The Magic of Mathematics-Slicer PDF

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Discovering the Spell of othematics
M*L*
lJ
,z
author of The Mathematics Calendars

The Joy of Mathematics
THE
MAGIC
Discovering the Spell of Mathematics
THEONI PAPPAS
WIDE WORLD PUBLISHING/TETRA
Copyright 1994 by Theoni Pappas.

rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or
copied in any form or by any means without written permission
All
from Wide World
Publishing/Tetra.
Portions of this book have
appeared
in
previously published
works, but were too essential to not be included.
Wide World
Publishing/Tetra
P.O. Box 476

San Carlos, CA 94070
Printed in the United States of America.

Second Printing, October 1994.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Data
Pappas, Theoni,
The
magic of mathematics
Theoni Pappas.
discovering
the
spell of mathematics /
cm.
p.
Includes
bibliographical
references and index
ISBN 0-933174-99-3
1.
Mathematics--Popular works.
QA93
P368
510-dc20
I. Title.
1994
94-11653
CIP
This book is dedicated to

mathematicians
who have created and

are
the magic
creating
of mathematics.
CONTENTS
PREFACE
MATHEMATICS IN EVERYDAY THINGS
MAGICAL MATHEMATICAL WORLDS
33
MATH EMATICS & ART
63
THE MAO IC OF NUMBERS
97
MATHEMATICAL MAGIC IN NATURE
119
MATHEMATICAL MAGIC FROM THE PAST
143
MATHEMATICS PLAYS ITS MUSIC
173
THE REVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
189
MATHEMATICS & THE MYSTERIES OF LIFE
223
MATHEMATICS AND ARCHITECTURE
243
THE SPELL OF LOGIC, RECREATION & GAMES
265
SOLUTIONS
311
BIBLIOGRAPHY
315
INDEX
321
THE MAGiCOf MATHEMATICS
PREFACE
You don't have to solve
be
problems
or
mathematician to discover the
magic of mathematics. This book

with
not
underlying
an
expect
Is
collection of Ideas
mathematical theme. It is not
to become
exhausted. The Magic
proficient
of
in
topic
ideas
textbook. Do
find
or
an
idea
delves into the world of
Mathematics
ideas, explores the spell mathematics casts
on our
lives, and helps
you discover mathematics where you least expect it.
Many
think of mathematics
as a
fixed curriculum.
rigid
could be further from the truth. The human mind

mathematical ideas and
creates
independent
of
world
our
world almost
as
which
from
new
objects
point
can
If
worlds
new
these ideas connect to
our
magic wand had been waved. The way
one
always
operate, equations
solves
fascinating
and presto
Nothing
continually
dimension
can
disappear
be found between any two
into another,
in
a
points, numbers
solved, graphs produce pictures, infinity
are
problems, formulas
generated
are
all
seem
to possess
magical quality.
Mathematical ideas
are
in alien worlds and its
creativity.
world,
while
perfect
our
figments of the imagination. Its ideas exist

objects are produced by sheer logic and
square
world
or
has
circle exists in
mathematical
of
only representations
things
mathematical.
The topics and concepts which
by
no means
can
it
mentioned in each
easily cross over the arbitrary boundaries
were
possible,
idea to
and
are
can
area.
Each topic
enjoyed independently.
stepping stone into mathematical worlds.
are
examples
of chapters. Even if
it would be undesirable to restrict
specific
be
chapter
confined to that section. On the contrary,
mathematical
essentially self-contained,
hope this book will be a
is
Print Gallery by M.C. Escher.

1994 M.C. Escher/Cordon Art-Baarn-Holland, All
rights reserved.
MATHEMATICS IN
EVERYDAY THINGS
THE MATHEMATICS OF FLYING
THE MATHEMATICS OF A TELEPHONE CALL

PARABOLIC REFLECTORS & YOUR
HEADLIGHTS
COMPLEXITY AND THE PRESENT
MATHEMATICS & THE CAMERA
RECYCLING THE NUMBERS
BICYCLES, POOL TABLES & ELLIPSES

THE RECYCLING NUMBERS
LOOKOUT FOR TESSELLATIONS
STAMPING OUT MATHEMATICS

MOUSE'S TALE
A MATHEMATICAL VISIT
THE EQUATION OF TIME
WHY ARE MANHOLES ROUND?
THE MAGIC OF MATHEMATICS
There is
no
branch of mathematics, however abstract,
which may not someday be applied to

of the real world.
So
many
things
routines have
from
one
taking
least
with which
we
come
mathematical basis
plane flight
expects,
one
to the
or
Nikolai
phenomena
Lobachevsky
into contact in
our
daily
connection. These range
shape of a manhole. Often when
finds mathematics is involved. Here is
random sampling of such
cases.
THE MATHEMATICS
OF FLYINC
The grace and
ease
human's desire to
of the
fly. Ancient
interest in various
realizes that the
just
Greek
flight
of birds have
always
tantalized
stories from many cultures attest to
creatures.
flying
flight of Daedalus
myth. Today enormous
Viewing hang gliders,
and Icarus
was
probably
one
not
sized alrcrafts lift themselves
and their cargo into the domain of the bird. The historical steps to
achieve
downs.
flight,
as we
Throughout
mathematicians and other
of flying and have
now
know It, has
had Its up and
literally
the years, scientists. Inventors, artists,
professions
have been
Intrigued by
developed designs, prototypes,
the Idea
and experiments
in efforts to be airborne.
Here Is
condensed outline of the
Kites
were
invented
Leonardo da Vinci
history of flying:
by the Chinese (400-300 B.C.).
scientifically studied
sketched various flying machines (1500).
the flight
of birds and
Italian mathematician Giovanni Borelli
muscles
were
too weak to support flight
proved
that human
(1680).
Frenchmen Jean Pilatre de Rozier and
Marquis d! Arlandes
made the first hot air balloon ascent (1783).
British inventor. Sir
George Cayley, designed the airfoil
(cross-section) of a wing, built andflew (1804) thefirst model
glider, andfounded the science of aerodynamics.
Germany's
Otto Lilienthal devised
system to measure the lift
produced by experimental wings and made thefirst successful

manned gliderflights between 1891-1896.
In 1903 OrviUe and Wilbur
powered propeller
driven
with wind tunnels and
Wright made the first engine
airplane flights. They experimented
to measure the lift

of designs. They perfected theirflying techniques and
machines to the point that by 1905 their flights had reached 38
weighing systems
and drag
length covering a distance of20 miles!
minutes in
Here's how
we
In order to
fly,
get offthe ground:

there
be balanced.
are
vertical and horizontal forces that must
Gravity (the downward vertical force) keeps
earthbound. To counteract the
pull of gravity, lift (
upward force) must be created. The shape of wings and the
airplanes
Is essential In
to
flight
is
always
think of air
medium,
as
airplane itself,
as a
never
or
that
as
the
speed of gas
or
seems
flight of birds,
of
almost
but without
of the components of
ground.
One does
since it is invisible. Yet air
an
slices the air
Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli
Bernoulli's
It
have left the
substance,
The wing of
water.
divides
of the
key.
physical analyses
flying, today's airplanes would

not
holds the
quantify the elegance
the mathematical and
design
creating lift. The study of nature's design
of wings and of birds In
sacrilegious
us
vertical
airplane,
as
as
it passes
well
as
the
through
it.
(1700-1782) discovered
fluid increases its pressure decreases.
principle1 explains
the lift force. The top of the
how the
wing
shape of a wing
is curved. This
curve
creates
increases
the
of air and
speed
passing
curve,
speed of the
thus its air pressure is
wing
and thus lifts the
gravity)
air
passing under the wing
higher.
pushes toward
moves or
the air pressure of the air
Since the bottom of the wing does not have this
over it.
the
thereby decreases
plane
The
high
is slower and
air pressure beneath the
the low pressure above the wing,
The
into the air.
weight
(the pull of
is the vertical force that counteracts the lift of the
plane.
The wing's shape

makes the distance
over the top longer,
which means air
must travel over
the top faster,
making the
pressure on the top
of the wing lower
than under the
wing. The greater
pressure below the
wing pushes the
wing
up.
When the wing is

at
steeper angle,
the distance
the top is
over
even
longer, thereby
increasing the
liftingforce.
Drag and thrust
picture.
Thrust
backwards.
relies
pushes
the
plane
A bird creates thrust

on
its
another, i.e. be
thrust and
greater
the
the horizontal forces which enter the
flying
forward while
drag pushes
it
its
wings, while
by flapping
For
to maintain
plane
propellers jets.
straight flight all the forces acting on it must equalize
plane
and
are
zero.
or
The lift and gravity must be
drag must balance. During take off the
than the
drag,
but in
flight they
must be
zero,
level
one
while the
thrust must be
equal, otherwise
plane's speed would be continually increasing.
Viewing birds swooping and diving reveals
two other
flying factors.
THE MACIC OF MATHEMATICS
When the
will
also
speed of air over the top of the wing

Increase.
approaching
of the
wing
approximately
bird
or
15
on
angle of attack,
be further Increased. If this

or more
plane begins
it is called the
vortexes
By Increasing
air, called the
can
the
degrees,
the lift
can
Increased, the lift
wing's angle
the
speed
angle
over
to
the
the
top
Increases to
stop abruptly and the
to fall Instead of rising. When this takes
angle of stall. The angle of stall
the
Is
place
makes the air form
top of the wing. These vibrate the wing causing the
lift to weaken and the force of gravity to overpower the lift force.
Not
having
been endowed with the
flying equipment
humans have utilized mathematical and

themselves and other
physical principles
to lift
off the ground. Engineering designs

continually adapted to Improve an
things
and features2 have been

aircraft's
of birds,
performance.
lLaws governing
the flow of air for
airplanes apply
to many other aspects

certain computer
lives, such as skyscrapers, suspension bridges,

disk drives, water and gas pumps, and turbines.
In
our
^The flaps and slots are changes adapted to the wing which enhance lift.
The flap Is a hinged section that when engaged changes the curvature of
the wing and adds to the lift force. Slots are openings In the wing that
delay
the stall for
few
degrees.
THE MATH EMATI C

time
Every
telephone
send
you
pick-up
the
place
call,
receiver to
fax,
OFATELEPHONI
CALI
modem Information
or
you are entering a phenomenally

complicated and enormous network.
encompasses the
many calls
How does
are
a
globe
is
The communication net that
amazing. It
system
which is
call find its way to
day
over
"broken-up" by
different countries and bodies of water
phone
is difficult to
fielded and directed each
someone
varied
operate?
in your
Imagine how
this network.
systems
How does
city,
state
or
of
single
another
country?
In the
early years
cranked the
of the
phone
to
telephone,
get
an
one
picked-up the
operator.
A local
the line from the local switch board and said

and from there connected you with the
reach.
Today
operator
"number
party you
the process has mushroomed
as
receiver and
were
came on
please",
trying
to
have the various
10
methods used to convert and direct calls. Mathematics
Involving
sophisticated types of linear programming, coupled with binary
systems and codes, make
sense
out of a
potentially precarious
situation.
How does your voice travel? Your voice
converted In the receiver to electrical

electrical
impulses
produces sounds which are
signals. Today
these
can
40
be carried and
converted In
3 ^l^.
J976
16'
variety of ways.
They may be
changed
/*U*X~W*A~*-u^ft
to laser
light signals
which
then
are
carried
along
fiber optics
cables1, they
maybe
N
converted to
radio
signals
and transmitted
over
radio
or
microwave links
from tower to
tower
country,
or
kX**4-u4
u-
fcwvÛ^
-fri,
tf^.c-
4L~-~i
Tt-t.
e^4r*y**f
**7
they
may remain
electrical
along
*****
across a
the
as
signals
4tt~ZE^ce.
?k7\ lf~Zio-t<.
-*-+. fan*.
***~r-
*
4,
phone
lines. Most of
the calls
Pages from the notebook of Alexander Graham Bell
connected in the
USA are done
an
automatic
by
in
his first telephone message on his

invention talking to his assistant, Mr. Watson. "I then shouted
into M the following sentence: 'Mr. Watson Come hereI
want to see you.' Tb my delight he came and declared that
he had heard and understood what J said."
which he writes
of
MATHEMATICS IN EVERYPAYTHIKICS
switching system. Presently the

fastest. Its
system has
information for all
aspects
telephones
available. Calls
can
frequencies
or
switching system
converted to
multiple conversations
program which contains the needed

of
telephone operations
then encoded with
calls
can
thus travel
order until
When
keeping
digital signals.
to be transmitted
Either method enables
the
same
wires.
digital signals
which
along
binary number sequence.
"simultaneously" along
The Individual
the lines in
specified
they are decoded for their destinations.
call is placed, the system chooses the best path for the call
and sends
chain of commands to
entire process takes
fraction of
direct route to the other

view
while
are
The most modern systems convert calls Into

are
is the
being used and which paths are

transmitted by electric currents at different
track of which
be
electronic
point
complete the circuitry. The
second.
party that would
Ideally
it would take
be desirable from the
of the economics of distance and time. But if the direct
line is at
capacity servicing
other calls, the
new
call must be sent
along the best of

the alternative
routes. Here
is where
linear
programming2
comes
the
Into
picture.
Visualize the
telephone routing
problem as
geometric
possible
having
solid with millions of facets.
solution. The
challenge
to calculate every
one.
Each vertex
complex
represents
is to find the best solution without
In 1947, mathematician
George
B.
11
12
Danzig developed the simplex method
of the solid,
the
edges
along
always heading
after another, while

as
the solution to
programming problems. The simplex method.
linear
complex
essence, runs
to find
the number of
possibilities
checking
for the best solution. As
programming problems, such

calls
telephone
chosen point
so
exactly
the
best
for
routes
the middle of the solid. After
point, the algorithm warps the
interior
that it
as
reshapes
the
Into the center.
problem
which
The next
step
brings
the
is to find
point In the direction of the best solution and to warp the
new
again, and bring the
structure
warping
is
transformations
and lead
Today,
double
rapidly
the old
are
point Into the
center.
time
based
is
an
on
concepts
of
give
These
illusion.
Unless
the best
repeated
projective geometry
to the best solution.
telephone salutation "number please" takes
meaning.
telephone
new
done, the direction that appears to

each
improvement
and
method that
distances. The Karmarkar algorithm
by going through
arbitrary
an
entire structure
the
long
over
short-cut
selecting
cuts down the time needed to solve very cumbersome
drastically
In 1984,
efficiently.
mathematician Narendra Karmarkar discovered
takes
long
is no more than 15,000 to 20,000,
this method manages to find the solution
linear
In
one corner
The
receiver and
once
simple
placing
process of
call,
now
picking
on a
up your
sets Into motion
vast
complicated network that relies on mathematics.
^Depending
the type of lines used, the number of "simultaneous"

range from 96 to over 13000. Fiber optic systems can
than the traditional copper/aluminum
more information
on
conversations
carry
even
can
cables.
^Linear programming techniques are used
to solve a variety of problems.

the problems entail many conditions and variables. A simple
case
may be an agricultural problem: A farmer wants to decide how to
most effectively use his/her land to maximize production and profit
Conditions and variables would involve such things as considering
different crops, how much land each crop requires, how much yield each
produces per acre, and how much revenue each brings when sold. To
solve such a problem, one writes linear Inequalities and/or equations for
each condition and looks at a 2-dimensional graph of a polygonal region
for the solution.
Usually
13
PARABOLK
R E F L E CTO R S & YO UI
When you flick the switch of your
headlights
from
dim,
to
bright
HEADLIOHT!
mathematics is at work. To be
specific, the principles of a parabola do

the trick.
the
In
The reflectors behind
headlights
shape.
are
In fact,
parabolic
they are
paraboloids (3dimensional
formed
parabola1
parabolas
by rotating a
about its axis of
symmetry). The bright beam

is created by a light source
located at the focal
point of the parabolic
flectors. Thus, the
light
axis of
When the
symmetry.
changes
light
location. It is
rays travel out
lights
longer at
no
rays do not travel
re
parallel
are
the focus, and
to the axis.
parallel
to the
parabola's
dimmed, the light

as a
source
result the
The low beams
now
that
only
point down and up. Those pointing up
are
the downward low beams
shorter distance than the
are
reflected
shielded,
so
high beams.
The
by
while he
was
the
that
parabola
discovered
involving
the
example,
it
trajectile's path
uses
only
of BTU thermal units
ancient
to
that
was
Over
(1564-1642) who showed
parabolic. Today
highly
the cube.
and discoveries
have been made. For
Galileo
one
energy efficient
1000 watts but
as a
curve
duplicate
uses
new
parabola
was
was
an
trying
centuries,
hardware store and find

heater which
is
Menaechmus (circa 375-325 B.C.)
on
go into
parabolic
produces the
heater that operates
can
same
electric
number
1500 watts.
1
Parabola is the set of all points in a plane which are equidistant from
fixed point called its focus and a fixed line called its directrix.
14
COMPLEXITY &
THE PRESENT
"The hours
midnight
the
at
exactly
seven
Island that evening."
excerpt from
The Law
by Robert M,
Coates Illustrates,
sometimes
things
just seem to take

place with no
apparent reason.
Nor Is there
a
warning
that
particular
event Is
about to take
place.
We have
all experienced
such events and
usually
attributed
them to
"coincidence",
since there
were no
apparent
indicators to
predict otherwise
bridge.
seven
'til
normally quiet
...
o'clock, ...it just looked
Manhattan who owned
As this
from
are
nearly
ones on
Beginning almost
as
if everybody
motorcar had decided to drive out
on
in
Long
MATHEMATICS IN EVERYDAY THIN6S
may hold
Complexity Is an emerging science which

explanations to such questions as:
answers or
at
least
How is it that
the universe
cells know which organs and
emerged out of the void ?
on
1994 Los
January 17,
to become and when?
parts
Angeles
suffered
an
earthquake of unexpected magnitude and destruction?

the Soviet Union's
collapsed
in such
Yugoslavia
long reign
short time?
thrown
was
its satellite countries
over
into
suddenly
severe
internal
wars?
species that has
for
not
for millions of years
changed
suddenly experiences a mutation?

or
no
apparent
reason
is that each
represents
underlying
a
very
common
factor of these events
complex system.
system governed
of factors, which
number and
diversity
delicately balanced, tittering between stability
an
enormous
factors which act
such
on
changing. Consequently,
tug
of
war
changing
and
system
is
edge of chaos.
are an
by which
the
circumstances. Those
artificial
to
studying
constantly
this
new
In
seems
state of
to be
high
changing
science draw
as
chaos
intelligence, fuzzy logic,
and mathematicians feel that

other tools and
always
There
self-
part of a complex system. It
mathematical and scientific ideas, such
probability,
and chaos. The
system regains equilibrium by
Itself
adapting
essential
are
growing and
are ever
between order and chaos. Spontaneous
organizing dynamics
is the means
complex system
potential chaos i.e. at the

continual
upward
plunges downward?
The list is endless. The
by
the stock market surges
factors/
on a
host of
theory, fractals,
etc. These scientists
today's mathematics, along with

are capable of creating a
tech innovations,
complexity framework that
can
impact major aspects of our global
world, especially economics, the environment, and politics.
15
16
MATHEMATICS &
THE CAMERA
Ever
wonder
about
the
f-stop
number of a camera? Where did It
get
determined?
"f
Its
name?
How
stands for the mathematical term
brightness of the photographic image
on
film
Is
It
The
factor.
depends
on
the
aperture and
focal
length of
the lens.
Photographers
use
what Is
known
as
the
f-number
system to
relate focal
length and
aperture. The
f-stop Is
calculated by
measuring the
diameter of the
aperture and
dividing It into
the focal
length of the
lens. For
example,
f4= 80mm lens/20mm aperture.
fl6=80mm
We
see
the lens
opening
f-stop number
shutter
lens/5mm aperture.
speeds,
is smaller
increases.
you
can
(the aperture decreases)
Working
manually
photograph you want in focus.
with
as
the
f-stop numbers and
decide how much of the
17
RECYCLINC
THE NUMBER!
Here mathematical units and
used to get the point
symbols were
across
about
recycling paper!
ton of
A ton of
virgin
A ton of
recycled paper uses 4102 kwh less energy.
A ton of
recycled
paper
uses
recycled
paper
produces 60 pounds less air
recycled
paper
produces 3 cubic yards less solid
A ton of
recycled
paper
uses
less tax money for landfill.
A ton of
recycled
paper
uses
17 fewer
paper
* a
recycled paper
7000
gallons less water to
produce.
A ton of
pollution.
A ton of
waste.
the numbers behind
37% of all landfill is
Only
logged trees.
recycling and landfill
comprised of paper.
29% of all newspapers
produced
are
recycled by the
consumer.
165 million cubic
yards of landfill are needed for our paper
wastes per year.
97% of the
virgin forests of the continental
cut down in the

I Was Once A Tree
Alonzo Printing,
past 200 years.
...Newsletter, Spring 1990,
Hayward
CA.
USA have been
18
BICYCLES,
POOL TABLES &
The
ELLIPSES
section curves,
ellipse, along with other
Greeks
as
early
was
as
studied
the 3rd
conic
by
the
century
If this ball is hit through the

location of the focus, marked
with an X, it will bounce off
the cushion and go to the
other focus where the pocket
is located.
B.C..
us
of
associate
the
an
Most
ellipse with
angled
circle
or
the
orbital
a
path of
planet, but
elliptical
shapes and
properties
also lend
themselves to
An
ellipse
has two foci, and the
sum
of the distances
from the foci to any point of the ellipse always equals

the length of its major axis. le. \PF1\ + \PF2\.= \AB\.
imagined
that
and
gears
applications. Who would have

ellipse would find itself in the design of bicycle
nonscientific
contemporary
an
pool
manufactured with
The
drawing,
on
tables?
a
front
Today
elliptical gear
leg
power and
property of the ellipse's
the previous page, the
elliptipool has
rear
been
gears.
design can
quick upward
Elliptipools, elliptical shaped pool tables,
utilize the reflection

on
and circular
the previous page, illustrates how this
utilize the downward thrust of

return.
have
bicycles
some
are
designed
to
two foci. As illustrated
one
pocket located
at
one
points of the ellipse. A ball hit so that it passes

ellipse's non-pocket focus will bounce off the side of
of the two focus
through
the
the table and travel the reflected
focus).
path over to the pocket (the other
19
20
LOOKOUT FOR
TESSELLATIONS
This Escher-like transformation
Mark Slmonson Illustrates the

of tessellations
as a
communication.
appeared
In The Utne Reader and
Metropolitan Transportation
Reprinted courtesy
Minneapolis,
MN.
on
the
cover
Communication
of Mark Slmonson.
by
use
form of visual
This
graphic
of Transactions,
publication.
Bluesky Graphics,
MATHEMATICS IN EVERYDAYTHIN6S
21
STAMPING OU1
One
usually
doesn't
expect
encounter mathematical Ideas
trip
to the
post office, but here
MATHEMATICS
to
on a
are a
few of the stamps that have been
printed with
have
These and many other Ideas
mathematical themes.
appeared
on
such
popular
Items
as
posters, television,
T-shirts, post-Its, mugs, bumper stickers, and stickers.

7*^**^V
US 10 FORMULAS MATMATKAS ODE CAMBIABOHIA FU DE

The
The
Pythagorean
Pythagorean
theorem
LA TIERS*
Nicaragua
theorem
Greece
BolyaiRumania
Gauss-Germany
Mathematical Formulas
Israel
22
THE MOUSE'S TALE

'Contrariwise,' continued Tweedledee. "if it
was so, it
might be;
and if it were so, it would be: but
'Fury
a
as it isn 't, it
said to
ain 't, That's logic.'

Lewis Carrol
mouse, That
he met
in the
Alice in Wonderland
Charles
house,
Lutwidge Dodgson
(1832-
'
Let us
both go
to In w.
/ will
1898)
of mathematics,
proseouto
children's
Come, I '11
books1,
mathematics
no
puzzles
When
issues.
trial :
For
his
roally
seems
morning
1 'vo
that
nothing
to do.'
was
social
Lewis Carroll.
Dodgson
be associated
Lewis Carroll
Said tho
mousoto
on
writing children's tales
pseudonym
this
of
children's
and essays
stories, poetry
"We must
hnvc
It
did not want to
connected with his
or
identity.
In
fact,
he
would return mail addressed to Lewis
tha our,
a
trial,
Carroll.
dflur sll',
With
of
and author
photographer
denial;
'Such
creator
and games, renowned Victorian
you.
take
mathematician, lecturer
was a
When the Bodleian
Library
111)
cross-referenced
Jjrjr or
Judge,
Dodgson
wuulil Uo
WMllnauur urdKtll.
1
and
Carroll, Dodgson took exception to the
I' II ll
lil<JI,
connection.
IMIb*
CMnolaf
M rnrri
had
Dodgson
Ulfe
games.
passion for word
teenagers from
In 1991, two
New Jersey discovered
(both visual and verbal

a
in
nature)
Long Tale from Chapter Two
the tale
by a
mouse
to this tale and tail

Maiden
in
poem
four-way pun
in the poem, A Caucus-Race and
in Alice in
shaped
Wonderland. Alice is told
like
long
tail. In addition
link, students Gary Graham and Jeffrey
discovered that when the poem
outline of
a mouse was
was
written in stanza form the
formed each stanza had two short lines
'wttftktw.te hmxi ^tfy^Hiiln
*$ipf$4 'tfkljJmf, shir. ^2-
mtoptipi, Vti fa jury*
'""
'
*kk wtipte tm$4?'tiA condemn $mt&&
(the mouse's body) and
long third line (the
mouse's tall).
Lastly,
poetic structure defined by
pair
of rhyming lines followed by another line of different length.

this intentionally?
you think Lewis Carroll planned all
Do
they
found that
tall-rhyme Is
1
Euclid and His Modem Rivals, An Elementary Treatise on Determinants,
Alice in Wonderland, The Hunting of the Snark, Phantasmagoria and Other
Poems, Through the Looking Glass are of a few of Dodgson works.
23
24
A MATHEMATICAL
VISIT
Not quite
sure
what to expect, I rang
the doorbell A voice asked me to
please push thefirstfive terms of

the Fibonacci sequence.
Fortunately, I had done some

research after my magazine assigned me the story on the home of
the renowned mathematician, Selath.
I pushed 1,1,2,3,5 and the door slowly
opened.
As I passed
through the doorway, I was struck by the catenary stone shaped

archway independently suspended
at the entrance. After
minute, Selath entered saying, "May I offer you something
long
after your
drive?'
"TdreaRy
appreciate a
glass ofcold
water," I
replied.
"Please
come
with me," he
said, leading
the way.
As Ifollowed,
I couldn't
kitchen,
an
help noticing the many unique and unusual objects.
we came
to
In the
peculiar table with many legs. Selath pulled
equally unusual bottlefrom the refrigerator.
I must have had
quizzical expression, for Selath began, "While you drtnk your water,
we
might as well start the tour here in the kitchen."
this table and bottle
are
As you noticed
not your everyday accessories. I use
tangram tables for dining because its
rearranged into
as
many
shapes
as
seven
the
components can be
tangram puzzle. Here in the
kitchen its made into a square shape today, while Tve

one
in the
living room into a triangle,
The water container is whats known
for dinner.
arranged the
since I am expecting two guests

as a
Klein
bottle its inside and outside
are one.
If
you look at thefloor you'll notice only two
shapes of tiles are used."

"Yes," I replied,
to
seem
"
but the design doesn't
repeat anywhere."
"Very perceptive." Selath seemed pleased

with my response. "These
are
Penrose
tiles. These two shapes can

cover a
plane
in
non-repeating
fashion."
"Please continue," I urged.
most anxious to
see
"
Tm
all the
mathematical parts of your

home."
"Well, actually almost all of my

house is mathematical.
Anywhere you see wallpaper

Tve designed special
tessellation patterns for walls

room.
room
la Escher. Lets proceed to the Op
Every item in here is an optical illusion.

is
an
illusion. Furniture, fvdures,
In fact,
photos, everything!
example, the couch is madefrom modulo cubes

fabric stacked to give thefeeling
sculpture
in the middle
divergence,
was
of
an
designed
reality in this
For
in black and white
oscillating
illusion. The
to show convergence and
while the two stackedfigures
are
exactly the same size.
25
26
This
lamp's base, viewedfrom this
location, makes the impossible tribar."
"Fascinating! I could spend hours

discovering things
in this room," I
replied enthusiastically.
"Since
move
we are on a
tight schedule,
lets
to the next room," Selath said
as
he
led the way.
We entered a darkened
room.
"Watch your step here. Come
this way to the parabolic
screen," Selath directed.
As I peered into the disc a
moving
this
scene
appeared.
"Is
video camera?" I asked.
"Oh, no,"Selathlaughed, "Icall

it my
system. The lens above the hole captures

rotates to project scenes outside my
camera
would. It is called a
camera
antique surveillance
light in the day time and
home, much the same way

obscura. I have
special
lens
for night viewing."

I was
busily taking notes, realizing I would have much additional
research to do
before writing my article.
Glancing around I noted, 'Yourfluorescent clock seems
to be off."
My watch read 5:30 pm while his read 21:30.

"No, its just that I have the 24 hours of the day arranged in base
MATHEMATICS IN EVERYDAYTHIN6S
eight because Tm working on eight hour cycles this week.
So 24:00
hows would be 30:00 hours, 8:00 would be 10:00, and
on."
so
Selath explained.
"Whatever works best for you," I replied,
bit confused.
"Now, let's go to the master bedroom."
And off we went, passing all sorts

seen in a
of shapes and objects rd never
home before.
'The master bedroom has
semi-spherical skylight
in addition to
27
28
movable geodesic skylights.
They are designed to optimize the use
of solar energy."
"Marvelous, but where is the bed?' I asked.
"Just push the button on this wooden cube, and you will
unfold
"What
see a
bed
with a head board and two end tables."
great way to make a bed," I replied.
"There are many more things to see, but time is short. Lets go in the
bathroom
so
you can
see
the mirrors over the basin. Come this way.
Now lean forward."

To my
surprise I saw
an
infinite number of images ofmyself
repeated. The mirrors were reflecting back andforth into one

another ad infinitum.
"Now turn around and notice this mirror. Whats
different about it?"
Selath asked.
"My part
is on the wrong
'To the contrary this

seen
side," I replied.
mirror1 lets you see yourself as you are really
by others," Selath explained.
Just then the doorbell rang. The dinner guests had arrived.
don't you stay to dinner?' Selath asked.
living room yet,

It
was
"Why
'You haven't seen the
and Fm sure you'll enjoy meeting my guests."
hard to conceal by enthusiasm. "But your table is set for
three," I blurted.
"No problem.
parts
With the tangram table I canjust rearrange
and we'll have
few
rectangle.
1Made from two mirrors placed at right angles to each other. The
right-angled mirrors are then positioned so that they will reflect your
reflection.
29
THE EQUATION
OFTIME
If you have
sundial,
noticed
ever
that
the
registered
slightly
your watch.
time
the sundial
differed
difference
you may have
on
on
used
from that
This
Is tied Into the
length
daylight during the year.
of
In the
15th century, Johannes Kepler formulated

three
that
laws
planetary
how the
described
governed
motion.
Kepler
Earth
around the Sun In an
travels
elliptical
orbit, and also explained that the

line
Sun and
segment joining the
the Earth sweeps out
equal
(sectors)
In
equal
Intervals of
time
its orbit.
The Sun Is
along
located at
one
areas
of the foci of the
ellipse
thereby
sector's
area
making
equal for
time Interval and the arc
each
fixed
lengths
of the sectors
unequal. Thus
Earth's orbit
speed
its
along
This accounts for the
path.
variations
,
varies
the
in
,
the
lengths
,
,,.
year. Sundials
rely
on
of
A
10th century pocket sundial
times of ^^ m six ^^ listed on each
stlck te placed in. the hole of
daylight, side-A
the column with the current month.
daylight during different
,,
30
and
daylight depends
on
the time of the year and
geographic
location. On the other hand, the time intervals of our other clocks
are
consistent.
ordinary
The difference between
clock is referred to
as
sundial's time and
the equation
of time.
an
The almanac
lists the equation of time chart, which indicates how many minutes
fast
or
slow the sundial is from the
the chart may look like the
one
Equation
regular
clocks. For
example,
below.
of Time Chart
(The negative and positive numbers indicate the minutes the

sundial is slower or faster than an ordinary clock. Naturally
the table does not take into consideration daylight difference
within time zones.)
VARIATION
DATE
1
-3
15
-9
Jan
Feb
1 -13
15 -14
Mar
-3
15
-9
-4
April
15
May
+3
15
+4
// the sundial shows 11:50 on

May 15, its time should be
increased by 4 minutes to 11:54.
31
WHY ARE
MANHOLES
ROUND?
Why Is the shape of a manhole
circular?
Why not a square, rectangular, hexagonal,
or
elliptical
shape?
Is it because
There Is
circle's shape Is
more
mathematical reason.
What is your
explanation?
pleasing?
Metamorphosis
1994 M.C.
by
M.C. Esclwr.
IDscher/Cordon Art-Baam-HoUand. All rights reserved.
MACICAL
MATHEMATICAL
WORLDS
HOW MATHEMATICAL WORLDS
ARE FORMED
GEOMETRIC WORLDS
NUMBER WORLDS
THE WORLDS OF DIMENSIONS

THE WORLDS OF INFINITIES
FRACTAL WORLDS
MATHEMATICAL WORLDS IN LITERATURE
34
can it
How
be that mathematics,
product of human
thought independent of experience, is so admirably

adapted to the objects of reality.
Albert Einstein
Mathematics
alien to
totally
can
and
of
things
exist
on
our
so
world.
many
in
so
our
world,
perfect,
so
complete mathematical
or
composed
in the infinite set of
of
points, equations,
fractals,
knots,
so on.
things
strange,
pin point of a needle
the
One finds such worlds
numbers.
curves,
by
in its own worldsworlds so
yet delves
world
is linked and used
Until
one
understands how
mathematical worlds and
systems
formed,
some
of its
worlds may
seem
are
contradictory.
For example,
might ask how an

world
can
exist
one
infinite
only on
tiny line segment,

world be created
or a
using
three
points/This
only
chapter seeks to explore
the
XT
magic of some of these
mathematical worlds and
delve into their domains.

As discussed later, the counting numbers
form a mathematical world in. themselves.
MAGICAL MATHEMATICAL WORLPS
HOW
MATHEMATICAL
WORLDS ARE
FORMED
Why, sometimes I've believed

many as six impossible things
as
before breakfast.
Lewis Carroll
Little did Euclid know in 300 B.C. when he
geometric ideas into
to
began
that he
mathematical system
organize
developing
was
the first mathematical world. Mathematical worlds and their

elements abound
here
find the world of arithmetic with its
we
elements the numbers, worlds of algebra with variables, the world

of Euclidean
such
objects
objects
are
geometry with
that
squares and
continually change
interrelated with
universe,
yet
sets the
world. It
new
is
All form the universe of
universe that describes and
ground
explains
objects,
These terms
can
mean, but
exists in
explains things all
exist which
can
mathematical system. The
they
objects
are
be described,
A mathematical
governed.
so
called
are
that
one
has
in its
words there
to
are no
system
undefined
defined.
definitions, and you have
beginning
objects
formed, how they generate
are
technically they cannot be
terms. For these
feeling
Why?
begin
terms.
of what
Because
with
some
other terms that
be used to define them.
The best way to understand such

a
anything from our
rules for the existence of the
how its
and how
it takes terms to form
how
Independent worlds yet
are
exist without
can
composed of basic elements, which
they
with
us.
Every mathematical world

system
all
another.
one
mathematics. A universe that
around
triangles, topology
the Mobius strip and networks, fractals with
as
system
finite mini mathematical world
this mini world's undefined terms

to undefined terms,
35
are
is to look at
might
one.
Here's
take form. Assume
points and lines.
In addition
mathematical system also has axioms,
theorems, and definitions. Axioms (also called postulates) are ideas
36
TH E MAC IC O F MATH EMATICS
we
we
being true without proof. Definitions are new terms

describe/define using undefined terms or previously defined
accept
as
terms. Theorems
are
axioms, definitions
What
type
Ideas which must be proven
or
of definitions, theorems and axioms
have? Here
are some
by using existing
theorems.
that
can our
mini world
might evolve
Undefined
terms: Points and lines.
Definition
1: A set
of points
is colltnear
if a
line contains
the set.
Definition
2: A set
ofpoints
is noncolltnear
if a line cannot
contain the set.
Axiom 1: Our mini world contains
only
3 distinct
points,
which do not lie on a line.
Axiom 2: Any two distinct points make
line.
Theorem 1:
Only three distinct lines

exists
In
can
this
world.
proof:
Axiom 1 states that there
are 3 distinct points in this
world. Using Axiom 2 we
know that every pair of

these points determines a
line. Hence three lines are
formed by the three points
of this world.
This
As
example Illustrates how

new
Ideas
come
to
mind,
mathematical world
one
adds
axioms, definitions, and theorems and

The
more
might
evolve.
undefined terms,
thereby expands
the world.
following sections introduce you to some mathematical worlds
and their inhabitants.
MAC ICAL MATH EMATICAL WO RLDS
37
GEOMETRIC
...
The universe stands
continually open
WO RLDS
to our gaze,
but it cannot be understood

unless
one
first learns to
language and interpret the characters in

which it is written. It is written in the language of
mathematics, and its characters are...geometric figures,
without which it is humanly impossible to understand a
single word of it; without these, one is wandering about in a
dark labyrinth.Galileo
comprehend the
Mathematics has
many types of
geometries. These
include Euclidean
and
analytic
geometries and
host
of non-Euclidean
geometries.
find
Here
we
hyperbolic,
elliptic, projective,
topological,
fractal
geometries.
Each
geometry forms a
mathematical system
with its
own
undefined terms,
axioms, theorems
and definitions.
Although these
geometric worlds may
use
the
same names
This is an abstract design of Henri Poincare's

(1854-1912) hyperbolic world. Here a circle is the
boundary of this world. The sizes of the

inhabitants change in relation to their distance
from the center. As they approach the center
they grow, and as they move away from the
center they shrink.
Thus they will never reach the
boundary, and for all purposes, their world is
infinite to them.
38
THE MAC\C OF MATHEMATICS
for their elements

characteristics.
straight
parallel,
or
For
properties, their elements possess different
or
can
geometry
either intersect In
one
lines
are
point, be
be skew. But lines In
lines but great circles of a

distinct lines
In Euclidean
example.
and two distinct lines
always
elliptic geometry are not straight

sphere, and therefore any two of Its
Intersect in two
points.
Consider the word parallel. In

Euclidean geometry parallel lines
are
always equidistant and never

so in elliptic or
Intersect. Not
hyperbolic geometry. Why?

Because every great circle of a
sphere Intersects another. Thus,

elliptic geometry has no parallel
lines. In
lines
hyperbolic geometry parallel
never
Intersect, but
they do not
resemble Euclidean lines.
Hyperbolic
The above diagram

shows two great circles,
line 1 and 2 intersecting
at points A &B.
closer and
continually
closer together, yet never Intersect. They
are called asymptotic. Euclidean, hyperbolic, and elliptic
parallel
lines
geometries
create three
come
dramatically
different worlds with lines and
points, etc., but whose properties

these worlds Is
applications
in
mathematical
our
are
system
universes
apart. Each of
unto Itself, and each has
universe.
L^hyperbolic geometry, lines M and N are both parallel to

line L and pass through point P. M and N are asymptotic
In
to line L.
39
NUMBER WORLD!
Numbers
be
can
considered
first
elements
Their
early symbols
marks
drawn
indicate
never
Stone
were
the
in
number of
entered the
scene
been the
the
same.
probably
earth
things.
simple
and
computations.
irrational
But
tn La
mathematicians
since
counting
are
numbers
familiar with
has
integers,
Pdeta, Spain.
and
decimals,
ever
world of
use
these
their
for
daily
But number worlds also include the rational and
numbers,
non-repeating
to
Many people
Age number patterns found
fractions
the
mathematics.
of
the
decimals,
complex numbers,
transcendental
the
numbers, and many many subsets of numbers that
specific properties, such

or
perfect
transfinite
are
linked
by
numbers whose proper factors
polygonal numbers
shapes of regular polygons,
total the number,

connected to the
as
never-ending
numbers,
whose
and
on
shapes
and
on.
are
It is
40
Interesting to delve
Into the
they developed,
The
counting numbers date back
the
and
interrelationship
how
simple marks of the
Cave In southern
of numbers, surmise
explore their various properties.
Stone
prehistoric times. Consider

Age number patterns from La Pileta
Spain, which
to
Inhabited
was
over
ago until the Bronze Age (1500 B.C.). The number

over
three
thousand
ago,
years
calculations of a circle's
when
that fractional
glyph
for mouth, O
For example, ^^
1/3, ^^
|/2
0=
known
were
fascinating
developed
by
the ancient mathematicians,
approximating their
values.
approxlmatle
Hexagrams
two
two
two
and their
101
100=
H=
two
12
binary eqiduaLents.
Over the centuries different civilizations
counting systems
were
1/10.
the ladder method to
10=
two
the
Babylonians used another method.
1=
two
Ancient civilizations
was
methods for
while the
in
to write their fractions.
In fact, the Greeks
the
known
used
quantities existed. The Egyptians used the

,
was
Irrational numbers
who devised
was
and circumference, and later shown
area
to be irrational and transcendental.

aware
It
25,000 years
n was
developed symbols
for numbers, and In the 20th
century
the
and
binary
numbers and base two have been put to work with the computer
Gottfried Wilhelm
revolution.
about the
(1679).
binary system
He
missionary
that
the
numeration
corresponded
in China. It
(1646-1716) first wrote
In his paper De
Progressione Dyadica
with Pere Joachim Bouvet,
was
through
Chlng hexagrams
system.
Leibniz
were
Jesuit
Bouvet that Leibniz learned
connected
He noticed that If he
to
replaced
his
zero
binary
for each
broken line and 1 for the unbroken line, the

the
binary
upon the Sumerian
developed
and
develop
base 60 number
hexagrams illustrated
Babylonians
numbers. Centuries prior to this, the
Improved
sexagimal system
But this section
system.
on
to
number
worlds Is not about number systems but about types of numbers.
Let's take
at the first
glimpse
type of
numbers
numbers. In the world of counting numbers

terms
are
the numbers 1, 2, 3
order in which two

sum
the
counting
find the undefined
with such axioms
counting numbers
we
are
as
added does not
the
affect
the
(a+b=b+a, called the commutative property for addition); the

are multiplied together does
(axb=bxa, called the commutative property for
order in which two counting numbers

not
affect
the product
multiplication).
even
and such theorems
number is also
numbers is
numbers
evolve
over
solution
always
were
not
an even
an even
enough
the value
An
number.
even
an
of any two odd
counting
problems that were to
Imagine tackling
for the
number plus
sum
But the world of
to solve all the
the years. Can you
was
as
number. And, The
equation
problem whose
x+5=3 and not
knowing
about
negative
numbers? What would have been
the
problem
Is defective, there is
no answer.
negative
numbers In
but most mathematicians of
Introduced
Europe,
some
reactions
Arab texts
the the 16th and 17th centuries
numbers.
Nicholas
were not willing to accept these

(15th
Chuquet
century) and Michael Stidel
(16th century) referred to negative numbers

Jerome Cardan (1501-1576) gave
to
equations, he considered them
as
absurd.
negative numbers
as
Impossible
as
Although
solutions
answers.
Even
Blaise Pascal said "I have known those who could not understand
that to take fourfrom zero there remains zero."
42
TH E MAC l< O F MATH EMATICS
history reveals
required the Invention
Thus
the
explain
that the solutions

of
new
meaning of y7-1
the creation of
or
numbers.
to solve
certain
problems
to
example, trying
the equation x2
-1 led
to
numbers. And
imaginary
to
For
imaginary
mathematicians
to
numbers led
the
expand
world of numbers to Include all

iO, , 12, t% I4
real and Imaginary numbers and

Here's where the
morel
?+S=3
'
street us can toe
complex
numbers (numbers of the form
'"
>prttkta<
a+bl, where
l=y^-l)
the 16th
century.
are a means
of
as
organization of
this line Is linked to
The
has
only one
only one
Imaginary numbers
line. So 2i is located
and
the
Imaginary
complex
use
numbers
location
on
they
on
other
the ordered
Combining
we
get
the
complex number
number 4.
organize
only
complex number has
one
This coordinate
and picture the
(4,0)
system
complex
was
chapter
The Magic
plane
number
imaginary
axis
*f.
an
21^
(-31/2,2 i)
<
-?2i
.!
i
i i*i
-5 -31/2
complex
number
equals
the
ingenious way to
numbers. The questions
ofNumbers has
"-.
fl
So
4+Oi which
Are there any numbers which do not appear
bet! The
-1
-4
-31/2
are
is matched with
means
r-r-r-^
complex
In the
complex
real axis
-31/2
picture
that location.
point (-4, 3)
-4 +31.
the real
way to
origins. Every point
pair for the
Every point on
this line.
what Is called the
form Is associated with
no
at their
zero.
imaginary number
an
shown.
as
number lines,
The real
real number and vice
number plane. The real and Imaginary lines
perpendicular
during
all real numbers and
their respective distances and sizes relative to
-31/2
real and
complex.1
picturing mathematical objects.
number line shows the the
versaso
are
introduced
With their Introduction, all numbers Invented
thus far could be classified
Graphs
and b
were
on
some
this
now
is
plane? You
examples.
Any real number can be thought of as a complex number whose

imaginary part is 0, and any imaginary number is a complex number
with real part 0.
r
-1
r-i
plane^
43
THE WORLDS Ol
DIMENSION!
Let's look at the worlds which
created
are
by the Idea of dimensions. A
mathematical world
single point,
on a
exist
on a
single line,
on a
can
In space. In
plane.
(tesseract). Each
hypercube
higher dimension
encompasses those beneath It,

each lower dimension
In Itself.
your life
can
be
yet
world
Imagine your world and
on a
flat plane. You cannot
look up or down. Three dimensional

creatures
without you
can
even
Invade your world
knowing by simply
entering your domain from above
or
below. Mathematicians, writers, and

artists have used various Ideas to
to
try
capture the essence of different
dimensions In their works.
Dimensions
beyond the third have
alway been Intriguing.

one
The cube
of the first 3-D
objects
was
to be
introduced Into the fourth

dimension
hypercube.
a
The
by becoming a
stages for arriving at
hypercube are illustrated.
Computer programs
devised to derive
fourth dimension
have
even
glimpses
been
of the
by picturing 3-D
perspectives of the various

facets of the hypercube.
44
THE WORLDS OF
INFINITIES
To
see
the world in
grain of sand,
And
heaven in
wildflower;
Hold
And
has stimulated
Infinity
an
Idea drawn upon
infinity
eternity in
an
palm
of your hand,
hour. William Blake
imaginations for thousands of years.
It is
by theologians, poets, artists, philosophers,
writers, scientists, mathematicians

and
in the
an
idea that has
perplexed
idea that remains illusive.
Infinity has taken

on different Identities In different fields of
thought. In early times,
the idea of Infinity was, rightly or wrongly, linked to large
Intrigued
numbers.
by gazing
Ancient
an
People of antiquity experienced

at stars and
philosophers
planets
and
or
at
argued
Aristotle
argued
the ideas that
feeling of the
grains of sand
mathematicians
Anaxagoras, Democrltus, Aristotle,

and
on a
beach.
as
Zeno,
such
Archimedes
infinite
pondered, posed
infinity presented.
proposed the Ideas of potential and

only potential infinity existed. 1
actual infinities. He
that
In The Sand Reckoner Archimedes
number of
determining
grains of sand
a
method for
on
dispelled
beach
calculating
are
the idea that the
infinite
by actually
the number
on
all the
beaches of the earth.
Infinity has been the culprit In many paradoxes.

of Achilles and the tortoise and the
readers for centuries.
Galileo's
Zeno's
paradoxes
perplexed
Dichotomy2
paradoxes3 dealing with
have
segments, points, and infinite sets should also be noted.
This field of sunflowers in the Spanish
countryside gives
the illusion
The list of mathematicians with their discoveries and
of infinity.
uses
or
misuses of
300
Infinity extends through the centuries. Euclid (circa

B.C.) showed that the prime numbers were Infinite by showing
there
made
was no
by
last prime.
Headway in
the realm of the infinite
(1646-1716), and J.W.R. Dedeklnd (1831-1916).

phenomenal work of
Georg Cantor (1845-1918)
major breakthrough. Building, creating

found
set.
a new
transflnlte numbers
Using
assigned
these topics
are
theory
equivalent
sets and
same
by developing
cross
the realm of
countabillty,
number of
transflnlte number. His work and
ingenious.
was a
refining Ideas, Cantor

by use of the notion of a
numbers that dared to
the idea of
them
But the
set
way to compare Infinite sets
determined which Infinite sets had the

and
on
and
way to organize mathematics
He determined
the finite.
was
Bernhard Bolzano (1781-1848), Gottfried W. Leibniz
he
objects
proofs
on
45
46
In addition to
teasing
our
mathematical tool. It has
minds, Infinity
played
mathematical discoveries. We find it used In:

volumes
for
and
calculus
and
Indispensable
infinite sets
areas
and
calculating approximations
numberstrigonometryself-perpetuating geometric
and more.
dynamic symmetry
Other parts of this book explore various notions of Infinity, such Ideas
objects
limits
other irrational
half-lives
an
determining the
both in geometry and calculus
7i,
Is
crucial role In many
infinite
as
search for
ad
series
generating fractals, the chaos theory, the continual

a
larger prime number, transfinite
numbers and others
Infinitum.
^The counting
numbers are potentially infinite, since one can be added

get the next, but the entire set cannot be actually
to any number to
attained.
Dichotomy Paradox Zeno argues that a traveler walking to a

destination will never reach the destination because the traveler
must first walk half the distance. Reaching this halfway point, the
traveler then has to walk half the remaining distance. Then half of the
Since there will always be half of the part that
part that remains.
remains to walk and an infinite number of halfway points to pass, the
traveler will never reach the destination.
In The
specific
3
In Galileo's 1634 work, Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, he
discusses infinity in relation to the positive integers and the squares of
the positive integers. He even deals with one-to-one correspondence
between these two infinite sets. But he reaches the conclusion that the
concepts of equality, greater than, and less than were only applicable to
Galileo believed
the principle that the whole is always
finite sets.
greater than its parts had to apply to both finite and infinite sets. Three
hundred years later, Cantor showed this principle did not hold for
infinite sets and used the idea of one-to-one correspondence to revise the
traditional notions of equality, greater than, and less than when dealing
with infinite sets. Cantor's modifications did away with many paradoxes
involving infinite sets and the whole is always greater than its parts.
47
FRACTAL
WORLDS
/ coined fractal from the Latin
adjective fracfus. The
corresponding Latin verb

fragere means 'to break': to
create irregular fragments.
how appropriate for our
needs!
that, in addition to 'fragmented' (as in fraction or
refraction) fractus should also mean 'irregular1, both
meanings preserved in fragment. Benoit Mandelbrot
...
Fractals
are
shapes.
Ernesto Cesaro
magnificent objects
this about the

strikes
me
which
come
In
Infinitely
geometric fractal, the Koch snowflake
above all about the
whole. To try to imagine it
as
curve
triangle
whole
an
reduced version
curve
What
is that any part is similar to the
completely as possible,
realized that each small
shape reduced by
many
(Italian mathematician 1859-1906) wrote
it must be
in the construction contains the
appropriate factor. And this contains
of each small
triangle
which in turn contains the
II II
II II
ii ii
ii ii
llll llll
iiii mi
mi mi
mi nn
In 1883, Cantor constructed this fractal called the Cantor set Starting with
the segment of length the unit interval on the number line, Cantor removed
the middle one third and got stage 1. Then to each remaining 3rds, removed
the middle one-third, thereby creating the 2nd stage. Repeating the process
ad infinitum, the infinite set of points that remains is called the Cantor set
Here
are
the first stages
of the
Cantor set
48
whole
reduced
shape
further
and
Infinity...
It
so
is
even
to
this
self-
its
part,
all
in
similarity
on
the
curve
wondrous.
reality
however small, that makes

so
seems
If it appeared
tr
in
it would not be
possible to
destroy
it without
removing it altogether, for

otherwise it would
ceaselessly
the
rise up
depths of
like the
itself.
its
life of the
universe
This is the
essence
regenerate itself.
by repeatedly applying
triangles
that portion retains the
have
The first three stages of the Peano Curve.

The Peano curue voas mode in. the 1890's,
again from
generation to
of fractals.
essence
So what Is
If
successive
segment.
a
portion
of it remains,
of the fractalwhich in turn
fractal?
Perhaps
purposely avoided giving a definition
can
mathematicians
to not restrict
or
inhibit
The first four stages of the Koch snowjlake. The Koch snowjlake is
generated by starting with an equilateral triangle. Divide each side into thirds,
delete the middle third, and construct a point off that length out from the
deleted side.
the
creativity of fractal
this very
as
new
creations and ideas that
field of mathematics. With this
fractional dimensions, iteration
theory,
are
new
formulating
In
field, Ideas such
turbulence
appllca-
self-similarity have
evolved.
Applications for
tions,
?A
A^\
fractals
astronomy to medicine, from
cartography
to economics, and
on
and
on.
Mathematically speaking,
fractal is
as
triangle
Divide it into Jour congruent triangles as

shown and remove the middle one. Repeat
this process to the smaller trianglesformed
ad infinitum. The resultingfractal has
infinite perimeter and zero areal
object
an
segment,
being
that is
altered
such
point,
rule
can
by reapplying
be described
The previous
words.
constantly
rule ad infinitum.
form which
begins with
four stages of the Slerplnksi

triangle. Begin with an equilateral triangle.
The first
by
to
cinematography
A^J^ /K?^
or
acid
rain to zeolites, from
^K
mathematical formula
from
range
The
by
diagrams
illustrate four of the earliest fractals made.

One
can
think of
fractal
as an ever
fractal, you must really view it
developing. Today
we are
in
growing
motion.
curve.
It
is
fortunate to have computers
generating fractals before
our
Benoit Mandelbrot, in the
same
eyes. It
spirit
was
of the
equally
To view
constantly
capable of
fortunate that
early mathematicians,
almost
expanded the ideas and applications of fractals

singlehandedly from 1951-75. In fact, he coined the word
fractal
How astonished the adventurous mathematicians * of the
studied and
century, who first dared to look at these ideas most

monstrous2 and psychopathic, would be to see the
19th
considered
wondrous
geometry of fractals
When
view
we
seeing
of its
it for
an
one
growth.
links fractals
illustration
in motion.
or
moment in time
In
essence
photograph
it is frozen at
it is this idea of
dramatically
of
a
a
growth
fractal,
we are
particular stage
or
change
that
to nature. For what is there in nature
49
50
that Is not
Fractals
changing? Even a rock is changing on a molecular level.

be designed to simulate almost any shape you can
can
imagine. Fractals
series of rules and

own
fractal. Pick a
necessarily confined to one rule, but a

stipulations can be the rule. Try creating your
are
not
simple object and design a rule to apply to It.
The firstjive stages
of a computer generated geometric fractal
1 Mathematicians
Georg Cantor, Helge von Koch, Karl Welerstrass,
Dubois Reymond, Gulseppe Peano, Waclaw Slerplnskl, Felix Haussdorff,
A.S. Besicovitch (Haussdorff and Besicovitch worked on fractional
dimensions), Gaston Julia Pierre Fatou (Julia and Fatou worked on
Iteration theory), Lewis Richardson (worked on turbulence and self-similarity)
spanning the years from 1860's to early 20th centuryexplored Ideas
dealing with the "monsters".
,
2These
"monsters" were neither accepted or considered worth exploring

conservative mathematicians of the time. It was felt that fractals
contradicted accepted mathematics because some were continuous
functions that were not dlfferentlable, some had finite areas and infinite
by
perimeters, and
some
could
completely
fill space.
MAC ICAL MATHEMATICAL WORLDS
THE PARABLE OF THE FRACTAL
'Wake-up Fractal!
You must
get
to
work," the voice prodded the
sleeping Fractal.
"Not again and
so
early," pleaded Fractal "IJust got my dimensions
in order."
"Wake-up Fractal! Come downfrom that cloud

sleeping Fractal.
'You're needed at the

to be
you made," the voice prodded the
Geological Survey another coastline needs
described," the voice continued.
"When will I get a break?' questioned Fractal

'YouVe had it easy for centuries
voice
replied.
now
it's time to
get to work," the
51
52
TH E MAC \C O F MATH EMATICS
'Work, u>ork, work. Why don't they call on Square, Circle, Polygon,
or
any other Euclideanfigure?
"First you
Whyme7' asked Fractal
and that they called you a

understanding
you, you want to
finally
they're
complained at being ignored,
monster. Now that
retire. Just be thankful you
"Popular is one thing,
but
are so
popular," the voice rebutted.
they won't let me rest.
Its
never
been the
since that Mandelbrot christened me and gave me my
same
replied Fractal.
"Mathematicians
were
debut,"
tediously struggling with
Tm sure my fractional dimensions threw them offfor a whUe.
me.
Those poor souls from the 19th century had
no
computers to help
them. Most mathematicians would not accept me, for I did
follow
their mathematical rules. But
stubborn. Now here I am,

areas
some
being designed and used
computers certainly
were a
notfit or
mathematicians
in
so
were
many
boon. One moment the screen
displays afragment or beginning part of a fractal and the next

moment the
screen
is
being filled with its generations
ever
growing. They are now using me in almost everything

describe roots,
vegetables,
must say its is very
exciting to stretch my limits.
coastlines because it still
enclosed a region whose

Fm
Icon
trees, popcorn, clouds, scenery... I

I love to do
baffles many people to learn lean

area
Is finite while my perimeter Is
serving for modeling many of the world's phenomena.
infinite.
For
examplepopulation with Peano curves, fractal curvesfor creating

scene
in movies, fractalsfor describing
economics,
ecology,
involved that
since
they
astronomy, meteorology,
et cetera, et cetera, et cetera. Tm so
busy and
things are beginning to get a bit chaotic, especially
mixed me Into the chaos
theory," Fractal said sounding
very tired.
The voice started

you
some
again. "Stop complaining! Chaos theory offers
variety. Without it you'd Just be continually repeating
the same rule and generating the
same
old shape
over
and over, at
The
beginning stages of a fractal cloud.
least when
different
some
can
"I suppose
slightly varied, something totally
evolve."
you're right," Fractal sighed.
"Of course I'm

same
initial input is
right.
Just think how boring it would be to be the
shape forever, like a poor square or a circle," the voice
asserted.
"Well, at least there are no surprisesfor a square or circle." Fractal

countered.
"That's
precisely it.
Life is full of surprises; that's
why they are
calling on you so often. You are more like life." The voice seemed
complementing Fractal.
'You
mean
Fm human?' Fractal asked.
"I wouldn't go that far. And besides all life isn't human. Let's say
you're just different, and you're non-Euclidean!" And with

comment the voice drifted off.
that
53
54
FINDING THE AREA OF A SNOWFLAKE CURVE

This beautiful
geometric fractal was created
Koch. To generate
Koch snowflake
curve,
equilateral triangle. Divide each side

middle third, and construct
deleted side.
in 1904
by Helge von
begin with
an
into thirds. Delete the
point of that length out from the
Repeat the process for each resulting point ad
infinitum.
A
Two
fascinating properties, which
contradictory,
the
the
area
are
of the snowflake
that
original triangle
curve
an
snowflake
informal
curve
I. Assume the
is
area
Now concentrate
8/5 of the area of
curve
is infinite,
of equilateral AABC is k.
a, as
on
congruent equilateral
shown. Thus k=9a.
determining the limit of the area
of one of the 6 initial points of the snowflake
triangles.
from it have
triangle
area
8/5 of its generating triangle.
We know the area of the
of the nine
proof that the area of the
II. Divide AABC into nine
triangles of area,
is
generates it; the
perimeter of the snowflake

Here is
seem
large point
curve.
is a, since its
one
*.,"
The next set of points
(a) (1 /9) each, Just like
had been divided into 9
generated
the original
congruent triangles
it also is. In
fact, each successive point is broken down into nine congruent
triangles with two triangles springing from it.

STEP III shows the summation of the various
STEP IV: Now,
points plus
triangle,
get expression IV.
STEP IV is
of this
point.
by adding up the areas created by each of the 6

hexagon in the interior of the original generating
the
we
areas
changed to STEP V.
The
resulting series
in the
MAC ICAL MATHEMATICAL WORLDS
III.
,9*9
^99,
Notice there
Notice there
are
of this
are
IV.
a +
+2
9)
2
H +
Z-
brackets is
93
geometric
so we can
STEP VI.
9.9.9.9
n-2
-r-
6a
9l9
94
series with ratio
calculate its limit.
4/9 and 2/9
as
of the
6a
its initial
we
get
72a/5
Now we need to express the

area
(2/9)/(l-(4/9))=2/5.
Substituting the 2/5 for the limit of the series,
[l+2/5]6a+6a
k, the
9.9.9
5+
92
of this
42 + 21
14 + 2
2*4Z
2*4
term,
19*9
32
stage -points.
stage points.
area
of the snowflake
original generating triangle.
a=k/9. Substituting this for
in
72a/S,
(8/5)k.
we
curve
in terms of
Since k=9a,
get
get (72/S)(k/9)
we
56
MONSTER CURVES
The stages of the

Sierpinskt triangle.
Suppose the area of the
initial generating
is 1
equilateral triangle
square unit. The sum of

the areas of the black
and white
indicated
triangles are
through the first
five generations.
Suppose the black
triangle represents
removal of area. Notice
how the value for the
white triangles is
continually decreasing,
meaning the white
area
is
approaching zero. Thus

the area for the Sierpinskt
triangle approaches 0,
UJhlle its perimeter
approaches infinity.
64
64
XS6*
*56
Until Benolt Mandelbrot coined the term "fractal" In the late

referred to
1970's, these
curves were
conservative
mathematicians
pathological.
They
neither
as
monsters.
19th
century
considered these monster
accepted
or
curves
considered them worth
exploring because they contradicted accepted mathematical ideas.

For
example,
any
gaps)
some were
that
were
not
infinite perimeters, and
Sierpinski triangle
perimeter and
out how the
Earned
continuous functions
dlfferentlable,
some
(also called
finite
area.
some
could
(functions without
had finite
areas
fill space.
completely
Sierpinskt gasket)
has
an
and
The
Infinite
The illustration above tries to point
Sierpinskt triangle's area is zero.
after mathematician Waclaw
Sierpinski (1882-1920).
MAGICALMATHEMATICAL WORLDS
MANDELBROT SET CONTROVERSY

In the 17th
century
number of prominent
mathematicians (Galileo, Pascal, Torricelli,

Descartes, Fermat, Wren, Wallis,
Johann Bernoulli, Leibniz,
intent
cycloid. Even
at this
as
period
there
were
many discoveries
of time, there
arguments about
were
the properties of the
discovering
on
Huygens,
Newton)
were
also many
who had discovered what
first, accusations of plagiarism, and

minimization of one another's work. As
the
cycloid
result,
apple of
of geometry. 20th century mathematicians
discord and the Helen

to have
now seem
has been labeled the
a new
Helen of geometry the Mandelbrot set.
Who first discovered the Mandelbrot
question among present day
set1?
This is
mathematicians.
very heated
The contenders
are:
Benoit Mandelbrot is
work
on
fractals
the Mandelbrot set
as a
pioneer because of his initial
Mandelbrots work
showing
variants
of
December 26, 1980 in Annals of the

of Sciences. His work on the actual Mandelbrot set
was
New York
was
often described
in the 1970s.
published
Academy
published in 1982.
Hubbard of Cornell University and Adrien Douady of the

University of Paris named the set Mandelbrot in the 1980s while
working on proofs of various aspects of the set In 1979, Hubbard says
John H
he met with Mandelbrot, and showed Mandelbrot how to program a

to plot iterative functions.
Hubbard admits that Mandelbrot
computer
later
developed
Robert
Brooks
superior methodfor generating the images of the

and
J.
Peter
Matelski
claim
they
discovered and described the set prior to Mandelbrot

work was not published until 1981.
set
independently
although their
Pierre Fatou described Julia sets' unusual

Gaston Julia's work
on
Julia sets
properties around 1906, and

predates Fatou's. (Julia sets acted as
springboards for Mandelbrot sets.)

Perhaps all.
Who gets the credit?
iThe illustration above is the most familiar fractal form from the
Mandelbrot set. The Mandelbrot set is a treasure trove of fractals, which
contains an infinite number of fractals. The set is generated by an
iterative equation, e.g. z^+c, where z and c are complex numbers and c
produces values than are confined to a certain boundary.
57
58
MATHEMATICAL
WORLDS IN
There is
astonishing
imagination even in
LITERATURE
the science of mathematics.
Is the tesseract the
only
an
figment of a mathematical imagination?
Is the
"real" dimension the 3rd dimension? We learn in Euclidean

that
geometry
since it has
point only shows location, and

dimension. Yet
of these invisible
composed
such
zero
in
asymptotic lines of
geometry;
numbers.
transfinite
complex
these
number
can
concepts
their
in
are
our
world.
Many writers,
point thick.
our
of
pseudosphere
the
Madeleine
the
circle. One wonders
there
is no
mathematical
if
doubt of their
these
systems,
world.
artists and mathematicians have
as
hyperbolic
imaginary numbers,
ingeniously
these concepts to describe worlds where these ideas

Such writers
What is
functions, infinities of
even a
Although
respective
only models in
one
exponential
Consider
plane, fractals, and
exist in
existence
only
world? Consider the
our
seen
segment
length, yet does

What about a plane?
exist in the realm of our lives?
figure
it cannot be
line
A line is infinite in
points.
Infinite in two dimensions and
plane
we can see a
come
used
to life.
Dante, Italo Calvino, Jorge Luis Borges, and
L'Engle have
drawn
on
mathematics to enhance their
creations.
In the
19th
model of
century,
hyperbolic
Here to all
things
mathematician Henri Poincare created

world contained in the interior of
and inhabitants,
never
was
everything would shrink
it moved away from the center of the circle, while
approached
circle.
their circular world
infinite. Unbeknownst to these creatures,

as
the center. This meant the circle's
to be reached, and hence their world
growing
boundary
as
it
was
appeared infinite
to
Circle Limit IV (Heaven Si Hell) by M.C. Escher depicts a world

reminscent of Henri. Poincare's hyperbolic wodd.
1994 M.C. Escher/Cordon Art-Baam-HoEand. AR rights reserved.
them. In 1958, artist M.C. Escher created
series of woodcuts,
entitled Circle Limit I, II, III, IV which convey

Poincare had described. Escher described
this
infinite
For her
world
feeling
as
"the beauty
of
world-in-an-enclosed plane." 1
novel, A Wrinkle in Time, Madeleine L'Engle
ract and
of what
multiple
dimensions
as means
uses
the tesse-
of allowing her characters
"...for the 5th dimension you'd

through
square the fourth and add that to the otherfour dimensions and you
to travel
can
outer space,
travel through space without having to go the long way
59
60
around...In other words
straight line
is not the shortest distance
between two points."

Italo Cavino describes
short
believe such
we were
been?
what
world that exists in
story AH At One Point.
"packed
did
we
have for time,
exists.
even
space to
pack
we
Looking back to the

find Euclidean
The cone's
us
of
one
"Naturally,
we
have
Or time either:
packed in there like sardines? I say
like sardines," using
which was where
hell.
actually
In his
makes
Qfwfg said,where else could
coincided with every point
we
single point
ingenious creativity
dimensional world
all there, Old
Nobody knew then that there could be space.
use
wasn't
a zero
His
literary image:
into.
each
of
in
reality
there
Every point of each of

the others in
us
single point,
all were."
Middle
Ages
and Dante's The Divine
geometric objects
shape
was
were
used to hold
Comedy,
the bases for Dante's
people
in
stages of hell.
Within it, Dante had nine circular cross-sections that acted
as
platforms which grouped people by sins committed.
From Dante's The Divine Comedy. The plan of concentric spheres, which
shows the Etarth in the sphere (bearing the epicycle) of the Moon, and these
are also enclosed in the sphere (bearing the epicycle) of Mercury.
In the 1900's
of Sand.
infinity was
featured in
Jorge
Luis
Here the main character acquires
"The number
None is the
of pages
first
numbered in this
in this book is
none
page,
arbitrary
Borges'
The Book
"marvelous" book.
no more or
less than infinite.
I don't know
the last.
way.
why they're
Perhaps to suggest the terms of an
infinite series admit any number."This book adversely changes his

life and his outlook
to
dispose
infinite
on
book
might
until he realizes he must find
things,
of it "J thought
way
offire, but Ifeared that the burning of an
likewise prove
infinite
and
with smoke." What would your solution be?
suffocate
You
the planet
might
want to
read the book to find how the hero resolved his dilemma.
Science fiction writers have utilized
mathematical Ideas to
example,
Next Generation, the
being pulled by an "invisible" force

Only when the ship's schematic monitor
toward
starship
black hole.
changes perspective
does the
in
an
episode of
help
create their worlds. For
Star Trek The
is
crew
realize the unknown force is
2-dimensional world of minute life forms.

Mathematics Is full of Ideas that make one's
and wonder Are
Mathematicians
reside
they real?
are
perhaps
imagination churn
To mathematicians
they
are
real.
familiar with the worlds in which these Ideas
not within
our
realm, but real in their
nonetheless!
M.C.Escher, Harry N. Abrams.Inc, New York, 1983.
own
61
MATHEMATICS
&ART
ART,THE4TH DIMENSIONS.
NON-PERIODIC TILING
MATHEMATICS & SCULPTURE

MATHEMATICAL DESIGNS & ART
MATHEMATICS &
THE ART OF M.C.ESCHER
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY & ART

MIXING MATHEMATICS & ART
OF ABRECHT PURER
COMPUTER ART
64
The most beautiful

It is the
mysterious.
thing
source
we can
experience is the
of all true art and science.

Albert Einstein
Linking mathematics and art may seem alien to many people.

mathematical
worlds
of
computers have
and
simplify,
provided
perfect their work.
dimensions,
algebra,
geometries,
tools for artists to
But
explore, enhance,
Over the centuries, artists and
their works have been Influenced
mathematics. The
used the
golden
Albrecht Dfirer
by the knowledge and use of

ancient Greek sculptor, Phidias, Is said to have
mean In
the proportions of many of his works.
employed concepts from projective geometry
achieve perspective, and
geometric
fj^JNÂ WH*il'rHHfi {$*$*
constructions
played
to
vital
role In his
fc3h
typography of
Roman letters.
Since
religious
doctrine
&
prohibited the
use
A sketch
from one of Leonardo da VincCs notebooks

Illustrating lines converging to a vanishing point
Moslem art, Moslem artists had to

avenue
for their artistic
wealth of tessellation
inquiry
can
rely
on
as
an
to create
Leonardo da Vinci felt "...no human
be called science unless it pursues its
mathematical exposition and demonstration."

sculptures and
objects In
mathematics
expression, thus leading them
designs.
of animate
path through
Leonardo's
paintings illustrate his study of the golden rectangle,
proportions, and projective geometry, while his architectural
designs
show his work in geometric structures and
symmetry.
illustrating
The
topics
in
this
section
are
knowledge
few
of
examples
the connection between mathematics and art.
MATH EMATICS & ART
65
ART,THE4TH
Mathematics takes
us
DIMENSIONS,
NON-PERIODIC
TILING
into the
region of absolute necessity, to

which not only the actual
world, but every possible world,
must conform. Albert Einstein
On
the artist Is restricted to
canvas,
communicate the
two-dimensions to
feeling of other dimensions.
Icon artists of the
Byzantine period depicted three-dimensional religious

only two-dimensions, giving the subject matter
appearance.
scenes
in
mystical
During the Renaissance, artists using the concepts of
projective geometry transformed their flat canvas into the threedimensional world they wanted to convey. Today, mathematics
plays
an
active role In
mathematical
hypercube1,
the
adapted
dimensional
Salvador
unfolded
Artists
higher dimensions.
by artists to take
example, has been used
Into the fourth-dimension.
Bragdon
artist's Ideas.
an
Ideas to escape into
for
and tools for the
providing Inspiration
creation and communication of
hypercube
early
hypercube
in his
designs
Dali3 delved
In the
use
The
step
1900's architect Claude
along
with
other
four-
work2. Intrigued by the hypercube,
Into mathematics
which is the focal
for his model of
point
in his
painting
an
The
Crucifixion4 (1954).
Today,
with
there
are a
number of artists pursuing art In connection
mathematical
Ideas
in
particular,
mathematics
non-periodic tiling, multi-dimensions and computer renditions.

fact,
computer
renditions
of
the
hypercube,
created
of
In
by
mathematician Thomas Brancroft and computer scientist Charles

Strauss of Brown
University, produce visualization of the
hypercube moving in and out of
hypercube
in the 3-D world are
3-D space. Various
thereby captured
on
images of the
the
computer
66
>*'
The unfolded hypercube was

the Inspiration for Salvador
Dall's The Crucifixion (1954).
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Gift of the Chester Dale
Collection, 1955. (55.5)
MATH EMATICS & ART
monitor. Introduced to this
part of mathematics,
bin has created 3-D
representations of the hypercube with
the
canvas
acting
which
have aided Robbln in
One moment
intertwined in
to the
pentagonal
non-periodic tiling
unusual
an
Tony Rob-
creating fascinating structures,
views a series of
one
interlaced
position
combination of
artist
plane intersecting the hypercube. Nontiles, quasicrystal geometry and fivefold
change dramatically according
viewer.
next
as a
Penrose
periodic tilings,
symmetry5,
canvas
perspective of the
triangles
stars
while In the
The
appear.
of both 2 and 3-D forms
type of symmetry
create
almost
an
contradictory image.
* Also known
2
as
the tesseract a 4-dimensional representation of a cube.
same time Bragdon used magic lines

graphic designs of books and textiles.
At the
and
3 Dali
contacted the mathematics
in architectural ornaments
department
at Brown
University for
further information.
*
Jesus
Christ
5Non-periodic tiling
designs which have
n-Jold symmetry
nailed
is
fourth-dimensional
to
cross
represented by
the
unfolded
hypercube.
tessellating
is
no
If
with tiles
or
shapes
which
create
pattern.
pattern is preserved when rotated 360'/n, it is

Therefore, a pattern has fivefold symmetry
pattern.
said to have n-fold symmetry.

if a rotation of 72' retains the
Quasicrystals are a newly discovered state of solid matter. Solid matter

thought to exist only in two states, amorphorous or crystalline. In
amorphorous the atoms (or molecules) are arranged randomly, while in
crystalline the arrangement is the periodic repetition of a unit cell
building block. The discovery of quasicrystals revealed a new state in
which the arrangement of units is non-periodic and with an unusual
symmetry, e.g. fivefold, not present in amorphorous or crystalline matter.
was
67
68
MATHEMATICS &
SCULPTURE
Dimensions,
gravity,
geometric
symmetry,
and
objects,
are
sets
complementary
all mathematical ideas
which
when
role in
into
come
sculptor
Space plays
a
play
creates.
prominent
sculptor's works.
Some works
simply
occupy space in the

we
of
center
space,
and other
same
way
living things
do. In these works the

center of
gravity1
within
These
the
are
the
to
For
Greek
The Discobolus (circa 450 B.C.)
bronze, captures
example
the
by
artist,
the
ancient
Myron,
or
Bufano's
St.
Horseback
all
Beniamino
by Myron,
in
we are
or
Michelangelo's David,
Discobolus
are
ground
with which
comfortable
in
that
occupy space
manner
accustomed.
point
sculpture.
objects
anchored
and
is
cast
moment in motion.
Francis
on
have their center of gravity

within the
play with
These
mass
use
as
uchi, the
Some modern art
sculptures
space and its three dimensions in unconventional ways.

space
center of gravity
mass,
of their sculpture.
as an
can
integral part of the work. Consequently the
be
point of space rather than
such works
illustrated
by
Eclpse by
Charles
Perry,
as
Red Cube
by
point of the
Isamu
Nog-
and the Vaillancourt Fountain
MATH EMATICS & ART
by
69
Louis Vaillancourt.
Other
depend
sculptures
their
on
interaction with space. Here
the space around the

artwork
(the
complementary
set of
points
of the mass) is
as,
or
equally, important
the sculpture.
as
Consider
Zinc Zinc Plain
by
Carl Andre. This

sculpture
is
room
works
other
The
in
staged
devoid of any
objects.
or
is created
plane
small
36
forming
by
squares
square
which lies flat
on
the
San Francisco's controversial Vaillancourt Fountain
_-
tloor.
ine room repre-
has
as
its center of gravity
point of space.
sents space, the set of
all
points, and he describes his work
works
seem
to
defy gravity.
as
"a cut of
These include such
space".2
Some
sculptures
as
the
mobiles of Alexander Calder with their exquisite balance and
symmetry
and
mysteriously
on
Isamu's
Noguchi's
its vertex. There
the Earth itself as
an
integral part
are even
mysterious geometric
grass theorems
possible.
sculptures
balancing
which
Crista, Carl Andre's Secant, and
by
physical nature
mathematical
Cube
use
of the art and its statement, e.g.
The Running Fence
Often the
Red
appearing
in
the
England.
of an artist's conceptional work requires
understanding and knowledge to make the work

mathematically analyzed most of his
Leonardo da Vinci
creations before
mathematically
undertaking
work.
If M.C. Escher had not
dissected the ideas of tessellation and
optical
70
Illusions, his works would not have evolved with the

which he
was
able to undertake them
once
ease
with
he understood the
mathematics of these ideas.
Today there are many

examples of sculptors looking
at mathematical ideas to
expand their art. Tony

Robbin
uses
the
study of
quasicrystal geometry, 4th

dimensional geometry, and
computer science to develop
and
expand his art. In his

giant sculpture
Easter egg
Ronald Dale Resch had to
use
Intuition, ingenuity,
mathematics,and the computer as
This sketch by Leonardo shows his

analysis of the horse's anatomy.
well
as
his hands to
complete his creation.

And artist-
mathematician Helaman
R.P.
Ferguson uses
traditional sculpting, the
computer and
mathematical equations
to create such works
as
Wide Sphere and Klein

Bottle with Cross-cap &
Vector.
is not
Consequently it
surprising
to find
mathematical models
doubling as artistic
models.
Author In front of Continuum by Charles
Perry. National Air & Space Museum,
Washington
D.C.
Among these we
find the cube, the
polycube,
the
sphere,
the
MATH EMATICS & ART
torus,
the
trefoil
hemisphere,
knot,
knots,
M6bius
squares,
Mathematical
prisms
the
objects
strip, polyhedrons, the
circles,
triangles,
from Euclidean
pyramids,
geometry and
topology have
played important
roles in the
sculptures
of such
artists
Isamu
as
Noguchi,
David
Smith, Henry
Moore, Sol LeWitt.
Regardless of the
sculpture,
mathematics is
inherent in it. It may
have been
conceived and
created without
mathematical
thought,
nevertheless
An Alexander Calder mobile. East
National
Building
Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
of the
mathematics
exists in that
work, just as it
exists in natural
creations.
^The
center
of gravity Is the point
on which an
object can be balanced.
the center of gravity or centrold of a triangle can be
determined by drawing that triangle's medians. The point where the
three medians Intersect happens to be the center of gravity.
For
example,
2Art & Physics,
Leonard Shlaln, William Morrow & Co. NY, 1981.
71
72
PUTTING MATH EMATICS INTO STONE

Trefoil knots
spheres
torus
vectors
flow movement
these
are some
of
the mathematical
ideas inherent In the
sculptures of
Helaman Ferguson.
We have often heard
of artists
using
mathematical ideas
to enhance their
work.
Mathematician- artist
Helaman R.P.
Ferguson
conveys the
beauty of
mathematics in his
Eine Kleine Rock Musik HI
Photography by Ed Bernik. From Helaman
Ferguson: Mathematics in Stone and Bronze by
Claire Ferguson. Meridian Creative Group,
Copyright 1994.
phenomenal
sculptures.
art form and
believe it is feasible to communicate mathematics

channels to the
To create his
traditional
an
science...!
along
aesthetic
general audience."1
exquisite forms, Helaman utilizes methods from
sculpting,
the
His works bear such
Cross-cap
As he states
"Mathematics is both
computer, and mathematical equations.

names as
Wild
Sphere;
Klein Bottle With
And Vector Field, Torus, Umbilical Torus With Vector
Field., WhaledreamU (horned sphere).

1 Ivars Peterson.
Equations
in Stone, Science News Vol. 138
September 8,
1990.
MATH EMATICS & ART
LAYING AN ECC MATHEMATICALLY

When Ronald Dale Resch
mission to
design
for
sculpture
com
gigantic Easier egg

he
Vegreville, Alberta,
discovered he would have
soon
develop
the
accepted
to
the mathematics for the task
virtually from scratch.

Over the years Resch has refined
the art of
manipulating
into 3-D forms.
problems
2-D
objects
His work and the
he has solved
point
to
mathematics, yet he has had little

formal mathematical training.
Working with sheets of

such
as
various materials
aluminum,
or
paper
transforms them into works of art

he has
he
by folding
He solves
developed.
geometric problems using
intuition, ingenuity, mathematics, the computer and his hands.
techniques
His initial instincts about the
design
of the egg
were
that he could
ellipsoids for the ends and a bulging cylinder for the

center. He quickly realized this would not work. Discovering that
available mathematics for the egg was limited1, he realized he
make two
would have to go it alone. His

Easter egg
524
required 2,208 identical equilateral triangular tiles and
three-pointed
width varied
by varying
resulting design for the magnificent
stars
according
the
angle
tiles, which
were
to their location
on
equilateral
and whose
the egg. He found that
of placement of the tiles
ever so
slightly (from
less than 1" to 7'), the flat tiles gave the Impression of curving and
the contour of the egg resulted.
long and
1
The final structure is 25.7 feet
18.3 feet wide, and weighs 5000 pounds.
Algebraic equations for egg-shaped curves were developed by French

mathematician Rene Descartes (1596-1650). In 1842, as a youth,
Scottish mathematician James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) devised a method
for constructing an egg using a pencil, string and tacks.
73
74
MATHEMATICS
DESIGN* & ART
The
following figures
can
and have
been used to create artistic and
graphic designs.
Their bases
mathematical, but that does

take away from their beauty and simple
are
not
elegance.
MATHEMATICAL STARS
The
illustrations
show
how
to
by using regular
polygons
generate
stars
polygons.
For odd sided
simply join every other vertex of the

polygon,
the
and you will arrive back at
starting point.
For
even
pointed
stars, note that the star is made up

of two rotated
polygons.
These will
have half the number of sides

the
generating polygon.
as
MATH EMATICS & ART
75
MATHEMATICAL EMBROIDERY
Math enthusiasts have been
mathematical
It Is
curves over
to discover
always fascinating
formed
curve
from
"embroidering"
the centuries
series
of
straight line segments. The "stitch

es" (line segments) end up being <!
tangents
for the
One can
mathematically
"embroider"
a
circle,
hyperbola,
an
a
curve
they
ellipse,
cardioid,
a
a
form.
parabola,
limacon,
deltoid, etc. In the process of embroi
dering
some
these
of their
Here is how
curves,
special
an
one
discovers
characteristics.
astroid
can
be made.
One way to make an astroid is to think of

it as a sliding ladder. Circles, the radius
of the ladder, are used to mark the base of
the ladder's new location.
Concentric circles appear when the
diagonals of a 24-sided polygon are

stacked.
Variations
ofparabolas.
76
This nest
of squares
is the first
<0
step
STRAI6HT LINE SPIRALS
in
making
spiral
the
below.
Spirals
are
mathematical
to convey motion.
of
curves
objects
They encompass
from two-dimensional
equiangular (logarithmic) and

Archimedean spirals for examples
dimensional
that
such
seem
family
spirals
to three-
the conchoid
spirals
Spirals touch many areas
and many living objects. A few
as
and helix spirals.

in our lives
examples
are
antlers of certain
seedheads of flowers, many
growth of certain vines,

art, graphic designs.
Straight line spirals
are
goats,
shells, the
DNA, architecture,
formed
by making a
In which each
of
nest
sea
regular polygons
polygon is formed by connecting
the midpoints of its sides. Looking at a nest
of polygons, the spiral is hard to see until it
is shaded. Here are some exciting designs
these straight line spirals produce.
reduced
There
are
many variations of these
spirals.
Some of these variations have been
connected" to pursuit
four
spiral
is formed from
square root numbers using

the Pythagorean theorem.
one
such
as
the
spiders problem.
Another famous
This
problems,
straight
line
produced by constructing
numbers
using
the
spiral
is the
square roots
lythagorean theorem.
spiders start crawlingfrom the four comers of a

square. Each spider is crawling toward the one on its
rtoht moving toward the center at a constant rate
Thus, the spiders are always located at four comers
of a square. The curves formed by the spiders' path
are equiangular
spirals. The size of the initial square
and speed of spiders determines how long it will take
for the spiders to meet.
Four
MATHEMATICS S. ART
LOOKING AT THE DUALS OF PLATONIC SOLIDS

The Platonic solids
convex
convex
polygonsare only
polyhedra with
faces that
five In number. It Is
are
regular
interesting
to
discover the connection between the Platonic and their duals.
'\t^*
\^W^|^ off
tetrahedron & its dual
an
cube & Its dual
dodecahedron & Its dual
octahedron & its dual
To make the dual of a
polyhedron,
one
an
first finds the center of each
face and then joins the centers of faces that share

The illustrations reveal that the dual for
tetrahedron, the dual for

while
an
an
icosahedron, and
an
an
edge.
a
octahedron,
cube. The dodecahedron's dual is
icosahedron's is
the five Platonic solids' duals is
a common
tetrahedron is
cube (hexahedron) is
octahedron's dual is
icosahedron & Its dual
dodecahedron. None of
anything but a Platonic solid!
77
78
THE MACK OF MATHEMATICS
DEFLATED POLYHEDRA
SCHLEGEL DIAGRAMS
Each of these
represents
one
diagrams
of the five
Platonic solids.
called
tetrahedron
They are
Schlegel diagrams,
after the German
mathematician Viktor
Schlegel, who invented

particular diagrams
these
in 1883.
of 3-D
hexahedron
(cube)
They remind one
objects which have
been deflated. In
however, the
essence,
polyhedron
is inscribed in
sphere
projected through a
point that is along the line
a
and
of the north
sphere.
Its
pole of the
projection can
change according to the

polyhedron's position in
the sphere. These Schlegel
diagrams have the special
property that one face of
the
dodecahedron
polyhedron contains
all the
images of all the
other vertices. In addition,

the
diagrams show all the

polyhedron's vertices,
edges and faces,
though
even
their size and
shape are distorted.

icosahedron
MATH EMATICS & ART
79
MATHEMATICS
The laws of
&THE ARTOF
mathematics
M.C. ESCHER
are
not
merely
human
inventions
creations. They simply "are"; they

quite independently of the human
or
exist
intellect. The most that any
man
with
keen intellect can do is to find out that
they
are
there and to take
cognizance
of
them. M.C. Escher
And M.C. Escher
certainly
of mathematics.
It is
his works
Most of
did take
exciting
cognizance
to view many of
through mathematical eyes.
us
are
familiar with Escher's
creations of the tessellations of
magical
plane.
His
works far surpassed the traditional tessellations

of
He
plane.
objects
gives
he tessellates,
famous
works
Water, Day and
as
motion and life to the

as
illustrated in such
Night,
transforming the plane,
Besides
tessellated
objects undergo
themselves. In addition,
the
transformation
one sees
his
mastery
of
concepts of translations, rotations, and
reflections in
periodic tiling.
Escher also used
objects and
of topology. The Mobius

his woodcuts Mobius
Horseman.
and
Fish and Scales, and
Encounter.
the
Sky
Metamorphosis,
He
ideas from the field
strip plays
Strip
I and II
exquisitely produces
key role
in
and
trefoil knots in his
A section from Escher's work Metamorphosis in.

1994 M.C. Escher/Cordon Art-Baarn-Holland.
All rights reserved.
80
work Knots. And

his Snakes Is
theory. Print
even
though
Escher
probably
piece of art to Introduce
perfect
Gallery and Balcony are
a
wonderful
did not Intend It,
topic on knot
examples
of topolog-
M.C. Esher's Print Gallery Illustrates a topological distortion.

1994 M.C. Escher/Cordon Art-Baam-Holland. AU. rights reserved.
leal distortion.
These
rubber sheets which
lithographs almost seem to be printed

magically distorted via topology.
Manipulation and mixing dimensions
other mathematical
are
themes found in many of Escher's works. In
2-dimensional lizards
dlmensional forms.
Mirror and
Cycle.
on
are
eerily
come
Reptiles,
to life in realistic
Similar transformations take
His
use
of concepts from
Escher has
crawling
place
in
3-
Magic
projective geometry
MATHEMATICS S, ART
illustrates Eschews use of tessellations as well as his mastery of moving

between the worids of the 2nd and 3rd dimensions. 1994 M.C. Escher/Cordon
Art-Baam-Holland. All rights reserved.
Reptiles
perspective, traditional vanishing points, his
own
curved
vanishing points are responsible for the feeling of depth and

dimension in St. Peter's Rome, Tower ofBabel and
High and Low.
Circles, ellipses, spirals, polyhedra and other solids

the
are some
of
geometric objects one finds in Escher's work. For example.

Spheres creates a 3-dimensional Illusion of spheres,
Three
although
find
it is
variety
composed entirely of circles and ellipses.

of solids,
Including
tetrahedron is the focus in Tetrahedral Planetoid. And in
stellated dodecahedron is present.
In Stars we
the Platonic solids, while
Gravity the
81
82
Escher makes the concepts of

needed to define it, his work
infinity
spirals
lead one's eyes
the
feeling
of infinite sequence
projected.
use
endless
in the field of
of such
help trick
to life.
meaning.
approaching
its
space
In
Whirpools
Square Limit
boundary
eyes and confuse
our
water is
Escher is
as
We
get both the
phenomenal.
Waterfall
endless
endlessly climbing
descending
figures
staircase and
staircase all in
are
also his
one
the other
for
Relativity.
and Convex, Escher is
us
loop.
means
illusions in Belvedere and
has
while in
loop,
going upstream
believing
Ascending and Descending there are two sets of people
an
His
the Penrose tribar,
minds. His
in
Concave
is
tessellating in Cubic Space Division.
optical illusion,
Impossible
are
ideal model for Henri Poin-
an
impossible geometric figures
our
No words
In
journey.
yet infinite non-Euclidean geometry.
concepts of infinity and
Lastly,
on an
And Circle Limit would be
care's finite
its
portrays
the
come
creating
In
master of
oscillation illusion. Our eyes and mind
are
taken
back and forth in the interior and exterior of

an
incredible structure and cast of
characters. For
dome is
example,
one
moment the vaulted
roof and then within seconds it is
ceiling.
It is
satisfying
to
explore Escher's work
on
many different levels. This introduction is

but
glimpse
of the wealth of mathematical
ideas found in the work of M.C. Escher.
M.C. ISscher mastered the art
of tessellations. He
also envisioned a tessellation stamp. The six faces
of the cube have a design in six different positions.
So as the stamp is rolled on a piece of paper, the
design is tessellated. The design reproduced here
was not done with a stamp. Instead,
a computer
was used to rotate and flip the design so that it
could be tessellated.
MATH EMATICS & ART
Starting by
modifying one of its

lengths,
translate
that modification to
the other length's
position.
Now
modify one of
its widths, and
translate the
modification to the
other width also.
Now take the
resulting shape,
and tessellate
plane.
XI
x'
x'
X
83
TE$$ELLATING/
PLANE WITH/
MODIFIEE
RECTANOLI
84
TESSELLATIONS
OF OLD
From nature's
tessellation of the
to
honeycomb,
Roman mosaics, to
the tiles of ancient
Greece, to the
marvelous
by
designs
Moslem artists at
The Alhambra, to
M.C. Escher's
phenomenal
tessellations, to the
simplicity of the
tiles tessellations
cross
centuries and
cultures.
Here
we
simple yet elegant pattern
appears at the baths
CaracaUa In Rome.
Penrose
have
tessellation
design
using pentagons
and rhombi created
by artist Albrecht
Durer. It dates back
to the 15th
century.
uartety of designs. This
Roman, mosaic floors have
of
MATH EMATICS S. ART
85
PROJECTIVI
,*,
*,
geometry
Projective
mathematics
iis
that
figures
as
they
with
therefore
are
ART
with
deals
relations
properties and spatial
GEOMETRY*
flw
field
off
projected
of
and
problems of perspective. Many
century often worked

these artists, such
Battlsta Albert!
In
as
number of different
Giotto dl Bondone
(1404-1472),
artists of the 15th
disciplines.
(12669-1337), Leon
Plero della Francesca
Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Durer,
Some of
(14109-1492),
studied
engineering,
mathematics, science and architecture, while pursuing their art.

As
result Renalnssance artists connected mathematical
concepts, such
as
These artists
dimensional
how
projective geometry, to the creation of their works.

developed techniques for painting realistic three
scenes on
things changed
two dimensional canvases.
They analyzed
when viewed from different distances and
positions and developed ideas of perspective. They reasoned that
they perceived a scene outside through a window, it would be

possible to project what they saw onto a window as a collection of
points of vision if they kept their eye at a single focal point. The
if
would
window
their
canvas.
The
would
naturally
affected
the
by
act
as
scene
be
position of the
artist's eye and the

position of the
artists
canvas.
actually
Some
invented
mechanical devices to aid

in
drawing
as
Illustrated
perspective,
by
the two
diagrams.
Artists'
works
on
per-
An Albrecht Durer perspective instrument.
86
spective influenced
the
development of
projective geometry.
Just
as
topology
studies the
properties of objects
that remain
unchanged after they

have
undergone a
transformation,
projective geometry
Leonardo da Vinci's
plane figures
For
spectograph.
that do not
example, when
ellipse.
Similarly
a
a
studies properties of
change
when
they undergo projections.
circle is viewed from the side, it appears

square would become
different
quadrilateral. Having been influenced by perspective
as an
shaped
in the art of
This
use
study of The Adoration of the Magic by Leonardo illustrates

of linear perspective and a vanishing point
his
MATHEMATICS*. ART
the Renaissance and

17th
of
Girard
are
He wrote
(Desargues' Theorem)
study of
point of projection
still essential in the
His work influenced later
mathematicians in this field,

Pascal
help artists,
Desargues initiated the
number of theorems
which
to
century architect/ engineer/
mathematician
study
desiring
(1623-1662)
(1788-1867).
To
especially Blaise
create
realistic
three
parallell
converging
and Jean Victor Poncelet
lines
vanishing point
dimensional paintings Renaissance artists

used
87
concepts
from
projective
geometry,
namely point of
projection, parallel converging lines, and vanishing points.
This work
by Jesuit monk Andrea del Pozzo (circa 1685), was painted on
the hemi-cylindrical ceiling of St. Ignasio Church in Rome. His mural is
an excellent example of
perspective which illustrates the concepts of
projective geometry of a single vanishing point. In fact, it may be
considered to De too exact. A mark is locatea on the floor of the church,
indicating where the viewer should stand to get the full effect the artist
intended. At this location one actually feels the ceiling is infinite and the
reality of St Ignatius Carried into Paradise. Viewing the painting from
any other point creates a distorted and uncomfortable effect.
88
TH E MAC l< O F MATH EMATICS
MIXING ART&
MATHEMATICS OF
...geometry is the foundation

of all painting.
ALBRECHT PURER
Albrecht Durer
Albrecht Durer (1471 -1528)
18
was an
artist of many talents. Of his
children, Durer's father hoped It would be Albrecht who would
follow him In his work
apprenticed
to Michael
artist. After
goldsmith.
Wohlgemut, who
as a
three year
throughout Europe,
apprentice,
As
also
result, Durer
happened
was
to be
an
Durer traveled and worked
where he learned painting, engraving,
printing, and making woodcuts, all of which influenced his life's work.
He felt the
geometry,
study of mathematics enhanced art,
perspective and ideas of
extensive work
the
on
mathematics
geometric
needs.
artists
The
on
was
original
drawing
following
on
He also did
In
addition,
Geometry.
and
were
this line he
in
the mathematics he used. Some of his work in
constructions
Along
particular
proportion of the human body.
A woodcut from Durer's Treatise
he wrote books
In
exact1,
while other work and
approximate and served his artistic
developed
mechanical devices to aid
perspective.
sections illustrate how the work he
mathematical overtone, which helped him

and other creations.
pursued
immeasurably
had
in his art
MATH EMATICS & ART
j<s^*ifcii!
In Durer's woodcut Melancolia we find a magic square in the background,
geometric solids and the sun's rays acting as lines of projection in this
perspective drawing.
^Durer generated
an epicycloid by following a fixed

point of a circle as it
the circumference of another circle, but lacking an algebraic
foundation he did not analyze the curve. Likewise, he produced spirals
from the projection of helical space curves, but did not pursue them
rolled
along
mathematically.
89
90
CUBOCTAHEDRON-TRUNCUM
In addition to the many
innovative
he
techniques
developed,
Durer is
credited with
describing solids on a
plane in unassembled
form. Here is Durer's
description of one
such
solid, which, when cut

and assembled, forms
a
cuboctahedron
truncum.
DURER'S CONIC SECTION

This illustration
by
Albrecht Durer shows his
interpretation
section. His
of a conic
ellipse
is
somewhat egg-shaped,
which
implies he either
believed the inclination of

the
plane cutting the cone
made the
at the
ellipse narrower
top or he made
slight error in calculation.
Regardless,
interesting
it is
to
see
his
study of an ellipse.
From Underqweysurrg der
Messuna mit dem Zircklelund
Richtscheyt (a treatise on
geometric constructions) by
Albrecht Durer.
MATH EMATICS & ART
THE ORIGINAL PIXEL
Durer can be credited with
launching
In one of his books he illustrates the
Roman letters.
Durer devised his
own
the
concept of topography.
geometric
construction of
mathematical methods for
by constructing each letter from a combination of

triangles, trapezoids and/or parallelograms. He
Gothic letters,
squares,
systematized the structure of Gothic letters
by using
blocks somewhat similar to how letters

computer's monitor
using the pixel1
as
the
are
these little
formed
building
on a
building block.
These geometric constructions were devised during the

Renaissance, although the ideas were not published at that titne.
^Pixel is the abbreviation for picture element It is the visual

representation of a bit on the computer's monitor. A bit stands for binary digit
which is the smallest unit of information that a computer can hold. Tne
bit's value corresponds to the numbers 0 or 1, representing electrical
flow as "off' or "on" which translates to a white or black square on the
screen.
91
92
COMPUTER ART
Over the centuries the tools of
artist have
ranged
obscura and the
exploring
mathematics
new
form
an
stick to
as
the
Today
artists
are
medium of art that is
linked
perspective
or
to such devices
paint brush,
camera
from
window.
Until
the
art
to
recently computer
computer.
produced by mathematicians, scientists, engineers, and just
about everyone but artists.

deal of art that resembled
Initially,
curve
we were
stitching,
flooded with
line work and
was
great
optical
Illusions.
Computer generated art Reproduced from Computer Graphics by Melvin

Courtesy of Dover Publications,
L. Prueitt
Today, computers play a major role In commercial art. A computer

skilled artist with advanced software can transform graphic art
ideas for advertisements to
multiple
styles. Introducing various colors, scaling sizes

or
flipping objects, duplicating
minutes. In the
graphic
by changing type-
variations
various
of objects,
parts
of
an
rotating
object
In
past, all of these changes would have taken the
artist hours if not
days.
MATH EMATICS & ART
This oil painting
effect was
it via the
converting
achieved
by scanning
Engineers, architects and other designers have

embrace the
a mouse
photograph and
computer.
computer
not hesitated to
in their creations. With just
few clicks of
building could easily be modified, a plane could

possible perspectives, cross-sections could
rotated to show all
added, parts added

was
slow and
or
removed
painstaking.
effortlessly.
In the
be
be
past this work
93
94
With today's advanced computers and software, Leonardo da Vinci might

have rendered this sketch on a computer via an electronic sketchpad.
Artists
over
the centuries have used different mediums to create
their works watercolor, oils,

artists who feel the
acrylic, chalk,
computer
Is
an
etc.
artificial
freedom of spontaneous expression.
There
means
are some
that lacks
They prefer the direct
contact of their hands with the medium of their choice, rather
than
working by
with
stylus
computer
With
means
on a
and electronic tablet and
as a
keyboard
and
screen or
Others view the
screen.
challenge.
improved software
screen.
of electricity
and hardware, colors
Rigid computer
lines
can
be
can
easily
be mixed
on
the
softened with any
MATH EMATICS S. ART
shaped
a
curve.
Changes
can
be made from
watercolor, and brush shapes

be
areas can
erased
or
definitely
either
or
create.
Or
painting effect
changed
Parts
easily.
more
or
her creative work. The result
video, paper
perhaps
it to any size.
capturing the
we
can
be
elsewhere in the work. The artist is
on
of
to
at whim. Minute
entered
option of enlarging
designed capable
pasted
oil
an
of his
charge
printed
be
magnified and reworked
cut out and

in
can
can
be
film. Film leaves the
or
Perhaps
printer will
be
texture of the work the artists
should consider this
a new
form of texture
in itself.
Esteemed artists have
displayed
well known international

art.
art created with
galleries,
simply labeled
Such works have yet to be
What would Leonardo da Vinci think of the

art? Given his fondness for
not have snubbed the
inquiry
can
use
innovation1,
of the
use
of
computer.
in
computer
computers
we can assume
in
he would
He said "...no human
be called science unless it pursues its
that he extended this to his art- for example, the
golden rectangle
computer
art.
mathematical exposition and demonstration."
of the
but it is still labeled
path through
His works reflect
predominant
in many of his works and the
use
concepts of
projective geometry in his masterpiece, The Last Supper.

One form of art should not be considered better than
different. Artists should be free to choose any
another, just
means or
medium.
1His notes and various innovations were used by artists to enhance and
facilitate their artwork. Leonardo's mathematical inclinations led him to
invent various types of special compasses capable of producing
parabolas, ellipses and proportional figures. He is also credited with the
invention of the perspectograph, used by artists to help draw objects in
perspective.
95
1=1
Itl
=-e
r\\n
=l-l=i 1V
n
9<
lxl=googol = ]
"
1000-1
999
sin(ji/2)
"
I 3x'dx
-(*)
WITH X#Y
THE MACIC OF
NUMBERS
DISCOVERING THE MAGIC OF NUMBERS
QUATERNIONS & THE 6AMES NUMBERS PLAY

CANTOR & INFINITE CARDINAL NUMBERS
NUMBER FANTASIES
WHAT ABOUT PERFECT SQUARES?

THE PARABLE OF
THE PRIME FASCINATION
CANTOR AND THE UNCOUNTABLE REALS
EUCLID'S PROOF OF UNENDING PRIMES

NUMBER MAGIC
PLAYING THE NUMBERS
98
The science of pure mathematics, in its modern
developments, may claim to be the most original

creation of the human spiritA.N. Whitehead
Some people
think that the way certain numbers
results that appear seem to possess
operate and the
magical quality. Perhaps the
illusion of hocus pocus Is intensified because there
types
of numbers
numbers which
are so
many
to be invented
seem
by
mathematicians' whim.
In school
was
we
first learned about the whole numbers. Our first task
to learn to count, and then
began
to feel that
perhaps
learned to add, subtract,

of the blue
V8
1
3/8
we
operate with them. Just when
had mastered the numbers
multiply
and divide, then
fractions, decimals, integers,...
0 -7 4
7i
googol
we
having
seemingly
out
appeared. They
-2+3i .625 1,238,901

TRANSFINITE
RATIONAL
amicabCe
&
>s
COMPLEX O Prime g
WHOLE* a So
v*U-n
U rt
o
f
+67
220
5th
X.
19
<>**
th
cd
aa
oaa
-rt &D
CD1
& o
a
*d g
even
r*
_C
.E
p
3
t=4*
^
<
real
natural
INTEGERS
cardinal
fractions
IRRATIONAL
35.7898989... 284 -<A
counting
.333
e mm pnooucrs pius, San cams, c
THE MAGIC OF NUMBERS
sometimes surfaced when
solutions. Then
suddenly
7 divided
example,
by
didn't
particular problems
new
was
numbers
neither 3
seem
to have
came
to the
rescue.
4,
so we
learned the
nor
For
number 3 and 1/2 did the trick.

What Is
all
the
so
different
individual
reproducing
with
amazing Is how many types
some
classifications
of numbers
Numbers
characteristics.
of numbers there are,
almost
along
with
seem
to
plus
their
be
list of types of numbers

called
naturals) numbers
(also
descriptions counting
themselves.
Here is
partial
({1,2,3,...}), whole numbers (include the counting plus the number

0),
({...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3...}),
integers
the
rational
(includes
fractional, mixed numbers, improper fractions, proper fractions,

decimals
and
decimals),
repeating
Irrational
(Includes
never-ending
non-repeating decimals, radicals without
roots,
),
7t,
e,
real,
imaginary,
the
perfect
complex, transcendental,
transfinite, perfect
This section seeks to introduce you to
properties and
some
of their
may not be familiar, and to

some
youVe
known for
some
numbers, their
quirky characteristics with which you
long
acquaint you
time.
more
intimately
with
99
100
QUATERNIONS &
THECAMES
It
NUMBERS PLAY
dimensions. It would
describing
seem
that
hard for the

how
having various
number Is just
How
two, three, four, etc., dimensional?

mathematicians to
For
numbers be
comprehend
as
can
number
something
such numbers
are
as
Well, leave it to the
example, mathematicians consider any real number
to themselves that says their amount. Also
line
a one
numbers
are
composed
of
one,
give another twist to the characteristics of numbers.
imaginary number as one-dimensional because they have

a
dimensional
object.
real number and
On the other
graphed,
the location for 5+2i

on the complex
number plane is given by
the ordered pair (5,2)
an
imaginary number.
dimensional
complex
on
need
part
they
plane (a
figure) called
plane. Now
ask how
are
more
are
For
number
the
you
why
does
or
complex numbers were
no
they
useful and
shapes
so
to
light many years
have been around. The
exception. Today, for example, they are
used to describe patterns of flows in

currents and the
are
invented, their
various uses come
after
one
than these. As with
many mathematical Ideas that
discovered
2-
2-dimensional
numbers used, and

-r-r-r-
any
one
hand, the complex
it is located
might
or
they can be graphed on
called two-dimensional numbers because
example when 5+21 is
were
to
layperson
described
particular quantity.
is
hydrodynamics, electric
of airfoils. Since these
effective In
complex numbers
solving various types of problems,
it
seemed that the next natural step was to look for three-dimensional
numbers.
Although the
to the
discovery
These
were
complex
search for these was not successful, it lead
of four-dimensional numbers, the
invented
numbers
by
they
quaternions.
Sir William Hamilton In 1843. Like the
were
met with
skepticism
and
suspicion.
They are composed of four values

x,
y,
values
z-axes
space)
describe direction,
as
do
that
(numbers
three-dimensional
and
scalar (
y, and
x,
locate
not commutative when it
In which
are
they
quantity
values). The set of quaternion
comes
makes
multiplied
In
point
to
complex numbers,
or
multiplication
the order
difference In the result. How
these four-dimensional numbers
One of their
on
are
that does not
numbers, unlike the set of real, Imaginary

are
characteristics
descriptive
or
everyday
being put to work today?

communicating graphic information
is
uses
computers by giving descriptions of rotations
dimensions.
The
following story
like all other numbers, have
beginning
themselves
as a
was a
useful.
But,
cliques
already
were
shame that numbers could not think
of
happy family.
Over the centuries when just the
the odd and
quaternions,
personality of their own.
As usual at the numbers convention, the
to form. It
in three
tries to demonstrate that
even
counting numbers
around,
were
numbers would argue about which
was more
they united forces when the integers entered the
picture with their negative numbers.

Now sides
were
convention
already beginning
to form
over
The counting numbers had always been very

whole numbers greater than
their natural
garb
or
about the
if it fell
since it was neither
negative
Surely the rationals
fractions,
equal
They
into its set. The
quaternion, while
as
big
usual,
to 1.
They
zero,
nor
had to
integers
of the
quaternion?
were
study
were
being neutral,
open to
dressed in
only
one
unit
the newcomer,
both hot and cold

never
took sides,
positive.
would consider it
were
issue
elitistonly
all in increasing order with
between consecutive numbers.
and decide
the
who would accept the newcomer, the
more
more
interested
seriously.
in
But the
displaying
their
101
10}
numerators and denominators than to
even
Over the years, the decimals had
used to the fractions.
gotten
longer disturbed by the fractions'
were no
knew how much easier
especially
in to say
1/7 jumped
denominators to add
work for
.007
even
"Although
called the fractions passe. But

one
subtract us, and
or
has to
we
numbers
of
some
the
included
common
some
we
In fact,
some
fancy foot
prefer
your decimal representations
way out there.
are
can't hold your decimal
find
require
multiplication and division, and while
lowest terms
They
The decimals
antics.
they were to operate with thanfractions,
calculators.
on
talk to the decimals.
of
to be in
rational
calculator's memories
representation." Thus the rationals, which

the
counting numbers,
and
integers, fractions,
decimals, continued to fight among themselves.
Having
seen
the
that went on
bickering
with the "rational"
numbers, quaternion
was
understandably
fearful ofagroup of
radicals
by the snack
bar that included
f/2,
/3,/T5,and/6.
Quaternion had heard

how irrational
could
get.
they
But to its
surprise, they
hear that you have
4-dimensional,"
y^2
number
said.
to carry around
instead.
Perhaps
so
you too
of
were
Interested in
parts and
are
in decimal form. All those
prefer wearing
can
find
"So I
talking.
what
they
"Well, don't feel bad about it, Tm.
ending non-repeating when

drag
007
digits
call
never
are a
my square root suit
more
abbreviated way
of
expressing yourself."
Quaternion
wanting
was
bit
encouraged and felt
to get quaternion's
hopes up,
j/J
more
relaxed. Not
added, "You'll need to be
cleared with the
complex numbers
set. It
keeps
track
of all of us
integers, rationals, irrationals, reals, and imaginary."
the counting,
"But I heard the
complex set has
split personality, and fluctuates
between the real and imaginary numbers," said quaternion.

the
Suddenly
that
complex number 3-5i walked over saying
"You've
got
right, but the
complex number
plane gives
everyone of us
our own
single
point on which to
reside. When
worse comes
to
worst, lean
always take
refuge there. I
know it's my very
own
point,
no one
else has that
location,
there I
so
can
be alone, and regroup, relax and meditate.
We each have our own spot

'You
seem
to have
we can
call home."
multiple personality,
and scalar," 3-5i said to quaternion.

has
"I
no
"
Fm
what with your vectors

sure
the
complex plane
place for you."
hope I can find
my
own
point and home," quaternion said. With
sad note to its voice it continued, "One doesn't know which way to
turn,
"It
or
should I say which set to seek out."
certainly
and
saw n.
is
difficult," said a rather deep

"It
very hard for
me
Fm irrational as
^~2
was
numbers.
Although
not let
into the reals
me
voice.
to be
Quaternion turned
accepted by
the real
and the others, they would
right away, saying there was
no
way to find
103
104
I heard the
complex set has
a
split personality.
m*w
qua
my exact location
|/5,...
what
who
was
use
on
the real number line, unlike the
I to do? I had to do some fast
realized how Important

all the circles
j/2, j/j,
the Pythagorean theorem toflnd their locations. So
an
talking, and the realsftnaUy

am, especially since
irrational number I
depended on mefor their circumference and area,
and
lam
transcendental
toboot." "Well,
k, you speak as
The reals finally

realized how
important
an
irrational
number I
am.
though you're
the only
transcendental
number," said
the number e,
who
to be
was
a
known
braggart.
"I also happen

to be
I'm different
Qj
from all of you.
I have
rate***
A quaternion is expressed in
the following wau:
more
q=a+xi+y]+zk, where
dimensions.
"a" is
scalarfa constant] and
"xl+y]+zk "is a
y, and z being
vector, with x,
real numbers.
transcendental, the base for the natural logarithms, and found
extensively in nature besides being used in calculus."

Quaternion
was
the teasing and

said.
"Perhaps
beginning
Perhaps belong
form
set
q=a+xi+yj+zk.
from the
headache and
was
tired
of all
I don't
belong here," quaternion

complex numbers shouted. "But
they taunted quaternion.
to my
quaternions. The
is
bickering. "Perhaps
different from all of you.

I
get
you don't," all the
where do you belong?'

'Tm
to
own
I have
more
depth,
set. Yes, thats it! I
more
am a
of 4 dimensional numbers,
"
dimensions.
member of the
since my
general
Havtng said this, quaternion began to rise
convention floor, and
gone to another dimension.
suddenly disappeared
as
if it had
105
106
CANTOR & THE

INFINITE CARDINAL
We
NUMBERS
are
familiar with the
natural numbers, the

whole numbers, the
Integers and how and

what
they are used to
count. But what about
{roffonaf nuimtoers}
Jf:;.;1';!!!*:
Georg Cantor's transfinite numbers? How
.::tk.- ;'--the1ollpwng':s^^l-lvv%;/:%>
{{wiritihasphere}
many are there and what
type of things do they
'-::si-
describe? Transfinite
numbers describe the number
of objects In
set. For
example, A={apple, orange,
pear} would use
the
cardinal number 3 to
describe how many
objects In set A.
Between
1874-1895 Cantor
studied and
theory.
many sets of numbers that
a
new
numbers.
are
needed to describe the
were
of Infinite sets. Hence, he created the transfinite
HO, Hi, H2, H3, HA
Hebrew letter
aleph. HO
counting numbers. Any
correspondence
with the
number of elements. The
The
(aleph-null)
symbol H
stands for the
refers to the number of
set that
can be put into a one-to-one

counting numbers is said to have HO
diagram above points
out
some
sets with
cardinality of aleph-null HO, aleph-one Hi, aleph-two H2, but

has yet come up with examples of sets that use H3 or Hi
no one
or
Since there
Infinite, it was apparent to him that
set of cardinal numbers
cardinatlity
the
are
developed set
any higher ones.
THE MACK OF NUMBERS
107
NUMBER
The properties and
fantasie:
workings of
numbers at times
almost
seem
magical. Choose
any three
digit
number whose
ones
and hundreds
digits
For
285.
Reverse the order
Subtract the
smaller from the
larger number.
582-285=297
The result will

have
the tens
digit,
the
and
ones
hundreds
always
582
Reverse its digits.
as
(582-285)
=297
Find their difference.
and
digits
total 9.
Now reverse the
digits
digits.
582
digits.
always
285
Pkk o 3-dlgrt number with

different ones and hundreds
different.
are
example,
of the
on
the result.
792
729
Reverse the difference's
digits.
Add these two

numbers
792+297=1089
792+297
The result will
always
be 1089.
=1089
Find their sum. The

result will
1089,
always be
108
WHAT ABOUT
PERFECT SQUARES?
a
number which
as a
whole number
A perfect square is
can
be written
times itself. For
example,
36 is 6x6
and 49 is 7x7.
Did you know?
The sum of the first n odd

numbers is a perfect
square,
n2
that is
1 +3+5+7... +(2n-l)
=n2
e.g. l+3+5+7+9=25=52
Every perfect square ends

0, 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9.
in a
Every perfect square
is
divisible by 3 or is when
it is decreased by 1.
is
it is decreased by 1.
is
it is increased or
decreased by 1.
109
THE PARABLE
Many, many years
big
party
numbers
in all its
ago, there
being
glory.
all the other
the
given for
of the time. One
OFTl
was a
was
there
Two showed up with
even
numbers in tow. And
as
prime numbers
many
could be found had
come.
1 /4 and
of the radicals had showed up like
2/3.
A few
who had just arrived
There
sides
off the
Viand
the sides
when
of right triangle
j/2
and
j/7
with 3. But
with 3.
rolled in everyone asked, "Who invited you?". "What do you

n.
on
'Tm
number." 'Yes you are,
the number line?" "What about
asked n. "Thanks, to Pythagoras and the
f/2?"
like 1 /2,
just arrived off
'Who invited me7', asked
mean,
fractions
of a right triangle
who had
but do you know your location
know
were even some
as
use
of a compass,
exactly where I belong on the number line," replied j/2.
felt embarrassed and hurt,
but said, 'Tm
little
after the
number
3."
"But exactly where?,"
they all chimed in.
factor of every number,
Since 1
was a
give
chance to describe
So
n a
began
to tell his
felt TV's pain and said,
"Lets
itself."
story.
"As you all know the
Babylonians
110
discovered
probably first
circles with
doubling
me.
Some ancient scribe had drawn
different sized radii.
The scribe took the diameter
of each circle.
the radius)
wrap each circle's diameter around it. To his
regardless of the
size
around it 3 and
spread quickly
all
Everywhere people
over
knew I
was an
were now
a
circle
always wrapped
exciting discovery. The news

to Greece to China.
Egypt
about
learning
and distance around
People
me.
Because
devising
by using
me
was no
in their calculations.
offence,
number quite like
me
me.
They
satisfied
with
some
mathematicians are,
It suits
me
just fine.
methods
have
been
so
later
thought
my exact number
on
they
that
name.
Tm
But no, you know how stubborn
they wanted
to be
precise. So for the centuries that followed to the
and
they
never
not able to derive
were
transcendental. You would have
people would have given up on finding

n.
but
ordinary number, especially since they had
from any of their regular algebraic equations,
also labeled
of my special
ways to find the
new
anxious to find my exact value. No
were
come across a
me
they
surprise, hefound that
the circle, its diameter
the world from
were
connection to circles
area
of
little bit. This
(by
And just for kicks, decided to
developed
to
more
and
present,
get
more
new means
more
accurate
approximation.
The famous mathematician Archimedes found
me
to be between 3
In the Bible I appear twice and my value is
10/71 and 3 1/7.

3.
as
Egyptian
estimated
me as
mathematicians used 3.16
keep
drawing
me
they will never get my exact amount, but they
out to
imagine how much of
more
and
decimal places. You can't
computers
are
used, HI be out
to
ofplaces.
*1
They say I am
essential to computing
4, 6,
things, such
various
as
more
burden it is carrying around all those
decimal places. Once calculus and

millions
given
And Ptolemy
3.1416 in 150A.D.
Mathematicians know
on
for
me.
volumes,
areas,
V*X
circumferences, and
anything that deals

with circles,
*ox
cylinders,
cones, and spheres. I
also play
role in
probability. And with
Q
'
* ZO.
W*
~~
my millions decimal
approximation,
Two showed up with'

all the Other
modem
even
day
computers
will
rely
on me
them for accuracy and
"Say
no
such
all,
number
through
more", shouted 1. 1 continued," Fm
know
as n
each have
we
can ever
not the most
location
put
numbers in tow.
them
their paces and test
speed.
renowned number
we
to
sure we
all agree that
should be counted among
our own
point
on
us.
After
the number line. No
have another number's point, nhas its point. It is
important thing about
number to know the exact
of its point."
"Agreed",
shouted 3,
the party
bit
one
of the mystical numbers.
of mystery, variety
and
"
I think
intrigue" said
"Welcome", chimed the rest of the numbers. "Lets get

under way. Lets start
counting", said n.
our
lends
j/2.
party
112
THE
PRIME
One way to
FASCINATION
classify
describe them
A
composite.
or
prime number's only
1 and itself. It is not
factors
are
divisible
by any other
the other hand,
numbers is to
either prime
as
number.
On
composite
number has other factors beside 1 and
itself
12 is not
(e.g.
1,2,3,4,6, and 12). In
its factors
are
addition,
every
described
by
prime
number
(12's
formed
one
by multiplying
3.
In
be
223)
is
prime factorization. No
other number besides
JUff WVOKOOWflfl
can
unique product of
numbers
called its
prime because
the
12
can
be
two 2s and
1700s
Christian
Goldbach wrote to Leonhard Euler

that he believed it could be shown
W^P<
that every
even
Integer other than
is the sum of two
(e.g. 8=5+3; 28=13+15). This

simple
the
i*4
taMM*fa>
statement remains
unsolved
prime numbers
problems
mathematics. Twin
primes1,
primes, Sophie
Germain
clear
of
one
of
Mersenne
primes
are
among the other primes
winypfRM
fascinations that mathematicians
explore.
*Twin primes are primes
are
two units
apart, such
as
that
only
3 and 5. As of
November 1993, the largest pair found

by Harvey Dubner
(l,692,923,232xl04020l) each with
was
4030
Talk by Theoni Pappas.

Publishing/Tetra.
Reprinted from Math

1991 Wide World
digits.
THE MACIC OF NUMBERS
113
CANTOR i
Georg
Cantor's
set
transfinite numbers
accomplishments.
countability
numbers was
THE UNCOUNTABLI
brilliant
REAL NUMBER:
theory
were
His
and
proof of the
of the rational
elegant. Equally fascinating was his indirect proof
showing that the real numbers
are
not countable.
countable if its elements
can
numbers. For the rational
numbers1,
be matched with the

he devised
listing all possible fractions, and a method

the
counting numbers. He tried the
real numbers, but decided that

out to prove
they
were
therefore looked for
arrangement
An infinite set is
same
type of method with the
they were not countable.
not countable
counting
method for
to match them up with
by assuming they
So he set
were,
and
contradiction. First, he assumed he had
that listed all the real numbers. For
numbers between 0 to 1 it
00
example,
an
for the
might be a list like this
1234867
...
9 8 7 8
1 9 73 0 4 8 3 9...
0 2 8 3 7 16 8 4...
0 O 1 I 2
...
114
Then he looked at the numbers
formed
changed
have
number by
each
digit
placing
1.
he
one
contradiction he
digit
to another
diagonal
by simply adding
Cantor
of this list. He
the
diagonal,
digit (e.g.
1 to each
and
he may
Then
digit).
by
this number had to be
argued that his
list
was
ostensibly
just formed using the diagonal. This
was
looking
for. This number was
was
supposed
the
to be
list, yet it differed from every term of the list at least at the
that
number
was
was a
along
complete!
numbers.
This
the list's
number that
included in the
were
diagonal
to Include all real numbers between 0 and 1, but did not
Include the
in the
this
decimal point In front of It,
between 0 and
supposed
the
taking the digits landing on
on
them
changed
along
was
"complete"
same
diagonal.
Thus, this diagonal
between 0 and 1, and
list.
Therefore, the list
was
was
Since the subset was not
can
be
not
proof could be used for any subset of the real

countable, the real numbers
not countable!
Numbers that
not
expressed
as
fractions
or
repeating decimals.
115
EUCLID'S PROOF
OF UNENDING
PRIME5
11, 13, 17,

19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41,
43, 47, 53, 59, 61,
It
the further out
seems
one
numbers, the primes become

because
they
proof
rarer
appear less and less
end somewhere.
first
ventures
As
early
as
and
In the
rarer.
frequently,
that the prime numbers
are
Suppose
represents the last prime number.
Now form
might
think
perhaps they
provided
the
infinite. He used indirect
in the
and
One
that
about 300 B.C. Euclid
reasoning,
n
field of whole
following manner.
number from the product of all prime numbers up to

n. 2x3x5x7x1 lx...xn.
including the last one,
Add 1 to this product and call this number k.

k=2x3x5x7xl lx...xn+l
kis either prime or composite.
If k is prime, then k is a prime number greater than the

assumed largest prime, namely n, because k is 1 more than the
product of the existing list ofprimes.
If k were not prime, then k must have a prime factor. J^s
prime factor cannot be one of the primes from the existing list of
primes because we know none of these, namely 2,3, 5,7, 11
n, can divide evenly into k each of these primes would leave a
remainder of 1. Therefore k must have a new prime number as its
Since there is no end to this process, the primes are infinite.
factor.
As
168
matter of mathematics trivia between 1 and 1000 there
primes, between 1000 and 2000 there
and 3000 there
are
are
are
135, between 2000
127, between 3000 and 4000 there
are
120.
116
NUMBER MACK
Am AS Of IW441
YEARS ELAPSED SINCE 1994
0RMI>0K1AN?iV0*?14
wuiHinmrntmuai ntaam an mm in
<
14
w*)WWWmHIIWIWII>w
3988
Take the year you
were
born. To this add the year of an important
event in your life. To this

1994.
Finally,
sum
add to this
add the age you will be at the end of
sum
the number of years ago that the
important event took place. The answer Is always
3988!
117
PLAYING
Every math enthusiast
or
at
one
another has discovered
by
tricks
or
been
oddities
delighted
involving
numbers. Here
for you to
explore and hopefully enjoy.
or
WITH NUMBER!
time
are
two
SUMMING * SQUARING
l+Z+3+4+3+2+l=42
THE 1'g PYRAMID
x*-x
ii2=ui
1112=1Z3X1
IIIIX=IX343ZI
XXXXXX=X2345432X
XXXXXX*=X2345*5432X
IIIIIIIX=IX345>7>543XI
IIIIIIIIX=IX345787<S43XI
...^rhen does it
stop?
MATHEMATICAL
MACK IN NATURE
WHAT HONEYBEES ARE BUZZING ABOUT

MATHEMATICS
HEXAGONS & NATURE
CHAOS IS FOR THE BIRDS

A CLOSER LOOK AT FRACTALS & NATURE
THE MATHEMATICALLY
ANNOTATED GARDEN
MATHEMATICS RIDES
THE CREST OF THE WAVE
120
There is
no
branch of mathematics, however abstract,
which may not someday be applied to phenomena
of the real world.

When
Lobachevsky
try to pick out anything by
we
itself we find it hitched to
everything
else in the universe.
John Muir
Ever look
half,
the
petals,
leaf and wonder
notice the
or
of the
at
why
growth pattern
of hair
and bark of redwood trees?
on a
exactly
in
of stars in different flowers'
perfect shapes
spiral growth pattern
It could be divided
of
certain shells, of
human head,
or
pinecones,
of the branches
Nature abounds with
examples
of
mathematical concepts. In
our
how
things
look for patterns and similarities that
can
be measured and
used to
are
formed,
we
search to
explain and understand
This is
categorized.
why
mathematics is
us are
oblivious to the
explain natural phenomena.
As nature
puts forth
its wonders, most of
massive calculations and mathematical work needed to
something
web is
very routine to nature.
simple,
structure is
web
are
but
For
elegant natural creation.
mathematically analyzed,
indeed
example, the
catenary
When this beautiful
the ideas that appear in the
curve
the
logarithmic spiral,
and the transcendental number
is the formation of
e.
Another
tortoise shell. To
plates
explain
pattern formed, the mathematics of triple junction, hexagonal
example
the
spider's
surprising radii, chords, parallel segments,
triangles, congruent corresponding angles,

the
explain
Orb
tiling,
and calculus
are
on a
needed. This
chapter presents
nature's wonders and the mathematical ideas
they conceal.
few of
MATHEMATICAL MACK IN NATURE
Bees.. .by virtue of
WHAT HONEYBEE:
ARE BUZZIN<
ABOIT
MATHEMATIC
certain
geometrical forethought...
know that the hexagon is
greater than the square and the
triangle, and will hold more honey for the same
Pappus of Alexandria
expenditure of material.
Bees
have
not
studied
logarithmic spirals. Yet,
as
tessellation
In
so
architecture of Insects and animals
mathematically.
Nature
uses
theory,
many things
can
often be
nor
orb
spiders
In nature, the
analyzed
the most efficient and effective forms
forms
rrr
that require the least
this that links
the art of
121
expenditure
of energy and materials. Is it
nature and mathematics?
Nature has mastered
solving maximum/minimum problems,
linear
algebra
122
and
problems,
solutions to
finding optimum
problems Involving
constraints.
By focusing
attention
our
mathematical Ideas
The square, the
can
the
on
and the
triangle
self-tessellatlng regular polygons.

the smallest
when
for
perimeter
prisms of square
made up of cells which

30
support
feels
honeycomb
1.5
more
prisms
at
of
ounces
in
exactly
sections
pounds
the
only three
hexagon has
This
area.
same
that bees,
means
In the hive,
use
space than If
less
wax
tessellatlng
comb's walls
1/80 of an inch thick, yet
about
This
weight.
honeycomb
explains why
of about 14.5"x8.8"
of honey, while It
can
a
can
only requires about

hexagonal
to construct. The bees form the
wax
three rhombic sections, and the walls of the cell meet

120'
angles.
forming
The bees work
comb with
downward, and the bees
use
no
fascinating
"tool"
orientation is Influenced
by
simultaneously on different
visible
seams.
It is built
of their bodies
parts
instruments. In fact, their heads act
Another
are
triangular bases. The
own
heavy.
so
than five
or
are
their
times
of
wealth
Of the three, the
constructing hexagonal prism cells
space with
hold
hexagon
given
and do less work to enclose the
are
honeybee,
be observed.
vertically
measuring
plummets.
as
honeybee
as
has is
"compass".
the Earth's magnetic field.
detect minute fluctuations in the Earth's
Bees'
They
magnetic field which
can
are
only discernible to sensitive magnetometers. This explains why the

bees of a
swarm
occupying
a new
location
build the hive in different parts of the
directing
direction
them. All the bees orient their

as
simultaneously begin
new area
new
comb in the
same
their old hive.
In the illustration
closely packed,
on
the next page, the cells
the bees
having capped
are
shown to be
the ends with half rhombic
dodecahedrons. In addition, the bees build the cell walls with
slope
to
without any bee
of 13\ which
prevents honey
from running out before the
MATHEMATICAL MACK IN NATURE
tops
with
capped
are
wax
domes.
Communication
another
is
yet
of interest.
area
Worker bees returning to

the hive from
scouting
communicate
expedition
direction of the food
the
found
they
source
by
codes in the
transmitting
form of a "dance".
They can
communicate the direction
of the food
and the distance.
relation to the
sun
surprising
gives the direction of the food, while the
dance
of the
duration
indicates
to learn that the
collected
the
distance.
straight
line.
of the term "beeline". After
full load of nectar
It
honeybees "know" that
distance between two points is
possible origin
The orientation of the dance in
is
equally
the shortest
Perhaps
this is the
worker bee has
by randomly moving
from flower to
flower it knows to take the most direct route back to the hive.
The
honeybee gets
It is
intriguing
mathematical
honeybee
is no
its mathematical
to
point
analyze
exception.
its
genetic codes.
different aspects of nature from
of view.
and work, tessellation of a
training via
This
Here
plane
we
glimpse
find
into the
life of
a
a
optimization of materials
and space,
hexagons, hexagonal
prisms, rhombic dodecahedron, geometric theorem, magnetic
fields, codes, and amazing engineering techniques.
123
124
HEXAGONS
The profound study of nature is
the most fertile source of
mathematical discoveries.
Joseph Fourier
Connections between mathematics and nature abound.
and
shapes from
natural
Objects
various fields of mathematics appear in many
phenomena.
Nature also makes its hexagons in rock. Devil's PostpUe National

Monument, Mammouth Lakes, California, Photograph by Margaret Goodrich
What is
so
special
about the
hexagon
that nature
it in many of its forms? The formation and
repeatedly uses
growth of natural
objects is influenced by surrounding space and materials. The

regular hexagon is one of three regular1 polygons that tessellates
Postpile National Monument, Mammouth Lakes, California.

Photograph by Margaret Goodrich
Devil's
(hexagon, square and equilateral triangle) the

hexagon
largest area with the minimum amount
of material. Another special feature of the regular hexagon Is that
It has 6 lines of symmetry, thereby allowing Its shape to rotate
plane.
Of the three
encompasses the
numerous
times without
the most volume

the
hexagon.
altering.
The
using the least surface
When
spheres
are
placed
sphere, which encloses
area
side
Is also connected to
side Into
by
illustrated at the bottom of page 126), each surrounded
tangent
to six other
between these
circumscribing
as
the
sphere
three
angles
come
angles
of a
at the
spheres
is
soap bubble gives
bubbles
spheres.
a
a
together
When line
box (as
sphere
segments
tangent points, the shape
are
Is
drawn
regular hexagon. Thinking of the spheres
simplified explanation
of why
at what Is known as the
of 120', the
same
regular hexagon.
The
degree
measure
triple junction
cluster of
triple junction
of the interior
appears in many
ar-
125
126
such
eas,
as
kernel formation
on
cob of corn, the Interior flesh of

the
banana,
earth.
Discovering
occurrences
of
of
cracking
hexagons
Suppose a
perimeter of
12 units is
dried
available to
form these
three regular
new
in nature Is
no
objects. The
hexagon's
less exciting than the first time
they
a
observed
were
on
area
the back of
the
shape of
or
Today
scientists
fascinated with the
hexagons
are
crystal.
equally
a
sighting
In outer space.
astronomers have
out to be
6t/3*>10.4. The
triangle's area
tortoise, in the beehive's
honeycomb,
would
come
would be
of
4y/3**6.9.
The
square's
area
is 9.
Since 1987
been
focusing
much
attention
on
Magellanic Cloud,
supernova
not
1987A
was
the
observed.
first time gas
the
Large
where
It Is
bubbles
have been
seen
explosions,
but It Is the first time
following
stellar
the bubbles appear clustered in
honeycomb shape.
The six lines
of symmetry of
regular hexagon.
honeycomb, which
composed
measures
years. Wang
suggests that a
cluster,
composed of similarly
sized stars which
have been
evolving at about
same
the
Wang
University of Manchester
England
approximately
rate for
several thou-
of
in
discovered the
30x90
light
of about 20 bubbles whose diameters
light
the
Lifan
years, and Is
are
about 10
sand years, creates winds of

such
magnitude they shape
the bubbles into the

hexagonal
configuration.
Lastly,
look
nature's
at
snowflake illustrates
symmetry and fractal
hexagonal
geometry. The snowflake

the
possesses
hexagon.
growth
of
shape
In
the
addition, the
of a snowflake is
Koch snowflake
simulated
by the
curve.
This fractal is gener-
These
are
ated
as
by an equilateral triangle snowflake

indicated in the drawings f^fj1
into thirds.
at the
Consequently,
the
first four stages of

with
starting
curve,
an
^T9^: divi*:, e<^\ side,

Delete the middle third, and
make a point of
deleted part
right.
between
the
that
length from the
the connection
equilateral triangles, the regular hexagon and the fractal
snowflake links both Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.
Objects in
stimulating
nature
have
provided
mathematical
and do
discoveries.
achieving an equilibrium and an exquisite balance

The
key
to
understanding
the
workings
to
discovery leads to
1A
way of
is
expressed
a means
the next. What will the
polygon
size.
Is
Only
regular
with
it well
language of
by
which
understand, explain, and copy natural phenomena.
outer space lead to?
same
provide
in its creations.
he said "the universe is written in ...the
mathematics". Mathematical tools
try
has
of nature
mathematics and the sciences. Galileo Galilei

when
models for
provide
Nature
we
One
discovery of hexagons
in
time will tell.
If Its sides
are
the
same
length
and
angles
the
127
128
CHAOS
IS FOR
Ever
TH E BIRDS
become
watching
'
as
from
one
by
flight
the air,
direction
to
of seagulls. Aptos, California.
another in
Zoologist
question.
perfect harmony?
Frank H.
After
Why don't
Heppner wanted the
painstakingly filming
the birds
were
not
guided by
dynamic equilibrium
leader.
with the flocks
changing birds at brief intervals.

and computers,
he
movement of birds. With
was
the birds
answer
to
and
collide?
such
the movie
studying
Heppner concluded
frames he had taken of flocks of birds,
theory
flock of birds in
they swooped through
going
A jlock
mesmerized
flew in
that
state of
They
leading edge continually
Until he
was
unable to
introduced to chaos
explain
concepts from chaos
the
flocking
theory, Heppner
Perhaps
has
now
school
qfjish
devised
also
moves
in
state
of dynamic equilibrium.
computer program that simulates the possible
movement of a flock of birds. He established 4

on
avian
simple rules1 based
behavior, and used triangles for birds.
By varying the
intensity of each rule, the flock of triangles would fly

computer's
monitor in familiar fashions.
necessarily illustrates
possible explanation of
his program
does
give
move.
It seems the chaos
theory
across
the
Heppner does not claim
bird flock formation, but it

how and
is at it
why
flocks of birds
again!
The rules he established were: (1) Birds are attracted to a focal point or
(2) Birds are attracted to each other. (3) Birds want to maintain a
fixed velocity. (4) Flight paths are altered by random occurrences such
as gusts of wind.
roost.
129
130
A CLOSER LOOK AT
FRACTALS &
Fractals have
NATURE
to
the
as
Though
amples
of objects from Euclidean
Euclidean
descriptive
know
We
describing such objects

pressed
to find
Lavajlowfrom
objects
as
baked
goods, bark
geometric fractals
or a
geometry
is
geometry
great for
one
is hard
to describe popcorn,
the Kilauea volcano, Hawaii
While
fern leaf
so
provide the best
and bee hives, but
in Euclidean
the
produce objects which elude
Euclidean
crystals
ex-
in nature
triangles...),
In these cases fractals
description.
tool.
to
nature.
abundant
are
geometry present
seems
of
geometry
there
(hexagons, circles, cubes, tetrahedrons, squares,

often randomness of nature
to be referred
come
on a
tree, clouds, ginger root, and coastlines.

are
used to describe such
snowflake, random fractals
can
be
objects
as a
computer
generated to describe lava flow and mountain's terrain.
Euclidean
geometry has
its roots in ancient Greece
Euclid's work the Elements),
(circa 300 B.C. with
while fractals have their origins in
the late 1800's. In fact, the term fractal
was
not coined until 1975
by Benoit Mandelbrot. With their introduction,

that can describe the ever changing universe.
Fractals
point
is
are
considered
we
have
geometry
dimensions. In Euclidean geometry, a

line is 1-dimensional, and a plane is
fractional
zero-dimensional,
2-dimensionaL What about ajagged line? In thejield offractals, ajagged

line's dimension is considered to lie between 1 and 2. Starting with a line
segment and subdividing it into 3 sections as is done with a snowflake
curve, its
a
dimension will lie between 1 and 2.
2-dimensional
pyramid
formed.
over
its
If we start with a rectangle,

object and subdivide it into 4 sections and construct a
middle section, a fractal of dimension between 2 and 3 is
131
132
FRACTALIZINC
THE SURFACE
^
Select
cca itu
InttARin
America
continent. Let's
as an
want to
Its coastline.
In
mathematics,
we
measured with any linear units
measure
the distance of
know that distance
we
they
different units. Yet If we
we
in
the coastline of South America
in kilometers and then in meters, our answers will differ if
consider the coastline to be fractal in nature.

units become smaller and
be
choose,
distanceonry expressed
same
measure
can
desirefor example, feet,
inches, meters, miles, kilometers. Regardless of which

should represent the
South
example. Suppose
'
we
use
smaller,
we are
As
our
able to
we
measuring
measure more
inlets
and
more
and
bays of this
coastline. In
other words,
theoretically we
can
get more
detail
as we
continually
decrease the size
of our measuring
unit which in
turn
continually
increases the
length of the
coastline.
A coastline, in fractal
length
geometry,
is considered to be infinite In
because every little Inlet and unit of sand Is measured and
the number of these units Is
formation of the snowflake
constantly changing,
curve curve
similar to the
(see page 1270.
"Good morning
gardener,
day!" exclaimed the
she greeted the
as
sunrise and her plants. Little did
she know that strange
lurking
Deep
things were
in the leaves and rich soil.
in the roots
of the plants were
fractals and networks, andfrom the

cosmos,
irises,
marigolds, anddaisies
Fibonacci numbers
were
staring at
her.
She proceeded about her daily ritual
of tending
to her
garden. At each
place, something unusual appeared,

but she
was
oblivious, captivated only
by the obvious wonders that nature
Removing the dead fronds to expose
fiddle heads,
she did not
recognize the equiangular spirals

greeting her and thefractal-like
formation of leaves on theferns.

Suddenly,
was
the
as
shifted, she
lovely fragrance of
the breeze
struck by the
honeysuckle. Looking
saw
FRACTALS
can
appear
as
symmetrically changing/growing
objects or as randomly
asymmetrically changing object!
either case, fractals are changin
according to mathematical rule;
patterns
used to
describe
and
dictate the
growth of
an initial
object.
Think of
geometric
fractal
as
endless
She first went to clear out herferns.
new
TH
MATHEMATICALL
ANNOTATEI
CARDEl
an
presented.
the
133
how it
was
taking
over, she
over
the fence
and getting into the peas. She
decided it definitely needed some
judicious pruning.
that helices
She did not realize
were at
work, and the
left-handed helices of the
generating
pattern
the
pattern
continually
fractal
tree
replicates itself but in a smaller

version. Thus, when a portion c
geometric fractal is magnified it
looks exactly like the original
version. In contrast, when a poi
of a Euclidean object as a circle
magnified it begins to appear le
curved. A fern is an ideal exam
of fractal replication. If you zen
on any portion of the fractal fen
appears as the original fern lea
A fractal fern can be created or
computer.
134
NETWORKS
are
mathematical
diagrams which present a simpler

picture of a problem or situation.
Networks were used by Euler in the
Konigsberg bridge problem ( see
777 Spell of Logic, Recreation, &
Games section). He reduced the
problem to a simple diagram, which
he analyzed and solved. Today
networks are tools used in topology.
FIBONACCI NUMBERS 1,1, 2,3,
5,8,13, 21,... Fibonacci
(Leonardo da Pisa) was one of the
leading mathematicians of the
Middle Ages. Although he made
significant contributions to the fields
of arithmetic, algebra and
geometry, he is popular today for
this sequence of numbers, which
happened to be the solution to an
obscure
problem
appearing
bloodroot
tritium
in his
book Liber
Abaci. In the
19th century,
French
mathematician
Edouard Lucas
edited a
recreational
mathematics
work that
included the
problem. It was
at this time that
Fibonacci's
name was
cosmos
attached to the
sequence. In
nature the
sequence
appears in:
honeysuckle hod wound around

some
of the right-handed helices of
the peas. It required
rose
carejul hand
to avoid damaging her new crop
of
peas.
Next she moved to weed beneath
the palm tree she
hadplanted to
give her
garden a
somewhat
exotic accent.
Its branches
were
moving
in the
breeze,
and she had

no
idea that
involute
curves were
brushing
against her
shoulders.
She looked
over
at her corn
"Hal" she
smuggly.
hadbeen
hesitant to plant
corn,
but
was
encouraged by
how well the
young
corn was
progressing.
Unbeknownst to
her, triple
Junctions of
wUd
thought.
She
corn
kernels
wovldform within the
'Flowers with
of petals
ears.
How well the entire garden
shaping
up and exploding withnew
growth! Admiring
leaves
was
on
the new green
Fibonacci numb
(trilium, wildrose,
bloodroot, cosmos, columbine, I

blossom, iris)
'Arrangement of leaves, twigs

stems is known as phyllotaxis
Select
CHERRY
the maple tree,
she knew there
on a
was
something inherently
pleasing
ste
and
cou
the
num
of leave
in their shape
nature's lines
13!
(assumi
none ha
been
broken-i
until yoi
reach oi
ofsymmetry
had done their work well.
directly in line with the
one you
selected. The total number of
leaves (not counting the first on
you selected) is usually a

Fibonacci number in many plan
such as in elm, cherry or pear
trees.
And nature's phyllotaxis
was
evident to the trained eye in.

leaves
on
only
budding
branches and stems
of
plants.
The pine
and
right
cone are
Glancing around, shefocused on the

carrot patch. She
they
needed
were
doing,
thinning
was
proud of how
and noted
to insure
they
uniformgood
sized carrots. She did not want to rely

on
nature to tessellate space with
carrots.
cone
numbers: If th
handed
spirals
on a
counted, the two
num
very often consecutive

Fibonacci numbers. This also h
true for sunflower seedheads a
are
seedheads of other flowers. Th

same is true of pineapples. Loc
at the base of a pineapple cour
number of left and right spirals
composed of hexagonal shape:
scales. They should be consec
Fibonacci numbers.
136
SPIRALS & HELICES:

Spirals are mathematical
forms which appear in
many facets of nature,
such as the curve of a
fiddlehead fern, vines,
shells, tornadoes,
hurricanes, pine cones, the
Milky Way, whirlpools.
There are flat spirals,
three dimensional
spirals, right and left
handed spirals,
equiangular, logarithmic,
hyperbolic, Archimedean
spirals, and helices are just some
the many types of spirals which
of
She had no idea that the garden
abounded with equiangular
mathematics describes. The

equiangular spiral appears in such
spirals. They were in the seed-
growth forms of
heads of the daisies and various
nature
as
the
nautilus shell, a sunflower

seedhead, the webs of Orb spiders.
Some of the properties of the
flowers. Many things that grow

form this spiral because of how
equiangular spiral areangles
retains its
formed from tangents to the

radii are congruent (hence
increases.
spiral's
shape
it
while its size
the term equiangular)

it
increases at a geometric
It
rate, thereby any radius is
decided she would continue
cut by the spiral into

sections that form a
geometric progression
its shape remains the
same as
was
getting
warm so
the cultivation when the
it grows.
sun
shifted. Meanwhile,
she made onefinal

assessment
admiring the
INVOLUTE CURVE: As a
rope is wound or unwound
around another curve
(here a circle), it describe
an involute curve. Involute
combination
is the shape found in the

beak of an eagle, the
dorsal fin of a shark, and
something escaped her.
the tip of
leaf.
she
hanging palm
offlowers,
vegetables and other plants

she had so
thoughtfully
selected. But once
Her garden
spheres,
was
more
full of
cones, polyhedra
and other geometric
MATHEMATICAL MACIC IN NATURE
shapes, and she did not recognize

them.
As nature puts forth its wonders in
the garden, most people are oblivious

to the massive calculations and
mathematical work that have become so

routine in nature. Nature knows well
how to work with restrictions of
material and space, and produce the
Many types of symmetry appear in the

garden. For example, in the above photograph
one
can find
point symmetry in broccoli
florettes
and line symmetry in their leaves.
13;
TRIPLE JUNCTION: A triple

junction is the point where three
segments meet, and the angles

the intersection are each to 120"
Many natural occurrences result
from restrictions caused by
boundaries or availability of spac
Triple junction is an equilibrium
point toward which certain natun
occurrences tend. Among other
things, it is found in soap bubble
clusters, the formation of kernels
the cob of corn, and the crackinc
earth or stone.
SYMMETRY: Symmetry is that
perfect balance one sees and
senses in the body of a butterfly
the shape of a leaf, in the form c
the human body, in the perfects
of a circle. From a mathematical
point of view, an object is
considered to possess line
symmetry if one can find a line
which divides it into two identica
parts so that if it were possible ti
fold along that line both parts wc
match perfectly over one anothe
An object has point symmetry 'rf
infinitely many such lines exist fi
particular point, for example a ci
has point symmetry with resped
its center
point.
during each day of spring, the
TESSELLATE: To tessellate a
plane simply means being able'
cover the plane with flat tiles so
there are no gaps and no tiles
gardener will enter her domain with a
overlap, such
most harmonious forms. And so,
gleam
the
in her eye. She will seek out
new
growth and blossoms each
day brings,
unaware
of the
mathematical beautiesflowering in
her yard.
as
with
regular
hexagons, squares, or other

objects. Space is tessellated or
filled by three-dimensional objec
such as cubes,
octahedra.
or
truncated
138
MATHEMATICS
RIDES THE CREST
f
If
you
OF THE WAVE
re
r
,
surfer, you know that
sometimes It's difficult to know In
advance when the surf will be up.

Sometimes the surf appears
perfect from the beach, but when you
so
you wait for that perfect
hours. Other times the
wave
perfect
get into the water it's

for what sometimes
activity
Oceans
waves.
ocean waves.
course
are a
complex system. Many
like
wave
theory
and
factors affect and create
Aptos, California.
The wind,
an
earthquake,
the gravitational pull of the
all disturb the

water. These
down,
seems
after another and
waves come one
you have many to choose from. Needless to say

wave
died
ocean.
moon
the wake of a boat, and of

and the
Ocean waves travel
on
sun
causing tides
the surface of the
undulating forms have a somewhat random quality to
them when there
are
multiple disturbances or factors Interacting.
MATHEMATICAL MA6IC IN NATURE
Much
study
was
generated
Observations at
ocean waves.
Czechoslovakia
In
formulated the Initial

how water
wave
In
particles
the mathematics of
Interesting
when
1802,
In
on
and In controlled
sea
scientists arrive at
experiments helped
started
In the 1800's
laboratory
conclusions. It
Franz
Gertner
In his observations he wrote
theory.
The water In the
In circles.
a wave move
(highest point) of the wave moves in the direction of the wave

that in the trough (the lowest point of the wave) moves in the
crest
and
On the surface, each water
opposite direction.
circular orbit before

found to have
was
There
are
depth
of
to its
returning
a
diameter
original position.
equal
circles
being generated by
the water. But the deeper
circle. In fact, it
was
found that at
(the horizontal distance between
particle
to the
height
the particles
moves
In
This circle
of the
wave.
throughout
the
the
particle the smaller its

depth of 1/9 the wave length
crests), the
two consecutive
diameter of the circular orbit is about half that of the circular orbit
of a surface
Since
particle.
waves
tied
are
sinusoidal and
into these
cycloid shaped
circling particles
also
curves
depend
on
circles, it is not surprising that these mathematical

their
was
equations
are
used in the
discovered that
other
purely mathematical
curve.
Intensity of the wind, the tides

must be considered when
are
studied
description
ocean waves are
are
waves.
and
But it
strictly
The
depth
of the water, the
only
some
waves.
or
any
of the variables that
Today
ocean waves
mathematics of probability, statistics,
number of small
complexity.
and
predictions are formulated from the data collected.
large
rotating
curves
sinusoidal
and
since
not
describing
by applying the
of ocean
and
waves are
considered
tt
140
THE MA6IC OF MATHEMATICS
Some other
Interesting mathematical properties of
ocean waves
are:
1) The
2) The
length depends upon the period.

wave height does not depend on the period or the length
wave
(there
are some
period
and the
3) The
wave
exceptions
length
are
in which the
wave
the
minute).
will break when the
120'. When the
influence of
angle of the crest exceeds

of its energy is then
breaks most
consumed.
4) Another way to determine when the

compare its
height with its length. When
than 1/7, the
wave
will break is to
waves
this ratio is
greater
will break.
crest
trough
wave
height vertical distance from the crest to the trough
wave
length horizontal distance between
wave
period
two consecutive crests
the time In seconds It takes

one wave
crest to travel
a wave
length
sinusoidal
curve Is a
Its
regularly repeats
periodic (It
shape)
trigonometric function.
cycloid
by
the
curve
path
is the
of
traced
fixed point
circle which rolls
straight line.
curve
smoothly
on a
on a
MATHEMATICAL MA6IC IN NATURE
Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks abound with sketches and

waves
and water
dynamics.
writings
This sketch from Codex Madrid II
on
on
folio 24
swirling action of waves crashing on shore. Here he wrote,

carried away from the shore by the waves of the sea. The sea
casts back to the shore all thtngs left free out at sea. The surface of the
Illustrates the
"Nothing
water
how
is
keeps
waves
accurate
the imprint of the waves for some time." His descriptions of

on shore and rebound onto the Incoming waves were
break
conjectures that conformed
to the the
principles
of wave motion
formulated In later years namely that each point a wave strikes

becomes the point of new disturbances and all disturbances affect the
as
shape
of the
wave.
141
\r\
\f
1'
(SI
,u
MATHEMATICAL
MAGIC FROM THE
PAST
BABYLONIANS & SQUARE ROOTS
THE CHINESE METHOD OF PILING SQUARES
THE LADDER THAT INCHES ON THE Vl

EARLY RANDOM NUMBER GENERATORS
EGYPTIAN MULTIPLICATION
THE FIRST SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY
PLATO DOUBLES THE SQUARE

THE ROMANS & THE AREA OF A CIRCLE
HOW THE GNOMON TRISECTS AN ANGLE

UNSOLVED MATHEMATICAL MYSTERIES
FERMATS LAST THEOREM
GALILEO & PROPORTION
MATHEMATICS & CONTAINERS

GEOMETRIES
OLD & NEW
WHAT'S IN A NAME?
EULERSMAGIC FORMULA F+V-E=2
144
In most sciences one
generation tears
down what another
has built and what one has established another undoes. In
mathematics alone each generation adds a new story to

the old structure.
Hermann Hankel
days of conflicts between ancient and modern
In these
studies, there must surely be something to be said for
study
which did not
with
Pythagoras
with Einstein, but is the oldest and
youngest of all.
-G.H. Hardy
Discovering
begin
mathematical magic is not confined to present
things. History and
ideas from the past hold
not
for
curiosity
mathematics have
presents
surfaced
and
progressed
the
desire
to where it is
of
use
irrational numbers, proofs, conic sections. If it
as
human
day
wealth of the magic
of mathematics. One often wonders how the ancients made

such ideas
and will not end
were
to
learn,
would
today?
This
chapter
few of the multitude of mathematical ideas that have
over
the centuries.
11
iVa ,Pascal [porl&al&llflOtty

Zeno
Laplace
ipaiiraidkDSS Whitehead
& Chu Shin-Chieh
Einstein
FsOaiftiWijft^
tOfe(? AfegO Fibonacci @<p(fi)<5 D0 fl, % 30 0

al Khowarizmi
algebra
flcBg^-s-flQgâlhyipoftQmms^
sQ
GOoooits?
Pythagoras aS
lb?
sa
Lovelace
[pirciDgiraiDQiDQSnQg
GÔoixaif*;
fiffllfimlktoir Pascal & Leibnitz
Apollonius @si3<BS Hypatia

sarwss
Newton aOOMte Leibnitz & Seki Kowa
s araaOsTsfe Noether
Diophantus apaffl)(B(Da
Eratosthenes aurftlh na<Baismn>csna!i<Bmft

Euclid
Bhaskara
Dudeney Descartes tr()0@iii)
Napier QffigamSfttais
Agnesi
Cantor ftramstfQtnBQ rjammofosffs
Babbage <Eca>naQ[pQQftcstrs
Loyd jpiaasns
gooimcsftffa
Riemann &
Collage of mathematical ideas
Bolyai
&
Lobachesky
and their creators.
History
shows that mathematical
creativity
particular culture, time period, civilization,

of
amazing ideas and contributions that
is not
or
to any
privy
gender.
The wealth
developed
over
the
explore.
Such
an
11
12
TTYTYYTTTV7 rrr" WWg <

a b r A E q- Z H 0 I
<T
<TT
IA
IB
centuries is
incredible and
truly
were
to
exciting
NUMBERS SYSTEMS
12
10
j^ T
ii
in
mi
ii
hi
m
hi
m mi
mi mi
mi
urn
Ai
An
&
t T\
t.
K>
3'
II
III
mi urn
1EC I -I
-II
i n in rv v
n
i
*5^
in
1 10
....
TT
vi vnvmixx
j-
-3i
<
->
XI
XII
AU
/M
111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100
11 100 101 110
HINDU-ARABIC-BABYLONIAN-GREEK-EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHIC-CHINESE SCRIPT-HEBREW

CHINESE ROD NUMERALS-ROMAN-EGYTPIAN HIERATIC-MAYAN-BINARY NUMERALS
exploration would take the reader on a trip that

countries all
ideas
over
as was
the
almost
discovered
were
countries,
the world. Such
simultaneously
with the
case
to all
form
place
value and the number
the world
Maya
with
developed
system.
are
indigenous
first
by
the
Babylonians
modified base 20
and evolved
We find that their
standardized
by
peoples.
zero was
some
different
in
of
hyperbolic
numeration
systems of
development
geometries. We know that numbers and

some
traverses time and
voyage would reveal that
We find that the
developed
in many
use
of
parts of
with their base 60, later the
system and by the Hindu when they
positional
system
notation for the base
was
10
later improved upon and
the Arabs. The Chinese also
developed
place
14
146
value
system and used
evolved into
sophisticated
in
especially
base ten numeration
calculations.
performing
FERWAT
with their rod numerals, which
zero
Only
few of the many
.'HYPATIAC
POiNCARE*
PYTHAGORAS
nBeTHE#
$HASKAA
OMAR KHAYYAM
EULEff
plato
they
system used
-.
i-I&ins Thiemann "xvlobacmevsky
pascal
EUCLID
lagrange leibniz
.HILBEftT
EUXODUS
OEDEKIND
cXyXeY
dAQOBI
PAPPUS
SOCRATES;..BOOLE..
THAliis
CA'NT6ft
HAMILTON
archimedes
MlOiS^vCAUCHY
& DESCARTES S: KQVALEVSKAYA
^ SEKI
^PTOLEMY
FOURIER
;tCRONECKER
KdWA
SAOjKHERJ#KUMA
BOkYAI
t"'CAVAUERI
.^BERNOUU!
.'}&.APOLLONIUS
GAHLE0^ GAUSS :.:|f|;-WEIERSTRASS

HERMITEki ;.LE&ENOflEJ*V: De MOIVRE
ÂttACEfe mVE$TE&i;: ERATOSTHENES
AGNESt
QdDEL
8AMANUJAN
FIBONACCI
NAPIER
2ENO
ABEL
RUSSELL
HetftOH%<. tOfeUCE/^" KEPLEfc

GERMAIN^ DIOPHANTli'S ARISTOTLE
SOMERVILLE
EINSTEIN
AL-KHOWARIZMI
îMlBBtRKHOm -M- CHATELET.^.WiÊÊAD:il&;;:

An array
of some famous mathematicians from, the past
thousands of mathematicians and ideas

Those I discuss in
chapter.
stature
over
sections
your
as
appearing. I urge you
of the
magic
to
study and
use
or
these
to enhance
of the past. This is the spirit
of mathematicians and their ideas, and of the
of numbers
systems
is
presented.
mathematical discoveries.
mathematician to understand the
their
mentioned in this
illustrations of the array of famous mathematicians, of
collage
new
are
way reflect their superiority
boards for further
spring
understanding
in which
the
those not
no
creativity.
Seek out the
We
are
One does not have to be
essence
magic
of these ideas
in the
diagram
in the midst of many
past
or
appreciate
and the present.
BABYLONIANS &
SQUARE ROOT!
We often think of ancient
mathematics
as
remote!
just that
Yet
WHAT WERE THEY DOING WITI
ancient and
looking back,
it
ACCURATE SQUARE ROOl
APPROXIMATIONS
is
^
surprising to discover you may be

using a similar idea, value,
of
years
ago.
mathematics
text from
to 200
What
comes
or
concept that people used thousands

have
we
mainly
from
archeological excavations.
B.C.I.
They
learned
few
clay
about
The tablets date around 3000
reveal that the
in
Babylonians
unknown
equations
systems ofequations
one
approximations2
Babylonian
tablets of cuneiform
following mathematical concepts
147
in two unknown, tables
of
dealt with the
148
THE MAC IC O F MATH EMATICS
volumes and
calculation of the
the approximation ofn, 3

circle
areas
area
of a triangle and a trapezoid

was
used in determining the area of the
3r%
the volume ofprisms and cylinders

base times it
by multiplying area of the
height
the Pythagorean theorem
aspects of number theory, for example:
l+2+4+...29=29+(29-l)
The
Babylonian tablet3
on
the previous page illustrates
an
astonishingly accurate approximation for j/2. It is equally amazing to

learn that the Babylonian sexagesimal positional number system
lent itself to such accuracies. The

Sumerlan number
system.4
It
was
Initially lacking
to a sexagesimal positional
positional number system of
system
the first
a zero
context to indicate
example,
Babylonians updated
and
sexagesimal point,
could represent
11(60)+ 12
672
<Y<YY
or
number
its time.
it relied
on
the intended value of the number.
this number
11+12/60.
the
the
For
The
Babylonians later developed
for a zero
What
place holder.
the
were
Babylonians
approximations for
we see
that the
j/2 ?
is
figure
symbol
which
the horizontal
with
such
accurate
this cuneiform tablet
square with
of the square has the
Along
doing
Examining
fc"
diagonals
closely
drawn. One side
^^^^which is how they wrote 30.
diagonal they wrote
YYf<x<Y<
By assuming the sexagesimal
represents 1, 24, 51, 10.
point is between 1 and 24, the number converts to

1
+(51/602) +(10/603)
+(24/60)
=
l+(2/5)+(51/3600)+(l/216000)
which compares to the

estimate the
We
know the
Pythagorean
Babylonians
distance 0;8. Horn
far did the ^wer

":rt is the accepted
notation for
indicating the
sexagesimal point*)
repetitive
had
good understanding
they
of the
calculated for the vertical
slipped Qi&
down from thus tap
of the watt
appeared on
The upper end has
the beam
TateproMem
slipped down a
used
To arrive at their
by the Greeks.5
theorem. The value
another Babylonian
tablet f'Apatu
{beam} of length
0,30 (stands
against a unity.
1.4142129+
1/2=1.414213562....
Babylonians probably
approximation method often used
the
hypotenuse
represents the
heamb lengths
this leg of
the right
triangle is
0;30-0;6
24
0;3O
iMfMi'
ttw
III'
1&
t:'>:;ci::i:
'i;t;i
the distance thefoot of the beam

would be
found using the Pythagorean theorem
149
150
diagonal
Is
approximation for the length of the
accurate
an
square's diagonal. Namely, the diagonal numbers 42; 25, 35

convert to
42+(25/60)+(35/3600) 42.42638889 while
42.42640687. In addition to
sides
the
were
rational numbers
theorem
Pythagorean
working
right triangles whose
(e.g. {3,4,5}, {5,12,13}), they also used
on
1Translatlons
of O.
F. Thureau
Dangtn
as
whose sides
right triangles
all rational numbers. This explains their

such irrational numbers
30/2
with
use
were
not
of approximations for
j/2.
Neugebauer, Mathematics Keflschrifiexts, 1935-1937.

Textes Mathemattques Babylon/ens 1938, and
O.
Neugebauer and A. Sachs Mathematical Cuneiform Texts To expedite
numerical translation of the tablets, O. Neugebauer developed the
notation of commas to separate place values and
to represent the
;
sexagesimal point.
For example,
^W W^ ^^^ translates to 11, 1, ; 10, 3 which
.
"
means
11(60)
+1
+(10/60)
"
(3/3600).
tablets have revealed tables for approximating various mathematical

values. For example: tables of values for reciprocals which were used
when division had a remainder, and tables of values for square roots and
cube roots have been excavated.
3This
Is from tablet YBC7289 of the
Babylonian
*The Babylonians used
two
and
value.
The position of these
one
for ten.
symbols
collection at Yale.
to write their
^y
T for
numbers.
determined their
symbols
The ancient Greeks used the following method to approximate square

assume their first guess for 2 was a (for example, let a=l). Their
next estimate was determined by taking 2/a (which equals 2/1=2). Then
their next estimate was the average of these two estimates, (l+2)/2,
which equals 1.5 The estimate 1.5 would then be averaged with a new
approximation, 2/1.5. This process would be continued.
roots:
"From Science
Awaking by
Inc., New York, 1963.
B.L.van der
Waerden., Jon Wiley & Sons,
151
THE LADDER THAT
INCHES UP
The ancient Greeks discovered how

to construct the
irrational
numbers
thagorean
inscribing
lengths
using
theorem.
and
They
ON THE
of
the
Py-
used
circumscribing regular polygons
infinities and limits to close in
developed
type
on
the
area
and the concepts of
of
circle.
of ladder arithmetic using ratios to
111
IIIIllII
in in
of the latter, the

rest of the numbers
in the first column
are generated in
the following way
in
iii
Hi Hi
ill
70
iiiililili
liiiiiii!
iiiiiiiiii
The ratio 1:
the
same
j/2.
Here is how the

numbers from the
first column
generate the the numbers
in the second col-
1+1=2
U2=l
2+3=1
1+5=1
5+7=112
5+M=1l
12+17=21)
M+19=41
|||j|p|||;l|||i
liilllili
iiiiiiiii
iiiiiiiii
29+41=?
29+70=
y^2 is squeezed in on by the ratios of the numbers on
rung of the ladder. The ratios continually come closer
and closer to 1
//2.
The limit of ratios is the value of 1
NOTE: The two numbers

at each rung of the ladder
aotve the equation--
y_2jc2_fci> ^hhj x value*

the numbers on the
left aide of the ladder.
axe
also
approximate
the value of irrational numbers. Here's how it worked for
Starting with the 1

and 1 from the top
They
1//2
//2.
=.707106781...
1/1=1
2/3=.666...
5/7=71428571429...
12/17=. 70588235294.
29/41=.70731707317.
70/99=. 7070...
VI
152
THE CHINESE
METHOD OF PILING
Finding experts
ia i>c<
>t"UAI\t>
who
are
able to
translate ancient Chinese writing

Is difficult.
Finding experts
able to
translate manuscripts that deal with mathematical Ideas Is

more
difficult. This
mathematical themes
technique
algebraic
explains why
are scarce.
examples
even
of
Hsuan-thu, the piling of squares,
was a
that Chinese mathematicians used in order to arrive at
conclusions
particular
Chinese
using geometric and arithmetic
illustration is from the Chinese
The date of Chou Pel is
disputed,
with
means.
This
manuscript, Chou Pel.
possible dates ranging from
MATHEMATICAL MAC IC FROM THE PAST
1200 B.C. to 100 A.D.
If 1200 B.C. is accurate, it would be
the earliest known demonstrations of the

and the
theorem has
in many civilizations
angle.
means
of
Pythagorean theorem,
predating Pythagoras
appeared
architecture. It was one
one
The
Pythagoreans.
Pythagorean
thoughout history. In
of assuring the formation of a
In mathematics is has been and is an
right
indespensible
tool
crossing many mathematical disciplines.

The
theorem states that
Pythagorean
right triangle the sum of the

squares of its two legs equals its the
square of its hypotenuse (a2+ br=cP).
for
hypotenuse
leg=a
any
(The
converse
is also
true.)
left diagram below, the interior square's area is indicated as 5x5 or 52

right triangles, each of area
(l/2)(3x4) and a square qf area lxl, totaling 25 square units. In the right
diagram below, the square is divided into two smaller overlapping squares,
one 3x3 and the other 4x4. The part they overlap has the same area as the
vacant part qf the 5x5 square they do not occupy, which illustrates that the
area qf larger square (5*) equals the sum qf the two smaller squares' area,
namely 3* and 4*.
In the
=
25 square units. It has been subdivided into 4
'
c/
Aw*
/\
>
"
>
'
This diagram explains how to find

the area of the interior shaded
square by summing the areas of 4
triangles and the unit square in the
middle. In general it shows
c2=4(l/2)ab + (a-b)2
=2ab + (a2-2ab+b)2
=a2+b2
>
/v
The
sumofthe two shaded

rectangles' areas equals the area
of the small shaded square (this is
the square created by two
overlapping squares). Letting 5, 4,
and 3 take
b, it shows
on
a2
the variable
+
b2=c2.
c, a
and
15J
154
ONEOFTHE
EARLIEST RANDOM
NUMBER
GENERATORS
Although
to as
during
credit for
being
in the National
have
played
one
this die
was
not referred
random number generator

ancient Greece, it still
gets
of the earliest remaining die. Today it appears
Archeological
many roles
foretell the future, to
over
Museum in Athens, Greece. Dice
the centuries.
implement
moves
They have been used
of various games such
to
as
backgammon
and
monopoly,
as
or,
in craps,
they are the

main elements
of the game.
Mathematicians have
long been
intrigued with
dice from the
viewpoint of
probability.
fact, dice
can
be considered
and Pierre de Fermat to focus their attention
gambling,
Pascal was asked
if the game
were to
Fermat about the
new
probability.
While
by a friend how the pot should be split
stopped before it was over. Pascal wrote

problem. In 1654 the two men worked out their
their correspondences, and thus launched
branch of mathematics.
random number generators

the
on
be
theory of probability in
this
In
responsible for getting Blaise Pascal
theory of probability.
are
Today
dice and other shaped
used to teach various aspects of
MATHEMATICAL MACIC FROM THE PAST
155
EGYPTIAN
The
of
method
Egyptian
and
civilizations. In
spread
ancient Greek schools it
the Middle
specific
Ages
names
Here is
halving.
its
fig
/]
\%\\f\f\
111 fl/VVt
Hi flfl^t
as
need
for
plication tables,
on
In
and referred to
by
taught
duplatio for doubling
the Rhind papyrus of how
14
i#j
^**
OA
*iAA
give 24, which
1120
was
by
multiply
on
how
doubled to give 48, which in turn is
doubled giving 96. Slashes

next to the 4 and the
their
the answer, 144.
glving
drawn
Then
amounts
corresponding
are
8, indicating
twelve.
ls
sum
are
their
added,
The
Egyptian
multiplication eliminated
of
memorizing
multi-
ftftftft
since it relied
mainly
ftftftft
OA
<]
800
done
similarly.
To divide
160
80, you find what you would

'
80
by to get 1120. Depending

large a number you are
dividing, the
\W(\ /H
33
/h
11
Ml
divisor
m$
47
D/flD=47+33
a sum
1120. If the
out
even,
^ 1120
multiplied by 10,
1000, etc. The results
equals
come
'
or
3^ O
/l
*J
is
either doubled,
100,
'ÎLy /
"
be doubled until
an
is then
addition.
Division
H+H/I3
and mediatto for
12x12. One first starts with 12. Then
method
the
Egyptian calculation.
it is doubled to
<|S)
as
were
Egyptian scribe would have multiplied
f\
taught
example, from
an
unno a
rtli
was
techniques
such
lift
for
plication survived
centuries and
over
MULTIPLICATION
multi-
the
can
then
is found that
problem
did not
Egyptians used
fractions. As in the example 47-~33.
156
TH E MAG IC O F MATH EMATI C$
THE FIRST
SCIENTIFIC
Ancient
Greek
and scholars
LABORATORY
to be
philosophers.
It
set up
is
there
the
by Pythagoras
or
the
often considered
predominately
has revealed that the first recorded

was
are
mathematicians
Now
theorists and
new
research1
for
experimentation
laboratory
Pythagoreans (6th century B.C.).
surprising that
not
are
no
records from
Pythagoreans
support this claim,
Pythagoreans
to
since the
were sworn
There Is
to secrecy.
supportive evidence from later

scholars. This Illustration
Is from the
writings of the
Roman scholar Boethlus
(5th century A.D.). It

shows
Pythagoras
experimenting with sound,
specifically the relationship

between
an
object's
proportions (in this

and
the
produce.
case
tones
Theon of
ancient authors,
other Greeks
inventions
as
they
Smyrna (2nd century A.D.), along with other
wrote of similar
well
of the
bells)
as
the
Greek
types of experimentations by
Pythagoreans.
mathematician
If one considers the
Archimedes
(287-212
B.C.) laws of lever and pulleys, methods for comparing volumes

of
objects by submergence
catapult
one
realizes
in water, the Archimedean screw, the
the
existence
and
importance of
experimentation.
1These new findings were presented by Andrew D. Dimarogonas of
Washington University in St. Louis in the Journal of Sound & Vibration, May,
1990.
157
PLATO DOUBLES
ArEftMETPHTOZ MHAEIE
EIZITQ
Let
no one
ignorant of
geometry
enter here.
These words
doors at the
In Athens.
were over
the
Academy of Plato
Although Plato
(428-348 B.C.) Is not famous

for his mathematical
contributions, he is renowned
center where
for
providing
he
guided, encouraged and
inspired mathematical
thought. This elegant method

for doubling the area of a
square appears in Plato's
dialogue Meno.
The
diagram
illustrates how to double
square and how not to double

a
square.
The upper shaded square's area

double that of the white square.
The lower shaded square has
is
area
Jour times that of the white
square.
Its side is twice
Note that although

the size of the white square's side,
its area is quadrupled.
THE SQUARE
158
HOW THE ROMANS

FIGUREDTHE AREA
To find the
OF A CIRCLE
area
of any
given circle,
the Romans used the

square whose
area
diagonal
of
was
1/4
than the circle's diameter.
longer
Here's how It worked, and Its accuracy.
Suppose this circle's diameter Is d.

Then this makes the square's
d+.25d= 1.25d.
diagonal
Using the Pythagorean theorem,

the square's side Is
1.25d/y^2~.
Squaring the side of the square

gives the square's
area as
1.5625d2/2.
Since the circle's radius Is .5d, and
the
area
7tr2,
formula for any circle Is
the actual
area
of the circle Is
(.5d)27t=.25d2Jt.
Using
3.1416 for the
ROMAN METHOD
approximation of it.
we
get what
&
.25d2n
approximation
ACTUAL AREA METHOD
vs
.25d2jt =.785d2
1.5625d2/2=.78125cj2
Equating .78125d2
We get
and
solving
this relation for n
the Romans had torn,
.78125d2
78125d2
.25d2n
tc
.25d2
3.125
3+1/8
71
=7t
namely
MATHEMATICAL MACK FROM THE PAST
159
HOW THE GNOMON

Trisecting
an
three famous
construction
angle was one

Impossible
TRISECTS AN ANCLE
of the
problems of antiquity which
launched many mathematical discoveries.

cannot be trisected
trisected
gnomon
used
using
can
using only
a
compass and
Although
as
be used to make and determine

an
angle
straight edge,
tool the Greeks referred to
by the ancient Greeks to trisect
an
angle
it
right angles.
in the
The gnomon has two marks,

R and S, so that /7fl/=/7S/.
can
be
the gnomon. The

It
was
following way:
1: The gnomon
is used to make a line
parallel to a side of the
angle, as shown in
Step
Step
2.
3: The gnomon
is lined up as shown
with one mark on the
side of the angle, one
Step
the parallel line,

and the shaft running
on
through the angle's

vertex.
Step 4: The clotted

Stepl
Step
lines are drawn in to

form three triangles.
APCBs APAB
by
Hypotenuse -Leg.
APCBSAPCD by SAS.
Thus,
APCB3APCDSAPAB,
which makes
z1z2sz3., andzP
trisected.
Step 4
160
UNSOLVED
MATHEMATICAL
Mathematics
MYSTERIES
abundance of
problems.
mathematics
and
certainly offers
an
In fact,
problems
are
shows that mathematical Ideas have been
Inseparable. History
catalysts for mathematics problems,
and that math
problems have
stimulated many mathematical Ideas and discoveries.
The three
impossible construction problems of antiquity 1; the Konigsberg

Bridge Problem2and the Parallel Postulate Problem3 are historic
examples of problems that have
stimulated mathematical
posing
and
and the
pondering
scrutinizing
been resolved and in the process
Ideas and discoveries. The
thought,
of mathematical
of solutions and
problems
proofs
are
and
questions
driving
forces for
mathematicians.
Here
are a
few famous "unsolved" mathematics
problems:
THE UNSOLVED PRIME NUMBER PROBLEMS
Is there
one
number is
Is there
formula
or a
test to determine whether
whose
difference
are
to the
sum
is two. For
even
perfect
perfect number is
one
which
an
example
number because 6=1+2+3. Other
examples are
B.C., Euclid showed that if 2n'1 was
prime number that 2n"^(2n-l)
18th century,
pair
of its proper divisors (a proper divisor is
28, 496, and 8128. Circa 300

a
3 and
example,
divisor other than the number itself). The number 6 is

of an
given
5 & 7, 11 & 13, 41 & 43.
The odd perfect number mystery.
equal
infinite number of prime pairs? A prime pair is
5, since 5-3=2. Some others
is
not
prime?
an
of consecutive primes
or
Leonhard Euler
is
perfect number. Then,
proved
that
any
even
in the
perfect
number must comply with Euclid's form.

For example,
But odd
8128=26(27-1).
perfect
numbers remain
mystery.
As
yet
no one
has
found
an
odd perfect number,
has anyone
nor
proved
that all
perfect numbers are even.

GOLPBACH'S CONJECTURE
Is every
even
number greater than 2 the
sum
of two primes?
In 1742 German mathematician Christian Goldbach

wrote to Leonhard Euler
even
number except 2
(1707-1783)
was
the
sum
the
of
6=3+3; 8=3+5; 10=5+5; 12=7+5,
4=2+2;
conjecture
is believed to be true, no
Thus far the
following
can
conjecture that
two
...
Examples:
Although
Goldbach's
has proven it
be written
as
the
apparently proved
sum
primesa far cry from two primes.
of not
more
Ivan M.
primes.
In
1973,
Chen
Jing-run
sufficiently large even number is the

that is either prime
or
so as
yet.
has two
sum
that any
than 300,000
are
showed
the
that
of a prime and
prime factors.
even
Vinogradov(1891-
1983) proved that all sufficiently large odd integers

three
every
primes.
ideas have been shown: In 1931, Soviet
mathematician L. Schnirelmann
number
one
(1690-1764)
sum
of
every
number
161
162
THE MAG IC O F MATH EMATI C$
FERMATSLASTTHEOREM
In the 1600's Pierre de Fermat
one
(1601-1665) wrote
In the
margin of
of his books
To divide
cube into two cubes,
fourth power,
or
in
power whatever above the second, into two powers
denomination,
is
wonderful proofof this,

restated:
If
is
but the margin is too
eluded
challenge.
as a
even
the most
The next section

latest
any
same
assuredly found
narrow
an
to hold it.
natural number greater than 2, there
positive whole numbers x, y,

went out
and I have
Impossible,
general
of the
are no
such that xn+yn=zn. Fermat's note
For centuries the
proof or disproof
has
prominent mathematicians.
gives additional background and discusses the
information
Last
Fermat's
on
discoveries that have been

Fermat's Last Theorem
are
Theorem.
outgrowth
an
probably
more
Some
of efforts
of the
to prove
important than the
theorem.
*
The
study of mathematical
interesting
as
delving
Ideas that have not been resolved is
Into what
we
sample of unsolved mathematical

simple enough
background,
to
explain
their solutions
to
are
do know. This is but
mysteries. Although
someone
with
no
as
small
few
are
mathematical
elusive.
iThe three impossible construction problems of antiquity, which were to be

solved using only a straightedge and compass, are: trisecting an angle
(dividing an angle Into three congruent angles), duplicating a cube
(constructing a cube with twice the volume of a given cube), squaring a
circle (constructing a square with the same area as a given circle). A few
of the discoveries that these three problems helped evolve were the
conchoid of Nlcomedes, the spiral of Archimedes, and the quadratrlx of
Hlpplas.
2The challenge of the Kontgsberg bridge problem was to find a path over
seven bridges of KOnlgsberg without crossing any bridge more than
the
once.
Euler
developed
the notion of networks when
solving this problem.
3The Parallel Postulate dealt with determining whether Euclid's fifth

postulate was indeed a postulate and not a theorem. Attempts to prove
this postulate led to the discoveries of non-Euclidean geometries.
MATHEMATICAL MAC IC FROM THE PAST
165
FERMAT'S LAST
There
are no
THEOREM
positive whole
numbers that solve
xn+yn=zn when n is a
natural number greater than 2
century mathematician
When 17th
Pierre de Fermat scribbled this note
in
margin of
metica
translation of Arith-
by Diophantus,
*r'T*r'v*-T--
little did he
'"'L'.TT'T-
know the impact his comment would
have
mathematics for the next 350 years. Had
he
really solved
playing
joke?
No
mathematics.
construction
tr?f.'.'.
.&fa(U)<iJK/
we
will
txarfitc is.
know for
ever
do know Is that it
of the famous unsolved
one
problems
*-i.-*r*-.-.a.-._.i.
it? Was he just
one
sure, but what
became
the
history of
Like the three famous
problems of antiquity,
in
the
Konigsberg bridge problem, and

Euclid's
5th
Postulate,
mathematical
last
Fermat's
theorem
has
stimulated
thought and discoveries for centuries.
The mathematical
community
Is very excited and enthusiastic
about Modular Elliptic Curves and Fermat's Last Theorem, the 200
page work of Andrew J. Wiles, professor of mathematics at

Princeton
University. Presenting his work at talks at Cambridge
(June 1993), he climaxed his last talk with the announcement that
he
had proven
the
Shimura-Taniyama-Weil conjecture, which
mathematicians felt held
key
In mathematical circles the
work has
development of
the
on
.fjouma. .
put
to
proving Fermat's last theorem.
feelings
are
very positive that Wiles'
Fermats Last Theorem to rest.
164
Over the centuries there have been thousands of

Fermat's
problem,
but
none
thus far has held up to
not that Fermat's last theorem Is
said "I have found
proof)
Is the
beauty
number theory,
truly
so
extraordinary,
wonderful
It Is
but
Fermat
as
proof the solution ( Its
of this theorem. It has
cryptology and codes,
of
"proofs"
scrutiny.
discoveries In
sparked
to name
some areas.
Wiles had been
with
Intrigued
Fermat's theorem
as a
teenager.
But did not delve Into Its
until he
saw a
possible
Wiles considers his
proof
means.
proof
collaboration of the many

mathematicians and efforts that went
before
him.
plateaus
18th
historical
Among
toward this end
we
have
century mathematician
onhard Euler
who
Le-
the
proved
theorem for n=3. German

mathematician
Kummer
E.
Ernst
proved the theorem for all but

three numbers less than
Andrew Wiles
Present
day computer proofs
have shown that
no
100.
solutions exist
for the first four million natural numbers. In the 1950's Yuktaka
Tanlyama made his conjecture involving elliptic

structures In
hyperbolic plane.
that if Taniyama's
conjecture
curves
In the 1980's Gerhard
were
true for
certain
and their
Frey posed
type of elliptic
(called semlstable), then Fermat's theorem could be
curves
proven. When Kenneth A. Ribet
proved Frey's proposition, Wiles
decided to undertake Fermat's theorem. From that time

worked
Barry
intensively
for
seven
Mazur of Harvard
described
years. In
came
on
he
paper
by
to Wiles' attention. The paper
numerical technique that
old which was very
May
of 1993,
was over a
hundred years
important in the finalizatlon of his proof.
MATH EMATKAL MAC IC FROM TH E PAST
165
GALILEO*.
There
are
PROPORTION
mathematical
many
concepts that have
no
restrictions
"
In the realm of
mathematics, but
have limits when

is
one
applied
such idea that is

For
problems.
to the real world. The idea of proportion
very useful tool In
how many boxes
pounds,
for
168
proportion
pounds?
is
one
(3 boxes/42 lbs
But not all
if
example,
identical boxes of marbles
three
weigh
are
Setting
solving many types of
42
needed
up
way to solve this
boxes/168 lbs).
problems
of
proportion
may be realistic to solve. Can any tree

be scaled down to any size and be
functional? Can
exist? The
person,
size.
person of any size
composition of an object, be it
tree
or
the bones of
play vital roles In deciding the upper and lower limits of its
possible, since the structure
A hundred foot person is not
and materials that make up the human

such mammoth size.
heights,
dictated
Even
body were not Intended for
giant redwoods have limits to their
by their roots system and the properties of wood.

problem of scaling an object up or
One of the first records of the
down
was
tackled
by
Galileo in 1638 In his work
Dialogues
Concerning Two New Sciences.

Here he states "... if one wants to maintain in a great giant the
same proportion of limb as that found in an ordinary man he
must either find harder and stronger material for making the
bones, or he must admit a diminution of strength in
comparison with men of medium stature; for if his height be
increased inordinately he will fall and he crushed under his
weight. Whereas, if the size of a body be diminished,

the strength of that body is not diminished in proportion;
indeed the smaller the body the greater its relative strength."*
own
'Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences.

translators. Macmlllan, 1914.
Henry
Crew & Alfonso De Salv
166
MATH EMATI C$&

CONTAINERS
It Is often
discover
were
There
are
vessels for
startling
how
amazing
objects
mathematlzed
to
and
Ideas
the
past.
In
of varied vases, containers, and
examples
storage that have been designed
numerous
and
Into many forms. This
design and
drawing of a
chalice
by Paolo
Uccello Is from
the collection
on
display In
theUfflzl
Gallery of
Florence, Italy.
Although It was
done
during the
first part of the

1400s, Its
precision and
exactness Is
reminiscent of a
computer
analysis of a
goblet, and
Illustrates
linear
perspective,
constant ratios
of proportional
measurements,
and
use
of
geometric solids.
GEOMETRIES
things that I
was
amazed. ...out of nothing I
have created
new
strange
universe. Jdnos
When most of
geometry
Bolyai
think of
us
course
from
geometry,
letter to his father, I823.
we
think of
"memorize", the excitement of
thing
been
about
Little did
elements.
taking place
more,
much
we
geometry
realize that
more
postulate
was
school
area,
one
The
visualize its
silent evolution of ideas had
present. Those of us
was
geometry than Euclidean geometry.
We
study
to
volume.
can
of mathematics learned that there
learned how geometry and
system by Rene
is that
from ancient times to the
who continued the
high
"deadly" theorems we had to

doing our first proof, points, lines,
triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, solids,

beautiful
our
all those
algebra
We
Descartes.
challenged by
were
saw
linked via the coordinate
how Euclid's 5th (Parallel)
mathematicians for centuries.
mathematicians felt the Parallel
postulate
was not
an
Many
independent
idea, but could be proven from the existing materials of geometry.

As
has
history
in
independent
attempts
as
to
Parallel
Euclidean geometry
really separate
mathematicians
mathematics
is too
the
postulate definitely
knowledge.
intriguing
one
get
was
but the unsuccessful
led to discoveries of non-Euclidean
impossible
rest, for
shown,
geometries.
It is
field of mathematics from the

ideas
they rely
on
their entire
A time line of the evolution of geometries
to pass up.
Space limits this
time line to
an
evolving of the fields of geometries rather than specific ideas within

a
particular geometry. Hopefully
your own research.
OLD & NEW
/ have discovered such

wonderful
167
it will
serve as a
springboard
for
168
600 BCThales Introduces deductive geometry. It was developed over the years by such
mathematicians and philosophers as Pythagoras, the Pythagoreans, Plato, Aristotle.
300 BCEuclid compiles, organizes and
discovered and proven, Into thirteen
systematizes geometric Ideas, which had been

books, called The Elements.
140 BCPosedonlus restates Euclid's 5th
3rd century ADProclus
postulate.
(410-495 AD) Is one of the first recorded critics of Euclid's 5th
postulate.
Countless attempts
are
made
over
1637Rene Descartes formulates
the centuries to prove Euclid's 5th
postulate.
analytic geometry.
Gerolamo Saccheri (1667-1733) Is the first to try an Indirect proof of Euclid's Parallel
postulate. Unfortunately, he does not accept the results of his work. Prior to his death he
publishes a book, Euclldes ab omnI naevo vlndicatus (Euclid Freed of Every Flaw),
which came to the attention of Eugenlo Beltrami one and a half centuries later. Had
Saccheri not rejected his findings he would have sped up the discovery of a
non-Euclidean geometry by about a century.
1639GIrard Desargues (1591-1661) publishes a work on conies in which he discusses his
new work on his discoveries of projective geometry.
1736Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). His study and solution to the
problem launches the field of topology.
KSnigsberg bridge
1795Gaspard Monge (1746-1818) describes structures by plane projections.

1822 Jean Victor Ponceiet (1788-1867) revives
formulates the duality principle.
1843Arthur Cayley (1821-1895)
projective geometry with his treatise and
begins the study of n-dimenslonai spaces
in
analytic
geometry.
Cantor (1845-1918). His set theory provides a basis for topology, which is presented
in 1895 by Henri Poincare (1854-1912) in his Analysis Situs. Develops the Cantor set, an
early fractal.
Georg
1871Christian Felix Klein (1849-1925) does extensive work In projective geometry and
topology, and proves consistency of Euclidean, elliptic & hyperbolic geometries.
19th
centuryNicoiai Lobachevsky (1793-1856), Jonas Bolyal (1802-1860), and Carl Gauss

(1777-1855) independently discover hyperbolic geometry.
1854 G.F.Bemhard Riemann
(1826-1866) presents elliptical geometry.
Mobius & Johann
1858 August
Mobius strip.
Listing independently discover one-sided surfaces, e.g.
1888Guiseppe Peano (1858-1932) creates

1904Helge
von
Koch
Peano
space-filling curve (fractal).
(1870-1924) creates Koch snowflake curve (fractal).
1919Felix Hausdorff defines fractional dimensions in fractal geometry. A.S. Besicovitch

generalizes Hausdorff's work.
1971Vladimir Arnold links
algebraic (n-dimensional analytic geometry) geometry and
topology.
1951-75 Benolt
development.
Mandelbrot, coins the word fractal and works nearly singlehandedly on its
600 BC
1637
EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRY
Analytic
Geometry
NON-EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRIES
1639
Projective
1736
Geometry
Topology
1829
1854
I
1860's
Hyperbolic
Geometry
Elliptic
Geometry
Fractal
Geometry
present
169
170
WHAT'S IN A NAME?
HYPERBOLIC GEOMETRY IS NOT
NAMED AFTER THE HYPERBOLA
Ever wonder how certain
get their
names?
example, consider hyperbolic and elliptic geometries.
In both
mathematical fields
For
their creators had
to do with the
that
were
nothing
eventually adopted. Hyperbolic geometry was discovered
independently by both Nikolai Lobachevsky (1793-1856) and Janos
cases
Euclidean
Bolyal (1802-1860).
fifth
geometry's
postulate
states that one and
parallel line
a
can
only
pass
P not
given point
names
one
through
given
on a
line L. Mathematicians
unsuccessful efforts to show this
postulate
was
and thus
provable,
theorem, led to the discovery of

non-Euclidean geometries.
It
hyperbolic geometry
discovered that there exists

than
one
P and
line
parallel
comes
Hyperbolic
from the Greek word
case
number of
geometry
it
and
had
to the
originally
pangeometry.
the
non-Euclidean
parallel
geometry
name
by
as
to L.
imaginary
which it is called
given by the well known
was
elliptic geometry
geometry
passing through
But the
P and
creator of the Klein bottle. In addition, Klein
term
P.
through
referred to his
hyperbolic geometry
coined
SSttt^0"
lines passing
geometer Felix Klein,

also
excessive.
applies
parallel
Lobachevsky
today
more
passing through
to L.
hyperbole, meaning
In this
In
was
In which
no
for
Georg Rlemann's
lines exist
parallel
to L
The Term elliptic is from the Greek term
elleiptis, meaning to lack or fall short.
MATHEMATICAL MA61 FROM THE PAST
171
EULER'S MAGIC
The
special thing about mathemat-
leal Ideas Is that

been
should hold for all

first k
have
they
once
established
true,
as
cases.
For
they
example.to
sum
counting numbers, l+2+3+...+k, all
the
method
impossible
call
Induction.
^v
^j~^^
mathematically by
It is physically
>i^^
tetrahedron
cube
to test his formula for every
possible
counting numbers starting
set of consecutive
with 1, but the
beauty
that
not
do
they
/f\
/I
one
needs to do is plug into the formula k(k+l)/2

This formula has been proven
a
O l\AAU LA
of mathematical
proofs
is
require brute force. Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler is credited with

many mathematical discoveries,
field of
especially in
His solution to the
topology.
bridge problem is
said to have launched the
of
networks.
topological
properties of
object
objects
is distorted.
distorted into
faces, vertices
or
For
K6nigsberg
study
studies
Topology
that do not
example,
change
a
the
cube
the
as
can
tetrahedron
be
and
by stretching
squashing the cube, or vice versa. The size of the
cube obviously changed, as did its number of
edges.
As
result,
wonder, what type of properties

and remain
unchanged?
type of
number
invariant
offaces
interior
on
rhombicostdodecahedro,
polyhedra,
of
its
point
on
the
point of the tetrahedron.
theorem that Euler
property of potyhedra,
then subtract the number
F+V-E=2. Try it out
an
fascinating
of the
might
left to observe
One observation is that any
interior of the cube remains
Outside of topology,
are
one
is that
to the number
proved about
if you
edges, the result
is
the Platonic solids shown. If you
energetic try it on the rhombicosidodecahedron.
add the
of its vertices and

always
are
2.
feeling
MATHEMATICS
PLAY ITS MUSIC
MATHEMATICS & MUSIC
MUSICAL SCALES & MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS & SOUND
174
Music is the pleasure the human soul
experiences from counting without

being aware it is counting.
-Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Sounds,
whether In the form of noises
the vibrations of objects. Once
piece
they
of wood,
cause
wire,
or a
surrounding
objects,
or
music,
such
column of air In
are
as a a
flute
all caused
by
rubber band,
begin
to vibrate,
molecules of air to vibrate. These

vibrations travel outward from
the
source
In
three
dimensions. When these
vibrations reach
eardrums,
the
our
eardrums'
vibrations send
signals
to
brains which create
our
the sensation of hearing.

Each musical instrument
has
method of
creating
vibrations which in turn

cause
vibrations
throughout the structure and
material of the instrument.

For
when
example,
guitar's
string
vibrations
is
plucked
cause
its
the
other strings and entire

instrument to vibrate.
Since ancient times, mathematics has been used to
explain music.
Today computer modeling and digitization, the quantization of

music and sounds coupled with the study of acoustics and
acoustical architecture
are
producing new sounds
sensations.
175
MATHEMATICS &
MUSIC
May not Music be described

as
the Mathematics of sense,
and Mathematics as the Music

of reason?
J.J.Sylvester
Music and mathematics have been linked
During the medieval period
through
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music

modem
Score
the centuries.
the educational curriculum
together.
grouped
Today's
computers are perpetuating that tie.
writing
its influence
is the first obvious
on
music.
time, 3:4 time, and
where mathematics reveals
In the musical
forth), beats per
so
1^ ETfl/i
area
script,
we
measure,
find tempo (4:4
whole notes, half
>*ffin
f f
kf
i .>fc
^m
S3e
nf
y?
tt
IS
m
notes, quarter notes,
Writing
eighth
notes, sixteenth notes, and
so on.
music to fit x-number of notes per measure resembles the
process of
finding
common
denominator the different
length
176
notes must be made to fit
particular measure
at
The composer creates music that fits
so
together In the rigid structure of

completed work Is analyzed, every
the written
certain
tempo.
beautifully and effortlessly
measure
number of beats using the various desired
When
score.
has the
lengths
prescribed
of notes.
In addition to the
obvious
connection of
mathematics to the musical

score, music Is
linked to
exponential
ratios,
curves,
periodic
functions and
computer
science.
With ratios, the
Pythagoreans
(585-400 B.C.)
were
the
first to associate music

and mathematics.
They
discovered the
connection between
musical
harmony
sound caused
string. They
and whole numbers
by a plucked string depended
as a
produced.
For
note C, then
4/3
ratio of whole numbers.
string of whole numbers ratios,

example, starting with
that the
length of the
were
given off by
In whole number ratios
In fact every harmonious combination of
expressed
upon the
also found that harmonious sounds
equally taut strings whose lengths were
the
by recognizing
plucked strings could
By Increasing the length

an
a
be
of
entire scale could be
string that produces the
16/15 of C's length gives B, 6/5 of C's length gives A.
of C's gives G.
3/2 of C's gives F, 8/5 of C's gives E, 16/9 of C's
gives D, and 2/1 of C's length gives low C.
Have you every wondered
grand piano
Is
shaped
Actually there
Is?
are
whose
Instruments
structures
are
exponential
by
an
and
concepts.
and
Is
equation
one
curves
An
concepts.
curve
where k>0. An
And its
many
shapes
Exponential functions
such
linked to various
mathematical
are
why
the way It
described
of the form
example
graph has
Is
the
y=kx,
y=2*.
shape
illustrated.
y
Musical Instruments that
either
suing
formed
from
reflect
the
exponential
Instruments
columns
In
or
of air,
of
shape
curve
are
an
their
structure.
>
1
The
study
of the nature of musical
sounds reached Its climax with the

of
work
the
19th
century
mathematician John Fourier. He
proved
that all musical sounds
instrumental and vocal
described
could be
mathematical
by
expressions, which
were
the
sums
of simple periodic sine functions.
Every sound has three qualities
pitch,
loudness and
musical sounds.
quality
which
distinguishes
It from other
177
178
Fourier's
discovery makes It possible for these
sound to be
to the
frequency
quality to
Without
In
graphically represented
the
an
of the
curve,
using computers
loudness to the
would
In musical
amplitude
not
have
mathematics of music,
composition and the

been
and
design
were
headway
design of
Mathematical
possible.
discoveries, namely periodic functions,

modem
properties of a
and distinct. Pitch Is related
shape of the periodic function1.
understanding of the
instruments
three
essential In the
of musical Instruments and in the
design
of voice
activated computers.
Many instrument manufacturers compare

the periodic sound graphs of their products to ideal
graphs for
these Instruments. The

is
also
closely
tied
fidelity
to
of electronic musical
periodic
graphs.
reproduction
Musicians
mathematicians will continue to

the
and
play equally important roles

production and reproduction of music.
The
diagram shows a string vibrating in sections and

whole. The longest vibration determines the pitch
and the smaller vibrations produce harmonics.
as a
lA periodic function is one

that repeats its shape at
regular
intervals.
In
179
MUSIC SCALES &

The
of
speed
examples
These
of
our
commercial.
our
numbers which
are
equations and formulas which define
have vital roles In
objects
all
are
of constants of
MATHEMATICS
(p and
n, e,
c,
number
Avogadro's
universe.
light,
world
Among
be
octave should be
included
chemical
or
concept of
an
they geometric, physical,
these famous constants, the

.
r,
various
&JLLL4A
as a
constant of a
special nature.
The octave
plays a
vitally Important
part
world of
In the
music. It
establishes the
unit
a
or
distance of
scale. Just
as
the ratio of a
circle's
circumference to
its diameter
always produces
the constant n, the
ratio of the
number of vibrations of a
is the ratio
length
of
1/2.
an
plucked string
These notes have the
octave.J
to
same
string half Its length

sound, and form the
The shortened string vibrates twice the
amount per second than the

or
subdivisions of
an
original string. The number of notes

octave Is arbitrary, and is influenced by a
number of factors. Consider the various factors that
play when creating
particular
scale.
Sounds
or
come
notes
are
Into
what
180
comprise
mentioned,
scale.
Each
two notes
has
are an
double that of the other.3

different sounds
with
this
or
notes in
there
were
an
octave.
But to
one
be
ludicrous,
that many notes.
octave,
whole note
jg two
As
of one Is
hear about 300
produce
scale
since
traditional
For
example, If
piano of eight octaves would
JJ
frequency
ear can
produce
300 notes In
apart
If the
The trained
many notes would
Instruments cannot
frequency.2
particular
octave
JJJJ
half notes
jg
quarter notes
JOTOT
jgj
eighth
notes
16 sixteenth notes
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
oJ*J A033J^ d J J - JJ
Musical equations. The illustration above shows the relaionships between
a whole note,
a half note, a quarter note, an eighth note,
and a sixteenth
note. A dotted note is one way of conveying fractions notes, because a
dotted note equals one and one-half times its value.
keys. Can you imagine a pianist running back

playing a keyboard this long? Thus, the number of
have 2400 white
and forth
possible notes Is restricted by the physiology of our ears and by the
capabilities of
our
discernible sounds
of a scale Is
How and which of the 300
Instruments.
were
analogous
to
selected for
selecting
base should be used and which
represent the numbers?
scale?
Selecting
numeration
symbols
the notes
system.
What
should be made to
With the scale, the
length
of an octave
string needed
to be selected and the number of subdivisions
comprising the scale) had

systems
we
to be determined.
(notes
As with numeration
find these evolved
differently In various civilizations.

letters of their alphabet to represent the
The ancient Greeks used
of
notes
seven
These notes
their
scale.
Into
grouped
were
tetrachords (four notes), which
modes.
groups called
Into
put
were
The modes
the
were
forerunners of modern
Western
major and
minor scales.
The Chinese used
(five note) scale.

sic
and
was
within
defined
In
is
pentatonic
India,
mu-
improvised
boundaries
specific
This octave is
by ragas.
divided into 66 Intervals called
srutls,
The
oj
score
of
14th century missal page
a
c
rego
are
17
22 notes.
only
two
practice
22 srutls, from
basic
seven-note
formed. The Persian scale divided the octave Into either

We
constant, different
see
although the
that
musical
musical Instruments from
to
In
although
are
which
scales
or
there
octave
systems evolved.
one
culture cannot
In
was
given
addition, the
necessarily be
used
statues,
and
perform the music of another.
artifacts
Archeologlcal
frescoes
Sumerian
There
clay
instruments,
vases,
vocal and instrumental musicians have been
depicting
unearthed.
of
are
many
early examples
of written music
tablets excavated in Iraq appear to show
note scale (circa 1800
B.C.); fragments written
and pieces of papyrus from ancient
(circa 100 A.D.);
Greece,
on
stone
an
eight
carvings
Greek text books
Greek manuscript in which notes
were
written
181
182
A fresco
using
depicting
their
musicians from the tomb
alphabet
(circa
Moslem-Arabic chant from 8th
300
qfDJeserkara
A.D.);
in Thebes.
manuscripts
of
century Spain.
During the 6th century B.C., Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans

the
were
first
Pythagoreans
to
associate
believed that
things. Imagine their delight

note, the
periodicities
instruments.
own
music
numbers,
when
came
In addition,
to be known
believed In the music of the

each of the the known
radio
mathematics.
some
they discovered
they
believed that
as
The
way, governed all

the octave of a
of notes, and the ratio of notes
music, that the celestial bodies
This Idea
and
in
planets
on
string
had their
produced
musical sounds.
the "music of the
spheres". Kepler
spheres, and
planets. Today,
signals carried by solar winds.
In fact wrote music for
astronomers have received
These sounds,
including
whistles, pops, whines, hisses when synthesized at Increased
were,
how
would birds
sing?
musical tune
have
written
written
1The
seven
Yet most verbal renditions of
change slightly
story
or
of
with each oral communication.
composition performed, scales
language
of music,
language
of mathematics.
even as
To
essential. Scales
are
the
equations and symbols
are
the
are
term octave comes from the Latin word for 8. A diatonic scale, has
distinct notes from C to B and high C, the octave, is the eighth
note.
^Frequency
is
the
number
of vibrations
per
second.
There
is
correspondence between sounds and numbers (its

frequencies), although our ears are not designed to discern all the
possible distinct sounds.
Â plucked string produces a certain note, e.g. C has 264 vibrations per
second. When the string is depressed at half its length, its octave is
produced, which vibrates at 528 vibrations per second.
one-to-one
183
184
MATHEMATICS &
SOUND
Mathematical
twisting and
sound
waves
ideas
turning
have
been
music
and
for centuries. A walk
around the Interior of the dome In

St. Peter's Cathedral In Rome will convince you that the curve of
the dome's walls carries one's
St Peter's
amphitheater
at
have studied and
on
listener
on
the
Attending a Greek tragedy at the ancient

Epldaurus illustrates that its designers must
experimented with the mathematics of acoustics
designing and locating
spectator
pin
to
Cathedral, Vatican.
opposite side.
before
whispers
this
seated in the farthest
the center of the
phenomenal outdoor theater.
row can
easily
hear an actor
drop a
stage. Specific mathematical shapes
are
used to
185
design sound reflectors which are hung from the ceilings of

iall
symp
focus
For two parabolas situated
as
shown, sound originating
off the parabolic ceiling, travels parallel

to the other focus point
at
focal point bounces
opposite ceiling where it bounces
diagram is a schematic design of the ancient Greek amphitheater

ISpidaurus, Greece. The photograph below is of the amphitheater today.
Both the design and ideal location enhance its acoustics.
The above
at
to the
186
(south of the Rotunda
in the United States
reflects the conversations of Individuals

the
parabolas.
Two
from the two focal
people
can
carry
standing at
on a
points, undisturbed
Capitol building)
by
focal
points of
normal conversation
the noise level of the
hall.
As
we see,
finding ideal points for emitting and receiving sounds is

Acoustics and sound are linked directly to
not coincidental.
mathematical
shown to be
objects
and ideas.
simple periodic
Sound
waves
themselves
were
sine functions in the 19th
mathematician John Fourier.
He
century by
proved pitch, loudness and
quality of sound were related respectively

amplitude and shape of sinusoidal functions.
to
the
frequency,
recently, QSound has been invented by Danny Lowe and

John Lees, recording engineers and mathematicians. QSound
And most
produces sound
in multi-dimensions. Unlike stereo which has
different sounds coming from different

at you from all directions.
3-dimensions.
that
It
requires
You
no new
speakers, QSound
literally
hear the
recording
equipment other than
CD that has been
comes
imaged with QSound 1.
plays
cassette
With such
recording just position yourself and your speakers
or
in
stereo
Illustrated, and let the mathematics of sound do the rest.
as
1As of February 1991, Madonna's The Immaculate Collection and Sting's

The Soul Cages were the only commercially available QSound albums.
Future releases by Janet Jackson, Paula Abdul, Bon Jovi, Europe, Richie
Zambora, Stevie Nicks, Julian Lennon, Freddie Jackson, and Wilson
Phillips are scheduled to use the patented process.
187
BAUD1
1BINARY1CODE
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1BIT100BY1
BU0O111OO
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ME0ABYTEO11POR
THE COMPUTER
REVOLUTION
THE COMPUTER, S1ST CENTURY'S TOOL FOR CREATIVITY
A i'OZJK AT THE Vt-^T

OBSOLETE CALCULATORS
/-.
i.OOi', A.l' TrJ [
i: :-ii IT
COMPUTERS ARE IN OUR TREES

MATHEMATICS BECOMES A PRIVATE EYE
WHAT'S MY SECRET?
PICKING OUT PRIMES
CRYPTOGRAPHY, ANARCHY, CYBERPUNKS, &

REMAILERS
COMPUTERS, IRRIGATION & WATER

CONSERVATION
COMPUTERS FIGHT FOREST FIRES
j-. loo J'. A.r-j'rJi F'jruj'.F.
CYBERSPACE/VIRTUAL REALITY
HYPERTEXT
LITTLE FERMAT
COMPUTERS &A-LIFE
OPTICAL COMPUTERS
FUZZY LOGIC & COMPUTERS
190
To
err
is human, but to
requires
Whether
are
we
ready
not
or
or
whether
the tool of the 21st
computer
is
impacting
all facets of our lives both
has
sped up the gears of change.
can
be the pen, pencil,
teller it
and
architect the
professor
drafting table,
computer
or
bank
For the artist
keyboard.
laboratory,
for the
engineer design tools, for the
research tool, for the librarian

an
card
and
catalog
incredibly fast
a
and
planned, the computer becomes the scapegoat, and
as
told "it lost your file," "the
system is down," "there
seems
we
to be
Nevertheless, since they have touched almost every
glitch."
It
calculator/computer. However, when things don't go
accurate
are
the
For the accountant
reference desk, for the mathematician
exactly
not, the
negatively.
today's writers
scientist
for the
or
The computer is
and
positively
typewriter.
palette, for the
like it
we
century.
For
be the calculator and
can
paintbrush
or
really foul things up

computer. Anonymous
aspect of our daily lives, we are now dependent on computers.

BASIL LORAL FAC! LOT
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Some
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computers languages developed
to communicate with
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computers.
THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION
191
& i@K &1T ^ P&S1T

OBSOLETE
The ten digits
our
ofour hands
CALCULATORS
were
earliest counting device.
The Chinese devised

box to
use
This box
II
with their rod numerals.
was
used to write systems
of equations.
The abacus
was
used in calculation
by many cultures including the

Chinese, the Greeks, the Romans,
and the Japanese.
The Incas used the knotted quipu
as
their accounting device.
Napiefs rods
Napier in the
were
invented
by John
1600s to aid
computation.
The slide rule
1620
was
invented around
by Edmound Gunter.
Thefirst adding machine was

invented
by Blaise Pascal in
And in 1673,
Gothfired
Leibniz invented
multiply
In the
one
1642.
Wilheim
von
that could also
and divide.
early
1800s Charles
Babbage's designs and work on the

difference and analytical engine
furnished thefoundationfor the
modern computer.
1 iiiii
segmented
ill
III in
T JL ii
1 T
II
1
zs
mi
191
A D D 1 T 1 O N.
Matter,
This illustration Is
be eaficft toap in tljis arte ,3 to acts

but ttoo fummes at ones togrttjee:
J>ott> be it, pou marc a&oc mc:e,as J toil tci
rouanont* ttyctcfoit toxemic pou topllc
BDDe ttoo fortunes,pou fl)flll fpitte fct Dottmc
^Y
*-*-
re-
productton/rom the early

English arithmetic book
The Orounde of Artes,
In
by Robert Recorde.
addition to the lines
representing Os, 10s, 100s,
etc, the places between
these lines
also
were
used to represent 5s,
50s, 500s following the
Roman numerals. The V
on the line was initially
used to mark the 1000s
but later it was
line,
used to indicate a comma
when writing such
numbers as 23,650. When
of tbem^tfoicet&nottolncbc.anDttjcti
it Dzato a Ipnc croffe tbc otber Ipjtte.tf no
aftcttt>t>c I'ettcDotincHKorbcr famine, fo
one
bp
tljattuat Ipncmape
tcbcttticnctUcw;aa
if pou tooulfce aont
t*S9tO 8*4* , POU
mutt fct pouc funics
aBpoufecberc.
&uo t$cu i( pou
Ipft, pou map; aDDr
five
counters
accumulated on a line those beads

would be removed and
tDc oic to tijc otber m tlje famr place. 02 els
one
counter would
be
a :icto
carried to the above
the
place: to&t'cl) \faap,bpraufc if xa molt plpiica
space. Hence,
possible origin of the term
"carry". In addition to writing this book, Robert Recorde (circa 1510-1558)
introduced the symbol "=" for equality, wrote an important algebra text
book called The Whetstone qfWitte and the geometry book. Pathway to
poumapafcortl):mborfjcro&itlKcin
Knowledge.
9
"*
9 3
* 4
3 6/4
1 I9|l!4l
4/
|z|5|ojij3
X9 3
9517&
These tables
are
from
book that
I
z
r/\o/
was
Treviso,
Italy.
o/|o/ o/
9 /9I/5 /4 <
1
V i\
multiplying
934 and
314.
4 6
R9|\5
i
oX|o\
[\7l\9
0omms-
It
shows four
methods for
T7\T7 X
X
printed
in 1478 in
193
NAPIER'S CHESS BOARD

The
uses
only
the
key
to
with
communicating
electronic
CALCULATOR
two),
Os and 1 s to write
held
numbers,
its
(base
binary system
which
computers
since Os
-'
and Is could indicate the "ofi"
position of
and "on"
The
electricity.
famous
Scottish
mathematician John
Napier
(1550-1617) utilized the

advent of
is
electricity.
Napier
for
known
best
74
two before the
concepts of base
99
46
rods (or
Napier's
based
on
used
were
known
bones)
His
logarithms.
calculating rods,
revolutionizing computation by his

invention of
as
128 64 32
16
were
logarithms
and
1"
by merchants to
perform multiplication,
division, and could be used to
find square roots and cube

roots. Less well known is his
chess board method of
calculating. Although he did

use
binary
not
notation to write
numbers, the board does

illustrate
how
he
expressed
the numbers in base two. For
example,
to add 74
99+ 46,
sum
* m
128 64 32
16
sum's
final
form 128 64 32
16
each number is written out in

a row
of the chess board
by
194
placing
sum
markers in the appropriate squares of the
of the markers values (indicated
the number
64+8+2=74. After each number is
on
the bottom
one
one
added
are
row.
row so
the bottom
expressed
by gathering
Two markers
on
the chess board,
the markers'
sharing
the
vertically down
same
square
marker to their immediate left. So two "2" markers,

"4" marker.
sharing
in the
the
same
adjacent
square will have
from
Working
square
that the
line) total
74 has markers at 64, 8 and 2 since
they represent.
the numbers
along
are
right
equal
produce
to left, any two markers
removed and
marker
replaced by one
square at the left. At the end of this process,

more
than
one
marker. The
the remaining markers represents the
sum
sum
no
of the values of
of the numbers.
:-:
.'.
i'}]
*'%;('
*>
14
-
'</?.'
v-*.
tBl
',:
".:
'
.'*V'
128 64 32
v'
16
.:.
32
'
y-t
ffl* ffl v&l
'"
^R Q
{'/*
';
$;
64
16
/''h:
';:.'
128
8
4
2
1
multiply using Napier's chess board calculator, the number

representations along the horizontal and vertical column are used.
To
:"
128
'.
128
.........
64
:".
64
32
'
32
..........
16
&*
'*
t$
'
we
want to
with markers
column
intersecting
with
simply
diagonally
128+32+4+1=165
multiply
right.
Then
square where
15 xl 1. One number is
a row
by sliding
the
to the vertical
row.
markers occupy the
marker is
new
marker is
with
marker. After this is done, the

done
*..
expressed
along the bottom row and the other along the vertical
the
at
':}
15x11=165
Suppose
'-"
..
16
'.:-\
placed
same
marker meets
multiplication
markers
from
the
square,
they
are
product
of 15 xl 1.
at
the
column
process is
bottom
As with addition, any
place
removed and
in the square above them. The
column will represent the
placed
row
two
one
resulting vertical
195
196
A [LK AIT THE PRIES (HOT

COMPUTERS ARE IN
lfis
rtiiRTRCCc
OU R TRE E>
unwortr)y of excellent men
fQ lQse hour$ jjke slQves jn fhe

'
labor of calculation which

could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines
used. Gottfried Wilhelm
"I'm
dinosaur." "I refuse to have
can't understand how

one."
"They're
so
person
Impersonal."
many times have you heard

statements ?
But it must be
can
our
lives easier in
Invading
before
The
our
privacy.
networks
or
In
Now
computers.
growth
some
or
being
spend
are
here to
made
fact, it
be
even
In
extensively
urban forests.
can
computers. Washington
days
has
be used to
to either
computers
out
put
are now
Many cities, in efforts
to preserve and maintain the health of their trees
D.C.
others, and
patterned using mathematical
thereby develop strategies

log
some
making
are
trees!
our
drawn using fractals. Computers
to
in
How
is difficult to remember the
create controlled burns. In addition,
used
of how
stay. They
"I
of these
some
complicated
more
ways,
can
computer Illiterate."
perhaps
computers are
of trees
model forest fires, and

fires
to do with them."
much time In front of
so
accepted, regardless
people may feel, that computers
Leibnitz
anything
"I'm just
or
von
were
are
resorting
to
database of about 109,000
street trees, while Paris, France also has its 100,000 trees
on
computer. What kind of information is entered? Each city usually

decides what data is essential for its
particular situation.
database Includesthe tree's location (each tree is
numbered
curb and
along
consecutively
the street, and its distance from the
adjacent
trees
are
The Paris
building,
noted), its vital statistics (species,
sex,
age, trunk size,

statistics
height), type
(includes
mulching),
of
type,
health
tree's
environmental
soil
pruning received, environmental
planter dimensions, drainage,
pollutants
are
an
diseases
and effects. The initial
information is very time consuming,

Since trees
and
(status
as
is the
noted),
logging
of such
updating
of flies.
invaluable asset to any community, both
aesthetically and environmentally, the
time invested
and
long
range outcome make such databases worthwhile. In San

Francisco, California, the city
gardeners
using laptop computers.
Washington D.C.,
Paris
maintain the
followed
in which the Initial
city's inventory
method
inventorying
was
used in
done
by
engineers using hand-held computers. Without
junior forestry
computers, such sophisticated
databases would not have been
197
198
possible. Storage and filing space would have been too formidable,
let alone the necessary updating,
As the
computer evolved, computer functions slowly Invaded
aspects of
lives.
our
wondered how
and
searching and sorting of data.
they
Inca scribes
Inventory
of the
without the qulpu,
Even
as
early
merchants and navigators,
had functioned without
must have
population
so today we
ISBN
set of
Napier rods,
speculated how they
and
are
products
at
had
kept
of the Inca empire
similar point.
D-T3317M-A7-X
51495
9"780933"1 74870"
Bar codes for
labeling & tracking such things

trees, groceries and packages.
As
In
we see
with the urban forest,
storing, processing,
devices
used
by
are
by
computers play an Incredible role
retrieving data. Today,
are
data
Inventory,
and
fewer
civilization will be
bulb.
are
tracking.
Invaluable In the sciences for analyzing, comparing
computing Information, thereby saving tremendous
of time with
Imput
restaurants to process orders, bar codes
stores and businesses for sales.
Computers
and
used
and
as
as
errors.
great
This
as was
evolving tool's
the
Impact
amounts
Influence
of the electric
on
light
199
MATHEMATICS
BECOMES
Mathematical wavelets
l...
i.
are
new
fighting technique
being
used in the United States.
Mathematicians
have
wavelets
to process
developed
fashion. The method divides

then isolates the
reconstruct the
Consequently,
images
an
in
image
image
quicker
into basic
more
accurate
components. It
important and relevant information needed
to
image and discards the non-essential information.
wavelets reduce the amount of data necessary to
store, transmit and retrieve the image.

saves
~-..WA__
This data compression
time and money. In addition, the wavelets do not distort the

as
other methods do. This allows the FBI to
process, identify and match the
image
-w
A PRIVATE EYE
j.i
and tool
crime
analysis
of a person's
more
efficiently
fingerprints.
200
WHAT'S MY SECRET?
Governments, revolutionaries and
financiers have
needed to
always
send and receive top secrets. Many

methods of
messages have been devised

the Spartan
over
scytale1, Polybius'
coding
the centuries.
decoding
Among these
cipher2,
square
letter substitution, Thomas Jefferson's
and
are
Julius Caesar's
cipher wheel, and the
\F
\0\
\U\M\0\P\L\J\G\D\S^
K P xlv\ B M) QZXJ Yl ^
VP\I
\Q\Z\
A s F E\ Ul Gl HI J
WE M U s T D E T E RM 1
\L\T
Wl H
N E WH 1 C H WA Y
G F D s A H J K M N B V C X L W E Y T R UO PI
A R F F II ft H .1
P Y V R M n 7 y .i Y R W 1
/j/m/k/l/0/
/A/B/N/l
portion of Thomas Jefferson's cipher wheel. It was

made with 36 wooden wheels of the same dimension. Each
wheel had the letters of the alphabet printed In various
arrangements. A message would be lined up along the metal
cross-bar. Then the sender would write the letters of any
other horizontal line and send it off. The recipient would line up
these nonsense letters along their horizontal cross-bar, and
look around the cylinder until a line of letters was found that
made sense.
German
military code Enigma.
literature where
are
also many
examples
cryptography is important to the plot,
Allan Poe's The Gold
Doyle's
There
Bug,
Jules Verne's La
as
in
Jangada,
Edgar
Conan
twenty years the encryption formula, DES,
has been
used
by banks, government agencies and private companies to
secure
information.
which
in
The Adventure of the Dancing Men.
For the past
theoretically
This method
uses
56 bits of
computer data
would take 200 years to decode using
computer. Intelligence
and law enforcement
agencies
super
fear that the
present methods
not
are
adequate and
intercept
communications from
criminals, terrorist
foreign
* 11 305) )6* ;4826)4t.) 4t)

;48f8<60) )85;]3* ;:+*8t83
(88)5*t;46fc88*96*?;8) *+0485)
;5*t2:**(;4956*2(5*-4)8<8*
.-4069285) ;)6t8)44:t;l (*9;48081
;8:8+l ;48f85;4) 485f528806*81
(+9;48;(88;49t?34;48)4+;161;:
188;^:?;
governments.
Consequently,
new
53
;806*
would not be able to
and
Is
system
The translation is: A good glass in the bishop's hostel

in the devil's seat twenty-one degrees and thirteen
minutes northeast and by north main branch seventh
limb east side shoot from the left eye of the
death's-head a bee one from the tree through the shot
being
formula using 80
fifty feet out
bits that would
approach
take
than
billion years to crack. This
new
special microchip which would be inserted
communications.
Agency.
one
in
satellites, fax machines, modems etc. to scramble
mathematical
coded
more
uses a
telephones,
secret
The substitution cipher in Edgar

Allan Poe's The Gold Bug.
proposed with a new
theoretically
In
formulas
The
would
chip
developed by
the
use
classified
National
Security
addition, mathematical keys that unscramble the
data would
determined
be
kept by the
FBI
and
other agencies
by
Attorney General of the United States. The
manufacturing process of the chip makes it nearly impossible to
take
the
apart and decode. There
are
people,
the Electronic Frontier Foundation
such
technology
will not and should not
as
Mitchell
Kapor of
(a public policy group
Washington D.C.), who say "A system based

American
on
in
classified secret
gain the confidence of the
public"3
*
Plutarch describes how messages were exchanged by winding a narrow
band of parchment or leather in a spiral manner around a cylindrical
shaft. A message would then be written, and the band removed and sent
to the recipient who had a cylindrical shaft of the exact same size to wind
the band around and decipher the message.
2(Circa200
201
B.C.-118 B.C.) the Greek Polybius devised a substitution

around a 5x5 square, which converted each letter of the
two digit number using only the digits for 1 through 5.
cipher designed
alphabet into a
3Secnet Phone Scheme

Chronicle, May, 1993.
Under Fire,
by
Don
Clark,
San
Francisco
lOl
Ol
en
PICKING OUT
PRIMES
One of the earliest methods

_
^ #% #% ^%
/ OOOwV
by
the
Greek
and
identifying prime
given number. Ever
some
mathematicians have been
In
was
math-
devising
for
new means
since
then
seeking
out
Fn=22
Fermat
numbers
were
prime. This
But the
(for n=0,1,2,3 and 4).

1880
the Fermat
274177 times 67280421310721.
(F22)
shown to
was
Mersenne wrote
would
be
an
yield primes.
following century
J*?
times
^{
factored
into
^ft
no
other Fermat numbers
%J\
^|
(F5)
was
In 1644, the French monk Marin ***
expression 2P-1, with
But not all the numbers
prime number that
Jj^J
this expression
^^
33 known Mersenne primes. Working with ^^
prime. There are currently

expressions (such as those for
numbers,
00
00
of 1993 the 22nd Femat number
as
composite.J
are
Carmichael
00
into 641
number.Fg,
Currently
have been found to be prime, and
^1
the first five
is true for
Leonhard Euler factored the 6th Fermat number

Then in
XJ
numbers.
(for n=0, 1, 2,3,...)
+1
ro
qq
ro
(275-194 ^
1640 Pierre de Fermat claimed that all the numbers of the form
6700417.
23
37
devised
numbers
numerical sieve that would eliminate multl-
of numbers up to
pies
11
prime
ematiclan Eratosthenes
B.C.). He created
finding
for
and
Mersenne
produced by
numbers, Fermat numbers,
number
others),
theory,
and
computer
^^
Ol
programming techniques, mathematicians using either supercomputers ^*

or
strings of rewed-up personal computers seek
prime numbers
and look for
quirky
WHY ALL THE INTEREST IN PRIMES?
setting
new
new
records
J*J
patterns.
QQ
mathematical curiosity
QQ
or
testing the efficiency and hardware of CO

CO
computers using primes numbers
641 for encoding confidential
larger and larger
out
characteristics
material
to form
multidigit
numbers XT
Today's computers, along
with
ingenious programming and problem solving have made
possible
to find
literally
enormous
Projects inSctentific Computation by Richard

Santa Clara, CA 1994.
2859433-1.2
2Found by
CO
*
Ol
^J
E. Crandall.
Springer-Verlag,
Crandall.
Q*
prime numbers. WHATS THE ^
CURRENTLY LARGEST EXPLICIT PRIME?

1
It
David Slowinski in 1993. Verified at his request
by
Richard
lOJ
CRYPTOGRAPHY,
Ever wonder,
much
you receive
so
catalogues
you
offers for
name
and
the
&> REMAILER$
requested,
How
"super" buys?
your
mail
junk
never
ANARCHY, CYBERPUNKS,
how it is
irritatedly,
were
and address accessed? Welcome to the electronic age
loss
electronic
of
data
Most
privacy.
about
them,
individuals have considerable
which
can
be
accessed
by
computer/mode
m user
a
to create
profile
based
on
you have
of you
<?
things
bought,
your travel
tickets, your
medical records,
your traffic
tickets,
Although the loss of privacy was created

by today's
technological methods for storing and accessing
information, perhaps there Is a way to restore that privacy by
outstanding loans,
etc.
new
using these
have
come
same
to the
the individual,
methods.
rescue.
Cyberpunks,
They
advocate
as
they call themselves,
restoring the privacy of
by using sophisticated cryptographic methods to

and hinder Its ready availability.
encode one's Information,
Naturally
there
Some feel that

to
right
are
pros and
government
eavesdrop,
and
obstacles. Remailer is
using
advanced
cons
to this
cyberpunks
an
cryptographic anarchy.
and law enforcement

new
example of
cryptography
method developed
allows
one
information via modem without

the sender.
right
use
to
send
to trace
leaving any "footprints"

Many feel that if governments can use methods
devices to encode important information,

to
similar methods to Insure
methods would present
one new
which
agencies have
an
and
individual also has
personal privacy.
204
COMPUTERS,
IRRIGATION &
WATER
It Is eerie to observe lush crops
CONSERVATION
growing
from
cracked earth.
use
drip irrigation, water, fertilizer

delivered
Irrigation,
directly
raisin
cut his water
farm while
of
now
with the
computerized subsurface
and
to the roots of
occasionally pesticides can

plants. With subsurface drip
be
grape farmer Lee Simpson of Fresno, California has
consumption
cutting back the
In half and doubled the

use
of
project
cotton field of Harris Farms, also In Fresno,
of cotton per
acre as
yield
pesticides to one-sixth.
California Department of Water Resource test
pounds
sometimes
dry,
But
opposed
to 930
on a
of his
A
160-acre
produced
pounds per
previous years, and used 7 inches less water per
acre
acre.
1600
from
Claude
cutting edge of this
Phene has been at the
(drip irrigation
Phene had been
by
has
actually
advocating
conserving water and
produced
make
sense
100 tons per
to flood
a room
claim that California
supply,
with
one
to water
26 tons per acre,
potted plant.
uses
His statistics
85% of the state's water
computerized drip
acres
would be
irrigation1
enough
The method also reduces the
weeds do not grow
as
readily between
use
water to
were
used
supply
on
Los
of herbicides, since
the furrows because
plants
watered at the roots and not flooded. In addition, the amounts
of fertilizers and pesticides used would be cut

His
some
his tomato
on
crop e.g. cotton the 6 inches of water saved
each of the 1.4 million
Angeles.
improving yields
Phene points out that It does not
agriculture
and If subsurface
just
formerly produced
acre.
years).
not until 1987 that
was
Phene tested his methods
notice.
crops in California. Acres that

now
are
been around for about 20
this method for years, but it
farmers took
type of farming
"new"
by
computerized techniques allowed his operation
interaction
applications
between
and
different
their affects
amount of fertilizer for
nutrients,
on
crops
factors from soil texture to
to discover the
timing
yields,
optimizing plant quality,
than half.
more
of
the
and
nutrient
optimum
numerous
rooting characteristics.
irrigated by underground pipes placed 18 inches below the

The very sensitive lysimeters detect morning dew, measure
amounts of water that plants absorb and emit, measure surface weather
conditions.
The computer gathers and analyzes data, and delivers
minute amounts of water throughout the day and occasionally fertilizer,
herbicides, and pesticides. Without investing in a computer system,
small farms could
monitor their fields via modems at a
centralized
computer location.
Crops
surface.
are
205
206
COMPUTERS
FICHT FOREST FIRES
Today's computer modeling is a

very powerful tool, used by sclentlsts and professionals across a
spectrum of fields.
by
economists to
and
predict
theory
to
the
predicts
spread of
describe
heart
sociologists along with

seems
almost
cycles, by
contagious disease
arrythmias.
It
statistics to observe
unending.
It can be used
doctors to monitor
economic
has
or
with chaos
been
used
by
social trend. The list
Not too
long ago firefighters'
poles,
pike
chemicals.
chain
ropes,
Today
computers
tools
some
were
firefighters
complete with personal computers.

people
and
fireproof blankets,
saws,
are
tent/laboratory
or even a
also
equipped
axes,
water,
with
laptop
in the middle of the forest
In addition to
the computers
supplies,
protective garments,
are
keeping track of
also used for forest fire
analysis.
While
for
working
the
United
Patricia Andrews
conditions (wind
burning
trees or
the computer.
Service's
Inter-
in Montana, mathematician
Laboratory
developed the program
The
Behave in 1984.
typography
speed and direction, dryness, etc.),
the climate
the
types
grasses and much
are
fed into
how the fire
"might"
of the fire, the
location
Forest
States
mountain Fire Sciences
of the area,
The program then
more
information
predicts
of
behave, thereby helping fire managers decide how to best fight the
blaze.
it cannot
Naturally,
Behave
can
comprehensive
be
predict
continually
as
new
all
possible outcomes,
modified
predicaments
occur,
Yellowstone "crown fires" in which the fires
treetop. Effects
forest
high
is
management
tech
spread
now
become
such
from
being
tools
Spanish,
are now
being used
in
but
more
as
the
treetop
used to
with decisions for controlled burns.
firefighting
been translated into
by Italy.
companion program
to
to
help
These
China, have
and information has been
requested
}07
208
A tL@K AY TMd $mU \R[

CYBERSPACE
It is the
perennial youthfulness
of mathematics itself
VIRTUAL REALITY
which marks it off with
disconcerting immortality
from the other sciences.
Temple Bell
Eric
In the 1500s
people
obscura. Actual
room were
devices
were
moving
projected on
were
needed to
treated to the marvels of the
scenes
from
things taking place
the wall of a darkened
bring
these
scenes
optical
about how
physical
our
Physicists
minds
were
and
distortions which tricked

Some of their
our
No electronic
room.
Then,
in
surge of interest in
psychologists
studied and wrote
tricked
by
structure of the eye and the
process information from the eye
the second half of the 19th century, there was

illusions.
room.
into the
camera
outside
were
what
we
The
perceived.
analysis of how
our
minds
studied in efforts to explain
minds into believing
they existed.
findings were
(1) The placement of certain angles and segments

eyes inward and outward and
thereby make
an
can
lead
object
our
appear
to be shorter or longer.
(2) Horizontal objects have
tendency
appear shorter because the retinas

eyes
are
curved.
to
of our
(3) A light region's
image
radiates into the dark
on
the retina
region's image thus
making the dark region appear smaller.

Identical
4)
-Egg
c ,-Jwr
different
In
objects
locations in
perspective drawing
appear to be different in size.
(5) If
an
interpreted
/
way, then
our
can
in more than
be
one
mind oscillates the image back
and forth between

.V
image
interpretations.
(6) Diagonal
segments
on
parallel lines make them appear non-parallel.
(7) An empty space and
an
identicallyfilled space appear
/
s
different in size.
(8) A diagonal broken by
vertical bar does not appear

to be
aligned.
Now, In the 20th century, computer scientists, mathematicians

and Inventors
optical
worlds.
are
illusions to
carrying optics, computer technology and

new
Equipped with
longer simply
an
heights with the creation of artificial

paraphernalia, the observer is no
various
observer but
actually
enters worlds created
by the computer.
In these artificial worlds,
one
an
gold
one can
be
participant.
For
example,
may choose to be:
"Olympic
"
runner
experiencing
the thrill of running for the
metal
an
air traffic controller
directing planes flying
around In the
3-dimensions
weather forecaster
flying
around the world
experiencing first
}09
210
hand weather
conditions
that
have
been
programmed and
processed into the computer.

-
an
an
atom about to be bonded with other atoms into
architect viewing his
walking through
Virtual
or
and
suddenly
find
small
oneself
room
design by actually
by room.
artificial reality
expressions coined to describe this

In the confines of
molecule
her most recent
the computerized image
reality, cyberspace,
new
room one can
form of
don
are a
few of the
optical illusions.
computer gear, 1 and
walking
English countryside,
project's progress thousands of miles away, or
learning how a bee collects pollen by becoming the bee. The
inspecting
in
the
r
Computer generated living room awaiting a visitor to virtual reality
Photograph courtesy of Autodesk, Inc. Sausalito, California.
applications
of such
still In Its Initial
technology
are
mind
stages with much
boggling. Cyberspace Is
yet to be developed and
refined2. Hopefully Its evolution and popularity will not

means
of mind control, but rather of mind expansion.
scientists
and
mathematicians
are
breaking
new
serve as a
Computer
ground
In
computer graphics, especially by using fractal geometry
to create
these
The Next
special effects. Perhaps the holodeck of Star Trek
Generation Is not
so
far fetched.
The computer gear comes in many forms which

gear, data gloves, data body suit.
can
include
special
eye
A few of the universities and businesses involved in these artificial

worlds are University of North Carolina; Autodesk, Inc. of Sausalito, CA;
HITL at the University of Washington; VPL Research Co. of Redwood City,
CA; Carnegie Mellon University. Connecticut State Museum of Natural
History has an installation created by Myron Krueger called Video Place.
At U.C. Berkeley's ASUC, one can play Dactyl Nightmare, a virtual reality
game.
211
212
HYPERTEXT
Speculations
on
the fourth
dimension surfaced In the 19th
when
a
made Into
through
shadow of
left handed shadow
lead
would
to
they
are
not
are
Idea to another
analogous
directly
interactive
For
example,
brings before you
with Interactive
information
on
learn
day
present
and how It
that
were
It
to
jump from
be
can
thought
one
of
as
The
computer transports them
computer immediately
topic, which may include a
video.
Suppose you
of World War II. The
newsreels from that
popular during
as
hypertext. Though
ability
historical Information, maps
proceeded,
terms
computing, after you decide
that
even a
about V-E
now
view, the
sound tract, graphics and
something
one's hand
realize that the term
related to the 4th-dlmenslon,
to go and the
or
hand could be
dimension to another.
one
what you want to do, read
able to
and
computing.
moving from
to
participants decide where

there.
one
related to the computer and Its
right
generation of such
hyperspace, hyperbelng, hypercard2

the last two terms
simply by passing
Little did
the third dimension.
hypercube1
century
August Mdblus noticed that
showing
period,
that time. You choose
want to
computer
Is
the Invasion
and
even
songs
topics by clicking
your choice3.
Hypertext draws
active
on
participation.
in the traditional
tool to
explore
evolves. With
clicking
a
on
Interactive
manner.
other
even more
beginning to
Instead, the computer functions
possible
hypertext
highlighted
computing by allowing
A hypertext is not read from
outcomes, and
thereby
the reader spins his/her
Ideas that
are
own
interconnected in
a new
tale
end
as a
story
by
story called
web, which has been spun into the original program. While
reading the story on the computer, you

which you want the story line to
storyline,
but rather choose
can
move.
choose the direction in

You do not create the
options along the way, and
see
what
they unfold.
location,
A click
a new
key word
on a
idea
or
or even a new
how the author unfolded the story
image may take you to
plot line.
along
the
paths
are
able to
see
you chose. The

^
reactions to interactive literature
curiosity that
in its initial
You
a new
is far more
stages,
are
interesting
and thus far
mixed. Some feel it is

in
once a
theory than practice.

story
novel
It is
has been "altered"
by
the reader, it cannot be undone. In addition, it may also be

difficult for the novice to tell when the story is finished, since
there may be
key words
the reader to
or
phrases available throughout the web
continually go off to something new or

perhaps even around in a circle by mistake. The web stories may
require time and/or practice for inexperienced hypertext readers
allowing
213
214
to orient themselves to this
programming
and
new
writing techniques
refined if it is to work
professor George P.
potential to be
for this
new
explore
Landow of Brown
its
As
potentials.
makes the reader
anarchy,
or
is it
a new
kind of creator?"* There

way of
is
art form.
Most of the focus thus far has been
a new
the direction of the
question
reading form that
are
many who feel
writing, and
hypertext
introducing
English
University says,"It really has
the next wave of storytelling...The next
is, is this total chaos and
helps shape
Improved
media need to be
and if the reader is to have
optimally
unencumbered freedom to
the
form of reading.
on
consider it
an
the reader who
But consider what
story.
story writing entails for the author. The writer does not
develop a single plot line, but instead a family of possible plot lines
now
such
and their relative outcomes, called the web.
the web
computing,
sound and video.
literature,
released
or
thing
modern
It is too
be enhanced
to follow the outcome
is certain,
As with interactive
by computer graphics,
early to pass judgement on interactive

the hypertext stories are just being
especially since
posted on electronic
fascinating
One
can
bulletin boards, but it will be

.
Will it catch
on as a new
craze?
hypertext would not exist if it were not for the
computer.
Hypercube
HyperCard
is the term coined for
4th-dimenslonal cube.
has two meanings. It can be the trade name for a computer

program, which allows you to access and create stacks of cards with
information In various forms (Including graphics, video, sound) simply by
clicking on a particular topic. HyperCard can also be a card (which Is 2dimenslonal) that has been cut and folded Into a 3-dimenslonal model,
similar to the book illustrated on the computer screen. It Is hard for one
to pass up trying to recreate a hypercard from a 3x5 file card.
3 It
easy way to pursue learning. What are some drawbacks?

depend on the material that Is accumulated in that
particular piece of software. Sources other than those on that program
If you are using the program for more than just general
are not at hand.
knowledge, you have to be careful not to rely on this as your sole
You
seems an
have
to
research material. Hopefully this form of available information will not

hinder creativity or the ambition to do additional research, but rather
stimulate It.
4 A New
CA,
April
Way
1993.
To Tell Stories,
San Francisco Chronicle, San Francisco,
215
LITTLE FERMAT
gets the feeling that the
One often
layperson
now
feels that computers
have evolved to their ultimate state.

but
scientists,
computer
mathematicians and scientists know this Isn't
Charles
Babbage, M.M.(Monty)
and
Chudnovsky
Saed
the
to
handle
errors
Using ideas
computers.
spirit of
Denneau, George V. and David V.
Younls
number
computer designed
without
G.
In the
so.
created
Little
Fermat,
gigantic computation problems

with
associated
from
number
conventional
theoryspecifically
modular arithmetic and Fermat numbersthe computer

carry out
computations virtually
error
free.
called Younls.
Little
programmed
in
numbers
divisors in modular arithmetic, It
as
language
certain kinds of calculations and avoid the
Thus far Little
Fermat is
creators feel It is
Fermat is
By utilizing
use
can
can
Fermat
speed up
of real numbers.
one-of-a-kind computer, but Its
digital signal and Imaging

Ideally
the solving of various problems from
processes
hydrodynamics, chemistry and aerodynamics that require differential
suited for
and
it will
equations.
Furthermore, they hope
enhance the
performance of the supercomputers.
serve
as a
model to
216
COMPUTERS &
A-LIFE
With
a
at such
technology changing
rate and with
rapid
new
ideas
'
and
applications
springing-up
overnight, computers
Impacting
or
Many scientific laboratories
not.
utilizing
Alije,
every aspect of our lives whether we
its
as
modeling
seem
the
are now
computer,
way to simulate lifelike
forms, their behavior, reproduction and evolution.
example
generated bats
Utilizing logic,
living thing,
of Its
uses
the
were
lifelike
How
in Batman Returns.
One
computer
was
it done?
mathematics and computers, the habits of

such
These
steps.
of it
and simulation abilities.
It is often referred to, Is
recent
to be
are aware
as a
bat,
steps
analyzed
are
developed
are
Into basic
into
logical
computer
simulation which captures the movements and habits of the

life form. The
applications
are
far
One
reaching.
example
Is
the research in disease done at Scripp Research Institute.

Here Gerald
a
Joyce
uses
laboratory procedure
to how
^v
trial
^^î
on
i
\9o
^
YW"?
CE?
and
designed by
predicting
these
develop
they
not
their
own
solve certain
economic
explore
enzymes
only
information,
cure.
programs based
problems. Programs
this method include
that
according
genetic code of an AIDS virus. By
steering
vehicle,
outcomes,predicting planetary
Computer pioneer, John
contended
could
in the
can
how well
motion.
in which enzymes evolve
error,
Computers
^*
vA
they slice
computer simulations and develops
von
Neuman,
machines
process
but
j,
^^L^
J^
"VVV
^r9^
%}
reproduce
themselves.
Some
proponents of
A-life feel that
the essence of
life is
set of
rules directing
the interaction
of cells, atoms,
molecules, etc. A
close connection
between A-life
and fractal
mathematics is
also
developing.
For example,
computer
simulations
have been
developed of
The robot used at Stanford University Hospital
(Stanford, California] to carry records back and forth.
Photograph courtesy of Stanford University Medical Center,
plant cells that

grow and divide
Visual Arts Services.
according to a
set of instructions. One such grew into cell formations almost
identical to those of a fern.

ants
Studying how different insects such as
navigate, simulations of miniature robots have been created.
These robots
when
they
are
come
instructed to
to
an
obstacle
move
they
and
change
explore Mars.
3.6
pounds
and will
It comes to
finding
designed by MITs
hopefully be used to
their way around obstacles. In fact, Atttila,
weighs
only
cannot traverse. Such robots
outperform the traditional larger designs when

Mobot Lab,
direction
217
218
OPTICAL
COMPUTERS
Our
present computers
electricity.
working
new
But
on
type
some
the
run
on
scientists
are
of
development
of computer that is made
up of optical fibers, lasers and switches that process data and
perform calculations via

electronic
computers
light1
rather than
in which data and
electricity. Unlike
are
programs
stored either
memory
drives,
on
chips, hard
or
disks the
optical computer
circulates data
light
as
pulses through the

optical fibers.
"For the
first time,
have
we
computer in which the

program and data are
always on the move in

the form of light,
eliminating
for static
Harry
Optoelectronic Computing Systems

Colorado at Boulder, Colorado.
serve
data
the
as
are
computers
encoded in
thus
far
light pulses
of Colorado. The
does
components of
says
Center at the
University of
Over three miles of
optic fiber
and circulate the
head the
optical fibers.
development
at the
computer that they have developed
"demonstrates
a
storage,"
F. Jordan of the
main memory, where instructions and
Jordan and Vincent P. Heuring
University
need
the
the
general-purpose
principle
machine
that
can
of
the
done
in
all
be
optics."2
1 The
only
light Is not used occurs when the optical switches are

light pulses momentarily converted to electrical current.
time
activated and
2Harry Jordan,
quoted
from Science News
January 23,
1993.
HO
term
"fuzzy" logic was coined in the 1960s by Berkeley professor

paradoxes can probably be blamed for the birth
Lofti Zadeh, but

of this
glitches
to
new
Over the centuries
logic.
in traditional
explain such paradoxes
Bertrand Russell's class
The Mitsubishi HSR-IV is
True
logic.
as
or
logic could not be used

J
pile of sand paradox or
Eublides'
membership
designed
to
have created
paradoxes
false
paradox.2
avoid accidents
These
paradoxes
by utilizing
a ni
fuzzy inference system.

go hand-in-hand with
be answered
have
its
for
room
origins
precisely
simple
gradations
Traditional
must
logic
either true
"0" of the
yes
of
or no.
Traditional logic does not
situation.
and scientists. Just
describe
things
Although fuzzy logic had

by Eastern
and
or
in
into the
as
mathematical
world,
so
objects
traditional
computer programming rely

false
(electricity being
binary system).
come
our
logic
do not
cannot
to the real world and real world situations.
perfectly applied
being
many real life situations which cannot
so
in the United States, it has been embraced
philosophy
be
by
To humanize
picture. Fuzzy logic
"on"
or
on
statements
"off'
"1"
or
computers, fuzzy logic

tries to imitate how the
human brain would work. In other words, it attempts to make
219
FUZZY LOCK &
COMPUTERS
Suppose
I take
log
the fire in my wood

It
begins
to bum
and add it to
burning
stove.
immediately.
what precise moment will it
At
longer be considered a log? One

person might say right
caught fire. Someone else might
feel when half of it is burned away, and yet another person might
contend it's a log until its last ember.
no
after it
Fuzzy logic
may be inside
washing machine, if
your
determines
machine
your
best
the
washing cycle from

water
your input of
level, load size, fabric and
,
dirt and stain levels. After a

wash cycle. The machine will
repeat the cycle if the water is not
clean enough.
your
vacuum
automatically
based
through
on
its
cleaner, if
adjust
it
can
suction
information gathered
infrared
sensors.
No matter how
logical
one
tries to be
about answering this question, there

is
definite
no
right
or
answer.
wrong
answer.
the
way to
quantify
matter of degree.
appointment
one
pm
for
same
set
appointment
an
3:30 pm
mean
host of
are a
depending
True
cannot
situations
status of
or
or
deal
and
is
a new
ever
on
logic deals
Fuzzy logic
with
with the
the universe. These
you
with
life and
false, yes
everything
that fuzzy
case
so
for there is
life,
things
nature
to
subjective
universe.
possible
whom
upon
in
many
things
5:00
asked. And such is the
logic
no
It is all
person, 5:30 pm to another.
In fact, there
times
There is
the
for late afternoon may

to
no
answer.
means
But
everyone.
There is
the
or
no
such
changing
earth and in
are
the
things
with.
way of
analyzing
looking
at
the world. The
artificial
intelligence real intelligence. Japanese and Korean

companies are leading the way with innovations that make use
of
fuzzy logic.
Among
other
things,
air conditioners, cameras,
computers,
they
parts, televisions and washing machines, which

with
fuzzy logic technology.
Show,
the
computer
in
are
In the October 1993
enhanced
Motor
Tokyo
Mitshubishi's prototype HSR-IV
to imitate the information
fuzzy logic
producing
are
dishwashers, automobile
uses
processing of the driver's
brain. The computer studies the driver's normal driving habits,

and then selects
occur.
For
response for various situations that
example,
if built-in radar detects
fuzzy logic system decides if the driver

on
is aware of it
past driving patterns). If the driver does
predicted,
it
can
then
automatically
an
might
obstacle, the
or
not
not (based
respond
as
control the brakes to avoid
collision.
Up until
now
many Western scientists have been reticent to
fuzzy logic, feeling
that it threatened the
possibilities
of
of
particular product.
Foundation
rejected proposals
perhaps
future
especially
Otis
expands the
computer programming by considering
scope of variables for the solution of
design
integrity
Other scientists feel it enhances and
thought.
projects
In the
broader
specific problem
or
the
past the National Science
that dealt with
fuzzy logic, but
will be considered in another
since more United States
use
of scientific
companies, such
as
light,
Ford,
Elevator, Pacific Gas & Electric, Motorola, and General
Electric
are
expressing interests
in its
uses.
Mth century B.C. Greek philosopher Eublides considered how many

grains of sand make a pile.
^Russell's paradox Bertrand Russell's ( 1872-1970} paradox deals with
the idea of membership of a set. A set is either a member of itself or not

Refer to a set which does not contain itself as a
a member of itself.
member as regular.
For example, the set of people does not include itself as a
member, since it is not a person. Refer to a set which does contain itself
as a member as irregular.
An example is the set of sets with more than
say five elements. Is the set of all regular sets regular or irregular? If it is
regular, it cannot contain itself. But it is the set of all regular sets, thus
it must contain all regular sets, namely itself. If it contains itself, it is
irregular. If it is irregular, it contains itself as a member, but it is
supposed
to contain
only regular
sets.
551
phosphate
T=thymine
base
A=adeline
base
an
example of
one rung from

the DNA ladder
The two strands of the double helix

wind in
opposite directions. This is

why the sugars and the phosphates
are in opposite locations on the two
strands.
^hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen,
II
phosphc
The DNA molecule with its

genes provide the blueprint
Jor the life of a cell.
MATHEMATICS &
THE MYSTERIES
OF LIFE
MATHEMATIZING THE HUMAN BODY
MATHEMATICAL MODELS & CHEMISTRY

MATHEMATICS & GENETIC ENGINEERING
BODY MUSIC
SECRETS OF THE RENAISSANCE MAN
KNOTS IN THE MYSTERIES OF LIFE
224
only be possible to imagine life or beauty as being

"strictly mathematical" if we ourselves were such infinitely
capable mathematicians as to be able to formulate their
characteristics in mathematics so extremely complex that
we have never yet invented them.
It would
Theordore Andrea Cook (1867-1928)
The
scientific world Is
to unravel the
mysteries
of life. This
chapter presents
Ideas to
a
try
few of the
In which mathematics Is used In the search for answers to
areas
such
constantly using mathematical
questions
seems
Inanimate
answers
as
how
mystery
In
objects
and
to these
our
bodies work and how life
Itself that
objects
questions.
of
a
our
subject
began.
It
which deals with
Imagination could
hold the
MATHEMATICS S.THE MYSTERIES OF LIFE
225
MATHEMATIZINC
THE HUMAN BODY
blood pressure: 120/80
cholesterol: 180
LDL/HDL: 179/47
trigllcerites:
glucose:
189
80
body temperature: 98.7T

In
present day medicine,
numbers and ratios that

are
functioning.
which
our
electrical
analyze
patients,
our
bombarded with
are
health and how
bodies
our
Doctors have tried to pin point ranges of numbers
normal. Numbers and mathematics
are
fact. In
we, as
seem
pervasive.
bodies the networks of our cardiovascular
Impulses
our
bodies
use
In which cells communicate, the
molecular
structure
of
genes
to
In
the
system,
trigger movements, the ways
design
all
effort to
of
our
bones, the actual
possess
mathematical
quantify bodily functions of
elements.
Consequently,
humans,
science and medicine have resorted to numbers and
other
in
an
concepts of mathematics. For example, Instruments have
been devised to translate the

sinusoidal curves,
from
Readings
ultrasound
body's
thereby making
an
curve's
outputs.
electromyogram,
shape, amplitude, phase shift.
All of
Information to the trained technician. Numbers, ratios,
this
gives
and
graphs
are
aspects of mathematics adapted
Let's consider other mathematical
linked to the
to
our
concepts and how
bodies.
they
are
body.
If you think
hieroglyphics
unravel
to
Impulses
it feasible to compare
electrocardiogram,
display the
electrical
that
is
deciphering codes, ciphers,
exciting and
molecular
codes
and
challenging, Imagine being
the
body
uses
Mayan
able to
for communication.
226
Science has
now
discovered that white blood cells
brain. The mind and
body
Deciphering these intercellular
biochemicals.
are
linked to the
vocabulary
of
codes will have
an
communicate via
increased
medicine, just
astounding impact
understanding of genetic codes is unveiling so many ramifications
as
on
discovery
phenomenon.
the human body.
mathematical
present
many
of
areas
change
as
in the
of the double helix in DNA was another
health field. The
in
our
growth
it grows.
pattern of the hair
But the helix is not the

The
equiangular spiral
possibly
Look for the
because its
only spiral
is
present
shape does
equiangular spiral
in the
your head, the bones of your
on
cochlea of the inner ear, the umbilical cord,
or
perhaps
in
not
growth
the
body,
even
your
fingerprints.
The
physics and physical aspects
mathematical ideas. The

to balance and
the three
curves
center of
illustrate
as
the
amazing
the human
as
are
important
very
to lift its
own
to
body's conformity
as
it may
weight
the
various
proportions and
golden mean.
in
the chaos
theory is being explored

study of a heart's beats and
arrhythmias.
the heart of some people to beat irradically indicates
example,
The
functions of the brain and brain

are
also linked to chaos
Exploring the body

mathematics.
on
Geometric
geodesic domes,
invading
in fitness and the
and other burdens.
that it appears to conform to ideas of chaos.
disorders
lends itself
sound, the chaos theory also has its place
For
body.
causes
also lead to other
symmetrical, which
in the area of heart
what
body
Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Durer, tried to
measurements such
As
of the
gravity. Along with enabling balance,
of the spine
body's physical ability

Artists, such
body
is
are
viruses.
In
the
and treatment of brain
theory.
molecular
shapes,
present
waves
In addition, the
such
level,
as
we
various
find
inks
polyhedra
to
and
in the
shapes and forms of various
AIDS
virus
(HTLV-1) icosahedral
Theodore A. Cook published this analysis qfSandro BotticelUs The Birth

of Venus. In his book, The Curves of life, he states "the line containing
the figurefrom the top of the head to the soles of the feet is divided at the
navel into exact proportions given by
the golden section ($1
we have
seven consecutive terms of in the complete composition."
...
symmetry and
present
in
mathematical
formed
by
geodesic
DNA
dome structure
configurations
findings
from knot
DNA strands. The
from various
geometries
...
have
theory
findings
led
to
are
found.
scientists
Knots
to
study loops and
from knot
theory and
have proven invaluable in the
use
knots
ideas
study
of
genetic engineering.
Scientific research and mathematics
to
are an
essential combination
discovering the mysteries of the human body and analyzing
functions.
its
227
228
MATHEMATICAL
MODELS &
Mathematical
CHEMISTRY
in many natural
deoxyribose, tetrahedrons
in
crystals
the
Studying
pentagons
shape of
in the
in
in
polyhedron shapes
and other molecular
Thus it does not
formations.
are
finds
molecules, double helices
DNA,
as a
one
present
are
occurring
substances.
chemical
molecular structure of objects,

silicates
objects
come
surprise that when chemists
creating new substances they
rely
on
mathematical models.
Carbon atoms
are
well suited
building blocks because

way
they
can
chains and
formed
be
looped
into
structures. For
linked
into
as
of the
into
rings
or
molecular
3-D
example,
1983 Leo
in
Paquette,
University
chemist,
resembling
of 20
and
was
Ohio State
atoms
surrounded
atoms. It resembled
called
Euclidean models
dodecahedrane.
are
not the
) of Colorado formed
only
shape
20
ball
But
used.
ones
University
compound they named
(tetrahydroxymethylethylene)
takes the
Mobius in
by
a soccer
In June of 1983, chemists at the
tris
molecule
dodecahedron which consists
carbon
hydrogen
an
formed
of the Mabius
which
strip (the
single-sided single-edged discovery of August

1848). Tris is composed of chains of carbon and oxygen
atoms and ends in alcohol groups, which lend themselves to
clipped easily together
after the chain is
given
half-twist.
being
229
MATHEMATICS*.
has
Park
Jurassic
general public
very
made
aware
wonders and possible horrors of
life unfolds within
living cell.
It Is not
human, fish, foul, plant, insect

of
home
are
helical
DNA
mathematical
how
engineering. The drama of
genetic
is
GENETIC ENGINEERING
the
of the
genes
spiral doing
or
important if that living cell
bacteria, every
molecule.
inside
But
what
cell is
living
is
this
3-D
cell? What is its function? And
the transmitters the characteristics of life forms
related to DNA? Here enter the mathematical concepts of
patterns,
sequences,
relations,
one-to-one
correspondence,
all
playing a
role In
unraveling the
codes and
mysteries of the
living cell.
Within
or
plant
animal cell,
we
find
nucleus1
in which resides chromosomes. DNA is
into strands called chromosomes, and
molecules.
RNA molecules and
genes
proteins
are
are
found
on
split
DNA
also in the nucleus
along with other minuscule materials and water. Different species

have
different number of
humans have 46,
types of chromosomes.
crab 254 2. It is amazing to consider that every
composed
of the
same
For
certain flower species has 4, while
six elements
phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
carbon,
living
example,
a
hermit
cell is
hydrogen, oxygen,
In the cell these atoms combine to
THE MAdC OF MATHEMATICS
}30
form molecules of water,
phosphate,
and sugar. In addition,
they
form macromolecules (enormous molecules made up of thousands

of atoms
strung together)
complex
even more
with its genes
lipids, starch,
cellulose and the
cell.
Even
building elements are the same,

dramatically different genetic blueprints.
every cell's essential
though
"symbols" (elements to form the

living things are formed by
combinations of sequences of these "symbols".
codes are deciphered by the same type of
although genes
cell's
as
blueprint for the life of
the
provides
different organisms have

And
such
nucleic acids and proteins. The DNA molecule
use
the
same
code), the different structures of

different
involving
In every cell the
mechanism used to
replicate cells and create proteins and other
cellular structures.
The formation of genetic codes lies in
Nucleic acids
and
phosphate,
referred to
by
understanding nucleic acids.
formed from nucleotides
are
the
base (there
are
bases A, C, G and T appear. Each base

1
Vz
fe^\
U-J
/î.
/f~^\
\zv
^^//
.^C
l/=V
IU-J\
7V^
1
1
/23k
/
'
other
shape
together
of the
spiral
and
takes
of
specific
place
over
one
base A with T and C
strings of nucleic
at their bases and form
pentagonal
shape
turn.
requires
10
rungs
On the other hand,
to
RNA
complete
the bases A, C, G, and U and is
only
diagram
single rather
than double strand
"^
DNA-
illustrates how the
code. When gene
^ DNA
string of bases
copying (or DNA replication)
the DNA double helix is unwound at breakneck
8000rpm,
strands.
are
the four
has
^dMSb^sZ
double
forms
only
of deoxyribose which makes the
and much shorter
form
sugar,
pair with only
the famous double helix. It is the
usually
helix.
can
complementary
DNA is made from two
In DNA,
with G and in DNA two
acids join
five kinds of bases which
A, C, G, T, U)3.
symbols
made from
and
While this is
the bases
speeds
into two
splits along
separating
happening unattached free nucleotides
the cell with the proper base
"symbol" attaches
in
their bases to the
MATHEMATICS fcTHE MYSTERIES OF LIFE
Enormous numbers
of nucleotides reside
in
ceVL There
living
are
four
types of nucleotides which are made up of a base and part of the helix.
Note the sugar phosphate molecules are identical and can therefore fit
together
in any order and to form
DNA's bases
along
DNA double helices
adding
each
are
genes
functions. Genes
exposure to
half and
addition to DNA
In
protelns4 and other
cell
various stimuli
(e.g.
Into action
particular hormone).
by
How does
gene orchestrate
The thousands of genes alined
Its activities?
helix.
In this way two Identical
halves.
formulate
triggered
of the DNA
by splitting the original In
to the
also
are
strand
split strand.
formed
free nucleotides
replication,
one
the DNA
along
analogous to the "on" and "off' switches of a

computer's binary Instructions
genetic programs or algorithms.
molecule
are
A stimulated gene
uses a
chemical reaction to
other genes of the DNA molecule. Its
molecule turning genes "on"
transmitting
their
own
signal,
manipulating
engineering
of
transmitting
processes
taking place
is
replicate, alter, splice,
cell.
They
can
DNA, DNA that consists of
in
the DNA
start
on
the structure of DNA molecules.
sequences to the DNA molecule,
along
Those turned off stop
Imagine all these
Genetic
have discovered ways to
blueprint
"off'.
while those turned
instructions.
simultaneously.
or
signal
trip the switches of
runs
the
process
These
of
engineers
and attach code
order words
change
the
make what is called recombinant
combination of bases that
are
taken
231
232
from
different organism, e.g. from
totally
human cell and
bacteria cell.
Besides the
shapes
study
of sequences, codes and helices, mathematical
and structures
are
also
Important
in
cells.
Since these 3-D structures, such as
proteins
are
computer modeling
are
playing
genetic engineering. Chaos theory

since
simple minuscule changes
enormous
an
is another
in the
rigid
theory
increasing role
In
Important field here,
gene stimuli could result In
difference in the outcome, e.g.
about fractals? Cannot the life of
sophisticated fractal-like
ever
living
not
but often appear to be knotted the mathematics of knot

and
the
categorizing
Infinite combination of atoms and molecules that form In
mutation.
And what
cell be considered
creation where the
six basic elements of life and its rule the
given objects
genetic
super
are
the
program of the
DNA molecule?
With
genetic
discovered at
relatively
new
engineering
a
techniques
being developed
frantic pace, biotech companies
science to discover new
cures
are
racing
to
and
use
and to manufacture
miracle
Food manufactures
drugs.
to
techniques
manipulate genes
in
2JJ
seeking to use genetic

various produce5 to enhance
are
shelf life, size, taste and
pests. The
resistance to
altering
of genetic codes
be done in
can now
minute fraction
of the time it has taken the

process of natural selection
to take
The questions
place.
remain. Are these
damaging?
Will the uninformed
consumer
be at risk from po-
tential hidden
responsibility
are
changes
effective,
desirable,
allergens
that
Genetically engineered
the vine and
added
as
tomatoes
must bear is
it has evolved
can
ripen on
bruise and frost resistant
through gene splicing?
genetic engineers
experimenting with life
are
over
The
enormous.
They
millions of years!
1
Protocyotes cells such as bacterial organism's cells do not have nuclei,
while eucaryotes cells which are those found in plants and animals each
have a nucleus.
2 The
varying numbers are influenced by many factors including the

environmental stages that species experiences during it life.
various
3 A is
adekine,
4 Like nucleic
C is
cystosine,
G is
guanine,
T is
thymine,
U is uracil.
are also
long chains of smaller units called
types of amino acids have been identified).
Every protein is identified by a specific sequence and number of amino
acids.
Enzyme proteins are responsible for directing the chemical
reaction of a living cell. Where does RNA enter the picture? When the
is
a messenger RNA
DNA is splitting during its replication process,
constructed along the DNA strand matching complement bases on the
amino acids
acids, proteins
(thus far
20
DNA strand. (This process is called transcription.) The messenger RNA

carries this genetic code from the DNA to the translators of the genetic
code called transfer RNA molecules. Here a string of amino acids are
connected in the translated sequence by ribosomal RNA and the protein
is formed. Many steps and parts have been eliminated for simplicity, but
the wonder of this process

mind boggling.
taking place simultaneously
in
living
cell is
5 These include: tomatoes with flounder

genes to reduce frost damage,
on the vine and not easily bruise in shipment; potatoes with
silkworm genes to increase disease resistance; corn with firefly genes to
decrease insect damage. Consumer action groups, such as Pure Foods
Campaign based in Washington D.C. have organized to monitor
ripen
genetically engineered
foods.
234
BODY MUSIC
We have heard of
created
we
give off by the way we
body
move or
by
posture
music? Some scientists! have been
in DNA from another
our
bodies. But what's
exploring patterns
found
different point of view the music of
totally
genes. Two helical strands
body language
the various messages
joined at their compatible bases2 to
are
form the double helix chain-like formation of DNA. The bases hold
genetic codes and along with the
^MjflBbk
^0
fc^^^f
n^^|
\
j/Kb âwî
^BP^ ^thviB^MH
^^^^/
blueprints
these bases
hopes
of
petitive
are
the
being intensely
studied in
their
apparent, when
musical link becomes

the
recurring
put
one
as
sequences
recurring melodies of a song.

them have been
been
have
the gene. A
throughout
recur
Re-
meanings.
bases
of
sequences
considers
are
patterns of
living
deciphering
observed to
DNA
cell. The
for the
In fact, many of
to music, both In
an
octave and other intervals.

As mentioned earlier, music and math have
been linked
Pythagoreans
scales.
linked
the
over
linked
numbers
Even Johannes
the
elliptical
although
scientific
velocities
orbits
The
centuries.
in
planets
musical
this connection
significance.
musical
Kepler (1571-1630)
of
with
and
today
their
harmony,
is
no
Therefore, it
given
is
not
unusual for scientists and mathematicians to

seek out the music of the
body.
iDr. Susumo Ohno of the Department of Theoretical Biology at the

Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, California.
2Only certain bases pair up with each other. These are A with T and G with
C. The way
they appear on the chain, forms a DNA's genetic code.
235
SECRETS OF THE
RENAISSANCE MAN
This famous
da Vinci
Divina
drawing by Leonardo
appeared in the book, De
Proportione,
Leonardo
Illustrated
which
for
mathematlcian Luca Paoll in 1509.
Leonardo
wrote
section
on
the proportions of the
human
body
extensive
an
in one of his
notebooks. He determined
measurements and
proportions for all
of the
body, Including the
parts
head, eyes,
His
proportions
numerous
and
hands and feet.
ears,
were
based
studies, observations
measurements.
notebook,
reference
on
he
to
also
the
his
In
made
works
of
Vitruvius, the Roman architect
^îSM^M
with the
proportions
he was influenced
'"
"
')
(circa 30 B.C.) who also dealt
of the human
body.
Leonardo writes of how
by Vitruvius:
Vitruvius, the architect, says in his works on

architecture that the measurements of the human
body are distributed by Nature as follows:
If you
open your legs so much as to decease your height
by 1/14 and spread and raise your arms till your
middle fingers touch the level of the top of your
head you must know that the center of the
outspread limbs will lie in the navel and the space
between the legs wUl be an equilateral triangle.
...
Leonardo adds, The

his
height.
iRichter,
Dover
length of a
man's
outspread
arms is
equal
to
*l
Jean Paul, editor. The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, voll.

Publications, 1970, New York.
236
KNOTS IN THE
MYSTERIES OF LIFE
A1
t.
the tl
the r
Prom t.
time Alexander
Greatt
cut the Gordian knot, knots and
their many
pervaded
facets
many
philosophers
have been
knot, which has
of
our
intrigued by
beginning
no
or
end.
such knots
Today
to knots
and forms have
shapes
Magicians, artists, and
lives.
the trefoil
as
scientists
looking
are
possibly holding
keys to the mysteries
some
as
These
of
of life.
theories range from
the
the
to
cosmic
microscopic worlds.
At first
glance
think there
theory,
or
rigging
as
boat.
there
entire field called knot
discoveries
and
Celtic knot design from Gospel of

.,
St John. Book of Durrow. From constantly
Celtic Design by Ed. Sibbett, Jr. this
theory
Dover Publications, 1979.
on a
mathematics
in
an
keeping
secured, such
things
exists
nothing
knots,
than
other
shoes
was
about
special
But
would
one
are
.,
,.
made that link
being
directly
to the
physical
J
world.
Knot
theory
is
very recent field of
linked to the 19th
century
topology.
knotted vortices that existed in ether, which

invisible fluid that filled space.
knots and arrange
his
theory was
current
was
origins
can
classify
be
were
believed to be
He felt he could
an
these
periodic table of chemical elements. Although
not true, the mathematical
topic today.
Its
and Lord Kelvin's idea that atoms
study
of knots is
very
MATHEMATICS &THE MYSTERIES OF LIFE
What
one
distinguishes mathematical knots from the everyday knots

they have no ends. They are a closed type of loop,
ties, is that
which cannot be formed into

been
trying
to do is
different knots.
circle. What mathematicians have
classify
knots and be able to
distinguish
important ideas that have been
Some of the
formulated thus far are:

knot cannot exist in
the
than three dimensions
simplest possible knot
crossings.
are
more
mirror
It
comes
in
left
is the
and
trefoil knot,
which has 3
right handed version which
images of one another
there exists
only
one
knot with 4
crossings
there
are
with 5
over
types of knots
crossings
identified with
crossings,
trefoil knot
two
12,000 knots have thus far
been
the
only
not
13
counting
or
less
mirror
images
$&
From left to right: thejirst knot has 4 crossings, the second has 5, the
thwd has 6, the fourth and fifth have 7.
Consider the
diagram,
posites of each other.

opposites,
they
together. Try
remain
it!
below. These knots
are
mirror op-
You would think that since

undo
when
they
are
would
each other
brought
(They simply pass through one another and
unchanged.)
237
238
Now look at the
Chefalo knot
false knot.
or
happens when
What
the ends
are
pulled?
(The knotfalls apart.)

actual models of knots
Originally,
them.
to be
To test if two knots
equivalent;
The
If it
shape.
if not,
no
study of knots in
various
created in order to
were
equivalent,
one
properties.
transformed
was
conclusion
Geometry Supercomputer Project

to
technology
they
even come
1 is
to transform
identified
were
possible.
was
the field of topology tries to
Computers have
study
of the models had
manipulated by hand and an attempt was made
it to the other's
as
were
explain these
into the
picture. The
using advanced computer
and produce visual three dimensional
study
representations of mathematical forms and
equations, such
as
torus
knots and fractals.

Mathematicians have
testing
knots.
casts and write
They
an
theory
now
some
the
exciting
to work in molecular
new
classifying and
look at the two-dimensional shadow it
in these fields have used the
applied
other methods for
equation describing it.3 Many
have been made and

knot
developed
techniques
recent inroads
connections discovered
biology
findings
in knot
and
linking
Scientists
physics.
of mathematicians and
theory
to their
study
of DNA
configuration. Researchers have discovered that DNA strands

loops which sometimes are knotted. Now scientists can
form
findings
from knot
theory
to decide if
DNA strand
viewing has
appeared
determine
sequence of steps in which DNA strands
transformed to produce
unobserved
very
before in another knot form.
particular configuration
configurations
of DNA. All of these
helpful in genetic engineering.
they
They
can
and to
can
can
use
are
also
be
predict
findings
may prove
MATHEMATICS &THE MYSTERIES OF LIFE
in
Similarly,
studying
the interaction of
configuration
can
take
knot
physics
theory
place. Physicists exploring
played
The Theory
that would
model
(electromagnetism, gravity,
TOE
can
devoted their life's work in search of

current TOE,
physicists
some
universe is tied into
particular TOE
as
most
of the
actions
spatial dimensions and
strings. The theory further speculates that
Big Bang the 9-dimensions were equal. Then,
expanded only
3 of the
dimensions
spatial
with it. The other 6 dimensions remained entwined and
across
Hence, these
(i.e.
6-dimensional
are
are
measure
laid end to end
10
strings
Scientists
strings
today's
essence
superstring theory describes
encased in compact geometries that
them.
In
answers.
have
Some
time) with its building blocks of matter and energy
the universe
centimeters
be found.
Big Bang resulted from the
10-dimensional ( 9
at the moment of the
expanded
contends that the universe, all forms of matter and
being these infinitesimal
as
develop
of nature
forces
believe that the
and interactions of superstrings. The
dimension of
to
trying
called superstrtngs. A version of this
objects
energy, from the instant of the

the universe
are
the
unify
strong force and the weak force).
the
believe
Physicists certainly
ofEvery thing{TOE)
vital role in the creation of the universe.
In their incessant search of TOE, scientists
mathematical
when
helpful
be used to describe different interactions that
can
believe that knots
proves very
that resemble knots. A knot
particles
only
measure
10
centimeter).
believed to possess 6 dimensions within
now
topological
trying
to describe them
by using
models. It is believed that these super-
may either be open
closed in
or
loop, and make up the
different forms of matter and energy of the universe

their vibrations and rotations.
In other words,
by altering
superstrings
are
distinguished among each other by how they vibrate and rotate.

The importance of the superstring
Einstein's
hard
of General
Theory
enough to envision.
theory
Relativity.
Einstein
is
being compared
Four dimensions
posed
that
to
were
length, width,
239
240
height
and time
In the universe.
one
were
needed to describe the location of
Ten dimensions
thinks of dimensions
as
out of the
object
question. But if
descriptive numbers that pinpoint the
location and characteristics of

become more
seem
an
an
object
in the universe,
they
comprehensible.
These ideas of TOE have been
evolving
for
over
20 years.
Gravity
had been the wrench in the gears because the computations
(involving gravity) needed to support the various forms of this

theory produced mathematical Infinities4. The breakthrough
came
In 1974, when John Schartz and Joel Scherks considered
gravity
as a curvaceous
piece of geometry
in the lOth-dlmension
similar to how Einstein described gravity in the geometry of the

4th-dimension.
The mathematics behind the superstring TOE is very

powered. The results
have been most
convincing.
high
Schwartz and
Michael Green
had been
were
working
encouragement
or
two of the main Initiators of this

on
It for over
decade In
caused
physicists
scientists contend
published
had been
Some
seriously.
avoiding ("wasting" time)
the idea because the mathematics is too difficult.
researching
Super symmetry, six-dimensional topological models,

dimensional
universe,
infinitesimal
strings
concepts needed to describe and validate the

this
theory
vice versa.
paper
take the idea
to
physicists
spite of little
who found the
support from colleagues,
10-dimenslonal world hard to accept. Their
finally
theory. They
has turned
These
are
some
just
physicists
the
are
of the
some
theory.
As
ten-
result,
into mathematicians and
beginning
discoveries and
applications of an emerging mathematical field knot
theory.
An International group of mathematicians and scientists who work on

the same supercomputer via telecommunications network with pure
mathematics to solve challenging problems of geometry. Science News,
vol. 133, p. 12, January 2, 1988 issue.
A "knot" that can be transformed to
is a circle or unknot.
no
twists
or
crossings
i.
e.
into
loop,
3
The first such equations were done by John Alexander In 1928. In the
1980's Vaughan Jones made additional discoveries on the equations for
knots. Science News, vol. 133, p.329, May 21, 1988 issue.
4
Mathematical Infinities can be caused by such operations

number by zero and raising zero to the zero power.
as
dividing
241
The Oracle
office building. Redwood City,
CA.
MATHEMATICS &
ARCHITECTURE
BUCKMINSTER FULLER, GEODESIC DOMES &
THE BUCKYBALL
21ST CENTURY ARCHITECTURE

SPACEFILLING SOLIDS
THE ARCHCURVY MATHEMATICS

ARCHITECTURE &
HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDS
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE BOX &
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
244
"Mechanics is the paradise of mathematical science

we come to the fruits of mathematics."
because here
Leonardo da Vinci
For thousands of years mathematics

for
design
architectural
design
eliminate the trial and
comprehensive
It has been
and construction.
and also the
as
has been
means
error
by
an
Invaluable tool
a resource
which
an
techniques of building.
It may seem, this Is but
partial
for
architect could
As
list of some of the
mathematical concepts which have been used in architecture

the centuries:
Temple ofKukuikan.
Chichen Itza, Yucatan.
over
MATHEMATICS . ARCHITECTURE
*^Jb-
A pyramid theme is
carried out in the
design of this modem

office building in
Foster
City, California
*"jwv- i^Nr
pyramids
prisms
golden rectangles
optical Illusions
cubes
polyhedra
geodesic domes
triangles
Pythagorean theorem
squares, rectangles,
parallelograms
circles, semicircles
spheres, hemispheres
polygons
angles
symmetry
parabolic
catenary
curves
curves
245
246
hyperbolic paraboloids
proportion
arcs
center of gravity
spirals
helices
ellipses
tessellations
perspective
The
design of
availability
resource
St
and
type
of materials, and
upon which the architect
can
by its surroundings, by the

by the Imagination
and
draw.
Sophia. Istanbul, Turkey.
Some historical
structure is influenced
examples are
The task of computing size,
shape,
stones for the construction of the
number and
pyramids
arrangement of
of Egypt, Mexico and
MATHEMATICS*. ARCHITECTURE
the Yucatan which relied

squares,
The
been
Pythagorean
regularity
of the
on
knowledge
of
right triangles,
theorem, volume and estimation.
design of Machu Picchu would
possible without geometric plans.
The construction of the Parthenon relied
on
the
use
of the
rectangle, optical illusions, precision measurements
knowledge
of proportion to cut column modules to exact
(always making the diameter 1/3
The
not have
geometric
theater at
exactness of
Epidaurus
was
of the
layout
golden
and
specifications
height of the module).
and location for the ancient
specifically
calculated to enhance
acoustics and maximize the audience's range of view.
The innovative
use
of
circles, semicircles,
hemispheres and
arches became the
main mathematical
ideas introduced and
perfected by Roman
architects.
Architects of the
Byzantine period
elegantly incorporated
the concepts of
squares, circles, cubes
and
hemispheres with
arches
St.
as
used in the
Sophia church in
Constantinople.
Architects of Gothic
The Roman Coloseum, Rome,
Italy.
cathedrals used mathematics to determine the center of gravity
247
248
Each of the Jloorplans of the three levels of this

house is designed from two overlapping equilateral
triangles. The triangle motif is carried out
throughout the interior supports and windows.
to form
meeting
an
at
adjustable geometric design
ceilings
point that directed the massive weight of the stone
structure back to the
of vaulted
ground rather than horizontally.
The stone structures of the Renaissance showed
refinement of
symmetry that relied on light and dark and solids and voids.
With the
ideas
discovery
were
materials.
adapted
of
new
building materials,
and used to maximize the
new
mathematical
potential of these
Using the wide range of available building materials
stone, wood, brick, concrete, iron, steel,

such
glass, synthetic
plastic, reinforced concrete, prepounded
as
architects have been able to
modern times
we
design virtually
concrete
shape.
any
have witnessed the formation of the
paraboloid (St. Mary's Cathedral
in San
materials
In
hyperbolic
Francisco), the geodesic
structures of Buckminster Fuller, the module
of Paolo
designs
Soleri, the parabolic airplane hanger, solid synthetic structures

of the
mimicking
the
tents
supporting
the
Olympic Sports Hall
octagonal
home with
an
nomads,
elliptical
This tent-like structure Illustrates the

constructions. Fashion Island, Foster
Architecture is
reuse
an
an
Tokyo,
ceiling.
curve
and
cables
even
an
of new materials and methods of

City, California.
use
evolving field. Architects study, refine, enhance,
ideas from the past
analysis,
dome
catenary
in
as
well
as
create new
architect is free to imagine any
ones.
design
so
In the final
long
mathematics and materials exist to support the structure.
as
the
}49
250
BUCKMINSTER
FULLER, GEODESIC
DOMES &
BUCKYBALLS
Richard Buckminster Fuller

an
inventor,
gineer,
architect of ideas,
time.
Among
a man
whose visions
an
designer,
author. He
were
his ideas and inventions
was
an
en-
was an
often ahead of their
we
find the
following
creations for which he is best known.
the
dymaxion car designed with
a rear
engine and front wheel
drive
the
Dymaxion House and Wichita House, precursors of
prefabricated
housing
minimized
use
for
mass
production,
whose construction
of materials, and maximized space.
designed to be completely transportable living
units.
They were
in the field of cartography he created the World Energy
Map of
1940, the Life magazine World Strategy Map of 1943, and the
DymaxionAtr Ocean Map of 1954
the
geodesic dome (triangulated
space
enclosing dome)
tensegrity
The
geodesic
the
one
dome
was
greatest commercial
Fuller's
with which his
patent application he described the geodesic dome

invention relates to
to the
to shelter
conventional wall and
square
good index
is the structural
the figure is
weight
the weather. In
foot of floor from
roof designs
often
2500
kg
square meter. I have discovered how to do thejob at around 4

square meter
by constructing
material.nl Buckminster Fuller's

he
saw
sphere,
dome.
subdivided
Let's reconstruct
its
The
sphere.
domes.
geodesic
faces
circumscribed this with
geodesic
of plastic
important insight was that
polyhedra2,
the
scenario of the
possible
Beginning
with the icosahedron,
equilateral triangles.
and
Now
he
its vertices onto
the surface of this
shape
more
and thus also the
has the least surface
area
dome encloses
geodesic
sphere
projected
equilateral triangles do not remain congruent.
structure's
sphere,
into
Suppose he truncated
the
most
skin
connection between the traditional
evolution of his
the
frame with
per
kg per
and architecture. This connection materialized into the
geodesic
he
and
follows: "My
as
framework for enclosing space.
performance of any building frame
required
success,
has become synonymous. In his
name
for
more
solid. Now the
closely approaches
properties
a
new
of the
the
sphere.
shape
A
sphere
given volume. Consequently the

space with less
expenditure
materials than conventional architectural forms. In addition,

new
type
tension
of
stability
pulls
inward
results.
of
of
a
As in the soap bubble, surface
against the outward compression of the
equilibrium is reached between tension and

The
compression.
design of traditional architecture requires the
consideration of weight and support. Gravity plays a prominent
role. In the geodesic structure, gravity's role is nearly irrelevant.
enclosed air
an
251
252
TH E MAC K O F MATH EMATICS
There
was
spheres,
so
catch, however.
one
their sizes
combined the ideas of
integrity ), the
action of the
geodesic
tensegrity
To
invention and
patent of light-weight
the
of these
scope
proposed hemispherical
megastructures,
dome with
diameter that would enclose part of New York

described its installation
as
follows, "A fleet
Sikorsky helicopters coiddfly

kilometer
high,
all the
In 1960 he
city.
of sixteen
into
segments
3 kilometer
of the large
position for
3 kilometer wide dome in three months at
$200 million...an
These
supporting columns,
nearly eliminated size limits of these
illustrate
consider Fuller's
(tensional
enormous.
buttresses, but with tensile forces (the pulling
load). Fuller's
construction
structures.
could be
not
were
But when Fuller
tensegrity3
domes with
themselves up not with
or
domes
geodesic
somewhat limited.
size of these domes
structures hold
beams, arches
were
The
area
of fifty blocks which includes
all
1.6
cost
of
of upper
Manhattan
skyscraper city.
A dome
this kind would
prevent
falling
of
and rain from
snow
on
the protected
area
and control the effects
sunlight
air..."4
Fuller's
and
quality of
geodesic
not without
dome
of
the
was
numerous
setbacks in both financial
aspects
and
acceptance.
Although
his
Dymaxion
House
the American Institute of Architecture
was
rejected
During
honorary
the
subsequent fifty
architectural
Equally important
300,000 geodesic domes
the
driving
and acclaim.
recognition brought by the
that
to
in 1928, his
years of his career, he received
degrees, fellowships, awards
was
the
'patent'
philosophical vision of providing economical housing was

force.
of
gift
were
based
on
Fuller's
over
patents
between 1954 until his death in 1983. Fuller's

not confined to the
are
geodesic
megastructure
have also been found at the molecular level. The

called buckminsterjullerene
synthesized
in the 1990s.
carbon
60
form
for
as
uses
scanner, or
the
modifying
C6o
buckyball
possible
microscopy
also
The
is
located
atoms
icosahedron.5
in
new
is
chemical
a
is now
battery
architectural
also
was
consisting of
a
truncated
catalyst,
in solid
the
tip of
storage cells. Scientists
structure
to how Fuller modified
the
produce
to
of
that
being synthesized
(somewhat analogous
polyhedron)
polyhedron
vertices
lubricant,
buckyball
carbon molecule
the
at
structures
size. Geodesic structures
of the
are
buckyball
new
theoretical molecules that would
be
stable, lighter and
more
stronger
than
buckyball.6
The conservation of
materials, lightness, stability and

of
strength
dome
are
characteristics
researchers
the
the
geodesic
same
that
interest
these
in
new
molecular forms.
truncated icosahedron
1 His
patent was approved In June of 1954 and he received royalties on
all geodesic domes that were built during the 17 years it was in effect.
From Buckminster Fuller by Martin Pawfey, Taplinger Publishing Co.,
New
2
York,
1990.
Polyhedra
are
geometric solids whose faces
In November of 1962 Fuller received

integrity structures.
4 From Buckminster Fuller
by
Martin
are
polygons.
patent covering
all tensile-
Pawley, Taplinger Publishing
Co.,
New York, 1990.
It is also called
a socceme
because of its resemblance to
a soccer
ball.
6 The 168-carbon molecule called the

a
buckygym
jungle-gym-like
researchers at the IBM Thomas J. Watson
structure
was created
Research Center in New York.
by
253
254
21ST CENTURY
ARCHITECTURE
SPACE FILLING
SOLIDS
Over the
ages the triangle, the
and
square
played major
the
rectangle
Wood and stone
design.
have
roles in architectural
were
among the first natural materials

builders
used
shelters.
Since the
right angles
from what
shapes
make
triangle
gave the most
was
as
and
their
and
stability
then known, these
utilized
were
structures
to
the
the
in
such
pyramids
Yucatan.
of
New
Egypt
jj shapes and designs evolved as
--ij_ knowledge, understanding, and
u_:
d materials improved. For example,
A
diagramfrom Leonardo da Vinci's
over
notebook, showing his work on trying

resolve the forces acting on an arch.
to
the
the centuries discoveries of
dynamics
of curves and arches
allowed stone and wood to be
used
introduce
to
these
features in such structures

Roman
and Gothic
aqueducts
cathedrals.
With
introduction of
steel, iron,
the
concrete, and bricks,
designs
were
plastics
and
materials,
along
structures,
to consider
of
as
glass,
new
bold
possible. Later,
synthetic
with
tensegritory
allowed architects
a
whole
new
family
Our mathematical
shapes.
knowledge, coupled
with
corn-
Gothic plans by the master architect of

the Dome of Milan, Caesar Caesartano.
This model
of Paulo SolerCs visionary project
is
displayed
at Arcosanti in
Arizona.
puter modeling, and
physical forces
Yet the
dimensional
shapes
objects
such
geometry,
as
In-depth understanding of
an
which act
structure have
on a
of mathematics.
rectangular
Others
Many
are
from Euclidean
exotic forms
are more
All these
architect to both fill space and to create
21st
increased.
square solids, pyramids,
or
solids, tents, and geodesies.
involve
greatly
and forms of architecture remain the three
spheres, cylinders.
What
the various
objects
using curved
used
are
What
objects
can
prefabrlcatlon, adaptability
fill space?
and
by
the
living space.
type of structures and living spaces will be designed
century?
cones,
in the
If design features
expandibility,
then ideas of
plane and space tessellating play prominent roles. Any shape that
tessellates
and other
plane, such
polygons
as
can
the
be
triangle,
adapted
the square, the

for
hexagon,
spatial living
units.
255
256
Additional units
can
shared walls later

arises.
the need
Design possibilities
be very
or
be added to
as
with
exciting
can
courtyards
light and
alcoves left open for
exterior
On the other
access.
hand the architect may want to

solids
consider
space,
the
being the cube

parallelepiped.
designs
which
most
and
pack
traditional
rectangular
Some
module
may include
rhombic
dodecahedra
or
truncated
oc-
Plane filling Penrose ties & space

truncated octahedra
filling
tahedra.
The choices and
challenges
in
options
now
determining
space In such
way to
available to architects add to
which solids work best
optimize designs, aesthetics and
comfortable livable areas. Designs and projects

as
today's
together to fill
create
by such architects
Paulo Soleri, David Greene, Pier Luigi Nervi, Arata Isozaki, I. M.
Pel, and others lend themselves to the

out
geometric shapes.
Now,
as
use
in the
of new materials and far
past, the feasibility of

structure
dictated
the
laws
is
by
of
mathematics
and
as
physics
which act
both tools
and
measuring rods.
left illustration shows how these pentagons, tessellating

plane, can be adapted to pentagonal prisms that become
module spacefilling units. At the right is a structure formed
by modifying the shape of a cube.
The
a
MATHEMATICS S. ARCHITECTURE
257
THE ARCH
gods play;
they play with numbers, of
Behind the wall, the
which the universe is made.

-Le
CURVY
MATHEMATICS
v
Corbusier(1887-1965)
centuries
elegant architectural triumph. Over the
curves
mathematical
the arch has taken on the shape of many
the catenary) to
(such as the circle, the ellipse, the parabola,
The arch Is
an
parabolic arch
arch
the elliptical arch the pointed or equilateral arch segmental
the
arch
transverse
the
the squtnch arch the stilted arch,
the
become the semicircular arch, the ogee arch
the relieving arch

horseshoe arch the trefoil arch triumphal arch
the corbelled
arch,
the
diaphragm
arch the half arch
the
triangular
or
false arch.
semicircular arch
stilted arch
horseshoe arch
A
pointed arch
A^
ogee arch
elliptical arch
258
IIIIMMI
The Roman aqueduct at Segovia, Spain, constructed with 148 arches 90
feet high.
In essence, the arch Is
architectural method for spanning
an
space. The nature of the arch allows the stress to flow more
concentration
throughout, thereby avoiding

(wedged shaped stones), also
voussolrs
the arch's
form
gravity
At the center Is the
curve.
locking
causes
mechanism
The thrust is countered

Until the invention and
relied
on
stepped stones,
were
as
use
seen
use
spread
in
as
out
The
pull
of
(the thrust force).
found In Greek architecture;
Egyptian pyramids.
extensively
Add to the arch their
concrete and brick, and
With the
All the stones
of the arch, architectural structures
the first to
semicircular arch.
keystone.
by the force of the walls or of buttresses.
columns and beams,
architects
called arch stones, form
triggered by gravity.
the sides of the arch to
evenly
the center. The
on
an
use
or
The Roman
and
discovery
develop the
and
architectural revolution took
of the arch, vaults and domes, the Romans
use
of
place.
were
able
MATHEMATICS & ARCHITECTURE
to eliminate
horizontal beams
and interior
columns. The arch
allowed them to
relocate the
weight
of the structure to
fewer yet
massive
more
supports.
Consequently
interior space
opened up.
the arch,
Prior to
structure was
by
necessity spanned
with columns
Grace
inside and out, and
Cathedral San Francisco, California.
the distances
calculated
between the columns had to be
carefully
have the
under excessive stress.
spanning beam
The Roman arch
was
centuries, architects
collapse
based
began
enclosed
became
more
higher,
space. The
of the structure bore the

arch bore the load
shape
of the circle.
allowed
shape
weight.
pointed arch.
more
to
light
arch had the load flow
through
thus
not to
Over the
first to the
As
result
enter, and
of the arch dictated which
parts
While the semicircular Roman
the span to the walls, the
over
building's buttresses,
the
to deviate from the circle,
then to the
elliptical (or oval) arch,

structures
on
so as
pointed Gothic
the arch to the outside of the
making it possible for higher ceilings.
The arch is not passe. As with all architectural ideas, its concept
and
use are
still
evolving.
With the invention and
of building materials, architects

of mathematical
curves
and
can
shapes
combine and
use
of new
use a
in their creations.
types
multitude
259
260
ARCHITECTURES*
THE HYPERBOLIC
architectural
Some
DA l> A Of> I I r>
structures
have been
In less
designed
recognizable shapes. A striking
example
is the
hyperbolic paraboloid
used in the
Cathedral in San Francisco. The Cathedral

A.
design of St. Mary's
was
designed by Paul
Ryan and John Lee and engineering consultants Pier Luigi Nervi
of Rome and Pietro Bellaschi of M.I.T.
At the
unveiling when
Michelangelo
what
have
of
thought
Cathedral,
Nervi
could not have
This
design
geometric
asked
would
the
"He
replied:
thought
comes
theories
of it.
from
not
then
proven."
The top of the structure is
St
Mary's Cathedral, San Francisco,
California.
2,135 cubic foot
hyperbolic
paraboloid cupola
with walls
rising
and
concrete
carries
1,680
supported by
which extend 94 feet into the
weight
of nine million
pounds.
concrete coffers
ground.
The walls
involving
The dimensions of the square foundation

A
200 feet above the floor
pylons
prepounded
are
4 massive
Each
pylon
made from
128 different sizes.
measure
255'
by 255'.
hyperbolic paraboloid combines aparaboloid (a parabola revolved

ofsymmetry) and a three dimensional hyperbola.
about its axis
hyperbolic paraboloid equation:
jr2
_x2
c2
a,b>0, c*0
MATHEMATICS & ARCHITECTURE
261
THE DESTRUCTION
OF THE BOX
The work of FVank
has
tures
definite
are so
Lloyd Wright
rSiiuomwScHri
his struc-
THE LIBERATION OF SPACE
style, yet
diverse that the
style
does not lie in the similarities of his
buildings,
but rather in the
philosophy that the structure projects. In his words, "Architecture

is the scientific art of making structure express ideas." His
architecture has
come
to be called
organic architecture
encompassing
landscape, materials, methods, purpose and imagination In
special way.
Civic Center was one of his final

Marin County, California
Wrights Marin County
Wright's designs
space become
designs.
of structures in which internal and external
one
designed buildings
had
so
profound impact
that the outside
came
on
architecture. He
inside. He called this
262
the destruction
be
Dwellings,
or
by
as
Frank
box.
they private
commercial,
viewed
of the
were
Lloyd Wright
conglomeration
boxes
or
cubes.
Space
of
in
Euclidean geometry Is
defined
the
as
points. Although
often
used
geometry
space,
box architecture
has
limits.
Wright wanted his works to
flowing of points
He
separation
architecture.
sought
a
a
we
cube Is
Euclidean
represent
know that space
boundaries
no
feeling
from the inside to the outside.
lines, he discovered
designs.
give
the
in
to
of all
set
or
of space the
Thinking along
these
way to eliminate the traditional box from his
change
from the
feeling
of confinement and
from the outside world which characterized box
Wright
realized that the
potential
of certain
materials had not been utilized. These materials
building
steel and
glass
with
along
innovative design changes
furnished the
means
to do away with the
box, thereby
allowing the merging of

interior and exterior
space.
Wright's designs did

away with
corners
of
the box by removing the

them
eyes
supports from the
corners
along the walls by using cantilevers. Thus,
were
not bound
or
led to
corners.
and
relocating
the inhabitant's
Space was allowed
to flow.
By replacing post and beam

supports, walls were
no
construction with
longer viewed
independent and unattached.

modified
Wright
by either
as
Any
one
shortening, extending
did not stop with
freeing
sky.
designs
eliminated the
of these walls could be
or
redlvlding.
the horizontal
vertical. He did away with cornice, and

His
canuleverage
enclosing walls, but rather as
opened
stacking
and
plan,
but also the
up the
top to the
duplication of boxes.
Instead, he used columns, and made them part of the ceiling,
thereby creating
continuity of form.
outside of a structure could
allowing space
to
move
organic architecture.
which you feel and
space alive
move
Now space inside and
in all directions. The freedom of
in and out of a structure is the essence of
"So
see
organic architecture
all this happen
as a
is architecture in
third dimension
...
1
by way of the third dimension."
Frank Lloyd Wright, An American Architecture, ed.

York: Bramhall House, 1955.
Edgar
Kaufman. New
263
have always played games and done puzzles.

Books on the
various games give numerous examples of ancient games that
are still played today. This illustration is from an
Egyptian papyrus dating
back to 1200 B.C.. It is a humorous rendition of a goat and a lion playing
the game of senet Senet was one of the most popular games of its time,
and was played by all sectors of society. Unfortunately, there is no
remaining documentation on exactly how it was played, but a possible
version of senet has been devised using the findings and work of
People
origins of
archedlogists.
THE SPELL OF
LOOK, RECREATION
& GAMES
\B
MATHEMATICAL MYSTERY TALES

PUTTING YOUR LOGIC TO WORK
THE GAMES MATHEMATICIANS PLAY
SOME MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS
MAGIC SQUARES & MORE RECREATIONS

THE KONIGSBERG BRIDGE PROBLEM UPDATE
CHECKERBOARD MANIA
A FEW OLDIES
266
Logic is the art of going wrong with confidence."

Morris Kline
Logic
and mathematics
people
and
definitely go
hand in hand. But most
do not consider mathematics fun and games. Yet, games
recreations
are
an
of mathematics.
integral part
development of many mathematical ideas

person's pursuit
of an
to be driven
by
puzzles for hours
on
seem
enjoy mathematics
one
may
have
intriguing
an
or
are
They belong
are
fascinated
spent hours
even
the result of
problem.
invisible force to work
end.
and
notion
The
on
Some
people
problems and
to those who
by
it.
Before
inherently
realizing it,
days exploring
different
ramifications of
what
ostensibly
started out to be
simple pastime. As
history attests
problems,
challenges, games
and pastimes have
sometimes lead to
remarkable
discoveries, and
Circa 212 B.C. Syracuse fell to the Romans. At the
time, Archimedes was working on a mathematics
problem in his home. When a Roman soldier entered
and ordered him to stop working, Archimedes did not
pay attention. Angered, the soldier killed Archimedes
with his sword.
even
to the
creation of new
fields of
mathematics. In
fact, the famous

Greek mathematician Archimedes
absorbed in
reveal
some
mathematics
of the games,
mathematicians love to
problem.
puzzles
play.
was
and
killed because he
The
following pages
was
will
mental calisthenics that
267
MATHEMATICAL
MYSTERY TALES
Mathematical mysteries have been
around
for
centuries.
Lewis Carroll's works

into
this
Some
of
would fall
category. Today,
mysteries have entered the
these
with such books
The
Puzzling Adventures of Dr.
popular
scene
Ecco
Dennis Sasha and Visitors From The Red Planet
by
as
by
Dr.
Cryton.
Logic problems,
as
illustrated below,
can
also be embellished with
stories.
The teacher started to read-
It
was one
of those week s at the circus,
go wrong. First,
one
when
everything seemed to
of the horses for the acrobat dancers went
lame. Next the head clown threw
fit because thefat lady's child
got into his makeup. Then Madre and his wife had an argument
over
the trapeze artist. The final blow,
came
found dead under the big top. Next to his
when Madre was
body
was
his cane, which
he occasionally used. An overturned glass of water was on his
desk, and
The teacher
minute pile of sawdust
question
caps, and
his
body.
stopped reading, and asked, "Well, what do you think
happened to Madre ?
I
was near
can answer
see
immediately.
How did he die? You
with
yes' or 'no'.
can
So
ask me any
put your on thinking
where your logic leads you". Hands began to go up

These
shyest student.
logic stories always seemed to spark even the
The questions started and the drama of the circus
death began to unfold.
A student asked,'What did Madre do at the circus?" "Remember,
only yes or no questions,"

'Was Madre
the teacher cautioned.
manager?" Carol asked.
"No". 'Was there any
sign of
violence?" "No," the teacher replied.

'Was there
anything else near the glass?" 'Yes,
Important to know what It was?"
there was." "Is It
'Yes"
'Was It
sandwich?" Bill blurted out. "No."
'Was It
pill?" Tom asked.
'Yes."
"He died because he had not taken his medicine?" Tom continued.
"No, not exactfy," the teacher's replied.

'Was there
pencil sharpener on his desk?" Terrl asked.
"No"
'We have to find out how he died," Terrl told her fellow students.
The students
began discussing the situation amongst themselves,
continuing the questions.
before
'We know he was not well, since he
was
know he was not killed
act," Tom said,
death
by
a violent
taking medicine. And we
analyzing the
scene.
"Right.
He must have died from his Illness,"
point he directed
Gary said. At which
question to the teacher, "Did he die from a
heart attack?" 'Yes."
'Well, that was
an
easy one to solve this time."
bit smug. 'We're not done,
Gary said, feeling a
Gary," Barbara pointed out.
'We
haven't found out what caused his heart attack."
"Sure we
have, he didn't take his medicine. Right Mr. Mason?"
Gary asked. 'Wrong! Gary," Mr.
Mason
replied.
The students went back Into conference. "Have
the Initial facts of the case?" Terri asked her
"No," Bob, who
we
considered all
colleagues.
rarely talked In class, replied.
'We haven't
considered why the sawdust information was mentioned, what his
job was at the
circus, and what about the
cane,
and Madre's wife
and the trapeze artist."
"You're
right,
excitedly.
marital
Bob. We need to address all these," Terri said
"The cane, the sawdust, the heart attack, and the
problems." Tom muttered thinking out loud.

and the sawdust go
The
cane
was
shortened with
teacher
saw,
together.
thus
For
"IVe
some reason
leaving the sawdust."
got It!
the
"Yes," the
replied. Tom continued," Perhaps Madre got upset
because
someone
wrecked his cane."
"NO"
cane
"Perhaps he didn't know his

"That's
was
right,"
very
Mr. Mason
upset,
cane was
shortened?" Bob asked.
replied. 'Then, when he stood with It he
but why?" Bob wondered. "Because It didn't fit

him. He
was
too
tall for It!" Carol
shouted. The
excitement that
the solution
was
close at hand
spread among
the students.
"So far,
so
good,"
the teacher said,
encouraging
them to
continue. "But
why would
thinking he
had
grown taller
upset him so?"

Gary asked the
other students. "This time I've
hand In the air and
"Madre
was a
finding
midget!" The
really got It," Tom yelled, waving his
It difficult to contain his enthusiasm.
student's excitement was
contagious.
The teacher shouted, "YES! What else?"
This time Terri's hand shot up in the air. The teacher nodded to
her, and she began to summarize the
midget.
one
was
His wife and the
day when he wasn't
scenario "Madre
was a
trapeze artist sawed off some of his
using
too short for him. Madre
It. When he went to
use
thought he was growing taller,
aggravated his precarious heart problem.
He couldn't
cane,
his cane, It
which
get to his
medicine in time. How does that sound Mr. Mason?"
"That's it! You've all done

you with
one
great job
on
next week." The teacher
this one!
Maybe
I'll stump
replied as a smile crossed
his
face.
Here
are a
few
logic stumpers to try out with a friend or group of
friends.
(1) It
was
came
Tuesday and Tom and Jerry
timefor Tom to go home,
were
at the
job.
same
When it
Jerry wouldn't let himgo home.
WHY?
(2) Eric walked into
bar, and asked the bartenderfor a glass of
water. The bartender looked at Ericfor

gun and pointed it at Eric. Eric
was
moment,
startled for
thenpulled out a
moment, and then
said thank you and walked out of the bar without having drunk the
glass of water. WHAT IS THE SCENARIO?

(3) When Mary came home she walked into the kitchen. She
suddenly let out a scream when she discovered her dead husband
on
thejloor. Along side was waterfrom a bowl that had been on the
table and
was now
kitchen table
was
tipped over on thejloor.
ajar.
The window
WHAT HAD HAPPENED?
over
the
271
272
PUTTING YOUR LOCK TO WORK
RECTANGULAR
VOLUME ILLUSION
Our eyes
to
jump with this
Determine
puzzle.
2x1x1
begin
blocks
structure.
how
make
up
many
this
THE SPELL OF LOGIC RECREATION i. GAMES
273
THE IMPOSSIBLE
How Is It
string
possible
paper trap without

buttons from the
string,
POSSIBLE
to remove the
with two buttons from the
or
tearing
removing
the
string, cutting the

the
paper?
STACKING THE DIE
Assume
around
and
see
Find the
you
this
all
sum
could
stack
walk
of dice
exposed
faces.
of the pips
on
the hidden faces of the dice.
274
ARE ALL WHEELS

ROUND?
A rouleau Is
To
fascinating object.
construct
with
From
rouleau,
equilateral
an
each
start
triangle.
the
set
vertex,
compass to the radius of the side
of the
Make
triangle.
the
through
two
arc
an
opposite
vertices. If you make the rouleu

out of cardboard, you
how well It rolls.

If It
smooth
as
center
of the
were a
test
can
fact,
In
It's
as
circle. The
rouleau
the
Is
Intersection of medians of the
triangle.
stick a pencil through
equilateral
and
use
the
pencil
The rouleau
inscribed In
placed
can
can
this center
as
an
axle.
also be
square, and when

a
circumscribing
can
rotate within the
in
square, it
square.
You
As
result, it has been
used In the Wankel
engine,
in
which the rouleau-shaped piston

rotates inside
enclosure,
as
automobile engines.
square
In Mazda
shaped
THE SPELL OF LOGIC. RECREATIONS.GAMES
275
THE BLOCK LETTER

PUZZLE
Cut out these pieces,
need to be rotated,
of the
or
rearrange them In your head. Some may
flipped or translated. They form a capital letter
English alphabet.
Good luck!
276
HOW A PUZZLE
CAN BEATURNINO
Simeon Poisson (1781-1840
POINT
difficulty trying
that suited him.
him to pursue medicine
or
and/or desire.
Apparently
story has It that
on a
one
find
to
His
) had
career
family urged
law, but he seemed to lack the talent

a
puzzle put
Poisson
on
track.
The
trip someone gave him a puzzle similar to the

below, which he easily solved. Realizing he had an aptitude
and interest In
things mathematical,
he discovered that he wanted
to work with mathematics. He became well known for his work
celestial
mechanics, electricity,
and
magnetism,
and
on
for his
discoveries of applications to
addition,
he studied
integrals and Fourier series. In

probability theory, and discovered the
Poisson distribution.
_^->_
The milkman had two 10 quart pails of milk. Two customers want
two quarts each in their containers. One has a five quart container
and the other has
four quart
solve the problem? This version
Loyd.
container. How does the milkman
of the problem was created by
Sam
THE SPELL OF LOGIC, RECREATION S. GAMES
277
1$ IT POSSIBLE?
Using only a straightedge
distances
can
on
be Indicated,
bisect the given
which
can
you
and prove
angle,
why It Is bisected?
CAN YOU MAKE A

If no number Is
In any row
or
of
square
tiles, It
column of a
domino
18
Is called
Latin
square. The square
below Is not
LATIN SQUARE?
repeated
For
rows
or
example,
repeat
In
columns.
the top
and the column
and
row
4s.
rearrange this,
new one
square.
on
the
has two blanks
two
has two 6s and two 4s
right side
Latin square,
since numbers
some
or
to make
Either
start
a
Latin
iii.
'
.'"
":9
m.
>
278
TH E MAG IC O F MATH EMATI C$
THE CAMES MATHEMATICIANS PLAY

THE CHAOS CAME
Ij label three points on a sheet
ofpaper as shown, (1,2); (5,6);

(3,41
2) Pick a starting point at random. Role a die.
3) Rule: take 112 the distance between the starting point
and the point which has the number on the die that
wasjust
rolled.
4) Continue step three indefinitely.
(1.2)
(5,6)
(3,4)
It Is not the first time that randomness turned out to conform to

some
order.
18th
century French naturalist.
devised the Needle Problem and linked
favorable outcomes.
Similarly,
Count
to the
Buffon,
probability
of
in 1904 R. Chartres found that the
THE SPELL OF LOGIC, RECREATION 4. GAMES
probability
prime
of two numbers, written at random,
6/jt2.
Is
randomness
Michael
as a
basis for
Barnsley
modeling
Invented The Chaos Came. There

For
example,
coin
or
die
used to
random
are
first
being relatively
considered
natural shapes.
many ways to
using
Hence,
play
he
the game.
be
can
generate
occurrence.
The rules
are
also
flexible. The version

above
uses
points,
a
three fixed
random point, and
die. The
resulting design Is
astonishing.
gives
A chaotic process
rise to order!
Another variation is to choose
point's location at random. Make up

a
rule for when
heads
and
(e.g.
one
tails.
move
up) and
tossed coin turns up

two units to the
one
Begin tossing and
In addition to
(following a
see
discovering
set of rules)
random method to
right
for when It turns up
what happens.
that the limit of
random process
produced fractals, Barnsley also devised a
reproduce a given shape.
279
280
THE OLD
MATHEMATICAL
CAME OF
Rlthmomachla
RITHMOMACHIA
mathematical game.
levels
are
understanding
strong strategy
11th
be
very
When advanced
played,
good
of number
theory
and
Rlthmomachla dates back to the
essential.
are
can
probably originating either in Byzantium or

during the Middles Ages, that the intelligencia
century A.D.,
Alexandria. It
was
made Rlthmomachla the game of choice and considered It superior

to chess.
Physical set-up ofgame

The
playing board
triangles
called
as
or
even
odd.
pyramid.
Is
rectangular and
pieces used
units. The
pieces, and the other's
opponent has white pieces
are
black pieces and referred to
player has 8 circles, 8 triangles, 7 squares, and 1

pyramid has six faces, whose numbers total
the other with 1)
total 190, and is

two squares
number 16. The

can move.
with the number 4 and
triangles (one
two circles
(with
36 and
25), and two squares
has five faces whose numbers
(with 16 and 9). The black
piece
of circles, squares,
The white
91, and is composed of two
25),
composed of 8x16 squares
shapes
One
pseudopyramids.
Each
Is
In the
are
pyramid
made-up of two triangles (with
(with numbers 64 and 49), and
shape of the piece dictates

For
example,
the square
numbers 36 and
one
circle with the
the number of spaces
can move
4 consecutive
triangle moves 3, a circle moves 1.

a
circle, triangle or square
pyramid
depending on which face it is using. When beginning the game the
pieces are set-up as illustrated In the diagram.
empty spaces
and
in any
the
direction,
can
move
as
Object ofgame
The
object
of the game is to
capture your opponent's pieces and
make certain number combinations which constitute
victory.
THE SPELL OF LOCK. RECREATION & GAMES
How to
capture your
opponent's pieces.
19JJSZZJI
by potential moves or
?i HTT
by actually moving.
^^F
Pieces
are
captured
The methods of
capture
are:
^m
? Hi m
voooo T V
00o0
1) Siege capture Is
done
by surrounding
an
opponent's piece
on
all four sides.
Then that piece is

removed.
2) Meeting capture. If
you
move a
required
piece the
number of
spaces and land

an
on
opponent's piece,
then you take that

f
opponent's piece
without
actually
moving your piece.

For example. If white
triangle #36
moves
0
AA0 A A
R H A A A A <">
153
spaces and lands
on
black circle#36. the
25
black circle #36 is

removed without
~*T|
169
actually moving the white triangle
289
#36.
3) Assault capture. If a piece's number value ttmes the number of

spaces in its
number
move
equaling
would land next to

the
product,
an
then
opponent's piece with the

the
player
takes
the
281
282
opponent's piece without actually doing the moving.

a
white circle #4
removes
For
example,
black square #28 If 7 spaces lie between
the two pieces.
4) Ambuscade. If two pieces of a player

an
opponent's piece and the

For
example,
either side of
of these two pieces
sum
opponent's piece number, then the

piece.
can move on
player
takes the
equals
the
opponent's
Ifblack
triangle #12 can be straddled by white

black triangle #12 is removed without
circles #4 and #8, then
actually moving the pieces.

It Is difficult to
capture
be used, unless it is done
#64) is captured when it

threatened
by
one
pyramid, the number 91 and 190 must

by siege or the base square (the #36 or
is
of the
base. If one of the
pyramid's
capturing methods,
collected in the form of an opponent's piece of equal

value
as
or
be
can
acceptable
the threatened face.
Players decide before beginning the game, what

victory
faces is
ransom
or
end the game. Here
game. Some
are
simple,
possible
are some
while others
are
will constitute
ways to end the
quite complicated and
involved.
Possible ways to end the game, i.e.
1) De corpore.
captured,
The
players agree
that will declare that
2) De bonis. Players agree
on a
target
3) De lite. Here
on
player
number, then that

win
depends
number of pieces to be
the winner.
number value target. If the
the number value of the pieces

exceed that
gain a victory.
both
player captures will

player is the winner.
on
the pieces and the total number of
total
of
or
the total number value of

of the pieces.
For
digits equaling only
6. So
digits
example, target value could be 160 with
sum
THE SPELL OF LOGIC RECREATION & GAMES
player with pieces 121,
9, 30 would win, while the
player having
56,64,28 and 15 would not (these pieces have 8 digits in all).

4) De honore. This win depends
number value. For
exactly
example,
160 will win.
it
on
can
the number of pieces and their

be
agreed that 5 pieces totaling

players must be familiar
It is clear that the
with the number values of their pieces and their various
sums.
5) De honore liteque. This win requires three conditions be met a

number value,
specified
specified
The
specified number
number of digits of the
following
victories
are
of pieces, and
pieces.
meant
for expert players
and
involve arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic progression.

The pieces used
can
be from both players, but
one
must be
your opponents piece.
6) Victoria Magna.
Arrange three captured pieces
arithmetic, geometric,
example2, 5, 8;
example 6, 8,
7)
Victoria
harmonic
Major.
Display
four pieces that
can
possible progression.
pieces with value 2,3, 4, and

are
an
e.g arithmetic
12
form two out of the three
4 and the
in either
progression,
geometric example36, 49, 64; harmonic
or
be combined to
For
example,
the
give the arithmetic progression 2, 3,
geometric progression 2, 4, 8. Note also that 2, 4, and 8
white pieces, while 3 is
black piece.
283
284
THE MAC IC OF MATH EMATI CS
THE GAME
OF HEX
The game of Hex
was
Invented In
1942byPletHeln.
The game
board for hex Is

made up of
hexagons.
There
are
eleven
hexagons
In
each direction.
As illustrated,
the first
In this particular game, the player with

the black pieces was the winner, since
that player was able to make apath to
Is
not
to
play
player
allowed
his
or
her piece in any of the gray
the opposite side.
hexagons.
one
can
After the first move,

move
on
these
hexagons.
Players alternately
take turns
placing a piece down.
Object:
Each
player alternately
After thefirst
gray
places
trying
move, one can move on the
hexagons.
his
or
her piece down,
to connect
opposite
make
path
some
beginning
moves
path
to the
is the winner!
This board shows
The first
side.
to the
player
to
opposite side
THE SPELL OF LOGIC, RECREATION <. GAMES
285
SOME MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS
PLAYING WITH
POLYHEXES
Polyominoes are formed
by joining congruent squaresmonomtno
domino
\ | |
1 [
trominoes
tetrominoes
Mill
flea p
pentominoes, and so on...

another group of entertaining mathematical
Polyhexes
are
which
formed from joining congruent hexagons.
Here
are
are
the
configurations for up to 4-hexes (tetrahexes):
Which of the three

each of the
Have fun!
objects
seven
following shapes can be tessellated using one of
tetrahexes shown above?
286
THE MA6IC OF MATHEMATICS
LEWIS CARROLL
CHANCES
"FOUR" TO "FIVE"
Mathematician Charles L.
better
known
as
Dodgson,
Carroll,
Lewis
created the game of doublets.
The
Fair
ran a
English magazine Vanity
number of contests in 1879
featuring
Carroll's game. The game
begins with
two words of the
length.
object
the
is to
other
same
change
word
change only
one
to
other
by forming
successive words of the same
You may
The
the first word
length.
letter at
time, trying to make the least number

of transformations.
Here
are
some
others to try
Cover EYE with UD

Prove PITY to be GOOD
Get WOOD from TREE
Change OAT to
RYE
THE SPELL OF LOCK, RECREATION . GAMES
287
POMINIZINC
The kite and dart tiles
discovered
by
British mathematical
Penrose In
physicist Roger
These two tiles tessellate

in
special
very
1974.
plane
They
way.
phenomenally produce
number of
PENROSE TILES
were
infinite
an
nonperiodic tilings (no
basic pattern in the
repeats Itself
on
when the eye

of a
design
regular basis,
moves
or
up
down)
plane. Playing a game of
dominoes with them would be both
and
challenge
produce
some
very
interesting designs.
Construct the tiles in the following
way:
Each tile is divided

two
triangles,
one,
two, three,
Now
try
out
by
which
or no
line Into
can
have
dots.
game.
You may
want to increase the number of
dots used and
see
how the game
proceeds.
The mathematical formation

Note: (p is the golden
mean
of the
which
Penrose tiles.
equals
(l+^5)/2*>1.618..
288
MAKING A
HEXAFlexagons
rvA^^^k.1
TtTRAFLEXAGON
are a
wonderful math-
ematlcal recreation that aU ages

'
can
desiring
of
more
than
flexagons.
mere
recreation
enjoy.
can
Here Is how to make
In addition, those
delve Into the mathematics
hexatetraflexagon It
has six
faces and four sides.
|6
5]
4
3
6|
would look Hke
__5
9
step
step CO
Fold
tep(l) Starting with the front aid*,

fold adjacent j's unto each other.
Do the same with adjacent X's. The
resulting figure
step (l)
back side
front side
adjacent x's
unto each other.
This pattern of
numbers will
appear
on one
side.
along one edge.

The resulting
shape is
CO
step (3)
Place the two 4's
on top of each
other, and tape
square with o's
on one
side, and s's on the other. Join the

outer edges of & 5 with a piece of
tape. Turn over and flex the s's side
along the center. Can you find all
4
rzr
faces?
THE SPELL OF LOCK. RECREATION S. GAMES
289
GEOMETRIC
DISSECTIONS &THE
CURRY TRIANGLE
Geometric dissection
be
well
dissection
can
Problems such
fascinating.
this
problems
known
PUZZLE
as
rectangle
which appears In Sam
puzzle,
Puzzles,
Loyd's Cyclopedia of
create
paradoxical type of
situation:
:^-:
**
*
ta
*v
*.,
>-,.
'-
*.^
,;
/
*",
area= 13x5=65
Paul
that
area=8x8-64 square units
with
hole Inside the
figure.
square units
Curry revised this paradox
so
cutting and rearranging the
parts resulted in
an
Identical
Here is how It works for this
figure
triangle.
Suppose
one
side of
the
triangle
is shaded
and the
other Is
not. Cut it
apart.
Turn
and
over
The
area of the original triangle is 60 square units. The

revised triangle's area is 58 square units. Summing the area
of each of the pieces gives a total of 59 square units.
Therefore, the hole is 1 square unit
reassemble the shaded parts
as
shown.
triangle, yet It has a hole In the

explanation?
size
Supposedly It is the same
center. What's the
290
THE SQUARE
TRANSFORMATION
Determine how to cut this

Into three
cuts,
so
pieces with
two
the three pieces
rearranged
<+*MH IHW^
into
shape
straight
can
be
square.
mni.il
in in ii
THE SPELL OF LOGIC RECREATION & GAMES
291
MACK SQUARES & OTHER RECREATIONS

/ make no
question but you will

readily allow the square of 16 to
be the most magically magical
of any magic square ever made
by any magician.
Benjamin Franklin
Imagine the formation of numbers
manipulative properties.
To many
of numbers seemed to possess
earliest record of
124
79
109
64
139
34
2200 B.C. when
by
3x3
the Emperor Yu
were
placed
and the forms

In the 8th
square with
past
appears
special
these squares
or
powers. The
China around
In
magic number square, called lo-shu,

on
the back of
the banks of the Yellow river.
blots
people
In the
19 941
49
seen
Into
magical qualities
magic square
PLAY I NO WITH
MAOIC SQUARES
on a
were
century
squares held the
sliver
read
In 9th
century
tray engraved
just
as
divine tortoise
A.D.
with
was
along
Egypt, ink
magic
square
fortune tellers read tea leaves.
A.D. certain alchemists believed that these
key
to
converting metals
to
gold.
Islamic magic
squares often carried special meanings when the numbers of the
292
THE MAG IC O F MATH EMATICS
were
squares
to utilize their letter numerals. The Arabs
arranged
used different
arrangements of the
3x3
magic square to signify the
signs of fire, water, earth, and air. In addition, each planet had
magic square associated with it, and magic squares
their work with
astrology.
variety ways
placing
them
embroidering
them
the facade of
magic square
the
magic
one
used in
the womb of a
woman
garments of soldiers,
placing
over
for protection, wearing magic
the previous page
on
squares
used in
were
were
healing.
square with the year 1994
square, every
was
on
building
square amulets for luck or
The
"mystical"
magic square
in labor,
on
These
of its numbers
added to each number In the
was
transformed into
it.
Starting with
were
multiplied by
on
3x3
15.
magic
Then 4
resulting square.
Over the centuries many
properties and methods of construction
have been discovered and
developed.
Here
are some
1) Each
same
can
of these properties
row,
column, and corner-to-corner
number.
Each
be obtained In
square has
magic
one
of the
total the
diagonal
magic
constant that
following ways:
(a) A magic square's order is determined by the number of rows

or
columns it has.
numbers 1, 2, 3
where
is the
A magic square composed of the natural

n% magic constant value is (l/2)(nfn^ +1)),
square's order. In general, ifiis the initial term
andfi the amount each term is increased, then the magic
constant=i*n+fi(n/2)(n2 -1).
(b) Take any
corner,
sum
place
size
magic square and starting from the left hand
the numbers
sequentially along each
row.
The
of the numbers in either diagonal will be the magic
constant.
2) Any two numbers (In
equidistant
from Its center
row,
are
column,
or
diagonal)
complements (2
that
are
numbers whose
THE SPELL OF LOCK, RECREATION & GAMES
This is Benjamin Franklin's super duper 16x16 magic square. It has all the
properties of the regular magic square except its comer to comer diagonals
do not total to its magic number, 2056. But as the diagram illustrates its
magic number pops up in
diagonals, broken 8-parallel
so
many other ways,
rows, any 4x4 square;
such,
and
as
broken 8-
perhaps
you can
In the 1952 Journal of the Franklin Institute, Albert Chandler

contends that this magic square is not Franklin's original, but one that was
set incorrectly by a printer.
find
more.
sum
equals
the
sum
of the
largest
and smallest numbers of the
square).
3) There
Into
are
a new
many ways to transform
an
existing magic
square
magic square.
(a) Any number may be either added or multiplied

number of a magic square, and
a new
to every
magic square will be created.
293
294
(b) If two
rows or
interchanged,
the
two columns,
equidistant from,
in
an even
(d) Interchange partial quadrants

are
A few
are
are
resulting square is a magic square.
(c) Interchange quadrants
There
the center
many methods
in
one can use
1) For odd order squares
order magic square.
an
odd order magic square.
to construct
magic squares.
a) the staircase method (by De la
Loubere), b) the pyramid method, c) the knights tour method for

odd order
greater than 3x3, d) the Philip de la
Hire method
of
1705.
2) For
order squares
even
a) the diagonal replacement
method fora 4x4; b) 8x8 diagonal method.
3) For any order magic square
complicated
and involved.
developed by B.
Considering
that
more
the
The methods that do exist
One such uses borders and
are
was
Frenicle.
lengthy history of magic
has been written
on
squares, It Is
no
surprise
magic squares than any other
mathematical recreation.
Some people have spent hours, others

days, yet others months developing methods for creating magic
squares, discovering their properties, developing new Ideas about
them, and playing with their magic. Among the vast list we find
Benjamin Franklin's
square
super
magician*, who
can
starting number almost

connecting the
designs
that
duper
16x16
magic square the magic
create any 3x3
magic square with any
Instantaneously magic
consecutive numbers of
are
also used to
classify the
lines'
(segments
magic square) dazzling
squares
as
symmetric
or
magic circles, cubes, hexagons, stars, spheres,

magic domino squares, prime number magic squares, panasymmetric
diagonal magic
squares.
And the list continues to grow
people get hooked on playing with magic squares.
as more
THE SPELL OF LOGIC, RECREATION S. GAMES
Anyone
3x3
can
be
magic
magic square. Challenge
location of
magician.
square
someone
Just memorize the basic
to
place
number In any
blank 3x3 square. For example, here the number 78
placed where the the 2 is located in the basic magic square.

immediately create a new magic square by filling in the
blanks, recalling that one of the
was
You
properties of a magic square is that a

new one can
be created
by adding
constant to each number of
magic
an
old
square. In this case 76 is
added to each number of the basic 3x3
magic square.
84
77
79
81
80
85
82
78
The role of magic squares has

centuries.
Today they
are
mathematical recreations.
changed significantly
viewed
as
over
the
fascinating, challenging
295
296
BENJAMIN
FRANKLIN'S
..
Benjamin
^.- /'in/*I C
MAGIC CI KCLt
Franklin
square enthusiast.
he
was a
was
magic
In fact, while
clerk at the Pennsylvania
Assembly,
he often relieved the tedium of his work by making
magic circles.
For his
largest
magic circle, the numbers along a radius of the
circle all total the
same
amount,
fall In between Intertwined circles.
as
do the numbers that
297
LEONHARDEULER&
THE KNIGHT'S TOUR
This wonderful
created
18th
magic square
Leonhard Euler In the
by
century.
As In most
squares Its rows,
magic
columns, and diagonals total the
In this case 260.
whose
was
and
rows
fascinating
Is how
In addition, there
columns each totals

a
knight
chess
every number of the entire square
by just following
are
the
moves
same
number,
four squares within It,

130.
piece, starting
But
at 1,
sequentially from
knight.
even
can
more
land
through
allowed of the
it
...
48
31
50 33
16
63 18
62 19
14
35
15
34
17
64
45 20
61
36
13
44
25
56
40 21 60
28
53
41 24
57
12
37
43
55
26 39
10 59
22
54
27
42
30 51
46
47
49
32
52
29
58 23
38 11
on
64.
298
THE KONIGSBERG
BRIDGE PROBLEM
Tîe
iinnATC
UKPATt
clt^
founded
by
1308,
and
K*nlgsberg
Teutonic
was
in
Knights
'
easternmost
power for
Kaliningrad
over
seven
was
called
naval base of the USSR
Today
is located between Lithuania and Poland. How do the
bridges
find the
largest
the
as
outpost of German
400 years. After World War II it
and became the
Konigsberg
served
of Konigsberg look
impossible path? First,
today?
Do
people
let's recap the
still
attempt
to
Konigsberg bridge
problem
Konigsberg
bridges
in 1700s
"Guts-Giblets^
Rrw^l
Br,d9e
Bridge
Over the centuries,
wealth
of enjoyment
the
Konigsberg bridge problem has provided
back to the 1700s, The setting
along
the
Pregel
and mathematical interest. The problem dates

was
the
city ofKonigsberg situated
River. The two islands in the river
city and connected to it
were
part of the
by seven bridges.
delightful tradition had
developed among the residents of Konigsberg of taking a Sunday
stroll along the city banks and islands while attempting to discover
a
path that
any
would transverse all
bridge. Although
it
was
seven
considered
bridges without recrossing

an
amusing
entertainment
THE SPELL OF LOGIC RECREATIONS. GAMES
by
most
the time,
people of
another
developed
twist
mathematician discovered and
this
to
recreational
pastime.
Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Eider (1707-1783) had learned of the

in St.
Konigsberg bridge problem
Petersburg
while in the service
of
Catherine the Great ofRussia.

In 1735 Euler
far
more
presented a paper to
and
reaching
mathematics than
had
simply
the Russian Academy that

more
substantial
the solution to the
was
Impact
on
He
bridge problem.
topology. Unlike
set Into motion Ideas that launched the field of
Euclidean geometry, which deals with size,
shape and rigid
that studies properties of
objects, topology is geometry

objects
that remain unchanged even when the size and shape of the
objects are distorted. For example, if a triangle is distorted Into a
a
topology studies which of the object's properties

unchanged. With the Konigsberg bridge problem Euler
circle,
or a
square
remain
transformed and simplified
design (called graph

simplified
the
the
city
to which the
assigned
il ustrated each
vertex
bridge
concluded that the

all
seven
back
was
lifting
each vertex
as
to
point.
being either
graph
that
tracing
either
without
an
odd
or even
an even
or
was
starting
or
most 2 odd vertices i.e. 0 if
beginning point
was
on
one an
e
created
and
by
either passing
ending your journey
the other hand,
ending point
traceable (no
and
point
by beginning
An odd vertex,
the
over
Euler identified
in and out of the vertex
at that
crossing
doubling
pencil
He noted that
point.
of
without
it up.
led he
He
an arc.
comparable
mathematical
and
problem
bridges
the network with

ever
bridges
point
with
part of
For each
problem.
Into
physical setting
network) which encompassed and
or
was
created
by
of the journey. Thus any
doubling back)
could
only
have at
they were all even or 2 if one was a

ending point. In addition, he figured
299
300
One
of the three original remaining bridges of Konigsberg.
out that If the

one
graph
had
would have to lift the
an even
pencil
number of odd vertices, say 10,
half this number, that Is 5 times,
to trace the entire
graph. In his dissertation, Euler points out that

the Konigsberg bridge problem seemed geometric In nature, but
that Euclidean geometry did not seem to apply since the bridge
problem did
not deal with
"magnitudes"
nor
could It be resolved
using "quantitative calculations". Instead the problem belonged

the
"geometry of position",
as
topology
was
to
first described and
named by Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. Thus, Euler's solution to

the
Konlsgberg bridge
problem
acted
as
and
catalyst
Introduction to the field of topology.

As the illustration
specific
probably
name
bridge. Today
indicates, each of the

related to what
only three of the
seven
seven
was on
bridges had
that side of the
original bridges remain
Honey bridge, the High bridge, and the Wooden bridge.
bridgeway
was
constructed that connects the two banks
as
the
new
shown
THE SPELL OF LOCK, RECREATION S.CAMES
and
bypasses
the
Tour
completely.
island
guides
of
Kneiphof
often relate the
story of the Konigsberg bridge problem.

Some
guides
unsolved. If
even
its
touched down
more
are
is
drawn,
appeal. If the
on
remains
updated
the
new
as
important part
the island, the network would be somewhat
but the
its
new
bridge
interesting. Unfortunately, the
history,
easily
it
network of the
Konigsberg bridges
problem loses
claim
this
seven
problem
legacy
bridges. Euler's brilliant
in the
development
bridges
left is not
solution
of
Konigsberg
destroyed
as
remains
an
of topology.
High
Bridge
Acknowledgements: Special thanks for updated information and

photograph to Art Cooley and to Rod Crittenden for bringing the information
my attention.
to
301
30}
CHECKERBOARD
MANIA
I Thousands of years ago ancient
Egyptians
r
played
checkered boards.
on
games
However,
the
modern game of checkers dates

back to the
same
beginning
board
followed
as
along
of the 12th
century
In
Europe.
It used the
chess, playing pieces from backgammon, and
the line of the game
alquerque with regard
movement and number of pieces. The board Itself poses
of problems that have been
to
the
wealth
developed over the years.
COVERING CHECKERBOARD WITH DOMINOES

If two
a
opposite
corners
checkerboard
removed,
checkerboard
are
the
can
be
dominoes?
of
covered
by
Assume that
each domino is the size of

two
adjacent
squares of
the checkerboard.
dominoes
placed
on
The
cannot
top
be
of each
other and must lie flat.
THE SPELL OF
LOGIC, RECREATION
TAKING A CHECKERBOARD APART

WITH ONE FELL SWOOP
Using your visualization skills and folding lllllllllf

techniques, determine
straight
cut to
way to make
one
|||||l|llll
separate the checkerboard 1|11||||
Into 2x2 squares, such
as
this
one.
6. GAMES
303
304
THE SQUARES OF A CHECKERBOARD

The 8
rows
and 8 columns of black and red squares composing
checkerboard
can
be
grouped
Into different sized squares. These
squares range In size from 8x8 to lxl. How many squares of

various sizes
can
be found
on a
checkerboard?
THE SPELL OF
LOGIC RECREATION & GAMES
TWO OF SAM LOYDS CHECKERBOARD PUZZLES
Puzzllst Sam
Loyd
must devise
pieces which
which the
puzzle was
called A Battle
Royal.
Rearrange the
pieces
an
so
they form
8x8 checker
board.
Mrs.
Pythagoras' Puzzle. You
be
joined
Into
pattern
Into three
13x13 checkered square In
pattern and direction of the design
checkerboard
that
puzzle
method to cut this checkered
can
This Sam Loyd
called this
Is retained.
305
306
THE MAG IC O F MATH EMATI CS
AFEWOLPIES
SAM LOYD'S
GET OFF
THE EARTH PUZZLE
Sam
Loyd's
Get
Earth puzzle is
the most
Off the
one
of
popular
disappearing puzzles
ever made. Loyd
patented
and sold
it in 1896,
more
than 10
million copies.
The puzzle
with
was
made
movable
circular disk that

rotated the Earth. Can
you discover what
happens
to the 13th
warrior when the
sphere
is rotated from
NEtoNW?
THE SPELL OF
LOGIC, RECREATION 6. GAMES
SAM LOYD'S BATTLE OF THE FOUR OAKS PUZZLE

Four trees
pieces
so
are
In
line
on a
square field. Divide the field Into four
that each piece Is the
same
size and
shape and has one
oak tree.
SAM LOYD'S WEIGHT OF A BRICK PUZZLE

If
brick balances with three quarters of
brick and three
quarters of a pound, then how much does the brick weight?
TlTCAtoJlTXteCK
307
308
SAM LOYD'S CHEESE PROBLEM

If the cheese round
were
cut
as
shown, how many wedges of
cheese would be produced?
WHATS LEFT IN THE CANDY BOXES ?

Somehow the labels of these
boxes of candies got mixed up

so
that
no
label
now
3 chocolates
indicates
the correct contents.
What is the least number of
candies you must test from

which box(es)
to
determine
2 chocolates
1 creme
which box has what?
LEWIS CARROLL'S THE

TWO CLOCK PUZZLE
Which is better,
that is
year
clock
right only once a

clock that is right
or a
twice
day?
THE SPELL OF LOGIC, RECREATION & CAMES
TARTAGLIA'S PUZZLE
16th
for
Italian mathematician Niccold
century
discovering the solution
to the
He also wrote the three volume set Trattato

misure
(Treatise
addition, he
a
was
on
Numbers
Tartaglia
is famous
general cubic equation (1535).
generale
and Measures
di numeri et
(1556-1560).
In
the first to translate Euclid's The Elements into
modern Western
language (1543).
Here is
very famous
mathematical teaser he devised:
Three
newlyweds
come
to
river bank where
small boat is to take them across, but the boat

hold
can
only
two
people
at
time.
Each
husband is the jealous type and very protective

his
beautijul bride.
In
mellow, they decide that

with
How do the
a man
order to
no
woman
unless her husband is
couples get
minimum number of
of
keep things
is to be
left
present.
to the other side of the river? What's the
trips?
309
SOLUTIONS
page 31. WHY ARE MANHOLES
page 273. THE IMPOSSIBLE
ROUND? SOLUTION: A circle by

definition Is the set of all points In a
plane that are equidistant from a
given point. Therefore, a circular lid
could not fall through a circular
manhole, since all its diameters are
equal. If the manhole were square,
its lid could fall into the manhole by
putting it through along the
POSSIBLE
SOLUTION: The slit that is cut in
the paper is placed into the hole.
Then the buttons can be fed easily
square's diagonal.
page 171. EULER'SMACIC
FORMULA
SOLUTION: For a
rhomblcosldodecahedran F=62 (30
squares, 20 triangle, and 12
pentagons); V=60; E=120; therefore

F+V-E=2.
page 271. WHAT ARE THE

SCENARIOS?
SOLUTION: (1) Tom and Jerry are
professional baseball players, but
play on different teams. This
particular day their teams were
playing each other. Tom is a catcher
who prevented Jerry from reaching
the slit and removed from

the paper.
through
page 273. STACKING THE DIE

SOLUTION: The trick to this
problem is recalling that opposite faces
of a die total 7. The first stack has
10 dice which would give 70 pips
minus the face of the top die that is
visible, gives 69 pips. The second
stack has 7 dice, giving 49 pips,
minus the top die's pips of 3 gives 46.
The grand total is therefore
69+46=105 pips.
page 275. THE BLOCK LETTER

PUZZLE
SOLUTION:
home plate.
(2) While walking down the street,
Eric had a terrible attack of hiccups.
He went into the bar to get a glass of
see if it would help him.
water to
bartender, realizing Eric's

problem, thought he would try to
scare the hiccups out of Eric.
It
The
workedl
(3) Mary's husband had died a

number of years ago. She kept his
ashes in an urn on her kitchen
table. Also on her table was a bowl
with goldfish. Mary had left her
kitchen window open this particular
day. Her neighbor's cat had come
in, and in trying to get the goldfish,
the cat knocked over the goldfish
bowl and the urn. Her husband's
ashes were spilled onto the floor.
page 272.RECTANGULAR VOLUME
ILLUSION
SOLUTION: There are sixty-one
2x1x1 blocks in the structure.
page 276. THE MILKMAN'S

PUZZLE
SOLUTION:
lOqt.
lOqt 5qt.
10
5
5
10
5
1
10
10
10
10
1
0
0
1
10
10
10
10
4
2
4qt
0-starting
4
ending
311
312
SOLUTIONS
page 277. IS IT POSSIBLE?

SOLUTION:
Locate the 4 points on the

sides of the angle as shown,
and drawn In the two
segments. The segments' point
of Intersection and the vertex
"of the angle determine the
line that bisects the angle.
Note: Showzls^2 by
first showing
AABCSAADE by SAS
-?
zBs ZD-ABEP3ADCP
by
SAA-+BPSDP
-?ABPASADPA
by
SSS-+Z1SZ2
page 277. CAN YOU MAKE A

LATIN SQUARE?
SOLUTION:
page 289. CURRY TRIANGLE

EXPLANATION
SOLUTION: When the other missing
calculated using similar
the results would actually
create sections that would overlap In
some places and leave gaps In
others.
parts
are
triangles,
page 290. THE SQUARE

TRANSFORMATION
SOLUTION:
page 285. PLAYIN6WITH

POLYHEXES
SOLUTION: The triangle is the only
figure that cannot be polyhexed.
page 302. COVERING THE

CH ECKERBOARD WITH
page 286. LEWIS CARROLL'S
DOUBLETS
SOLUTION: (1) EYE-LYE-UE-UD
12) pnv-prrs-Frrs-fins-findfond- FOOD- GOOD
(3) TREE-FREE-FLEE-FLED-FEEDWEED-WEU3-WOU3-WOOD
(4) OAT-RAT-ROT-ROE-RYE
DOMINOES
SOLUTION: It is not possible to
cover the altered checkerboard with
dominoes. A domino must occupy a
red and black square. Since both
corners removed were the same
color, there will not be a compatible
number of red and black squares
left.
SOLUTIONS
page 303. TAKING A

CHECKERBOARD APART
page 305. A BATTLE ROYAL

SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
StcP
Step 1
StcpS
Step
Step
4
I / I Cut
^'
the
along
diagonal
dotted line.
page 307. THE FOUR OAKS

PUZZLE
SOLUTION:
page 304. THE SQUARES OF A

CHECKERBOARD
SOLUTION: There are:
1 square of size 8x8
4 square of size 7x7
9 squares of size 6x6
64 squares of size lxl
for a total of 204 squares
page 305. MRS. PYTHAGORAS' PUZZLE

SOLUTION:
1
-
1
^
-$'
"
<>
ii.
**
s_:
_
"
"
_,
_:_
::
>
_:_n-
.:.ir;
*
zjz jizz.z
r -~
t~-
T:::7:,-Er-::
::::-î::?i:
*^y zizizi---.M-i'i'i'tv1^
T--^-if'
hi
:::-:::EB
313
314
SOLUTIONS
attend.
page 30"7. THE WEIGHT OF A

BRICK PUZZLE
good,
SOLUTION: One way to approach

the problem Is to add three more
bricks to the left side of the scale. To
all, and the other loses
balance this quadruple the items on

the right side. This means 4 bricks
on the left balance a total of 3 bricks
and 3 pounds. This produces the
equation 4B=3B+3.
Solving for B (brick's wight
pounds), we get B=3.
Another
approach
one
doesn't go at
a
minute
every day; which would you prefer?

"The losing one," you answer,
a doubt" Now observe: the
which loses a minute a day has
"without
one
to lose twelve hours
or seven
hundred and twenty minutes, before

it is right again, consequently it is
only right once in two years,
whereas the other is evidently right
as often as the time it points to
comes around, which happens to be
Lewis Carroll
twice a day.
in
is to write
now
I have two clocks:
an
equation from the first scale's

balance,
namely B=(3/4)B+(3/4)
and solve for B.
page 308. TARTAGLIA'S PUZZLE
page 308. THE CHEESE PROBLEM
SOLUTION: The rule that no woman

is to be left with a man unless her
SOLUTION: According to Sam Loyd,

the first cut divides the cheese into
two pieces. The second cut makes
pieces. The third makes 8; the
fourth 15; the fifth 26; and the sixth

42.
page 308. WHAT'S LEFT IN THE

CANDY BOXES?
SOLUTION: You only have to test
one candy from the box labeled 2
chocolates & 1 cream. If the candy

you test is chocolate, you know it
cannot have 2 chocolates & 1 cream
because the box is mislabeled.
Therefore, it must have 3
chocolates. Since all boxes are
mislabeled, this would
mean
the box
labeled 3 creams must have 2

chocolates & 1 cream and the box
labeled 3 chocolates has 3 creams. If
the candy you test is a cream, you
know that the box has 3 creams.
This would mean the box labeled 3
creams must have 3 chocolates, and
the box labeled 3 chocolates has 2
chocolates & 1 cream.
page 308. LEWIS CARROLL'S

CLOCK PUZZLE
SOLUTION: Which is better, a clock
that is right only once, or a clock that
is right twice everyday? "The latter,"
you
reply, "unquestionably." Very
husband is present makes
11
crossings necessaiy.
Notation:
husband-one=Hl;
wife-one-Wl etc.
1) HI takes
crossings
Wl
over
and returns 2
2)W3 takes W2 over and

crossings
returns 2
3) H2 takes HI over and returns

with W2- 2 crossings
4) H3 takes H2
crossings
5)
H3 takes W3
to
pick
over
and returns 2
over and H2 returns

up his wife. 3 crossings.
REFERENCES
Andrews, W.S.. Magic Squares and Cubes,

New York, 1960.
Ball, W.W.
Essays,
Ball,
Dover
Publications, Inc.,
Mathematical Recreations and

Rouse and Coxeter, H.S.M..
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1987.
W.W. Rouse.
Mathematics,
A Short Account of the History of

Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1960.
Banchoff, Thomas F. Beyond The Third Dimension,

Co., New York, 1990.
Mlcahel.
Boston, 1988.
Barnsley,
Fractals
Pi In The
Barrow, John D..
Academic Press, Inc.,
Everywhere,
Sky,
W.H. Freeman &
Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1992.
The
Eric Temple.
New York, 1946.
Bell,
Magic Of Numbers,
Publications, Inc.,
Dover
Bell, R.C.. Board and Tables Games from Many Civilizations,

Publications, Inc., New York, 1979.
Discovering Old Board Games,
Bell, R.C..
United
Kingdom,
Blackwell, William.
Berkeley,
Dover
Shire Publications Ltd.,
1973.
Geometry
&
Architecture,
Key Curriculum Press,
CA, 1994.
Bold, Benjamin. Famous Problems of Geometry,

Dover
Publications,
Boles, Martha and Newman, Rochelle. Universal

Patterns, Pythagorean Press, Bradford, MA 1987.
Bool, F.H.; Krlst, J.R; Locher, J.L.; Wlerda, F.. M.C. EscherHis Life &
Complete Works, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1982.
Boyer, Carl. A History of Mathematics,

New Jersey, 1985.
Briggs, John and Peat, David.
York, 1989.
Princeton
Turbulent Mirror,
University Press,
Harper
& Row, New
Brizio, A.M.; Brugnoli, M.V.; Chastel, A.. Leonardo the

Artist, McGraw-Hill Co., New York, 1980.
H..
Mathematical Fallacies and Paradoxes,
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1982.
Bunch, Bryan
Van
and Higgins, J. editors. Mathematics: People,

Problems, Results, Wadsworth International, Belmont, CA 1984.
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22
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200
A Wrinkle in Time
59
architecture,
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257-259
destruction of the box
mathematics
organic
243-263
spacefilling solids 254-256

Mary's Cathedral 249, 260
251, 252
A-life
Frank
40
buckmlnsterfullerene
253
253
buckyballs
Bufano, Benlamlno
261-263
Lloyd
Buffon, Count
68
278
191
Achilles & the tortoise
44
chess board addition
22
All At One Point, Italo Cavlno's
60
camera
207
44
Arlandes, Marquis d'
projective geometry
M.C. Escher
85-87
79-82
Cardan, Jerome 41
Carroll, Lewis 22-23, 286
Calvlno, Italo 60
Sir
B
191
mathematical concepts 147, 148

number system 40, 147-150
square root
approximations
147-150
Babylonians
and the
Pythagorean
theorem 148, 149, 150

Bamsley, Michael 279
Bellaschi, Pietro
Bernoulli, Daniel
bicycles, m 18
binary numbers
Napier
260
6
&
193-195
47
chaos,
flight of birds
game
Babbage, Charles
Babylonian
George
Cesaro, Ernesto
the
210
reality
16
45, 47
Cantor set 47
Cayley,
art,
69
and mathematics
Cantor, Georg
162
Archimedes spiral
158
area o f circle
artificial
194-195
Calder, Alexander
44, 156
Archimedes
193
chess board
multiplication
Anaxagoras 44
Andre, Carl 69
Andrews, Patricia
Aristotle
calculator,
85
Leon Battista
Alice in Wonderland
John
61
216-217
abacus
Albert!,
Luis
Brancroft, Thomas 65
Brooks, Robert 57
261
tensegrity
170
Bolzano, Bernhard 45
Bondone, Giotto di 85
Book of Sand,The 61
Borelll, Giovanni 6
Bouvet, Pere Joachim
Bragdon, Claude 65
St.
Wright,
156
Janos
Borges, Jorge
262
250. 252
Dymaxlon House
Bolyal,
Chartres, R.
Chen
128-129
278-279
278
Jing-run
161
Chinese,
musical scales
181
piling squares proof

Pythagorean theorem
Chou Pel
152-153
153
152
Chudnovsky, George V.
and David V.
Chuquet,
circle,
215
Nicholas
area
41
158
Coates, Robert M.
14
codes,
communications of bees
123
322
INPEX
codes, continued
De
228
sequence music
Julius Caesar's substitution
code 200
genetic
molecular
National
225, 226
Security Agency
complex numbers
complexity 14-15
201
42
computation,
addition, early English
Egyptian division 155

Egyptian multiplication 155
multiplication, Italy 1400s 192
computers and
A-llfe
art
261-217
206-207
fuzzy logic
219-221
DES
encryption formula
dice,
ancient
Arithmetica
Discobolus
68
189 -221
language
monitoring
DOrer, Albrecht
conic section
215
geometric
196-198
pixel
162
cube
69
203
77,78, 171
cuboctahedron-truncum
99
Curry, Paul 289

cyberpunks 203
cyberspace 208-211
cycloid curves
and
ocean waves
85, 22-23
90
constructions of
91
91
Egyptian division 155

Egyptian fractions 40
Egyptian multiplication
counting numbers 41
Crandall, Richard E. 202
cryptography
162
112
Gothic letters
191
45
155
ellipse 19
elliptic geometry 37-38
elliptic geometry's name 170
elliptlpool and mathematics 19
encryption formula,
equation
equation
DES
of time
29-30
of time chart
equiangular spirals
30
133,136
Eratosthenes 202
P
Dali, Salvador
Dante
Escher, M.C.
65
woodcuts
60
Danzig, George
Eublides
B.
11
Euclid
200
184, 185
Epidaurus
139, 140
157
77
Dubner, Harvey
Nicomedes
57
226
duplicating a cube
computers/calulators,
Cristo
Adrien
square, Plato's
Conan 200
duals
218
the past 191-195

the present 196-207
of
155
doubling the
Doyle,
208-221
countabiliry
163
60
Comedy.The
Douady,
215
optical generated
conchoid
43
Diophantus'
double helix
204-205
conservation
Little Fermat
mathematics
obsolete
44
dimensions
Divine
200
154
226, 227
dodecahedron 77,78, 171
Dodgson, Charles L. 22-23, 286
irrigation & water
tree
167
Descartes, Rene
DNA
forest fires
the Younis
Denneau, M.M. 215

Desargues, Girard 87
division, Egyptian
92-95
the future
44
Democritus
Dichotomy
192
40
Progressione Dyadica
Dedekind, J.W.R. 45
69, 79-82
59
220, 221
35
INDEX
Euler's F+V-E=2
double helix
171
Euler, Leonhard 161, 164, 171,

202, 297, 298-301
exponential
156
ancient
experimentation,
genes
function
and instruments
177
genetic bases
genetic codes
230-231
knots & DNA
238
lipids
230-232
230-233
230-232
230
macromolecules
F+V-E=2
f-stop
171
and mathematics
230, 233
nucleotides 230, 231
proteins 230, 231, 232, 233
RNA 229, 230,233
16
57
Fatou, Pierre
Helaman 70, 72
Fermat, Pierre de 154, 162
162,
Ferguson,
163-164
Fermat numbers
202,215
Fermat, 10th number 202

Fibonacci numbers 133,134,135
Hexagons
flying and
230
nucleic acids
288
starch
geodesic
230
domes
251-252
geometric dissections 289

geometric fractal 47
geometric worlds 37-38
geometries 167-169
evolution time chart
mathematics
5-8
time line
166
169
Fourier, John 177,178,186

fractal geometry 37-38
Geometry Supercomputer
fractal worlds
Gertner, Franz
47-57
fractals 47-57, 133

fractals and
the coastline
Goldbach's
131
graphs
85
Greeks and
180,183
42
the gnomon 159

method for approximating
150, 151
square roots
musical scales
games, mathematical,
trisecting
hex
tiles
286
287
an
181
angle
159
Green, Michael 240, 241

Greene, David 256
284
Rithmomachia
280-283
the chaos game

Galileo 13, and
278-279
Dialogues Concerning
Sciences
paradoxes
Two
44, 46
genetic engineering and

229-233
genectic engineering,
chaos
theory
DNA
229-233
helices
H.
232
128
13
133, 136
Heuring, Vincent
165
mathematics
Happner, Frank
headlights.m
165
proportion
159
161
conjecture 112,
doublets
angle
Gold Bug, The 200
fractlonal dimensions
Francesca, Piero della
domlnlzlng Penrose
an
Goldbach, Christian
132-
frequency and music

Frey, Gerhard 164
fuzzy logic 219-221
139
gnomon trisects
130-131
nature
241
Project 238,
P.
hexagon and
the honeycomb
nature
122
122, 124-147
hexagrams
hexahedron
40
77,78
hexatetraflexagon
Hsuan-thu
218
152
288
161
323
324
INPEX
Hubbard, John
57
human
body & proportions

hyperbolic geometry 37-38
hyperbolic paraboloid 249,
hyperbolic plane 164
hyperbolic world 58, 59
hypercube 43, 65, 67
hypertext 212-214
260
icosahedron
77,78, 171
infinite worlds
/2
Large Magellanic Cloud

Law.The 14
44-46
44-46
134, 136
curves
Isozaki, Arata
256
125,126
Little Fermat compu ter 215

Lobachevsky, Nikolai 170
Lowe, Danny 186

Loyd, Sam and puzzles
289,305, 306, 307, 308

M
magic circle of Benjamin

Franklin
Jefferson, Thomas, cipher wheel

200
La Jangada 200
Julian sets
knight's
11
12
29-30, 228
170
tour &
magic
Koch, Helge
Matelskt, J. Peter
57
curve
embroidery
stitching 75
and
mathematical ideas In stamps 21

mathematical models & chemistry
problems
solved &
mathematical mystery tales

267-271
54
mathematical stars
snowflake
curve
snowflake
curve, area
47, 48, 127
Konigsberg bridge
problem 160,162,
update 298-301
Rummer, Ernst E.
122
202
unsolved, famous 160-162
238
von
293
mathematical
mathematical
237, 238
knots &DNA
297
234
squares 297
knot theory 236-241
knots
tour
49, 50, 56,57

Mandlebrot controversy 57
manholes and mathematics 31
algorithm
Johannes
Klein, Felix
knight's
Mandelbrot, Benoit
Karmarkar
the
Manasse, Mark
57
Karmarkar, Narendra
296
magic squares 291-295 and
Benjamin Franklin
magnetic fields & bees
Jordan, Harry F. 218

Julia, Gaston 57
Kepler,
126
Lee, John 260

Lees, John 186
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilheim
40,45,191,300
hexagon
41, 42
interactive compu ting 212

interactive literature 213
Involute
59
lines of symmetry of a
170
imaginary geometry
imaginary numbers
infinities
Madeline
Lenstra, Arjen 202

Lilienthal, Otto 6
40
IChing
L'Engle,
ladder method for approximating

151
the
170
origin
name
235
55
74
mathematical stories,
A Mathematical Visit
24-28
The parable
163
164
ofn 109-110
The parable of the Fractal
51-53
The parable
101-105
of the quaternion
INDEX
mathematical wavelets 199

mathematical worlds 34-61
formation
M6bius, August 212,234

Mobot Lab, MIT9 217
35-36
In literature
modular arithmetic
58-61
mathematicians chart,famous 146

mathematics and
the arch 257-259
designs & art 74-78

early container design
elllptlpool 19
everyday things 4-31
f-stop/camera 16
fingerprints 199
flying 5-8
the garden 133-137
India
the musical
225-227
Napier's rods
& games
nature &
175,176
119-141
179-183
156, 184-187
sculpture 68-73
telephone call
the
waves
9-12
138-141
Mazur, Barry
164
Menaechmus
13
Mersenne, Marin 202

Mersenne prines 202
17
13
122,124-147
278
negative numbers
179-183
Qsound 186, 187

the recycling numbers
130-131
hexagons
Needle Problem
score
calculating
191
nature & fractals
31
parabolic electric heaters

parabolic reflectors 13
pool tables 18
sound
191
numbers &
193-195
binary
mathematics and
nature
181
68
174-183
the octave
Myron
Napier, John
144-171
body
musical scales
181
Persia
265-309
music
181
Greece
121-123
manholes
177
shapes
musical scales and

mathematics 179-183
musical scales,
China 181
13
historical notes
logic, recreation,
spheres, Kepler's
182
their
166
genetic code music 228

genetic engineering 229-233
honeybees
174-183
176
music, artifacts 181,182

musical instruments and
189-221
headlights
22-23
music & mathematics
79-82
18
computers
the human
Tale, The
Mouse's
215
56
curves
music of the
64-95
the art of M.C. Escher
bicycles
monster
music and ratios
architecture 243-263
art
68
Michelangelo
41
Nervi, Pier Luigi 256, 260

networks
133, 134
Noguchi, Isamu 68, 69
non-Euclidean geometries 37-38,
167-169
non-periodic tiling
67
number system chart &

overview
144
number worlds
numbers &
39-42
recycling,
17
octahedron
77,78, 171
octave & mathematics
179 -183
optical computers 218

optical illusions 208-209
325
326
INPEX
problems of antiquity,
impossbile 160, 162, 163
projective geometry & art 85-87
pangeometry 170
Paoli, Luca 235
the human
and music
13
&
Are all wheels round?
bisecting an angle
the block letter
the
Peano
68
square transformation
persepctive 85, 86
Phene, Claude 204, 205
stacking the die

Tartaglia's puzzle
309
Plato
quadratrix of Hippias
157
quipu
Poisson, Simeon
276
Polybius' square cipher

polyhedra 77, 78, 251,
property
200
ragas, music of India 181

random number generator
253
ratios & music
171
remailers
285
honeycombs
primes
202
probability
112
154
256
12
Rlbet, Kenneth A.
Robbin, Tony 67
robots
217
Romans and
202
171
164
robots, Attila 217

rod numerals, Chinese
202
problems 160-161
and encoding messages
primes
73
rhombicosidodecahedron
Fermat primes 202

Germain primes 112
Mersenne
203
rhombic dodecahedron
18
Pozzo, Andrea del 87

prime numbers 45, 112,
154
176
Resch, Ronald Dale
Poncare, Henri 58,59

Poncelet, Jean Victor 87
pool tables,
162
191
77
Poe, Egar Allan cipher 201
polyhexes
186, 187
Qsound
157
Platonic solids
twin
290
273
Pilatre de Rozier, Jean 6

pine cone numbers 135
invariant
272
135
phyllotaxis
Meno
308
palls 277
rectangular volume illusion
SamLoyds 306,307,308
181
Perry, Charles
273
the milk
Penrose, Roger 287

pentatonic, Chinese musical
scale
302-305
puzzles
Latin square 277

Lewis Carroll's two clock
48
curve
308
Curry triangle 289

impossbile possible
56
curves
274
277
275
candy box
checkerboard
Parallel Postulate, Euclid's 5th

postulate 160,162,163, 167,170
Pascal, Blaise 41,87,154,191
pathological
176
Pythagoreans 156,182
puzzles & problems.
218
fuzzy logic
235
body
182
Pythagoras
Achilles and the tortoise 44
paradoxes
165
proportions
Paquette, Leo 234

parabola 13
parabolic celings 185, 186
parabolic electric heaters, m
parabolic reflectors, m 13
paraboloids 13
paradoxes 44, 46
Dichotomy 44, 46
area
Russell, Bertrand
Ryan, Paul
260
191
the of circle 158
220, 221
INPEX
tessellations
122
and bees
Sand Reckoner, The

Schartz, John 240
Scherks, Joel
44
scientific
L.
20
43,58,59
tetrachords, Greek musical
scales
161
ancient
laboratory,
156
201
scytale 200,
84
advertizing
tesseract
Schlegel diagrams 78
Schlegel, Viktor 78
Schnlrelmann,
from the past

In
240
TOE
sexagimal number system,
181
tetrahedron 77,78,171
Theon of Smyrna 156
CThe Theory of Everything)
239-241
Sumerian/Babylonian numbers
triple junction 125, 126,134,137

trisecting an angle 159,162
163
conjecture
Sierpincki, Waclaw
Sierpinski triangle
Sierpinski gasket
simplex method 11
sinusoidal
curves
&
56
truncated octahedron
56
Uccello, Paolo
squaring
circle
Vaillancourt, Louis
69
Verne, Jules 200

Vinci, Leonardo da
85, 94, 95, 235
5,64,69, 70,
Vinogradov, Ivan M. 161

reality 208-211
162
srutis, music of India 181

St. Peter's Cathedral
184
virtual
Star Trek- The Next

Generation 61,211
Voltaire, q
Stldel, Michael
line
Vitruvius
41
stone age numbers
76
wave
height
140
wave
length
period
140
wave
135, 137
Wright, Frank Lloyd
Wright,
call and
10
Zadeh, Lofti
mathematics
Zeno
44
Zeno's
paradoxes
simplex
9-12
method
tessellatlng
rectangle
11
135, 137
a
plane by modifying
83
curves
220
44
163
261-263
Orville and Wilbur
linear programming 11
Karmarkar algorithm 12
tessellate
163, 164
Elliptic
Taniyama, Yuktaka 164

Tartaglia, Niccolo 309
numbers
138-141
139, 140
Wiles, Andrew J.
Wiles, Modular
telephone
binary
126
and mathematics
65
29
symmetry
58
waves
Sumerian numbers 40
sundials
235
Wang, Llfan
39, 40
spirals
Strauss, Charles
166
waves
76
spirals
256
49,56
139, 140
Soleri, Paoli 249, 255, 256
sound
156,174, 180
sound, Qsound 186,187
straight
45
transflnite numbers
40
Shirnura-Taniyama-Weil
&
317
319
Mathematics teacher and consultant Theoni

B.A. from the
University
her M.A. from Stanford

to
demystifying
Pappas
received her
of California at
University in
mathematics and
Berkeley in 1966 and

1967. Pappas is committed
to helping eliminate the
elitism and fear often associated with it.
In addition to The
creations include
Magic of Mathematics, her other innovative

The Math-T-Shirts, The Mathematics Calendar,
The Children's Mathematics Calendar, The Mathematics
Calendar, and What Do You See?

with text.
Joy
Pappas
an
Engagement
illusion slide show
optical
following books:
is also the author of the
of Mathematics,
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More
Joy of Mathematics,
Mathematics
Math TalkMathematical Ideas in Poems
Voices, and Fractab,
Googols
The
& other Mathematical Tales.
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by Theoni Pappas
$10.95
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illustrated ISBN:0-933174-99-3
FRACTALS, GOOGOL, and Other

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MATHEMATICS APPRECIATION
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MATH TALK
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$8.95 72 pages
THE MATHEMATICS CALENDAR
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WHAT DO YOU SEE?

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32 pages
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MATHEMATICS
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i

Discovering the Spell of othematics

author of The Mathematics Calendars

Copyright 1994 by Theoni Pappas.

from Wide World

Portions of this book have

works, but were too essential to not be included.

P.O. Box 476

Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

references and index

This book is dedicated to

who have created and

MATHEMATICS IN EVERYDAY THINGS

MAGICAL MATHEMATICAL WORLDS

MATH EMATICS & ART

THE MAO IC OF NUMBERS

MATHEMATICAL MAGIC IN NATURE

MATHEMATICAL MAGIC FROM THE PAST

MATHEMATICS PLAYS ITS MUSIC

THE REVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

MATHEMATICS & THE MYSTERIES OF LIFE

MATHEMATICS AND ARCHITECTURE

THE SPELL OF LOGIC, RECREATION & GAMES

THE MAGiCOf MATHEMATICS

mathematician to discover the

magic of mathematics. This book

mathematical theme. It is not

exhausted. The Magic

delves into the world of

ideas, explores the spell mathematics casts

lives, and helps

you discover mathematics where you least expect it.

could be further from the truth. The human mind

these ideas connect to

magic wand had been waved. The way

be found between any two

solved, graphs produce pictures, infinity

in alien worlds and its

figments of the imagination. Its ideas exist

easily cross over the arbitrary boundaries

stepping stone into mathematical worlds.

it would be undesirable to restrict

confined to that section. On the contrary,

Print Gallery by M.C. Escher.

THE MATHEMATICS OF A TELEPHONE CALL

RECYCLING THE NUMBERS

BICYCLES, POOL TABLES & ELLIPSES

LOOKOUT FOR TESSELLATIONS

STAMPING OUT MATHEMATICS

WHY ARE MANHOLES ROUND?

THE MAGIC OF MATHEMATICS

branch of mathematics, however abstract,

which may not someday be applied to

connection. These range

shape of a manhole. Often when

finds mathematics is involved. Here is

random sampling of such

MATHEMATICS IN EVERYDAY THINGS

The grace and

realizes that the

stories from many cultures attest to