Steam and Condensate systems - What is

Steam?
Properties of Steam
A better understanding of the properties of steam may be achieved by
understanding the general molecular and atomic structure of matter, and applying
this knowledge to ice, water and steam.
A molecule is the smallest amount of any element or compound substance still
possessing all the chemical properties of that substance which can exist. Molecules
themselves are made up of even smaller particles called atoms, which define the
basic elements such as hydrogen and oxygen.
The specific combinations of these atomic elements provide compound substances.
One such compound is represented by the chemical formula

H2O, having molecules

made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

The reason water is so plentiful on the earth is because hydrogen and oxygen are
amongst the most abundant elements in the universe. Carbon is another element of
significant abundance, and is a key component in all organic matter.
Most mineral substances can exist in the three physical states (solid, liquid and
vapour) which are referred to as phases. In the case of

H2O, the terms ice, water

and steam are used to denote the three phases respectively.

The molecular arrangement of ice, water, and steam is still not fully understood, but
it is convenient to consider the molecules as bonded together by electrical charges
(referred to as the hydrogen bond).
The degree of excitation of the molecules determines the physical state (or phase) of
the substance.

Triple point
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All the three phases of a particular substance can only coexist in equilibrium at a
certain temperature and pressure, and this is known as its triple point.
The triple point of

H2O, where the three phases of ice, water and steam are in

equilibrium, occurs at a temperature of 273.16 K and an absolute pressure of 0.006

112 bar. This pressure is very close to a perfect vacuum. If the pressure is reduced
further at this temperature, the ice, instead of melting, sublimates directly into
steam.

Ice
In ice, the molecules are locked together in an orderly lattice type structure and can
only vibrate. In the solid phase, the movement of molecules in the lattice is a
vibration about a mean bonded position where the molecules are less than one
molecular diameter apart.
The continued addition of heat causes the vibration to increase to such an extent
that some molecules will eventually break away from their neighbours, and the solid
starts to melt to a liquid state. At atmospheric pressure, melting occurs at 0C.
Changes in pressure have very little effect on the melting temperature, and for most
practical purposes, 0C can be taken as the melting point. However, it has been
shown that the melting point of ice falls by 0.0072C for each additional atmosphere
of pressure. for example, a pressure of 13.9 bar g would be needed to reduce the
melting temperature by 0.1C.
Heat that breaks the lattice bonds to produce the phase change while not increasing
the temperature of the ice, is referred to as enthalpy of melting or heat of fusion.
This phase change phenomenon is reversible when freezing occurs with the same
amount of heat being released back to the surroundings.
For most substances, the density decreases as it changes from the solid to the liquid
phase. However, H2O is an exception to this rule as its density increases upon
melting, which is why ice floats on water.

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Water
In the liquid phase, the molecules are free to move, but are still less than one
molecular diameter apart due to mutual attraction, and collisions occur frequently.
More heat increases molecular agitation and collision, raising the temperature of the
liquid up to its boiling temperature.

Enthalpy of water, liquid enthalpy or sensible heat (hf) of water

This is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of water from a datum
point of 0C to its current temperature.
At this reference state of 0C, the enthalpy of water has been arbitrarily set to zero.
The enthalpy of all other states can then be identified, relative to this easily
accessible reference state.
Sensible heat was the term once used, because the heat added to the water
produced a change in temperature. However, the accepted terms these days are
liquid enthalpy or enthalpy of water.
At atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), water boils at 100C, and 419 kJ of energy are
required to heat 1 kg of water from 0C to its boiling temperature of 100C. It is
from these figures that the value for the specific heat capacity of water ( Cp) of 4.19
kJ/kg C is derived for most calculations between 0C and 100C.

Steam
As the temperature increases and the water approaches its boiling condition, some
molecules attain enough kinetic energy to reach velocities that allow them to
momentarily escape from the liquid into the space above the surface, before falling
back into the liquid.
Further heating causes greater excitation and the number of molecules with enough
energy to leave the liquid increases. As the water is heated to its boiling point,
bubbles of steam form within it and rise to break through the surface.

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Considering the molecular arrangement of liquids and vapours, it is logical that the
density of steam is much less than that of water, because the steam molecules are
further apart from one another. The space immediately above the water surface thus
becomes filled with less dense steam molecules.
When the number of molecules leaving the liquid surface is more than those reentering, the water freely evaporates. At this point it has reached boiling point or its
saturation temperature, as it is saturated with heat energy.
If the pressure remains constant, adding more heat does not cause the temperature
to rise any further but causes the water to form saturated steam. The temperature
of the boiling water and saturated steam within the same system is the same, but
the heat energy per unit mass is much greater in the steam.
At atmospheric pressure the saturation temperature is 100C. However, if the
pressure is increased, this will allow the addition of more heat and an increase in
temperature without a change of phase.
Therefore, increasing the pressure effectively increases both the enthalpy of water,
and the saturation temperature. The relationship between the saturation
temperature and the pressure is known as the steam saturation curve (see image
below).

Water and steam can coexist at any pressure on this curve, both being at the
saturation temperature. Steam at a condition above the saturation curve is known as
superheated steam:

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Temperature above saturation temperature is called the degree of superheat

of the steam.

Water at a condition below the curve is called sub-saturated water.

If the steam is able to flow from the boiler at the same rate that it is produced, the
addition of further heat simply increases the rate of production. If the steam is
restrained from leaving the boiler, and the heat input rate is maintained, the energy
flowing into the boiler will be greater than the energy flowing out. This excess
energy raises the pressure, in turn allowing the saturation temperature to rise, as
the temperature of saturated steam correlates to its pressure.

Enthalpy of evaporation or latent heat (hfg)

This is the amount of heat required to change the state of water at its boiling
temperature, into steam. It involves no change in the temperature of the
steam/water mixture, and all the energy is used to change the state from liquid
(water) to vapour (saturated steam).
The old term latent heat is based on the fact that although heat was added, there
was no change in temperature. However, the accepted term is now enthalpy of
evaporation.
Like the phase change from ice to water, the process of evaporation is also
reversible. The same amount of heat that produced the steam is released back to its
surroundings during condensation, when steam meets any surface at a lower
temperature.
This may be considered as the useful portion of heat in the steam for heating
purposes, as it is that portion of the total heat in the steam that is extracted when
the steam condenses back to water.

Enthalpy of saturated steam, or total heat of saturated steam

This is the total energy in saturated steam, and is simply the sum of the enthalpy of
water and the enthalpy of evaporation.

hg = hf + hfg
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hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg)

hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ/kg)

hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ/kg)

Saturated steam table

A steam table list the properties of steam at varying pressures. They are the results
of actual tests carried out on steam. The table below shows the properties of dry
saturated steam at atmospheric pressure - 0 barg until 5 barg.

Pressur Saturation
e
temperature
barg
C
0
1
2
3
4
5

100
120
134
144
152
159

Enthalpy (energy) in
kJ/kg
Water

Evaporation

Steam

419
506
562
605
641
671

2257
2201
2163
2133
2108
2086

2676
2707
2725
2738
2749
2757

hf

hfg

hg

Volume of dry
saturated steam
m3/kg
1.673
0.881
0.603
0.461
0.374
0.315

Dryness fractions
Steam with a temperature equal to the boiling point at that pressure is known as dry
saturated steam. However, to produce 100% dry steam in an industrial boiler
designed to produce saturated steam is rarely possible, and the steam will usually
contain droplets of water.
In practice, because of turbulence and splashing, as bubbles of steam break through
the water surface, the steam space contains a mixture of water droplets and steam.
Steam produced in any shell-type boiler, where the heat is supplied only to the water
and where the steam remains in contact with the water surface, may typically
contain around 5% water by mass.
If the water content of the steam is 5 by mass, then the steam is said to be 95%
dry and has a dryness fraction of 0.95.

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The actual enthalpy of evaporation of wet steam is the product of the dryness
fraction (X) and the specific enthalpy (hfg) from the steam tables. Wet steam will
have lower usable heat energy than dry saturated steam.
Actual enthalpy of evaporation =

hfgX

Therfore:
Actual total enthalpy =

hf + hfgX

Because the specfic volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower than that
of steam, the droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible space. Therefore
the specific volume of wet steam will be less than dry steam:
Actual specific volume =
Where

VgX

Vg is the specific volume of dry saturated steam.

The steam phase diagram

The data provided in the steam tables can also be expressed in a graphical form.
The image bellow illustrates the relationship between the enthalpy and temperature
of the various states of water and steam; this is known as a phase diagram.

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As water is heated from 0C to its saturation temperature, its condition follows the
saturated water line until it has received all of its liquid enthalpy,

hf (A - B).

If further heat continues to be added, the water changes phase to a water/vapour

mixture and continues to increase in enthalpy while remaining at saturation
temperature,

hfg (B - C).

As the water/vapour mixture increases in dryness, its condition moves from the
saturated liquid line to the saturated vapour line. Therefore at a point exactly
halfway between these two states, the dryness fraction (X) is 0.5. Similarly, on the
saturated steam line the steam is 100% dry.
Once it has received all of its enthalpy of evaporation, it reaches the saturated
steam line. If it continues to be heated after this point, the pressure remains
constant but the temperature of the steam will begin to rise as superheat is
imparted (C -

D).

The saturated water and saturated steam lines enclose a region in which a
water/vapour mixture exists - wet steam. In the region to the left of the saturated
water line only water exists, and in the region to the right of the saturated steam
line only superheated steam exists.
The point at which the saturated water and saturated steam lines meet is known as
the critical point. As the pressure increases towards the critical point the enthalpy of
evaporation decreases, until it becomes zero at the critical point. This suggests that
water changes directly into saturated steam at the critical point.
Above the critical point the steam may be considered as a gas. The gaseous state is
the most diffuse state in which the molecules have an almost unrestricted motion,
and the volume increases without limit as the pressure is reduced.
The critical point is the highest temperature at which water can exist. Any
compression at constant temperature above the critical point will not produce a
phase change.

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Compression at constant temperature below the critical point however, will result in
liquefaction of the vapour as it passes from the superheated region into the wet
steam region.
The critical point occurs at 374.15C and 221.2 bar a for steam. Above this pressure
the steam is termed supercritical and no well-defined boiling point applies.

Flash steam
The term "flash steam" is traditionally used to describe steam issuing from
condensate receiver vents and open-ended condensate discharge lines from steam
traps. How can steam be formed from water without adding heat?
Flash steam occurs whenever water at high pressure (and a temperature higher than
the saturation temperature of the low-pressure liquid) is allowed to drop to a lower
pressure. Conversely, if the temperature of the high-pressure water is lower than the
saturation temperature at the lower pressure, flash steam cannot be formed. In the
case of condensate passing through a steam trap, it is usually the case that the
upstream temperature is high enough to form flash steam. See image below

Consider a kilogram of condensate at 5 bar g and a saturation temperature of 159C

passing through a steam trap to a lower pressure of 0 bar g. The amount of energy
in one kilogram of condensate at saturation temperature at 5 bar g is 671 kJ. In
accordance with the first law of thermodynamics, the amount of energy contained in
the fluid on the low-pressure side of the steam trap must equal that on the highpressure side, and constitutes the principle of conservation of energy.
Consequently, the heat contained in one kilogram of low-pressure fluid is also 671
kJ. However, water at 0 bar g is only able to contain 419 kJ of heat, subsequently

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there appears to be an imbalance of heat on the low-pressure side of 671 - 419 =

252 kJ, which, in terms of the water, could be considered as excess heat.
This excess heat boils some of the condensate into what is known as flash steam
and the boiling process is called flashing. Therefore, the one kilogram of condensate
which existed as one kilogram of liquid water on the high pressure side of the steam
trap now partly exists as both water and steam on the low-pressure side.
The amount of flash steam produced at the final pressure ( P2) can be determined
using:
Proportion of flash steam = (hf at

P1) - (hf at P2) / hfg at P2

P1 = Initial pressure

P2 = Final pressure

hf = Liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg)

hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg)

Example: The case where the high pressure condensate

temperature is higher than the low pressure saturation
temperature.
Consider a quantity of water at a pressure of 5 bar g, containing 671 kJ/kg of heat
energy at its saturation temperature of 159C. If the pressure was then reduced
down to atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), the water could only exist at 100C and
contain 419 kJ/kg of heat energy. This difference of 671 - 419 = 252 kJ/kg of heat
energy, would then produce flash steam at atmospheric pressure.

Flash steam670.9 - 419.0 Total flash steam0.11 kg steam / kg

2257.0
= water
produced =
The proportion of flash steam produced can be thought of as the ratio of the excess
energy to the enthalpy of evaporation at the final pressure.

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Example: The case where the high pressure condensate

temperature is lower than the low pressure saturation
temperature.
Temperature is at 90C, that is, sub-cooled below the atmospheric saturation
temperature of 100C. Note: It is not usually practical for such a large drop in
condensate temperature from its saturation temperature (in this case 159C to
90C); it is simply being used to illustrate the point about flash steam not being
produced under such circumstances.
In this case, the sub-saturated water table will show that the liquid enthalpy of one
kilogram of condensate at 5 barg and 90C is 377 kJ. As this enthalpy is less than
the enthalpy of one kilogram of saturated water at atmospheric pressure (419 kJ),
there is no excess heat available to produce flash steam. The condensate simply
passes through the trap and remains in a liquid state at the same temperature but
lower pressure, atmospheric pressure in this case. See image below.

The vapour pressure of water at 90C is 0.7 bar absolute. Should the lower
condensate pressure have been less than this, flash steam would have been
produced.

The principles of conservation of energy and mass between two

process states.
The principles of the conservation of energy and mass allow the flash steam
phenomenon to be thought of from a different direction.
1 kg of condensate at 5 bar g and 159C produces 0.112 kg of flash steam at
atmospheric pressure. This can be illustrated schematically in the table below. The
total mass of flash and condensate remains at 1 kg.

5 bar g

Steam trap

0 bar g
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1 kg conensate
159C
Enthalpy 671 kJ

0.112 flash steam

-------------0.888 condensate

The principle of energy conservation states that the total energy in the lowerpressure state must equal the total energy in the higher-pressure state. Therefore,
the amount of heat in the flash steam and condensate must equal that in the initial
condensate of 671 kJ.
Steam tables give the following information:

Total enthalpy of saturated water at atmospheric pressure ( hf) = 419 kJ/kg

Total enthalpy in saturated steam at atmospheric pressure ( hg) = 2 675 kJ/kg

Therefore, at the lower pressure state of 0 bar g

Total enthalpy in the water = 0.888 kg x 419 kJ / kg = 372 kJ (A)

Total enthalpy in the steam = 0.112 kg x 2 675 kJ / kg = 299 kJ (B)

Total enthalpy in condensate and steam at the lower pressure = A + B = 671

kJ

Therefore, the steam tables, the enthalpy expected in the lower-pressure state is the
same as that in the higher-pressure state, thus proving the principle of conservation
of energy.

General
Saturated steam
Steam is water vapor. At a given temperature there is a certain vapor pressure that
exists in equilibrium with liquid water. That is "wet" or saturated steam. If the
temperature of the steam exceeds the temperature at which it is in equilibrium with
a given pressure of water vapor, the vapor is superheated (heated above the
temperature corresponding to the equilibrium vapor pressure) and the steam is

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referred to as "dry".There is a relationship between pressure and temperature,

knowing the temperature, the pressure can be identify. Knowing the pressure, the
temperature is also known.

Superheated steam
If saturated steam is further heated, the moisture will decline. The remaining water
droplets are smaller and go over into the vapor phase. At temperatures of 10-20C
above saturated steam temperature overheating has occurred.
Due to the poor Heat Transfer superheated steam is better for heat transport (steam
flow in long pipelines).
Due to the good Heat Transfer saturated steam is better for Heat Transfer (heating
of Heat Exchangers saturated steam should be used).

Flash steam
Flash steam is released from hot condensate when its pressure is reduced. Even
water at an ambient room temperature of 20C would boil if its pressure were
lowered far enough. It may be worth noting that water at 170C will boil at any
pressure below 6.9 bar g. The steam released by the flashing process is as useful as
steam released from a steam boiler.
As an example, when steam is taken from a boiler and the boiler pressure drops,
some of the water content of the boiler will flash off to supplement the "live" steam
produced by the heat from the boiler fuel. Because both types of steam are
produced in the boiler, it is impossible to differentiate between them. Only when
flashing takes place at relatively low pressure, such as at the discharge side of
steam traps, is the term flash steam widely used. Unfortunately, this usage has led
to the erroneous conclusion that flash steam is in some way less valuable than socalled live steam.
In any steam system seeking to maximise efficiency, flash steam will be separated
from the condensate, and used to supplement any low pressure heating application.
Every kilogram of flash steam used in this way is a kilogram of steam that does not
need to be supplied by the boiler. It is also a kilogram of steam not vented to
atmosphere, from where it would otherwise be lost.
The reasons for the recovery of flash steam are just as compelling, both
economically and environmentally, as the reasons for recovering condensate.

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Note:
The condition of steam is determined by three variables:

Vapor pressure

Temperature of the steam

Volume of the steam, which is dependent on the pressure and the

temperature

The vapor pressure and temperature can be measured relatively easily. The volume
of steam can look at a similar reference.

Rising energy costs

In times of rising energy costs, for the operator of an energy-intensive steam and
condensate system it is important to understand the sometimes quite sophisticated
thermodynamic processes. The same steam and condensate system, which was still
treated a few years ago rather trivial, is now due to higher energy prices are
suddenly the center of attention.
The best way to identify problems, has the operator. He is every day at the facility
and should be familiar with each Valve and each pump. Skills are often sufficient to
check the energy consumption of a plant and to optimize technical sense.
Energy saving measures can be implemented already in small measures. The first
energy-saving measure, that the operator should review its system to determine
whether the pumps, control Valves, Heat Exchangers, etc. really correspond to the
conditions for which they were originally designed. This requires that the operator is
know his system and understand basic relationships.

Source (partially) for this page: Spirax Sarco

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