Microwave Communications

Microwave
s
Signals with a frequency greater than 1 GHz.
The microwave region is generally
considered to extend to 300 GHz.
Point-to-point communications.
Utilize the line of sight path, which means
the two antennas (for transmitter and
receiver) should see each other (no
obstructions).

Microwave Radio-Frequency
Assignments
Band

Frequency (GHz)

Application

12

24

Marine radar

48

Commercial use,
satellites

8 12

Military

Ku

12 18

Commercial use,
satellites

18 27

Commercial use,
satellites

Ka

27 40

Military

60 80

80 100

Types of Microwave Paths

Line

of Sight (LOS) Path

Grazing

Path

Obstructed

Path

 Line

of Sight (LOS) Path

No obstruction exists and antennas could see

each other.

 Grazing

Path

The microwave beam barely touches the

obstruction; zero clearance.

 Obstructed

Path

The microwave beam is hindered by an obstruction.

Factors Affecting Microwave Energy

Fading

Refraction

Absorption

Diffraction

Attenuation

Reflection

Ducting and Thermal Inversion

Earth Blge

Fading
Variation of field strength
caused by changes in
transmission medium.

Refraction

Change in direction due to changes in transmission

densities, temperature, pressure, water vapor.

Absorption
Energy loss due to absorption of wave by
atmospheric elements such as rain, snow,
oxygen, clouds and vapors.

Diffraction
The
due

change in propagation direction of waves

differences in density / velocity of medium.

Attenuation
A decrease in intensity
of energy to spreading
of energy, transmission
line losses or path
losses between two
antennas.

Reflection
Occur when waves strike smooth surfaces.

Ducting and Thermal Inversion

Trapped waves
bounce back and
forth in a duct caused
by temperature and
humidity inversion.

Earth Blge

Earths curvature presents LOS obstruction

and must be compensated using 4/3 earth
radius for atmospheric bending of waves.

Advantages of Microwave
Communications
1. Large information handling capacity (256
9600 kbps)
2. High reliability through diversity techniques.
3. Lower power consumption
4. Carry wideband circuits for high speed data;
high quality voice channels.
5. Could be fitted with anti-jam equipment,
adaptive modems and other accessories.
6. Forward error correction and hitless switching.
7. Microprocessor controlled pre-detection
combing.

Earth Curvature on RF Propagation

The earth, being spherical, limits the distance

of which of line of sight in possible. The
parameter which considers wave bending on
the earths curvature is the K-factor.

K-Factor
Unitless value which is the ratio of a
hypothetical effective earth radius over
6370km, which is the true mean earth radius.

K = r / ro

Translation of Various KFactors

Standard Condition

K = 4 / 3 normal condition of the atmosphere.

Under his condition, the radius of the earth
(fictitious radius), appears to the microwave
beams to be longer than the true radius; that
is, the earth appears flatter because of the
tendency of the beam to refract downward in
the atmosphere and follow the earth.

Translation of Various KFactors

Super-Standard Condition (SuperRefraction)

K = bigger than 4 / 3 (abnormal

condition)
When this condition results
flattening of the equivalent

(When K = infinity, it is flat)

in an effective
earths curvature.

Translation of
Factors
Sub-Standard

Various KCondition

K = smaller than 4 / 3 (abnormal

condition)
When K = 1 / 2 the unusual refill condition is
also called earth bulging.

Typical microwave links are based on a KFactor of 4 / 3. Other K-Factor values are used
with the conditions of the link are known to be
serve or difficult to propagate over.

Path Profiling

Radio Path
Profile
Shows the cross-section of the earths
surface where the radio path passes over.

Determines the actual clearance along the path,

antenna heights and overall reliability. Normally
scaled at 4, 2, or 1 mile inch on the horizontal
and 25, 100 and 400 feet on the vertical.

Topographical Maps
Graph showing
contour lines,
thereby, elevations
and distances
between two
points are known.

Microwave Transmission Calculations:

Path Calculations / Link Budget

1. Consider the following for K-Factor of 4/3:

Height of a microwave system

hT(ft) = (d1(mi) x d2(mi)) / 2

(hT / d1) (d1 / 2) = (hR / d2)
(d2 / 2)

2. Transmitter Output (dB)

PT(dB ) = 10log (PT / 1W)

PT(dBW) = 10log (PT / 1W)

PT(dBm) = 10log (PT / 1mW)

3. Waveguide Loss (WL)

WL = (dB / m, ft) x m, ft

4. Gain of Parabolic Antenna

English system:

GdB = 7.5 + 20logf

GHz

+ 20logB

Metric system:

GdB = 17.8 + 20logf

GHz

+ 20logB

ft

5. Effective Radiated Power (ERP)

ERP = PT WL + G

6. Free Space Loss (FSL)

English system:

FSL

dB

= 96.6 + 20logf

GHz

+ 20logD

miles

GHz

+ 20logD

km

Metric system:

FSL

dB

= 92.4 + 20logf

7. Net Path Loss (NPL)

NPL

dB

= Total Losses Total Gains

8. Received Signal Level (RSL)

RSL

dB

= PTdBm NPLdB

RSL=Transmitter Output Waveguide Loss (Tx) +Antenna Gain

(Tx) FSL + Antenna Gain (Rx) Waveguide Loss (Rx)

9. Noise (or Detection, or Absolute) Threshold (NT)

Sensitivity Threshold of a Receiver

the least or the weakest signal the receiver

could accept to be considered satisfactory.

NT

dBm

= - 114 + 10logBWMHz + FdB

10. FM Improvement (or Practical) Threshold (IT)

IT dBm = -104 + 10logBWMHz + FdB

11. Fade Margin (FM)

A margin for fading; an allowance (or
reservation) in dB, in case the RSL (Received
Signal Level) encounters fading.

FM dB = RSL dBm - IT
dBm

12. System Gain (SG)

The difference between the nominal output
power of a transmitter and the minimum input
power required by a receiver.

SG = PT(dBm) - IT
dBm

13. System Reliability

Rayleigh Reliability Table
Fade
Margin
(dB)

Reliabilit
y (%)

Outage
(%)

90

10

18

99

28

99.9

0.1

38

99.99

0.01

48

99.999

0.001

58

99.9999

0.0001

a. Unavailability (U)

U = MTTR / (MTBF+MTTR)

U = DownTime /
TotalTime

b. Reliability (R)
or Availability
R= (1 U) x 100 %

For Multi-hop Propagation

The Outage
For multi-hop propagation , the total outage
is the summation of each hop and reliability
is
100 % - Total Outage. In short, the
probability of an equipment or system being
operational is: 100% minus the Probability of
being non-operational.

Total System Reliability

The overall system reliability is the product

of all individual reliabilities.

Sample problem #1

If the MTBF of a communications circuit is 20,000

hours and its MTTR is 3 hours, what is its availability?

Sample problem #2

A long distance telephone company employs five

microwave radio hops over a single route to link
two important cities. If each hop has an MTBF of
10,000 hours and an MTTR of 3 hours, what is the
MTTR and reliability of the route? Assume that the
failure occur at different periods of time.

Fresnel Zones

Are concentric circular zones about the direct

path of a microwave signal forming a threedimensional imaginary solid called an
ellipsoid.

st Fresnel Zone
1st
nd Fresnel Zone
2nd
rd Fresnel Zone
3rd

st Fresnel Zone
1st

st
The radius of the circular zone is in the 1 st
Fresnel zone, when the reflected path on onehalf wavelength longer than the direct path.

nd Fresnel Zone
2nd

nd
The radius of the circular zone is in the 2 nd
Fresnel zone, when the reflected path is two
(2) one-half wavelength longer than the direct
path, (or one wavelength longer)

rd Fresnel Zone
3rd

rd
The radius of the circular zone is in the 3 rd
Fresnel zone, when the reflected path is three
(3) one-half wavelength longer than the direct
path (or 1 wavelength longer).

Radius of the First Fresnel Zone

F1(ft) = 72.1 ((d1(mi) d2(mi)) / (fGHz Dmi))

F1(m) = 17.3 ((d1(km) d2(km)) / (fGHz

Radius
Dkmof))the nth Zone

Fn = F1 n
For minimum tower height requirement,
design your microwave system to 0.6 of F1, a
condition of no gain and no loss.

Sample problem:

A single hop microwave system has the following

information:
operating frequency 4 GHz
receive/transmit antenna diameter
hop distance 20 miles
transmitter output power 1 watt
receiver threshold-78 dBm

3 ft.

Calculate the following:

a. Free space loss
b. System gain
c. Fade margin and estimated percent reliability
d. Fresnel zone diameter

Microwave Repeaters

Active

Passive

1. Active

intercepts, amplifies
and retransmits the
signal.

Provides gain, (55 to

105 dB higher than
the received power)
and frequency
change (252MHz).

Types of Active
Repeaters
Baseband Repeater
IF Heterodyne Repeater

RF Heterodyne Repeater

Baseband Repeater

It is amplified, demodulated, amplified in the

baseband frequency and remodulated.
Typical output power is 1 watt

Offers possibility to drop or insert

channel.

IF Heterodyne Repeater

Improved noise performance

Typical output power is 5 watts.

RF Heterodyne Repeater

Amplification is provided directly at

microwave frequency.

2. Passive
Bounces the signal from one direction to another.

Types of Passive
Repeaters
Billboard
Back to Back Passive

Billboard
Flat metal type used to reflect microwave signals.
Acts as a microwave mirror with no power needed.

Back to Back
Passive
Uses two standard antenna dishes directly
joined by a short length of waveguide.

Gain of a Passive Repeater

English System

dB
dB

= 22.2 + 40logf

GHz
GHz

2
2
+ 20logAft
ft + 20cos

Metric System

dB = 42.9 + 40logf
20cos

GHz

+ 20logAm2 +

An antenna with good directivity or narrow

beamwidth has the reliability of providing
directional gain.

Sample problem:

A plane passive reflector 10 x 16 ft. Is erected 21

miles from one active site and only 1 mile from the
other. The operating frequency is 2000 MHz. By
formula, the free space loss for the longer path is
129.5 dB and for the shorter path, it is 103 dB,
calculate the gain of the passive plane reflector
and the net path loss if the included angle is 110
degrees.

Diversity Reception
A method of utilizing 2 or more receivers to reduce
fading or increase reliability of the system.

Methods of Diversity Reception

Frequency Diversity

Space Diversity
Polarization Diversity

Hybrid Diversity
Angle Diversity
Quadrature Diversity

1. Frequency Diversity

Signal is transmitted on two (2) different frequencies

(properly spaced), over the same path.

Two waves at different frequency travel the

same path in a multipath fade.
CrossBand Diversity variation of frequency
diversity. Frequency separation are entirely of
different band allocations.

2. Space Diversity

Signal is transmitted over two different paths

(vertically spaced several wavelength apart),
on the same frequency.

Advantages of Space Diversity

a. Frequency Conservation
b. Minimized Multipath Fading
c. Availability of Sufficient Signal Output
d. Compensation for Electrical Differences
Between Direct and Reflected Waves.

Disadvantages of Space
Diversity
a. Costly
b. More towers required
c. Concept does always work as intended

Vertical Space Between Antennas

Spacing

ft

= (43.4 d) / hT

3. Polarization Diversity

Using dual polarization (vertically and

horizontally). Applied to microwave system
beyond L-O-S path, (or obstructed path).

It requires feedhorn reorientation and is

applied to paths beyond LOS as in
troposcatter systems.

4. Hybrid
Diversity
A special combination of frequency and space
diversity.

5. Angle
Diversity
Is the transmission of information at two or
more slightly different angles resulting to two
or more oaths based on illuminating different
scatter volumes in troposcatter systems.

6. Quadrature Diversity

The condition where four signals carrying the same

information (whose system employs the combination
of space or polarization or frequency diversity
technique) are available in the receiver, combination
of frequency, space and polarization diversity.

Types of Microwave Antennas

Direct Radiating Antenna

High Performance /
Shrouded
Cross Band Parabolic
Antenna
Horn Reflected Antenna
Periscope Arrangement

a. Direct Radiating
Antenna
Consist of parabolic
antenna with
parabolic dish,
illuminated by a
feed horn at its
focus.

b. High Performance / Shrouded

Similar to the common

parabola, except that
they include a
cylindrical shield to
improve the front-toback ratio and the wide
angle radiation
discrimination. Gain
efficiency is lower than
ordinary parabolic
antennas.

Shroud

a metal wrapped
around the antenna
aperture to eliminate
side lobes which may
cause interference to
nearby microwave
stations.

Radome
a non-metallic (canvass)
covering in a parabolic
antenna for protection
against strong wind
velocity. In cold places,
ice accumulation is
prevented by the use of
heated radome.

c. Cross Band Parabolic

Permits operation into two widely separate bands.

Very complex and critical feed assemblies, have lower
gains and poorer VSWR than single band antennas.

d. Horn Reflected Antenna

Contains a section of large parabola mounted

such as an angle that the energy feedhorn is
simultaneously focused and reflected at right
angles. It provides a good front-to-back ratio,
good VSWR and can be used for multi-band
operation on both polarization but offers some
moding and distortion problems particularly at
higher frequencies.

f. Periscope
Arrangement
is a combination of a
reflector mounted on
a tower and the
parabolic antenna
below. Use the 150
feet and beyond. The
spacing between the
antenna and the
reflector should be in
the near field.

Shapes of Reflector

1. Rectangular, flat
2. Rectangular,
curved
3. Elliptical, flat
4. Elliptical, curved
5. Flyswatter

Microwave Components and Devices

General Types of Microwave
Tubes
Klystron
Magnetron
Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)

1.
Klystro
An electron tube in
n
which the electrons
are periodically
bunched by electric
fields. It is used as
an oscillator or
amplifier in
microwave
transmitters and
receivers.
Interaction
between an
electron beam and
an RF voltage.

Velocity Modulation
The bunching of
the electrons within
the klystron caused
by changing their
rate of speed
(velocity).

Two Types of Klystron

Cavity Reflex
Klystron
High Power Multicavity
Klystron

a. Cavity Reflex Klystron

operates as a low
power RF oscillator in
the microwave
region.

b. High Power Multicavity Klystron

two or more cavities,

used extensively in
fixed radar
installations and in
UHF television.
The size and shape of

The size and shape of

multicavity klystron
largely determine
their operating
frequency and power
handling capability.
smaller klystrons
operate at higher
frequencies and large
klystrons have the
higher power
handling capability.

2.
Magnetro
A diode vacuum tube
n
used as a microwave
oscillator in radar
and microwave
ovens to produce
powers up to the
megawatt range.

A magnetic field
ensures a constant
electron beam-RF
field interaction.

3. Travelling Wave Tube

(TWT)
A microwave power
amplifier with very
wide bandwidth.
An electric field is
used to ensure the
interaction between
the electron beam
and the RF field is
continuous.

Other Microwave Tubes

Crossed-Filled Amplifier (CFA)

Backward-Wave Oscillator
(BWO)
Twystron
Extended Interaction
Amplifier (EIA)

1. Crossed-Filled Amplifier
(CFA)

A microwave power amplifier based on the magnetron

and looking very much like it. It is a cross between the
TWT and the magnetron in its operation.

(1)kathode
(2)anode with resonantcavities
(3) Space-Charge Wheel
(4)delaying strapping rings

2. Backward-Wave Oscillator (BWO)

A CW oscillator with an enormous tuning and

overall frequency coverage range. It operates
on TWT principles of electron beam-RF field
interaction, generally using a helix slow wave
structure. It looks like a shorter, thicker, TWT.

3. Twystron

A hybrid combination of klystron driver and TWT

output section in tandem with the same envelope.

4. Extended Interaction Amplifier (EIA)

A multicavity klystron with interconnected

multigap cavities.

Semiconductor Microwave Devices and

Circuits
Passive Microwave Circuits

Stripline
Microstrip
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
Devices

1. Stripline

consists of flat metallic

ground planes,
separated by a thickness
of dielectric in the
middle of which a thin
metallic strip has been
buried.

2. Microstrip

has the advantage over

stripline in being simpler
construction and easier
integration with
semiconductor devices,
lending itself well to
printed circuit and thin
film techniques.

3. Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)

use solid piezoelectric

materials at frequencies in
the VHF and UHF regions.

Microwave Solid State Devices

Point-contact and Schottky or Hot-carrier Diodes
Varactor Diodes or Variable Capacitance Diodes

Step-recovery or Snap-off Diode

Gunn Diode
Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MESFET)

IMPATT and TRAPATT

Parametric Amplifier

1. Point-contact and Schottky or Hot-carrier

Diodes
Widely used as mixers in
microwave equipment as they
have low capacitance and
inductance.

2. Varactor Diodes or Variable Capacitance Diodes

Widely used as microwave frequency multipliers.

Multiplication factors of 2 and 3 are common with
power levels up to 20W and efficiencies up to 80%.

3. Step-recovery or Snap-off Diodes

Junction diodes which can store energy in

their capacitance and then generate
harmonics by releasing a pulse of current.
Are also widely used as frequency multipliers with
multiplication factors up to 10 , power ratings up
to 50W, and efficiencies approaching 80%.

4. Gunn
Diode
A microwave
semiconductor device
used to generate
microwave energy.
When combined with a
microstrip, stripline, or
resonant cavity, simple
low power oscillators
with frequencies up to
50GHz are easily
implemented.

5.
MESFET
(Metal Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor)
is used in the
microwave band as
amplifiers and
oscillators.
Replaced parametric
amplifiers in the
lightweight
applications.