of these four impedances should be
clearly understood. The reader who is unfamiliar with filter theory
nomenclature should at this stage review the definitions which have been
given for Z1} Z2, ZoT, and Zoir. [See Fig. 4 and equations (5) and (7).]
Example 1. In Fig. 4a, let each Zi/2 take the form of an inductance coil, the
inductance of which is 0.047 henry and the resistance of which is 1 ohm. The shunt
arm, namely, Zj, is to take the form of a 300-A<f condenser. (Note: This is an uncon
ventional set of parameters for this type of filter section hut since some of the experi
mental results which follow are based upon these particular values they will be
used here to illustrate the calculation of Z0r-)
The method of calculating ZOT at 50 cycles is as follows:
22 +ju
&
Zi
= 1
+ J14.77
= 29.6 /86.1" ohms
(Full
series arm impedance. )

= 10-61
.J (29.6
I
/Sfi.l") (10.61 /-90) +
= 9.83 /2.5
= 9.81
ohms
14.8/86.1
7-90
ohms
(29.6 /86.10)2
+ jO.43 ohms
The physical significance of the above value of ZOT is that, if an impedance of

9.83 /2.5 ohms is placed across the output terminals of this symmetrical T-section,
the impedance looking into the input terminals is also 9.83 /2.5 ohms.
444
Ck.
XIII
1.
Neglect the resistances of the two inductance coils that form the
impedance of the filter section in the illustrative example given above and
find ZOT at 50 cycles and at 100 cycles.
(It may be of interest to know that this
jymmetrical T-section forms a low-pass filter that passes all frequencies up to 60
Problem
series
cycles and attenuates those above 60 cycles.)

Ana. : At 50 cycles, ZoT =
At
100 cycles,
Zor
9.76 /0 ohms.
= 23.65
90 ohms.
all
Problem 2. The series impedance, Z\, of a symmetrical T-section (like that shown
in Fig. 46) consists of a 0.02-henry inductance coil, the resistance of which is assumed
to be negligibly small. Each of the shunt arms, namely, 2Zs, is composed of a 2.0-4
condenser.
(This symmetrical 7r-section forms a low-pass filter which passes
frequencies below 900 cycles without attenuation as will be shown later.)
Find the characteristic impedance of this section at 200 cycles and at 2000
Use equation (7) and recognize that
Zi
0.02w /90
and
Z2 =
Ans.:
At
At
106
/-
cycles.
90 ohms
200 cycles, Zor = 71.8 ,/0 ohms.

2000 cycles, Zolr = 48
/-
90" ohms.
Function of Open-Circuit and ShortCharacteristic Impedance as

Reference
to
Circuit Impedances.
Fig. 5a will show that the openT-Fection (looking into the section) is:
circuit impedance of
Fiu.
. and Z,c
5.
of a symmetrical T-section.
When the output terminals are short-circuited as shown in Fig.

impedance of the T-section (looking into the section) is:
The geometric mean of
z.
5b the
(11)
2

(10)
Z0-c and Zs.c is:
(12)
Ch.
XIII
OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCES
445
It has already been shown that

ZoT
JZfa
--
[See equation
(5).]
Therefore,
(13)
oT
The fact that
equivalent to the geometric mean of Z0.c and Z,.c

provides the basis for a simple experimental method of determining the
characteristic impedance of a given section.
ZOT is
(b)
and Z,c of a symmetrical T-section.
Reference to Fig. 6a will show that the open-circuit impedance of a

symmetrical ir-section (looking into the section) is:
" "
If
2Z2(Zl + 2Z2)
Zt + 4Z2
the output terminals of the rr-section are short-circuited as shown in
Fig.
66, the
input impedance is :
2Z2Zt
Comparison of the above relation with equation (7) will show that:
Zor
VZ0.CZ,.C
(17)
Equations (13) and (17) indicate that the characteristic impedance of

either the T- or T-section is equal to the geometric mean of their respec
It should be evident that the
tive open- and short-circuit impedances.
symbols Zo_c and Z,.e in equations (13) and ( 17) refer to open- and shortcircuit impedances of the particular section that Is under investigation.
In general ZOT ^ ZOOI.
Problem 3.
Referring to Fig. 7 find (a>

Ans.: (a) 186.2 /-no0,
Z0.e, (b)
(b) 26.0
Z,.,, and fc) ZoT at 200 cycles.

Mr, and (c) W 5 /0 ohms.
446
Problem
4.
Ch.
XIII
Referring to Fig. 8, find (a) Z0-c, (6) Z,.c, and (c) 2or at 200 cycles.
-90, (6) 26.8 /90, and (c) 71.8 /0 ohms.
Am.:
(a) 192.5
il=0.01
.'
-sr
2
henry
0.02 henry
TKSB
=.
2=4/*
Flo.
7.
Fio.
8. A particular symmetrical T-section

for use in connection with Problem 4.
A particular symmetrical T-section

for use with Problem 3.
The T- and
Physical Operation of Symmetrical T- and ir-Sections.
4
possess some remarkable properties when their
7r-sections shown in Fig.
output terminals are connected to the characteristic impedances ZoT
Before considering the filtering properties of these
and Zor respectively.
basic
some
of
the
relationships that follow directly from ele
sections,
mentary circuit theory will be established.
The conditions imposed on equations (4) and (6), page 442, make
=
Hence Ii = Vi/Z0andI2 = V2/Z0,
Z|n
Zout for either type of section.
where Z0 symbolizes the characteristic impedance of the particular type
It follows directly that
of section considered.
Ii
Vi
S"vi
where the subscripts
and
Wi
iFa
FI/I
cos 0
TvT^
/i2
7?
refer to input quantities and the subscripts 2
Since the impedance looking into the input

refer to output quantities.
terminals is the same as the terminating impedance, the angle between
V] and Ii is equal to the angle between V2 and I2. This angle is sym
bolized as 6 in equation (18) and is equal to tan"1 (X0/R0), where X0
and R0 are the reactive and resistive components of the characteristic
The basic relationships contained in equation (18) are
impedance Z0.
illustrated photographically for a particular T-section in Oscillogram 2,
page 447. These relationships will be used later in defining the attenua
tion of filter sections.
The next basic relationship to be established is that the ratio of input
current to output current, namely, I]/I2, is completely defined by the
series arm impedance (Zi) and the shunt arm impedance (Z2) out of
For the T-section
which the symmetrical T- or ir-section is composed.
4a
it
is
from
Kirchhoff's
emf
law
that
plain
shown in Fig.
ZorI2
V,
Zorl,
(19)
Ch.
XIII
SYMMETRICAL T- AND IT-SECTIONS
447
Whence
I
Ref erring to Fig.
and that
46
(for T-sections)
for the ir-section and remembering that

current IKrief in the series arm is:
(20)
I\Zo
V2 = I2ZOT, the
IlZ0
from which
(2Z2
I2Z0
~~
ZOT)
(2Z2
(21)
ZOT)
(
and
2Z2
2Z2
(23)
ZOT
current respectively.
it
Illustrating attenuation and phase shift in a symmetrical T-section.

2.
OBCILLOORAM
rj and
are input voltage and current respectively,
are output voltage and
BI and
t'i

Reference to equations (20) and (23) above and to equations (5) and
(7), page 442, will show that the ratio Ii/Ia is denned wholly in terms of
It will be shown later that the
Zt and Z2 for either T- or T-sections.
448
Ch.
XIII
right members of equations (20) and (23) are identically equal when
written wholly in terms of 1\ and Z2. For the present, equation (20)
will be used to define the ratio l\/lz in T-sections and equation (23) will
be used to define this ratio in n-sections.
Example 2. Refer to the symmetrical T-section shown in Fig. 9a.
Let it be
required to evaluate the ratio Ii/l2 at/ = 50 cycles. Since this is the same T-section
as described in example 1, page 443, the results of example 1 may be used here to
define Zi, Zj, and ZOT.
=
(1
+ J14.77), Zj
= (0
-jlO.61),
and
ZoT = (9.81
(9.81
+J0.43) +
(1
+J14.77)
(9.81
+J0.43)
(1
+J14.77)
(10.81
+yi5.20)
(8.81
-;14.34)
18.7 /54.6
>0.43)
ohms
= 1.11 /113
1,-T,
in

I|
0.047 henry
in
0.047
BTO
Z,
V,
C2=300/f
(a)
FIG. 9.
(b)
A symmetrical T-section terminated in its characteristic
impedance,
together
with a vector diagram of the currents and voltages in a particular case.
The physical significance of the above complex number
is that the magnitude

of
leads It by 113. (See
is 1.11 times as great as the magnitude of I2 and that
Fig. 9b.) It will be shown presently that the ratio /i//2 defines the attenuation of
defines the phase shift of
the filter section and that the associated angle of
the section.
A worthwhile exercise for the student at this stage is that of correlating the results
given above with those determined by elementary circuit analysis.
Let V] of Fig. 9a
= 100
by ordinary methods.
The results are
/0 volts and solve for Ii and
Ii
Ii
Ij/Ij
Ij
illustrated in Fig. 96 and in Oscillogram 2 which is a photographic

and 12 for the particular T-scction shown in Fig. 9o.
t'2,
record of t\, i\,
SYMMETRICAL T- AND T-SECTIONS
CH.XIII
449
Ii/Ij
Let it be required to find the ratio

in Fig. 9a if the resistances
the inductance coils are neglected, assuming that the frequency of the supply
voltage is 50 cycles.
Example 3.
of
Z2= (0-J10.61),
= (0 + J14.77),
v'ZiZ2 + (Z!/2)2
=
V313.4
= (J14.77)2
V(J29.54)(-J10.61) + (JU.77?
= -s/9^2
218.2
^f
9.76/0 ohms
Employing equation (20):
l!
9.76+J14.77
I2
9.76
17.7/56.5
- J14.77
1/113
17.7/-56.50
Thus the output current Is is shown to be as great in magnitude as the input current
Ii. This condition exists generally in symmetrical T- and jr-sections when the
for the fre
resistances are negligibly small provided the characteristic.impedance
quency considered is a pure ohmic resistance.
Example
4.
current ratio
Let it be required to find the characteristic impedance and the

Ii/l2 in Fig. 9a if the frequency of the supply is 100 cycles and if the
resistances of the inductance coils are neglected.

=
ZoT =
=
(0+J29.54),

(0-J5.305),
V0'59.08)(-j5.305) +
V (313/0)
= -y/560
The characteristic
Zt

- =
0'29.54)z
C/29-54)2
+ (873/ + 1800)
+180 = 23.66 '90 ohms
impedance of the filter section has changed from a pure resistance
(of 9.76 ohms) to a pure inductive reactance of 23.66 ohms as a result of changing
the frequency from 50 cycles to 100 cycles. Note: The values of LI and C2 used in
Fig. 9a make this section a low-pass filter section which starts to attenuate at 60
cycles, as will be shown later. See equation (55), page 466. At 100 cycles:
'
(23.66
(23.66
ANT) +
90
'j
53.2/90
5.88
t will be observed that,

hat marked attenuation
/i
'-90
(29.54
/90)
(29.54/90)
9.04/ + 1800
/i
at 100 cycles,
is 9.04 times as great as
which indicates
is taking place.
It will also Vie observed that the phase
is 180, a condition that always obtains in a resistanceless filter section which
operating in the attenuation band and which is terminated in its characteristic
lift
,
apeclanee.
importance of the ratio
I\ /Iz
has been emphasized in the foregoing
450
Ch.
Xlll
examples because the physical operation of a filter section is concisely

defined by this ratio.
Problem
6.
Ii/Ij
Find the ratio
of the symmetrical
Fig.
x-section shown in
Neglect the resistance of the inductance

page 446, at 200 cycles and at 2000 cycles.
coil and recognize that Zi = (0 + jO.OZu) is the full series arm and that Z =
(0
106\
j
is the combined
arm since the total series inductance
shunt
0.02 henry and the combined shunt capacitance

Fig. 8.)
Note also that 2Z2 =
I 0
-j
2">/
Ans.:
(C2) is 4 id.
(See
Fig.
(Li)
4fe
is
and
ohms.
Ii/lt
At
200 cycles
At
2000 cycles
I/ +20.5.
Ii/I2
= 10.6
/
-180.
Problem 6. Find the current ratio Ii/l2 of the symmetrical T-section shown in
Neglect the resistances of the
Fig. 7, page 446, at 200 cycles and at 2000 cycles.
inductance coils.
Ans.: At 200 cycles I i/I2 = 1 20.5.

At
2000 cycles
Ii/Iz
10.6/ + 1800.
Transmission Constant of a Filter Section. A transmission constant

which applies to a generator feeding a resistance load has been defined
in equation (80), page 91. It will be remembered that the reference
used in that case was selected with a view toward including the effects
of a possible mismatch between the resistance of the generator and the
Another transmission constant which applies
resistance of the load.
to long lines was used in Chapter XII. In this case it was called the
propagation constant, the term usually employed for the transmission
constant of long lines.
Where a filter section or other four-terminal network is terminated
on an image impedance basis as shown in Fig. 3, the impedance match
between the generator and load is already effected and the definition of
the transmission constant is somewhat different from that given in
equation (80), page 91. Assuming that the filter section is terminated
on an image impedance basis and that we wish to specify a measure of
the attenuation and phase shift of the filter itself, we employ the follow
ing definition of the transmission constant :
<y
where
= a
j|3 = log,
ZT'
LH
= log,
/I2
!
Vi/l!
i/l!
log,
-Ii
12
(24)
IT
is the transfer impedance from the input terminals of the filter
Zji
is the image impedance seen looking to the right of the input
section to the output terminals,

terminals,
namely,
namely,
V^
/I2
Vi /Ii
is called the attenuation of the filter section
0 is called the phase-shift
constant of the filter section.
Ch.
XIII
UNITS OF ATTENUATION OR TRANSMISSION
Actually
the a and
LOSS
451
in equation (24) apply to any fourterminal network which is terminated on an image impedance basis as
shown in Fig. 3. As such they apply directly to a filter section which
is terminated in its characteristic impedance, since characteristic im
pedance termination is but a special case of image impedance termina
tion where Z/i = Z/2.
The attenuation, a, is a measure of the ratio of the power input to the
power output of a filter section which is terminated in its characteristic
impedance, since under these conditions the real part of equation (24)
may be written as:
a
Iog'
/3
defined
./riio
V/
2
where
7?n
/i2/?,,
1.
9
2
loe
is the resistive component of
TW
I2 KQ
1.
9
2
los
Wl
W
W2
(25)
ZQ
W\ is the power entering the input terminals

Wz is the power leaving the output terminals.
From equation (24) it is plain that
=
where # =

shown in Fig.
/, //2
= angle of lead of
/3
As applied to
eV"
a series
l\
Kte
with respect to
or cascade arrangement
(26)
1%.
of filter sections like those
10, page 453:
and the transmission constant (together with the attenuation and phaseshift) may be reckoned on a per section (or Ii /I2) basis or on a combined
basis of Ii /I4, since both arrangements are presumably terminated on

a characteristic impedance basis.
Units of Attenuation or Transmission Loss. Filter section attenu
ation is usually expressed in either nepers or decibels.
(See pages 91-92. )
These units of transmission loss are both defined on a logarithmic basis,
since their greatest field of application is in the transmission of sound,
the loudness of which is a logarithmic function of the sound energy.
The general definition of attenuation expressed in nepers
The Neper.
is:
...
/,,
\
(Attenuation m nepers) =
"
f ilog, -'*
1
(Kencrnl)
(reference)
/r*n\
(28)
452
(Attenuation in nepers) =
1.151
Ch.
,.!)
t genera
logio ...
'' (reference)
XIII
(29)
where Wiener,,!) is any particular power level which might be under dis
cussion
TF(refcrence)
is the power
^(general)
level employed
from which
as reference
is to be measured.
Reference to equation (18) or to equation (25) will show that, for a

filter section which is terminated in its characteristic impedance, the
output power W% is employed as the reference power level and
(Attenuation in nepers)
If
loge
\V
W2
5 logt
1%
/?
HQ
log,
ta =
(30;
the filter section is not terminated in its characteristic impedance.
equation (28) is employed and W\ is used for
lor \\
W7(,,enerai)
and W2 is used
(reference)-
The decibel is an arbitrarily defined unit of trans

(or gain) which has come into general use since about
2
1925.
The customary abbreviation is db. The general definition of
attenuation expressed in decibels is
The Decibel.
mission
loss
(Attenuation in decibels)
= 10 loglo
''^(general)
(31
(reference)

where
W7(generai)
and
T-F(reference)
have the same meanings
as
employed
in connection with equation (28).

If the filter section is terminated on a characteristic impedance basis,
reference to equation (18) or to equation (25) will show that
[I'2J
= 20 login
=10 logio
= 8.686a
2<*
(32)
Comparison of equations (30) and (32) will show that the decibel is a
transmission unit which is 1 /8.G86 times as large as the neper (or napier).
In practice the decibel is used almost exclusively in the United States.
Because of its rationality, the neper is widely used in theoretical deriva
tions.
It
should be noted that transmission loss (or attenuation) units define

power ratios and under special conditions define current and voltage
Originally the decibel was palled the " transmission unit " (abbreviated TU).
" The Transmission Unit and Telephone Transmission Reference Systems,"
See
by \V. H. Martin, Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 3, p. 400.
2
Ch.XIII
UNITS OF ATTENUATION OR TRANSMISSION
LOSS
453
These units do not specify the actual loss (or gain) in either
If, for example, it is known that the ratio of
watts, amperes, or volts.
power input to power output in a particular case is 3, the transmission
loss or attenuation is:
ratios.
log, 3 = 0.55 neper
or
10 logio 3 = 4.77 decibels
If the current ratio is 3 and the input and output impedances are equal,
transmission loss is:
the
log,
32
= 1.1 nepers
or
10 logio 32 = 9.54 decibels
The actual values of power or current are not specified in the statements
given above, only logarithmic functions of the ratios.
Three symmetrical T-sections terminated on a characteristic impedance
FIG. 10.
Example
5.
If
basis.
the vector current ratio per section of each of the three T-sections

shown in Fig. 10 is 3/30 or 3,Ar/6 radian:
14
13
12
from which
= 3
= 30
On a three-section
or
or
= log, 3 = 1.1 neper per section
ir/6 radian, phase shift of
1%
behind
Ii
basis:
27/90
From
which the attenuation
and phase shift of the three sections may be calcu
lated as
" = 27
or
a3 = log, 27 =
3.3 nepers
= 28.6 decibels
33
]r/2 radians, phase shift of 14 behind Ii.

The current ratio in a particular filter section is known to be
If the section is terminated in its charac13 as in example 2, page 448.
= 90
Problem
1.11
/1
or
7.
:eristic impedance, find the attenuation in nepers and in decitels.

Ans.: 0.1043 neper, 0.905 decibel.
Problem 8. Calculate the attenuation in deciliels and in nepers for the various
In the case of the current ratios, it is
>ower and current ratios indicated below.
454
Ch.
XIII
assumed that the filter sections to which they apply are terminated on a character
istic impedance basis. The few calculated values that appear in the table may l<e
used as guide.
Wi/Wi
db
10
10
nepers
0
1.15
/1//2
db
nepers
10
20
2.3
100
100
1,000
1,000
5,000
10,000
With respect to a specified reference power level, any particular circuit

on whether
power may be measured in plus or minus decibels, depending
or less than the reference power level.

Several reference power
engineering,
namely, 6 milliwatts in telephone circuits, 12.5 milliwatts in public
address systems, and a relatively new reference level which is designed
to be generally applicable and which is specified as " 1 milliwatt in
GOO ohms."
Thus, 6 milliwatts might be reckoned as 10 logio (6/1) =
db
with
respect to a 1-milliwatt reference or as 10 logio (6/12.5) =
+7.78
3.19 db with respect to a 12.5-milliwatt reference.
General Considerations. Elementary filter theory concerns itself
with uniform ladder structures which are composed of either conven
tional T- or Tr-sections. With the definitions which have been given to
Zi and Z2 in T- and 7r-sections, the ladder structures formed by cascade
arrangements of these sections are equivalent except for their termina
the circuit power
is greater

levels have been used in sound
tions.
Figure 10 illustrates a ladder structure composed of symmetrical

T-sections which is midseries terminated. A ladder structure is said to
be midseries terminated when it is terminated at the midpoint of a
It will be noted that g is the midpoint of such a
series arm such as wx.
Under
ideal
conditions the structure is terminated at both
series arm.
sending and receiving ends in impedances which are equal to the charac
teristic impedance of a T-scction, namely, ZoT.
(Methods will be con
sidered later whereby generating devices of one impedance can be
properly matched to a load device of a different impedance.)
Figure 11 illustrates a ladder structure composed of symmetrical
Comparison of Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 will show the general
ir-sections.
circuit equivalence of T- and 7r-sections except for the terminations.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 11 may be thought of as symmetrical
T-scctions which are terminated at planes such that the shunt arm Z->
is bisected longitudinally, leaving 2Z2 directly across the input and
This form of termination is called midshunt ter
output terminals.
Ch.
XIII
FUNDAMENTAL FILTER EQUATION
455
It has a certain practical significance which will be discussed

mination.
in a later article.
A low-pass filter is a network designed to pass currents of all frequen
cies below a critical or cut-off frequency and materially to reduce the
amplitude of currents of all frequencies above this critical frequency.
Under certain ideal conditions which will be considered, a low-pass filter
will pass all frequencies from zero up to a predetermined number of cycles
with theoretical zero attenuation. The frequency at which the theoreti
cal attenuation takes on a finite value is called the cut-off frequency.
FIG.
11.
Three symmetrical ir-sections
terminated on a characteristic impedance
basis.
The general arrangements of circuit elements for elementary low-pass

filter sections are illustrated in Fig. 14, page 466.
high-pass filter is a network designed to pass currents of all frequen
cies above a critical or cut-off frequency and materially to reduce the

amplitude
of currents of all frequencies
below this critical frequency.
zero up to a predetermined number of cycles and transmits higher

frequencies with theoretical zero attenuation. In a high-pass filter the
lowest frequency at which theoretical zero attenuation obtains is called
Elementary high-pass filter sections are shown in
cut-off frequency.
Fig.
16, page 469.
Fundamental Filter Equation. An equation which defines the

propagation constant of a filter section wholly in terms of an arbitrarily
selected series arm (Zi) and an arbitrarily selected shunt arm (Z2) is
necessary in the design of filter sections.
Reference to equations (20) and (23), page 447, and to equation (24),
page 450, shows that
^ =
eT
e7 =
la
*2
12
+
2
Zi
2 Zj.
ZoT
I,
,.
T
OT
XL-}

Under ideal conditions, a high-pass filter attenuates all frequencies from
(for T-sections)
(33)
(for ir-sections)
(34)
456
Ch.
Xlll
After the value of ZOT as given in equation (5), page 442, is substituted
in equation (33), the following form may be obtained:
(for T-sections)
After substituting the value of ZOT as given in equation (7) into

tion (34), the following form may be obtained:
,
,.
(tor ir-sections)
;==
/1
equa
,,
I2
(35)
,,,
(36)
4Z2
Hence, for like values of Zt and Z2;
(for T-sections)
12
Since
^-
(for T-sections)
(37)
12
it follows that

(38)
Although equation (38) defines both a and /3 in terms of Zi and Z2, a

different form is usually employed in the actual evaluation process.3
An algebraic rearrangement of the quantities involved in equation (38)
will show that:
(39i
The above relation is one form of fundamental filter equation, since
the
A fundamental filter equation which is sometimes called Campbell's equation

(after G. A. Campbell who discovered the filtering properties of various lumped
impedance networks) is:
cosh y =
The above form need not
-f
Z]
r=- = (cosh a cos 0 +
j sinh a sin
/3)
be used here but, for the reader who is familiar with the
manipulation of complex hyperbolic functions, Campbell's equation is much more
elegant than is equation (39). See " Physical Theory of the Wave-Filter," by
G. A. Campbell, Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. I, November, 1922.
Ch.XIII
A FUNDAMENTAL FILTER
attenuation constant and the phase-shift constant

in terms of the
impedance
457
EQUATION
are denned wholly
full series arm impedance (Zt) and the full shunt arm
The analysis of any symmetrical
(2,%).
T-
or T-section com
posed of series and shunt arms of 2,\ and Z2, respectively, may be carried
a
/3
correct sign of
is
if
/3
it
is
is,
through with the aid of equation (39).

Since the right-hand member of equation (39)
in general,
complex
number,
capable of defining both a and
of either T- or ir-sections
which are terminated on a characteristic impedance basis. In the
manipulation of the factor Zi/4Z2 in equation (39), care should be
exercised in determining the correct sign of the associated angle
the
desired.
is
Vl/0
is
v/0-707/150
0.707/150
= (0.676
"
impedance
log, (1.396/50.25)
0-841/Z5!
= (-2175
+#.812)
J0.812)]
jl.074)
log, 1.396) +
(2
"ohms
+ jO.262)
log, (0.893
Note: Characteristic
\/0.525/42.4
/21.2"
90
/-
log, [(0.676 + J0.262) + (0.2175
57.3
= (0.668
jl.76)
is
is
is
ft
is
is
0.668 neper or 5.80 decibels.

The vector
The attenuation of the filter section
1.76 radians or 100.5 ahead of the vector output current since
input current
= 1.76 radians.
a = 0.668 neper and
In this example the resistance of the series arm relatively high (565.6/2 ohms)
relatively low because the filter section
operating in
and yet the attenuation
its pass band.
it
Example
be required to find the attenuation and phase shift of the
Let
page 446, by means of equation (39).
The resistances
T-section shown in Fig.
assumed to be 200
of the circuit elements are to be neglected and the frequency
cycles. At 200 cycles, a = 1257 radians per second and
is
8,
7.
2Z2 =
juLi
Zi

ohms.
Z2 = 200
and
565.6/60
= 0.725
a + J0
90
+ -^4Zj
200/
= 565.6/60
Zi
arm
implied in a case of this kind unless otherwise stated.
termination
is
and whose full shunt
it
Example 6. Let
be required to determine the attenuation and phase shift of
filter section whose full series arm
565.6/60 ohms (at a particular frequency)
- j
=
=
25.14/90 ohms
397.5/-900 ohms
458
25.14/90
795
a + jp
/ -90
= 2 log,
= 0.0316
[Vl/0
Ch.
Xlll
/ + 180
+ 0.0316
/ + 180
+ \/0.0316/ + 180]
= 2 log, (1.0/10.25) = (2 log, 1.0) +
\2j
^jj
= 0 + jO.358
Therefore a = 0 and 0 = 0.358 radian or 20.5. It will be noted that, as a result

of neglecting the resistances of the circuit elements, the theoretical attenuation is
zero.
Problem 9. A high-pass filter section is composed of two 7.96-^f condensers and
The resistance of
a coil having an inductance of 0.0159 henry in the form of a T.
occupies
is
to
4
ohms.
condenser
each of the
the inductance coil
assumed
be
(A
Zj/2 positions in Fig. 4a, page 441, and the inductance coil occupies the Z position
in this T-seotion.)
Find the attenuation and phase shift of this filter section at
200 cycles employing
At
equation (39).
^
w = 1257 radians per second -^ =
200 cycles:
Z2 =
100/-900
Ans.:
Problem

Z2 = 50
10.
90
Evaluate a and
ft
in equation
a = 17.8 db;
0 =
-165.
(39) if 7.\ = 200/90 ohms
Ans.:
ohms.
20.4/78.7 ohms
= 0; jS = JT
and
radians.
Filter Section Analysis Assuming Zero Resistance. It is quite

customary to neglect the resistive components of Zi and Zj in filter
section analysis because the attenuation produced by these resistive
components is incidental to the predominant filtering action that takes
The discrepancy between theoretical results based on zero re
place.
sistance and actual results will not be great if the resistances are rela
Also the algebraic manipu
tively small compared with the reactances.
lations involved in filter design are greatly simplified by neglecting the
of Z\ and Z2.
the above resistances are neglected
resistive components
If
and if the filter sections are

terminated,
the pass bands are transmitted with zero attenua
properly
tion while the stop bands experience certain varying degrees of attenua
tion. It will also be shown that the phase shift is 180 throughout the
Before elaborating upon
stop band under the conditions stated above.
two examples based entirely upon
these customary generalizations,
will
be presented.
equation (39)
Example 8.
Zz = j
Consider a symmetrical
Let it
T-section
in which Zi =
juL\
and in which
be required to predict the behavior of the filter section
wholly
Ch.
XIII
FILTER SECTION ANALYSIS
459
in terms of the relationship stated in equation (39).

Zj
(tt~Lj\(2
Since Zi/4Z2 possesses the general form given alxwe, it will be convenient to reckon
u in l/Vît-'z units, thereby giving Z]/4Z2 definite numerical values for various
different frequency units. The evaluation of the right-hand member of equation
(39) for various frequencies is shown hi tabular form in Table I.
a'
z
1*
C2
3
units

Fi.
12.
Variations of phase shift and attenuation in a prototype low-pass filter section.

(See Table I, page 460.)
The variations of attenuation and phase shift can readily be determined from
an examination of columns (8) and (9) of the table. It will be observed that the
filter section which is under discussion has theoretical zero attenuation between the
limits of a
= 0
and
1j\/L\Ci
o> =
radians per
The arrangement of
operates as a low-pass filter.
low-pass filter together with the general trends
and phase shift are shown in Fig. 12. The fact
second. The section obviously

the .series and shunt arms of this
in the variations of attenuation
that the cut-off point occurs at
= 2/\/LiC% radians per second will be given more attention in a later article.
The present example concerns itself primarily with the development of equation
(39) in a particular case.
i.,:
Example
9.
Consider
symmetrical
T-sertion in which
Zi
= j
and
Zj
= jiaLi.
Let it be required to predict the liehavior of the filter section wholly
in terms of equation (39). In the present case :
Zi
4Z2
1
4<*>"./>2^'i
The same units of angular velocity
as employed in example 8 are convenient units

Also the evaluation of the right-hand member
to employ in the present analysis.
of equation (39) can be conveniently presented in tabular form.
The calculations
are indicated in Table II, and results are shown graphically in Fig. 13.
T-sections

4(30
H
I
~ O
7I
e
2
.1
T
i
&
ill
CO
o
o
7
7
~i
i
Ch.XIII
8
^
So
-j
8
8

Ch.
XIII
&
4
O
'
CO
I
CO
I
fe
I
I
s
S
o
I
o
i
1
8
>
'Mil
9
7
e>
o
I
*
e
c-i
ei
9
1
462
Ch.
XIII
/3,
consisting of series-arm condensers and shunt-arm inductances are thus shown to

operate effectively as high-pass niters.
represents a lag of section output voltage
The phase shift constant,
in Table
In Table II, repre
and current with respect to section input voltage and current.
sents a lead of section output voltage and current with respect to section input voltage.
0.4
0.2
1.0
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
L8
2J>
2.2
11.
Kefer to Table
I,
Variations of phase shift and attenuation in a prototype high-pass filter section.

(See Table II, page 401.)
13.
Problem
page 460.
1.6/VîCs and at o> =

with those plotted in Fig. 12, page 459.
Problem
12.
to Table
Refer
II,
Compare
page 461.
Check
all
the values
the results obtained
Check
all
the
the values
results
listed at
for a andtf
listed at
obtained
for
ft
u = Q.25/\/CiLz and at w = 2.0/\/f-'i/>2.

Compare
a and
with those plotted in Fig. 13, page 462.
equal to
ir within the stop-band region.
and
II
will show that the pass bands are limited

and
to
the possible values of a and
1.
These
/4Z2 possesses values between
might have been anticipated mathematically by investigating
ft
those regions where
when Zi and Z2 are reactances of opposite
Let
-?L
4Z2
types.
from the foregoing analyses are:
equal to zero within the pass-band region.
study of Tables
results
be gained
Zi
(2)
j3
(1) a
is is
The chief facts to

FIG.
0.6
Ch.
It
XIII
is plain that
A/ *
463
since
XL/900
Xc/-90
or
4XC/-90
4XL/90
are complex numbers which have associated angles of
TT radians,
+T or
respectively.
-1
(Vl
tan"1
tan"
- A)
(VJ/Vl
when
= Z!/4Z2 lies
and
log,
log, (A/1
and
(V/T
oo
similar analysis will show

being greater in magnitude than unity.
and
J()
when
A'
Zi/4Z2
1.
The above analysis shows that the pass bands are limited to those
and
regions where Zi /4Z2 takes on values between and including
Hence:
-l^^Ô
(40)
Zt
and Z2.
The boundaries
defines the pass-band regions in terms of
of pass band in particular case may be obtained by setting:
and
-%-= -1
and
Reference to equation (39) will show that a

when Zi/4Z2 =
1.
(41)
4Z2
-4
=
(42)
when
/4Z2 =
or by setting
4Z2
Z\
^-=0

log,
=
=
- A' + V^T)
jVA1)
log, (jVA' (VA' - + VI7)
- + VI7)
ir
tf
a +
When Zj /4Z2 lies between

w,
that for Zi /4Z2 =
Hence a =
lies between
and
and
Vi
1.
between
Hence a
j3
-A + jVI)
= 2 log,
- A + VÂ)
j
(Vl
A g 0
= 2 log,
(log.
ft
a +
If
and
Ch.XIII
464
446.
Example 10. Refer to the symmetrical r-section shown in Fig. 8, page
relationships
Let it be required to predict the pass-band boundaries in terms of the
=
0.02w/90_
The full series arm of Fig. 8 is LI = 0.02 henry and Zi
stated in (42).
Setting Zi/Z2
C2 = 4.0
/if
The full shunt arm is
ohms.
and Zs = (106/4a>)/-90 ohms.
yields
0.02a,
90
boundary)
&=8
yields
-O.OSo,2
,.
"""
-4
Setting Zi/Z2 =
from which
u2 =
\/50 X
a, = 7070
106
(one boundary)
radians per second
The value of u given above represents the cut-off angular velocity of this particular
low-pass filter section and corresponds to a frequency of 7070/2* or 1125 cycles.
Cut-Off Frequencies of Elementary Low- and High-Pass Sections.
The frequency limits of the pass band for an elementary low-pass filter
For a low-pass
without resistance may be obtained from equation (38).
jcoLt and Z2 = j -77-
these values are substituted in
biC?
equation (38), the result, after
,,
little algebraic simplification, is:
-- - - --0
L^C,8
yj
2(o2L1C2
and
+,
sin
= cos
t*
/3
For no attenuation a
0,
o.2L,C2
(44)
can vary from
to
1,
fcîCa
-
0.
-- --
1,
Since cos
cos
it
is
the only one that may become

Since the last term of equation (44)
Therefore
follows that the real part must be cos
imaginary,
/3

If
filter Zi
/,
(45)
the limits for w may be obtained.
Hence
(46)
Ch.XIII
CONSTANT-fc LOW-PASS
FILTER
465
and
w = 0
or
or
fc =
2
(47)
VL&
(for low-pass)
(48)
Equation (48) gives the upper or cut-off frequency for an elementary

In other words, any wave of frequency between zero
low-pass filter.
/,
and
is passed without attenuation provided that the filter section is
terminated in the characteristic impedance for that frequency.
=
j^- and
substituted in equation (38),

obtaining equation (45) gives
are
cos
ft
Z2
= ju>L2.
If
these values
similar method of analysis as used in
tj
(49)
fc
/3,
the upper limit of frequency

Substituting the limits of 1 for cos
w
while the lower limit or cut-off frequency is:
found to be
Equation
for high-pass
(50)
(50) gives the cut-off frequency for an elementary high-pass

above the cut-off frequency
fr
This means that any frequency
is
if
passed
is
the filter section

with no attenuation
terminated in the
for
the
particular
impedance
frequency.
characteristic
Filter sections in which the series
Constant-fc Low-Pass Filter.
inverse
impedance functions possess a peculiar
and shunt arms are
The product of Zj and Z2
of frequency.
independent
property.
Reference to either the T- or T-section of Fig. 14 will show that
is
ZItZ
C2k
is
(jLlt)
~J
= ft*2
(51)
an important characteristic of the filter section, and inas
Kic =
much as

filter.
is
For a high-pass filter, Zi
constant
filter sections of this type are called constant-fc sections.

There are
many other types of filter sections, several of which are derived in one
For this reason the parame
way or another from constant-t sections.
466
Ch.
XIII
usually carry the subscript k in order to

designate properly the type of filter section that is under discussion.
The parameters of some of the more elaborate filter sections are specified
directly in terms of L* and Ct.
ters of constant-fc
sections
O 'O'CC'OO"1-
2Z2li:=
"
(a)
Fio.
00000
14.
" ^2i
"~ ^2k
""
^2k "
2
z"
o
(b)
Prototype or constant-fc low-pasa filter sections.
The general theory of the constant-fc low-pass filter has already been
It remains only to develop the design equations for this
presented.
type of filter.
=
(52)
2k
The boundaries of the pass band are determined by setting

equal to 4 and equal to zero.
[See equation (42), page 463.]

-w2Li/tC2t
= 0
= 4
<ac
yields
(53)
yields
(54)
is the angular velocity at which cut-off takes place and as such forms
the upper boundary of the pass band.
The cut-off frequency of a
low-pass,
constant-k-type filter is:

(55)
It
will
be observed
that fe is governed wholly by the magnitude of

The lower the cut-off frequency, the higher is
the
the
LikCzk product.
and
versa.
product,
vice
LikCzk
Another important consideration in either the theory or design of a
A
filter section is the matter of correct terminating impedances.
single section can be properly matched to its sending and receiving
If
ends if terminated on an image basis, as explained on page 440.
more than one filter section is to be employed between sending and
receiving
ends,
it is desirable to design each section to have the
same
Ch.
XIII
CONSTANT-Jfc
LOW-PASS FILTER
4G7
Under these conditions minimum reflection

characteristic impedance.
sections are arranged as shown in Fig.
when
the
various
results
loss
A detailed analysis of these losses will not be given here
10 or Fig. 11.
since they are similar in nature to reflection losses on long lines.
(See
Chapter XII.)
For a constant-fc, low-pass T-section:
(56)
têe
equation (54).]
Therefore, for a constant-fc, low-pass T-section
fa
lc2kV
=
For
rrz
~f2
Rk
(57)
a constant-fc, low-pass ir-section:

(58)
The variations of Z0rk and ZOTk from / = 0 to / = /c are illustrated in

Fig. 15. The fact that the correct terminating impedance of a constant-A: section varies over such wide limits is a very serious limitation in
certain communication circuits. For a fixed receiving impedance it is
plain that either the T- or ir-section is correctly terminated at only one

The opposite trends in Z0Tk and Z0vt are combined in one
frequency.
form of filter section to obtain a characteristic impedance which is
reasonably constant over the frequency range of the pass band.
(See
m-derived filter sections, pages 481-485.)
The zero-frequency value of either Z0rt or ZOTt is:
Rk =
-^f.
and Czk can be related
[See
equations (57) and (58).]
(59)
to one another through the value of Rk
[See equation (51).]

i>lk = Rk C?k
(60)
(6D

Ch.
XIII
FILTER
CONSTANT-fc HIGH-PASS
469
Problem 13. Design both T- and r-section, low-pass filters of the constant-it
type which will have a zero-frequency characteristic impedance of 600 ohms and
Draw the circuit arrangement in each case,
a cut-off frequency of 940 cycles.
indicating the particular values (in henrys or microfarads) of each circuit element.
Ans.: The/uW series arm Z/u- = 0.203 henry; and the full shunt arm Cu = 0.565 juf-
(a)
Fia.
Constant-ft
filter
16.
(6)
Prototype or constant-*:
High-Pass Filter.
and
or constant-fc,
Prototype
(\ -j wCit/
~]
high-pass
In the present case:
sections are illustrated in Fig. 16.
ZitZ2t
filter sections.
high-pass
(>L2fc)
^
Cit
(64)
Rb2
of the pass band are again
The boundaries
Zu/Z2t
equal to
-4
and equal to zero.

The cut-off frequency of
determined
by setting
[See
equation (42), page 463.]

(66)
= 0
yields
w =
= 4
yields
uc =
a high-pass, constant-k
VClkL2i,
(67)
filter is
(68)
ZOT and ZOT may be expressed in terms of

a constant-A:, high-pass T-section:
aTk
For
a const ant-fr, high-pass
fe>
f, and VL2t/Cit
X Jl j
J^
^
ît
~
For
(69)
T-section:
lclk:
(70)
470
Ck.
Xlll
General trends in Z0rk and Zork in constant-fc, high-pass filter sections

are illustrated in Fig. 15. Both Z0rk and Z01,k approach the common
value
vL-ik/C\k at
/=
Because
it is a useful common base from
which to work, VL2k/Cik is given special designation, namely RI.

Since
Rk is known as the infinite-frequency characteristic impedance.
Rk
L2k =
Rk'Cit
and
Clk
(71)
=
If the above values are substituted separately

following relationships are obtained :
^f
(72)
in equation (68), the
(for high-Pass filter)
(73)
(for high-pass filter)
(74)
Loft =

Equations (73) and (74) may be employed in the design of constant-*:,

high-pass filter sections which are to have a particular cut-off frequency
and which are to have infinite-frequency characteristic impedances
equal to RkProblem 14. What are the cut-off frequency and infinite-frequency characteristic
impedance of the high-pass filter section that can be constructed from two l-if
condensers and one 15-millihenry inductance coil?
Ans.: fc = 919 cycles; Rk = 173 ohms.
Tabulation and Review of Constant-ft Filter Theory. The important

features contained in equations (51) to (74) inclusive are summarized
The attenuation and phase
concisely in Table III, pages 472-473.
are expressed in forms which derive directly from
shift in Table
" Campbell's " equation.
It has been
(See footnote 3 on page 456.)
shown in examples 8 and 9, pages 458-459, how the attenuation and
phase shift may be calculated from equation (39), page 456, without the
For the reader who is familiar with com
aid of hyperbolic functions.
plex hyperbolic functions the following derivation and application of
" Campbell's " equation may be of interest.
The application
Derivation and Application of Campbell's Equation.
the
of
the
filter
wxijz loop
sections shown in
of Kirchhoffs omf law to
Fig. 10, page 453, yields
III
Zjlz +
Z2(I2
- I3) - Z2(I, - I2)
= 0
(75)
3g
"all
n
ft;
4
pX
S"
.=0-0
>
ca
fe
h
1
c?

472
Ch.XIU
(g e.,.
Q.
>1
-2
NJ

Ch.
XIII
CONSTANT-fc FILTER THEORY
0_
a 06
Us:
*
I
s ^
-3
03.
*?
>
S>
I
O.
>?
a"
<a <o m
!:
^
>
473
e.
J?
003.1=
a
X
(SIT?
03.
n
a B"2
3 8 T
474
Ch.Xlll
(81) and sin 0 = 0:

cosh
a =
/-
l
a = cosh
In the pass band, a
= 0.
Z,
(in stop band)
1 1
***^2
Since cosh
0=1
(82.)
and sinh 0 = 0, equation
(81) becomes:
1
0 = cos"1 (
+ J-- )
2Z2/
(i pass band)
(in
As applied to a constant-fc low-pass filter section

Z2 =
90^
JL/-900
- --
Equation (82) then takes the form:

a
as shown in Table
,
= cosh
III.
_, fu2LlkC2k
I
-2LuC2t
II\
Equation (83) takes the form:

U
= cos-1
f1
(83)
Corresponding expressions for a and 0 may be

as shown in Table III.
constant-A;
The results are shown
high-pass filter section.
derived for the
in Table III.
Filters.
Band-Pass and Band-Elimination
Band-pass filters are
networks which are designed to attenuate all frequencies except those
A band-pass filter may be formed by placing a lowin a specified band.
pass filter section (having a cut-off frequency of /r/) in series with a highpass filter section (having a cut-off frequency of fch).
Then/r/ is made
higher than/c^ by the specified band width, which is/rj /<^. A study
will show how fci and /fj
of the attenuation graphs shown in Table
should be adjusted to give a zero-attenuation band.
A band-pass filter may take the form of a single section as shown in
The section shown in Fig. 17 is called a constant-fc band-pass
Fig. 17.
filter when LzCz = L\C\ because under these conditions:
III
ZiZ2
7T
LI
7T
C2
= a
constant
Ch.
XIII
TWO LIMITATIONS
An analysis
OF CONSTANT-fc SECTIONS
475
filter will not be given here, although such

carried through in a manner similar to those given for
of the band-pass
an analysis may be
the low-pass and high-pass sections.
Band-elimination niters are networks which are designed to pass all
A band-elimination filter
frequencies except those in a specified band.
may be formed by placing a low-pass section (having a cut-off frequency
of fc{) in parallel with a high-pass section (having a cut-off frequency of
fch)- Then/r/ is made lower than /a by the specified band width, which
fd- All frequencies have a pass band (through one of the parallel
is/cA
(See at
sections) except where the two attenuation graphs overlap.
tenuation graphs in Table III.)
il
i__
o 'TRfflnP
2C,
/
f
2C,
1
\[
it
' 0000 '
Z
'THRWP
o
\ e
He
2C,
FIG.
17.
Band-pass filter contained

in a single section.
FIG.
18.
Band-elimination filter con
tained
in a single section.
A band-elimination filter may
take the form of a single section as shown

The section shown in Fig. 18 is called a constant-fc bandelimination filter when L2C2 = L\C\ because under these conditions
It will be observed that the arms of Fig. 18 are
Z>\2i2 is a constant.
the reverse of those in Fig. 17.
Two Limitations of Constant-fc Sections. The constant-fc type of
First, its charac
filter section has two rather serious shortcomings.
teristic impedance is not sufficiently constant over the transmission band
for certain classes of work. (See Fig. 15.) Second, the attenuation does
not rise very abruptly at the boundary of the transmission band.
(See

in Fig.
Figs.
In
18.
12 and 13.)
to overcome the inherent limitations of the constant-fc

type, Zobel4 devised a filter section which he called the m-derived type.
The wi-derived half section may be employed to give practically uniform
characteristic impedance over a large part of the pass band and at the
Full
same time increase the abruptness with which cut-off occurs.
m-derived sections may be employed to give further increased attenua
tion near the cut-off point, and by proper adjustment of the parameter
order
" Theory and Design of Uniform and Composite Electric Wave Filters," by
O. J. Zobel, Hell System Technical Journal, January, 1923.
4
476
Ch.
XIII
they can be made to meet any practical attenuation requirement in

When worked in conjunction with constant-A; sections,
this region.
the m-derived sections overcome both the aforementioned shortcomings
However, m-derived sections by themof the constant-fc sections.
m
FIG.
19.
Illustrating
the circuit configuration of half sections formed

bisection of shunt arm of a prototype T-section.
by longitudinal
limitations which will become apparent after the

attenuation characteristics of these sections have been studied.
m-Derived Half Sections. If the full shunt arm of Fig. 19o is sepa
rated into two parallel paths of 2Z2 ohms each, the original T-section may
selves have certain

(a)
FIG. 20.
Illustrating
the circuit configuration of half sections formed

bisection of the series arm of a prototype ir-section.
by longitudinal
into two similar parts as shown in Fig. 196. Each of

these parts is known as a half section or as an L-type section.
If the
full series arm of the 7r-section shown in Fig. 20a is separated into two
be separated
series elements
of Z\ 12 ohms each, the

original ir-section can be separated into
two half sections as shown in Fig. 206.
A comparison of Fig. 206 with Fig. 196
will show the equivalence of half sec
tions formed by " halving " ir-sections
04
" halving "
and those formed by
T-secFIG. 21.
Const.unt-Aterminating i
""nshalf section.
The image impedances of the half sec
tion shown in Fig. 21 may be found from open-circuit and short-cir
cuit conditions. Let the open-circuit and short-circuit impedances be
known as Z0.c and Z,^, respectively.
Ch.
XIII
HALF SECTIONS
m-DERIVED
The impedance looking into terminals
477
and 2 is:
and 4 is:
from which
ZiiZ2t
1
The impedance looking into terminals

Zs4 =
or
Zlff\
34
rf
The half section shown in Fig.

of a ir-section between terminals

111
1 "V
-Vl^l*^* I
Zi*
,
h 97
2Z2fc
"7^
I 'J
J
''oT'fc
4Z2fc/
\Zi*
21 has the impedance

1
/CK\
(oO)
characteristics
and 2 and the impedance
charac
teristics of a T-section between terminals 3 and 4. It may, therefore,

be used to match a ir-section to a T-section. Also it may be used to
match a filter section to a terminating impedance which differs from the
characteristic impedance of the filter section or to change the impedance
level at any point in a two-wire line. The proper values of Zit/2 and
2Zj/ to be employed in effecting any desired impedance transforma
tion may be determined by solving equations (84) and (85) simulta
neously for Zik and Z2jt in terms of Zj2 and Z34.
Some little difficulty is usually encountered in presenting m-derived
filter theory to beginning students because certain anticipations have to
be made at the outset of the investigation.
Inasmuch as anticipations must be in- lodulged in in any event, the actual circuit
configuration of the m-derived half section
will be accepted and its operating charac
teristics studied.
It will now be assumed that the half
22section shown in Fig. 21 takes the partic- Fl0'
ular form shown in Fig. 22. A new param
eter, m, has been arbitrarily introduced. It is simply a numeric
which may, for the purposes at hand, range in value from zero to
unity. The change in circuit configuration from Fig. 21 to Fig. 22
may
interpreted
be
(a)
follows:
as
of the constant-fc
part of
in Fig.
half section is changed to some fractional

22.
(b) 2Z2k of Fig. 21 is changed to
(c)
It
Ch.XllI
478
In
series with
2Z2k
- in Fig.
22.
in Fig. 22 is placed an impedance
m2
4m
_'Z
that, if the change in (a) is made, the changes in (6)

and (c) must be made if the two half sections shown in Figs. 21 and
22 are to have the same characteristic impedance looking into the 3-4
may
be shown
terminals.
shown in Fig. 22 has some very desirable
'
n2Z,
2m
(86)
4
a
z2k
m
ZH-I
--
Zik +
2m
-^)
-
Zu
0. p*
'
--
'
2Z2A
charac
3 and 4 is:
2mZikZ2k
m2
2m
4m
z,*2
and
The equation above shows that terminals
half section can be used to match the impedance of
tion or any other equivalent impedance including
characteristic impedance of Fig. 21.
The characteristic impedance of the m-derived
and
is:
section looking into terminals

m2Zlk2
'ztA*
Z\k
[k2
\v
Z0.CZ,.C
Zs4m =
It,
Its characteristic impedance looking into terminals
hah" section
'
The
teristics.
of the m-derived
constant-fc T-secthe 3-4
terminal
terminating
half
Ch.
XIII
7K-DERIVED HALF SECTIONS
ZltZ2t +
~ -
m2)
(1
479
or remembering (9)
Zi2m
= Z0,fc
~ -
[l
(1
m2)]
(87)
In
(88)
a
is
(1
wiith respect to
m2)
4Z2t
manner as to make Zi2m approximately
ZOTt and the modifying factor

a
frequency combine in such

constant over wide ranges of frequency.
Example 11. Consider the general trend of ZOT for the constant-A', low-pass
section shown in Fig. 15. Instead of this rapidly rising curve, the change in the
output characteristic impedance of a low-pass, m-derived half section at the 1-2
Zl2
(!
terminals is:
-)]
fc a
Mathematical
Physically, m may be equal to any value between zero and unity.
The calcu
experimentation shows that good results are obtained when m = 0.60.
graph
lated values of Z0,k and the modifying factor are shown in Table IV, and
It will be remembered that
contained in Fig. 23.
for a
of Zi2m for m = 0.6
is

addition to being a function of Zu and Z2fc, Zi2m

function of m.
With the proper choice of m, Zi2m can be made reasonably constant
over about 90 per cent of the transmission band. The changes of
480
Fio.
23.
XIII
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Frequency in f/fe units
0.2
Ch.
Variation of ZIIm for m = 0.6.
~\
m2)
j-t
[f2
1
(1
TABLE IV
form
= 0.6
/. /
[i-H
Zu.
ZT*
fit
1.000
Rk
0.10
0.994
1.005
0.20
0.974
1.02
fit
0.993 fit
0.40
0.898
1.09
fit
0.979 fit
0.60
0.770
1.25fl,t
0.963 fit
0.80
0.590
1.67i
0.963 fit
0.90
0.482
2. 30 Rk
0.95
0.424
3. 16
1.00
0.360
00
flt
0.999Rt

Rk =
. 108
fit
1.34 fit
00
Ch.XIII
expression
filter section is
I/T \XZuCw
and
for Zjsm in this particular case
is,
low-pass
FULL m-DERIVED
SECTIONS
that
Bjt/Vl
ZOTt
481
(/V/c2)-
The
therefore, reducible to
effects caused
is
If
it
value of m = 0.6
necessary to work closer to the cut-off frequency than
However, these slightly
will permit, m may be made somewhat less than 0.60.
lower values of m cause the "L\im variation to be more irregular throughout the first
90 per cent of the transmission
band.
Numerical experimentation will show the
by different values of
m.
Problem 15. Plot, with respect to frequency, the variation of the characteristic
low-pass, m-derived terminating half section (Zum) for
output impedance of
m = 0.55.
Reckon frequency in f/fc units.
(See Table IV and Fig. 23.)
Full m-derived
Full m-Derived Sections.
is
T-sections are shown in

As in the m-derived half section, the series and shunt arms
Fig. 24.
Any
are specified in terms of the constant-A: impedances Zn and Z^ksection may be altered to yield what
known as
eonstant-fc-type
an m-derived section.
Only the low-pass and high-pass, m-derived
in detail. These are shown in Fig. 246
will
be
considered
T-sections
and 24c.
The variations of the characteristic impedance of full m-derived lowpass T-sections are generally similar to the curve shown in Fig. 23.
if
4m
J1
-r- Zu
is
Z2m =
Zlm =
mZlt
as may be seen from the following algebraic steps
17
\l"\kf'2k
Zlm =
(89)
Z.,2
'*
Squaring both sides of the above equation and solving for

Z2m
~~- Zu +
4m
-^
m
/n/\\
U"J;
4,
L*,
if
Reference to equation (5) will show that,
(imposed condition)
>
Z0Tm = Z0Tk

is
comparison of the characteristic impedance curves of different

shown in Fig. 25.
/n-derived filter sections
In establishing an m-derived T-section the parameters are so re
adjusted from the constant-A: values that the m-derived section charac
identical with the constant-A; section characteristic
teristic impedance
impedance. This requires that
Z2m:
(91)
482
Ch.
Xlll
One of the most important characteristics of a full m-derived section

is its theoretical infinite attenuation near the point of cut-off.
Since Zn and Z2k are different
Frequencies of Infinite Attenuation.
of
types
reactances, the shunt arm of Fig. 24a will, at some frequency,
become resonant.
o
resonance,
If
the shunt arm is in
its impedance
is theoretically
equal to zero and the attenuation becomes
The frequency at which

these phenomena occur is know as /*,
infinitely large.
fa)
WBBr<

(W
(0
Fro. 24.
Frequency
m-Derived
filter
sec
tions, with parameters

speci
fied in terms of nonstant-fc
filter-section parameters.
FIG. 25. Characteristic impedance curves

for various low-pass m-derived filter sec
tions.
and it may be calculated
in any particular case by first setting the

left-hand member of equation (91) equal to zero and then solving
for /. In a low-pass, in-derived filter section:
(1
- m2)
(92)
of the m-derivcd section is equal to the cut-off

constant-/;
of the
section from which it is derived.
(See
The cut-off frequency

frequency
XIII
Ch.
FILTER SECTION OPERATION
m-DERIVED
483
In the constant-fc, low-pass section:
Table V, page 486.)
[See
equation (55).]
Therefore
(93)
from which
m =
In
a similar manner
(for low-pass section)
it may
be shown
that for
(94)
a high-pass,
m-derived
filter section:
(95)
and
m = *
(for high-pass section)
(96)
Equations (94) and (96) illustrate the manner in which
fe
fx
and

determine the value of m that should be employed if theoretical infinite

attenuation is to obtain at a specified fx. If, for example, a 1000-cyclc
cut-off frequency, low-pass filter is to have infinite attenuation at 1050
cycles, m is evaluated in accordance with equation (94). Thus:
m
(1000)2 =
0.307
.,
^lUoU J
The
nearer
/, is to fr, the lower will
approximately
be the value
of m.
order of reasoning indicates that the lower the value of
The reverse
m, the sharper
will
be the cut-off. These facts are illustrated graphically in Fig. 26.

General Method of Analyzing m-Derived Filter Section Operation.
Certain aspects of rn-derived filter section operation may not be appar
ent from the cursory treatment that has been presented.
The exact
manner in which the phase shift and attenuation vary with respect to
"
frequency can be obtained by subjecting the filter section to the
gen
" method of analysis.
This method is summed up in equation (39),
eral
which, for convenience, is restated below.
(39)
For
the sake of illustration
a low-pass,
m-derived,
T-section will
be
484
analyzed.
From Fig.
246
j>
- m2)
and
(1
4m
[
L
to
(1
1_
Llk
Therefore, in the present case,

4Z2
XIII
it is evident that
Zim =
Z2m =
Ch.
Lik
--
iomC2jJ
(97)

The above expression is actually a complex number, the associated

angle of which is 180 or 0, depending upon whether [co2(l m2)LitC2jtl
is less than or greater than 4.
The foregoing statement follows directly
0.98
Frequency in -7- units
FIG. 26.
Attenuation characteristics of two m-derived low-pass filter sections compared

with those of a constant-fc low-pass filter section.
from an inspection of Zi/4Z2 wherein all the factors are expressed in

polar form. Let o> be arbitrarily reckoned in l/VLitC2t units.
It
should be observed that in this method of analysis the cut-off angular
velocity or frequency is not necessarily anticipated by the choice of this
convenient
unit.
Thus, for
tion (39) reduces to
w =
l/VLitC2t
radians per second,
equa
Ch.XIII
GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURE
485
For a particular value of m it becomes a simple matter to evaluate
The calculations for m = 0.6 at

various frequencies are shown in Table V.
The variations of attenua
tion are represented graphically in Fig. 26 together with certain other
attenuation curves.
An inspection of column (9), Table V, will reveal
the irregular manner in which the phase shift varies with frequency.
and
/3
at any desired
in terms of

Graph the variation
of attenuation with respect to frequency of

The frequency may be indicated
low-pass, m-derived T-section in which m = 0.40.
Problem
frequency.
16.
l/VAilC^*
units of angular velocity.
(See Table
V,
page 486.)
Constant-fc
and mComparison of Attenuation Characteristics.
derived filter sections are sometimes worked in cascade because of the
complementary nature of their respective attenuation characteristics.
It has been shown that the attenuation of a constant-fc, low-pass section
is zero at cut-off frequency and that it increases gradually with increases
of frequency above cut-off frequency.
A similar situa
(See Fig. 12.)
tion holds for the constant-fc, high-pass section except, of course, for the
fact that the attenuation increases as the frequency decreases from the
cut-off frequency. The attenuation characteristics of m-derived sec
tions are radically different in character from those of constant-fc sec
tions.
The differences are shown graphically in Fig. 26 for low-pass
sections.
Similar curves can be determined for high-pass sections.
It is plain from an inspection of Fig. 26 that a constant-fc section can
be combined with one or more m-derived sections to give high attenua
tion near cut-off as well as high attenuation in other regions of the stop
band.
In general, an m-derived section by itself will not give high
attenuation in regions which are too widely removed from the point of
theoretical infinite attenuation.
(See Fig. 26.)
General Design Procedure.
Filter sections are usually designed for
a particular characteristic impedance and a particular cut-off frequency
(or frequencies). Theoretically, at least, these conditions can be met
accurately and straightforwardly.
Usually certain attenuation require
ments must also be met. These attenuation requirements are gener
ally met by a method of successive approximations.
The first step in elementary filter design is the determination of the
inductances and capacitances to be employed in a constant-fc section.
These values are found from the basic design equations.
The second step is the evaluation of the m-derived, terminating halfThese values follow directly
section inductances and capacitances.
from the parameters of the constant-fc section and the selected value of
m. It is assumed here that the terminating half sections are required
primarily for impedance-matching purposes, in which case the value of m
generally be 0.6.
CD
s
3
Ck.
ss
9.
o
q
1
3
CN
N N
CO
CN
9.
co
9,

486
XIII
28
o
E
&
o
C
CN
CO
3 S
LJ
CO
Ch.
XIII
PROBLEMS
487
If
a sharp cut-off section is required, a full wi-derived section, wherein

is about 0.2 or 0.3, can be employed.
The evaluation of the induct
ances and capacitances to use in the full m-derived section constitutes
the third step in the general design procedure.
m
'J
JC
rajir^-
ai-m2,
!-2STL'k
im'
Terminating
half-section
m-derived

FIG. 27.
Sharp cut-off
m-derived section
Constant-K
section
composite
low-pass
Terminating
half-section
m-derived
filter together with its equivalent circuit.
The fourth step is the predetermination of the attenuation characteris

tic of the composite filter and checking this against the actual attenua
tion requirements. Adjustments may then be made in the number or
in the type of sections in order to meet the attenuation requirements in
the most economical manner.
The method of combining a constant-fc section, a full m-derived
section, and m-derived terminating half sections to form a low-pass
filter is illustrated in Fig. 27a. It will be noted that the assembly
shown in Fig. 27a is reducible to that shown in Fig. 276.
PROBLEMS
Consider a x-type filter Motion in which the full
w?riff< arm, Z\, consists of

inductance coil the roL-'am-e of which L 50 ohm.*.
Each of the
two shunt arms consists of a 0.3-if con<k-ri.-<.-r the n-i-'anc<- of which is negligibly
17.
100-millihenry
small.
(a) Find the open-circuit
the section at 500 cycles.
imrx*lnnce, Z^, and the .-hort-cin-uit
imrifdan<-e,
Z^, of
488
Find the characteristic
(6)
Ch.
impedance at 500 cycles, at 1300 cycles, and at
XIII
2000
cycles.
which
is
is
of
is
juf
18. Each of the series arms (Zi/2) of a symmetrical T-section consists of a con
and the resistance of which
denser the capacitance of which is 0.6
negligibly
small.
a 200-millihenry
The shunt arm (Zi~)
inductance coil the resistance
60 ohms.
(a) Find the characteristic impedance and the propagation constant of the
section
at 200 cycles.
is
a
is
(6) Find the characteristic impedance and the propagation constant of the section
at 600 cycles.
19. The characteristic impedance of a filter section
The
to be measured.
1-B Western Electric impedance bridge which indicates the
measuring device
component of the impedance directly and the X component in terms of +L or L.

readings indicate that X = XL = 27r/L, and negative
readings indicate
With the output terminals of the section open-circuited
that X = Xc = 2ir/( L).
Plus
= 10 ohms and
= 190 millihenrys at 400 cycles.
the bridge readings are:
With the output terminals of the section short-circuited the bridge readings are:
= 20 ohms and
= +250 millihenrys
at 400 cycles. Find the characteristic
impedance of the filter section at 400 cycles.
of
resistanceless constant-fc, low-pass, T-section has

cut-off frequency
characteristic impedance of 800 ohms.
Evaluate
the phase shift at 1000, 4000, 7000, and 10,000 cycles. Evaluate the attenuation
at 11,000, 15,000, 20,000, and 25,000 cycles. Plot phase shift in degrees and at
tenuation in decibels against cycles per second.
20.
10,000 cycles and a zero-frequency
which the inductance of the full

each of the two condensers which
What
the attenuation
circuit elements, find the propaga

2000 cycles.
in decibels at each of the three frequencies referred
to above?
is
is
the decibel level of 0.00001 watt with respect to a 1-milliwatt

22. (a) What
reference power level?
1-milliwatt reference
the decibel level of
watts with respect to
(6) What
power level?
is
is
is
of
is
low-pass, constant-^, ir-type filter section

the cut-off frequency of
23. What
20 henrys and the capacitance
in which the inductance of the full series arm
the characteristic impedance of the section
8.0 /if?
What
each condenser
at 200 cycles?
24.
T-section filter has series arms Zi/2 = jlOO ohms and its shunt arm
Zz = -J1000 ohms.
(a) Calculate the characteristic impedance.
(6) Calculate the attenuation in decibels and the phase shift in degrees.
frequency within the pass or stop band?
(c) Are the reactances of the section for
of the section for
times the frequency
Calculate
the
characteristic
impedance
(d)
for which the constants are given.
(e) Calculate the attenuation in decibels and phase shift for part (d).
26.
ir-section filter has its scries arm Z\ = jlOO ohms and its shunt arms

(&)
is
is
is
21. Consider a symmetrical ir-type section in

0.10 henry and the capacitance of
series arm
0.3 jufgo to form the ir-section
Neglecting
the
resistive
components of the
(a)
tion constant at 500 cycles, at 1300 cycles, and at
2Z2 = J500 ohms.
(a) Calculate the characteristic
impedance.
Ch.
XIII
PROBLEMS
489
(6) Calculate the attenuation in decibels and the phase shift in degrees.
(c) Are the reactances given for a frequency within the pass band or stop hand?
(d) Repeat parts (a), (6), and (c) for a frequency of one-fifth of that for which
the impedances are given.
26. Nine T-sections each having series arms of Z\/1 = j'500 ohms and shunt
arms Zj = j200 ohms are connected in series or cascade. If the input voltage is
100, find the output voltage of the ninth section and the output current, assuming
characteristic
termination.
27. Find the circuit element values of a high-pass, constant^, T-type filter section
which is to have a cut-off frequency of 5000 cycles and an infinite-frequency char
acteristic impedance of 600 ohms. Repeat for a ir-type section. Draw circuit
diagrams showing the configurations of the circuit elements and the values of each
in
millihenrys and microfarads.

28. A generator having an impedance of 800 /0 ohms is to he connected to a load
impedance
of 100/0 through a half-section of the kind shown in Fig. 21, page 476.
Find
the value of Zu/2 (the series arm impedance) and of 2Z2* (the shunt arm
impedance) which will properly match the generator to the load.
Zu/2 is arbitrarily
taken as inductive.
29. Design a high-pass, ?-derived, T-type filter section which will have a cut-off
frequency of 5000 cycles, an infinite-frequency characteristic impedance of 600 ohms,
and an infinite-attenuation frequency of 4500 cycles.
30. Design wi-derived half sections which will properly match, at 800 cycles, a
low-pass, constant-fc, T-type section the full series arm of which is 0.30 henry and
the full shunt arm of which is 0.03 ^f. The value of m is to be taken as 0.60.
31. Consider an m-dcrived, low-pass, T-section in which Z\m is mL\k and Zjm
consists of (1 m2/4m)Lijfc in series with mCu- Let mLik be known as
Lim, (1 m2/4m)Lih be known as Lim, and jnCzic be known as Cm. Show that the
l/jr\/LuC^, can l>e written as 1/kVCLim + 4L2m)(C'2m)].

32. Refer to the composite low-pass filter shown in Fig. 27.
The requirements
to be met are: (1) zero-frequency characteristic impedance of 600 ohms, (2) cut-off
frequency of 5000 cycles, (3) variation in characteristic impedance of not more than

cut-off frequency, namely,
30 ohms over the lower 80 per cent of the pass band, (4) attenuation of 40 decil>cls
between the limits of 5242 and 10,000 cycles.
(a) Calculate the values of Lit and Cj*.
(6) Design terminating half sections on the basis of m = 0.60.
(c) Design the full m-derived section to have theoretical infinite attenuation at
5242 cycles.
(d) Make a graph of the attenuation of the composite filter l>etween the limits of
5242 and 10,000 cycles and compare the results with the attenuation requirements.
Use the three attenuation graphs shown in Fig. 26, page 484, atf/fc = 1.05, 1.10,
1.15, 1.20, 1.25, 1.30, 1.35, 1.40, 1.45, 1.50, 1.75, and 2 to obtain the composite
attenuation graph.
CHAPTER

SYMMETRICAL
XIV
COMPONENTS
Symmetrical components furnish a tool of great power for analyti

cally determining the performance of certain types of unbalanced elec
It is particularly
trical circuits involving rotating electrical machines.
of
machinery
in
the
electrical
polyphase
analyzing
performance
useful
when operated from systems of unbalanced voltages.
Although it can
static
networks
like those in Chapter IX,
be used to solve unbalanced
such application will in general be more cumbersome and laborious than
For unbalanced networks containing
the methods already considered.
rotating machines, however, the method of symmetrical components
provides the only practicable method of accounting for the unbalanced
It is also con
effects of these machines and is widely used in practice.
venient for analyzing some types of polyphase transformer problems.
"
The method of symmetrical components," in its most useful form,
is founded upon Fortescue's1 theorem regarding the resolution of un
Although the present
balanced systems into symmetrical components.
to
will
confine
itself
three-phase systems, any unbalanced
discussion
polyphase system of vectors can be resolved into balanced systems of
" symmetrical components."
vectors called
Fortescue's theorem, applied to a general three-phase system of
vectors, is that any unbalanced three-phase system of vectors can be
resolved into three balanced systems of vectors, namely :
1. A balanced system of three-phase vectors having the same phase
This balanced
sequence as the original unbalanced system of vectors.
"
positive-sequence system."
system is called the
2. A balanced system of three-phase vectors having a phase sequence
which is opposite to that of the original unbalanced system of vectors.
"
This balanced system is called the negative-sequence system."
3. A system of three single-phase vectors which are equal in mag
nitude and which have exactly the same time-phase position with
This system of single-phase vectors
respect to any given reference axis.
is known as the zero-sequence or uniphase system.
A general proof of the resolution theorem will not be given because
a little experience with the method will soon convince the reader that
" Method of Symmetrical Co-ordinates Applied to the Solution of
1
Fortescue,
Polyphase
Networks," Transactions, A.I.E.E., Vol.

490
37, 1918.
Ch.
XIV THE ORIGINAL
SYSTEM OF VECTORS
UNBALANCED
491
In this respect Fortescue's theorem

similar to Fourier's theorem regarding complex waves.
In Chapter
VI it is shown that any complex wave may be resolved into definite
harmonic components by the Fourier method.
The ultimate proof of
the theorem rests upon the fact that the components thus determined
can be synthesized to form the original complex wave.
In a similar
manner it will be shown that any given unbalanced three-phase system
of vectors may be resolved into the three balanced systems outlined
above and that the composition of these balanced systems yields the
original unbalanced system of vectors.
the theorem as stated is correct.
is
V,
VM

(a) Original vectors.
(6)
Positive-sequence vectors.
Reference
Reference
Vi2
""
'bJ
(c) Negative-sequence vectors.
Fio.
1.
Original set of three-phase
(d) Zero-sequence
vectors together
vectors.
with their symmetrical components.
The Original Unbalanced System of Vectors. Any number of vec

tors up to and including three may be considered as an unbalanced sys
The vectors that form the unbalanced
tem of three-phase vectors.
magnitude (including zero) and may
any
specified
have
system may
possess any specified phase positions with respect to one another.
In Fig. la is shown a set of three unbalanced vectors that will later
If the vectors that
be resolved into their symmetrical components.
form the original unbalanced set come to us merely as three specified
vectors, they can arbitrarily be assigned subscripts a, b, and c in the
order shown in Fig. la. Thus the original vectors Va, V;,, and Vc are
arbitrarily assigned the
abc phase sequence.
(See Chapter
IX,
pages
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
492

Although the vectors shown in Fig.

330-331.)
ages, the proposed resolution
applies equally
Ch.
XIV
la are labeled as volt
well to a system of
current vectors.
Owing to the fact that the symmetrical components will have to carry
an additional subscript to designate the system to which they belong,
single-subscript notation will be employed in connection with the original
vectors wherever this can be done without loss of clarity.
For complete
specification, the positive circuit directions of the original three-phase
voltages or currents must be indicated on a separate circuit diagram.
The importance of complete specification will become apparent when
numerical problems are considered.
The Positive-Phase Sequence System. As previously stated, the
original unbalanced system of vectors is to be resolved into two balanced
It will be shown pres
three-phase systems and one uniphase system.
ently that the balanced three-phase systems must be of opposite phase
Therefore one balanced system has the same phase sequence
sequence.
as the original three-phase system and the other has a phase sequence
opposite to that of the original system.
The balanced system of three-phase vectors that has the same phase
sequence as the original system is called the positive-sequence system.
If the original vectors are assigned the phase sequence of abc, then the
phase sequence of the positive-sequence vectors is abc as shown in Fig. 16.
The positive-sequence
vectors are completely determined when the
magnitude and phase position of any one of them is known. A method
of evaluating any one of the positive-sequence vectors in terms of the
original vector values will be given presently.
The positive-sequence
vectors are designated as
Val,
V,
and
Vel
that the vector thus labeled belongs to the

The letters refer to the original vector of
system.
positive-sequence
which the positive-sequence vector is a component part.
The vectors of any balanced three-phase system may be conveniently
related to one another with the aid of the operator a. The general
properties of this operator are considered in Chapter IV, page 77.
al is a unit vector 120 ahead of the reference axis, a2! is a unit
vector 240 ahead of the reference axis. Thus:
The subscript
indicates
al
= t'120 =
a2! =
e>240
-0.5 + jO.866
-0.5
J0.866
The operator a applied to any vector rotates that vector through 120
hi the positive or counterclockwise direction. The operator a2 applied
Ch.
XIV
THE ZERO-PHASE SEQUENCE SYSTEM
493
is,
to any vector rotates that vector through 240 in the positive direction,
a
of course, equivalent to
which
rotation of 120 in the negative
direction.
If, for example, V0i has been determined, the positive-sequence system
may be written simply as
/-
aV*Vol = V01
VM
120
(2)
Vel
System. The balanced system of
opposite in phase sequence to that of the
three-phase vectors which
If the original
called the negative-sequence system.
original vectors
vectors
vectors have
phase sequence of abc the negative-sequence
Ic.
Since
the
of
acb
as
shown
in
Fig.
negativehave
phase sequence
completely determined when one of
balanced,
sequence system
known. The negative-sequence vectors are designated as
the voltages
The Negative-Phase
is
is
is
it
is
is
Sequence
Vo2,
V62,
and
Vc2
V02
the negative-sequence
*Jvla
7^m
system of vectora
|
v!2
v"
Va2, Via, and Vc2 are shown graphically in Fig. Ic.

The Zero-Phase Sequence System. The remaining system consists
is
of three vectors, identical in magnitude and in time phase, as shown in

Fig. Id. These vectors form what
known as the Uniphase or the
in certain physical
will be sufficient to think of the zerosequence vectors as components of the original vectors V0, Vj, and Vc.
problems.
system, and have special significance
For the present
it
zero-sequence
The zero-sequence vectors are designated as

VM,
Va0,
and
Veo
Since the above voltages are equal

=
=
VCO
V00
V!Q0
Va0

Va2
is
If
b,
indicates that the vectors belong to the negative-sequence

Subscript
and
system. The a,
subscripts indicate components of V0, V&,
and Ve respectively.
known, the negative-sequence system
Vo2
can be written in the following form:
the zero-sequence
system of vectors
(4)
494
It
Graphical Composition of Sequence Vectors.
Va2
+ Va0)
(VM +
V62
+ Vw)
(Vei +
VC2
(V01
Ch.
XIV
is evident that
and
Flo.
2.
Illustrating
the manner in which the sequence

Vo, Vt, and Ve.
components
combine
to form
The resultant system shown in Fig. 2 is identical with the unbalanced

For the particular case considered it is plain
that
system shown in Fig. la.
V = V01
=
V02
V00
(5)
VM +
V62
+ VM
(0
Ve2
Ve = Vei
Vco
In terms of the operator a, the above relations may be stated

V0 = Vai + V02 + Voo
+ aVo2 +
Vc = aVal
a2Va2
(8)
Va0
V6 = a2V01
as
Va0
(9)
Vt

form a three-phase system of voltages which, in general, is unbalanced.

The above-indicated compositions are carried out graphically in Fig. 2.
employing the individual voltages contained in Figs. 16, Ic, and Id.
(10)
EVALUATION
Ch.XIV
495
OF Vai
An inspection of equations (8), (9), and (10) will show that the original
system of vectors can be completely specified in terms of V0i, Vo2, Va0,
the operator a. The next step in the study of symmetrical com

ponents is the evaluation of V01, Va2, and Voo in terms of the original
vectors Va, Vt, and Vc.
Evaluation of Vaj. The resolution of an unbalanced system of vectors
into its symmetrical components is essentially a geometric process, and
different geometric methods have been devised whereby the resolution
However, none of the geometric methods thus far
can be effected.
devised possesses the neat simplicity of the complex algebra method
and
given below.
Before proceeding with the algebraic method it is well to understand

that certain operations are performed solely for the purpose of obtaining
Various simpli
the combination (1 + a + a2) which is equal to zero.
fications may thus be made when quantities can be so collected as to
possess the coefficient (1 + a + a2).
If equation (9) is multiplied by a the result is:
aV6 = a3V01 + a2Va2
or, since a3 =
1,
V.i +
aV6 =
If
+ aVao
+ aVao
a2Va2
equation (10) is multiplied by
a2, the
(11)
result is:
a2Ve = a3V al
or, since
a4 = a,
a2Vc =
V.i +
aVo2 + a2Vo0
(12)
Adding equations (8), (11), and (12) yields

V0 + aV6 + a2Vc
= 3V01
(1
+ a + a2)(Vo2
whence:
=
Vol
i(V.
aVfc
+ a2Vc)
f (V.
Vfc
Geometrically speaking, the above equation means that V0i is a vector

one-third as large as the vector which results from the addition of the
three vectors Va, Vt /120, and Ve /240.
Example
If the
1.
vectors shown in Fig.
V0 = 10 /30.
Vai
Vi, = 30
/-60,
and
a215
/25)
f(10 /30 +
a30
J(10
30 /60
/30 +
are:
/-60 +
= 12.42
la
15
V,
= 15
/145")
+ ;12.45 = 17.6 /45.Q unite
/145" unite
496
Since
Vn
and Vcl = Vai /+120, the positive-sequence
/-120
= V0i
Ch. XIV
system of
vectors becomes:
/-75,
VM = 17.6
V0i = 17.6 /45,
and
The above results are indicated graphically in Fig.
= 17.6 /165 units
Vcl
16.
Evaluation of Va2. The negative-sequence component of Vo2 can be

evaluated in a manner almost identical with that given above for the
evaluation of V0i. It is simply necessary to study equations (8), (9),
and (10) with a view toward eliminating the Vai and VOQ terms and at
the same time retain the Vo2 terms.
The desired results can be ob
tained by multiplying equation (9) through by a2 and equation (10)
through by a. Equation (9) multiplied by a2 reduces to
a2V6
aVal +
Va2
a2Va0
(14)
Equation (10) multiplied by a reduces to

aVc = a2Val + Va2
+ aV,*
(15)
Adding equations (8), (14), and (15) yields

Va
+ aVc =
a2V6
- |(V0 + a2V6
Vo2 is therefore
(1
+ a +
a2)
V*)
(Val +
= 0,
Since (1 + a + a2)
Va2
3V02
+ aVc)
$(V. +
V6
/240 + Vc /120)
a vector one-third the magnitude of [Va
(16)
+ (V& rotated

through +240) + (Ve rotated through +120)].

Example 2.
If Va
= 10 /30, Vfc = 30
Vo2 = -3 (10 /30

=
(10 /30
-7.55
+ a!30
+
./3.32
for this particular
Evaluation of VOQ.
(10) will show that:
Va
+ Vt + Vc
and V0 = 15 /145" units:
/-60 + alS
30 /IRQ0
case is shown in
Va2 /1 20 and VeS = Vo2 /-120.
V02
/-60,
= 8.25
/145")
15 /265)
/-
156.2 unite
Fig. Ic together with VM and Vcj.
The direct addition of equations
Val(l +
a2
VM
(8), (9),
and
+ a) + Va2(l + a + a2) + BY,*
or
Vo0 =
i(V0 +
V6
+ Vc)
The zero-sequence component is simply a vector one-third

the vector obtained by adding V0, V6, and Vc.
(17)
as
large
as
Cli.
XIV
ABSENCE OF ZERO-SEQUENCE
Example
If V0
3.
= 10
Vo0 =
/30,
/-60",
and Vc =
30/-60 +
!(10/30_ +
- j'4.13
= 3.79
The
V6 = 30
COMPONENTS
= 5.60
15
15
497
/145 unite
/145")
/-47.40
unite
above value of V0 together with corresponding values of V60 and V,* are shown
in Fig. Id.
Example 4. (a) The results obtained in the foregoing examples can be checked by
comparing the complex expression for (Vai + Va2 + Vo0) with the complex expres
sion of the original vector Va. The results of the foregoing examples are tabulated
below.
Vai = 12.42 +./12.45 = 17.6 /45 unite
Vo2 =
-7.55
Va0 = 3.79
(Vai +
Va2
Vo0)
= 8.66
- J4.13
V62 = a8.25
V42
VM
= 5.60
V6o)
= 15.0
V^
J'5.00 = 10
/-156.2
- J26.0
/-
/30
= 8.25
(Vei + V.2+
Problem
1.
= 86.6
/-900,
Vc0)
Given
/-156.20
/-47.40
= 4.56
- J17.Q unite
= 6.66
/-36.2
- j'4.13 unite
/-60
= 3.79
-17.0 + J4.56
= 0.89
- j'4.13 unite
= 15
the
three
/145"
- j4.87
unite
= V6
= 8.25 /83.8
-12.32 +J8.63
following
unite
= V0
/-75
= 30.0
156.2 unite
/-47.4
= 3.79
/-47.40
= a28.25
Vro = 5.60

= 5.60
Vol = a!7.6 /45 = 17.6 /165 =
(c)
Vt
= 8.25
V6i = a217.6 /45 = 17.6
(&)
(V6i +
- j'3.32
unite
+ ^.20 unite
= Vc
vector
voltages:
Va = 150
/0,
and Vc = 86.6 /90 volte.
(a) Find the sjTnmetrical components of Va and check the resulte by adding
VOJ, Va2) and Va0.
(6) Evaluate Vj, and Vc in terms of the symmetrical components of Va found
in part (a).
(c) Draw
illustrating all symmetrical components.

Ans.: (a) Vol = 100 /0, Va2 = 0, Vo0 = 50/0 volte.
a vector diagram
The zero-sequence com

Absence of Zero-Sequence Components.
in
of
any
system
voltages (or currents) if the
ponents are non-existent
vector sum of the original vectors is equal to zero. [See equation (17).]
This fact may often be used advantageously in making numerical calcu
lations because the original system of vectors is then directly reducible
to two balanced three-phase systems of opposite phase sequence. An
absence of zero-sequence components may have important physical
Some of the prac
significance in the analysis of practical problems.
tical problems
in which
symmetrical-component analyses
are
used
498
successfully
Ch.
XIV
will be referred to briefly in the following paragraphs and
one of these problems will be treated in detail in the next chapter.
Three-Phase, Line-to-Line Voltages. The line-to-line voltages shown

in Fig. 3 for either the wye or delta are:
Vab = (Von
V6c = (V6n
Vco = (Vcn
- V^)
-
(18)
Vcn)
(19)
Von)
(20)
For the delta the voltages to neutral are those of an equivalent wye.
Regardless
of the degree of unbalance in the line-to-line voltages

+
Va6
Vfcc
Vca = (Van
V6n) + (Vh,
+ (Vcn
The zero-sequence
of the
components
Vcn)
VOB)
line-to-line voltages
= 0
(21)
are non
existent because
=
VaM)
V6c0
VCOO
l(Vab +
V6c
+ Vca)
= 0
(22)

Therefore three-phase,
linc-to-line voltages may be represented by a

system and a negative-sequence system of voltages
positive-sequence
as represented by the voltage vector diagrams of Fig. 3.
It should be
As has been previously stated,
realized that Fig. 3 shows a specific case.
the relative magnitude of the positive: and negative-sequence voltages
and the angle between Voni and Von2 may take on an infinite number of
different values in the most general case.
The fact that unbalanced
be
resolved
into
two balanced systems of
may
line-to-line voltages
opposite sequence is of considerable importance in the analyses of threephase rotating machinery. When unbalanced voltages are applied to a
three-phase induction motor, for example, the operation of the motor
may be analyzed on the basis of balanced systems of voltages of opposite
phase sequence.
The positive-sequence voltages and negative-sequence voltages shown

in Fig. 3 are obtained in any particular case in terms of the vector values
of Vo6, Vio and Vca as outlined in equations (13) and (16). In terms
of the present notation
I (Vab
V6c
/120 +
Va42 = 3 ( Vab
V6c
/-1200 +
VaM =
It will
Vca
/-120)
(23)
/120)
(24)
Vca
from equation (23) that the positive-sequence

component of the base vector (Va(, in this case) is obtained by advancing
be observed
Ch.
XIV
THREE-PHASE,
LINE-TO-LINE
VOLTAGES
499
(through 120) the vector which lags the base vector and retarding
Reversed opera
(through 120) the vector which leads the base vector.
tions are employed to secure the negative-sequence components as

Positive-sequence
currents
Positive-sequence
voltages
Negative-sequence
voltages
Fio.
3.
Negative-sequence
currents
Positive and negative systems of voltages and currents for a specific

three-phase
system.
If the general scheme is understood, neither

shown in equation (24).
changes in notation nor reversals of phase sequence (of the original
vectors) can cause confusion.
500
Ch.
XIV
Problem 2. A three-phase system of line voltages, V06, Vbc, and Vn,, are unbal
anced to the extent that VOM = 4000 /-60" and Vai,* = 2000 /180 volte.
(VM is,
of course, equal to zero.)
(a) Draw a common-origin vector diagram illustrating the positive-sequence
voltages and the negative-sequence voltages of V^ V^, and VOT.
(b) Find the magnitudes of the three voltages Vai, V^, and VM.
Ans.: (6) Voj = 3464, Vtc = 3464, V = 6000 volts.
Phase Voltages of Wye-Connected Loads. Reference to equation (21 )

will show that the phase voltages, Van, Vj,n, and Vcn, may possess any
vector values whatsoever and yet the vector sum of the line-to-line
In general, however,
voltages is zero.
Von + V6n
The individual
phase voltages
sequence components
+ Vcn
*0
will, therefore,
generally
even though these components
possess
zero-
are absent in the
line-to-line voltages.
Under balanced conditions the phase voltages
of
no
will,
course, possess
zero-sequence components.
Example 6.
In Fig.
Van = 10
3, let
/(T
Vtn = 20
/-90
VCB = 10
/135"
VOltB
Under these conditions
- - j20)
+j20
-j'27.07
(-7.07 +/7.07)
-J20)
+jO)
-17.07
(-7.07 + /7.07)
+J7.07
Va6 = (10
+JO)
= 10
(0
Vi = (0

Vco =
= 7.07
=
(10
Va6o = [(10 +J2Q) + (7.07 -j'27.07) + (-17.07 +J7.07)]

j20) + (-7.07 +J7.07)]
Vano = 3 1(10 + JO) + (0
= 0.98
=
J12.93)
>4.31 volts
(2.93
It
-0
will be noted that triple subscripts have been used in the above exam
Where
ple in connection with the component voltages Va&o and Von0.
both line-to-line and phase voltages are involved in the same discussion,
triple subscripts of this kind may be used advantageously. These sub
scripts tell whether line-to-line voltages or phase voltages are being
considered, they specify the positive circuit direction of the voltages,
and they designate the order of the system to which the component
voltage belongs.
Delta-Wye Voltage Transformations.
In symmetrical-component
analyses it is very often particularly advantageous to consider deltaconnected systems on an equivalent wye basis.
If the delta-connected
load shown in Fig. 3 is to be analyzed on an equivalent wye basis, the
load impedances are first converted to their equivalent wye values in
the conventional manner and then the line-to-line voltages are resolved
into their symmetrical components as shown in equations (23) and (24).
XIV
Ch.
DELTA-WYE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATIONS
501
The remaining problem
is that of finding the equivalent wye voltages in

line-to-line
of
the
voltages.
terms
For a-b-c sequence:

V6nl = Vanl
It follows
/-1200
and
/-120
Vanl
Vabi
VoM
= VoM
VOM
V3/300
a corresponding manner
/-30
(25)
system of voltages is shown in Fig. 3.
complete positive-sequence
Von2
The
Vonl[l- (-0.5-jO.866)] =VM
Hence:
In
- V6nl
that
Van!-
The
Vanl
it may be shown that
\/3/-3o
Va
(26)
system of voltages is shown hi Fig. 3.

in the analysis of either wye- or
and
are
useful
(25)
(26)
complete negative-sequence
Equations

Supply
(^
""(T\
b
Primary
\b-
b'
Secondary
c'
Fio.
4.
Wye-delta transformer bank. The windings of transformer a are a'b' and an,
transformer 6, b'c' and bn, and transformer c, c'a' and en.
They
delta-connected loads where the line-to-line voltages are specified.
are also important in the analysis of delta-wye transformer banks like
that shown in Fig. 4.
It should be noted in passing that Van0 may possess a finite value
even though the zero-sequence components of the line-to-line voltages
The fact that Van0 cannot be evaluated in terms of
are of zero value.
the line-to-line voltages presents no serious handicap as will be shown
later, but it does preclude the possibility of immediately evaluating the
voltage to neutral (Van = Vonl + Van2 + Von0).
502
Ch.
XIV
Problem 3. In the wye-delta transformer bank shown in Fig. 4, the operation of

the three transformers, and the polarities of the windings are such that
V0'i,'
= nVon
(transformer a)
Vb'c'
= nVt,,
(transformer 6)
Vc'o' = n Vcn
(transformer c)
where n is the voltage transformation ratio of the transformers. The primary line-toline voltages are unbalanced in magnitude to the extent that Voji = 4000 /-60
and Vo42 = 1000
/ 90
volts.
(Vî and Vo&o are, of course, written with respect

The sequence of the primary line-to-line voltages is
to a common reference axis.)

assumed to be ab-bc-ca, and Vano is to be taken as zero.
(a) Find the magnitude and vector position of Vat and of Vt,cratio of the transformers is 10, find the magnitude
(b) If the transformation
and vector position of V0'&' and of Vb'c'.
Ana.:
V^
/-
= 4890
Va't- = 28,230
Vbc = 3173 /170.940 volts.
65.85",
Vb-c- = 23,800
/-84.140,
/1 35.95 volts.
Three-Phase, Three- Wire Line Currents and Associated Delta-Phase

Currents. The line currents of a three-phase, three-wire system can
contain no zero-sequence components regardless of whether the system
Reference to the wye-connected load given
is wye- or delta-connected.
in Fig. 3 will show that at the junction n :
I0
= 0
+ I6 + Ic
Therefore,
i(Ia +
(I
load given in Fig. 3 will show that
= lai,
Ii
= Ifcc
lc
= lea
- lea)
(Ifcc
of the degree of unbalance
lab, I&o and
Ico, the
lea
(28)
Ia6
(29)
(30)
I&)
(lea
I*)
(31)
of the individual phase currents,
vector sum of the line currents,
equal to zero and therefore

in the line currents.
- lie
no zero-sequence
I0,
components
16,
and
is
(27)
Ic,
Regardless
I.) =0
la +
Ic
Hence:
Ib +
Reference to the delta-connected
loo =
Ift

Problem 4. Find the relative vector positions of V06 and Va-6' of the wye-delta
transformer bank of Fig. 4 if Vot2 = 0 and VOBo = 0. Find the relative vector
positions of Vbc and VW under the same conditions.
(The sequence of the supply
voltages Voi, Vte, and Vca is assumed to be ab-bc-ca.)
Ans.: Va-b' lags V,* by 30; V6v lags Vtc by 30.
The supply voltages are balanced and the positive-sequence voltage vector diagram
of Fig. 3 applies directly since Va'b' = nVan, and Vb'c' = nVbn-
are present
Ch.
XIV
THREE-PHASE LINE CURRENTS
503
The individual delta-phase
is,
currents will, in general, possess zeroin general, not equal

(Io6 + I6c + Ico)
to zero. The zero-sequence components of the phase currents in
delta-connected system cannot be evaluated in terms of the line currents.
For a-b-c sequence of line currents
sequence
since
components
IOM
- Icoi
and
I0i
Icol =
Io61
/120
is
it
Employing the same type of derivation as that employed in the deri

vation of equation (25),
easy to show that
- (-0.5+J0.866)]
Ial
.
(32)
positive-sequence
system
of currents
shown in Fig.
currents shows that Ia61
3.
complete
is
1/V3 as large as I01 and 30 in advance of I^.

In a corresponding manner may be shown that
it
is
The vector diagram of the positive-sequence
(33)
^30_
In
wye-delta transformer bank like that shown in Fig.

where no
components of current can exist in the wye primary
windings, no zero-sequence currents will be present in the delta secondary
windings since Nplp = NJ,. In this connection, Np represents the
primary turns and N, the secondary turns of one transformer.
(The
magnetizing current
neglected in the statement Nplp = N,I, or else
IP represents simply the load component of the primary current.) The
fact that transformer bank like that shown in Fig.
eliminates zerosequence currents
of importance in power network short-circuit
studies.
is
is
/V, U2
/60,
in the delta-connected
and
Uo
system shown in
/19.5 amperes
An*.:
I0
= 10
!<,,
Ui
Find the line current,

5
Problem
Fig.Sif
5.
= 15
/o_ amperes.
loo =
I&o
Ico =
i(Ia
It
Three-Phase Line Currents Associated with

Neutral Return.
If a
wye-wye system operates with grounded neutrals or with a
connecting
wire between neutrals, the vector sum of the line currents will not in
general, be equal to zero. In this case:
+

zero-sequence
+ Ic)
(34)
504
Ch.
XIV
It
is
is
is
Ift
is
will be noted that the ground or neutral return current, namely,

three times as large as the individual zero-sequence
+ Ic)i
(I0 +
Each line wire carries
components of the line currents.
component
of current which
equal in magnitude and in time phase with similar
These zero-sequence components
components in the other two lines.
are sometimes called uniphase components and have important physical
significance in connection with the inductive interference between
three-phase power lines and paralleling telephone lines.
Where the line currents possess uniphase components, no manner of
transposition of the power system line wires will prevent these compo
nents from establishing inductive interference in paralleling telephone
lines, the reason being that the uniphase components in the three line
wires establish similarly directed magnetic interference.
In case of
this kind, transposition of the telephone wires themselves
required
the
undesirable
emf's
that
to balance out
are induced by the power
system currents. Inductive interference studies usually refer to the
uniphase or zero-sequence currents as residuals since they represent the
component currents that remain after the positive- and negative-sequence
components have been taken from the original unbalanced system of
currents.
The fact that the residuals can be separated from the two
an important feature in interference
balanced systems of currents
problems.
5.
Ic=o
Fio.
particular case of unbalanced three-phaae line currents.

a
Ic
0,
It
I0
it
is
6.
line-to-ground short circuit on

grounded wye-connected alter
Example
shown in Fig. 5. Let
be required to find the three-phase symmetrical
nator
=
=
= 0.
/<*,
and
components of the hne currents Ia, It, and Ic, where
is
is
the angular displace

the magnitude of the short-circuit current, !, and a
ment of this current from any arbitrary reference axis. The three line currents
may be considered as an unbalanced three-phase system of currents even though
two of the currents are equal to zero.

The zero-sequence components of the line currents of grounded or

four-wire wye systems are also of importance in the evaluation of the
short-circuit currents in power systems.
XIV
Ic
la
120
ICL
/a
Ic2 =
120
Ii2
\I
3/
negative-sequence components are:
IaJ
120
120"
zero-sequence components are
IaO = 160 = IcO =
j/
The
\I
Iti
The
components of the above currents are:
\I
positive-sequence
//a
Ifc
Ia =
The
505
original system of currents is represented by:
/a
The
THREE-PHASE LINE CURRENTS
\I
Ch.
/a
Original
System
'
Negative-Sequence
System
reference
Zero-Sequence
System
Fio.
6.
The resolution of a single current
I/a
into its three-phase symmetrical
IcO
=
=
Ic2
160 =
16
1,1
162
le
fcl
+ +
Graphical representations of the above results are shown in Fig.

observed that
6.
components.
+ +
It
will
be
is
Symmetrical components of the kind given above are used in single line-to-ground,
short-circuit current analyses and although this type of problem
not considered
in the present chapter, a study of Fig. at this stage will prove to be instructive.
6

Positive-Sequence
System
506
Problem 6.
in Fig. 7, are:
!. = la = 20
The three line currents in
/-60",
Ifc-6 =
I*
= 12
a four-wire
/-100,
XIV
wye system like that shown
k'c
and
CA.
= Ic = 10
/75
amperes
Find the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components of the above line cur
rents and check the results either graphically or by the vector addition of the sym
metrical components.
Ans: Iai = 9.45
j'6.76 = 11.62 /-35.6 amperes
161 =
lei
-10.58 -J4.SO
= 1.136
Io2 =
=
- jO.517
= 5.03
= 5.03
-2.05 -j'4.59
lao = 3.503
./6.49
amperes
125.9 amperes
= 7.375
amperes
/1 14.1 amperes
/-61.650
amperes
Three-phase four-wire system for Problem 6.
the voltage of
COS
given phase, say V0,
Ffr/fc COS
VJC COS
VJa
Pa + Pb + PC
is
ffym
Power from Symmetrical Components. For any unbalanced threephase system the total power consumed is the sum of the powers absorbed
in each phase. Thus
If
resolved into several compo
nents, the power for that phase may be obtained by adding the products
of each component of voltage by the current times the cosine of the angle
between the particular voltage component and the current.
Reference
to Fig.
will make this evident.
Here
IaV2
COS
COS
/aF0
COS
F2
02
COS
0?a'
COS
70(V'i
0i
I.Vi
COS
/a (Fa
fl
Pa
8)

7.
/-
7-5.9
= 5.03
I,',
Fio.
/-155.6
= 11.
62/84.4 amperes
- j'4.07
-2.95
162 = 5.0
IC2
-fjll.58
= 11.62
F0
COS 00)
Ch.
XIV
POWER FROM SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
507
Similarly, if the current is divided into components, the power is the

sum of the products of voltage by the current times the cosine of the
phase angle between the respective components of current and the volt
From these facts it should be apparent that if both voltage and
age.
current are resolved into components, the power will be the sum of the
products of each component of voltage by each component of current
tunes the cosine of the angle
between the particular compo
nent of voltage and current ap
pearing in each of the products.
Fio.
In-phase component of V
to la is the sum of the
in-phase components of each of the
component voltages of V0.
8.

with
Fio.
Symmetrical components of voltages

9.
and currents of a general three-phase system.
respect
Figure 9 shows the symmetrical components of currents and voltages

for any three-phase system. The subscripts a, b, and c denote the phase
while 0, 1, and 2 are the usual symbols denoting the sequence compo
nents.
-Pa =
In terms of
Vailai
+ Va2Iai
For
Pb
the components
0j
+ Fol/a2
COS 02
+ Fai/a0
COS 03
COS 65
+ Fo2/ao
COS 06
+ Fo0/oo
COS 07
COS
Va0Ia2 cos
COS 64
COS 8S
(35)
69
= FM/61 cos 0i
+ Vb2Ib2 cos 04
COS 07
+ FM/w cos (120 +

+ Vb2Ibl cos (120 +
+ Ffco/M COS (120 +
+ Fao/62 cos (120
PC
+ Fo2/o2
+ Fao/al
phase b
+ Fjo/60
For
shown for phase a, the power is
phase
=
02)
+ Vbllw cos (120 +
03)
F62/w cos (120
06)
05) -(08)
09)
(36)
VcJd
cos 0,
Fc2/c2 cos
+ Frf/cO
04
COS 07
+ VC1IC2 cos (240 +

+ Fc2/cl cos (240 +
+ Vcolrt
-I- Fco/cz cos (240
09)
COS
02)
05)
cos (240 + 03)

cos (240
06)
(240 + 08)
(37)
508
Ch.
XIV
It
should be remembered that only magnitudes of voltages and cur

rents appear in equations (35), (36), and (37), and that Fol = VH
VM = VCQ, 70l = 761 = Iel, !

Under these conditions if equations
(35), (36), and (37) are added, the terms containing 02 add to zero
because they represent three equal quantities at 120-degree angles.
Similarly, the terms containing 03, 05, 08, 6S, and 09 add to zero. Drop
ping reference to particular phases, this leaves
= Vb2 = Vc2,
Va0 =
=
=
and 7o0
/do
^co-
Va2
= 7(,2 = IC2j
It
will be noted that cos 0i

Hence
cos 0vV
Pa + Pb + PC
3Fi/i
= 3T7!/! cos 0v,
cos 0i
+ 3F2/2 cos 04 + 3F0/o cos
= cos 0y,,
+ 3F2/2 cos
cos
0$,
= Ve\,
04 = cos
0y,,
97
(38)
and cos
+ 3F0/0 cos
07
(39)
Equation (39) shows that the total power consumed by an unbalanced

the sum of the powers represented by each of the
system
Hence, to obtain total power the
symmetrical component systems.
of
the
total negative-, and total zerosum
total
positive-,
algebraic
sequence powers may be calculated.
Copper Losses in Terms of Symmetri
cal Components. The copper loss for
any unbalanced three-phase system is:
= Ia2Ra
+ Ib2Rb
is
three-phase
Ic2Rc
(40)
/c2 = [/ei cos 120

[7ci sin 120
762
7c2
7C2
sin (120 cos (240 sin (240 cos (120
sin a)2 (41)
7W cos a]2
/o cos a]2
+ /w sin
+
[7M sin 240
762
loo
0) 0)
+
+ +
7t2 = [761 cos 240
+ +
Similarly,
(7o2 sin
cos a)2
I2
/3
oo
loi
0) 0)
Ic.z cos
follows that
/a2 =
system.
nents
three-phase
it
Symmetrical compo
of currents in a general
)3
10.
Fio.
Io
ing phase resistances are used.

By referring to Fig. 10 and by remem
bering that

where phase currents and the correspond
a]2
I* sin a]2
(42)
(43)
When Ra, Rb, and Rc arc different the sequence components of current
should be combined to obtain 70, 7j, and 7f, and equation (40) used to
Ch.
XIV
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF IMPEDANCE
509
calculate the copper loss. If, however, Ra = Rb = Rc = R, substi

tution of equations (41), (42), and (43) in equation (40), dropping
reference to phase, and expanding and combining terms algebraically
give
3/i2fl + 3/22fl + 3702fl
= 3
(/i2
722
+ /o2)
(44)
Equation (44) shows that the total copper loss due to the resultant
the sum of the copper losses due to the sequence
currents is the same as

components calculated
If the resistances to
rents are different, the

separately.
the positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence
cur
copper loss may be determined from
3/1% +
3/22ft2 + 3/02flo
(45)
where RI, 7?2, and RQ are respectively the resistance to the positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence components of current. In using equation
(45) it must be remembered that each of the sequence resistances must
be the same for all three phases, since equality of phase resistances was
assumed in obtaining equation (44), of which (45) is a modification.
Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence Impedance Components.
For purposes of some analyses, three self-impedances may be separated
or resolved into their symmetrical components exactly like three voltages
or currents.
If the voltages or currents which are to be associated with
these component impedances are resolved in the order a-b-c, then the
impedances should be resolved in the same order.
[See equations (13),
(16), and (17).] The term self -impedance implies that no mutual
coupling exists between the individual impedances.
In order to distin
guish the components of self-impedance from the components of mutual
impedance which are considered later, double subscripts of the kind
given below will be used.
The symmetrical components of three self-impedances, Z00, Zbb, and
Zcc are:
Zo.i
Z002
=
=
I (Zaa
Zbb
/120 +
/-120)
(46)
(2^ +
Zbb
/-1200 + Z /120)
(47)
Zcc
+Z6ft + Zcc)
As above defined Zaal,

pedance,
Zaa2,
negative-sequence
and
(48)
Zaa0 are called positive-sequence
impedance,
and zero-sequence
im
impedance
510
Ch.
XIV
These component impedances have little physical sig

nificance but they are useful in a general mathematical formulation
of symmetrical-component theory.
It should be pointed out at this
stage that the resistance (or in-phase) parts of the component imped
ances may possess negative signs even though the real parts of Zaa, Z^
and Zcc are all positive.
The above symmetrical components of an unbalanced set of impedanffs
should not be confused with impedance to positive-, negative-, and zerosequence currents which are defined as follows:
respectively.
Za\ =
Impedance to positive-sequence,
lol
Z02 =
Io2
*r
Z0o = -r~
Impedance to negative-sequence,
Impedance to zero-sequence,
IaO

These impedances to sequence component currents are usually

applied to systems where the impedances of all phases are the same or
In order to avoid confusion a double-letter subscript will be
balanced.
used on positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components of impedance.
For impedance to positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents a
single-letter subscript will lie used.
In both cases the figure subscript?
1, 2, and 0 will denote positive, negative, and zero sequence, respect ively.
Zcn=Z
-eC
Flo.
Example 7.
11.
Sec example 7.
Let the wye-connected impedances of Fig.
Zaa = (6
+ JO)
= (5.2
- j3)
11
be:
= (0 +
j!2)
ohms
Employing equations (46), (47), and (48), the component impedances arc:
ZMi
- J3)
3[(6 + JO) + (5.2
J[(6 + JO) + (0 + J6) +

= 5.47 +JO
^(16.4 + JO)
(-0.5
+ J0.866) + (0
(10.4 - J6)J
ohms,
+j!2) (-0.5 -j0.86C)]
Ch.
XIV
ZM2 =
Zoao
THE SEQUENCE RULE

il(6
+ JO) + (5.2
5l(6 + JO) +
^(-9.6
- j9)
- j3)
(-5.2 -J3)
=
- J3)
In
+ (0 +
The
that
Zna2/120
Zff2 =
Zfcbo
= Za.,0
+ ./0.866)!
it follows that
Zfrl
ZN.2
(-0.5
+ j3 ohms
Zaoi/-120
J12)
j!2)]
accordance with previous considerations,
Zi
(0 +
- j3 ohms
-3.2
$1(6 + JO) + (5.2

=
(11.2 +J9) = 3.73
- jO.866) +
(-10.4 - J6)]
(-0.5
511
ZMi/120
Z,,u2/-120
Zcco = Zaao
sum of the impedance components of one phase equals the actual impedance of
phase. For example,
Zaa = (5.47
- J3) +
(-3.2
+ JO) +
+ J3)
(3.73
= 6 + JO ohms
Problem 7. Find Zui, "Lubi, and ZH>O in the above example, employing the values
Repeat for Zrci, ZC(.2> and Zrro.
of Zaaii Zaa2, and ZaaU which have been evaluated.
Ana.: Zy, = Zw,i + ZN," + Ztao
= (-2.73
jl.27) + (3.73 +J3.0)
j'4.73) + (4.20
= (5.2
ohms.
J3.0)
Problem
8.
Given three wye-connected impedances:
Zan = (15 + JO)
Z6n
= (6
- J3.464)
Zrn = (6
+ J3.464) ohms
(a) Find the symmetrical components of
Zon in accordance with the resolutions

(46), (47), and (48).
(6) Find Zî, Z&n2, and Zt,nO in terms of the symmetrical components of Zan and
check (Zimi + Z6n2 + Zbno) with the given value of (6 j'3.464) ohms.
g^ven in equations
(a) Zanl = 5/0^; Zan2 = 1/0;
Zon0 =
9/0"
ohms.
+ laflZaal +
IaoZaa2
Zfln2
inZâal
Zaa0)
'al'Z'aaZ
~\~
~H
Io2 + Ioo)(Zaal
V0 = IaZa = (lal
= laiZoai
IalZoa2 + IalZOoO
~\~
That
appear.
is,
Sequence Rule as Applied to Component Voltages. If the voltage

drop across one phase, say phase a, is written in terms of the symmetrical
components of both current and impedance, nine component voltages
â2âaO
(49)
Ia()ZaaO
These nine component voltages may be grouped in such

manner as to
form the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components of Vn, and
this grouping may be made in accordance with an easily remembered
rule.
The Sequence Rule
the voltage system to which an IZ drop belongs
The order
the orders
the systems to which
and
equal to the sum
belong
individually.
of
of
is
of

Ans.:
SYMMETRICAL
512
In
COMPONENTS
Ch.
the application of the sequence rule, positive-sequence
of first order,
negative-sequence
terms are of second order,
sequence terms are of zero or third order.
In summing
XIV
terms are
and zero-
the orders both
+ 0) and (2 + 2) are considered as belonging to the first order, since

order 4 is considered as order 1, there being only three orders.
In this
connection, the zero in (1 + 0) may be reckoned either as zero or three.
Also (1 + 2) is of order 3, or a zero-sequence term.
As applied to the
component voltages of equation (49), the sequence rule states:
(1
Voi
Va2
= lolZoaO
=
Io2Z0a2
+ laoZaal
(50)
lalZaal +
IttfZaaO
~\~ Ia()Za<>2
(51)
â2âal
(52)
VoO = IolZaa2
laflZoaO
Obviously the real basis upon which the above equations are written
is that, as written, they satisfy the definitions which were originally
attached to Vai, Vo2, and Vo0. To satisfy these definitions, V0j must be
the positive-sequence component of the base vector Vg, Va2 must be the
negative-sequence component of the base vector Va, and Va0 must be
the zero-sequence component.
The proof that V0i, as written in equa
tion (50), satisfies the definition of a positive-sequence voltage is out
lined below.
Applying equation (50) to the b phase and making appropriate sub
stitutions :
+ (Ia2/12(nZag2/1200

I0iZgg0/-1200 +
Ia2Zao2
/-1200 +
Ig0Zaoi
(50a)
Comparison of equations (50a) and (50) will show that VM is equal in

magnitude to VaJ and 120 behind Vai, as, of course, it should be if
Vui, V&i, and Vci are to form a positive-sequence system.
Applying equation (50) to the c phase and making appropriate sub
stitutions:
Vcl
= IclZccO
Ic2ZCc2
+ IcoZcd
(Ial/120)Zaa0 + (Ig2/-120)Zaa2/-120
IaiZaa0/120 + Io2Zaa2/120
+ Ig0Zagl/120
+ IaUZaai/120
(506)
Comparison of equations (50J>) and (50) will show that Vri is equal in
magnitude to Vai and 120 ahead of V0i, which is the necessary require
ment that Vgi, V&i, and Vci form a positive-sequence system of voltages.
In a manner similar to that outlined above, Vg2 of equation (51 ) may
system of
be shown to be a member of a balanced negative-sequence
voltages Va2,
Vfc2,
and Vr2.
Ch.
XIV
In
UNBALANCED
THREE-WIRE
LOADS
513
the following problem the reader is asked to analyze equation
(52) with a view toward showing that the IZ components of that equa
tion are correctly chosen to form a zero-sequence system of voltages.
Problem 9. Prove that Vao (equal to L^Z^s + IasZoai +
nitude and in time phase, with
= IftlZ&tJ
+ IblZbbl +
Ii.uZf,,,,,
VC0 = IclZcc2
+ IcsZccl +
IcflZccO
V&o
I<,oZaao)
is equal in mag
and with
Application of the Sequence Rule to Unbalanced Three-Wire Loads.

The foregoing theory may be applied to any three-wire load which
consists of individual or non-coupled phase impedances.
Since the in
dividual phases of three-phase rotating equipment are closely coupled
magnetically, the present method of analysis does not apply directly
to rotating equipment. (A method of accounting for the mutual im
pedances of rotating equipment is given in Chapter XV, and a general
method of accounting for mutual impedance effects is given later in the
present chapter.)
In applying equations (50), (51), and (52) to the a phase of a wyeconnected load like that shown in Fig. 11, it is noted that, since Ia() = 0,

= IalZan2
VanO
zZon2
(53)
ZânO
(54)
^-aZânl
(55)
If
the line-to-line voltages, namely, Vab, Vi0 and Vca, are known, Vun\
and Van2 may be evaluated directly from equations (25) and (20).
If Vanl and Van2 are known, Iai and Ia2 may be deter
(See page 501.)
mined directly from equations (53) and (54), provided that Z,lnl, Zon2,
and Zan0 are known.
Since Ia0 = 0,
Ian = la = Iai + Io2
(56)
-1200 + I2/120
120
(57)
+ IB2/-120
(58)
Even though
Ia0 = 0, Van() will,

Van0 = laiZan2
by equation (55)
in general, possess a finite value nincc

+ Ia2Zani.
Let the line-to-line voltages and the phase impedances of the wyeload shown in Fig. 11 be as follows:
Example 8.
connected
V,*
I'oA
=200
= (6 + JO)
= 141.4
Vca = 141.4 volte
= (5.2
Zfc
- j'3)
Zn
= (0
+ ;12) ohms
514
If
Ch.
XIV
the voltage sequence is ab-bc-ca and if Vot is taken as reference,

Vn* =
= 141.4
Vi*
200/0
of the above line-to-line
Resolution
Vao =
Vea = 141.4/135
voltages into symmetrical
3I200/OJ + 141.4/-135"
/IT
= 42.3
+ 141.4/-1050]
+ 141.4/105
volts
components yields
+ 141.4/_15_] = 157.8
141.4/-15"
-3[200/pj; +
3[200/jr
/-135
+ 141.4/135]
= 0
/-30
volts
volte
volts
From equations (25) and (26):

157.8/0
/-30
V3
42.3/0
Van2 =
,/30
VI
= 91
24.4/30 volts
The symmetrical components of the phase impedances are:

Zmi
= 5.47
/O^,
Z.no
and
J3)
(3.73 +
Zant
(-3.2
- j3)
= 4.38
ohms
4.78/38.8
Znn0

Inl
Z,m0
Vnni
anO
Zanl
491/20.15
4.78/38.8
4.38
44.8/59.95
5.47/0
4.78/38.8
/-
136.8
136.8
- /7.02 amperes
/o
44.8
ân2
91
Z -30
24.4
,30
/ 59.95
528 /1 37.5
44.8 /59.950
Zano
4.78/38.8
5.47^
In2
I.
4.38
24.4/30
4.78 /38.8
Zfw
/-
91/-300
= 8.42
10.95/-30.80
136.8
(See example 7, page 510.)
Prom equations (53) and (54):
OB2
.-'-
I0i +
2.56 + j'11.5 amperes
- /7.02)
I2 = (8.42
+ (2.56 +
jll.5)
= 10.98 + J4.48 amperes
In
polar form:
la
= 11. 83/22.2 amperes
1.2 have been evaluated, In, !(,, Iri, and Ir2 follow directly, and
It,,
and
hence
Irn may l>e determined from the values of Iai and I02of Van is to lie determined l>y the method of symmetrical comiwnents,
value
If the
After !! and
.n = Vanl
Van2
anO
Ch. XIV
where,
MAGNETIC COUPLING
from equation
Vnn0 = (10.95
=
-34
= (78.85
Van
= 6(5
BETWEEN PHASES
(55), Vano = IoiZ<ln2 + lazZani-
/-39.8)
(4.38
/-
In this
515
c-a.se:
136.8") + (11.8/77.45)
(5.47/0)
+ J60.2 volts
-J45.5)
+ (21.15 + J12.2) +
(-34 + J60.2)
+ J26.9 volts
Problem 10. Study through the details of the above example and evaluate Is, IC)
Vbn, and Vrn by the method of symmetrical components. Check Vnn V&n against
the
given value of Vat = 200/0 volts, recognizing that slide-rule calculations were
employed in the evaluations of Ial, Ia2, and Van.
Aim.:
I* = -21.53
J7.31 = 22.7/-161.2" amperes.
Magnetic Coupling between Phases. If the three phases (including

the line wires) possess mutual coupling of the kind shown in Fig. 12,
the voltage drop in phase an due to
its mutual coupling with phases bn
and en is:
Vom =
I^ + IfZuc
(59)
where subscript m designates the

fact that this voltage drop excludes
voltage drop,
the self-impedance
If simple magnetic
namely, IaZnu.
coupling is involved,
juMab
(60)
= dtjtolMac
(61)
Zab = jXab =

Zoc =
jXac
(See Chapter
VII.)
FIG.
12-
Impedance in wye with mutual

coupling between phase.
The signs of the mutual reactances are denned by the assigned directions
of current flow and the modes of winding the mutually coupled coils.
The impedance drop in phase an due to the self-impedance of that
phase will
be called Voa,
and the total voltage drop in phase an then
becomes:
Von = Vaa
Vam = IaZaa
+ IiZa6 + IcZac
(62)
drops of equation (62) in

terms of symmetrical components will now be undertaken. Obviously
I0, I;,, and Ic may be expressed in terms of the symmetrical components
of any one of these currents and Zaa may be resolved into symmetrical
components if the other self-impedances Z(,b and Zoc-are known. In this
The problem of expressing the impedance
connection
Z00i
(Zna + Zt6/120 +
Zrr/-120),
if the other resolutions are effected in the a-b-c order.
etc.
SYMMETRICAL
516
COMPONENTS
Ch.
XIV
The self-impedance voltage drop in phase an may be written in terms

of symmetrical components in accordance with the sequence rule.
V
aa
V aol
-Ii
V oa2 ~J_ V* aau
fK1\
v^J,/
where
Vaal = lalZaaO + Ia2Z0a2 + laoZaal
(64)
(65)
(66)
There remains
the problem of resolving the mutual impedances
Za{,
= Zfta, Z(,c = ZC(,, and Zco = Zoc
into symmetrical components that can

advantageously associated with Iai, Iaz, and IOQ to account for the
At this stage of the devel
presence of IbZab and IcZac in equation (62).
opment it is rather difficult to say which of the three mutual impedances
It turns out that
should be considered as the base mutual impedance.
the symmetrical components of Zbc can best be associated with Iai, Ia3,
be
See equation (72).

Resolving the mutual impedances
and Ia0.
into symmetrical components with
Zic as base yields

Zbd = \(Zbc + Zca/120 + Zab/_- 120)
(67)
(68)
^(Zftc
Z<;a
Za(,) = Zra0 =
(69)
/-12
(70)
Zcal =
Z6cl/120
Zj,c2/~ 120
Zfccl
(71)
ZC02
In terms of symmetrical components,

120
+ Iao)(Z6cl/1200 + Zbf2/-120
Ia2/-120 +
Ia0)(Z6cl
/-1200
(72)
Eighteen component voltages appear if the multiplications indicated

in equation (72) are carried out. These components may be grouped
into positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence terms in accordance with
the sequence rule.
For example, the component
voltages
of the first
order are:
IaiZi,c0
Io0Zbcl
7-120 =Vaml
(73)
Ch.
XIV
If the like
MAGNETIC COUPLING
BETWEEN
PHASES
517
terms in the above equations are further grouped, the following
form results:
Vaml
= "lalZftcQ +
The negative-sequence
2Ia2Z()<;2
or second-order
(74)
laoZftcl
terms of equation (72) may be
combined to form
(75)
The zero-sequence terms of equation (72) may be combined to form

(76)
(74), (75), and (76) contain all eighteen component voltages
represented in equation (72), and these equations may be combined
Equations
systematically with equations (64), (65), and (66) to yield the positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence components of the complete phase voltage,
namely, Von = Vao + Vam.
Adding equations (64) and (74), equations (65) and (75), and equa
tions (66) and (76) results in:
Vanl
= Ial(ZaaO ~ Z(,co)
+ 2Zic2) + I0o(Zaai
Zfcd)
(77)
Zj,c0)
+ Iao(Zaa2 ~ Zfc^)
Van2 = Ial(Zaal + 2Z6(.i) + Ia2 (Zaa0
(78)
VonO
Io2(Zao2
= Iol(Zaa2 ~ Zbcli) + Ia2(Zaol Zfcei) + Ioo(ZaaO
2Z(,co)
(79)

The above set of equations represents
a powerful tool in the field of

circuit analysis because with the aid of this set of equations any degree
of unbalance and any degree of magnetic or capacitive coupling may be
handled on a symmetrical-component basis. Equations (77), (78),
and (79) are particularly useful in accounting for transmission line
reactance voltage drops because these voltage drops result from mutual
These equations are also useful in
coupling between the line wires.
accounting for the mutual impedance of the fourth wire of a four-wire,
three-phase system.
Example 9. Let it he required to find the current Ia in Fig. 13 by the method of
symmetrical components, if Vab = Voc = Vca = 100 volts and the sequence of these
From previous considerations, it is plain that
voltages is ab-bc-ca.
V..,
If Voi
^/-30
V3
and
Von2 = 0
is chosen as the reference vector,
- /-30C
--V3100
VOBi
The self-impedances [Z^
= (0
jl),
Zw,
= (50
= (2
- J28.9)
volts
+ JO), and Z
= (0
+J3)]
may be
518
resolved into symmetrical

Zaai
lî
=5(Zaa
XIV
components in the usual manner.
l(Zaa + Zbi,/120 +
Zaao =
Ch.
ZM,
i(ZM +
ZM,
Zcf
= (0.533
/-120)
+ J0.411) ohms
- jO.744)
'-120 + Zcr/120) = (-1.199

+ Zcc) = (0.667 + jl.33) ohms
ohms
-ol
Fia.
See example
13.
9.
As indicated on the circuit diagram (Fig. 13), the coefficient of coupling between
This coefficient
two inductance coils is v/3/6.
is interpreted
to mean that
V/3
If
0.5 ohm
the modes of winding and the space positions of the coils are as represented
Fig.
13,

Zca = (0
- juMca)
= (0
and Zjr are both zero because no coupling exists between phases a and
6 and c under the specified conditions.
In accordance with equations (67), (68), and (69),
or between
phases
Z(*2 =
Zftco
j(0.5/-90 +
120) =0.144 + jO.083 ohm
- 120) -0.144 +j0.083ohm

/-90") 0 - jO.167 ohm
=
3(0.5/-90
j (0.5
Since loo is equal to zero, it follows from equations (77) and (78) that
The
VOBi
= 50
V(m,
=0
-J28.9
I0i (0.667 + jl.50) + Ia(-
alx>ve equations may lie solved simultaneously

(50
loi
- J28.9)
+J1.50)
(0.821
+ JO.578)
= (9.63
1 .487
(0.667
(0.667
- J25.6)
1.487
- jO.578)
+J0.578) + Ia2(0.667 + jl.50)
= Ifll(0.821
(-1.487
(0.667
amperes
for I0i and laj
- jO.578)
+./1.50)
- jO.578)
in
- jO.5) ohm
"Lab
Zfcci
the
jl.50)
76.6
j'55.7
-0.918 + J3.33
Ch.
XIV
PROBLEMS
+jl. 50)
(0.667
la
- J28.9)
(50
+ J0.578)
( -0.918 +J3.33)
(0.821
Ia2
= (3.01
+j'16.46)
Ia2 = (9.63
lai +
= (12.64
- J9.14)
519
-57.7
- J5.1
-0.918 + J3.33
amperes
- J25.6)
= 15.6
/-
(3.01
+ J16.46)
35.85 amperes
PROBLEMS
11. The line-to-neutral voltages of a four-wire, three-phase system are represented
by the following vector expressions: V0 = 200 /OJ, V6 = 150/-150", and Vr =
100 775.
Find the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components of the
above voltages, and check the results obtained by graphical additions of the sym
metrical components.
12. The three line currents of a four-wire wye load (like that shown in Fig. 7,
page 506) directed to the common junction
are
j'20 amperes
Ian = 15
Tin = 8
jl5
amperes
Icn = 8
J25 amperes
Find
lani, Ia!, and Iono.

13. The three wye-connected impedances through which the currents of Problem
12 flow are, respectively,
Zan = 20
J20 ohms
Zfrn
= 30
Zcn = 10
Find
+ jlO ohms
- J20 ohms

Zani, Zan2, and ZaBo14. Employing the symmetrical
components Ioni, Ianz, lano, Zani, Zan2, and Z0,,o

determined in Problems 12 and 13, evaluate Van = I,,,,Z,,n in terms of symmetrical
components and check the result against the known value of I, ,../.,,,.
FIG.
14.
See Problem 15.
16. Assume that the three-phase line voltages shown in Fig. 14 are
Vbc =
200/0
Vca = 100/120
Va* = 173.2/210
(a) Find Vî, Vi,c2, and VbcQ.

Employ phase sequence
(6) Find Vnci, Vn<.2, and Vaco.
16. The three line-to-line voltages shown in Fig. 14 arc:
Vai
100
V6c = 150
be, ab, ca.
V = 175 volts
520
Sequence ab-bc-ca.
(a) Find Voti, Voj,", and Voto.
(6) Find Va,,i and Van2, the equivalent
Cfc.
XIV
wye voltages of the delta load shown in
Fig. 14.
(c)
Explain how the line currents may
be determined
from V0,i, Van2, and the
delta load impedances.

17. The line-to-line voltages of a three-wire,
volts, V&c = 141.4
ab-ca-bc.
volts,
and Vca = 141.4
wye-connected
30/60" ohms, and Zrn
set
of static
20/0 ohms)
three-phase system are Voj = 200

volts.
The sequence of the voltages is
impedances (Zan = 20/0 ohms, Zj,r, =
is connected
to the three lines a,
b,
and
c in
Find the line currents !, !&, and I by

the order indicated by the subscripts.
the method of symmetrical components.
18. Solve for Ia in Fig. 13 by the method of symmetrical components if Vo* = 200,
The sequence of the line-to-line voltages is
V&c = 173.2, and Vco = 100 volts.

ab-bc-ca.
CHAPTER XV
POWER SYSTEM SHORT-CIRCUIT
CALCULATIONS
Power systems are subject to three kinds of short circuits. First, all
three lines of a three-phase system may become electrically connected.

This is known
short circuit. Second, only two lines

may be electrically connected, which constitutes a line-to-line short
circuit. Third, a single wire may be electrically connected to ground.
This is called a line-to-ground short circuit. Although the electrical
connections referred to may be of varying impedance, short-circuit
calculations are based upon zero impedance at the point of short circuit.
In other words, a perfect short circuit is assumed. Short circuits on
systems are usually called faults.
A distribution system should be protected in such a way that a faulty
or short-circuited section will be isolated from the rest of the system.
This is accomplished through the use of relays which operate circuit
breakers. To protect a system, relays are set to trip in a certain length
of time after the fault occurs.
By varying the amount of time required
for a relay to operate, certain selective operation of circuit breakers may
be obtained. After proper adjustments are made, this selective opera
tion causes only the faulty section of the line to be isolated. In order to
determine the proper time settings of these relays and in order to deter
mine the sizes of circuit breakers necessary, the magnitudes of the shortcircuit currents that these devices are to handle must be known. In
general, different values of short-circuit current occur for the three-phase
symmetrical, line-tc-line, and line-to-ground short circuits. Usually the
three-phase symmetrical short circuit yields the lowest value of shortcircuit current (except when the system has practically no grounds).
Hence relay settings are usually based upon three-phase symmetrical
faults because it is desirable to protect a system for the minimum fault
current. If the relay trips a circuit breaker for minimum fault current,
it will obviously open the breaker for the highest fault current, but the
converse is not true. Since a breaker must interrupt the largest shortcircuit current that can possibly exist, the size of a circuit breaker is
determined by the largest possible fault current. The greatest current
usually occurs for either the line-to-line or line-to-ground fault. Obvi
ously, the determination of short-circuit currents in power systems is
required if the proper settings of relays and proper selection of circuitbreaker sizes are to be made.
as a three-phase
521
522
SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
POWER SYSTEM
Ch. XV
Bases for Short-Circuit Calculations. A distribution network consists

of many lines which may be connected by transformers and which, in
To establish a simple
general, operate at different nominal voltages.
network for purposes of calculation, the impedances of all lines and
transformers are expressed in ohms referred to a common voltage base
The
or in percentage referred to a common kilovolt-ampere base.
former generally appears simpler to the beginner, but the latter method
The two methods yield
is actually the better and is to be preferred.
identical results.
Method Using Ohms on a Kilovolt Base. In general, various branches
of an electrical distribution system operate at different potentials.
In representing such a system by a system of impedances, it is desirable
to employ a scheme which permits the combination of the different im
pedances so that the network can be represented by a single impedance
This requires the determination of
between the source and the fault.
an impedance, Z2> which may be used with an arbitrarily selected volt
age, Vz, such that the same kva will be taken as when the actual im
Stated algebraically,
pedance, Zi, is used with the actual voltage V\.
*-3AJ

or
Equation (1) shows that the original impedance must be multiplied by

the square of the ratio of voltage to be used to the nominal operating
To illustrate, suppose that 1000 volts are
voltage for the impedance.
impressed on an impedance of 100 ohms and that it is desired to find the
current and kva taken.
1
1000
"lOO"
va = 1000
amPeres
10 = 10,000
Now assume that it is desired to work the same problem when

Then
are referred to a 2000-volt base.
Z2
/2
/2000\ 2
( loop 1 X
100 = 400 ohms
2000
400"
va = 2000
5 = 10,000
all
values
Ch.XV
METHOD
The foregoing
USING OHMS ON A KILOVOLT BASE
523
example shows that there is no difference between calculat
ing the volt-amperes for the actual voltage and impedance and for some
other selected voltage and an equivalent impedance found by multiplying
the original impedance by the square of the ratio of the selected voltage
to the original. The current on the actual voltage base is then found
by multiplying the result calculated on the selected voltage base by the
ratio of the voltages. Thus the actual current at 1000 volts is:
2000
= 5
This procedure is evident from
= 10
the following relationship.
VJi
= V2I2
V*TIz
Ii=rr
T
or
Example 1. Calculate the short-circuit current for the system shown in Fig. 1.
A trans
10 to 1 ratio wye-wye connected transformer bank is represented at A.
former has resistance and leakage reactance which may be referred to either side as

2/3
4/1
0.015
0.035/1
0.035/1
Flo.
1.
Elementary three-phase
system.
Bee example
1.
was shown in Chapter VII. The transformer impedance in this case is 1 + j2 ohms
per phase when referred to the high-voltage side. The line impedance 2 +j'4 is
Since Fig. 1 represents a
assumed to include the phase impedance of the generator.
0.015
-W^TSBZT1
Fio.
2.
A 0.035 Jl
v.
Equivalent circuit per phase of Fig.
1.
balanced circuit, all calculations will be made per phase. The equivalent circuit for
one phase to neutral is shown in Fig. 2, and the corresponding one-line diagram is
524
POWER SYSTEM
Ch. XV
shown in Fig. 3. A short line at the generator neutral is used to represent the neutral
The per
bus, and a cross at the end of the line denotes the point of short circuit.
phase voltage is impressed between the neutral bus and the point X. The transZSL
2-n.
4/L
>
>
>
0.015/1 0.035
JL
-/W^TSWV
Fio.
L_Gen. neutral
One-line diagram of Fig.
3.
and Fig.
1.
former impedance causes a drop in voltage from its primary to its secondary side and
Transferring the impedance of the secondary
therefore acts like a series impedance.
line to its equivalent value on a 2000-volt base (the primary line-to-line voltage), or
2n
Fio.
4.
4/1
2/1
1/1
Reduction of Fig.
1.5/1
3.5/1
to a series of impedances.
to a 2000/v/3 volts to neutral base which is the same, and inserting the transformer
equivalent impedance, reduces the one-line diagram to the equivalent circuit shown
in Fig. 4. Then

/V3
+ J2) +
2000
1 =
(2
+ j'4) +
47
-j'99.2
(1
or
(1.5
+.;3.5)
109.8 amperes
The actual current at the fault is found by referring the current to the
the faulty line.
Fault current
= 109.8
voltage of
10 = 1098 amperes
Problem 1. A wye-connected generator rated at 2200 terminal volts has 0.2 ohm
resistance and 2 ohms reactance per phase. The generator is connected by lines each
having an impedance of 2.06 /29.05" ohms to a wye-wye transformer bank. Each
has a total equivalent impedance referred to the high side of 100/60]
ohms, and the transformer bank is connected to a load through lines each of which
If the ratio of
has a resistance of 50 ohms and an inductive reactance of 100 ohms.
transformer
is 6 and the low-voltage side is connected to the generator lines, cal

culate the actual fault current for a three-phase symmetrical short circuit at the load.
Arts.: 22.3 amperes.
transformation
In general, short-circuit calculations are made

Percentage Method.
Percentage
through the use of percentage resistances and reactances.
reactance is defined as the percentage of the rated voltage which is con
XV
Ch.
PERCENTAGE METHOD
sumed in the reactance

algebraically,
525
drop when rated current flows.

=
% reactance
/ratedT
* ohms x
Expressed
100
United
(2)
Percentage resistance is similarly defined.

values are
Percentage
manipulated like ohmic values.
When percentage values are em
ployed, a common kva base is used instead of a common voltage base as
employed in the ohmic method. The derivation of the method for
determining the percentage reactance on different kva bases follows.
Three-phase will be assumed since it is the most common.
Let p be the percentage reactance based on a particular 3-phase kva.
kv
= the voltage between the three-phase lines in kilovolts.

= the reactance in ohms.
IX
Then
kilovolts
\/3kv
IQOX kva
P =
1007X
~F
10~3
V3kv
/-
kv/v3
kv/v3
;
^^2
kv
w)
10

Equation (3) shows that percentage reactance varies directly with the
kva when the rest of the factors remain constant. A similar relation
Although equation (3) was derived
holds true for percentage resistance.
on the assumption of three-phase it is equally applicable to single-phase.
Example 2. By way of illustrating the use of percentage resistance and reactance,
example 1, which was worked on the ohmic basis, will be reworked employing the
Ordinarily, much of the data on a system is expressed in per
percentage method.
centage and no transformation from ohmic to percentage impedance ia necessary.
Since the parameters in the previous example are given in ohms, the transformation
Also, to illustrate changing to a common base, the per
to percentage will be shown.
centage impedance of the lines on the generator side of the transformer and the trans
former will be found on a 10,000-kva base, while that on the secondary side will be
found on a 100-kva base.
For the lines on generator side of transformer:
Base current
10,000,000
V32000
IX drop due to
base current
IR
base current = 100
drop due to
= 100
OQQC XX A
'= 1000,
OQCK
/V3
\/ O
2000
/V3
2000
= 2885 amperes
= = 500,
or 1000% reactance
or 500% resistance
POWER SYSTEM
526
XV
Ch.
impedance on 10,000-kva base:
Transformer
IR
,
drop =
,,,,.,
IX drop
%
100
2885
= 250
2000 />/3
=
100
X2885X2
2000
/V3
= 500
The line impedance on the secondary side of the transformer based on 100 kva
determined as follows:
Nominal rated voltage on secondary
Base current 7
%
,
It
IX
,
drop =
100,000
A/3200
100
288.5
200
,
IR
drop =
100
0.035
0.015
= 8.75
= 3.75
200/V3
The circuit of Fig.
1 with parameters expressed in percentage is shown in Fig.

is common to receive data on distribution networks expressed like those in Fig.
500+11000* L_| 2SO-HSOOX I

n 10.000
liMbMe|
|on 10.000hi tne|
Fio.
5.
One-line diagram of Fig.
percentage

volts
= 288.5 amperes
/V3
288.5
= 200
i-
5.
5.
I 3.75+
-IB.75X
I
| on 100kvsbin
with parameters
expressed on a
basis.
Before simplifying, a common kva base is chosen to which all constants are referred.
This base may be any arbitrarily selected. A 1000-kva base is chosen for this ex
ample because it yields convenient numerical quantities.
90+flMX
Fio.
6.
25+150*
37.5HL5*
Impedances of Fig. 5 expressed in per cent on a 1000-kva base.
It was shown that percentage reactance and resistance, and hence impedance, vary
Employing this principle yields the circuit shown in
directly with the kva base.
Fig. 6. The combined impedance to the fault is
50 + jlOO + 25
or
+J50 +
37.5 +J87.5 = 112.5 + j237.5%
V112.52 + 237.52 = 263%
This result indicates that 263 per cent of the rated voltage is necessary to cause
Since only rated voltage, or 100 per
kva to be delivered by the generator
voltage, is available, the total short-circuit
100
kva must be X
1000 = 380.5
1000
kva.
cent
Ch.
XV
THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS
the fault current
it is found
is desired at the actual voltage of the
2.
^
380.5
Rework Problem
1000
V3 X200
1, page 524,
= 1098 amperes
employing percentage values.
Per Unit Method. A study of the

that problems could be worked by using

200 volts,
as follows:
/tauit
Problem
faulty line, namely,
527
will show
percentage values expressed in
hundredths, which would be equivalent to moving the decimal point
two places to the left in the calculations shown in example 2. In other
words, quantities could be expressed on a per unit basis instead of on a
Thus instead of a
per hundred basis as in the percentage method.
reactance of 15 per cent a value of 0.15 would be used. A little experi
ence with both schemes shows relatively little difference in the methods.
Both methods are used according to personal preferences.
In general, extreme accuracy
Accuracy of Short-Circuit Calculations.
in the determination of short-circuit currents in distribution systems is
not required.
Because the resistance of most synchronous apparatus is
low compared to the reactance, the final impedance to the fault in many
For this reason, and because
cases is about the same as the reactance.
of the resulting simplification of the calculations, only reactances are
generally used. An exception to these statements occurs when stability
studies of systems are made. It then becomes necessary to consider phase
angles, and then both resistance and reactance must be considered.
When several sources of current are in parallel, it is customary to
assume that all the generated voltages are in phase and equal in magni
tude at the time of short circuit. Load currents on the system are
All synchronous apparatus like generators, synchronous
neglected.
and
motors,
rotary converters are considered as sources of short-circuit
current. The kinetic energy of these rotating machines causes them to
act like generators during the first few cycles of short circuit. In spite
of all these approximations, tests have shown that calculations based
upon these assumptions are usually within about 5 per cent of the correct
From 5 to 10 per cent error in the values of short-circuit cur
values.
rents is usually tolerable in the determination of circuit-breaker sizes
and relay settings.
Three-Phase Short Circuits. Three-phase short-circuit currents are
determined by means of the same principles employed in the analysis of
balanced three-phase systems.
The method is best shown by an
percentage
method
example.
Example 3. It is desired to find the short-circuit current for the system shown in
The data for the system are shown in Table I. A symmetrical three-phase
7.
Fig.
528
POWKR SYSTEM

Fio.
25 Son
5.000 Kva,
Three-phase loop system.
See example 3.
TABLE I
Rating
Apparatus
Generator
7.
kva
% Reactance
% Reactance
based on kva
5,000
25
5,000
Generator 2
Transformer
10,000
30
10,000
4,000
5,000
Transformer
2,000
2,000
Transformer
Transformer
5,000
20
50,000
5,000
5,000
Transformer
1,000
Line 1
Line 2
Line
Line
Ch.
1,000
30
20,000
20
10,000
5,000
15
10,000
XV
XV
Ch.
THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS
525)
short circuit is assumed at the point denoted by the cross in the upper right-hand
corner of the circuit diagram.
The following represents a satisfactory procedure.
1.
one-line diagram of the system as shown in Fig. 8 is drawn.
FlO.
8.
One-line diagram of Fig. 7.
Fio.
9.
One-line diagram of Fig. S where
G\ and <7j are connected to a common
neutral bus and all reactances arc ahown
on a 10,000-kva
base.
2. A common kva base upon which all reactances are based is chosen.
Any con
venient base may be used; here a 10,000-kva base is selected.
3. A one-line diagram is drawn in which all sources of current are connected to

a so-called neutral bus.
FIG.
10.
Circles represent reactances, and the value of the various re-
FIG.
11.
Fio.
12.
Fio.
13.
actances referred to the selected common kva base is placed in

the circle as shown in Fig. 9.
are combined according to laws of series
4. Reactances
or parallel circuits, and substitution of wyes for deltas or
the reverse are made so as to obtain a single reactance
the neutral bus and the point of short circuit. Fio. 14.
between
Resultant
percentage of react
These steps are illustrated in the successive Figs. 10, 11, 12,
ance on a 10,000The dotted lines and circles indicate the circuit
13, and 14.
kva bae of Fi. 7
to be employed in replacing an existing circuit
arrangement
to the point of
The resultant reactance to the fault bawd on
tshort circuit.
arrangement.
10,000
POWER SYSTEM
530
XV
Ch.
kva is 41.95 per cent.

kva =
Short-circuit
100
41.95
10,000
= 23,800
If
the nominal voltage of the line at the short circuit is 12,000 volts, the current
the fault is
23,800
\/3
1000
at
= 1144 amperes
12,000
The distribution of currents throughout the network may
be determined by retracing
the steps and using the percentage values just exactly as though they were ohmio
For example, the currents in the divided circuit of Fig. 12 may Lie de
quantities.
To indicate the branch under consideration,

termined as follows.
is the same as the branch impedance is used.
VU.K
/8i.8 =
/22.4
= 17.55
17.55
1144
1144
rr-T
ol.o
17.55
a subscript which
1144 volts1
= 246 amperes
= 898 amperes
If the nominal voltage of any line differs from the 12,000-volt base used above, the
actual current is determined by multiplying the current calculated on the 12,000-volt
base by the ratio of 12,000 to the nominal voltage for the line in question.
Problem
3.
Find the actual currents delivered by generators GI and

Ans.: /ci = 344 amperes, 1 02 = 800
G.
amperes.

Line-to-Line Short Circuits.
Line-to-line short-circuit currents may

determined in accordance with the principles set forth in Chapter X,
or they may be calculated by the method of symmetrical components.
The method of symmetrical components possesses the advantage of
accounting in a measure for the change in the impedance of synchronous
machines when the loading is changed from balanced three-phase to
Furthermore the method of sym
single-phase line-to-line loading.
metrical components reduces the calculations to the solution of balanced
Certain modifications of the network parameters
three-phase systems.
are necessary in employing the method of symmetrical components, and
in addition the combination of the balanced systems solutions must be
properly made to obtain the final result.
The method of symmetrical components for effecting a solution of the
line-to-line short-circuit problem will be developed with reference to
Fig. 15. The fundamental objective is to determine the positive- and
negative-sequence components of current in terms of (the known quanti
be
This number of volts is only proportional to the actual voltage and is

merely as a convenient means to determine the distribution of currents.
used
Ch.
XV
LINE-TO-LINE
SHORT CIRCUITS
ties) the induced voltage and impedance.

used:
531
The following symbols are
E, generated voltage per phase

n ', electrical neutral at the point of short circuit
V\, positive-sequence voltage to neutral at the short circuit
Vz, negative-sequence voltage to neutral at the short circuit
VQ, zero-sequence voltage to neutral at the short circuit
Zi, impedance to positive sequence
Z2, impedance to negative sequence
According to Kirchhoff's voltage law, the positive-sequence voltage to
neutral at the short circuit must be the positive-sequence generated
A similar relation obtains
voltage minus the positive-sequence drop.
FK;.
15.
Linc-to-!ine short circuit on a three-phase

for the negative sequence.
system.
Since all generated voltages at the generator
are assumed to be balanced, the positive-sequence generated voltage is

E. The negative-sequence generated voltage is zero. Hence for any
particular phase
L.Z,
Y! = E
(4)
V2 = 0
- I2Z2
(5)
Since there is no ground return or fourth wire in Fig. 15, there can
At the short circuit
zero-sequence current in this system.
Vye, = VVnf
+ Vn,c,
= 0
be no
(6)
or
V,,,*
= Vn,c,
(7)
The three voltages to neutral at the short circuit in terms of their sym
metrical components
are (assuming ab-bc-ca sequence)

V2
Vn,c, =
+ V0
(8)
V2/120 + V0
(9)
Vi/1200 + V2/-120 + V0
(10)
POWER SYSTEM
532
Ch.
XV
Substituting equations (9) and (10) in equation (7),
Vi /-120" + V2/120 +
V0 =
Vi (7-120 -/120)
Vi/I20 + V2/-120 +
= V2
V0
(/-120 -/120")
or
V,
Equation
= V2
(11)
(11) shows that equations (4) and (5) are equal.
- IiZ!
-I2Z2
Therefore
(12)
If I2 can be expressed in terms of Ii, the sequence components of cur

rents can be found.
Since no zero-sequence current can exist in the
circuit of Fig.
15,
Ii
and I2 are found as shown below.
Ina =
Ii
lnb =
L7-1200 + I2/ 120
(14)
Inc =
Ij/1200 + I2/ -120
(15)
+ I2 = 0
(Line
no.
is open.)
(13)
Because of the short circuit,

(16)
Substituting equations (14) and (15) in equation (16),

Ii(/-120
Ii
+/1200) + I2(/-120 +/1200) = 0
-la
(17)
Substituting equation (17) in equation (12) yields
Ir-Ir
= 0
(18)
,..,.,
Fio.
Arrangement of
16.
sequence networks for determination of positivenegative-sequence
and
currents for a line-to-line
Equations 17 and 18 show that the arrange

ment illustrated in Fig. 16 may be used to
calculate the positive- and negative-sequence
currents at the fault for a line-to-line short
Circuit.
impedances to Positive and Negative SeBefore equation (18) can be applied,

quence.
short circuit.
to positive and
^ne vaiues of the impedances
negative sequence must be known. The impedance to positive sequence is
the impedance offered to a system whose voltages a, b, and c, respectively,
The impedance to negative sequence
lag the one preceding it by 120.
Ch.
XV
IMPEDANCES
is the impedance offered to
533
a system whose voltages a, b, and c, respec
tively, lead the one preceding it by
It
120.
should be apparent,
and
it
can be demonstrated by test, that the impedances of lines and trans

formers are no different for a polyphase system of voltages when two
lines are interchanged (opposite sequence).
Hence impedances to
and
all
and
lines
static machinery like
negative sequence for
positive
transformers are the same. For a synchronous generator it would seem
that these impedances are different since one system causes a reaction
from the armature that rotates in the same direction as the rotating field
structure, whereas the other causes an armature reaction that rotates in
a direction opposite to the field structure. The values of Z\ and Z2
may be obtained from a three-phase and a line-to-line short-circuit test.
The relation between the line-to-line short-circuit current designated
is
by /' and the three-phase short-circuit current represented by
established for an alternator of voltage En to neutral as follows:
/'"
/'"
For a line-to-line
Fig.
15,
(19)
|=
short circuit between terminals
a combination
of equations (15),
and
(17),
c at
and
the generator,
(18) gives
the
current:
l'
= lnc
~~zl +

z2^^
- n
z, +
(cos 120
j sin
120
cos 120
j sin
120)
(20)
owing to the resistances in both

cases being small compared to the reactance,2 the magnitude of I' is:
Since Z] +
Z2 is
practically
7,\
Z2
'' Let k
-I'll'".
<"'
Then
En ~
_
~7~
t>\
V?,En
7 -T
V. 7
4l
f".
In general the resistances of generators and transformers are sufficiently low in

comparison with the corresponding reactances that it is customary to neglect re
For this reason reactances only are
sistances in making short-circuit calculations.
used in many of the subsequent computations even though the formulas are written
If these facts are not kept in mind the rather loose use of
in terms of impedances.
2
the terms reactance and impedance may become confusing.
POWER SYSTEM
534
or
Z2
Ck.
XV
(22)
k,
is
is
fc,
of the line-toEquation (22) shows that Z2 depends upon the ratio,

When this ratio
known
line and three-phase short-circuit currents.
determined by the ordinary
and the impedance to positive sequence
One salient-pole machine with an
methods, Z2 can be determined.
amortisseur winding tested by one of the authors gave a value of 1.44 for
while another non-salient pole machine without an amortisseur wind
ing yielded value of 1.46.3
TABLE n
IMPEDANCES AND REACTANCES
OF SALIENT-POLE
Name of
Reactance
Positive-
Synchronous
Reactances
Zero-
NegativeSequence
Sequence
X2
X0
X,
Sequence
Approximate
Approximate
100
100
Range
25-50
Range
2-20
Name of
Synchronous
Impedance
z.
Approximate
Per Cent
100
Xi
Positive-
Negative-
Zero-
Sequence
Sequence
Sequence
Zi
Zi
Z0
Approximate
Range
25-50
100
Impedances
Approximate
Range
3-20
Table II shows approximate ranges of impedances to positive-, nega

tive-, and zero-sequence currents of one class of generators with reference
to the synchronous impedance taken as 100.
k.
and
is
short circuit between lines
for
is
is
Example 4. Each of the line reactances in Fig. 15

10 per cent based on 1000 kva,
and the positive-sequence impedance of the alternator
25 per cent based on 1000
kva.
value of 1.45
assumed for
The short-circuit currents in the three lines
are to be determined.
The nominal
rated
The values of reactances to negative sequence depend upon the size and the de
sign of the machines and van,' over rather wide limits for special cases.
The reader
" Symmetrical Components," p. 99, McGraw-Hill
referred to Wagner and Evans,
Book Company, for extensive data on synchronous generator reactances to the dif
is

GENERATORS WITH DAMPER WINDINGS
SYNCHRONOUS
Per Cent
TO DIFFERENT SEQUENCES
ferent sequences.
XV
Ch.
IMPEDANCES
For the generator
line voltage of the system is 2200 volts.
Zi - Zi
Z2 =
1.45
= 0.2
25 =
535
- Zi
l.2Zi
0.2Zi
5%
The positive- and negative-sequence circuits are shown in Figs. 17 and 18, respec
The resultant impedances to positive and negative sequence are 35 per cent
and 15 per cent, respectively.
From equation (18) and Fig. 16,
tively.
Ii
1,000,000
=
I4
---
V3
_lj
2200
IM
ii
Ii 7-120
= 525 amperes
(35 + 15)
-525 /Oj^
\nc =
100
amperes
+ I2/120"
5257-120
- 525/120" -- J910 amperes
Ii/120 + I2/-120
525/120
525
12 = 525
/pj;
525
/pj;
= o
7-120
+ J910 amperes
Example 6. The short-circuit

current
for the system shown in Fig. 7 for a lineto-line short circuit is to be determined.
The ratio k will he used as 1.45. Nomi
nal line voltage at short circuit is 12,000
Fio.
17.
Positive-
system
sequence
of Fig.
15.
See
example 4.
The lines shorted
volts.
are
designated
Fio.
as b and c, and the fault is again assumed
right-hand
the up
at
..
corner
of the
18.
Negative-
sequence
system
of
See
Fi(?: 15example 4.
diagram.
Solution.
A 10,000-kva base will lie used. The positive-sequence network is the
The negative-sequence network shown in Fig. 19 is
same as that shown in Fig. 9.
similar to the positive-sequence system except for the values of the generator react
For
the generators
~ Zl = '2Zl
1.45
The resultant
The resultant
cated
by Figs.
Ii
Z\ (Fig. 14)
Zi (Fig. 23)
is 41.95 per cent.

is 26.17 per cent as obtained from the reductions
indi
20, 21, 22, and 23.
--
Is
10,000,000
X
=
VS
12,000
100
41.95+26.17
706 amperes
At the short circuit where currents in all three lines are considered in the same di
rection, that is, cither to or from the short circuit,
li,
! =
=

ances.
I, +
I2 =
706/0
7067-120
706/120
706
- 706/120
706
/-
120
/jr
=
= 0
-J1223 amperes
= +;1223 amperes
To obtain the currents in the other lines, the positive- and negative-sequence currents
should first be found by retracing the steps in each system as outlined for the three
POWER SYSTEM
536
Ch.
XV
short circuit.
The current in the lines from the secondaries of transformer
will be found in order to illustrate the procedure. The distribution of positive-
phase
7*i
Fio. 19. Negative-sequence network of

Flo. 7 for a line-to-line short circuit
Fio.
Fio.
20.
21.
at the point indicated by the cross.
and negative-sequence components of current as shown in Figs. 24 and 25 are first

found by retracing previous steps. If, when retracing the network from the short
circuit, only transformers with both primary
and secondary windings similarly
connected
the
actual
current
encountered,
may be
are

found by combining the sequence components

When a
as determined for Figs. 24 and 25.
which
is
like
connected
differ
transformer
TI
Fio.
22.
ently on primary and secondary is encountered,

the symmetrical components in the lines on the
primary side are no longer the same as those in
the secondary lines. Failure to recognize this
fact will introduce large errors in the short-circuit

The short-circuit currents in the secondary lines
calculations.
from transformer T\ are found from the sequence components
FIG. 23.
Resultant
of re
percentage
actance
to nega
tive sequence for a
short
line-to-line
circuit at point in
dicated on Fig. 7.
shown in Figs. 24 and 25, as follows:

la =
Ii
fc =
212/-1200
+ Iz
Ic = 212/120
- 144.7/JT
212/<T
- 144.7/120
1 44.7
/-
120
= 67.3 amperes
33.65
- J308.8 amperes
-33.65 +
j'308.8
amperes
The currents in the lines on the primary of T\, Fig. 7, are determined from th*
phase currents in the delta and are obviously equal to them if the ratio of each trans
former is 1 to 1 and the magnetizing currents are neglected.
If the impedances of
all phases of a delta-connected bank of transformers like that shown in Fig. 26 are
equal, and if the sum of the generated voltages of the three phases is zero, application
of Kirchhoff's laws will yield the following equations:
loo-
IorZoc
= 0
03)
+ EM +
(M)
Ch.XV
Since Zi,
IMPEDANCES
= Zac = ZC6,
537
equation (24) becomes

Ita + loc +
Icfc = 0
(25)
Further application of Kirchhoff's current law gives

laa'
= ha
lac
(26)
ht'
= hb ha
(27)
(28)
FIG. 25. Distribution of negative-sequence

component currents for example 5.
FIG. 24. Distribution of positive-sequence

component currents for example 5.

Substituting
lac from equation (25) in equation (26), then eliminating Id> between
this result and equation (27), and finally substituting the value of IN,' from equation
(23), the following expression for I^. results:
ha =
Iha' + lice'
Fio.
Similarly
(29)
26.
lac and I, >,are found to be, respectively,

lac = flee' +
(30)
(31)
The
currents la,
I&,
and Ir in the secondary lines of
T\
of Fig. 7 correspond to
!(*', and Icc', respectively, in equations (29), (30), and (31

+
(-33.65 +
= 33.7 + J102.9
-33.7
(-33.65 -J308.8) + J(67.3)
to
+i (-33.65
ratio, to, Ira, and
- J308.8)
J102.9 = 108.2 7108.2 amperes
= 205.8
= ->205.8
On a
amperes
|(-
33.65 + J308.8)
Hence
J308.8)
108.2/71.8
I*.
CA. XV
/-
!<(,above are
90 amperes
the line currents from generator
d,
Fig.
7,
ho = |(67.3)
).4
POWER SYSTEM
538
is
or, in other words, the above currents are on

\/3 12,000-volt base. If the nominal
6600 volts, the currents in the three lines from the gen
voltage of the generator
erator are
\/3
x
12,000
108'2
\/3
12,000
205.8
\/3
12,000
108'2
6600
= 341
amPeres
341
= 648 amperes
Line-to-Ground
Short Circuits.
If
a system
is
has a number of wye-connected generators and

transformers with grounded neutrals, there
is
possibility of having
large short-circuit cur
rent for a line-to-ground fault.
Such fault cur
rents are most conveniently calculated with the
aid of symmetrical components.
An elemen
tary circuit illustrating
line-to-ground fault
in
27.
Fig.
shown
Application of equations (13),
(Hi), and (17) of Chapter XIV gives the
symmetrical components of the currents as
a
io. 27.
fnuit.
Line-to-Kround
Neutral n of the
three-phase generator
assumed grounded.
13
(32)
V-1200
+ Ir/120) =
(la
(33)
i,
3
(34)
Therefore
(35)
Equations other than (29), (30), and (31) for the currents in the transformer
windings can tie derived from the basic equations given.
4

!,=!
Ch.XV
IMPEDANCE TO ZERO SEQUENCE FOR GENERATORS
539
Let E be the induced voltage in phase a of the generator.

According to
Kirchhoff 's emf law, the sum of all the drops must be equal to the sum
of the emf 's around a closed loop.
= IiiZn
Then
IiZ[ +
I2Z2
Substituting equation (35) gives

E
= I0
(Z0
+ Zj
Z2)
(36)
Combining equations (35) and (36),

Io =
ZQ
(37)

Equation (37) is the working equation for the line-to-ground fault.

Equations 35 and 37 show that the arrangement illustrated in Fig. 28
may be used to calculate the positive-, nega
tive-, and zero-sequence currents at the fault for
a line-to-ground short circuit.
The impedances to positive and negative
sequence "L\ and Z2 are exactly the same as
those used for the line-to-line fault. The imped
ance to zero sequence, however, is different.
Whereas the positive- and negative-sequence
networks were alike in the number and arrange
ment of circuit elements, the zero-sequence net
work is radically different and usually much
FIG. 28. Arrangement of
simpler.
sequence
networks for
for
Generators.
to
Zero
Sequence
Impedance
calculating positive-, neg
ative-, and zero-sequence
The determination of the impedance to zero se
currents for a line-toquence for generators is analogous to the deter
ground short circuit.
mination of the impedance to negative sequence.
Let / represent the line-to-ground short-circuit current for a gener
ator.
Let
/"'
represent
the short-circuit
current for
a three-phase
sym
metrical short circuit.

Also let
Y*
= kn
(38)
From equation (37), if the ratio of X IR for all impedances is the same or
if R is negligible compared to. X, as is usual,
In
= 3/0
(39)
540
POWER SYSTEM
Ch.
XV
Also
/'"-
kj'"
and
&\
In
knj&i
Therefore
"
_i_
i\ -\-
11
T17"0
ZQ gives
=
Zl
3E
~~
(jT
Solving equation (40) for
E_
Zz
by
The value of Z0 thus depends upon the values of the impedances to

positive and negative sequence and also upon the ratio of the line-toFor example, kn for the
ground and three-phase short-circuit currents.
nonsalient-pole machine used in the previous example was shown
test to be about 2.4. For this machine
= 0.05Z,
of
The approximate range of impedance to zero sequence for one class

shown in Table
on page 534. The values are given
generators
relative to the synchronous impedance taken as 100.
The impedance to
Impedance to Zero Sequence for Transformers.
either infinite or the ordinary leakage
zero sequence for transformers
Where the connection
impedance,5 depending upon the connection.
currents
to
the
flow,
impedance to zero sequence
permits zero-sequence
the ordinary impedance of the transformer; otherwise
infinite.
Since the zero-sequence currents in the three lines of a three-phase
fourth wire or ground connection on the neutral
system are all in phase,
of transformers connected in wye
required to furnish
complete cir
return
of
the
In addition,
zero-sequence line currents.
cuit for the
there must be another winding on the transformer to permit current to
flow so that the resultant magnetomotive force acting upon the trans
zero (exciting current
former core due to the zero-sequence current
If these compensating currents are not permitted to exist,
neglected).
the inductive reactance of a single winding to the zero-sequence current
entirely
so high that the amount of this current which can flow
impedance
The corresponding
may then be considered
negligible.
is
is
it
is
is
is
is
the transformers have more than two windings which carry zero-sequence cur
rent, reactance due to certain mutual-inductance effects of the several windings should
For
be included.
discussion of the reactance of multiwinding transformers, see
" Electric Circuits," McGraw-Hill Book Company.
O. G. C. Dahl,
a
If

is
is
II
Ch.XV
LINES
TRANSMISSION
infinite.
few examples
as shown in Fig.
541
29 will
illustrate these
principles.
Transformer Bank A . No zero-sequence currents can flow since there
is no return path.
Therefore the impedance to zero sequence is infinite.
Winding
Transformer Bank B. Zero-sequence currents can flow.
p furnishes a path for the compensating currents of those in winding S.
Hence the impedance to zero sequence is the ordinary leakage impedance.
/\
/K\
0
*N
t' t
<
^s
<n
K^J

FIG. 29.
Zero-sequence
currents can flow in B but not in any of the other transformers.
Transformer Banks C and D. No zero-sequence currents can flow.

The impedances to zero sequence are infinite. If the neutral of the wyeconnected generator supplying transformer bank C were grounded, zerosequence currents could flow in both primary and secondary of C.
Under these conditions the impedance to zero sequence of transformer
bank C would be the ordinary leakage impedance.
FIG.
30.
impedance of a transmission line is the impedance

conductors in parallel in series with a ground return.
Zero-sequence
of the three
The impedance
Impedance to Zero Sequence of Transmission Lines.
to zero sequence of a transmission line, Fig. 30, is the impedance of the
three conductors in parallel with a ground return. The reactanor
A
depends upon the depth at which the return current appears to flow.
POWER SYSTEM
542
Ch. XV
sufficiently adequate to yield a working knowledge of the

determination of reactance to zero sequence of transmission lines is some
what involved and beyond the scope of this book.
Those interested are
referred to other works on the subject.6
For purposes of illustration
of the method of calculating line-to-ground fault currents in this book,
certain values of reactance to zero sequence of a line are assumed.
discussion
FIG. 31.
If
Flow of zero-sequence
currents through an impedance
in the neutral.
Zn as shown in the neutral of the generator of Fig.

it should be entered into the zero-sequence networks
an impedance
is encountered,
31
as
This may be shown as follows. The ordinary impedance Zn is

3Zn.
defined as the drop V,, across the impedance divided by the current
through it.
Hence
2*
(42)
Ml
Since

In = 3Io
Zn =
Since there are no positive- or negative-sequence

V,, for this case is considered
the zero-sequence current I0.
(43)
din
currents in the neutral,
the zero-sequence voltage which is due to

Hence
Substitution of Vn/I0 from equation (43) in equation (44) gives

Z0 = 3Zn
(45)
Thus the impedance to zero sequence as defined in equation (45) is three

times as large as the actual impedance in the conductor. Since the only
zero-sequence current flowing in the zero-sequence network is Io, the
'See " Symmetrical
" by Wagner and Evans and " Applications of

"
Components
by Lyon, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Components
the Method of Symmetrical
Ch.XV
LINES
TRANSMISSION
543
into the zero-sequence
value Z0 = 3Z,, should be entered

yield the correct voltage drop.
network to
The system shown in Fig. 7, which

of Line-to-Ground Fault Current.
employed for three-phase and line-to-line short circuits, will be cal
culated for a line-to-ground fault on one of the secondary lines of transformer TV
A determination of the reactance to zero-sequence of line /a is as
Calculation
was previously
The
sumed to yield 20 per cent reactance on a 5000-kva base.
problem will be worked on a 10,000-kva base as before.
The positive- and negative-sequence networks are
Solution.
They are shown in
employed.
the same as those previously
The impedances to positive and negative se
Figs. 24 and 25.
quence are the same for the line-to-ground fault solution and the
general distribution of the positive- and negative-sequence cur
rents is the same, but the actual magnitudes of the positive- and
negative-sequence currents will be different l>ecause of the effect
of the impedance to zero sequence in reducing the magnitude
of the resultant positive- and negative-sequence currents.
The
resultant impedances to positive and negative sequence of 41.95
and 26.17 per cent, respectively, are still valid.
of Fig. 7 shows that no zero-sequence current can
formers r5, Ti, 7*1, or generator GI. Therefore the
network consists of Go, TS, and T\ along with
zero-sequence network
fci = 1.45, substitution
is shown
in
in equation

In
30 = 1.5
=
Zg for the zero-sequence network

Id =
ll
zero-sequence
line /3.
The
If kn = 2.4
Fig. 32.
gives
Za = 0.05Zi.
(41)
Z0 = 0.05
Resultant
An inspection
exist in trans
and
Fio.
32.
Zerosequence
net
work for a line-
to-ground fault
on Fig. 7 at t he
point indicated
by the cross.
For generator
G^
percent
1.5+4 +
40
10 = 55. 5 per cent.
= 12 = =
3
Z0
terms of percentage impedances,
'
= 389
For
/(T
_~
10,000,000
V3
100
555 +
12,000
41.95
+ 26.17
amperes
a positive-sequence current of 389 amperes the distribution
These values are determined by multiplying the currents in Fig. 24 by 389/706.

Similarly the negative-sequence current distribution is determined and shown in
Fig. 34.
The currents on a 12,000-volt base are now found by combining the symmetrical
components.
Fault
current:
Io =
Ii
= 389
l2
/-
Io=3X
389
/(T
120 + 389 /120 + 389
Ic = 389/120 + 389
/-1200
1167/0 amperes
= 0
+ 389 = 0
Tj
Transformer
= 305.2
3:
+ 316.8 + 389 = 1011
/-
+ 316.8/120"
120"
Ic = 305.2/120
= 78.7 ampero
120 =
-20.3
- J22.0
-20.3 +
J22.0
-98.2
- J32
79.7/-1200
-98.2
j32
^(-98.25
T\
J32)
-98.25 +J32) +^(-98.25
-98.3 +J10.7
(-98.25 -J32)
= 40.5 amperes
= 30.0 amperes
= 30.0 amperes
= 196.5 ampere*
= 103.3 amperes
= 103.3 amperes
(see Fig. 7):
= 98.3
- J32)
+J10.7
Iba = 98.9 amperes
lac = 98.9 amperes

+
= 78.6 amperes
TV
79.7/120
!(
f(196.5)
Ib
/-
in windings of transformer
+
Current
lc
,/- 120
116.8/120
= 196.5
79.7
= 78.6 amperes
Tj:
+ 7.54
16.8
-77.95
+ 7.54/120
120
L,
It
120 =
- jlO
= 155.9 amperv*
/-
Secondary side of transformer

= 116.8
-77.95
Ia
Ik
/-
72.16/120
= 40.54
7.54
33.0/120
7C
78.7 ampere
7C
lo
16
= 33.0
I,
72.16
and transformer
= 33.0
72.16
83.8/120 +
l\
la
fc
lc

83.8/-120"
lac =
- J10.5
FIG. 34. Negative-sequence

current di*tribution for line-to-ground fault on Fig. 7.
= 155.9
! =
+ J10.5
= 1011 ampert-.
transformer T5, and It:
= 83.8
= 78
/6
It,
Positive-sequence
33.
current distribution for line-to-ground fault on Fig. 7.
Line
389
+ 389 = 78
+ 316.8/-1200
Fio.
Lane
Ck. XV
Ic
= 305.2
and line
POWER SYSTEM
544
(196.5) =
-J21.4
Id,
= 21.4 amperes
Ch.
XV
PROBLEMS
545
Since these are the delta transformer currents, on a 1 to 1 ratio they are also the cur
rents in the phases of the wye primary, and therefore the currents in the lines from
= 272.2/120
120" + 309.3/120
+ 309.3
/-
120
389
= 98.25
389
= 98.25
It,
Ic
/-
= 272.2
! = 272.2 + 309.3 + 389 = 970.5

J32
- ;32
la
12,000 line voltage base.
= 970.5 amperes
Jb
\/3
=103.3 amperes
Ic
generator GI on a
Current in 62:
= 103.3 amperes
PROBLEMS
Generator
is is
a
B A
All circuit elements are assumed to have zero resistance.

The reactances to positive sequence are the numbers preceded by on the diagram.
3000-kva machine having
rated terminal voltage of 6600-volts.
Generator
a 6600-volt, 5000-kva machine.
Generator
0.33X|

X0=0.10X,
To load
(load currents assumed
equal to zero)
FIG. 35.
See Problem 4.
(a) Solve for the currents in all branches by one of the methods considered in
Chapter IX, assuming that the impedances shown on the diagram hold for any kind
of unbalance.
(6) Solve for the currents in all branches by the method of symmetrical com
ponents, taking into account the difference in impedance to the positive, negative, and
zero sequences. Impedances to positive sequence for the generators are those shown
on the diagram.

546
POWER SYSTEM
FIG. 30.
Ck.
XV
Ch.
XV
5.
PROBLEMS
The following data refer to Fig.

Apparatus
547
36.
Kva Rating
% Reactance
Kva Base for

% Reactance
GI
20,000
30
10,000
G2
10,000
50
10,000
20,000
20
10,000
10,000
2,500
10,000
20
30,000
10,000
i.
10,000
10,000
10,000
30
20,000
20
10,000
T4
li
I
4,000
10
to
All
30,000
Generator
fc
Gi
G,
G,
1.4
2.1
1.5
2.3
1.3
resistances are assumed negligible.
Calculate currents in all lines, transformers, and generators for
a 3-phuse sym
Express currents on a 33-kv base.
metrical short circuit at the point marked fault.
6. Calculate currents in all lines, transformers, and generators for a line-to-line
fault at the point marked fault. Express currents on a 33-kv base.
7. Calculate currents in all lines, transformers, and generators for a line-to-ground
Use 25 per cent based on 10,000 kva as the zerofault at the point marked fault.

The zero-sequence
sequence reactance of l including lines and ground return.
reactance of (3 including lines and ground return is 12 per cent based on 4,000 kva.
Assume negligible resistance, and express currents on a 33-kv base.
CHAPTER XVI
TRANSIENT CONDITIONS
The expressions which have thus far been derived for currents and
have carried with them certain tacit assumptions. All the
alternating currents and voltages in any particular circuit have been as
sumed to be recurring, periodic functions of time; in other words, the
circuit in question has been assumed to be in a steady-state condition.
Before a circuit (or machine) can arrive at a steady-state condition
of operation which is different from some previous state, the circuit (or
machine) passes through a transition period in which the currents and
For example,
voltages are not recurring periodic functions of tune.
immediately after the establishment of a circuit the currents and volt
The
ages have not, in general, settled into their steady-state conditions.
period required for the currents and voltages to adjust themselves to
their steady-state modes of variation is called the transient period.
During transient periods the mathematical expressions for the currents
and voltages contain certain terms other than the steady-state terms.
These additional terms are called transient terms, and they are usually
of short duration, being damped out by certain damping factors which
depend for their values upon the circuit parameters.
In general, any switching operation within the circuit itself or any
voltage which is suddenly induced from an outside source will cause
transient conditions to exist in the circuit. Although transient periods
are generally of short duration, it is during these periods that some of the
most serious and involved operating problems are encountered.
It should not be inferred that transient variations are always violent
or that they always represent undesirable circuit conditions. Various
devices actually operate by virtue of recurring transient phenomena.
Notable among these devices are: (1) certain classes of sweep circuits,
and (2) certain types of tube inverters. Sweep circuits are employed
extensively to produce linear time axes in cathode-ray oscillographs and
Inverters are employed to convert direct
cathode-ray television tubes.
to alternating current.
Examples of Elementary Transient Conditions. Example 1. In
Fig. 1 it is assumed that the RL branch is suddenly energized with 8
constant potential difference by closing the switch S at t = 0. The

voltages
548
CA.
XVI EXAMPLES OF ELEMENTARY TRANSIENT CONDITIONS
549
general equation for voltage equilibrium in the resulting series circuit is:
Ljt + Ri
If L,
for
(1)
R, and E are constant the above equation may be solved explicitly
in any one of several different ways. One of the most direct

methods of solution in a simple case of this kind is to separate variables
and integrate.
Thus :
>
t=0
Whence:
aeriea RL branch which

is suddenly energized by a constant
potential difference E at t = 0.
1.
(E - Ri)
or
T
Fio.
or
log, (E
_ ln(,
("p
- Ri) =
D7"\
4 _l_ n
'
+ d
(3)
where e is the base of the natural logarithms, namely, 2.71828 , and

From the definition of a logarithm it
Ci is a constant of integration.
follows that:
- Ri
E - Ri
Therefore:
Solving the above equation for
i
The constant of integration
03
= <-*</ W+i
=
C2rRtlL
(4)
yields:
| - <*-"*
(5)
must be evaluated in terms of the bound
ary conditions that surround the switching operation. Boundary con

ditions are usually specified in terms of the circuit currents and the
condenser voltages that exist at the instant a given switching operation
is performed. In general, the specification and incorporation of
boundary conditions require an understanding of the natural charac
teristics of the circuit parameters involved. For example, if a circuit
can
possesses inductance the current cannot change abruptly, that
not become discontinuous with respect to tune. Therefore the current
in an inductive branch at the instant a given switching operation
is
is,

550
performed
is equal to the current that exists
Ch.
XVI
in the branch just prior
to
switching operation. In the present case: i

physical fact can be employed to determine the value of c3 in equation
(5). Imposing the boundary condition on equation (5) results in:
= 0
or
at I = 0, and this
c3=-
(6)
The general expression for current becomes:
E
(7)
R*
Bteady-atate
It will
term
transient term
be noted that the complete expression for
i consists
of two terms:
this distinct
division of terms is present in complete current solutions. Under cer-

a steady-state term and a transient term.
Growth of current
OBCILLOORAM 1.
a constant potential difference, E.
also shown.
In
general
in an RL circuit which is suddenly

The instantaneous power delivered
energized
with
to the circuit
is
tain conditions one or the other of the terms may be zero. The fact
that the complete expression for current can be divided distinctly into
a steady-state term and a transient term is of considerable importance.
Under ordinary conditions the steady-state term can be evaluated in
terms of elementary circuit concepts rather than by involved processes
Ch.
XVI EXAMPLES OF ELEMENTARY TRANSIENT CONDITIONS
551
of integration. The transient term can usually be found in terms of

simple exponential components if the circuit parameters are constant.
The time variations of the two terms of the current solution given in
equation (7) can easily be visualized. The steady-state term, E/R,
is independent of time; the transient term has a value of (E/R) at
The two
t = 0 and approaches zero exponentially as time increases.
terms combine to form the current that actually flows in the RL circuit
during the transient period. Oscillogram 1 illustrates the actual
growth of current in an RL circuit when it is suddenly energized with a
It will be noted that the transition in
constant potential difference.
current in this case is from zero to a steady d-c value equal to E/R.
In certain elementary types of circuits the length of time required
for the current to make 63.2 per cent of its total transition is called
the time constant of the circuit. The time constant of the RL circuit
is L/R, as may be shown by direct substitution in equation (7). Thus
if t is set equal to L/R in equation (7) it is simply a matter of algebra
to show that :
ryi
IMatf-i/R
n
fi^9
U.O<5^
The circuit shown in Fig. 2 is assumed to be carrying a

steady current equal to E/R at t = 0. At
t = 0, either the switch S is assumed to
i
oô
'
i >R cnanle from point a to point b in an inbV t =o
\_
E
finitely short period of time or it is assumed
rr~
Jo
S^ that a dead short circuit occurs between the
'
points a and b. In either event the RL
Fio. 2. An RL branch whichU branCQ jg rfg.^^^
&i t = Q and left to
subside through the short-circuit path. The
basic voltage equation for the RL branch at and after t = 0 is:
Example 2.

L|+i-0
(8)
From which:
0
Bteady-atate
term
CliR"L
(9)
transient term
As previously mentioned, a current flowing through a circuit which has

an appreciable amount of inductance cannot change its value instan
taneously. Since i = E/R just prior to t = 0, i is also equal to E/R
at t = 0. Therefore:
= ci
(10)
552
Ck.XVI
and
0
steady-itate term
|-*"
(11)
transient term
It will
be observed that the transition in current is from (E/R) at

=
t
0 to zero current at t = > and that the rate of subsidence is gov
by the ratio of R to L.
The current actually comes to zero in a

relatively short period of time because the driving voltage, L di/dt or
N d<f>/dt, becomes so small that it can no longer maintain a net move
ment of electrons in one direction. Thus when the energy of the col
lapsing magnetic field becomes so small
that it cannot overcome the internal atom
ic forces that tend to prevent net drifts
of electrons, the current actually becomes
zero.
The failure of theoretical equations
to account for exceedingly minute effects FIO. 3. A series RC circuit suddenly energized with a constant
of this kind is of no practical importance.
_,
potential difference of E volts.

u
Example 3. If the condenser shown in
Fig. 3 has a charge of Q0 units of electrical charge at t = 0, the basic
voltage equation at and after t = 0 is:
erned
loTfiU
=E

Ri +
where
q =
I idt +
Jo
Q0
Differentiating equation (12) with respect to

dq/dt yields:
*l+-
(12)
(13)
and substituting
t for
(H)
From which:
= cie-'/flC
(15)
The resultant voltage causing current to flow in the circuit at the

instant of closing the switch is (E Qo/C).
Therefore the current in/ci
stantly acquires a value
f\
is assumed to be negligibly small.
i r*\
at
= 0 since the self-inductance
In this connection it should be noted
that the initial Q0/C voltage of the condenser may possess either polarity
with respect to the applied voltage E. For the case shown in Fig. 3
Ch.
XVI EXAMPLES
OF ELEMENTARY TRANSIENT CONDITIONS
553
the polarity of Qo/C is opposite to that of the applied voltage E.
(E -
at
R
it follows that
(E-
t =
Since
(16)
and
t
(17)
Equation (17) is the mathematical expression for the direct charging

current taken by a condenser when the self-inductance of the circuit is
negligibly small.
The variation of charge can be found by solving equation (12) for q
and then substituting for i its value from equation (17). Thus
q =
=
If the initial charge
Qo
CE
CE
= 0,
- CRi
- (CE -
(18)
Q0)e~ilRC
the variations of current and charge as given
by equations (17) and (18) are shown in Fig.
4.

0.1
'O.I sec.
0.1
0.2
0.3
Seconds
0.4
0.5
Charging a condenser
C =
through a resistance
R =
1000 ohms from a d-c source of 1000
volte.
FIG. 4.
100/if
Fio.
If
Discharge of
5.
C = lOO/i f through
a
a
= 1000 ohms.
Initial
a potential of 1000 volts.
condenser
resistance
charge at
a condenser of C units capacitance replaces the inductance

Fig. 2, it is a simple matter to show that :
of
(19)
and
q = CE<rRC
(20)
554
Ch.
XVI
Equation (19) is the expression for the discharge current in an RC cir

cuit which contains a condenser initially charged to a potential difference
of E volts. Equation (20) is the expression for the decay of charge
under the same conditions. The variations of current and charge as
given by equations (19) and (20) are shown in Fig. 5. Condenser
charge and discharge currents are similar except for sign and are simple
exponential variations. The steady-state current in either of the two
cases is obviously equal to zero.
The time constants of the above RC circuits are both equal to RC
since it is at this value of time that the current has made 63.2 per cent
of its total change.
Sawtooth Wave Form Produced by Simple Transient Effects. Vari
ous forms of circuits have been devised to produce sawtooth wave
One of the most elementary
is
forms or approximations thereto.
To one
pair of cathodefay tube plates
FIG.
G.
An elementary form of sweep circuit the operation of which depends upon

recurring transient phenomena.

shown in Fig.
6.1
The operation of the device depends upon the natural
behavior of the circuit elements, the details of which are listed below.
1.
A transient voltage
appears across the condenser due to the tran
sient inrush of current to the main RC series circuit. Until a certain

critical voltage is established across the condenser, the neon discharge
tube remains un-ionized and acts practically as an open circuit.
2. When the condenser voltage has built up to a certain critical
value, say EI, the neon tube ionizes and suddenly places a low-resistance
The ionized tube thus provides a means of
path across the condenser.
discharging the condenser because the time constant of the discharge
path is relatively very small as compared with the time constant of the
main RC series circuit. The voltage across the condenser drops from
the value EI to some lower value, say E%, in a very small fraction of the
time required for the establishment of E\.
In practice the neon tube of Fig. 6 would probably be replaced by a gas triode
which has an extremely low de-ionization time, for example, a type 885 tube.
In this
case the anode-cathode path of the triode replaces the neon tube of Fig. 6 and the grid
of the triode can be used to control the starting of the discharge current.
1
Ch.
XVI
SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM
555
After the condenser has been discharged
to the voltage E2, the

neon tube ceases to be a conducting path (becomes de-ionized) and
permits the applied potential difference to recharge the condenser.
The cycle of transient phenomena thus repeats itself, and the voltage ec
takes on an approximate sawtooth wave form.
During the charging period the condenser voltage is:
3.
(2!)
or
Jo -i
r-
the voltage left on the condenser from the previous cycle due to
the discharge tube de-ionizing before zero condenser voltage is reached.
From equation (17) it is evident that
E% is
Therefore,
+*
or
ecl =
(E
- E2)rt/RC
(24)
(25)

The rising condenser voltage is in this case exponential in character

rather than linear.
However, when the actual change in voltage,
EZ), is small as compared
with (E E2) fairly satisfactory
(Ei
results can be obtained.
The condenser voltage continues to build up in accordance with
equation (25) until the voltage EI is attained, at which time the neon
tube discharges the condenser in the manner previously described.
Obviously E must be greater than EI.
A mathematical analysis of the conditions during the discharge
period is complicated by the variability of the resistance of the discharge
The exact behavior of the circuit during the discharge period
path.
is usually unimportant because the discharge period is of relatively
short duration and does not represent the " working " part of the cycle.
It should be recognized that the series resistance, R, is generally of the
order of 10,000 times the value of the tube resistance when the tube
is ionized. Therefore during the discharge period the tube cannot
receive any appreciable percentage of the applied voltage.
It is plain
that the device would cease to function as a sawtooth-wave-form genera
550
Ch.
XVI
is
0.005
Sec.
mj cle-
0Ti_.
Time* 0.005
/j
<-On i-ei cle -- -- On
//
040
2*20
"
g60
/s
-80
//
is
7.
if,
tor,
during an ionized period, the tube received a voltage sufficient to
sustain ionization.
The general nature of the approximate sawtooth wave form produced
An obvious place for improvement
shown in Fig.
in the rising
The rising part of the curve can
or building-up portion of the curve.
be made practically linear by replacing the constant resistance, R,
Sec
Discharge Periods
Taken as 0.0002
sec. each
0.005
Seo.
Flo.
is
7. Approximate sawtooth wave form as determined from equation (25) for the par
ticular case of E = 220 volts, Ei = 100 volts, Et = 20 volts, R = 100,000 ohms, and
= 0.1 /f.
approximately
The overall time of one cycle under these conditions
0.0052 second.
/o
Kit
Idt
+ E2
Under the conditions stated above, the rising part of the voltage curve
shown in Fig.
would become linear with respect to time.
In addition to the use of pentode type tube for maintaining constant
charging or discharging current, some sweep circuits employ grid-con
trolled mercury-vapor discharge tube as a starting and stopping valve.
Various other combinations of electron tubes are also employed to
produce sawtooth wave forms.
Oscillogram
photographic record of the wave form produced
series of transient con
by a modern sweep circuit which employs
In obtaining the photographic
ditions to effect the desired result.
record the P2 plates of the cathode-ray tube (see Fig.
page 365) are
energized with one sweep-circuit potential difference and the PI plates
are energized with the potential difference developed by an identical
3,
2
is
a

is
If
with
resistance that varies inversely as the amount of current passing
through it. Many of the modern vacuum tubes, particularly the
pentodes, possess this resistance characteristic from plate to cathode,
provided they are worked between certain limits as regards plate-tocathode voltage.
the transient current inrush
maintained constant at
amperes
variable resistance, then
by means of
Ch.
XVI
sweep
THE RL CIRCUIT ENERGIZED WITH A.C.
circuit.
The linearity
557
of the sweep-circuit voltage is clearly
shown.
Etna*
Time
Illustrating the linearity of the potential difference developed by a

OSCTLLOORAM 2.
modern sweep circuit. In this particular case the return time, that is, the time required
for the voltage to return from Eaax to /'.',,,i, ,, is so short that the trace is not discernible
on the photographic record.
If
The RL Circuit Energized with an Alternating Potential Difference.

an alternating potential difference replaces the battery shown in

Fig. 1, the expression for dynamic equilibrium is:
at
Ri =Emsm
(26)
or
R
di
1
The symbol
X represents
Em
Sin
(cat
+ X)
(27)
the phase of the voltage wave at which the
switch of Fig. 1 is closed. Reference to Fig. 8 will show more clearly

the exact meaning of X. Ifc is the angular displacement expressed in
degrees or radians between the point e = 0 and the point t = 0 measured
positively from the point where e = 0 and de/dt is positive.
The factor X provides a convenient means of examining a-c transient
In general, the magnitude of an a-c transient depends
conditions.
upon the time of the cycle at which the switching operation is performed.
Most switching operations are performed with no regard for, or rather
no knowledge of, the point on the voltage wave at which the transient
Under these circumstances the investigator analyzes
period begins.
558
Ch.
XVI
the effect of starting the transient disturbance at different points along

This is done by assigning different values to X.
the voltage wave.
In the case of surges or inrushes most attention is paid to those values of

X
that produce the greatest currents or voltages.
Time or angula\measure
!<*>!
e=o
Fio.
Equation
Illustrating the physical significance
8.
(27)
is representative
of the symbol
of a general
X.
class of differential
The derivative of the dependent variable, (?'), with respect

to the independent variable, (t), added to the dependent variable,
This form of
times some coefficient, equals some function of time.
equation defines the basic relationships involved in many physical
problems, being particularly prevalent among the problems of electric
circuit theory. The equation admits of relatively simple solution if
all coefficients are constant and the right member is an exponential or
equations.

sinusoidal function of time.

Let equation (27) be written as
+
^
dt
or = h sin
(<at
+ X)
(28)
R/L
and h = Em/L.
The solution of equation (28) takes the following form:
where a =
hi'"1 ft"1 sin
(w<
+ X)
dt
+ cie-(
(29)
The proof of the solution stated above rests in its ability to satisfy the
In terms of the above
original equation, namely, equation (28).
solution:
dt
hratfat sin (at + X)
- ahrat
Jftat
sin
(w<
+ X)
dt
- ac^1
(30)
and
ai
ahr"1
if"'
sin (wl + X) dt + acie~al
(31)
Ch.
XVI
THE RL CIRCUIT ENERGIZED
WITH A.C.
559
and (31) will show that equation (29) is a

The solution stated in equation (29)
general solution of equation (28).
For the particular
is limited to those cases where a and h are constant.
problem at hand this means that R, L, and Em must be constant before
equation (29) can be employed as a solution of (28).
The solution for current in an RL circuit with sinusoidal voltage
applied is:
Adding
equations
(30)
E^
_.RtlL
JCRtlL
gi
steady-state term
transient term
The relative complexities of the two terms in the above solution should
Mathematically,
steady-state term is known as the

" complementary
as the
The integration involved in the evaluation of the steadyfunction."
state term can be carried out by the method of successive parts, but the
algebraic simplification of the results is a tedious process.
With sinusoidal applied voltages, familiar algebraic methods may be
employed to find the steady-state terms of general current solutions.
Many of the disagreeable details connected with the evaluation of
For example, several
complete current solutions are thus avoided.
lengthy mathematical relations are involved in the integration method
of finding the steady-state term of equation (32) which is simply:
be noted.
the
0)
sin (at
-JH
(33)
VR2
u2L2
and
where
Actually equation (33) can be thought of
= tan"1
uL/R
following from two physical

facts. The maximum value of the steady-state current
Em/Z where
Z = v R2 + co2L2, and the steady-state current wave lags the applied
voltage wave by the angle whose tangent
wL/R. The complete
expression for current becomes:
0)
sin (at
Ijf.
is
is
as
+ cli~RtlL
(34)
must be found from the initial conditions

those existing at the time of closing the switch.
the circuit current
zero just prior to closing the switch, then,
Cj
If
The constant of integration
at
is

i,
" particular integral," and the transient term
(See page 549.)
500
Cfc.
XV J
Imposing the above condition on equation (34) yields
From which:
ci
-j*
sin
a
(X
and
-^
/j
sin (ut
ateady-Btate
(35)
0)
- - -^ sin - e)rst'L
0)
&
(X
(36)
transient term
term
It
will be noted from the above equation that the transient term is
If the RL branch is highly
equal to zero when (X 8) = 0, IT, 2?r, etc.
the
ratio
of
coL
to
R
is
thereby
causing 6 to approach
inductive
large,
In cases of this kind the transient term is zero
7T/2 as an upper limit.
when X is approximately equal to w/2, 3?r/2, 5^/2, etc.
Physically this
means that zero transient effects take place in highly inductive circuits
when the circuit is energized at points of approximately maximum
voltage on the voltage wave.
The transient term of equation (36) is maximum (for given values
= *-/2, 3ir/2, 5jr/2, etc.
of R, L, u, and Em) when (X
When 8
6)
is approximately equal to v/2 it is plain that the transient term is a
maximum when X is approximately equal to 0, IT, 2ir, etc. Therefore
in a highly inductive circuit the transient term is maximum when the
switch is closed at points of approximately zero voltage on the voltage
wave.
A detailed study of equation (36) will show that conditions
which make for the maximum possible transient terms do not necessarily
make for the maximum possible values of i.
In highly inductive circuits
the difference between the two sets of conditions is not large and maxi
mum transient disturbance is usually assumed to be the result of those
conditions that make sin (X 6) = 1 or sin (X 8) = I.
The steady-state term and the transient term, together with the
resultant current, are illustrated in Fig. 9 for the case of 6 = 85 and
for (X 6) = 37T/2. Under these conditions :

X = 270
It
+ 85
= 355 =
-5
will be noted that the switch is closed when the steady-state term
is at a maximum (negative) value and that the transient term is at its
The transient term and the steady-state
maximum (positive) value.
term combine at t = 0 to make the resultant current equal to zero,
which of course must be the case in an inductive circuit which is at rest
just prior to the application of a potential difference.
Ch.
XVI
THE RL CIRCUIT ENERGIZED
WITH A.C.
561
Under the condition of constant R and L, the maximum value of the

resultant current i is less than 2Im, where Im = Em/Z, the maximum
This fact may be easily substantiated
value of the steady-state term.
t-o
Fio.
Illustrating the manner in which the steady-state term and the transient term
of equation (36) combine to form the resultant current. For the case shown, 6 = 85
and sin (X 6) = 1.
9.
from the graphs shown in Fig. 9. The effective value of the current
during the early transient period is somewhat less than

V/dc2 + I2
where
term.
AC
V2I2 + I2
Im =
\/2/
V37
[See
equation
(28),
page
190.]
and 7 is the effective value of the steady-state
The transient term in an RL circuit is often referred to as the d-c

This subsiding unidirectional
component since it is unidirectional.
component of current is of theoretical interest because it is partly
responsible for the radical changes that take place in synchronous
generator impedances during transient periods.
Oscillogram 3 illustrates the resultant current in a highly inductive
circuit when X = 0 and X = ir/2. The two current records are placed
In tak
on the same oscillogram by means of superimposed exposures.
ing oscillograms of this kind it is necessary to employ some device for
closing the circuit at the desired point on the voltage wave.
Problem 1. Plot the steady-state term and the transient term of equation (36) for
two cycles of the steady-state variation under the following conditions:
(a) The applied voltage is a 60-cycle sinusoidal variation, the maximum value of
which is 311 volts.
(6)
uL
= 4 ohms.
562
Ch.
XVI
i (when circuit
is closed at
t= o
for
case of
,\W/
MX//
\\//
\/
(or
v y
case
A =90
Illustrating the current variations in an RL circuit which is suddenly

OSCILLOQRAM 3.
R and L, in this particular case, are
energized with a p.d. of sinusoidal wave form.
Two cases, namely, X = 0 and X = 90, are shown.
sensibly constant.
(c) The switch is closed at such a time as to make the transient
a negative maximum value.
Graph the resultant current
on the same plot.

t = 55 sin (377< + 90)
Ans.:
Problem
2.
Analyze equation (36) for the case in which

Ans.:
term acquire
55 e-'77' amperes.
is negligibly
fi
sin
K
small.
(at + X).
The RC Circuit Energized with an Alternating Potential Difference.

If an alternating potential difference replaces the battery shown in
Fig. 3, the expression for dynamic equilibrium is:
Since
Ri + ~
= Em sin
= Em sin
(o><
+ X)
(37)
X)
(38)
dq
at
at
or
(39)
Since equation (39) is a linear differential equation of the first order
and first degree, the integrating factor2 which makes the left-hand side
2
Consult any standard book on differential equations.
Ch.
XVI
an
exact derivative is:
THE RC CIRCUIT ENERGIZED
Multiplying equation (39) by

*
~T~
503
t'/l{C gives
_2_
WITH A.C.
CR
JIKC ^"'
'
X)
(41)
X) dl
(42)
or
dq
+ tllKC
(it = etillc
Em
-^
sin
Integrating gives
It
or
t/nc
sn
X)
cos
(43)
Dividing equation (43) through by "RC, expressing the difference of

the sine and cosine terms as a single cosine function, and making a few
algebraic transformations give
(o><
condition, namely,
= Qo
E*
'"
/pa
Imposing the initial

solving for K give
cos
8)
+ KrtlRC
q = Q0 when
cos (X
8)
(44)
0,
and
(45)

Substituting
(45) in (44) and replacing
by X
(46)
564
If
9
Ch.
XVI
Equation (46) is the general equation for the charge on the condenser.
the initial charge is zero,
= ~
cos
/-^-^
xc
(at +
9)
E rilRC
,*..
_ cos
+ Xc2
(X
6)
(47)
The first term of the right-hand member of equation (47) is the steadystate term whereas the last term is the transient.
It should be noted
that at the time t = 0, the transient is always exactly equal and opposite
9.66
Steady Component of Current
-2.58
\,v
Resultant

0.256
Charge
Seconds
^Steady Component
of Charge
-0.256
(a)
Circuit containing R = 100 ohms, C = 100 jif when e =

Initial charge on condenser = 0.
1000 sin (377t 14.95) volts is impressed.
Flo.
10.
These results are shown in Fig.
to the steady-state component.
This is the same relation that exists between the steady-state

and transient of current in the
sin (ut
term
RL circuit.
The current in the RC circuit is obtained by differentiation of

Thus
(47).
dt
lOa.
8)
equation
= cos (X +
(48)
A study of equation (48) and the corresponding graph, Fig.

reveals that there is no fixed relation between
the transient and
106,
the
THE RLC SERIES CIRCUIT
Ch.XVI
565
steady-state component of current at the time
t = 0.
X
magnitudes are dependent upon the ratio of -
/iCco
The relative
and the time
angle X at which the switch is closed.

The RLC Series Circuit with a Constant Direct Voltage Suddenly
Applied. Since the emf applied to the circuit must equal the sum of all
the drops at every instant, the condition for dynamic equilibrium is:
L~
at
Differentiating equation
+ Ri + ^
C
(i
dt =
(49)
(49),
LS + /^ + C-=
(50)
Employing the usual method of solving a second-order,
first-degree
linear differential equation,3 the auxiliary equation is:

La2 + Ra +
= 0
Hence,
Let
2L
a =
2ly
The complementary function
and
,.
o
2L
/#
\4L2
LC
/*r j_
\4L2
LC
is then
The complete solution
is the sum of the complementary function and

the particular integral, the latter being the steady-state current. Since
this case involves a constant direct voltage on a condenser, the steady-
state current is
0.
Hence the complete solution is:
= fcl<-+'
k^-o^' +
The
(51)
constants ki and k2 must be evaluated by imposing certain known

In this case when t = 0, i = 0, and q = Q0, the latter
conditions.
being the initial charge on the condenser before closing the switch.
8 See
any standard book on differential equations.
566
For i
= 0
and
t = 0 in
0 =
Ch.
XVI
equation (51)
ki +
or
k2
k2 =
fa
(52)
From equation (49)
and
q =
- CL - CRi
CE
(53)
at
Al(-a+i)"
= Q0 when
substituting equation (52), and solving for
- C/e
=
b)t
A-2e'-"-'))t
(54)
on equation (54),
give
CE-Q0
the condition that
2CLb
-Cfl
-4- A~2(
6)e
'
CL\k\
ki
Imposing4
-(-
CE
'
Substituting (51) in (53) gives
From equation (52)
CE-Q0
*C'2
the values of
A-], A-2,
If
and
())(
e<_
4LCY
b
are substituted in equation (54), the
expression for charge becomes
2VR-C* - 4LC
RC - VR'C2 - 4LC
.-}
2VR-C2
4LC
(CE
a b)l
,;g.
/fl2
*/jr
4i>
Since
e(
CE-
77; [in equations (57) and (58)] may be real, imiÔ
aginary or zero, there are three
cases
to be considered.
is
It
important that initial conditions be imposed on the original equation
Note that equation (54) comes from
rather than on one of the differentiated forms.
equation (49) without any differentiation of the original voltage equation (49).
4

is
The final equation for current

now obtained by substituting equa
tions (55) and (56) in equation (51) and replacing by its equal.
Hence.
Ch.
XVI

When
Case 7.
R2
>
4L
-^
the exponents of
L/C
567
in equations
(57) and
(58) are real. When t = 0, the current is zero, and the quantity of
electricity on the condenser is the initial charge before the switch was
D
closed.
tive
Since a =
while
2/>
b = *
4V
/
as long as
(
)
\2Li/
Hence as
uL-j
L/C
will be nega-
becomes infinite, the exponen
tial terms become zero.
The current therefore becomes zero and the

charge on the condenser becomes CE. A graphical representation of the
variation of current and charge is shown in Fig. 11. Both the current
and charge are unidirectional and the phenomena are non-oscillatory.
q=VC=-01
coulomb
0.8
.02
Fio.
11.
Circuit containing R = 100 ohms, C =

V = 100 volts is impressed.
d-c voltage
II.
When
for
expression
R2
<
it may
be
where
, b
/3
Initial
= 0.1 henry when a

charge = 0.
becomes imaginary.
written
To evaluate the
as
Equation (57) then becomes:
VR'2C2 - 4LC
C'2
'2c-
Qo)rat
- 4LC
-
[cos
4LC
sin
sin
j3(]
cos
j3<
(CE
- 4LC
+
e2c2
On
/3<
CE
/3<

Case
100 /f,
sin fit]
(59)
568
R2
For j <
'\ J j
L*\s
R2C2 <
may be written as
2
Ch.
4LC and the denominator of equation
j V4LC - R2C2.
j V4LC
Substituting
XVf
(59)
R2C* for
4LC in equation (59) gives the final expression for current
in
terms of all real quantities, as

(60,
Through a similar series of substitutions in and algebraic transforma

tions of equation (58), the charge is found to be
where
_.
- R2C22
RC
If the initial charge on the condenser is zero, the expressions for current
and charge respectively are:
(62)

(63>
A graphical representation
of equations (62) and (63) is shown in

Fig. 12. Oscillogram 4 also shows the variation of current with time in
another RLC circuit. It should be noted that the current is propor
tional to the slope dq/dt of the curve of
m
charge variation at every instant. An ex
amination of equation (62) shows that
after an infinite time the current becomes
zero which is the steady state. Also equa
tion (63) reveals that the charge becomes
CE after an infinite time has elapsed.
For all practical purposes, however, these
containing
Circuit
Fio. 12.
finai or steadyJ states are sensiblyJ reached
nf,
C = 100
R = 5 ohms,
L = o.i henry, when a d-c volt- after a few seconds; in some cases in a
age v = looo volts is impressed.
f
microseconds.
page 552 for exInitial
condenser
charge = 0.
(See
From the time of closing the

planation.)
state
the current and quantity
switch to the time of reaching the final
Case II is therefore called the oscillaoscillate about their final values.
Ch.
XVI
509
tory case. It is sometimes called the trigonometric case. Physically

the current starts to flow and charges the condenser. Because of the
low resistance compared with the inductance, the current continues to
4. Photographic record of the current variation in a particular

OSCILLOGRAM
aeries circuit which is suddenly energized with a constant potential difference.
RLC
T,
/3<
voltage. The condenser then begins to discharge.

These oscillations
continue until the excess energy is dissipated in the resistance.
The
phenomenon is analogous to the case of a weight suspended from a spring
with a low value of mechanical damping.
The frequency of the oscillation /o is obtained from equation (62) or
must be 2ir radians and since the time for
(63). For a complete cycle
defined as the period
we may write
complete cycle
is
0T
= 2ir
or
(64)
Hence
J_
"
fl?

flow into the condenser when the magnetic field of the inductance
The condenser charge thus overruns its final value and the
collapses.
potential drop across the condenser becomes higher than the impressed
2T\LC
4L2
(65)
570
.
Ch.
A comparison of the above equation with equation (10) on page
shows that the oscillatory
frequency
of the series
XV I
100
RLC circuit when
Practically,
the resistance is zero is the same as the resonant frequency.
is
small
negligibly
they become the same when R2/4L2
compared with
1/LC.
III.
1/LC,
0 and the exponents of e

in equations (57) and (58) are real and negative as in case I. Hence
the variations of current and charge are similar to those in case I.
is called the critical or limiting case and like case I is nonCase
oscillatory.
Decay of Current and Charge in an RLC Circuit. The basic equation
for this condition is:
Case
When R2/4L2
b =
III

at
Jfidt =0
(66)
Equation (66) is obviously a special case of equation (49) where E = 0.

Since equation (49) was solved in detail, the results of equation (66)
will be found as special cases of equations (57), (58), (60), and (61) by
making E = 0. It is plain that there will be three cases for the con
dition of zero voltage on (or short circuit of) the RLC circuit. These, a^
before, are the non-oscillatory case I where R2/4L2 > l/LC, the oscilla
tory case 2 where R2/4L2 < l/LC, and the critical case III, also nonoscillatory, where R2/4L2 = 1/LC.
Non-Oscillatory Case. The equations for current and charge for the
non-oscillatory case are obtained from equations (57) and (58) respec
tively by setting E = 0. Thus
t
"
=
C2
[f(-"+b)t
4LC
(67)
e(-<-6>']
and
4LC
- VR2C2 - 4LC
,-,
2VR-C- - 4LC
RC
.,
.
(
,,.1
'
(68)
A graphical representation of equations (67) and (68) is shown in

Fig. 13. If desired, Q0 can be replaced in the above equations by CT
where V is the voltage drop across the condenser for the charge Q0If E is made equal to zero in equations (60) and (61),
Oscillatory Case.
the equations for the decay of current and charge respectively are
Ch.
XVI
571
(69)
Sin
0)
V4LC
- fl2C2 sin
as given by these equations
(70)
is
and
The variation of
V4LC
/3/
obtained as follows:
shown in Fig.
14.
comparison of equations (69) and (70) with equations (62) and (63)
will show that the frequencies of oscillation for all of them are identical
and are therefore given by equation (65).
Decay of current and charge or

=
in a circuit containing
= 0.1 henry
= 100 itt, and
ohms,
when the initial charge on the condenser
0.1 coulomb at a potential of 1000 volts.
14.
quantity
is
= 100 Mf, and

= 0.1 henry
ohms,
when the initial charge on the condenser
0.01 coulomb at a potential of 100 volte.
Fio.
FIG. 13. Decay of current and charge or

= 100
quantity in a circuit containing
is
sn
dt
The above equation can

differentiating
the
entire
is
is
Critical Case. Qualitatively this case

no different from the nonoscillatory case previously discussed.
in equations (67) and (68)
made zero, the equations for the critical case result.
Obviously Fig. 13
the
of
variation
of
and
general type
charge for this
current
represents
condition.
The RLC Series Circuit with Alternating Voltage Suddenly Applied.
The basic voltage equation of the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 15 w:
If

Seconds
(71)
put in terms of one dependent variable by

equation with respect to the independent
be
a. xvi
572
variable,
Differentiating
t.
indicated above,
as
(72)
Dividing through by L and substituting i for dq/dt results in

d?i
Rdi
dt2
f-X)
cos
LC
dt
(73)
linear differential equation of the second order, first

degree, the solution of which consists of the sum of a complementary
Equation
73 is a
-A
t-o
+i
>R
Qot+-_c
cT-"pc
Flo.
15.
An HI
< series
circuit energized with an alternating voltage at
t = 0.
function or transient term and the particular integral or steady-state

term.
The former is obtained as indicated previously. The auxiliary
equation is:
and
R2
_4_
~L\L2
LC
Let
--R
" _R_
/fi^"
2L\4L2
and
lR2
b^^j2--
J_
LC
(75)
(76)
a
2 =
The transient term of the complete solution
and
(77)
is
:
= a
-j-
ai
By definition
(78)
(at
9)
- sin
The steady-state term of the complete solution is:
i,

(74)
(79)
Ch.
XVI
573
where
R2
and
The complete expression for current becomes

t
^r
l
sin (at
6)
+ clt(-n+b)t +
c..2fâ-b)l
(80)
The two physical facts from which c\ and c2 can be evaluated are the
state of current and the state of charge that exist in the circuit at the
instant of closing the switch.
Let it be assumed that
*"
=
at
QoJ
If the original voltage equation
i=0
(81)
has been differentiated
it is important
that the initial conditions be imposed upon the original voltage equa
In the present
tion rather than upon one of the differentiated forms.
case the initial conditions can be imposed upon equations (71) and (80).
Imposing the initial conditions upon equation (71) yields:
or

L ~
cos (X 6)
+ cii +
From which
.
c2a2 =
sm
m
Li
c2a2
77
-
--/
lAj
m
= Em
cos (X
sin
(82)
0)
Imposing the initial conditions on equation (80) results in

0 =
-^
ij
sin (X
or
c2 =
0)
- ^ sin
//
Cl
c2
(X
8)
Equations (82) and (83) may be solved simultaneously for

From equation (83) :
C2
(83)
Ci
and
c2.
(84)
574
Substituting the above value of

Cii
sin A - ^1
- \Em
- ci2
(X
\_ i
0)
- \Em sin - -~
a2)
a2
Whence
ci (i
into equation
c2
sin
-7L
--~
Ch.
XVI
(82) yields
Ew
Q - - cos
-
(X-
LL
cos (X
6)
0)
El
It
a2-^sin(X-0)
l
(85)
will be remembered that
a2 =
and
(~a + b)
(a
6)
Therefore
ai
org
= 26
and
a2
a2
26
26
Dividing equation (85) through by

for (ai 02) and a2,

Cl =
'
m S'
Collecting the
'~~
"
(on
"
CS ^
(
4L6
and making substitutions
0:2)
"
Sm (X ~
terms in the above equation,
si- x
l-
<x
- 9)
sin (x
From equation (83) it is evident that

c2 =
m
/\
a\
sin (X 6)
Ci
/Q*^
(87
Therefore,
(88)
Ch.
XVI
575
For the sake of simplicity in writing, the following abbreviation will

be adopted:
msinX
- -
cos (X
sin (X
6}
- *)
Ed
(89)
It
will be observed that Ed is a voltage which is governed in magnitude

The complete expression for
by Em, X, Qo, and the circuit parameters.
the
terms
of
applied voltage, the initial
in
current can now be written
condenser charge, and the circuit parameters.
sin
,bt
'
(X-fl) -'
'
,bt~
(90)
The transient component of the current consists of two terms, each of

which is damped out with the damping factor e~at or s-R'l2Lw
The
transient terms may be given different mathematical forms depending
upon the nature of the symbol
6.
Since
is equal to
written as
- -^ sin -
7*1
e)<Tat cosh
transient tcrniB
(91)
a.nd
= cosli
R/2L.
because of the relatively
with the steady-state term.

than 1/LC,
takes the form of an imag
large as compared
R2/4L2
The damping con-
In general, the transient terms in this case are not

less
II.
relatively large when ^ >
If
large value of
predominantly
Case
R2
is
is
Both transient terms are dumped out by t~Kl/2L.
bt
= sinh
bt
real,
trm
The above expression follows directly from equation (90) since,
stant R/2L
bt
7T
+ ~<Tat sinh
oL
(X
if
steady-fltftta
(cof
6f
J?
sin
-^
Z
6)
t =
is

evident that b may be either real or imaginary. A singular condition

exists when 6 is equal to zero.
If R2/4L2 is greater than 1/LC, b is a real number and
Case I.
the complete expression for current in the RLC series circuit may be
Ch.
,
lAj
is a real number and
/3
In this
by its equivalent, jf).

cance, namely, \/l.
TTJ
t>m
sin
(co<
in equation
connection
2?
0)
4L*
(90) can be replaced
has its customary signifi
ZP
-"d
*
+ - ""' sin
"m
pL
steady-state term
sin
6)e~at cos
(92)
transient terms
23
recognized
fit
= cos
and
fit
= sin
fit
fit
if
it
The above equation comes directly from equation (90)

and cos
are
that the analytical expressions for sin
is
<
-g
4z>
/J__JR2
\LC
/3
j3<
If
where
(X
- jfi
XVI
Let
inary number and a change in notation becomes desirable.
fit
576
(fit
a)
-"' sin
(93)
transient term
where
EmfiL sin
B)
fov.
A,
(X
and
In the present case the complete expression for current consists of two
The frequency of the steady-state term, w/2r,
determined
is
sinusoidal terms.
solely by the frequency of the applied voltage; that of the
L,
is
governed entirely by the circuit parameters,

transient term, fi/2ir,
and C. The frequency of the transient term may be less than,
In any event the
equal to, or greater than that of the applied voltage.
transient oscillation disappears as soon as the damping factor, t~Rtl2Ll
causes the transient term to become sensibly equal to zero.
and
illustrate the current variations in
particular
Oscillograms
RLC series circuit during transient periods. For the conditions shown,
R,

steady^tate term
It
6)
(orf
sin
Z-^
If
The two transient terms of equation (92) are exponentially damped

Since the damping factors are
sine and cosine terms of like frequency.
identical, the sine and cosine terms can be combined by the method
the two transient terms are combined, equa
outlined on page 179.
tion (92) takes the following form:
Ch.
Rz
XVI

1
75 < T7i
anc^
0 >
The exponentially damped
577
transient compo-
nent can easily be discerned as the higher frequency variation which

is superimposed on the 60-cycle steady-state variation.
Also the effect
AA.,
4L*
LC
CO = 377 rad. per sec.

ft
1200 rad. per sec. (approx.)
Photographic record of the current variation in a particular RLC

OSCILLOQRAM 5.
series circuit which is suddenly energized with an alternating potential difference
R, L, and C are sensibly constant.
Circuit arrangement and circuit parameters similar in every respect

in connection with Oscillogram 5 except for the point on the voltage
In the present case X = 0.
wave at which the circuit is energized.
OSCILLOQHAM 6.
to those shown
of closing the circuit at different points on the voltage wave can be ob

served by comparing Oscillograms 5 and 6. The transient term is shown
to be several times as large in Oscillograra 5 as it is in Oscillogram 6.
578
CA.
XVI

The Iron-Ckd RL Circuit Energized by an Alternating Potential Dif

ference. The mathematical analysis given in the article on page 557
for the case of constant R and L cannot, in general, be applied to an iron
clad circuit because of the wide variations of L that occur. For the
iron-clad circuit, L in equation (26) is a function of i which hi turn is
The fact that L is variable makes both
an intricate function of time.
In general, the
of
coefficients
equation
the
(27) or (28) variable.
solution of differential equations with variable coefficients is a difficult
It is plain that no general solution can be obtained because the
task.
variation of L in any particular case must necessarily be denned in
terms of particular constants rather than in terms of arbitrary constant.
Although the variation of L can sometimes be approximated with the
aid of simple functions, the actual variation in many cases of importance
cannot be expressed in terms of practical mathematical functions.
It is well known that L, being equal to N d*f>/di, depends upon the
material that surrounds the L coil.
<f>-i characteristic of the magnetic
The inductance that is operative in establishing an L di/dl voltage drop
depends for its value upon the exact degree of magnetic saturation of the
surrounding magnetic material. Under any a-c condition the degree
of saturation varies considerably with time and under transient con
ditions these variations are very often exaggerated.
Reference to any
typical B-H or <j>-i curve will show that
is much greater over the straight portion of the curve than
it is after
This fact plays an important role in deter

mining the current inrush to iron-clad circuits, because, in general,
circuits of this character are highly inductive and the variable L be
comes an extremely influential parameter.
Circuit problems involving variable parameters can be solved by
stcp-by-step methods provided the exact variation of the parameters is
known. In the present case the variation of L is known if the N(f>/i
characteristic of the surrounding magnetic material is known. The
data usually take the form of either the </>-i characteristic and the
number of turns or the B-H characteristic, the dimensions of the
magnetic circuit, and the number of turns. In any event it is somewhat
more direct to substitute for L di/dt [in equation (26)] its equivalent
N dtp/dt value. The basic equation then becomes :
the upper bend is reached.
dd>
N + Ri
at
= Em sin (at
+ X)
(94)
XVI
<t>
Ch.
THE IRON-CLAD
RL CIRCUIT
579
Nfrom which
/*
sin
si
= Em sin
at
is
if
it
is
is
is
it
is
is
if
is
the other quantities are expressed in

expressed in webers
where
practical units.
In many iron-clad circuits the maximum magnitude of the Ri term
of the order of per cent of the maximum magnitude of the applied
voltage. Under these conditions the N d<j>/dt component of equation (94)
very nearly equal to the applied voltage and in approximate steadystate solutions the Ri drop can be neglected.
The Ri drop cannot be
entirely neglected in the transient solution of the problem because
instrumental in helping to govern the maximum value of the initial
also an important factor in governing
current inrush. The resistance
the length of time required for the iron-clad circuit to adjust itself to
steady-state operating conditions.
If the Ri drop neglected and
assumed that =0, equation (94)
reduces to
(at dt
--
(95)
co<
Jf
~ cos
<at
+ ci
(96)
<f>
The constant of integration ci may be evaluated in terms of the residual
if
is
ci of equation (96) becomes:
0,
at
is
apparent.
Assuming that
<t>
<f>
or
<t>m
(1

f\f\ct
- cos
f\
tat)
/OQ\
(99)
is
it
where <f>m = Em/uN, the approximate maximum value of the magnetic

flux under steady-state operating conditions. Since (cos wi) varies
plain that the flux variation as denned by
between +1 and
1,

is
is
0,
may be at either positive or negative residual values at

magnetism.
=
unknown.
and in general the exact state of residual magnetism
=
=
at
unless
A compromise may be made by assuming that
to be determined.
In this case
the maximum possible current inrush
the
assumed
a maximum value of positive residual magnetism
as
sin
ut.
The
taken
manner
in
which
residual
voltage
applied
Em
magnetism helps to determine the initial current inrush will soon be
580
Ch.
XVI
In order to
equation (99) varies from zero at t = 0 to 2<t>m at t = T/2.
produce a flux equal to 2^>m, the iron-clad inductance coil must draw a
particular value of magnetizing current as denned by the <-i characteris
tic of the magnetic circuit. For example, in the circuit shown in Fig. 16
155.5
377
X80
0.00516 weber
or
<t>n
= 0.00516
105
= 516
kilolines
to the magnetization curve will show that the current re

establish
to
whereas current
quired
<f>m is approximately 1.2 amperes,
This great
required to establish 2<pm is approximately 84 amperes.
change in current is due primarily to the flattening out of the magnetiza
tion curve.
Reference
Amperes
10
1200
20
30
40
50
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
60
70
80
90
100
110
7.0
8.0
9.0
10
1100
1000
800
800
., 700
_c

600
Fio.
If
the
magnetism
16.
5.0
6.0
Amperes
Magnetization curve of a particular iron-clad
magnetic
of, say,
core referred
+0.5<t>m,
to above
had
RL
circuit.
possessed
a residual
it is evident that a much larger current
than the 84 amperes would finally be required to produce the 2>fc.

Actually the initial current
change in flux during the first half cycle.
inrush to an iron-clad circuit is somewhat less than that required to
produce a
2<f>m
flux change.
Ch.
XVI
THE IRON-CLAD RL CIRCUIT
581
It
will be remembered that equation (99) carries with it the assump

This assumption may be
tion that the Ri drop is negligibly small.
is
= 60-oycle applied emf

= instantaneous current
= instantaneous power
= 117 volts
= 174 amperes
10.5
=
i^-.u kw
nw
^
= 0.82S ampere.
7eff
(ed.)
Peak
* can
Peak
> e
Iron-core transformer current and power inrushes when the

=
energized at the
point on the voltage wave.
e
7.
primary
is
OSCILLOGRAM
Steady-state conditions: Pav = 30 watts,

kva, 26.1 amperes, 60 cycles.
Transformer rating: 115 volts,
The ordinary iron-core transformer with open secondary
operates
a simple iron-core RL circuit. Oscillogram illustrates the nature of

the starting current taken by the primary winding of an iron-core
transformer when the secondary
open-circuited. In this particular
case the initial peak current
considerably more than 100 times the
steady-state maximum value of primary current when the secondary
However, the initial current inrush reaches peak value
open-circuited.
which
only about 4.5 times the value of the maximum full-load
the
current of the transformer. For the case shown in Oscillogram
of approximately 0.5-second duration.
Only
actual transient period
the early part of the transient period
shown in the Oscillogram.
a
is
is
is
as
is
is
is

it
<t>
perfectly justified if the flux is worked between its normal steady-state

values of +<t>m and <t>m. But in attempting to produce a 2<t>m change
in flux starting with zero flux, the circuit draws such a large current that
the Ri drop becomes significantly large and must be taken into con
Under the above conditions the Ri drop consumes an
sideration.
appreciable portion of the applied voltage during the second quarter
cycle after the switch is closed, thereby reducing the magnitude of the
reaches a maximum
N d<t>/dt component in this region. As a result,
=
T/2, and
at this
value of something less than 20m shortly before
maximum
instantaneous
occurs.
current
point that the
582
Ch.
XVI
where
Ap =
= Em sin
Ap
Ad>
N + Ri
X)
</
The Method of Finite Differences.

Although it involves step-by" is very often
"
method of finite differences
step calculations, the
employed in circuit analysis when variable parameters are encountered.
The step-by-step calculations are based upon the assumption that the
parameters remain sensibly constant over small finite intervals of time.
Usually the basic voltage equation is rewritten so that all differentials
take the form of finite increments.
The circuit voltage and current
are then assumed to remain constant over an arbitrarily assigned
increment of time, At. As a first approximation the applied voltage
"
and current are assumed to be constant at their " start-of-period
If, then, after assigning a particular value to At, only a single
values.
unknown incremental quantity remains in the equation, it can be solved
for by methods of elementary algebra.
The process can best be illus
trated by means of an example.
The predetermination of the initial current inrush to an iron-clad
circuit will serve to illustrate the details of the method of finite differ
and
ences. If finite differences of
are employed, equation (94)
takes the following form
(100)
At, the angular displacement along the voltage wave
If
A<t>
X)
are employed
X)
and
R,
i,
e,
is
practical unit? of
is
If
in the above
equation,
given in webers.
of
Various refinements can be employed to improve the accuracy

the method of finite differences as outlined above.
Very often, however,
not warranted because of the uncertainties
the improved accuracy
that surround the initial conditions and other experimental data.
is

is
of the point under investigation from the point of =0.

Judgment must be exercised in the choice of At in any particular case.
governed largely by the
The selection of the size of At in a-c circuits
magnitude of u>.
points every 10 along the voltage wave are desired,
each
At
taken
as -j-V of TT/OJ second.
The choice of smaller incre
then
At should never
ments will, of course, make for more accurate solutions.
be chosen so large that significant changes in the parameters take place
within the time interval represented by At.
At the beginning of period and Em sin ( Ap
have particular
be written as
and solving equa
values.
Letting Em sin ( Ap
tion (100) for A<t> results in
Ch.
XVI
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Numerical Example.
Fig. 16 is:
(1) The emf applied to the iron-clad

e =
V2 X
583
RL circuit
shown in
110 sin 377* volts
This signifies that a 60-cycle voltage, the effective value of which is 110 volts, is
applied to the circuit at the point of zero voltage where de/dt is positive. A simpler
way of expressing the same thing is to say that a 110-volt 60-cycle voltage is applied
at X = 0.
(2) N = 80 turns and R = 0.25 ohm as indicated in the circuit diagram of Fig. 16.
(3) The residual magnetism is zero, and the flux varies in accordance with the
0-i curve given in Fig. 16 for the first half cycle of the applied emf.
(4) Only the first maximum instantaneous value of current is to be determined.
-- --
Therefore the hysteresis effects which occur after the first half cycle and which com
plicate the determination of succeeding maxima can be neglected. Let the numerical
coefficients enumerated above be inserted into equation (100).
80
or
AA
0.25i = 155.5 sin
AP-0.25i)
(155.5 sin *=~-
It will
A0 =

At webers
be somewhat more convenient in the present example if A0 is reckoned in
kilolines.
where
Ap
e 155.5
sin
2 &P-
(e
- 0.25i)
At
oU
10s kilolines
Each time increment will be taken as 0.0005 second, a value which corresponds to
an angular displacement along a 60-cycle wave of 10.8.
The initial conditions are such as to make both e and i zero at t = 0. Assuming
that both e and i maintain zero value throughout the first time interval, the change in
flux during this period, A0i, is equal to zero.
At
A( = 0.0005 second and e = 155.5 sin 10.8

the beginning of the second period,
"
For each interval i is assumed to have its start-of-period " value, which in
this case is zero.
volts.
(29.1
- 0)
0.0005
105
= 18.2 kilolines
At the close of the second or the beginning of the third period the current is assumed
to have acquired the value required for the establishment of A02.
Reference to the
curve will show that the establishment of 18.2 kilolines requires
magnetization
approximately 0.03 ampere.
At = 0.001 second and e 155.5 sin 21.6
At the beginning of the third period,
volts.
(57.2
A*3=-
0.25
-XV*
0.03) 0.0005
-^-
= 35.7 kilolines
The current required to establish
A<t>[(18.2 + 35.7) kilolines], is approximately

Other A<t>'s can be added by the step-by-step method outlined above.
0.09 ampere.
The results of a series of such calculations are shown in Table I.
584
Ch.
XVI
It will be noted that the current reaches a maximum value of approximately 72

amperes at t = 0.008 second. This corresponds to a point approximately 173 out
along the voltage wave from the point at which the switch is closed, namely, the
e = 0 point.
It
The general trend of the current variation is similar to that shown in Oscillogram 7.
will be observed that the current values are relatively very small during the first
It is during this period that the Ri drop is

quarter cycle after the switch is closed.
negligibly small.
The change of flux that occurs during the period of negligible Ri drop can be
calculated straightforwardly,
and it may be of interest to compare the step-by-step
results with a result which is very nearly accurate from a theoretical point of view.
From equation (98)
1555
(1~c083770webei"
377^16
taken as 0.0045 second, (377i) is equal to approximately

= 0.0045 second:
t is
377
80
(1
= 579 kilolines
= 0.0045
cos 97.2)
at
second as determined by the step-by-step method
29.1
55.7
0.0045
97.2
11
0.0050
0.0055
108.0
118.8
0.0060
0.0005
129.6
140.4
5
10
15
0.0070
16
0.0075
17
18
19
20
0.0080
0.0085
0.0090
0.0095
626
151.2
102.0
172.8
183.6
194.4
205.2
0.03
0.09
52.1
66.0
HXvO
172.0
0.18
79.0
88.0
251.0
0.43
339.0
433.0
0.58
Negligible
151.0
Negligible
Negligible
Negligible
94.0
97.0
96.0
530.0
626.0
718.0
0.78
92.0
2.25
84.0
802.0
6.25
71.0
873.0
928.0
966.0
99.2
11.1
55.0
74.9
48.1
14.5
38.0
20.0
19.5
16.6
18.0
-38.7
18.0
16.7
-17.0
-35.0
-51.0'
-66.2
18.2
141.0
-9.8
amperes
53.9
Negligible
Negligible
136.0
120.0
244
kilolines
18.2
35.7
Negligible
Negligible
83.3
106.0
126.0
155.0
154.0
148.0
&<t>
kilolines
Ri
volts
Ap
10.8
21.6
32.4
75.6
86.4
14
0.0005
0.0035
0.0040
12
volts
0.0010
0.0015
0.0020
0.0025
0.0030
13
Em sin
2
3
Ap
degrees
43.2
54.0
64.8

At
kilolines
I.)
(See Table
seconds
106
= 0.0045 second
TABLE
Perioc
kilolines.
at
The value
<t>
<t>
or
155.5
1.7 radians or 97.2.
At
If
is
14.7
1.0
0.29
0.75
1.4
3.1
9.0
25.0
44.5
58.0
66.5
986.0
987.0
72.0
970.0
67.0
935.0
884.0
59.0
47.0
72.0
Ch.
XVI
PROBLEMS
585
PROBLEMS
3. (a) Find the current in a coil containing L = 1 henry and R = 0.4 ohm one
second after applying a d-c voltage of 10 volts.
(ft) What will the current be after 2.5 seconds?
after
(c) What is the value of the voltage accelerating the current after 1 second?
2.5 seconds?
4. A coil has 0.1 henry and 1 ohm resistance and carries 10 amperes. If its
terminals are suddenly short-circuited, what will he the value of current 0.1 second
later?
How long will it take the current to fall to 0.1 ampere?

Find the number of ohms resistance which may be placed in series with an
inductance of 0.1 henry so as to permit the current in the circuit to reach 63.2 per
6.
cent of its final value in 2 seconds after the voltage is applied.

6. Ten volts direct current are applied to a 0.1-ohm resistance in series with a
1-henry inductance.
(a) Calculate the energy stored in the inductance 10 seconds after the voltage is
applied.
State units.

(6) Derive the expression for the energy dissipated in the resistance in the time t
after the voltage is applied.
7. A 50-jif condenser with no initial charge is in series with a 1-megohm resistor.
How long will it take to attain 63.2 per cent of its final charge?
8. A 50-Aif condenser has stored 0.1 coulomb.
(a) If it is discharged through a 1000-ohm resistor how long will it take until it
has 0.001 coulomb remaining?
(6) What will be the initial value of current?
(c) What will be the value of current when 0.001 coulomb remains on the con
denser?
If it is discharged through
9. A lOO-^f condenser has a charge of 0.1 coulomb.
a 10,000-ohm resistance, what will be the amount of energy in joules remaining in
the condenser 1 second after the discharge is started?
10. A d-c voltage was applied to a resistance of 10,000 ohms in series with a 100-jif
After 1 second there were 19.98 joules stored in the condenser which
condenser.
How many volts were applied to the circuit?
had no initial charge.
11.
1-megohm resistance is in scries with a 1-^f condenser.
volts is suddenly applied to the circuit.

(a) Calculate the energy stored in the condenser
A d-c voltage of
100
second after the voltage is
applied.
(b) Derive the expression for the energy dissipated in the resistance during the
first second after the voltage is applied.
(c) How much energy- will be dissipated in the resistance in charging the condenser
to
full charge?
12. What fraction of total charge will the condenser in Problem
seconds?
13. A voltage
11
have after 2
e = 100 sin [377( + (ir/4)] is impressed on a 1-henry inductance

coil containing 1 ohm resistance. What are the values of the steady and the tran
sient components of current at t 01
14. A voltage e = 100 sin (3771 + 30) is impressed on a lOO-jif condenser having
no initial charge and containing 1 ohm resistance.
(a) What are the values of the steady and transient components of charge at
t
= 0?
(6)
What
are the corresponding
values of current?
586
Ch.XVl
and L = 0.1 henry in series.

If a d-c voltage of 50 volts is impressed, calculate the current and charge after 0.01
second, assuming no initial charge on the condenser.
200 /if in series.
16. A circuit contains l{ = 5 ohms, L = 0.1 henry, and
A circuit contains
li
100 ohms, C = 200 /if,
('.
16.
so, what
is
(r)
If
if
(a) Calculate the current and charge 0.0 second after 1000 volts are impressed
there was no initial charge on the: condenser.
(b) Is the circuit oscillatory?
its frequency?
circuit of Problem 16
charged to a potential of 1000
connected upon itself, what will l>e the value of current :md
charge after 0.0125 second has elapsed?
18. Given an RLC series circuit which
suddenly energized with an alternating
equal to
potential difference which
the circuit
is
is
If
is
volts.
is
17. The condenser in the
= 141 sin (377/
- 45) volts
0
/if
sin
(A~2<+
fcj)
ki
is
= 1.0 ohm
= 0.041 henry
= 18.7
Qo =
(a) Write equation (93) for this particular case, employing numerical coefficients.
The result
to he in the form:
A:4*'
sin
(fee*
fa) amperea

where all k's are expressed numerically.

(6) Make sketches of the steady-state term, the transient term, and the resultant
current for the first three or four cycles of steady-state phenomena on the same plot.
Show also the
variation.
INDEX
Accuracy of short-circuit
Analysis of non-sinusoidal waves, 163

analytical method, 166
analyzing tables, 175-178
graphical method, 171, 180
calculations,
527
Addition, of admittances,
113
of complex waves, lit!)

of currents, 83
rectangular wave, 169, 170
of impedances. 07, 98,

of vectors, 68
triangular wave, 169, 170. 171

method
for
determining
whether two waves are of the
same form, 186-188
1 13
Analytical
of voltages, 83
of volt-amperes, 342, 343
for
watt hour
Adjustment, full-load
meters, 381
light-load for watt hour meters, 380
error of watt-hour
for power-factor
meter, 378
Admittance,
definition,
Angular frequency, 6
Angular velocity, 6
Attenuation, see also Filters,
constant or factor of a filter section, 450

constant or factor of a long transmis
sion line, 418
addition of, 113

113
surge, 419
Air-core transformer,
decibels of, 92, 452

frequency of infinite, 482
general, 91
method of expressing for filter, 450-454
229, 252, 255
vector diagram, 233, 253, 254

Akerman check, 389
Algebra of vectors, 63
current, amount
United States, 1
ampere value, 42

Alternating
average value, 43, 45

beginning of systems,
used
in
nepers of, 91, 451, 452

Auto-transformer, air-core, 255
Average value of a wave, 43, 45
Balanced delta load, 276
Balanced delta system of currents, 271,
components of, 55
definition, 3, 4
effective value, 42
272
Balanced systems, power in, 280, 285

Balanced wye load, 274
equation of, 6. 7
four-phase systems, 265
generation of,
lagging, 8, 9
high- and
low-pass
band, 436
Balanced wye system of currents, 270

Band, side, 204
1, 2, 262
Band-eliminator filter, 474, 475

Band-pass filter, definition, 474
sine-wave representation, 6
three-phase, 268, 271
two-phase systems, 265
Bands, pass or transmission, 436

stop or attenuation, 436
Bases, for expressing impedances, 522
Boundary conditions. 549
Bridge, elementary theory of methods,
Alternating volt, definition, 43

Alternating voltage, nee also Alternating
current
components of, 55
definition, 3
403
opposite-angle, 404, 405

Owen's, 405
Ammeter, 367, 369, 372

Amplitude factor, 46
similar-angle, 404
587
INDEX
588
Calibration of watthour meter,
Complex waves, addition of, 199

components of, 163
277
Capacitance, distributed in coils, 403

effect of in a circuit, 21
energy stored in, 23
impedance due to, 21
tables of for transmission lines, 431
transmission line, 426
vector diagram, branch of, 50
Capacitive
Capacitive
coupling, 214
reactance, 21
Capacitive
susceptance, 114-118
Carrier frequency,
388
Connection checks, for watthour meters,

Akerman, 389
202, 204
Cartesian form, of impedance, 81

of operator, 64, 65
open-line, 388
Cathode-ray oscillograph, 365

Characteristic impedance, 440
determination from open- and short-
open-potential coil, 389

for wattmeters, 288, 339
Connection of watthour meters, 344,
345,
low-pass, constant-fc, ir-scction, 467
385,386
Conditions, boundary, 549
Constant-fc filter, see Filters,
T-section, 467
ir-section, 441
T-section, 441
variation of for constant-^
type
Copper, comparison of requirements for
transmission, 294
Coupled circuits, 21 1
circuit impedances,
444
sections,
468
design,
coupled capacitively,
coupled conduct! vely, 211
coupled mutual inductively,
maximum current in, 244

partial resonance of, 241
resonance of, 239-252
Coupling, Capacitive, 214
coefficient of, 215, 221
conductive, 211, 214
critical, 244
inductive, 216
216
211
direction, 1, 52, 84, 317

inductive only, 16, 50
parallel, 113
polyphase, 262
resistive, inductive,
and
247
loose, 221
214
definition,
constant-A-
equations of voltage for, 220

impedance of, 237
Check, Akerman, 389

Circle diagram of series circuit, 110
Circuit, capacitivc only, 21

definition, 163
subtraction of, 199
Conductance, 114
Conductive coupling, types of, 211-214
Conductively coupled circuit, 21 1
Conjugates of voltage and current, 88, 89
Connection, checking of watthour meter,
Capacitive,
mutual inductance, 216

range of, 221
resistance, 214
Crest factor, 46
31
resistive and Capacitive, 33

resistive and inductive, 24
resistive only, 14, 50
Critical coupling, 244

Current, alternating, definition, 3, 4
average value, 43, 45
series, 97
series-parallel, 128
sweep, 366, 556
Coefficient, of coupling, 215, 221

of mutual inductance, 217
of self-inductance, 217-218
Coil, iron-clad, 398
iron-core magnetizing current of,
Complex notation, 63
Complex waves, 161
loose, 221
components of, 55
effective value, 42, 45
162
fault, 521
instantaneous, 7, 35, 48, 199
in parallel branches, 1 13
resonance,
RMS
117
value, 42, 45
INDEX
Current, in series branches, 97
for non-sinusoidal voltages, 194-200
in series-parallel branches, 128
for series resonance, 100
source, 140
Effective value, 42, 45

current, 42, 43, 45
virtual value of, 42

Current loci, for parallel branches,
sinusoid, 45
voltage, 43, 45
Electric wave filters, 436
Electrodynamometer, ammeter, 367
voltmeter, 368
119,
120
for series branches, 110,

Currents, addition of, 83
subtraction
111
455, 464, 466, 482
Cycle, 4
Decibel, definition, 452
Degrees of symmetry of waves, 184
Delta connection, balanced load, 276
current for, 271, 272
equivalent for wye, 145, 146
harmonics in, 301
of phase
components
symmetrical
currents, 502, 503
unbalanced, current relations. 350, 351
solution of, 308, 327
voltage, 271
Delta-wye conversion, 145, 327
solution of unbalanced three-phase
load by, 327
Delta and wye loads combined, solution
of, 311
Deviation factor, definition

determination
of, 194
of, 194
use, 194
Directions,
circuit,
1, 52, 84, 317
Double-subscript notation, 264

Drrfin, high-frequency line. 436
line, 437
impedance, 393
inductance, 400
Effective reactance, 397
Effective resistance, 395
Effective
Energy measurements, general, 382

accuracy of, 384
Equivalent current source, 140
Equivalent delta for wye, 145
Equivalent equilateral spacing for trans

mission lines, 429
Equivalent plate circuit of vacuum
tube,
144
Equivalent sine waves, 193

phase difference of, 193
Equivalent wye, for delta conversion,

145, 327
formula for, 146

Euler's equation, 66
Even harmonics, effect of, 184-186
Evolution of a vector, 77
Experimental determination, of currents
of a delta load, 350
of vector relations, from oscillograms,
of three-phase line voltages, 347
of voltage of a wye load, 349
Exponential
561
Distorted waves, 161

Distributed capacitance of coils,
Distributed parameters, 414
Division of vectors, 74
Dot-marked terminal, 224
Effective
Electromagnetic oscillograph, 364

Energy, stored in capacitance, 23
stored in inductance, 20
353
Direct wave of a transmission line, 418

Displaced a-c wave, effective value of,
low-frequency
displaced a-c wave, 561

measurement of, 368, 369
non-sinusoidal wave, 188
wattmeter, 373
of, 83
Cut-off frequency,

589
401 , 402
operator, 66
Factor, amplitude, 46
crest, 46
deviation,
194
form, 45
peak, 46
power, definition, 56; see also Power
factor
reactive, 56, 281 , 282
transfer, 238
Fault, defined, 521
Fault currents, solving for, 527, 530, 538
Faults, kinds of, 521
INDEX
590
Filters, attenuation constant, 450-454
band-eliminator, 474-475
Flux, in iron core transformer, 579-584

leakage,
mutual, 217, 252

Form factor, 45
of characteristics of conand m-derived types, 485

constant-/; type, definition, 465
Fourier analysis, general,
comparison
stant-A'
high-pass, cut-off frequency, 469

design equations, 469-470
summary of characteristics, 472,
473
analyzing tables, 175-178

rectangular wave, 169, 171
triangular wave, 166, 170
Fourier series, 163
coefficients of, 165
475
characteristic
imped
ance, 467
cut-off frequency, 466

design equations, 467, 468
summary of characteristics,
472,
473
zero-frequency
163
method, 166
value
of
imped
Four-phase systems, 265

Four-terminal network, 439
Four-wire, three-pha.se system, 268
Frequency, angular, 6
carrier, 202, 203
common for power use, 5
components of modulated waves,
ance, 467
202,
203
definition, 436
electric wave, 436
full m-dcrived, 481
attenuation and phase shift, 484
effect of cut-off and infinite attenua
tion frequencies on value of m, 439
frequencies of infinite attenuation,
482
high-pass, 483
low-pass, 482, 483
fundamental equation of, 455-457
general design procedure, 485
half section, 476-480
high-pass, attenuation, 462
definition, 455
low-pass, attenuation, 459
definition, 455
m-derived half sections, 476
meter, 38!), 390

oscillatory, 569
range of puss band for
RLC
circuit,
107
resonant, for parallel branches,

for series circuit, 100
Full-load adjustment of watthour
121
meter,
381
Generation
of alternating
current,
262
Geometric mean spacing of transmission

conductors, 429
Graphical
composition
of symmetrical
components, 494
Graphical method, for HMS value deter
mination, 43
for wave analysis, 171, 180
/?,
characteristic impedance, 478

general equations of, 478, 479
open-circuit impedance, 440, 444
450, 451
phase constant
phase shift, 456, 459, 462
cut-off, 455, 464, 466, 469, 482

infinite attenuation for filters, 482
measurement, 389
2,
low-pass,
analytical
1,
limitations,
jr-section, 441
propagation constant, 450
short-circuit impedance, 440, 444
T-section, 441
without resistance, 458
Finite differences, method of solving
equations by, 582
Half-power points, 107

Half-wave resonance, 419
Half-wave symmetry, 184, 185
Harmonics, caused by variation of circuit
parameters, 200
components of a complex wave, 103
in
delta system, 301
effect of even on a wave, 184-186
a

217, 252
definition, 475
band-pass, definition, 474
INDEX
filter,
High-pass
Impedance, zero-sequence, of transmis

sion lines, 541
in a wye system, 297
Harmonics,
see
Filters
Image basis of termination

tion, 443
of filter sec
zero-sequence component of, 509

Impedances, addition of, 97, 98, 1 13
parallel, 113
series, 97
Image impedance, 439

Impedance, base, 522
capacitive, 21
cartesian form of, 81
characteristic, for filters, 440,
Characteristic impedance
for T- and T-sections, 441
coupled circuit, 237
determination of, 393
see also
energy" stored in, 20

leakage,
18
matching, 133
mutual, 211, 219
negative-sequence,
negative-sequence
general, 424
transmission line table, 430
true. 400
vector diagram of branch, 50
Inductance coil, effect of distributed
ammeters, 369
voltmeters, 369
509-511, 532, 534

component
watthour meter, 377, 383

wattmeter, 374
of,

509
open circuit of a filter, 440, 444
Inductive
percentage of, 524

polar form of, 79
Inductive
positive-sequence, 510, 532, 534

positive-sequence component of, 509
rectangular form of, see. Impedance,
cartesian form of
referred to a common base, 522
reflected, 237, 238
resistive,
resistive,
imped
ance, 470
currents, combination of,
Instantaneous
35,48
Instantaneous
Instantaneous
power, 15, 18, 22, 28, 284

value of current and volt
age, 6. 7
and
32
resistive and capacitive, 33

resistive and inductive, 25
short-circuit, of filter, 440
surge,
coupling. 216
reactance, 18
Inductive susceptancc, 114-117

characteristic
Infinite-frequency
15
inductive,
254
mutual. 217
definition, 218
transmission line, formula, 426
capacitance, 401
self-resonance of, 402, 403
Induction, sec also Inductance
439
image,
series-parallel, 128
Inductance, coefficient of mutual, 217
coefficient of self-, 217
effective, 400
effect of, 16
diagram for series RLC branch, vari

able capacitance, 104
variable frequency, 105
variable inductance, 102
effective, 393
function, defined, 14
functions, summary of, 34
inductive,
591
419
capacitive,
Instrument
transformers, use, 372
Involution of
a vector, 77
coil, 398
Iron-clad RL circuit, transients in, 578
Iron-core coil, 398
current in, 162
Iron-clad
transfer, 138
transfer factor, 238
transferred, 236
j,
zero-sequence, 534, 539

of generators, 534, 539
of transformers, 540
Kirchhoff's law, application to alternat
operator, 63
Kilovolt-amperes,
55
ing current, 312
INDEX
592
Ladder structures, 454
Lagging adjustment of watthour
meter,
379
Lagging current, 9
Leakage flux, 217, 252
inductance, 254
of
watthour
adjustment
meter, 380
Line calculations, approximate methods,
411-414
exact method, 414
Line constants, formulas for, 426-429

tables of, 430, 431
Line drain, high-frequency,
436
Logarithm of a vector, 78
Loop current solution, 212, 354;
Mesh, current solution
Loose coupling, 221
Lower side-band, 204
Low-pass constant-fc filter,
n-phase, 273
three-phase, see Delta connection
Meters, ammeters, 367, 369, 372
electrodynamometer,
367, 368
frequency, 389
induction ammeters
and
voltmeters,
369
iron-vane, 369
power-factor, 376
reactive volt-ampere, 375, 376
rectifier type, 372
thermal, 372
low-frequency, 437
Line-to-ground short circuit, 538
Line-to-line short circuit, 530
see also
thermocouple, 372
varmeter, sec Reactive
meter
Mho,
volt-amperes,
114
Modulated
waves, composition
see
Filters,
Modulation,
definition of percentage,
Multiplication of vectors, 72
Mutual flux, 217, 252
Mutual inductance or induction,
coupling or mutual inductive
coupling, 216
Magnetic coupling between phases, 515
Magnetizing current of iron core coil, 162
between parallel branches, 227

between scries branches, 224
coefficient of, 217
definition, 217
Matching of impedances,
Maximum power transfer,
impedance, 211, 219

reactance due to, 219
133
133
m-derived filter section, full. 481

m-derived half section, 476
Measurement, of frequency, 389
of mutual inductance in terms of selfinductances, 401
of power in balanced systems, 285
of power factor, 376
of reactive volt-amperes, 281, 290, 340,
344
of three-phase power by three watt

meters,
334
of three-phase
meters,
Measurements,
power
by
two
watt
285, 286, 334-330
bridge,
difficulty
making, 401
elementary theory, 403
opposite-angle bridge, 405
Owen's bridge, 405
of, 202,
203
constant-fc type
Low-pass filter, see Filters
Magnetic
404
four-phase, 267
Light-load

Measurements, similar-angle bridge,

Mesh, connection, general. 271, 272
current solution, 212, 354
in
203
217
sign of, 222

in terms of self-inductances, 401
Mutual induction voltage, 219
direction of, 222
Mutual inductive coupling,
216, 217
Napier, definition, 452

Negative-sequence components, 491,
evaluation, 496
493
impedance component, 509

Negative-sequence impedances of rotat
ing machines, 532-535
Neper, definition, 91, 451, 452
Network, image impedance, 439
smoothing, 437, 439
theorems. 135, 137, 138
Networks, 135
T, 150
INDEX
Networks, T,
theorems,
Nodal
150
135, 137, 138
method of circuit solution, 139
Non-linear
parameters, step-by-step so
lutions, 582-584
Non-sinusoidal waves, 161
circuit analysis for, 163, 194, 196
Parallel resonance, by varying Re, 121

by varying RL, 121
Parameters, determination of, 393
distributed, 414
effect of variation on wave form, 200
non-linear, step by step solution, 582
transmission line, 424
effective value of, 188
Partial resonance of coupled circuits,
expressing, 163
parallel circuit analysis for, 196
power calculations for, 190
Pass
volt-amperes of, 102

Notation, double-subscript,
n-phase
mesh,
band,
boundary
of,
for
241
filters,
459-466, 474, 482

definition, for filters, 436
for series RLC circuit, 106
width of, for series RLC circuit, 107
Peak factor, 46
Percentage method of expressing param
power factor for, 192

series circuit analysis for, 194
shifting the phase of, 187
264
eters, 524
Percentage of modulation, 203

Percentage reactance, 525
Percentage resistance, 525
273
n-phase star, 273

Ohmic method of short-circuit
calcula
tions, 522
Open-circuit impedance of
a filter, 440,
Period, definition, 4
Per unit method of expressing param
eters, 527
Phase, 8
444
check, 288, 388

Open-potential coil chock, 38!)
Operator, cartesian form, 64, 65
Open-line
exponential, 66
angle,
constant, of a filter, 450

of a long line, 419, 422
of current and voltage, 14, 18, 21, 25,
33
3, 63

593
polar form, 67
rectangular form, 65
Opposite-angle bridge, 404, 405
Oscillatory term of RLC circuit, 567, 568,
571, 576
frequency of, 569

Oscillograph, cathode-ray, 365
electromagnetic, 364
frequency range of, 365, 366
Owen's bridge, 405
Parallel,
impedances in, 113
Parallel branch analysis,
113
for non-sinusoidal waves, 196

Parallel branch current loci. 118-121
Parallel branches, resonance in, 117
Parallel branch resonance for all fre
quencies,
124
Parallel resonance, 117-126

by varying C, 120
by varying /, 121
by varying L, 118
difference, 8
for equivalent sine waves, 193
magnetic coupling between phases,
515
n-phase mesh, 273

n-phase star, 273
sequence,
effects,
263, 264, 276

330
impedances, 509, 510, 532, 539

methods of checking, 331
shift, general, 92
of high-pass filter section, 462
of low-pass filter section, 459
shifting of a non-sinusoidal wave, 187
ir-network, 150
ir-section filter, 441
attenuation of, 456
characteristic impedance, 441, 444
phase shift, 456
Polar form, of impedance, 79
of operator, 67
Polarity marks,
224
INDEX
594
Polyphase,
tion,
sec
also
Delta
Mesh, Star connec

connection,
Wye,
n-pha.se mesh
generation of voltages, 262

Polyphase power, see also Power
balanced systems, 280
comparison with single-phase power,
284
Power factor, measurement of, 376

meter, 376
of series branch, 98
in unbalanced polyphase systems,
A.I.E.E. definition, 342
341
Power formula, for balanced three-phase,

280
unbalanced systems, 334-339

Polyphase unbalanced, general, 308, 312
Positive directions of voltages and cur
rents, 52, 84, 222
Positive-phase sequence system, 490, 492
evaluation of, 495, 532
impedance of rotating machines, 533,
for single-phase, 53
Propagation, velocity of, 420
of a wave, 418
Propagation constant, of a filter, 450
of a long line, 418
Proximity
effect, 396
Q, of a coil, 108
534
impedance of static elements, 509

Power, half-power points, 107
instantaneous, 15, 18, 22, 28, 284
maximum from circle diagram, 112
maximum transfer in a series circuit,
of a parallel circuit, 125

of a series circuit, 108
Quarter-phase, nee Four-phase systems
Quarter-wave resonance of a long line, 419
Quarter-wave symmetry, 185
133
measurement, of balanced polyphase,

285

in an n-wire system, 291, 338

by three-wattmeter method, 334
method
28(5,
by two-wattmeter
334-337
in a purely capacitive branch, 22
in a purely inductive branch, 18
in a purely resistive branch, 15
reactive, in general, 53
real, in general, 53
phase,
poly
280
from conjugate of V and /, 88

of single and three-phase, 281
Power factor, balanced three-phase, 282
definition, 56, 280, 282, 341-343
error correction in a watt hour meter,
379
percentage, 525
per unit, 524, 527
Reactive factor, 56, 281, 282
Reactive
power, see Reactive
voltr
Reactive volt-amperes, 29, 53

balanced three-phase, 290
calculated from complex expressions,
87
of balanced three-phase, 280

from complex forms, 86
error of watt hour meter, 378
effective, 397
inductive, 18
mutual, 219
amperes
in a resistive and inductive branch, 28

in an KLC branch, 33, 34
system short-circuit calculations, 521
three-phase, 280, 334-337
of a vector, 77
of balanced
Power calculation,
Range of coupling, 221

KC branch, transients, 552
Reactance, capacitive, 21
determination
from conjugates
and
formula,
balanced
/,
of
88
for
three-phase.
290
for single-phase, 54
measurement, of balanced three-phase,
290
of single-phase, 374
in a 3-wire, 3-phase circuit, 376
in unbalanced 4-wire, 3-pbase. 340
meter, 375, 376
sign of. 34, 54
Reciprocity
theorem,
137
INDEX
Rectangular form, of impedance, 81
of operator, 64, 65
Rectangular wave, 169, 171
Rectifier, constants for a smoothing net
Reflected impedance, 237,

Reflected wave, 418, 419
high-frequency line drain, 436

low-frequency line drain, 437
238
terminal of a line, 420
circuit, 106
106
voltage of, 220

Sequence,
263, 264, 276
phase,
checking, 331
effects of, 330
negative-phase
system,
sequence
491, 493, 496
and capacitance,
impedance, 509, 532-535

positive-phase sequence system, 490,
492, 495
31
impedance, 509, 533, 534

rule, 511, 513
zero-phase
circuits,
99;
sec
Series,
also
also
Series
resonance
RL
branch transients and steady current

in, for alternating current, 557
for direct current, 550
RLC branch, selective properties, see
Selective
RLC
circuit
vector diagram, 51
RLC series branch, equation of current,
575
term of, 576

transients in, 565, 570, 571
for .KV4L2 > \/LC, 567, 570, 575
oscillatory
for /F/4L2 < 1/LC, 567, 570, 575

RL iron-clad circuit, transients in, 578
RMS value, 42, 45
of a displaced sinusoidal wave, 561
graphical determination of, 43
491,
impedance, 509, 534, 539, 540, 541

impedances in, 97
resonance,
see
system,
sequence
493, 496
419
quarter-wave, 419
three-quarter-wave, 419
in parallel circuits, 117;
Parallel resonance
self-, of inductance coil, 403

RLC
width of, 107

Selectivity of RLC series branch, 107, 108
Self-inductance, 217
vector diagram of branch, 50

Resistance coupling, 214
Resonance, in coupled circuits, 239-252
of a long transmission line, half-wave,
series
elements,
436
pass band, definition,
Resistance, effective, 395

effect of, 14
impedance due to, 14
percentage of, defined, 525
in series, with capacitance, 33
with inductance, 24
with inductance
Selective properties of circuit
Selective
work of, 438, 43!)

smoothing network for, 437, 439
type meter, 372
Reflections,
595
99
Series branch, 97
circle diagram, 110

efficiency of for transmission, 112
Series circuit, 97
analysis for non-sinusoidal
circle diagram of, 110
waves,
194
current loci, 1 10, 111

maximum power transfer of, 133
Series-parallel branches, 128
Series-parallel tuning, 130
Series resonance, 99
frequency for, 100
by varying capacitance, 103
by varying frequency, 104
by varying inductance,
voltage drops, 100
101
Shifting the reference point of a nonsinusoidal wave, 187

Short circuit, accuracy of calculations, 527
calculation, by ohmic method, 522
by percentage method, 524
in power systems,
measurement of, 368, 369

of a sinusoidal wave, 45
Root of a vector, 77
impedance of a filter, 444

definition, 440, 444
Sawtooth wave form, 554
line-to-ground, 538
calculation of, 538, 543
521
INDEX
59G
Short circuit, line-to-line, 530
Symmetrical
calculation of, 535

Side bands, 204
Sign of readings of wattmeters,
288,
components, power from.

506-508
solution for fault currents, 521-545
unbalanced
current
representation,
502-506
339
Similar-angle bridge, 404

Sine wave, representation of alternating
current, 6
Sine waves, equivalent, 193
Sinusoidal wave, average value of, 45
crest factor of, 46
effective value, 42, 45
form factor, 45
vector representation of, 47
Skin effect, 395
Smoothing network, 437, 439
three-phase, 268, 269

Steady-state term, 550, 552, 559, 560,
564, 575
for non

Superposition theorem, 135

Surge admittance, 419
Surge impedance, 419
Susceptance, 114-118
Sweep circuit, 366, 556
Symbolic notation, are. Vectors, algebra of
Symmetrical components, 490
copper losses from, 508
delta-wye voltage transformations, 500
graphical composition of, 494
line-to-ground current representation,
504, 505
negative-sequence system, 491, 493

evaluation, 496, 532
impedance, for rotating machines,
509-511
for static elements, 509
of phase currents in delta-connected
loads,
502
positive-sequence system, 490, 492

evaluation, 495, 532
533, 534
for static elements,
509
voltage
representa
zero-sequence system, 491, 493, 496

evaluation, 495-197, 532, 538
510, 532, 534, 539, 542
degrees of, 184
273
Step-by-stcp method solution

linear parameters, 582
Stop band, 436
Subtraction, of currents, 83
of vectors, 70
line
tion, 498, 502

use of, 490
for static elements, 509

Symmetry, of complex waves, 184
constants for, 438

Star connection, general,
four-phase, 266
n-phasc, 273
unbalanced
half-wave, 184
non-sine waves, 184
positive and negative loops, 184
quarter-wave, 185
of wave about its 90 ordinate, 185
Systems, see also Alternating current
four-phase, 265
three-phase, 268-273
two-phase, 265
Tables, of capacitance for transmission
lines, 431
of inductance
for transmission
lines.
430
Terminal reflections, 420

Termination of filter section on image
basis, 443
Thermal meters, 372

Thermocouple meters, 372
Thevenin's theorem, 138
Three-origin vector diagram, 278
Three-phase, four-wire system, 268
Three-phase, three-wire system, 271
measurement,
Three-phase
power
334-337
Three-quarter-wave resonance of a
line, 419
Three-wire, two-phase system, 268
Time constant, of RC branch, 554
of
RL
long
branch, 651
T-network,
150
Transfer factor, 238

Transfer impedance, 90, 138
Transferred impedance, 236
Transformer, air-core, 229-236, 252-255
vector diagram of, 253, 25-4
air-core auto-, 255
INDEX
Transformer, instrument,
polyphase circuits, general,

solution by Kirchhoff's laws, 312
wye-wye with neutral solution, 326
wye-wye without neutral solution,
Unbalanced
372
Transient, application of, 548

defined, 548
sawtooth wave, 554-557
Transients, of RC branch, 552
of RL branch,
of
KLC
319
548, 577
scries circuit, 565-577
oscillatory
frequency
of,
597
569,
571,
Unbalanced voltage, representation by

symmet rical components, 498-502
Upper side band, 204
576
/P/4L1
K1 '-IL'
>
<
1/LC,
l/LC,
567, 570, 571

567, 570, 571
of RL iron-clad circuit, 578

Transmission, 89
band, 436
line, general, 410
approximate solution, by Steinmetz
method, 413
Transmission
Transmission
exact solution, 414

geometric mean spacing
ductors, 429
by ir-line, 412
of
con
representation of, 410

by T-line, 411
Transmission line parameters, 424
capacitance, formula, 429
table, 431

derivation of formulas, 424, 426

inductance, formula, 426
table. 430
of power, comparison of
Transmission
copper requirements, 294
Triangular waves, analysis of, 169-171
equation of, 167, 170,
True inductance.
171
400
T-section,
filter, 441
attenuation of, 456, 459, 462
characteristic
impedance
of,
440-442, 444
phase shift. 450, 456, 459, 462
series arm, 457
shunt arm, 457
Tuning, series-parallel, 130

Two-phase systems, 265
Two-wattmeter method of measuring
3-phase power, 286, 334-337
Unbalanced currents, representation by
symmetrical components, 502-506
Unbalanced polyphase circuits, general,
308, 312
delta, solution of, 308. 327

power factor of, 341-343
Var, 29, 54
see also
Varmeter, 30. 375;
Reactive
volt-amperes, meter
Vector diagrams, general, 49-52
C-branch, 50
L-branch,
fi-branch,
50
50
flC-branch,
51
flL-branch, 51
RLC-bnmch, 51
three-origin, 278
Vector relations, currents of an unbal
anced delta, 350, 351
line-to-line
voltages from experiment,
347
from oscillographic records, 353

voltages of an unbalanced wye, 349
Vectors, addition of, 68
algebra of, 63
cartesian form of notation for, 64
division of, 74
evolution of, 77
involution of, 77
logarithm of, 78
multiplication of,
72
raising to powers, 77
rectangular form of notation for, 64
representing sine waves, 47
root of, 77
subtraction of, 70
Vector volt-amperes, 342, 343
Velocity, angular, 6
of wave propagation, 420
Virtual value of current or voltage,
42
Volt, alternating defined, 43

Voltage, alternating, components of, 55
definition, 1, 2
drop, 52
drops, across series-parallel branches,
128
at series resonance,
100
equations of coupled circuits, 220

instantaneous,
INDEX
598
Voltage, mutual, direction of, 222
Wave-length
mutual induction, 217

resonance,
constant,
of a
long line,
419, 422
Wave propagation, velocity of, 420

Waves, addition of complex, 19!)
attenuation of, 418
99
rise, 52
self-induced, 220
series branch for non-sinusoidal
waves,
complex or non-sinusoidal,
161,
163
composite, 161, 163

direct, 418, 419
modulated, 201
194
Voltages, addition of, 58, 59, 83

delta, 271
generation of polyphase, 262
vector addition of, 83
vector combination of, 58, 59, 83
vector subtraction of, 58, 59, 83
propagation of, 418, 420

rectangular, 169, 171
wye, 269
Volt-amperes, 55
addition of, 342, 343
balanced three-phase, 262
non-sinusoidal waves, for, 192
reactive, 29, 53, 87, 88. 290, 340, 374
in three-phase, 290, 342-346
vector, 342, 343
Voltmeters, electrodynamometer, 368
induction, 369
iron-vane, 369
reflected, 418, 419

of same shape or form, analytical
method of determining, 186
sawtooth, 554
subtraction of, 199
triangular, 169, 171
Wave shape, 5, 6, 184-189
effect of shifting an harmonic on,
186,
188, 189
Wave trap, 123

Weber-turns, 219
Wye, general, 269. 273
and delta loads combined, solution
rectifier, 372
thermal, 372
of, 311
balanced load. 274

connection, voltages and currents
thermocouple, 372
in.
269, 270

Watthour meter, accuracy
magnetic
of, 384
calibration of, 381

checking connections of, 388
connections of three-phase, 385
with instrument transformers, 386
full-load adjustment, 381
induction, 377, 383
lagging adjustment of, 379
light-load adjustment, 380
power-factor error correction, 379
Wattmeters, checking signs of, 288, 339
connection in a circuit, 373
coupling
between
phases
of, 515
unbalanced voltages, vector rela

tions, 349
Wye-delta, conversion, 149, 309. 310
unbalanced, solution
of,
309. 312,
319-326
Wye system, currents in, 270
harmonics in, 297
Wye-wye
system,
unbalanced,
with
neutral, 326
without neutral, 320-325
electrodynamometer, 373
induction, 374
Y,
loss in potential coils of, 374
Zero-frequency characteristic impedance.
Watt-ratio curve,
288
Wave, sawtooth, 554

Wave analysis, 163
analytical method, 166
Wave form, 5, 184, 186, 189
of current in an iron-core coil,
Wye
467
Zero-sequence component of impedance,

509
Zero-sequence impedance,
machines, 534, 539
of transformers, 540
162
constant, of a filter,
Wave-length
Phase constant, of a filter
1
see
see
of
of transmission lines, 541

Zero-sequence system, 491, 493,
evaluation of, 496, 497
rotating
496

Alternating Current Circuits by Chorcoran

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Alternating Current Circuits by Chorcoran

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

Kansas State College

Generated on 2015-09-12 17:53 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

Professor and Chairman

This book or any part thereof must not

Generated on 2015-09-12 17:54 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

Generated on 2015-09-12 17:55 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

This book is primarily written as a textbook for courses in alternat

With the exception of the fundamentals of symmetrical components

in Chapter XIV which are necessary to understand Chapter XV, any

Effective Current and Voltage Average Power

IV. Vector Algebra (As Applied

A-C Circuit Analysis)

V. Sinusoidal Single-Phase Circuit Analysis

VI. Non-Sinusoidal Waves

Balanced Polyphase Circuits

Generated on 2015-09-12 18:18 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

IX. Unbalanced Polyphase Circuits

Determination of Circuit Parameters

Transmission Line Calculations

Electric Wave Filters

The first successful electrical power system in the

Generated on 2015-09-12 18:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

with Faraday's law,

N'Blv and the

For the instant depicted in Fig. 1, the applica

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

magnitude but so directed as to establish a voltage rise from ter

of the revolving field type.

of the general nature shown

Generated on 2015-09-12 18:22 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

In communication systems, vacuum tubes (working in conjunction

Circuit arrangement of a simple triode oscillator.

than those obtainable with rotating equipment.

DEFINITION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

frequency alternating currents can be produced with very simple circuit

Many simple circuit configurations other than that

shown in Fig. 2 may be used for this purpose.

Definition of Alternating Current. An alternating current, as the

Generated on 2015-09-12 18:23 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

Wave forms of three a-c variations.

A.I.E.E. " Definitions

nating current is defined in terms of a

of Electrical Terms," an alter

periodic current, and the latter in

"An oscillating current is a current which alternately increases and

in magnitude with respect to time according to some definite

A periodic current is an oscillating current the values of which recur

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

periodic current at time

being the period).

In Fig. 3a, t = 10 sin ut

Generated on 2015-09-12 18:24 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000984610

amperes; in Fig. 36, t = 10 sin

The period of an alternating current or voltage

value of time which separates recurring values1 of the

The period of time which separates these re

cycles per second

time (or duration) of one cycle, it

cycles per second

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS