INDECS-15 Proceedings

International Conference
On
Infrastructure Development
for
Environmental Conservation
& Sustenance
28 - 30 October, 2015
International Conference on
Infrastructure Development for

Environmental Conservation & Sustenance
28 - 30 October, 2015
Editors
DR.G.Ranganath
DR.S.Suresh Babu
Supported by
SERB, Department of Science &Technology, Government of India

Department of Space, Government of India
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India
University Grants Commission, New Delhi
Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi
Organized by
Department of Civil Engineering,
Adhiyamaan College Of Engineering,
Dr. M.G.R Nagar, Hosur,
Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu-635109, India.
INDECS 2015
Infrastructure Development for Environmental Conservation & Sustenance
Copyright 2015 Editors
Department of Civil Engineering

Adhiyamaan College of Engineering
Dr. M.G.R Nagar, Hosur,

Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu - 635 109, India.
Disclaimer
This book or any part of thereof, may not be reproduced

In any form or solid as a second hand book without the
Written permission of the editors. Authors are sole
responsible for the views, opinions and research outcome
present herein, and the editors are not liable for it.
Cover page design by: Mr.D.A.Ananth, Indigo Multimedia

Printed in India @Divya Printers Bangalore, +919686294383
International Conference on
Infrastructure Development for
Environmental Conservation & Sustenance
28 - 30 October, 2015
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
PATRON
Dr. T.BANUMATHI,
Chair person, AERI Trust, Chennai.
CHAIRMAN
DR. G. RANGANATH,
Principal, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur.
CONVENER
DR. S. Suresh Babu,
Head, Department of Civil Engineering & Dean (R&D)
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur.
MEMBERS
DR. H. Karibasappa
DR.G.Nandhini Devi
Prof. N. S. Madhu
Mr.R.Srinivasan
Mrs.V.Priya
Mrs.S.S.Revathy
Mr.R.Chinnasakkan
Mr.B.M.Purushothaman
Mr.V.S.Satheesh
Mr.R.Thirumalai
Mr.M.Manikandan
Mr.R.Yuvarajasekaran
Mr.P.Satheesh Kumar
Ms.V.A Narmadha
CONFERENCE SECRETARIAT
Mr.S.Gobinath
DR. L. Yesodha
Prof. A.Krishna Mohana Reddy
DR. M. S.Vinaya
Mrs.K.J.Jegidha
Mr.G.Saravanan
Mrs.M.Mahalakshmi
Mr.S. Roopan Kumar
Mr.R.Venkob Rao
Mr.S.Sethuraman
Mr.S.Veera Ragavan
Mr. Sadat Ali Khan
Mr.S.Nirmalraj
Mr.V.Visakh
PREFACE
The conference entitled Infrastructure Development for Environmental Conservation
& Sustenance, is being held at our institution organized by research department of
civil
engineering
aims
to
bring
together
practicing
engineers,
academicians,researchers,industries, architects, and all other alike quarters of the

sustenance practices for the safe habitat management, under challenging environments.
The main theme of this conference is to focus on the diversified facets of civil
engineering practices converging to the Infrastructure Development practices and
technology as the broader domain, with more treatise on habitat sustenance practices.
Eminent authorities have been invited to deliver keynote lectures on different aspects
on
the
conference
themes.
In
all,
there
are
sixty
six
(66) contribution papers including ten (10) Keynote Lectures. The written contribution
for the keynote speakers and authors have been included in the conference proceedings.
Keeping the objective of the conference, the contributions from the authors have been
under the following domains:
a) Geospatial technology for sustainable & built-in environment,
b) Structural Health Monitoring & eco-friendly practices.
The conference organizing committee thanks all the members of advisory committee,
reviewers of the technical abstracts and host of volunteers who are responsible for this
event.
DR. S. Suresh Babu

Convener-INDECS-15
DR. G. Ranganath
Conference Chair-INDECS-15
FOREWORD
It is pleasure to write a foreword to the proceedings of the international conference
INDECS organized by the department of civil engineering of our institution. This
unique conference provides a great opportunity to practicing engineers, academicians
and research connoisseurs, architects to showcase their competence and contributions
on the subject and also provides a platform for the meaningful deliberations, besides
promoting the development of contacts with a like researches across the world who
have contributed their research findings for the INDECS-15.
I appreciate the department of civil engineering of our institution, for having
volunteered in this endeavor, to intake the task of bringing closer interactions amongst
the academia and researchers through this INDECS-15, to have concretized but humble
beginning towards supplementing the unified approach for facing the unprecedented
challenges and threats. I appreciate the experts from the Home land and abroad for
their consent to deliver keynote lectures, authors of contribution papers and reviewers
of the papers. I also thank the sponsors, conference advisory committee, conference
organizing committee and host of volunteers who are responsible in successfully
organizing this event.
Dr.Mrs.Banumathi .T
Chairperson, AERI Trust
CONTENTS
Keynote Speakers
Sustainability Outlook 2030: A Case Study of Israel,

Valerie Brachya,Shlomo Hasson, Eran Feitelson
1-15
Coal and Sustainable Development

John L. Daniels
16-20
Early warning systems for minimizing loss of life and damage to Infrastructure for
Sustainable Development,
Tad.S. Murty and Abdulraheem Masoud
21-34
Assessing Sustainability of Ground Improvement Methods: Quantitative Triple Bottom

Line Framework and Case Study
Krishna R. Reddy and Rajiv K. Giri
35-44
Transport of Heavy Metal Ions Through Soils

P V Sivapullaiah
45-51
Geosynthetics for Ground Improvement

Sushovan Dutta, Maheboobsab B. Nadaf , B. S. Asha and J. N. Mandal
52-61
Seismic Behavior of RC Frames with various Masonry In-Fill Configurations

S Suresh Babu, Sidramappa V. Itti, R Srinivasan
62-68
Compressibility and Chemical Compatibility of Clayey Soil-Bentonite Backfills for

Slurry-Trench Cutoff walls
Y. J. Du , R. D. Fan , S. Y. Liu , Krishna R. Reddy
69-78
Stability Aspects Performance of Non Perforated vs Perforated Quarter Circle

Breakwaters A Study
Arkal Vittal Hegde
79-85
Role of Structural Engineers in Sustainable Construction
86-91
Ranjith Dissanayake and Chaminda Bandara
Contribution Papers
Shortterm shoreline changes along Karnataka coast, India: A Geospatial

Approach,
Ateeth Shetty, K.S. Jayappa, Praveen G. Deshbhandari, A.S. Rajawat, Ratheesh
Ramakrishnan
92-100
Traffic congestion study for Coimbatore district

Using GIS Anitha Selvasofia.S.D , Prince Arulraj.G
101-105
SCS-CN and GIS based approach for estimation of surface runoff in Sita-Swarna
basin, Udupi district
Anil, B, Shivanna, M.S.Vinaya
106-112
Prioritization of Erosion Potential Area through Morphometric Analysis in

Venkatapura Watershed, Karnataka: A RS and GIS Approach,
Praveen G. Deshbhandari , C. Krishnaiah
113-120
Evaluation of Water Quality Index For Surface and

Area of Bangalore
Prasad C S M V , Dr. Inayathulla M
121-128
Hydrologic Analysis of Watershed Using

IDF Curves & Runoff Models
M Inayathulla , M. Raghunath, C. Rangaraj& Y A Narayanaswamy
129-141
Groundwater Prospectus Map for Kolar Taluk Subwatersheds,

M Inayathulla Y A Narayanaswamy, Shashishankar.A & Chalapathi k
142-145
Environmental Conservation Assessment Used by GIS and Remote Sensing Bharamasagar at Chithradurga Dist, Karanataka,
V. Praveena Kumara, Bgayalakshmi, Lingananda M V.Sivani Shobha udaya
146-151
Subsurface Waters In Urban
Performance Of Geopolymer Concrete In Acidic Environment,
152-155
Shankar H. Sanni , Dr. R. B. Khadiranaikar
Light Weight Flyash Aggregate Concrete - An Environmental Friendly

Approach,
Geena George , Dr. Asha.k
156-161
Experimental Investigation On Behaviour Of Steel Concrete Composite

Columns, R.Thirumalai
162-166
Effect Of Fibre Reinforcement On Strength And Stiffness Improvement Of

Cohesive Soil , Suchit Kumar Patel, Baleshwar Singh
167-173
Behavior Of Circular Footing Resting On Reinforced Sand,

Sangameshwar Patil, P.G Rakaraddi
174-184
Seismic evaluation and retrofitting of reinforced concrete buildings,

Dr.A.Vijayakumar Dr.D.L.venkatesh babu, Dr.A.R.santhakumar
185-193
Construction Accidents Indian Scenario,

D.Kamalnataraj , Dr. V. Ramasamy
194-199
Ecological Behaviour Of Washbowl From Discarded Printed Circuit Board,

A.G.Ganeshkumar, Dr.G.Ranganath, Dr Channankaiah
200-208
Sustainable transporation planning is key to emissions and energy conservation ,

P.Ponnurangam
209-218
Slope stability analysis by finite element approach,

Barnali Ghosh , S. K. Prasad
219-223
Simulation modeling of sustainable infrastructure development in PERI urban

areas - a case study of Chennai,
Abirami krishna. A, Devi priyadarisini. K, Dr.Umadevi. G
224-233
Reliability Analysis of Post Tensioned PSC Girders Designed As Per IS

1343:2012
Bharath B.M. , Dr. K. Manjunath Puja M. Singh
234-237
Effect Of Number Of Loading Cycles On Dynamic Properties Of Solani River

Sand, J. Chavda1, B. K. Maheshwari, G. R. Dodagoudar
238-242
Concrete Performance With Admixtures Of Fly Ash And Copper Slag

Concerning Mechanical and Durability Aspects For Normal Strength,
Velumani.M , Nirmalkumar.K Sathish.S
243-251
Experimental study on stress-strain behaviour of masonry prism with different

types of brick and mortar,
Dr. K.vidhya , Dr. S. Kandasamy
252-257
Experimental investigation of the combined load response of model piles driven

in sand,
Prasad Pujar , P.G Rakaraddi
258-266
Non-destructive testing of thin elements using impact echo method,

S.Christi , K.Sivasubramanian , V.Venkatesan , K.N.Lakshmikandhan ,
P.Sivakumar
267-271
A Review On Characterization And Application Of Fly Ash Zeolites,

Channabasavaraj.W
272-279
De-fluoridation using tea residue,

Priya.V,Dr.Samathkumar.M.C, Dr..Balasubramanya.N
280-284
Solubilisation Of Metals From E-Waste Using Penicillium Chrysogenum Under

Optimum Conditions,
J. Senophiyah mary , Dr. T. Meenambal
285-293
Behavior Of Single Pile In Horizontal And Sloping Ground Under Combined

Loading,
Jyoti S Patil , P G Rakaraddi
294-307
Experimental investigation on strength and fire resistance of high performance

concrete,
K.Athi Gajendran, Dr.R.Anuradha, Dr.G.S.Venkatasubramani
308-317
An experimental study on concrete using selected waste materials as partial

replacement of fine aggregate,
Mr. A.Arunraj
318-322
Influence of clay minerals on bituminous mix,

Mrs.M.Mahalakshmi, Dr.S.Suresh babu , Dr.K.E.prakash, Mr.S.Vimal
323-326
Performance Of Masonry Wall Composites With Natural Fibers,

S.Deepak , R.Anuradha and G. Prince arulraj
327-332
Flexural Behavior Of Reinforced Concrete Beam Using Coconut Shell And Fly
Ash,
333-341
V.Divya
Investigation On Conductive Concrete Compositions,

M.Amirthavarshini , R.Selvaraj and N.Chella Kavitha
342-346
Durability Studies On Raw And Calcined Clay Based Geopolymer Concrete,

R.Priyanka and, R.Selvaraj
347-354
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test On granite Powder Concrete,

A.Arivumangai and Dr. T. Felixkala
355-358
Mechanical And Durability Properties Of Concrete Using M-Sand As Fine

Aggregate, S. MuraliKrishna & Dr.T.Felix Kala
359-365
Experimental Investigation Of Hpc Using Metakaolin And Flyash With Partial

Replacement Of Cement,
M.Narmatha , Dr.T.Felixkal
366-371
Feasibility Study Of Coir Fiber With Coir Pith, As Concrete Reinforcement

Material,
Priya.V, Dr. Sampath kumar.M.C , Dr.Balasubramanya.N
372-375
A Study On Replacement Of Natural Sand By Blends Of Flyash And Bottom

Ash In Concrete, Sadat Ali Khan , S Gobinath Veeraragavan
376-384
A study on Glass Fiber Reinforced concrete deep beams with direct loading,
Vengatachalapathy.V1, Ilangovan.R2, A.R.Santhakumar3
385-392
GEMBA KAIZEN- A New Management Tool for Construction Industry

Jagadeesha Kumar B G 1, Rishi Rai 2 Souvik Chakraborty
393-395
Abstracts
396-411
SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK 2030: A CASE STUDY OF ISRAEL

Valerie Brachya1,Shlomo Hasson2, Eran Feitelson3
1.
Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies and lecturer at the Hebrew University
Jerusalem and Tel Aviv University, Israel
Valerie@jiis.org.il
2. Professor Emeritus and Head of the Shasha Center for Strategic Studies,
Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
mshasson@mscc.huji.ac.il
3. Professor of Geography and Head of the School for Environmental Studies,
Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
msfeitel@mscc.huji.ac.il
Abstract
Although the future is highly uncertain, policy makers need forward looking long term strategic
outlooks in order to be aware of possible situations and to enhance opportunities and minimize risks.
Scenario building provides a way of thinking about plausible futures and their consequences. Outlooks
and scenarios have been used at the global level but less at the national level of policy making, which
often responds to crises rather than acts to fulfill a vision. Scenarios prepared in Israel for mapping a
strategic route to reach a vision for sustainability towards 2030 helped to identify the strategies and
policies towards the triad of environment, wellbeing and resilience. They included integrated
governance, risk management, urban vitality and sustainable patterns of consumption.
Keywords: Scenarios, Outlooks, Sustainability, Strategies, Resilience
Introduction
Sometimes, we wait too long for evidence to
justify action
Sometimes, we act too quickly on new
opportunities and oversee spill-over effects.
Often, we approach the future on the basis of
our experiences in the past: policies function in
the short, but not in the long run[ 1]
Policy in all areas of governmental
responsibility commonly focuses on providing
urgent responses to unanticipated changes or
coping with a crisis situation in one field or
another. The establishment of an investigating
committee, for example, to review why a crisis
occurred is a valid and understandable
mechanism for coping with an unanticipated
result[ 2]. However, it would be better if such a
review were undertaken in advance as a
forward looking process to identify and plan
how such risk situations could be avoided. The
task is then how to enable policy makers to be
aware of what could happen, recognize
desirable paths and avoid undesirable ones,
create and harness opportunities and minimize

risks and vulnerabilities.
Looking ahead to the long term future is full of
uncertainties which cannot necessarily be
predicted by models or anticipated accurately
by forecasts. Sudden processes such as
economic crises, social instability, political
changes or extreme events (earthquakes, fires,
floods and so on) can cause dramatic
unforeseen changes. Other processes are slow
but steady and their trends can be foreseen.
Looking at the long term future can put on the
table a range of possible futures with a high
probability and the paths that lead towards
them. It can also identify desired futures or a
vision of the future and the paths which lead
back from them to current conditions,
backcasting rather than forecasting.
Preparation of a long term Overview or
Outlook can provide a framework for strategic
directions. It leaves the immediate decisions up
to the current operating administration, but it
can provide well defined paths along which
Page 1
key intervention points and conscious choices

can be made and concrete actions taken to
promote a desired pathway towards
sustainability and avoid an unsustainable
pathway. It may also indicate how the choice
of mechanisms for action can be assessed
through evaluating the efficiency and
effectiveness of policy packages comprising of
complimentary and supporting implementation
mechanisms
and
avoiding
conflicting,
unacceptable and contradictory mechanisms.
One way of coping with unknown futures is
through scenario building. A scenario is a
story that describes a possible or plausible
future, but it is neither a vision nor a forecast.
It describes what might happen in the future
and the processes that led to it. In this way
scenarios enable policy makers to ponder the
significance of current developments and the
direction in which they are headed. Scenarios
are intended to inspire thinking about models
and processes that are often ignored. This does
not mean that one of the scenarios will
necessarily materialize in whole or in part.
What is important is the act of disengaging
from existing thought processes and acquiring
experience in thinking about the unexpected
and about what appears impossible. In this way
policy makers can cultivate thinking outside
the box, improve the environment for
thinking by challenging existing perspectives,
and examine new opportunities[ 3].
Scenario building has been widely used in a
variety of fields, such as energy, finance,
security, environment and sustainability (Rand,
Shell, World Energy Outlooks, World
Economic Forum scenarios [4]). The widely
acclaimed scientific panel on climate change
IPCC [5] and the UN Environment Program
(UNEP) Global Environment Outlook GEO
[6] used scenario building, to demonstrate the
implications on the environment of global
markets,
security
risks,
technological
developments and the importance of good
public administration. Environmental Outlooks
have been prepared by UNEP on a global
scale, Global Environmental Outlooks (GEO
1,2,3,4,5) and for a group of countries,
members of the OECD (OECD Environmental
Outlooks 2030, 2050 [7]), and for Africa
(UNEP)[8]. Few countries have adopted the
process on a national level, to contribute to
long term thinking in central or local
government.
Use of Scenarios
Scenarios have been developed by a range of
disciplines for a variety of purposes to
understand the processes, trajectories and
driving forces likely to have an impact on the
future, their likely outcomes and to develop
preparedness to cope with their consequences.
There is no single accepted methodology for
the preparation of scenarios [3]. Some
scenarios focus on a well defined problem;
others focus on the relevant actors and the
implications of their possible actions. A
typology of scenarios would include
predictive,
explorative
and
normative
scenarios, each with a different emphasis :
what will happen, what can happen and how to
reach desirable targets. Some scenarios are
prepared through deductive processes,
harnessing available data and expertise. Others
are prepared through inductive processes,
building synergy through dialogue between
different approaches or between opposing
stakeholders. Some scenarios have a strong
quantitative base, others are based on
qualitative assessments, sometimes followed
up with a quasi-quantitative interpretation of
their consequences.
The IPCC scenarios [5] for example focused
on a single issue, global warming, and the
implications of its consequences for climate
change and sea level rise.
Scenarios for climate change were first
presented in 1990 and then in 1992. They
followed a sequential approach as follows:
Storylines or narratives to generate

socio-economic drivers responsible for
greenhouse gas emissions
Emissions scenarios, based on the

storylines
Climate change scenarios based on

the emissions
Environmental scenarios based on the

impacts and consequences of possible climate
changes
Vulnerability scenarios, based on

risks and responses to the impacts
In 2006, IPCC decided to conduct a new
scenario process, normative or anticipatory
rather than exploratory, with a rather different
process:
Generation of 4 alternative future

radiative
forcings
to
2100
(termed
Representative Concentration Pathways
RCP)
Page 2

Socio-economic conditions likely to
generate the RCP's
Climatic conditions likely to be

generated by the RCP's
Impacts, vulnerability and mitigation

The IPCC process was a scientifically based
approach, whose purpose was to arouse global
concern over changing conditions likely to
have crucial consequences for socio-economic
systems.
The UNEP GEO scenarios from GEO3 [6]
onwards used scenarios based on the work of
the Global Scenario Group, particularly led by
the Tellus Institute in Boston and by the
Stockholm Environment Center. The GEO3
scenarios were holistic and explorative, not
problem focused. Their purpose was to show
trends and present storylines, including a
vision for 30 years ahead. The GEO4
scenarios focused on actors, including
political, institutional and cultural aspects, for
a vision to 2050. The GEO5 scenarios were
normative, to identify the gap between
conventional worlds and sustainable worlds
and to propose how to close the gap.
The Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
scenarios [9] were prepared through
deliberative dialogue with the research and end
user communities. They used existing
scenarios of global driving forces and their
likely consequences but added a stage to
identify those aspects relevant to the future
condition and likely trends of ecosystems.
The UK is an example of the use of scenarios
at a national level. The UK government
commissioned a wide range of scenario
studies, one of which was the Foresight Land
Use scenarios FLUF [10] which were
prepared in the context of a review of future
land use in the UK. They focused attention on
5 main drivers and generated 3 scenarios :
adaption to change, societal and institutional
resistance to change and the spatial
concentration of population.
The Land use project provided a base for the
UK National Ecosystem Assessment (UK
NEA) scenarios [11]. They constituted,
together with the Natural England scenarios, a
look into plausible futures of the natural and
built environment and the consequent impacts
on ecosystem services.
The major drivers were land use change,
resource consumption and climate change.
The team constructed matrices of the condition

and trends in ecosystem services for each
habitat under 6 scenarios. The cumulative
levels of increase and decrease in ecosystem
services were presented in a comparison of
outcomes of the alternative scenarios.
Israel Sustainability Outlook 2030
In 2010 the Ministry of Environmental
Protection in Israel and a think tank, the
Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, with the
support of a philanthropic fund, initiated the
preparation of a Sustainability Outlook for
Israel [12]. At its center was a process of
scenario building. The purpose of the 'Israel
Sustainability Outlook 2030' was to bring to
the attention of decision-makers the
implications of present and anticipated socialeconomic-environmental trends, formulate a
realistic vision of sustainability to which Israel
should aspire, identify the gaps between
existing trends and the possibility of realizing
the vision and identify road maps which could
lead towards a more sustainable future
The process of preparing the Outlook consisted
of several stages:
1. the diagnosis of current development
through a systematic mapping of the variables,
identifying the links between them
and
developing an understanding of relationships ,
such as economic growth, social development,
consumption modes , impacts on the
environment, and responses of the State and
society.
2. scenario building, through the deductive
method, which included:
Identifying driving forces by means
of a matrix of influences and
coordinate systems that identify
unknown variables of high influence;
Creating a matrix of scenarios;
drafting the narratives of the
scenarios;
assessing the significance of the
scenarios
3. creation of a vision, beginning with a
positive vision, continuing to a defensible
vision, and concluding with a satisfactory
vision. The positive vision aspires to the
maximum , while the defensible
vision
identifies thresholds that must not be crossed.
As such it is a minimal vision.
4. testing the vision
in relation to the
scenarios, to locate opportunities and
difficulties in its realization
Page 3
5. formulating strategies to move towards the

desirable vision, whatever the scenario which
actually materializes
6. policy packages for implementing all the
strategies in the most effective and acceptable
way to all relevant stakeholders
The process began with the formulation of a
research question, which locates the projects
center of gravity. The question formulated
was: What are the factors that shape the
environment and human wellbeing, as well
as their resilience?
This focus is a little different from the
sustainability triad that usually consists of
environment, society and economy. The
Outlook 2030 team put wellbeing at the center
of the discussion, while economic activity was
defined as being the most significant element
that
influences
the
achievement
of
sustainability but not its main goal. Other
driving forces affecting sustainability are
social, geopolitical, cultural and behavioral,
and issues relating to governance.
Israels population is expected to

grow to 11 million by 2030, both as a
result of natural growth and as a result
of expected rise in life expectancy.
The direct significance of these
demographic trends and the increase
in 1 person households is an increase
in the demand for natural resources,
consumer products and services.
The Israeli economy grew in the last

decade by 20% and since the 1990s
by 75% and has proven resistant to
crises. If there is no change in current
trends, the Israeli economy is
expected to develop in line with
global markets. A rise in per capita
GDP is expected to be reflected in a
rise in disposable income and an
increase in purchasing power and the
intensification of the impacts of
household consumption on the
environment.
The goal of strengthening social and

environmental resilience was added to the
sustainability triad because it constitutes a
necessary and complementary variable in a
world of high levels of risk and uncertainty.
An increase of resilience would be
characterized by boosting the capacity to
contend with crisis situations, identifying the
extent and distribution of risk, reducing the
intensity of anticipated damages, increasing the
capacity of a community to cope with risk and
crisis situations and use them as opportunities
for positive change.
The Israeli economy transformed

from local production to foreign trade,
which currently constitutes 61% of
GDP. This trend can be expected to
continue in the future. The transition
to foreign trade raises the level of
Israels dependence on the import of
food products and raw materials for
industry and therefore intensifies its
exposure to risks.
The general rise of GDP does not

reflect polarization between different
social strata. The Gini index and the
per capita disposable income level
reveal widening of gaps within Israeli
society. The disparity in per capita
disposable
income
(excluding
expenditure on food) is increasing
between the top and bottom deciles,
with a small improvement in the level
of the lowest decile.
The increase in disposable income is

expected to lead to a rise in per capita
consumption. Pressures on the
environment can be attributed to the
consumption patterns of the upper
socioeconomic strata. Emulation of a
similar lifestyle by lower deciles as
disposable incomes rise will improve
standards of living but will
significantly increase pressures on the
environment.
Stage 1 - Diagnosis of past, present and

future trends
The trends observed in Israel over the last 20
years indicate that a "business as usual"
scenario, based on the continuation of present
policies and trends, would not lead to a
sustainable environment or to wellbeing or to
their resilience. Current environmental policy
is likely to bring about improved
environmental performance and the abatement
of negative impacts of economic activity on
the environment; but trends of population
growth and rising standards of living are
generating ever-increasing pressures on the
environment and intensifying the depletion of
natural resources and the rate of environmental
degradation. The following were found to be
highly significant:
Page 4
Current development trends are

generating sprawl and the loss of open
landscape
in
contradiction
to
increasing the efficient use of land as
well as to reducing energy use by
reducing distances travelled.
An overview of past and present trends

indicate on the one hand, an expected
improvement in the management of hazards
and pollutants, but on the other hand, signals
an expected deterioration of the environment
as a result of increasing pressures of
consumption.
Interpretation of the trends
As part of the diagnosis stage, experts from a
range of disciplines were requested to respond
to a series of questions concerning the
identification of crucial issues and likely
processes which will affect the future:
1.
What are the main environmental
issues today in Israel in your field of expertise?
To what extent are they similar or different
from the main issues in the global dialogue?
2.
What are the recent past and present
processes affecting your area of expertise
which impact on the environment in Israel?
Can they be predicted with a relatively high
level of probability?
3.
What factors determine
these
processes? Can they be forecasted or are they
incapable of prediction?
4.
What global and regional geoenvironmental processes are likely to
influence the context for sustainability within
Israel (such as water stress and droughts)
5.
What global and regional geopolitical processes are likely to influence the
context for sustainability in Israel, such as the
increased influence of China and India and the
possible decrease of the United States and
Europe and possible developments in the
Middle East.
6.
What are likely to be the influences of
the above processes on the environment
(problems,
opportunities,
vulnerabilities,
coping capacity, resilience)? Can they be
controlled through governmental intervention
in Israel?
7.
How are the above processes likely
to influence wellbeing in Israel?
8.
Does current environmental policy in
Israel cope with the problems , realize the
potential opportunities to reduce risks and
vulnerabilities and to strengthen coping
capacity with change (resilience)?
9.
What
are
the
likely
future
developments in your field? Identify possible
trends and assess their probability (best and
worst possibilities) in relation to likely trends
and processes and in relation to intensive but
unpredictable events,
10.
What is needed in order to make best
use of opportunities for change and to
strengthen coping capacity and resilience to
certain and unpredictable changes?
11.
What steps should be taken to reduce
risks and vulnerability and to overcome their
adverse consequences?
Below are the key messages that emerge from
each expert opinion and are relevant to the
formulation of a business as usual scenario
and the alternative scenarios.
Key economic messages:
Privatization of the economy has resulted in
separation between the regulator, on the one
hand, and the producer and employer on the
other, thus enabling government, the state as
regulator to set environmental controls and to
promote the inclusion of social and
environmental liability in business. The
transition from production of goods to the
provision of services is likely to reduce
pressures on the local environment generated
by industrial production Given the dependence
on global market developments, the
government will need to adopt measures
designed to promote innovation, including
cleantech industries and especially those
areas in which Israel has a competitive
advantage.
Recommendations for the future:
Making Israel a leader in innovation

will require extensive investment in education,
research
and
development,
training
institutions, and promotion of technological
and non-technological innovation.
The fields of green growth, cleantech,

efficiency, and reduction (of raw materials,
energy, water, land-use, and waste) are
potential avenues for market leadership.
Israel could find itself in competition

with global markets and exposed to risks
related to imports and exports.
If Israels foreign debt increases, it

will be inherited by future generations.
Under a scenario in which Israel does

not take measures to encourage innovation, it
could lose its place in global markets and
experience a decline in GDP per capita.
Page 5
Key energy messages:

Israel was dependent on fuel imports and
suffered the consequences of being an
electricity island, disconnected from
international networks. Coal was selected as a
strategic source for energy production, and
measures were taken to reduce environmental
consequences in accordance with accepted
practices at the time; the production,
transmission, and distribution of electricity are
carried out by a government company (the
electricity company), whose goal is ensuring
the reliable supply of electricity.
The recent inclusion of natural gas in the
energy
market
significantly
reduces
dependence on fuel imports and paves the way
for private electricity producers, both
constituting substantive structural changes for
Israel. To date, the scope of renewable energy
development has been very limited; a
significant reduction in air pollution from the
burning of fuel for energy production has been
achieved, but it is still unclear how Israel will
meet its obligations to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions.
Maintenance of a long-term reserve of

natural gas for Israel by limiting its export;
Import of liquid natural gas (LNG),

its storage, and construction of a regasification facility at sea (stationary or mobile
container);
Increase the scope of electricity

production from renewable energy
Construction of a smart bi-directional

electricity network to accommodate heavy
demands, including electric motor vehicles;
Use of natural gas for transportation

(CNG, methanol);
Key messages for land and the use of space

Land is perceived more as a means of
production and less as a resource for the
achievement of national objectives. However,
its price does not include external costs such as
payment for infrastructures or environmental
damage. The lack of full pricing of land
facilitates a trend towards the expansion of
built-up areas at the expense of open space and
does not promote the renewal of existing urban
areas. Urban renewal will only occur when it is
considered economic. In the absence of
urban renewal, residential, commercial and
industrial development will spread to space

outside the cities.
Strengthen cities and urban life,

implement urban renewal project
and implement measures to
restrict urban sprawl;
Use underground space
Require infrastructures to pay for
their use of land,
Integrate infrastructures into shared
spaces or corridors, including
underground tunnels within cities.
Key messages for water

The provision of water was historically
perceived as a strategic foundation for
achievement of national objectives; the water
supply network was established and managed
at the national level.
The recent master plan for the water system
approved in July 2011 recognizes that the
water system has to operate in conditions of
uncertainty, such as a decrease in natural water
sources and requires water supply for urban
and industrial consumers to be determined by
market allocation Plans to double the potential
water supply will be achieved through
desalination and more wastewater for
agriculture.
Key messages for ecosystems and ecosystem

services
Human development has resulted in the
transformation of natural ecosystems into
pasture, afforestation, agricultural production,
artificial bodies of water, and urban areas.
Whilst these activities have benefitted the
population (for example, by providing food)
they have weakened other functions (such as
natural protection against flooding). Biological
diversity in Israel has enjoyed relatively good
protection.
Local ecosystems today are unable to meet the
needs of the population. Israel is increasingly
dependent on imported biological goods
(grains, beef, timber lumber) from dry
ecosystems. Development in Israel has
decreased, fragmented, and contaminated
natural ecosystems, particularly
forests,
scrubland, freshwater systems, and coastal
areas. The loss of these systems as control
mechanisms exposes Israel to possible future
Page 6
extreme events. Cultural services (landscape

and heritage) have generated great value in
terms of tourism and recreation.
Global warming poses a threat to Israels
ecosystems, including invasive species,
frequency and intensity of floods, water loss,
soil erosion and fires.
Cancel water subsidies for agriculture

and return abandoned lands to their natural
ecosystems
Promote agriculture which is not
dependent on ground resources
(such as greenhouse cultivation)
able to absorb higher water costs
Give priority in land use to

ecosystems that are important in providing
control mechanisms;
Strengthen resistance to climate

change by preserving areas of sharp climatic
transition.
Linkages and relationships between the
variables
The wide range of driving forces identified by
the indicators and the experts provided the
basis for creating a concept map (see fig. 1).
Assessment of the variables and the

relationships between and among
them
provided the basis for the Influence Diagram
(see fig 2) . The team identified active factors
that mainly influence and, to a lesser degree,
are subject to influence, and critical factors
that both influence and are influenced.
Stage 2 Building scenarios

There is no context in Israel for scenario
building as was created by the Foresight Unit
in the UK. The Israel 2030 scenarios are a
stand alone project created by the project team
and invited experts. The process did not
include public participation or consultation.
Before developing scenarios for the future, a
scenario of the past was constructed (19482011) described in terms of the system
variables. Continuation of present trends of the
variables was the basis for the business as
usual scenario and variations in the variables
generated a further 6 scenarios.
The scenarios were classified into four groups

by the degree of dominance of various
mechanisms. One group is dominated by the
market mechanism; in another group the social
mechanism is dominant; the third group
includes scenarios where the mechanism of
state intervention is dominant; and in the
fourth group it is the geopolitical mechanism
that is dominant.
The result was 7 scenarios , which were
expanded by descriptive storylines/narratives.
Three scenarios presume a neoliberal ideology
and market superiority
The "business as usual" scenario
market dominance: An emphasis on
markets and growth; continued
population growth and current
consumption patterns; reaction to
short-term problems; development of
a city-state; absence of an integrated
vision; focus on local conflicts; the
Israeli-Arab conflict continues to play
a central role on the agenda;
degradation and fragmentation of
ecological systems (in fact, marginal
attention is given to the environment).
Unregulated market scenario A
strong, powerful market along with
deepening
degradation
of the
environment and increasing social
discontent neoliberalism is the
reigning ideology; absence of
environmental and social regulation
and the development of a city-state
dominated by Tel Aviv; growing
social disparities adversely affecting
young people and the middle-class;
privatization of state land.
Regulated market scenario A strong,
powerful market; growing attention to
the environment but with a splintered
and polarized society; promoting
growth; creation of a bureaucraticinstitutional mechanism; integration
between economy and environment;
absence of social inclusion; restraint
on the concentration of wealth.
Grassroots
initiative
scenario,
social
mechanism dominant
Community mosaic Strengthening
of social resilience and reduction of
environmental degradation but a
significant drop in economic growth
emphasis placed on inclusion
(integration of all elements of
Page 7
society); promotion of grassroots

processes; promotion of social
businesses, new entrepreneurship
networks and organizational and
community structures; emphasis on
local economy.
State as developer scenario, state mechanism
dominant
Intervening/developing
state
Adoption of a post-neoliberal
approach
with
social
and
environmental emphases, government
intervention in market processes as
a result of social unrest and outburst
of waves of protest throughout the
country which led to the rehabilitation
and intervention of the bureaucraticinstitutional system; drop in economic
growth.
Two scenarios were developed in which the
geopolitical mechanism is dominant
Unregulated
fortress
state
Environmental, economic and social

deterioration caused by political
seclusion worsening of geopolitical
status along with boycott and
sanctions; cessation of foreign
investments; ongoing environmental
neglect; increase of environmental
risks; growing reliance on local
natural resources.
Regulated fortress state Strong
regulation
following
political
seclusion, drop in economic growth
while protecting the environment and
building social resilience worsening
of geopolitical status along with
boycott and sanctions; cessation of
foreign investments; government
intervention;
development
of
innovation in defense industries;
establishment of inclusion and
regulation mechanisms in the social
and environmental areas; protection
of reserves and effective use of
resources;
protection of
open
landscape areas for security reasons.
aspects but regulation could mitigate the

severity of the damage. An analysis indicates
that the level of sustainability in each scenario
is far from the desirable situation and that we
should be able to reach a higher level of
sustainability whatever the scenario.
The different scenarios have different levels of

sustainability (environment, wellbeing and
resilience). A scenario from the "market
superiority" group can reach a relatively high
level of sustainability only in a "regulated
market." The social scenarios would reinforce
wellbeing and the environment but their
economic price would be high. In the
geopolitical situation of a fortress state,
sustainability would be compromised from all
The understanding that the "business as usual"

scenario will not lead to the vision for 2030
and that incremental improvements of existing
systems, beneficial as they may be, will only
perpetuate the existing situation without
leading to the desired long-term outcome, led
to the conclusion that deep strategic
intervention is needed to bridge the gaps that
exist between each of the scenarios and the
vision.
Stage 3 a vision of sustainability for Israel

2030
Each member of the project team prepared his
own vision; they were combined into a
commonly acceptable vision for sustainability
in Israel . The vision consisted of a summary
statement followed by clauses detailing
important themes.
"Israel in 2030 will be a country
whose citizens live in an environment
that provides economic wellbeing,
social resilience and personal security
while enabling a diverse range of
community lifestyles. It will be a
country that promotes innovation and
enterprise, thriving urban life,
inclusion and access for all of the
population
to
employment
opportunities and services. It will be a
country where there is absolute
decoupling of economic growth from
deterioration of the environment and
the continual rise in material
consumption. In 2030 the quality of
life in Israel of the current generation
will be high but will include
responsibility for protecting natural
resources for the present and future
generations."
The vision was elaborated to address diverse
aspects including: economy, society, urbanism,
infrastructure,
water,
energy,
ecology,
governance and international relations.
Stages 4 and 5 - long-term strategic

directions
Page 8
The team developed nine robust strategies

relevant to a large number of the scenarios that
will enable the realization of the vision by
bridging the gaps between the scenarios and
the vision. Outlook 2030 recommends
implementing
all
of
the
strategies
simultaneously.
a) Promoting innovation and enterprise:
Stimulating innovation leading to
more efficient resource use, product
development, the development of a
circular economy, and a transition
from the consumption of products to
the consumption of services.
b) Integrated risk management and
resilience: Risks must first be
identified, defined and evaluated.
Risk management requires not only
measures to reduce risks as far as
possible but also measures to increase
the resilience of society and the
environment to coping with the
residual risks which cannot be
mitigated
c) Developing a long-term integrated
vision: Creating long-term systemic
thinking, periodically updated, by
reinforcing the connection and
coordination
between
proactive
planning and regulation. According to
this strategy a joint lexicon of
terminology and language should be
created for the public administration
to delineate a long-term development
policy incorporating the economy,
environment and society.
d) Cultivating values beyond material
consumption: Generating a deep
psychological
transformation
in
consumer behavior in order to reduce
the consumption of material resources
and replace it with other, less
material, patterns of consumption,
such as sharing and collaborative
consumption (this is a term now well
known by those familiar with
behavioral patterns of consumption)
e) Cultivating
community
life:
Cultivating a new value system based
on solidarity, mutual support,
community activity, intercultural
encounters and the creation of new
economic opportunities.
f) Urbanity and the revival of city
centers: Concentrating development
in existing urban centers while
increasing their density and social
diversity to create an urban

renaissance. Developing urbanism
and creating thriving public spaces
allowing
random,
spontaneous
encounters
that
lead
to
interdisciplinary,
cross-cultural
connections and networks that create
synergy between diverse ideas and
outlooks and provide fertile ground
for innovation.
g) Expanding the concept of security to
include the environment, society and
economy: Preparation for civilian
crises that could harm national
security and harm the society and
economy may be just as significant as
preparation for terrorist attacks or
conflicts with hostile countries.
h) Development of leadership with a
sense of responsibility for future
generations:
Development
and
training of a leadership that will lead
society to the vision of sustainability.
i) Adoption of evaluation methods and
systems: Establishing evaluation
systems to measure sustainability, to
facilitate the identification of critical
points and benchmarks that can help
policymakers plan courses of action
and evaluate their results.
Based on the above, and with an understanding
of the current and future trends and processes
in Israel and around the world, a further five
strategies were proposed:
1.
Sustainable
consumption.
Consumption patterns drive economic
growth and are currently taxing
environmental resources beyond
reasonable ecological boundaries. In
order to change the lifestyle of the
public as a whole and adopt less
material consumption patterns that
would still provide a high level of
wellbeing, this strategy recommends
promoting consumption models that
provide the consumer with access to
desirable benefits or values without
requiring individual purchase of
material products (service provision).
Instead, they would facilitate effective
use of assets, products, services and
skills that are in a state of
"underutilization" during most hours
of the day or year (sharing
consumption). To promote models of
"sustainable consumption" it is
Page 9
2.
3.
necessary to remove barriers on the

one hand, and develop missing tools
on the other, while maximizing the
use of social networking platforms to
make information accessible and
create interpersonal connectivity.
Models of sustainable consumption
already exist in the areas of travel,
clothing,
household
equipment,
children's
equipment
and
entertainment.
This
strategy
recommends expanding them to the
areas of time, space and skills in the
public and private spheres. The
development
of
"sustainable
consumption" largely depends on
business sector initiatives and civil
societys awareness level. But the
government can support the transition
to "sustainable consumption" by
educating for social values, providing
access
to
information
and
underutilized public spaces, and
building trust between suppliers and
users.
Vibrant urbanism. Urban living
generates opportunities to reduce
pressures on environmental resources,
supports a less material lifestyle,
creates platforms for promoting
innovation and creates diverse and
resilient communities. Urbanism as a
lifestyle in public spaces and
especially along city streets can be
achieved by mixed land use, reducing
distances for pedestrians and reducing
dependence on and use of private
vehicles. This strategy recommends
making urbanism a budgetary
priority, developing evaluation tools
to assess projects by their contribution
to urbanism and integrating functions
which gather people together, such as
higher education campuses and open
air markets. It recommends that the
business
sector
choose
urban
locations (as opposed to selecting out
of
town
locations),
promote
alternative means of worker access
other than by private vehicles and
develop attractive urban real estate
models, especially for the young and
elderly populations [13].
Strengthening
social-community
resilience. In a world of uncertainty it
is important to strengthen the ability
to adjust and contend with changes
and risks, turning them into new
4.
5.
opportunities rather than seeing them

only as disturbances. The purpose of
this strategy is to promote the creation
of communities that enjoy a high
quality of life and wellness while
realizing the individual and the
community's potential. It recommends
strengthening resilience at the local
level, transferring powers to local
authorities and to the community,
identifying vulnerable populations
and finding ways to reduce their
vulnerability,
promoting
active
community initiatives and developing
tools
to
evaluate
community
resilience.
Integrated management of marketable
natural resources (natural capital).
Without a policy for the management
of imported natural resources as well
as integrated management of its local
natural capital, Israel might find itself
unprepared for the competition over
export and import of raw materials
and manufactured goods in global
markets. This strategy recommends
taking
measures
to
manage
marketable natural capital for the
economy, similar to the management
of financial capital and human capital
(labor). They include an integrated
management policy for all marketable
natural resources and the development
of a national plan to combine
physical,
economic
and
environmental aspects of their
development. It also recommends a
review of the criteria for setting
royalties to reflect public values and
externalities generated by resource
extraction.
Innovation
for
sustainability.
Economic trends indicate that Israel
has to find ways that enable it to stand
at the forefront of environmental,
technological
and
businessorganizational innovation in order to
compete in global markets. This
strategy recommends recognizing the
fact that innovation carries risks and
that opportunities for innovation
should not be blocked due to claims
that their effectiveness has not yet
been proven. It recommends that the
business sector in Israel take an active
role in international forums that
discuss innovation for sustainability,
create research and development
Page 10
partnerships between companies from

different countries and be willing to
try to implement innovative ideas in
Israel. It also proposes that the
government initiate an evaluation of
the drivers of innovation science,
skilled human resources, financial
drivers and regulation and recruit
civil society as a partner to support
and review the testing of innovation.
Stage 6 Implementing the strategies
A wide variety of policy tools will be needed
for the implementation of the nine robust
strategies and the five further strategies.
Outlook 2030 proposed that the tools and
means for implementation are bundled into
"packages," in order to create synergy between
them, identify the preconditions necessary to
enable their implementation and add
complementary tools which could overcome
reservations about them, and make the policy
tools effective and efficient, socially and
politically acceptable and award them a high
likelihood of realization [14]. The following
three policy tool packages were proposed:
1. The whole of government
package. The purpose of this package
is primarily to ensure coordination
between all the bodies responsible for
a comprehensive long-term overview
of the economy and society. The
package proposes the establishment of
a government integration body that
would include representatives of the
following bodies: the Finance
Ministrys budget department, the
economic council in the Prime
Minister's office, the planning
administrations in the Interior
Ministry and the Ministry of
Environmental
Protection.
The
purpose of establishing the integrating
body is to initiate and promote
coordinated plans for action at the
national level.
2. The "risk management" package.
The purpose of this package is to
expand
activities
relating
to
identifying and evaluating risks and
building resilience to them. The
activity will take place on three
levels: 1. Establishing a unit for the
coordination and management of
environmental risks which will focus
on risks that result from incremental
processes as well as risks that result
from sudden environmental events; 2.
3.
Requiring the financial sector to

include environmental considerations
when making decisions on financial
investments; 3. Expanding the focus
on risks and resilience-building within
local
government.
Additional
measures here include leadership
development and strengthening local
government
with
a
particular
emphasis on the needs of weak local
authorities in the periphery.
The
"community-business"
package. The common denominator
between the measures that constitute
the third package is that they are
meant to advance non-governmental
activities: local-community socialenvironmental activity and business
activity. In the community component
the critical measures are providing
access to credit and a budget for
community activity and lowering
barriers to enable the use of public
assets. Complementary measures to
encourage community activity would
be decentralizing powers to the
community level, developing strong
local leadership and stimulating localregional democracy. The second
component consists of encouraging
business models that emphasize the
transition from the consumption of
products to the provision of services
and the transition from material
consumption
to
sustainable
consumption.
Stakeholders were identified who would

benefit from and be interested in promoting
each policy package and would be capable of
adapting the required measures during the
process of their implementation. Adjustments
are usually needed as unanticipated difficulties
may arise, the parties involved may act
differently than had been expected or new
parties not identified in advance may express
interest .
Conclusions
The Sustainability Outlook for Israel 2030 was
presented to top level policy makers in many
government ministries, including the Ministry
of Finance, the Ministry of Defense, the
Ministry of Environmental Protection and the
Council for Economic Affairs in the Prime
Ministers Office. Although no formal decision
was taken in government to adopt the
Page 11
recommended strategies and policy packages

for their implementation, in fact many different
actions are in process which promote many of
them. Unfortunately, some government
decisions and actions are not in line with the
strategies and may even worsen current trends.
It is therefore essential to establish a follow up
mechanism and process, which does not
currently exist in the Israeli case example.
An Outlook is a process, not a product. It helps
policy makers break out of the trap of viewing
the future in terms of continuing from the past
with some incremental improvement. Ideally it
should be an ongoing process, whereby reports
are produced at regular intervals updating
baseline information and the scenarios as new
information and directions come to light. By
focusing on the long term agenda, it can enable
fruitful discourses and partnerships to be
created between government, the business
sector and civil society.
The example of Israel could provide a model
for such a process at national level or could be
adapted for creating a similar process at a
Municipal level [15].
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
References
1. European
Environment
Agency
Bridging Long term Scenario and
Strategy
Analysis
(Blossom)
Presentation and Main Report 2011
2. Parliamentary Committee on the
Water Crisis in Israel, Knesset
2001(in Hebrew)
3. Hasson S. Scenario Building,
background report prepared for
Sustainability Outlook for Israel
2030, Jerusalem Institute for Israel
Studies (in Hebrew)
4. Davies P.K. et al Enhancing Strategic
Planning with Massive Scenario
Generation, Rand Corporation 2007 ,
New Lens Scenarios, Shell 2013,
13.
14.
15.
World Energy Outlook, International

Energy Agency 2014, Strategic
Foresight practice, World Economic
Forum
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change Working Group 3 Special
Report on Emissions Scenarios 2000
United Nations Environment Program
Global Environmental Outlook (GEO
6 is due in 2017)
Organization
for
Economic
Cooperation
and
Development
Environmental Outlook to 2030 2008
and to 2050 The Consequences of
Inaction. 2012
United
Nations
Environmental
Program Africa Environment Outlook
2013
United Nations Millenium Ecological
Assessment Ecosystems and Human
Well-Being 2005
Land Use Futures: making the most
of land in the 21st century UK
Government Office for Science 2010
National Ecological Assessment
Chapter 25 The UK NEA Scenarios:
Development of Storylines and
Analysis of Outcomes
Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies
Sustainability Outlook for Israel 2030
2012 (in Hebrew with English
Summary
on
project
website
kayamut2030.org)
Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies
Urban Sustainability (project in
progress, English summary on project
website ukayamut.com)
Feitelson E Background paper on
Policy Packages prepared for
Sustainability Outlook for Israel 2030
(in Hebrew)
For further information on the use of
scenarios
see
Alcamo
J.
Environmental Futures Elsevier 2008
Page 12
Figures:
Fig. 1 Concept Map of the Projects Research Question (Source: Hasson S. for Sustainability in Israel
2030)
Fig. 2 Influence Diagram (Source: Hasson S. for Sustainability in Israel 2030)
Page 13
Fig. 3 Building Scenarios (Source: Hasson S. for Sustainability in Israel 2030)
Page 14
Fig. 4 Risk Management Package(Source: Feitelson E.. for Sustainability in Israel 2030)
Page 15
International Conference on Infrastructure Development for Environmental Conservation and Sustenance (INDECS-15)
ACE, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635 109, INDIA, 28-30 October 2015
COAL AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

John L. Daniels1
1
Professor and Chair, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of North
Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina, 28223, USA, jodaniel@uncc.edu
Abstract
Sustainable development depends upon electrification and infrastructure, and these in turn depend on coal. In
recorded world history, more electricity has been derived from coal than any other fuel source. It remains so and by
2040, coal is forecasted to account for 40% of generated electricity worldwide, ahead of natural gas, nuclear, petroleum,
and all renewable sources. A byproduct of coal combustion is coal ash, the properties of which are useful to civil,
commercial, and residential construction. This manuscript challenges the notion that coal should be discouraged as fuel
source. Instead, it should be leveraged to encourage the continued rise in sustainable development indicators, while also
facilitating the capacity to invest in mitigation strategies, alternative fuels, and research that would yield an engineering
understanding of climate change.
Keywords: Coal, Sustainable Development, Climate Change, Carbon
1. Introduction
Worldwide sustainable development depends on access
to energy. Much of the worlds energy policy is guided
by the premise that the use of coal to generate electricity
is contributing to global climate change and as such
should be reduced as soon as possible. Government
regulation, litigation, academic research, and popular
media all align with this narrative. Advocacy groups
discourage investments in companies which buy, sell, or
otherwise use coal, and seek to block coal-fired power
plant construction in the U.S. and in U.S.-financed
projects in the developing world. The objective of this
paper is to critically evaluate this anti-coal premise in the
context of sustainable development, using considerations
of benefits, costs, and uncertainty to suggest an
alternative perspective.
2. Background
In government, achieving policy objectives typically
requires influencing public opinion, financial incentives,
laws/regulations or combinations thereof. Environmental
policy in particular has been driven primarily by
regulation, the benefits of which are widely appreciated
in terms of clean air, water, and soil that collectively
support human and ecological health. In developed
countries, virtually all measurable contaminant
indicators in air, water, or soil have either been reduced
to levels for which direct exposure yields no measurable
risk or have been contained to specific locations to which
exposure routes are controlled (e.g., risk-based corrective
action at legacy industrial waste sites). For example, the

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) uses 30
parts per billion (ppb) of sulfur dioxide (average annual
value) as a federal standard for healthy air. As of 2013,
the EPA estimates that more than 90% of U.S. locations
have levels that are less than 5 ppb, a value that
continues to decrease [1].
The air has never been cleaner. So the next frontier
in environmental policy is focused on regulating carbon
dioxide (CO2) as part of an effort to reduce its presence
in the atmosphere from its current level 0.040% to
0.035% [2]. In the U.S., for example, more regulations
aimed specifically at reducing coal use have been
promulgated in the past six years than in the preceding
century. These regulations cover all aspects of coal
exploration, mining, processing, transport, combustion,
and disposal. While cumulatively significant, many of
these regulations are individually incremental in nature,
with the exception of the EPAs proposed rules entitled
Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing
Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units,
[3] and Standards of Performance for Greenhouse Gas
Emissions From New Stationary Sources: Electric Utility
Generating Units [4]. These two regulations address
current and future coal-fired electric generating units in
the U.S. In terms of current generation, proposed rules
would require nationwide idling of current units to result
in an approximately 30% reduction in CO2 emission. For
future generation, the regulation eliminates coal as a
viable fuel source unless carbon capture technology is
utilized. Specifically, the rule for future generation limits
CO2 emission to a standard of 1,100 lb CO2/MWh (500
* Corresponding
author. Tel.: +17046871219

Fax: +17046871739; E-mail: jodaniel@uncc.edu
Page 16
Author et. al. / INDECS-15
kg CO2/MWh), while current coal fired plants generate

2249 lb CO2/MWh (1021 kg CO2/MWh) on average.
That difference can only be achieved by carbon capture
and storage (CCS) technology, which has not been
viably demonstrated on a commercial scale.
in turn depend on coal. In recorded world history, more

electricity has been derived from coal than any other fuel
source. Figure 1 presents data for the India, the U.S. and
the world for the past forty years.
The foregoing discussion on benefits and costs illustrates

an inherent challenge to sustainable development, what
some authors have referred to as the energy-economyenvironment dilemma [7]. Simply put, we need lowcost energy to meet basic human needs, however the
provision and use of such energy is thought to prevent
these needs from being met. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) notes that the largest
known human contribution to climate change comes
from the burning of fossil fuels, accounting for 78% of
the total increase in greenhouse gas emissions from
1970-2010 [8]. And yet, sustainable development
depends upon electrification and infrastructure, and these
70
60
50
40
30
India
United States
World
20
10
0
1975
1985
1995
2005
2015
Figure 1. Percent of electricity derived from coal from

1975-2015; data from the International Energy Agency
[9]
Worldwide, coal use continues to rise, accounting
for more than 40% of electricity generation [9]. In India,
approximately 70% of electricity is generated through
coal combustion. In the U.S., the percent of electricity
generated from coal has decreased significantly in the
past five years because of regulation, anti-coal advocacy,
and the widespread availability of natural gas. Hydraulic
fracturing technology in particular has enabled natural
gas supplies to increase twenty-fold in the past decade
[10], as shown in Figure 2.
1.2
Dry Shale Gas Production
(billion cubic meters/day)
2. Coals Role in Sustainable Development
Percent of Electricity Derived From Coal
80
By statute, the EPA is required to consider the

benefits and costs of any proposed regulation. The extent
and basis of benefit/cost consideration was recently
debated for a rule entitled National Emission Standards
for Hazardous Air Pollutants from Coal- and Oil-fired
Electric Utility Steam Generating Units and Standards of
Performance for Fossil-Fuel-Fired Electric Utility,
Industrial-Commercial-Institutional,
and
Small
Industrial-Commercial- Institutional Steam Generating
Units [5], known in its abbreviated form as the Mercury
and Air Toxics Standard (MATS). As the shorter title
implies, the rules were intended to reduce emission of
mercury and other constituents from coal-fired power
plants. For this particular rule, EPA asserted that it did
not have to consider compliance costs. It did however
provide an estimate in the amount of US$9.6
billion/year. The estimated monetized benefits varied
depending on how indirect effects were considered.
Direct benefits of reducing the emission of mercury and
other elements was estimated to be three orders of
magnitude less than compliance costs, at US$4-6
million/year. However a byproduct of meeting these
reduced emissions would also have been to lower
exceedingly fine particulate matter, e.g., those particles
with diameters less than 2.5 m (PM2.5). The reduction
in PM 2.5 particulate matter was not the intent of the rule
however its removal was estimated to yield health
benefits, primarily in the form of reduced premature
mortality, in the amount of US$37-90 billion/year.
While EPA asserted that costs should not be considered,
it included these co-benefits to conclude that overall
benefits outweighed the costs in any case. The state of
Michigan sued the EPA for this rule and on June 29,
2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against the EPA [6].
In writing for the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote
The Agency must consider costincluding, most
importantly, cost of compliancebefore deciding
whether regulation is appropriate and necessary.
1.0
0.8
0.6
Antrim (MI, IN, & OH)
Bakken (ND)
Woodford (OK)
Barnett (TX)
Fayetteville (AR)
Eagle Ford (TX)
Haynesville (LA & TX)
Marcellus (PA & WV)
Utica (OH, PA & WV)
Rest of US 'shale'
0.4
0.2
0.0
Figure 2. Increase in shale gas production in the U.S.

since 2000; data from Energy Information
Administration [10]
Despite these factors and as with the rest of the world,
coal is forecasted to be the dominant fuel source in the
U.S. through 2040, accounting for 36% of generated
electricity, ahead of natural gas, nuclear, petroleum, and
all renewable sources, as shown in Figure 3 [11].
Page 17

reduces the GDP and decreases the ability for
investments in any other activity, including research and
development (R&D). It is reinforcing cycle in the sense
that investments in R&D can, in turn, yield advances
which improve GDP [16,17].
2000
Billion Kilowatt Hours
1800
1600
1400
1200
4. Benefits, Costs, and Uncertainty
1000
800
600
Coal
Natural Gas
Nuclear Power
Renewable Sources
400
200
0
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
Year
Figure 3. Forecasted sources of electricity in the U.S.
through 2040, data from the Energy Information
Administration [11]
Increased electrification contributes to multiple
indicators of sustainable development, including greater
gross domestic product, increased life expectancy, and
reduced
infant/toddler
mortality.
Specifically,
electrification is a prerequisite for providing supplies of
clean water, functional medical facilities, and
refrigerated vaccines [12]. The correlation between lowcost coal-fired electricity and global health measures has
been presented by the author [13] and others [14]. For
example, Figure 4 provides data on the under-age five
mortality in India, the U.S., and the world [15].
Under-age Five Mortality Rate,

per 1000 births
250
India
United States
World
200
150
So in returning to the energy-economy-environmental

dilemma, we note that we need low cost sources of
electricity despite their environmental concerns. While
seemingly utilitarian, a cost-benefit approach provides
useful context in which to consider uncertainty and
social considerations. Such an approach can be observed
in the evolution of air emission control policies, from
gross particulate matter control, to nitrogen/sulfur
oxides, to the currently proposed regulation of CO2. The
first coal fired power plant in North Carolina was
constructed in 1926. There was no provision to remove
the particulate matter and for decades it simply emanated
from tall flue gas chimneys in the form of coal fly ash.
By the 1970s, particulate control technology was
relatively common, achieved through electrostatic
precipitators or baghouse filters. Similarly, since 1990, a
significant fraction of coal-fired power plants have been
constructed or retrofitted to reduce emissions from
nitrogen oxides through selective catalytic reduction and
from sulfur oxides through flue gas desulfurization. In
comparison to carbon capture and storage, the costs of
these changes were relatively small in comparison to
either the U.S. gross domestic product or the revenue of
a given utility. For its part, the U.S. EPA estimated that
between 1970 and 1990, the Clean Air Act (CAA)
legislation of 1970 resulted in a variety of health-related
benefits valued in the range of US$ 6-50 trillion dollars.
Compliance with this legislation was estimated at US$
520 billion [18] and these costs were absorbed during a
time in which the GDP grew by a factor of five.
In the case of CO2 regulation, there is a significant
difference in the benefits, costs, and associated
uncertainty of the calculations. This is illustrated
conceptually in Figure 5.
100
50
$100
0
1975
Benefits
1985
1995
2005
Costs
2015
Figure 4. Under age five mortality rate for India, the

U.S., and the World; data from [15]
In addition to facilitating a globally rising standard of
living, low-cost sources of electricity such as coal
provide the capacity to make investments in the research
required to develop an engineering-level understanding
of climate change, mitigation strategies, and costeffective renewable sources of energy [13]. This is
because energy costs have a direct effect on a countrys
gross domestic product (GDP). Increasing energy costs
$10
$1
$0
Particulate
NOx/Sox
CO2 capture
Figure 5. Conceptual comparison benefits and costs for

the removal of particulate matter (e.g., 1970s),
Page 18

nitrogen/sulfur oxides (e.g., 1990s) and carbon dioxide
capture (e.g., currently proposed).
As shown, the benefits of cleaner air from removing
large particulate matter (e.g., coal fly ash) as well as
nitrogen and sulfur oxides are demonstrably larger than
the costs. That said, we can estimate compliance costs
with far greater precision than we can benefits, given
that the former can be readily estimated with actual
equipment costs and the latter derive from macro-level
correlations with subjective assumptions. The cost to
build or retrofit a power plant is far more predictable, as
is its effect on the economy. In the case of CO2 capture,
the benefits are even more nebulous. Efforts are made to
assign a monetary value to the presumed ability of coal
fired power plants to contribute to climate change. This
is referred to as the social cost of carbon (SCC) and
includes
predicted
reductions
in
agricultural
productivity, reductions in human health, property
damage from increased floods, and reduced functioning
of ecosystems.
To enlarge the combined uncertainty, these
correlations and assumptions are linked in series to
another suite of correlations and assumptions that
connect carbon dioxide with weather patterns and
temperature. For example, although the IPCC and others
have widely reported that there has been a hiatus in
warming for the past 17 years (e.g., no correlation
between carbon dioxide and global temperatures), a
recent publication [19] has demonstrated that perhaps
this hiatus is actually a function of data biases. The
authors employ a series of correlations, corrections, and
assumptions to ultimately conclude that warming has
indeed been occurring after all. In reality, there is no
validated equation that can relate a given or proposed
coal fired power plant to its effect on global sea level rise
nor with the frequency, severity, or location of extreme
weather, e.g., tornados, hurricanes, droughts, and floods.
Moreover, many such forecasts, when monetized,
presume credit for an entire storms worth of damage,
not merely the increase beyond that which is naturally
occurring.
The result is that there is less precision when using
CO2 emission data to project a cost on society in
comparison to the direct benefits we observe from
electrification (e.g., Figure 4). Similarly, a comparison of
GDP data with energy costs reveals a strong, predictable
correlation that has not been decoupled in developed
economies in which the service sector has
disproportionately increased [20]. Nevertheless, using a
modeling approach with a varying suite of assumptions
[21] the EPA predicts a range of SCC values from
US$13 to US$138 per ton of carbon dioxide. The bulk of
these costs are forecasted to occur at some point in the
future.
Carbon capture is not a mature technology and as such a
requirement to use it would make electricity more
expensive. In its proposed rules to regulate existing and

proposed coal-fired power plants, the EPA asserts that,
actually, there are no costs. This claim is made because
their modeling [4,21] presumes that from a pragmatic
perspective, no utility will build a coal-fired power plant
regardless of the proposed rules, largely because natural
gas has become so readily available. This logic aside,
there are other estimates of the incremental cost of
requiring carbon capture for coal fired power plants.
David and Herzog [22] note that requiring carbon
capture would add more than US$0.03/kilowatt-hour.
According to the U.S. Energy Information
Administration, North Carolinas price is approximately
US$0.09/kilowatt-hour, thus this would increase prices
by at least 33%. Similarly, the Electric Power Institute
has generated the following comparison of prices [23]:
Table 1. Comparison of cost for carbon capture
technology with coal vs. natural gas combined cycle [23]
Type
Project Name Total
Cost/kW
Plant
(US$)
Output
(MW)
Natural Gas Panda
758
$1,100
Combined
Sherman
Cycle
Plant,
Sherman,
Texas, USA
Coal with SaskPower
110
$11,800
Carbon
Boundary
Capture
Dam
Estevan,
Saskatchewan,
Canada
Coal with Southern
524
$8,800
Carbon
Company
Capture
Kemper
County,
Mississippi,
USA
As shown in Table 1, implementing carbon capture, as
would be necessary to comply with proposed regulation
of CO2 at 1,100 lb CO2/ MWh (500 kg CO2/ MWh),
increases the cost by an order of magnitude. In either
case, these costs are known with far greater accuracy
(smaller standard error bars) than any benefit (or cost) of
climate change. Moreover, such increases impact the
poorest countries in the world and poorest citizens of a
given country.
5. Conclusion
Coal fired power has been the primary source of fuel for
much of the worlds history and it is forecasted to remain
so for the foreseeable future. Its use correlates with a
growing economy in both developing and developed
countries as well as with multiple indicators of
sustainable development. The benefits and costs of coal
Page 19
fired power can be computed with greater precision than

the putative benefits of eliminating coal as a fuel source.
References
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http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/
[2] Hansen, J., M. Sato, P. Kharecha, D. Beerling, R. Berner,
V. Masson-Delmotte, M. Pagani, M. Raymo, D. L. Royer,
J. C. Zachos, Target atmospheric CO2: Where should
humanity aim? Open Atmos. Sci. J. (2008), Vol. 2, pp.
217-231.
[16] Neal, H.A., Smith, T.L. and McCormick, J.B. Beyond

Sputnik, U.S. Science Policy in the 21st Century,
University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI (2008)
[17] Solow, R.M. Technical Change and the Aggregate
Production Function The Review of Economics and
Statistics, 39(3) (1957) 312-320.
[18] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Benefits and
Costs of the Clean Air Act, 1970 to 1990; Report
Prepared for the U.S. Congress. Washington, DC, (1997)
[3] Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing

Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units;
Proposed Rule, U.S. EPA, Washington DC, 2014.
[19] Karl, T. R., Arguez, A., Huang, B., Lawrimore, J.H.,

McMahon, J.R., Menne, M.J., Peterson, T.C., Vose, R.S.,
and Zhang, H-M. Possible artifacts of data biases in the
recent global surface warming hiatus Science vol. 348,
Issue 6242, pp. 1469-1472
[4] Standards of Performance for Greenhouse Gas Emissions

From New Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating
Units. U.S. EPA, Washington DC, 2014.
[20] Stern, D.I. Economic Growth and Energy Encyclopedia

of Energy, Volume 2. 2004 Elsevier Inc.
[5] National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

from Coal- and Oil-fired Electric Utility Steam Generating
Units and Standards of Performance for Fossil-Fuel-Fired
Electric Utility, Industrial-Commercial-Institutional, and
Small
Industrial-CommercialInstitutional
Steam
Generating Units. U.S. EPA, Washington DC, 2012.
[6] Supreme Court of the United States, Syllabus, Michigan et
al. V. Environmental Protecion Agency. No. 1446.
Argued March 25, 2015Decided June 29, 2015.
[7] Holdren, J.P. Science and Technology for Sustainable
Well Being Science (319) (2008) 425-434.
[21] Regulatory Impact Analysis for the Proposed Standards

of Performance for Greenhouse Gas Emissions for New
Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units.
U.S. EPA, Washington DC, 2013.
[22] David, J., and Herzog, H. The cost of carbon captur
MIT, Cambridge, MA
[23] Phillips, J.N. The Need for Continued Research &
Development of Coal Power, Electric Power Research
Institute, April 13, 2015.
[8] IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report.

Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and
L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.
[9] International Energy Agency Statistics, Paris, France, as
compiled by the World Bank, World Development
Indicators (2015)
[10]Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas Weekly
Update for week ending July 15, 2015, accessed
7/25/15:http://www.eia.gov/naturalgas/weekly/archive/201
5/07_16/index.cfm
[11]International Energy Outlook 2013 with Projections to
2040. U.S. Energy Information Administration. U.S.
Department of Energy, available at www.eia.gov/ieo/
[12] The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A
Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits, The World Bank,
2008, Washington, DC.
[13] Daniels, J.L. Coal and Sustainable Science Policy Sixth
International Conference of ICSAELS, October 11-15
(2011), Chongqing, China
[14] Epstein, A. The Moral Case for Fossil Fuels, Penguin
Group, LLC, New York, 2014, 248 p.
[15] United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality
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Page 20
International Conference on Infrastructure Development for Environmental Conservation and Sustenance

(INDECS-15)
EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS FOR MINIMIZING LOSS OF LIFE AND DAMAGE TO

INFRASTRUCTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Tad.S. Murty1 and Abdulraheem Masoud2
irst Author
in
Adjunct Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa, K1L0A9, Ottawa, Canada.
2
Master student, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa, K1L0A9, Ottawa, Canada.
JPEG Format
Abstract
For sustainable development, two major factors need to be considered: Climate Change and Natural Hazards. While recognizing the
fact that climate change is extremely relevant, in this article, we cannot do justice to such a complex phenomenon; it would need at
least a dozen papers, if not more. Hence, I will deal mainly with natural disasters. Countries like China and India, with populations
of over one billion, are particularly vulnerable to natural disasters. Here, we will discuss some of the fundamentals and the problems
with early warning systems, with particular attention to coastal infrastructure. There are three types of natural hazards: permanent,
evanescent and episodic. Permanent hazards like tides, wind waves and coastal erosion do not require early warning systems.
However, they are routinely monitored. Evanescent hazards like droughts, climate change, and sea level rise have no clear
beginning or ending. Hence, it is very difficult to develop early warning systems for those hazards. Only episodic hazards have clear
beginnings and endings, and early warning systems are in use in many countries, with varying success. Some examples of such
hazards are: earthquakes, cyclones (hurricanes, typhoons), storm surges, tsunamis, river floods, landslides, etc. The only major
natural hazard for which there is no early warning system is (are?) earthquakes. At the moment, NATECH and multi-tier
hazards are also on the rise. Some of the problems in the mathematical modeling of these hazards are the following: aliasing,
sampling bias, clustering, precision versus accuracy, multi-pli connected systems in a hydrodynamic sense, and modeling of coastal
inundation from storm surges and tsunamis. In an Eulerian system, this becomes a mathematically ill-posed problem, because of
multiple paths. However, this can be better studied in a Lagrangian modeling approach.
Keywords: Sustainable, infrastructure, hazard
1. Introduction
Sustained development not only means protecting the
already existing infrastructure, but also erecting new
infrastructure in an environmentally friendly manner. Since
climate change is an ongoing process, it would be unwise and
even dangerous not to factor this in all developmental
projects. The main threat to infrastructure is from natural
hazards, which may vary not only from country to country,
but even in different parts of any country. Whereas Early
Warning Systems (EWS) are mainly developed to protect
life, they are at the same time also useful for attempts to
reduce damage to infrastructure. It is unrealistic to expect
that EWS can somehow help to entirely eliminate damage.
What is more probable is that these can assist in minimizing

the damage to infrastructure.
2. Types of natural hazards

Natural hazards can be broadly classified into three
categories. Permanent hazards like astronomical tides, wind
waves and coastal erosion, do not need EWS, since they are
routinely monitored. Evanescent hazards are those that have
no clear beginning or ending, hence it is very difficult to
develop EWS for them. Examples of such hazards are
climate change, sea level rise and droughts. On the other
hand, episodic hazards have a well-defined beginning and
ending. Examples include, but not limited to: earthquakes,
cyclones, river floods, landslides, storm surges and tsunamis,
tornadoes, thunderstorms, and meso-scale weather systems
Page 21
Murty et. al. / INDECS-15
such as squall lines. EWS are in existence for such hazards,

except for earthquakes.
In recent years, another type of hazard, referred to as
NATECH hazard is also occurring. This is the situation in
which a natural hazard triggers a technological hazard. Some
example are weather systems causing air plane accidents,
earthquakes causing landslides, deforming railway tracks
leading to train accidents disturbing radio-active dumps,
thereby releasing radio activity into the atmosphere.
Another example of vertically transverse waves is light

waves. Tides, storm surges and tsunamis are long gravity
waves which can cause coastal inundation, thereby causing
loss of life and damage to coastal infrastructure. On the other
hand, wind waves are short period (and short wavelength)
gravity waves. They cannot climb land as they break at the
coastline.
The third type of waves are horizontally transverse waves
(also called Rossby waves, named after their inventor, Carl
Rossby, a famous Swedish meteorologist) (Figure 3).
Multi-tier hazards are those in which one natural hazard leads

to other natural hazards. In 2013 such a hazard occurred in
Uttarkhand in northwest India. A cloud burst caused river
floods which then triggered landslides. In this article, we will
mostly concentrate on coastal hazards.
3. Ocean waves
There are essentially three types of waves in the oceans
(Thompson, 1961). The first type are longitudinal waves,
because as the wave propagates in a horizontal direction, the
particles move back and forth in the same directions due to
compression and rarefaction. These are also called sound
waves or acoustic waves (figure 1).
Fig. 3 horizontally transverse waves, (from Thompson, 1983

)
As the wave moves from west to east, the particles move

towards north and south. These waves exist due to the socalled Beta effect, ie. variation of the Coriolis parameter with
latitude. These waves are very important for ocean
circulation studies and weather forecasting in midlatitudes. Figures 4 and 5 respectively show the short and
long
wave
ocean
spectra.
Fig. 1 sound waves, (from Thompson, 1983)
The second type is vertically transverse waves. As the wave

propagates in a horizontal direction, the particles move up
and down in the direction of gravity. Those are called gravity
waves (figure 2).
Fig. 4 short wave ocean spectra, (from Platzman, 1971)
Fig. 5 (long wave ocean spectra, ( from Platzman, 1971)
Fig. 2 vertically transverse waves, (from Thompson, 1983)
Page 22
4. Clustering
Astronomers tell us that if the material in the universe were
uniformly distributed, there wouldnt be any galaxies, solar
systems and planets. Therefore, clustering in space and time
is a fundamental property in all fields. In the 1950's the socalled Hurst phenomenon (clustering in time) was recognized
in the field of hydrology. Natural disasters like floods and
droughts appear to cluster in time. Later it was recognized
that clustering occurs in all fields of geophysics. For
example, the recent earthquake in Nepal during April-May
2015 is a good example of clustering in time after a long
break, when the previous disastrous earthquake in that
country happened in 1934 or so.
Figure 7 shows the cyclone tracks across Thailand, also

depicting space clustering.
Fig. 7 the cyclone tracks across Thailand, (from

VONGVISESSOMJAI, Personal communication 1994)
5. Aliasing, Nyquist frequency and sampling

The more general phenomenon of clustering is referred to as
the Joseph effect (Mandelbrot and wallis, 1968). A somewhat
related NOAH effect refers to the fact that when extreme
events happen, they are indeed very extreme, such as in the
proverb," when it rains, it pours". The Eden effect suggests
that everything is possible, if you wait long enough in space
and time. In time, we can wait long enough, but earth has
finite dimensions. The names of these effects are of Biblical
origin.
If any periodic process (solid curve fig 8 ) is not sampled

frequently enough, the process will be misrepresented as
showed in the doted curve in figure 8
Figure 6 shows the areas of cyclogenesis in the Indian

Ocean. Clustering in space can be easily seen.
Fig. 8 the phenomenon of aliasing , (Modified from Courtney ,

2015)
In view of the clustering discussed above, it is not advisable

to use a uniform step in space and time for sampling during
post event field surveys, following natural disasters. As is it
shown in figure 8, inadequate sampling leads to wrong
periodicities dominating the signal, and totally contaminating
it. Below, three examples of aliasing are given.
A) Earth rotates from west to east and the sun appears to
move from east to west in the sky with 24 hours between two
consecutive sun rises. If we take a photo of the sky every 23
hours, the sun would appear to move from west to east with
552 hours (24x23) between two sun rises.
Fig. 6 cyclogenesis in the Indian ocean , ( from RAMAGE, 1971)
Page 23
B) For a diurnal tide, the period between two successive high

waters (HW) or between two successive low waters (LW) is
approximately 24 hours. If the ocean level is sampled every
23 hours, we get a periodicity of 552 hours.
C) For a semi-diurnal tide, the period is approximately 12
hours. If the sampling of the water level is done every 11
hours, a period of 132 hours (12x11) will be obtained.
Fig. 9 Sins of omission and commission, ( from C. Starr, 1969)
To avoid temporal aliasing, one can use the Nyquist

frequency criterion, which states that the sampling frequency
must be at least twice or greater than the highest frequency of
interest. To put this in periodicity terms, suppose we are
interested in some physical process with a dominant period of
ten minutes. This means we must sample the process at least
every five minutes, but in practice, we should sample it more
frequently, about every one-minute.
6. Sins of omission and commission

In mathematical modeling, sins of omission refer to the fact
that the model error increases if enough detail is not included,
which is understandable. Sins of commission refer to the fact
that the model error also increases if too much unnecessary
detail is included. This is not obvious, and needs further
explanation (figure 9)
gave the following values in units of centimeters per Second

Square: 672.31, 672.32, 672.30. This instrument is very
precise because it is reproducing almost the same results, but
is terribly inaccurate because the correct value is 980.
B) A new thermometer to measure the temperature of the
human body gave the following values: 98.14, 98.15, 98.13
degrees Celsius. Again, the instrument is very precise, but is
very inaccurate because the correct value should be 37.6.
One can ask the question, if an instrument can be accurate,
but not precise. Generally, this is not possible because by
chance, an occasional reading could be correct, but the results
cannot be reproduced.
8.
An example is the early attempt in numerical weather
forecasting. In the 1920's in L.F. Richardson in U.K.
attempted to predict weather through numerical integration
and failed. His failure was due to the fact that he included
too much unnecessary detail. More specifically, his equations
included not only the slow moving Rossby waves ( relevant
for weather forecasting in mid-latitudes ), but also the fast
moving surface gravity waves, which are irrelevant for
weather forecasting. These gravity waves contaminated the
solutions to such a degree, that his model failed. Later in the
late 1940's and early 1950's, this problem was solved through
eliminating the gravity waves from the equations.
7.
Solids versus fluids
The question is often asked: how come we can predict solar

and lunar eclipses hundreds of years ahead, but we cannot
accurately predict tomorrow's weather? This can be answered
through the Cauchy-Stokes decomposition. Solids and fluids
in principle, undergo (Figure 10) translation, rotation,
dilation and deformation, except the fact that deformation is
negligible in solids under normal conditions. However, fluids
have no shape, and they take the shape of the container in
which they are placed. This is the fundamental difference
between solids and fluids.
Precision versus accuracy
The difference between precision and accuracy is generally

not well understood. It is generally assumed that they are one
and the same, which is not correct. Observational records
may be precise, but are not necessarily accurate. Couples of
examples to show that they are different are given below.
A) Suppose a new device to measure the gravity of the earth
is developed. Three measurements using this new instrument
Fig. 10 Cauchy-Stokes decomposition
Page 24
While solid bodies obey the Newton's second law of motion,

for fluids, several additional terms have to be included in the
equations.
9.
Irregular motion, nonlinear problems and step

function
Some examples of irregular movement are the movement

of oil slicks and icebergs. We know how to deal with
irregular motion to some extent. In principle, any irregular
line is made up of a combination of sine waves with different
periods, wave lengths and phases (Fourier theorem). For
nonlinear problems, we cannot simply extrapolate over the
whole range of occurrences. For example, small earthquakes
do not generate small tsunamis; rather, the earthquake has to
have a magnitude over a critical threshold, before a tsunami
can be generated. Hence this is more a step function type of
problem.
10.
11.
Coastal inundation from storm surges
The amplitude of a storm surge is directly proportional to the

square of the wind speed and inversely proportional to the
water depth (Murty, 1984, Goennert et al, 2001). Hence, on
shallow continental shelves, the surge will grow in
amplitude. Figure 11 shows the wide continental shelves in
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea where significant
surges occur.
Probability versus determinism
In nature, everything is probabilistic, at least to some

degree. Einstein stated that God does not play dice with
nature. However, later he changed his mind and developed
the Bose-Einstein statistics in Quantum Mechanics. Because
of errors in observational data and shortcomings in our
mathematical techniques, science can give only probabilistic
forecasts, which the public does not like. Suppose the
weather forecast for tomorrow calls for a 30% probability of
rain. Then either one can increase the probability to 100%
and take an umbrella or decrease it to zero and do not take an
umbrella.
Similarly, suppose the forecast calls for colder weather with a
probability of 70%. Again, one can increase the probability to
100% and wear a sweater or decrease it to zero and not wear
a sweater; these are not life and death issues.
Fig. 11 continental shelves of the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea
Figure 12 shows the surge build up on the coast of

Bangladesh during November 1970. In the deep water, the
surge (gravity wave) is travelling much faster than the
weather system over the bay. However, closer to the coast
where the water is shallow, the speeds of the gravity wave
and the weather system roughly match, therefore resonant
transfer of energy occurs from the weather system to the
gravity wave, and the surge amplitude increases.
What about a prediction that there is a 50% chance of a 5

meter storm surge or a tsunami hitting the coastline. Either
one can increase it 100% and evacuate thousands of
people or decrease it to zero and do no evacuation. Either
decision is fraught with danger. Supposed you did massive
evacuation and nothing much happened, then you wasted
people's time and inconvenienced them, and businesses lost
lot of money because they were shut down. On the other
hand if you did not evacuate and several people got killed,
there is a lot of explaining to do why you did not evacuate
Fig. 12 buildup of storm surge (m) in the cost of Bangladesh NOV
1970
Page 25
Sometimes, even if there is no weather system close by,

coastal inundation can occur as it is shown in figure 13, (the
Kallakkadal on the coast of Kerala in India). Long period
swells generated by extra-tropical cyclones traversing
Antarctica can derive energy from an opposing current
through Reynolds eddy stresses and get amplified, hence
flooding the coast.
Figures 15, 16 and 17 show the storm surge area to the right
side of the cyclone tracks in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea.
Fig. 15 storm surge effected area in the bay of Bengal coast

1949 , ( from Rao 1964)
Fig. 13 costal inundation due to remote forcing on the west

coast of India , (from M. Baba, 2005, Personal
communication)
As is shown in figure 14 schematically, in the northern

hemisphere on the right side of the cyclone track, the winds
blow towards the coast, whereas on the left side, they blow
away from the coast. Hence, the maximum surge occurs on
the right side of the track in the northern hemisphere. In the
southern hemisphere, the opposite situation occurs.
Fig. 16 storm surge effected area in the bay of Bengal coast

1952 , ( from Rao 1964 )
Fig. 14 Schematic representation of a hurricane in the

Northern Hemisphere
Fig. 17 storm surge effected area in the Arabian Sea 1964
Page 26
Figure 18 shows the different areas affected by the super

cyclone of October 1999, on the coast of Odisha, in India.
There are four distinct regions, one area that is affected only
by the strong winds, one affected only by river flooding, one
affected only by the storm surge and one affected by both
storm surge and river flooding.
Fig. 20 Maximum storm surge plus tide amplitude (m) along the
cost of Odisha, India
Fig. 18 Regions affected by the super cyclone in October
1999, in Odisha, India
Figures 19 and 20 respectively show the maximum surge

amplitudes and surge plus tide on the same coast for the same
cyclone.
12.
Coastal inundation from tsunamis
A typical tide gauge record of a tsunami is shown in figure

21. One can see the forerunner, the main tsunami waves
(including the initial withdrawal of the ocean) and the
secondary undulations.
It can be seen in figure 22 that most of the tsunami energy is
directed perpendicular to the fault.
Fig. 19 Maximum storm surge amplitude (m) along the cost of Odisha,
India
Page 27
Fig. 21 Typical tide gage record of a tsunami
Fig. 22 Tsunami energy is most directly perpendicular to the fault, (from Lomnitz and
Nilsen-Hofseth, 2005)
Page 28
Figures 23 and 24 respectively show the tsunami travel times

(hours) in the Indian and Pacific oceans. Being much larger,
the travel times in the Pacific Ocean are greater.
Figure 25 shows quarter wave resonance amplification. The

highest positive amplitude occurs at quarter wave length.
Hence if the dimension of the coastal bay matches I/4 of the
wave length of the incoming tsunami, then it will be
amplified.
Fig. 25 Quarter wave resonance amplification of a tsunami
Fig. 23 Tsunami travel time chart for the Indian Ocean
During the 1964 Alaska earthquake tsunami, due to quarter

wave resonance amplification, a tsunami height of about 0.5
meters in the ocean got amplified to about 5.8 m at the head
of the Alberni Inlet on the coast of British Columbia, in
Canada (Figure 26).
Fig. 24 Tsunami travel time chart for the Pacific Ocean
Fig. 26 Alberni inlet on the cost of British Columbia, Canada
Page 29
Sometimes tsunami energy can enter a harbor through a

narrow connecting channel, but cannot get out, which is
similar to Helmholtz resonance (Figure 27).
Fig. 27 Helmholtz resonance in a harbor
Figures 30 and 31 respectively show tsunami waves hitting

the Kerala coast after getting reflected from the
Lakshadweepa Islands and the Somalia coast in Africa.
Fig. 30 Tsunami waves heating the cost of Kerala, India after

getting reflected from the Lakshadweepa Islands
Figures 28 and 29 respectively show the Indian Ocean

tsunami of 26th December 2004 at 2 hours 50 minutes and at
4 hours after generation. One can clearly see the reflected
waves.
Fig. 28 The Indian Ocean tsunam0i 26th of December 2004, at 2

hours and 15 min (from Z. Kowalik, 2005, Personal
communication)
Fig. 31 Tsunami waves striking the cost of Karela after getting

reflected from Somalia in Africa
Figure 32 shows the tsunami amplitudes in the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands of India during the Indian Ocean tsunami of
December 26th 2004.
Fig. 29 The Indian Ocean tsunami 26th of December 2004, at 4

hours (from Z. Kowalik, 2005, Personal communication)
Page 30

= latitude; = angular velocity of earths rotation
The pendulum day depends upon the latitude of the
location. The Pendulam days for the northern tip of the
Andaman Islands and the southern tip of the Nicobar
Islands are shown below:
Southern extreme = 6 N latitude
Length of pendulum day = 231 hours
Northern extreme = 14 N latitude
Length of pendulum day = 100 hours
Fig. 32 Run-up Levels in Andaman & Nicobar Islands
There are two types of oscillations in the oceans. Oscillations

of the First Class (OFC) are Gravoid modes, and Oscillations
of the Second Class (OSC) are Elastoid-inertia modes. Both
are separated by the so-called Pendulam day.
2
2T p
sin
T = period of revolution of a Foucault Pendulum;
p
Long gravity energy can get trapped around islands at least

for one Pendulam day, in reality it could be much longer than
that.
13. Mathematical modeling.

Mathematical modelling could be challenging if the islands
near the coast change their shape due to geological
instability, as it can be seen in Figure 33, for the coast of
Bangladesh.
Figure 34 shows the coast of the state of Tamil Nadu, in
India.
Fig. 33 The changing islands shapes next the cost of Bangladesh
Page 31
Fig. 34 the cost of Tamil Nadu, India (from S.M. Ramasamy, 2005, Personal communication)
The coast of Tamil Nadu is not just the outer line, one should
include all the indentations due to rivers, estuaries, canals,
back waters, lagoons, bays and gulfs. In earlier days, finitedifference models (f-d) with rectangular telescopic grids were
used as is shown in figure 35 for the Bay of Fundy region, in
Canada.
At present one uses much more sophisticated finite-element

models (f-e) with irregular triangular grids for better
resolution, as is shown in figure 36 for the east coast of North
America.
Fig. 35 A telescoping rectangular grid for the Bay of Fundy region

of Canada
Fig. 36 An irregular triangular finite element grid for

the east cost of the USA
Page 32
The computation of coastal inundation from tsunamis and

storm surges is extremely difficult because of multi-pli
connected regions in a hydrodynamic sense, as is shown in
(figure 37).
Figure 39 compares the coastal length for land area for some
countries, while figure 40 compares the population protected
per km of coastal defense. For countries like India, with a
large population, expenditure on coastal defenses make
sense, while for countries like Canada and Australia with
large areas, but small populations, coastal protection (except
in some selected urban regions) could be prohibitively
expensive.
100 91.3
km/1000km2
80
60
40
20
Because of multiple paths, the problem is mathematically ill

posed, either there are too many boundary conditions or too
few, never the exact number needed. Traditionally, Euler
methods were in use because of their ease, but they are not
suitable for coastal inundation calculations. On the other
hand, Lagrangian methods, where we follow the particles, are
better suited. An example is the SPH (Smoothed Particle
Hydrodynamics) method which is being successfully used for
computation of coastal inundation from Tsunamis (Nistor)
14. Coastal Protection
24.1
17
10 6.8 6.2
3.2 2.2 2.1 1.9
Fig. 39 Compression of costal length for land area
200 170
160
120
60
80
38 36
13 0.9 0.8
40
0
P/L
Fig. 37 MUTIPLI CONNECTED REGIONS
51.4
For tsunamis in the Bay of Bengal, there are at least two

sources, the Sumatra area and the Andaman-Nicobar Islands.
For the Arabian Sea, the Makran subduction zone is relevant
Fig. 40 Population protected per km of costal defense
There is also a very practical problem. Figure 41 shows the

coast of Norway. Depending upon the scale used, the length
of the coastline could by orders of magnitude. For erecting
coastal engineering protection works, one has to consider the
Page 33
Fig. 38 The Makran subduction zone in the Arabian Sea and the
Sumatra tsunami genic region in the Bay of Bengal
famous Civil Engineering Scale (CES), defined as the finest

scale at which engineering construction can be done.
[8] Mandelbrot BB, Wallis JR. Noah, Joseph and operational

hydrology, Water Ressources Research, 1968; 4(1) : 1-10.
Fig. 41 The cost of Norway
References
[1] Thompson PD. A history of numerical weather predication in the
United States. Belletin of the American Meteorological Society,
1983; 60 : 755-769.
[2] Starr C. Social benefit versus technological risk. Science, 1969;
165 : 1232-1238.
[3] Ramage CS. Monsoon Meteorology. Academic Press. New
York, 1971.
[4] Platzman GW. Ocean tides and related waves. Lectures for the
American Mathematical Society. Proceedings of the Summer
seminars on mathematical problems in the Geophysical
sciences, held at the Rensselear Polytechnique, Troy, New
York, 1970.
[5] Courteney D. Introduction To Spectrum Analysis . Experimental
Musical Instruments . Page 18-22 Nicasio, CA , 1992.
[6] Rao NSB. On some aspects of local and tropical storms in the
Indian area. PH.D. thesis, Department of Civil Engineering,
Jadavapur University, 1968.
[7] Lomnitz C, Nilsen-Hofseth S. Seismic monitoring of the Indian

Ocean Tsunami, EOS, Transactions of the American
Geographical Union, 2005; 86(7) :66-70.
Page 34
ASSESSING SUSTAINABILITY OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT METHODS:

QUANTITATIVE TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE FRAMEWORK AND CASE STUDY
Krishna R. Reddy 1 and Rajiv K. Giri 2
1
Professor and 2Graduate Research Assistant, University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Civil
and Materials Engineering, 842 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
kreddy@uic.edu, giri2@uic.edu
Abstract
This study examined the overall sustainability of two materials, hydrated lime and Class C fly-ash, used to stabilize the
glacial till subgrade of a new flexible pavement roadway in a rural area outside of Omaha, Nebraska. Two pavement
designs were developed reflecting the improved bearing capacity of the two subgrade stabilizations materials. Design
analyses show that the hydrated lime stabilized subgrade pavement required a thinner wearing surface and base
compared to a Class C fly-ash stabilized subgrade pavement. Sustainability evaluations for both materials were carried
out based on the three pillars of sustainability economic, environmental, and social. The life cycle assessments (LCA)
of both pavement design scenarios were performed using SimaPro 8.1 in order to study the environmental impacts. Nine
different impact categories: (1) ozone depletion, (2) global warming, (3) smog, (4) acidification, (5) eutrophication, (6)
carcinogenics, (7) non-carcinogenics, (8) respiratory effects, and (9) ecotoxicity, were considered to assess
environmental impacts. The study showed that the hydrated lime scenario outperformed the Class C fly-ash scenario in
all with the exception of global warming impacts. Both the economic and social sustainability assessments showed the
hydrated lime scenario to have the lowest impact compared to the Class C fly-ash scenario. When considering the
overall sustainability of a hydrated lime treated subgrade pavement design versus a Class C fly-ash treated subgrade
pavement design, hydrated lime was determined to be more sustainable. Although Class C fly-ash is a recycled material,
hydrated lime still proved to have a lower environmental, social, and economic impact mainly due to the reduced
thickness of the wearing surface and base pavement layers (i.e. less material had to be produced, transported, installed,
maintained, and disposed). This was particularly important for the asphalt wearing surface. The production of asphalt
had the largest environmental impact across all environmental impact sub-categories. It was recommended that there is
need to reduce the asphalt wearing surface where possible in flexible pavements by increasing strength of other
pavement layers including the subgrade.
Keywords: Sustainability, Ground Improvement, Subgrade Stabilization, Life Cycle Assessment, Hydrated Lime, Fly-ash
study focused on two subgrade stabilization materials Hydrated
Lime and Class C Fly-ash (see Figures 2 and 3).
1. Introduction
Currently, several civil engineering infrastructure systems such as
subgrade pavement systems are designed and built mainly based on
evaluating their long-term stability, direct costs, and system
preference. Overall sustainability assessment of these pavement
systems from environmental, social and economic considerations is
not performed. Various life cycle stages of infrastructure systems,
such as material extractions, construction, environmental impacts,
and maintenance and demolition/disposal efforts must be
incorporated, while keeping in mind the overall sustainability of
different civil engineering infrastructure systems.
In this study, firstly, the technical designs are carried out for a new
flexible pavement roadway near Omaha, Nebraska. The pavement
is being constructed on top of glacial till (unstratified soil deposited
by a glacier) with poor load bearing characteristics (see Figure 1).
As was the case in this study, the poor bearing capacity of the
glacial till subgrade necessitated thicker pavement layers to
adequately distribute traffic loads. Alternatively, subgrade
stabilization can improve the bearing capacity of the underlying
soil, reducing the thickness of the overlying pavement layers. This
Fig. 1. Glacial till soil at the proposed site
Both Hydrated Lime and Class C Fly-ash can stabilize a glacial till
subgrade; however, the overall sustainability of these materials is
not necessarily equal. The life cycle of these products (raw
* Corresponding
author. Tel.: +13129964755

E-mail: kreddy@uic.edu
Page 35
Reddy and Giri / INDECS-15
materials extraction, manufacturing, application, and end-of-life

stages) and their impact on the pavement materials have the
propensity for differing economic, environmental, and social
impacts. Selecting Hydrated Lime or Class C Fly-ash as a subgrade
stabilization method for the study roadway was dependent on
which performs better in a sustainability context.
2. Sustainability and Triple Bottom Line Framework

The most commonly used definition of sustainability was given by
1987 UN World Commission on Environment and Development
as: Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. However, it is worth mentioning that the concept of
sustainability or sustainable development means different things to
different people. For example, economists are concerned with
growth, efficiency and resource use. Similarly, sociologists focus
on human needs (i.e. equity, empowerment, social cohesion,
cultural identity), whereas, environmentalists want to preserve the
integrity of environment, live within the carrying capacity of the
earth, and deal with the pollutants. Sustainability evaluation of any
given activity, product, or structural system should be based on the
triple bottom line concept of environmental, economic and social
considerations.
2.1. Environmental Sustainability
Fig. 2. Hydrated lime treated soil
Fig. 3. Class C fly-ash soil
Lime powder (calcium hydroxide) is produced through a process of

crushing limestone and heating to extreme high temperatures.
Hydrated lime is lime that has been slaked (i.e. water added) for
easier application [1]. Lime is inherently hydrophilic and reduces
the shrink-swell of treated soils. Lime particles also bind together
in a cementatious nature improving the overall strength of the
treated soil [2].
Fly-ash is a by-product of burning coal in electric and steam plants.
Fly-ash mainly consists of fine oxides of silicon, aluminum, iron,
and calcium [1]. Class C fly-ash has a high content of lime
(between 15 and 30 percent); therefore, it exhibits mainly similar
characteristics to hydrated lime [3].
These two additives are commonly used in highway road
construction to improve the properties of the subgrade, such as the
reduction of the plasticity index, the swelling potential and longterm strength gain. They are also used in cases where the subgrade
creates poor working conditions, especially when using large
machinery to transport materials on site. With proper compaction
and application of these agents, the load-bearing capacity of the
subgrade can be greatly improved.
The main objective of this study was to assess the overall
sustainability, including the life cycle impacts, of hydrated lime
and Class C fly-ash to determine which should be used in the
subgrade stabilization of roadway outside Omaha, Nebraska. The
life cycle assessment (LCA) is modeled using SimaPro 8.1. The
scope of the LCA includes the entire life cycles of hydrated lime
and Class C fly-ash from raw-material extraction, to
manufacturing, to application, and end of life.
In addition, social sustainability tools and analyses were employed
to investigate the social acceptance of each selected subgrade
pavement. It is important to note that social sustainability is based
on individuals perception and can be subjective. Cost analyses
were also carried out to look into the economic viability for all
considered pavement systems.
Environmental assessment invariably focuses on diversity and

interdependence within living systems, the goods and services
produces by the worlds ecosystems, and the impacts of human
wastes. According to SETAC (1999) (Society of Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry), Life Cycle Assessment is a process to
evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product,
process, or activity by identifying and quantifying energy and
materials used and wastes released to the environment; to assess
the impact of those energy and materials used and releases to the
environment; and to identify and evaluate opportunities to affect
environmental improvements [4]. The assessment includes the
entire life cycle of the product, process or activity, encompassing,
extracting and processing raw materials; manufacturing,
transportation and distribution; use, re-use, maintenance; recycling,
and final disposal.
In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) is conducted using
SimaPro 8.1 software that allows users to assess the life cycle of a
product or a system for environmental impacts, from raw material
extraction through material processing, manufacture, distribution,
use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling [5]. LCA
compiles an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs, and
uses this data to evaluate the potential impacts. In SimaPro,
environmental impact assessment can be performed using different
methodologies, of which Eco-Indicator 99 method is commonly
adopted. Eco-indicator 99 defines three types of environmental
damage: Human Health, Ecosystem Quality, and Resources. Each
damage category consists of a number of impact categories all
measured in the same units (kPt). The kPt is a standard eco-indictor
unit that is used to compare different products or activities
affecting environment, and it defined as total environmental load of
a project/number of inhabitants [5]. This facilitates interpretation of
the results, allowing analysis of the data separately for each
damage category without applying any subjective weighting.
2.2 Economic Sustainability
Economic evaluation determines the flow of financial capital, and
the facilitation of commerce. Economic sustainability is performed
by considering all the financial life cycle costs that incur for the
manufacture and transportation of materials during the life cycle of
Page 36
different subgrade pavement structures. The quantities of materials

required for construction of pavements are calculated along with
the transportation and labor costs, and the corresponding life cycle
costs are determined.
2.3 Social Sustainability
Social sustainability occurs when the formal and informal
processes, systems, structures, and relationships actively support
the capacity of current and future generations to create healthy and
liveable communities. Socially sustainable communities are
equitable, diverse, connected and democratic and provide a good
quality of life (The Western Australia Council of Social Services,
WACOSS). Social dimension of sustainability has received little
attention. Social issues vary geographically, and developing any
unified assessment methods is challenging. Social impacts are
invariably evaluated based on interactions between institutes/firms
and people, functions expressive of human values, aspiration and
well-being, and ethical issues.
3. Case Study
soils. The quantity of lime used to stabilize most soils is usually

between 5% and 10% [1].
Fly-ash is a by-product of coal combustion process in electric
power generating plants. The quantity of fly-ash used to stabilize
most soils is usually between 5% and 15% [1].
3.1.4 Pavement Design Concept
In general, there are two types of pavement structures: flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. Flexible pavements are
constructed with an asphaltic concrete wearing surface and a base
and subbase layer of varying materials. A rigid pavement is
constructed with a layer of Portland cement concrete slab and
subbase of varying types of aggregate [6]. This study is based on a
flexible pavement design.
The basic equation for flexible pavement design is given in the
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures [7]. This
equation allows engineers to determine the structural number
(thickness index) for given axle loadings, reliability, overall
standard deviation, change in serviceability, and the soil resilient
modulus.
3.1 Technical Design

3.1.1 Flexible Pavements
Flexible pavements consist of four layers wearing surface, base,
subbase, and subgrade (see Figure 4).
Descriptions of the variables, that are part of the basic equation for
flexible-pavement design (AASHTO Equation), are listed in Table
1. Assumed values and a rationale for why they were selected are
listed in Table 2.
Table 1. AASHTO equation variables
Fig. 4. Flexible pavement system
The wearing surface is made of asphaltic cement. The base layer is

typically made of coarse aggregate materials. In high traffic
volume situations aggregate combined with a cementitious material
or concrete are also used. The subbase layer consists of smaller
aggregates such as crushed stone or gravel. The subgrade layer is
the soil.
Variable
Variable Name
Description
Typical
Values
W18
18-kipequivalent
single-axle load.
The equivalent pavement

impact as an 18-kip
single-axle load.
Varies
ZR
Reliability (zstatistic from the

standard normal
curve).
S0
Overall standard
deviation of
traffic
SN
Structural
Number
PSI
Loss in
Serviceability
form the time
the pavement is
3.1.2 Need for Subgrade Stabilization

Flexible pavement layers must provide the following: shear
strength, stiffness, resistance to moisture, stability, and durability.
Often, in-situ soils do not meet these requirements. Improvement of
soil bearing characteristics by using additives is one solution to
poor soil quality.
3.1.3 Materials for Subgrade Stabilization
Lime is formed by the decomposition of limestone at elevated
temperatures. The addition of lime helps increase the strength of
Estimates the likelihood

that the pavement will
perform at or above the
terminal serviceability
index (TSI the point at
which pavement needs
rehabilitation or
replacement)
Accounts for variability
in design assumptions,
materials, and
construction practices.
The structural
requirement needed to
sustain the designs traffic
loadings.
Loss of serviceability loss
over the life of the
pavement.
90% or
higher for
highways
50% or
higher for
roadways
Between
0.30 to 0.50
Varies
About 1.2
for heavy
traffic loads
and 2.7 for
Page 37
new until it
reaches its TSI
Soil resilient
modulus of the
subgrade in
lb/in2
MR
Reflects the properties of

the soil under repeated
load. California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) is more
widely used. CBR is the
ratio of load-bearing
capacity of the soil to the
load-bearing capacity of
the aggregate multiplied
by 100.
Pavement
Layer
Wearing
surface
Determined
by field tests
Base
Subbase
Table 2. AASHTO equation assumptions

Variable
W18
Value
Calculated
Reliability (ZR)
-1.645
Overall Standard
Deviation (S0)
0.45
Rationale
Assuming 95%
Reliability. Typical
for interstate
highways.
Typical values
between 0.3 and
0.50.
Source
Principles of
Highway
Engineering
and Traffic
Analysis, 4th
Edition - Page
109
Calculated
4.2
Determined by
AASHTO Road
Test conditions
Terminal
Serviceability
Index (TSI)
2.5
Recommended by
AASHTO for
design of highways
AASHTO
Guide for
Design of
Pavement
Structures,
1993 - Page I-8
Soil Resilient
Modulus (MR)
Calculated
Structural
Number (SN)
Initial Design
Serviceability
Index (PSI)
Table 4. Structural layer coefficients
light traffic
loads.
3.1.5 Structural Number

The structural number, SN, is the structural requirement needed to
sustain the designs traffic loadings. The structural number is
expressed with the following equation:
Table 3.
Variable
1
2
3
D1
D2
D3
M2
M3
Structural number equation variables
Description
Structural-layer coefficient of the
wearing surface
Structural-layer coefficient of the base
Structural-layer coefficient of the
subbase
Thickness of the wearing surface
Thickness of the base
Thickness of the subbase
Drainage coefficients of the base
Drainage coefficients of subbase
Coefficient
Sand-mix asphaltic concrete

Hot-mix asphaltic concrete
Crushed stone
Dense-graded crushed stone
Soil cement
Emulsion/aggregate-bituminous
Portland cement/aggregate
Lime-pozzolan/aggregate
Hot-mix asphaltic concrete
Crushed stone
0.35
0.44
0.14
0.18
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.11
3.1.6 Design Alternatives Considered

The following three design alternatives were considered for this
study:
Baseline Design 1: Flexible-Pavement for Untreated Soil
Design Option No. 1: Flexible-Pavement for Lime Treated

Soil
Design Option No. 2: Flexible-Pavement for Class C Fly-Ash

Treated Soil
Baseline design was created only for comparison purpose. Design
options 1 & 2 were compared with this baseline design, and effects
of subgrade stabilizations were evaluated.
3.1.7 Design Parameters
As shown in Table 5, a variety of materials can be used for base
and subbase of flexible pavements. The wearing surface of flexible
pavement is always hot-mix asphaltic concrete. AASHTOs Guide
[7] for Design of Pavement Structures suggests crushed stone and
sandy gravel as typical materials for base and subbase layers,
respectively. A crushed stone base and sandy gravel subbase were
selected for this study. Table 5 presents the details of each
pavement component including the layer coefficient necessary for
the structural number calculation.
(2)
This equation relates individual material types and thicknesses to
the structural number. Descriptions of the variables, that are part of
the SN equation, are listed in Table 3. Typical values for the
structural-layer coefficients are presented in Table 4.
Pavement component
Table 5. Pavement component design selections

Layer
Wearing
Surface
Base
Material
Hot-mix
asphaltic
concrete
Crushed
stone
Sandy
gravel
Coefficient
()
0.44
0.14
Rationale
Source
Average
value used
in the
AASHTO
Road Test
AASHTO
Guide for
Design of
Pavement
Structures,
1993 - Page
I-6
Typical Values
Subbase
See Table 5
3.1.8 Other Structural Number Equation Assumptions
2 to 4 inches
4 to 10 inches
4 to 10 inches
1.0 represents good
drainage
characteristics
The drainage coefficients of the base (M2) and subbase (M3) are
both assumed to be one, which represents a material with good
drainage characteristics. According to Mannering et al. [1], the
thickness of the pavement is largely dependent on the bearing
capacity of the subgrade; however, there is flexibility in the
thickness between layers. For example, the wearing layer thickness
can be minimized by increasing the thickness of the base or
0.11
Page 38
subbase. AASHTO typically recommends a wearing layer surface

between 2 and 4 inches, a base of 4 to 10 inches, and a subbase of 4
to 10 inches. In general, this study attempted to minimize the size
of the wearing surface layer and keep the base and subbase layers
within approximately 10 inches of thickness.
Table 7.
Layer
Roadway layer depths and volumes
Material
3.1.9 Subgrade Design Assumptions
(a)
The subgrade soil is glacial till - unstratified soil deposited by a

glacier; consists of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. The glacial
till resilient modulus (MR) equals 4,000 lb/in2 [8]. The optimum
percentage of hydrated lime to treat the soil is 5% (Nebraska
Department of Roads Pozzolan Stabilized Subgrades, 2007 - Page
24). The resilient modulus (MR) of the glacial till subgrade treated
with hydrated lime is 25,265 lb/in2 [8]. The application depth is
assumed to be 12 in.
The optimum percentage of Class C fly-ash is 12% (Nebraska
Department of Roads Pozzolan Stabilized Subgrades, 2007 - Page
24). The resilient modulus (MR) of the glacial till subgrade treated
with Class C fly-ash is 20,546 lb/in2 [8]. The application depth is
assumed to be 12 in.
Volume of
Material Needed
Baseline glacial till soil
Wearing
Surface
Hot-mix
asphaltic
concrete
7 in
36,960 ft3
Base
Crushed stone
15 in
79,200 ft3
Subbase
Sandy gravel
19.5 in
102,960 ft3
Wearing
Surface
Hot-mix
asphaltic
concrete
3.5 in
18,480 ft3
Base
Crushed stone
9 in
47,520 ft3
Subbase
Sandy gravel
11 in
58,080 ft3
Wearing
Surface
Hot-mix
asphaltic
concrete
4 in
21,120 ft3
Base
Crushed stone
10 in
52,800 ft3
Subbase
Sandy gravel
10.5 in
55,440 ft3
(b)
(c)
3.1.10 Functional Unit

The study roadway was a two-lane (i.e. one lane in each direction)
rural highway. The functional unit for the purpose of this study was
1 mile (5,280 ft) of roadway 12 ft in width. The roadway width
encompassed 10 ft of travel lane and 2ft of paved shoulder. As
discussed previously, the excavation depth was 12 in as
recommended by the Nebraska Department of Roads. The analysis
period of this study was 30 years, which is considered by
AASHTO [7] to be a typical design life of a rural highway
roadway.
Thickness
Hydrated lime treated subgrade
Class C fly-ash treated subgrade
3.1.11 Traffic Assumptions

All traffic assumptions are summarized in Table 6. Traffic density
is used to determine the 18-kip ESAL over the 30 year lifespan of
the roadway.
Table 6. Traffic assumptions
Type
Cars, Pickups, Light
Vans
Number of Passes
Axle Weights
30,000
Two 2,000 lb single axles
Single-Unit Truck
1,000
Tractor Semi-Trailer
Truck
350
8,000 lb steering, single

axle
22,000 lb drive, single axle
10,000 lb steering, single
axle
16,000 lb drive, tandem
axle
44,000 lb trailer, triple axle
Fig. 5. Pavement cross-section with untreated soil (glacial till)
3.1.12 Design Results and Analysis

Resulting pavement thickness for the baseline, hydrated lime
treated soil, and Class C fly-ash treated soil can be found in Table
7. Detailed pavement cross sections are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
Page 39

Approximately 3,168 ft3 of hydrated lime or 7,603.2 ft3 of Class C
fly-ash is needed to stabilize 1 mile of roadway at 12 ft wide as was
calculated in the design stage. The volumes of other materials
required are shown in Table 9.
3.2 Environmental Sustainability Assessment or Life Cycle
Assessment
Environmental sustainability / life cycle assessment was modeled
in SimaPro 8.1, which is a life cycle assessment software
developed by PRe Consultants. Details of this assessment are
explained below.
3.2.1 Functional Unit
The functional unit of this study is 1 mile (5,280 ft) of roadway 12
ft in width. The roadway width encompasses 10 ft of travel lane
and 2 ft of paved shoulder. As discussed previously, the excavation
depth is 12 in as recommended by the Nebraska Department of
Roads.
3.2.2 Life-cycle Stages
Fig. 6. Pavement cross-sections for (a) Class C Fly-ash treated soil, and
(b) Lime treated soil
Comparison of two pavement designs with stabilized subgrade to

the baseline pavement design shows that soil stabilization improves
soil properties and significantly reduces thicknesses of pavement
layers. The asphalt wearing surface is 50% thinner in the hydrated
lime scenario and 43% thinner in the Class C fly-ash scenario. The
crushed stone base is 40% thinner in the hydrated lime scenario and
33% thinner in the Class C fly-ash scenario. Finally, the sandy
gravel subbase is 44% and 46% thinner in the hydrated lime
scenario and the Class C fly-ash scenario, respectively. Side by
side comparisons of pavement thicknesses are show in Table 8.
Table 8. Pavement design summary
Layer
Wearing
Surface
Base
SubBase
Material
Hot-mix
asphaltic
concrete
Crushed stone
Sandy gravel
Table 9.
Layer
Wearing
Surface
Base
SubBase
Lime
Stabilization
Pavement
Design
Class C Fly-ash
Stabilization
Pavement Design
7.0
3.5
4.0
15.0
9.0
10.0
19.5
11.0
10.5
Volume of materials needed for each design
Material
Hot-mix
asphaltic
concrete
Crushed
stone
Sandy
gravel
Baseline
Pavement
Design
Baseline
Pavement
Design
Lime
Stabilization
Pavement
Design
Class C Fly-ash
Stabilization
Pavement Design
36,960 ft3
18,480 ft3
21,120 ft3
79,200 ft3
47,520 ft3
52,800 ft3
102,960 ft3
58,080 ft3
55,400 ft3
This study considers the entire life cycles of (1) a pavement with a
hydrated lime treated subgrade and (2) a pavement with a Class C
fly-ash treated subgrade, including raw material extraction,
manufacturing, application, and end-of-life.
Hydrated lime is a derivative of limestone. Limestone is mined at a
limestone quarry where it is crushed and transported to a lime kiln.
At the lime kiln, the limestone is heated to 1,000C in a process
known as calcination. The resulting substance has a powder
consistency and is known as lime. Water is added to the lime at a 1
to 2 ratio, hydrating the lime for the purpose of easier application to
the soil subgrade. Hydrated lime is transported to the site via truck
and is applied and mixed with 12 inches of soil (glacial till in this
study). After mixing, the soil is compacted with a vibrating roller.
The treated soil is allowed to sit for several days after which the
other layers of the roadway can be constructed. At the end of life of
the pavement, the treated subgrade layer is left in place.
Class-C fly ash is a waste product of coal fired power plants. ClassC fly ash has high lime content, giving it similar properties as
hydrated lime. Class-C fly ash is transported from a supplier
directly to the site via truck. The Class-C fly ash is spread and then
mixed into the subgrade soil. After mixing, the subgrade soil is
compacted with a vibrating roller. At the end of life of the
pavement, the treated subgrade is left in place.
The life cycles of asphalt (wearing surface), crushed stone (base
layer), and gravel (subbase) are the same for the hydrated lime
scenario and the Class C fly-ash scenario, although the volumes of
materials are different.
Both crushed stone and gravel are mined and crushed at the mine
and then transported directly to the site. From the supplier, both
crushed stone and gravel are transported, via truck, to the site. At
the site, the crushed stone and gravel are spread and compacted.
For disposal, both crushed stone and gravel are transported and
landfilled at an inert waste landfill. Asphalts two major
constituents are a binder (asphalt) and mineral aggregate. Like
Page 40
crushed stone and gravel, mineral aggregate is mined and crushed

and then transported to asphalt plant.
Asphalt is a derivative of the petroleum distillation process.
Petroleum is pumped from naturally forming underground deposits.
The petroleum is transported via tanker truck, tanker train, tanker
ship, or pipeline to an oil refinery where it is distilled. The asphalt
distillation product is sent to an asphalt plant where is heated to
approximately 300F and mixed with mineral aggregate to form
asphaltic concrete. The asphaltic concrete is transported to the
pavement site where it is spread on the base layer surface and then
compacted with a roller.
SimaPro contained material assemblies for the other materials and

are listed in Table 11.
Table 11. SimaPro material assemblies
Design Material
SimaPro Material/Assembly
Hot-mix Asphaltic
Concrete
Asphaltic Concrete, at plant

Crushed stone 16/32, open
pit mining, production mix,
at plant
Gravel, crushed, at mine
Lime, hydrated, loose, at
plant
Fly Ash
Crushed Stone
Sandy Gravel
Every 10 years, twice over the 30 year lifespan of the roadway, the
asphalt wearing surface is removed and replaced. The replaced
asphalt follows the same life cycle as the initial roadway
construction. After the 30 year lifespan of the roadway has elapsed,
the entire roadway materials are excavated and transported to a
landfill for disposal.
3.2.3 Transportation Assumptions
Project materials were sourced from suppliers within a reasonable
distance of Omaha, Nebraska as shown in Table 10.
Table 10. Distance to material suppliers
Supplier
OMNI Engineering - 14012
Giles Road Omaha, NE
68138
Schildburg Construction
Company - 30565 Lytle
Ave, Malvern, IA 51551
Western Sand & Gravel
Co. - 330 County Road B
Ashland, NE 68003
Stalp Ready Mix - 696
River Rd Wisner, NE,
68791-3101
Nebraska Ash Lincoln, NE
Material
Distance to
Site (miles)
Hot-mix asphaltic
concrete (wearing
surface)
13.1
Crushed stone (base

layer)
44.5
Sandy gravel (subbase

layer)
30.5
Hydrated lime (subgrade

treatment)
84.9
Class C Fly-Ash
(subgrade treatment)
57.1
Hydrated Lime
Fly Ash
Notes
Modified Stonemastic asphaltic
concrete
Dummy Variable
3.2.5 Construction Assumptions

SimaPro did not contain construction processes for spreading and
compacting the roadway layers. SimaPros Operation, lorry, >32t
(i.e. a truck with a load of greater than 32 tons) was used a proxy
for spreading and compaction. The 32 ton truck was assumed to
have similar emissions burden as the spreaders, compactors, and
rollers used in roadway construction. The process is in units of
miles traveled. Given a 1-mile functional unit and 12-foot roadway
width, it was assumed that spreading or compacting the entire 1mile segment would require two passes of the truck (i.e. one pass
covers a 1-mile by six-foot wide section; therefore, 2 passes would
be needed to encompass the entire 1-mile by 12-foot wide roadway
section). For base, subbase, and subgrade layers, additional passes
were included to account for additional compaction needs. A
summary of construction processes are listed in Table 12.
Table 12. Construction process - SimaPro proxy
Layer
Asphaltic concrete
Asphaltic concrete
Crushed Stone
Crushed Stone
Gravel
3.2.4 Material Assumptions

SimaPro did not include a material/assembly for hot-mix asphaltic
concrete. The closest equivalent provided is stone-mastic asphalt.
Stone-mastic asphalt and asphaltic concrete differ in their volume
of bitumen binder. Stone-mastic asphalt contains approximately
double the volume of bitumen binder. For purposes of this study,
an asphaltic concrete material assembly was created by duplicating
the components of SimaPros stone-mastic asphalt material
assembly, but reducing the bitumen percentage by 50%.
Class C Fly-Ash was assumed not to have a production impact.
Class C Fly-Ash is obtained as a waste product of coal fired power
plants. Coal is burned to produce electricity, not to produce fly ash.
As such, coal mining, transportation, and burning need not be
considered as part of the life-cycle analysis. For purposes of
integrating Fly-Ash into SimaPro, a dummy material assembly
variable was created. Transportation cost between the Fly-Ash
supplier and the site were still considered.
Gravel
Subgrade
Subgrade
Construction Process
Spreading
Rolling compaction
Spreading
Vibrating roller
compaction
Spreading
Vibrating roller
compaction
Spreading and mixing
Vibrating roller
compaction
32 Ton Truck Passes

2
2
2
4
2
4
2
8
Excavation of soil, prior to pavement construction, was expressed

as a hydraulic digger process in SimaPro. The excavated
overburden was transported to a closed landfill located at 21.9
miles from the site. Although the transportation to the landfill was
included, a landfill process for the excavated material was not. The
disposal of the overburden, either as a reuse product or daily cover
for the landfill, was outside the system boundary for this study.
3.2.6 Maintenance Assumptions
As previously discussed, the life span of this roadway is designed
for 30 years before it requires a complete rebuild. Over the course
of the life of the roadway, it was assumed that the roadway would
Page 41
need to be resurfaced (i.e. replacing the wearing surface layer)

every 10 years (twice during the 30 year lifespan), which is in
accordance with AASHTO specifications.
providing a specific assessment of impacts depending on their

respective focus. For example, ozone depletion highlights
processes that produce ozone-depleting substances.
An additional life cycle (one for each scenario) encompassed the

materials/assembly, processes, and waste/disposal of the
maintenance phase of the roadway. The material/assembly of the
asphalt layer was referenced to the new-construction
material/assembly as it was assumed that the entire wearing would
be replaced. Next, an excavation process was included to account
for the volume of asphalt being removed during maintenance.
Finally, a waste/disposal scenario was developed for the landfill of
the old asphalt.
As evident in all categories, except for the Carcinogenics and

Ecotoxicity categories, most of the impact results from the
production of asphalt, mainly due to use of fossil fuels burned to
produce asphalt. No recycling was assumed to take place for the
replacement of old asphalt layers during maintenance, which
increased the impact of using an asphalt layer drastically.
3.2.7 End of Life Assumptions

The entire pavement layer (wearing surface, base, and subbase)
was assumed to be removed at the roadways end of life. Both
treated subgrades were assumed to be left onsite. In practice, the
removal of the base and subbase layers depends on their condition
and can be done on some sections of the roadway and not others.
For simplicity, both the base and subbase were completely
removed.
All materials (asphalt, crushed stone, and gravel) were assumed to
be sent to an inert material landfill for disposal. In practice, much
of this material can be recycled and used elsewhere. Again, the
decision to landfill all material was done to be conservative.
In the case of the Carcinogenics and Ecotoxicity category,

impacts are due to transportation needed for all materials to the
site, and for all other machinery used during construction. Since
these categories look at the direct impacts of pollution on
ecosystems, including people, vehicles show the largest impacts
under these scopes.
From the environment sustainability assessment, the pavement
using hydrated lime to stabilize the subgrade would be the best
option. The decision is primarily due to a lesser amount of asphalt
being used in the pavement using hydrated lime. As discussed
previously, the use of asphalt had the greatest environmental
impact due to the consumption of fossil fuels needed to produce
asphalt and its components. However, to decide which pavement
alternative will ultimately be the most feasible and most sustainable
option, we must not only consider the environmental impacts
associated with the production of each pavement, but also
economic and social impacts.
3.2.8 LCA using SimaPro

SimaPro contains a variety of impact assessment methods. Life
cycle impacts were modeled using the US Environmental
Protection Agencys Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of
Chemical and other Environmental Impacts (TRACI). The impact
categories of TRACI include ecotoxicity, respiratory effects, noncarcinogenics, carcinogenics, eutrophication, acidification, smog,
global warming, and ozone depletion.
TRACI was selected over other impact assessment methods
because, it is developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency specifically for the US using input parameters consistent
with US locations. Other impact assessment methods were
developed for European locations, which are assumed to be less
appropriate for an Omaha based construction site.
3.2.9 Results and Discussion
After inputting all processes and assemblies into SimaPro, a
comparison of the impacts associated with the life cycles of the
pavement with a fly-ash treated subgrade and the pavement with a
lime-treated subgrade was produced. Table 13 and Figure 7 clearly
show that the pavement using hydrated lime has the lowest overall
impact. There are a total of nine different impact categories, each
Table 13. Side by side comparison of the impacts in each category

specified resulting from the use of each stabilizing agent according to
the TRACI 2 V4.00 method of LCA
Impact
category
Ozone
depletion
Global
warming
Smog
Unit
Life Cycle of
Pavement w/ Fly
Ash Treated
Subgrade (One
Life Cycle)
Life Cycle of
Pavement w/
Lime Treated
Subgrade (One
Life Cycle)
kg CFC-11 eq
0.320867451
0.317153*
kg CO2 eq
1018089.064*
1058809
kg O3 eq
85589.34311
78390.71*
Acidification
mol H+ eq
220110.0066
205261.9*
Eutrophication
kg N eq
467.677518
442.0943*
Carcinogenics
Non
carcinogenics
Respiratory
effects
Ecotoxicity
CTUh
0.003441995
0.002953*
CTUh
0.116117269
0.108*
kg PM10 eq
646.0902891
633.281*
CTUe
722176.2769
624749.2*
*denotes the lower impact in each category when comparing

both alternatives
Page 42
Figure 7. Comparison of environmental impacts based on LCA
3.3 Economic Sustainability Assessment

The purpose of this assessment was to compare the economic
impact of constructing a roadway with a subgrade treated with
hydrated lime compared to a roadway with a subgrade treated
with Class C fly-ash. This assessment is mainly a comparison
of material costs, although excavation of soil and removal of
the wearing surface during maintenance phases is also included
as both are greatly influenced by material quantities.
Construction costs (i.e. rolling, compacting, etc.) are not
included as these costs are shared between the two treatments.
Material costs are assumed to include transportation to site.
Hydrated lime has the highest cost/unit at $132.31/ton. Class C
Fly-Ash has a cost of $30.85/t. The difference is mainly
attributable to the material source (i.e. hydrated lime must be
manufactured whereas Class C Fly-Ash is a waste byproduct).
A summary of material cost is included in Table 14.
Table 14. Cost of materials used
Material
Cost Per Unit
Hydrated Lime
$132.31/ton
Class C Fly-Ash
$30.85/ton
Hot Mix Asphalt

Crushed Stone
Sandy Gravel
$58.00/ton
$5.55/ton
$5.33/ton
Excavation of Soil
$6.22/yd3
Price Source
Nebraska Department of
Roads
Roads
A.E. Stone Incorporated
US Geological Survey
US Geological Survey
Roads
The quantities of hydrated lime and Class C fly-ash are small

relative to the other materials. This is particularly significant
for expensive hydrated lime, which overall cost is only
$19,700 per functional unit. Although Class C fly-ash was
cheaper at $12,548 per functional unit, use of Class C fly-ash
required more hot mix asphalt and crushed stone. At
significantly greater material quantities, both hot mix asphalt
and crushed stone had a much larger monetary impact.
and $160,495 for the Class C fly-ash scenario, a difference of

$5,406. In per mile terms (double the functional unit) as is
appropriate for this two-lane design, the cost is $310,177 for
the hydrated lime scenario and $320,999 for the Class C flyash scenario, a difference of $10,812. A summary of these
findings can be found in Table 15.
Table 15. Cost of pavement layers and excavation
Material Type
Material Needed
Cost
(a) Hydrated lime subgrade treatment

Hydrated Lime
148.9 ton
$19,700
Hot Mix Asphalt
1,293.88 ton
$75,044
Crushed Stone
2,376.00 ton
$13,186
Sandy Gravel
3,484.51 ton
$18,572
Excavation of Soil
124,080 ft3
$28,584
Total
$155,088
(b) Class C fly-ash subgrade treatment
Class C Fly-Ash
406.77 ton
$12,548
Hot Mix Asphalt
1,478.72 ton
$85,765
Crushed Stone
2,640.00 ton
$14,652
Sandy Gravel
3,326.12 ton
$17,728
Excavation of Soil
129,360 ft3
$29,800
Total
$160,495
This roadway has the asphalt wearing surface replaced in year

10 and year 20 of operation, representing the significant bulk
of maintenance work on the roadway. The total cost of
maintenance in terms of only removing the old asphalt and the
material cost of the new asphalt cost approximately $158,604
per functional unit for the hydrated lime scenario and $181,261
per functional unit for the Class C fly-ash scenario. Per lane
mile, these numbers double to $317,208 for the hydrated lime
scenario and $362,523 for the Class C fly-ash scenario. The
overall economic impact, per lane mile, between the two
scenarios, across the life of the pavements (i.e. the material
cost, excavation cost, and asphalt maintenance cost) is
$627,386 for the hydrated lime scenario and $683,514 for the
Class C fly-ash scenario. In terms of economic impact, the
hydrated lime has the lower impact.
The total cost for materials and excavation of soil for one
functional unit was $155,088 for the hydrated lime scenario
Page 43
social matrix scoring is given from 0 to 4, where 0 highest

impact, 1-substantial, 2-moderate, 3-minimum, and 4-no
impact. The social indicators and scoring is subjective, but
provide the basis for assessment of social issues that otherwise
are often ignored. The social matrix used in this study
demonstrates an approach to assess the sustainability. Based on
the results (Table 16), hydrated lime was found to be more
socially viable than Class C Fly-ash.
3.4 Social Sustainability Assessment

Though social indicators, metrics, and quantifying tools are not
well established, Benoit-Norris et al. [9] presented a
framework to quantify different social aspects. In the present
study, several relevant social indicators are identified (Table
16) for a general assessment of potential impacts on society by
the both pavements throughout their entire life cycle. The
Table 16. Social sustainability matrix for hydrated lime and Class C fly-ash treated soil pavements
Life stage
Jobs /
Demog
Health
Govern
Cultural
Public
Aesthetic
Quality
Product
Income
raphy
& safety
ance
aspects
services
quality
of life
value
Total
Resource
Hydrated Lime
27
extraction
Fly-Ash
18
Product
Hydrated Lime
26
manufacture
Fly-Ash
18
Product
Hydrated Lime
25
delivery
Fly-Ash
17
Hydrated Lime
25
Fly-Ash
22
Recycling,
Hydrated Lime
26
disposal
Fly-Ash
17
Hydrated Lime
10
11
14
14
13
11
129/180
Fly-Ash
14
14
15
15
16
15
16
13
14
92/180
Product Use
Total
4. Conclusions
The design stage of this study produced two roadway designs
appropriate both to handle the assumed traffic volumes and to
demonstrate the bearing capacity of a subgrade treated with
hydrated lime and a subgrade treated with Class C fly-ash.
Both treated subgrades provided much stronger bearing
capacity over the baseline untreated soil. The SimaPro
environmental LCA, the economic impact assessment, and the
social impact assessment all showed the hydrated lime
pavement design to have the lowest impacts. As evidenced by
the environmental and economic assessments, the thickness of
the asphalt wearing surface was the most important factor in
determining impact. The hydrated lime treated subgrade
pavement had a 0.5 inch thinner asphalt wearing surface over
its Class C fly-ash counterpart. Given a holistic environmental,
economic, and social approach to sustainability, it is
recommended that the subgrade of the new roadway be treated
with hydrated lime. The hydrated lime treatment was shown to
be more sustainable than its Class C fly-ash counterpart.
References
[3] Headwaters Resources. Fly Ash - Types and Benefits,

2005. Retrieved from
http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/TB.1%20Fly
%20Ash%20-%20Types%20&%20Benefits.pdf
[4] Consoli F, Allen D, Boustead I, Fava J, Franklin W,
Jensen AA, de Oude N, Parrish R, Perriman R,
Postlethwaite P, Quay B, Sguin J, Vigon B. Guidelines
for Life-Cycle Assessment: A Code of Practice, Society
of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC),
Brussels, Belgium and Pensacola, USA, 1993.
[5] Goedkoop M, Schryver AD, Oele M, Durksz S, Roest D:
Introduction to LCA with Simapro 7: Pr Consultants,
Netherlands, 2010.
[6] Mannering F, Washburn S, Kilareski W: Principles of
Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis Fourth
Edition: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
[7] American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, AASHTO Guide for Design of
Pavement Structures, 1993.
[8] Nebraska Department of Roads. Pozzolan Stabilized
Subgrades, 2007. Retrieved from
http://nlc1.nlc.state.ne.us/epubs/R6000/B016.01162007.pdf
[9] Benoit-Norris C, Vickery-Niederman D, Valdivia G,
Franze J, Traverso M, Ciroth A, Mazijn B. The Intl J of
Life Cycle Assessment, 2011; 16: 682-690.
[1] Hensley T, Jensen W, Berryman C. Pozzolan Stabilized

Subgrades. Nebraska Department of Roads, 2007.
[2] Texas Department of Transportation. Guidelines for
Modification and Stabilization of Soils and Base for Use
in Pavement Structures, 2005.
Page 44

(INDECS-15)
TRANSPORT OF HEAVY METAL IONS THROUGH SOILS

P V Sivapullaiah
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012,
India, Email: siva@civil.iisc.ernet.in.
Abstract
Predicting the rates contaminant transport through soils is essential to assess the risk of soil contamination and
subsequent groundwater. It is also essential for the design of landfill liner systems. The contaminant migration rates vary
with type of the soil, type of migrating ion and hydro-geological regime. The transport parameters required in the
governing transport equation that describes the transport processes need to be accurately defined. The laboratory column
experiments, which can be used to estimate the transport parameters of chemicals species migrating through waste
contaminant barriers. There are various techniques available to model the contaminant transport through soil based on
the experimental data. The commonly used test to find the contaminant transport parameters is column test which
effectively simulates the field conditions. The chemical species of interest is passed through the soil sample and the
effluent concentrations are measured. From this effluent concentration profile, the transport parameters are predicted by
trial and error method. The contaminant transport equation which is a partial differential equation can be solved by
various analytical and numerical methods. For less permeable soils where the flow is very less the soil sample is
sectioned and the pore water concentrations are measured at different depths. From this depth vs. concentration profile,
the contaminant transport parameters will be estimated by comparing the theoretical curve with experimental curve. For
the remediation of contaminated soil, the column leach tests are used in which the distilled water with or without
additives is passed through the contaminated soil, and the effluent concentrations are measured with time. From the
number of pore volumes vs. relative concentration profile, the quantity and type of fluid required for removal of
contaminants from the soil will be assessed.
Keywords: Contaminant Migration, Iron, Liners, Remediation, Zinc

________________________________________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
Heavy metals are released frequently from different
sources, for example, material, stockpiling batteries,
electro plating commercial ventures and so on. Strong
waste landfills constitute a potential real danger to the
ground water due to these substantial metals.
Heavy metals, for example, iron are ordinarily found in
a few sorts of waste and consequently display in
landfill leachates and ground water. In Indian urban
areas, open, uncontrolled and ineffectively oversaw
dumping is generally worked on, offering ascent to
genuine natural issues. Strong waste in urban
communities and towns are straightforwardly arranged
off ashore in an unacceptable way and thus there is a
risk to ground water quality and brought about ground
water defilement. Likewise the iron is drained from the
waste dumped from landfills and centralizations of iron
are normally found in lechates.
Author. Tel.: +91-80-2293 2672

Fax: 91-80-23600404; E-mail: siva@civil.iisc.ernet.in
Page 45
Sivapullaiah P.V / INDECS-15
Consequently in numerous real urban communities

heavy metals are quickly getting into the
groundwater. Metals added to soil will regularly be
held at the dirt surface. High amassing of broke
down iron results in poor taste, ugly water that
stains both pipes installations and dress.
Convergences of iron as low as 0.3 milligrams for
every liter will store rosy cocoa recolors on
apparatuses, utensils, and garments, all of which
can be hard to uproot. Ferric iron stores inside
eroded channels can break free and create corroded
faucet water. Iron microorganisms gives water an
obnoxious taste and reasons yellow stains on
clothing. This bacterium can likewise stop up water
frameworks, attachment channels, or encompass
pump screens, bringing about lavish repairs.
2. LEACHING OF HEAVY METALS FROM
WASTE DUMPS AND LANDFILLS
Bangalore did not have any scientific treatment
facilities for solid waste generated by municipal
and industries around Bangalore. Only recently
landfills are being constructed. This has led to
development of several illegal and unauthorized
dump sites in Bangalore. Location of unauthorized
dump sites in and around Bangalore city is as
shown in Fig 1.
Fig. 1 Satellite images of built up area along with

dump sites in Greater Bangalore Boundary
3. SOLID WASTE LANDFILL

The design of Modern Secured Landfill is shown in
Fig. 2. Liner system plays an important role in
containing the leachates generated within the
landfill.
3.1 Barrier System
Calcium bentonite also can be used as additive in

soil liner.
Adsorption of soluble metallic species by clays,
oxides and other colloidal matter appears to be an
important means of controlling the trace soluble
metal concentration in the system. Liners for
landfills should be such that they are capable of
minimization of leachates containing metal ions
such as iron. The retention mechanisms for metals
added to soil include adsorption of the metal by the
soil solid surfaces and precipitation. The retention
of cationic metals by soil has been correlated with
such soil properties such as surface area, cation
exchange capacity, organic matter content, clay
content, iron and manganese oxide content, and
carbonate content. Anion retention has been
correlated with iron and manganese oxide content.
It is reported that in addition to soil properties, the
other parameters like type of metal, its
concentration, the presence of competing ions play
an important role in the retention of heavy metal
ions.
3.2 Soil Liner to retard the movement of heavy
metal in the leachate
Though composite liners are preferred for bottom
and side liners, soil liners are preferred because of
their universial availability and cost. The
requirements of clay liners are
1) Liners should possess high sorption capacity
2) The clay barrier shall be compatible with the
leachate to be contained.
3) From a chemical flux point of view, 10-8 cm/s is
preferable since diffusion often becomes the
dominant migration mechanism.
4) Can plug the pore space in natural soil such that
large channels for contaminate transport are
effectively eliminated
3.2.1 Compacted Natural clay as liner
Clay is the most important component of soil liner
because it ensures low hydraulic conductivity. The
soil should have 20% silt and clay; plasticity index
should be greater than 10%.The material should not
contain soil particles larger than 1 to 2 inches in
diameter which may form a permeable layer. Clays
possess sorptive and or attenuative capacity and
reduce the capacity of contaminants in the leachate.
But some soils do not provide an impermeable
boundary. To achieve this, bentonite is amended to
natural soils and compacted.
Considering all above factors into an account soil
bentonite liner is suggested in this work to control
migration of iron ion.
A relatively small amount of bentonite can lower

the hydraulic conductivity to considerable extent.
Addition of 4-5% sodium bentonite soil drops the
hydraulic conductivity from 10-4 to 10-7 cm/sec.
Page 46
Table 1 Mavallipura site Features [1]
OPTIONAL PROTECTIVE
SOIL COVER
Features
Latitude and Longitude
TOP FML LINER
HAZARDOUS WASTE LANDFILL
LOWER FML LINER

MIN 3-FOOT THICK
COMPACTED SOIL
COMPONENT OF
COMPOSITE LINER
DRAIN PIPE
Mean elevation of the

site
Land area
Land use
Nearest highway
LEACHATE COLLECTION AND

REMOVAL SYSTEM ( 12-INCH
THICK GRANULAR MATERIAL)
Fig. 2 Modern Secured Landfill with composite liner

system
Access Road
Water bodies and dams
3.3 Handling of Landfill in Bangalore

One of the Landfill is situated at, Hesaragatta zone,
Bangalore North, Karnataka state. This site has
been used as processing site for the municipal solid
waste generated from the Bangalore city. Fig. 2
shows the google map with area map of
Mavallipura landfill dump site. This landfill is not
use because of problems. Leachate generated from
the landfill is not contained and hence migration of
the laeachate with many pollutants including heavy
metals are contaminating the nearby land and water
bodies. The features of the site are given in Table
1.
3.4 Calculation of Migration Rates of ions
Migration of ions such as iron from leachates from
waste dump site or unengineered landfills is a
common source for iron ions in the ground water.
Soil liners are generally used to minimize
migrations of contaminants including metal ions.
Soils generally have large sorption capacity and
reduce the migration of contaminants. These liners
are preferred because of their low cost, large
leachate attenuation capacity and resistance to
damage and puncture.
Reserve forests,
Ecological zones,
Monuments, railway
station, major
settlement
Socio economic
Minor settlement
Airport
Details
Latitude 1350 m North
Longitude 7736 East
Ranging from 51.38m to
38.65m above MSL
40.49 hectares
Barren
7.5km away from the
Nation highway No.7
connecting Mangalore to
Chennai
Approach road to the site
is well developed
Hessargatta water tank5.5km
None within 10 km
Agriculture based
Mavallipura village
within 3km
Bangalore airport more
than 30km
Deccan aviation centre at
8km
3.5 Contaminant Transport Modeling

Contaminant transport through compacted soil is
controlled by a variety of Physical, Chemical and
Biological processes. The physical processes
include diffusion, advection and dispersion. The
chemical process usually includes sorption,
dissolution, complexation, hydrolysis/substitution
and oxidation. The biological process includes
decay etc. In order to predict the transport of Iron
pollutant specie, the transport parameters involved
in the governing set of equations that describes the
transport processes need to be accurately defined.
The laboratory column experiments, which can be
used to estimate the transport parameters of
chemicals species migrating through waste
contaminant barriers [2].
Page 47
travel at an average rate equal to the seepage

velocity of the pore fluid.
3.6.2 Diffusion
Diffusion is the transport process in which a
chemical or chemical species migrate in response
to a gradient in its concentration.
3.6.3 Dispersion
Dispersion refers to the spreading and mixing
caused by the variation in velocity with which
water moves.
3.7 Determination of diffusion coefficients by
column experiment
Fig. 3 Area map of Mavallipura site

(courstey:google earth
images,https://maps.google.com/map)
3.6 Contaminant transport processes through soil

liner
It is impossible to practically provide complete
contamination of leachate generated in a waste
Landfill facility. Hence the design of a suitable
(either as a primary barrier for municipal waste site
or as a backup barrier for hazardous waste) barrier
requires an estimation of potential rate of
contaminant transport through clay liner of landfill
is useful in the design of secure waste storage
facility. These processes depends on various
parameters such as the type of soil, type of
chemical, time, temperature, pH of the system,
density, porosity, permeability, hydraulic gradient
etc. and can be assessed using two important
parameters i.e., Dispersion coefficient and
Distribution coefficient. These two parameters are
known as contaminant transport parameters, which
are essential for modelling the contaminant
transport and for the design of soil liner system.
The transport parameters of different chemical
species are determined by conducting column
experiments for the liner material with the species
of interest. The determination of transport
parameters is a time consuming process as the
column experiments will take a long time to get
breakthrough. The analytical and numerical
methods, which are used to determine these
parameters from the column test, require several
trial calculations and time marching procedures.
Hence, it is necessary to find a suitable technique
to estimate the contaminant transport parameters,
which saves time and effort.
The following physical and chemical processes
usually govern the contaminant transport [3].
3.6.1 Advection
Advection (convection) is the process by which
solutes are transported along with the flowing fluid
or solvent. Due to advection, non-reactive solutes
For predicting the effective diffusion coefficients

of ionic species of interest using column
experiments, a modified form of above equation is
used. The column experiment results are commonly
reported in terms of number of pore volumes that
have passed through packed soil column wherein
one pore volume, is the cross sectional area of
column(A) times its length(L)
times the
porosity(n) i.e.,Aln.
Total number of pore volum U is the total
discharge divided by value of one pore volume
vnAt vt
ALn
L
(1)
Thus with these definitions, the one dimensional
approximate Ogata-Banks equation can be
rearranged as:
C 1
1U
[erfc (
)]
C0 2
2 UDe / vL
J 0.84
(U 1)
[
]
U 1/2
J 0.16 [
(U 1)
]
U 1/2
(2)
C
when
0.84
Co
when
(3)
C
0.16
Co
vL
[J 0.84 J 0.16 ]2
8
3.8 Retardation factor
De
(4)
(5)
The migration of contaminants caused by the

movement of chemicals dissolved in the water is
described by the retardation factor. Attenuation of
leachate contaminant species is one of important
criteria for the choice of landfill liner [4]. The
retardation factor for any particular chemical
includes all the interactions between the many
chemical species and the solid surfaces of the
porous media. These interactions tend to retard the
migration of the chemical behaviors need to be
known.
Retardation factors, Rf, can be determined in flow
experiment where Rf for particular species is the
Page 48
ratio of solution velocity to the contaminant

velocity. The retardation factor for that species is
given by
Rf = Vgw/Vsp Where Vgw is the velocity of the
water and Vsp is the velocity of the contaminant
species.
divided into number of layers and the

concentrations at different depths and different
time periods are calculated simultaneously without
any dependence on the concentrations of previous
time periods.
4.3 Finite Difference Method
4. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
The contaminant migration can be modeled using
one-dimensional Advection-Dispersion equation
(ADE) which is given below:
c D 2 C
C
R
VS
2
t
Z
Z
(6)
Where:
R=Retardation factor =1 + K/n
If there is no adsorption (K=0), then R=1
= dry density
K=distribution coefficient
n= porosity of the transport medium
C= concentration of the solute
t= time
z= distance/ depth
v = seepage velocity
The most commonly used solution methods of
ADE are given below:
1. Analytical solutions
2. Finite-Layer technique
3. Finite Difference technique
4. Finite Element technique
4.1 Analytical solutions to One Dimensional
Contaminant Transport Equations
Analytical methods are widely used for calculating
the contaminant migration parameters. The best
known analytical solution for concentration C at
time t and depth x beneath the surface of a barrier,
which is assumed to be infinitely deep and subject
to a constant surface concentration, Co can be
calculated. [5]
The relative concentration C/Co is calculated by
R f x v st
C 1
erfc
2 ( D etR
Co 2
f
R v sx
exp f
D e erfc
)
R f x v st
2 ( D etR
f
(7)
4.2 Finite-Layer technique

In situations where soil properties can be assumed
the same at any horizontal location within the
barrier layer, the advection-dispersion equation can
be considerably simplified by introducing Laplace
transform (for one-dimensional problems) and
Fourier transform (for two or three dimensional
problems). The transformed equations can then be
readily solved. POLLUTE v7 was used to find the
transport parameters using Finite Layer technique.
In this technique the thickness of soil sample is
A finite-difference model is constructed by

dividing the model domain into square or
rectangular regions called blocks or cells. The
concentrations are computed at discrete points
within the model called nodes. The network of cells
and nodes called the grid or mesh. The soil profile
is discretized into n depth intervals, Z, such that
Z = iZ and i = 0.n. Time is discretized into
intervals t such that t = j t. Then the derivatives
in the ADE are written as discrete differences for
all the time steps to get set of algebraic equations.
By solving these set of equations, the
concentrations can be determined at different
depths and time periods. Three implicit schemes
BTCS, Upwind and Crank- Nicolson can be used to
find the transport parameters.
4.4 Finite Element Method

Most analytical solutions fail to provide acceptable
results in the case of complex boundary conditions
and for heterogeneous and anisotropic aquifers. In
such cases, numerical solutions will provide a
better alternative to the modelling of contaminant
transport through porous media.
Finite element methods have the advantage that it
is easier to discretize complex two and three
dimensional problems. The flow domain is
discretized and the concentrations at different nodal
points are determined. HYDRUS software can be
used to model the contaminant transport with Finite
Element Method.
5. COLUMN TEST
To determine the Seepage velocity (vs), Dispersion
coefficient (D) and Distribution coefficient (K), a
simple column test apparatus can be used to
simulate one dimensional contaminant migration
through soil by advection and diffusion. The
apparatus consists of an overhead tank which is
mounted on a stand fixed to the wall and the soil
column is connected to the overhead tank through a
plastic pipe to allow seepage of solution through
soil sample. The effluent is collected in the effluent
tank placed below the soil column and the
concentration profile with time is prepared. By
adjusting the diffusion coefficient D and the
distribution coefficient K, the theoretical curve may
Page 49
be matched to the observed concentration profile

(Fig 3) to give inferred values of both D and K.
The values of D and K deduced in this way can be
checked by comparing the calculated and observed
variations of contaminant concentration with time
in the source leachate.
Batch tests can be
conducted to know the ranges of values for
distribution coefficient. For impermeable soils
where the flow was very less, the contaminant
transport parameters can be determined from the
depth vs concentration profile. The soil sample is
sectioned into equal parts and the concentrations
are determined at different depths. This profile is
matched with the theoretical profile and the
transport parameters are determined (Fig 4).
Effluent Concentration (mg/l)
100
80
60
Porosity(n)=0.4
predicted
experimental
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time (hours)
Fig. 4 Variation of concentration with time
The viable option is to decontaminate the soil by

insitu flushing. The nature of flushing fluid
assumes importance. Flushing is economical and
competitive.
Two
important aspects are
permeability of the soil and solubility of
contaminant in the flushing fluid. There is a need to
maintain slightly acidic condition for the flushing
fluid and temperatures higher than 30OC. Other
alternative is flush the soil with water containing
EDTA chelate (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(Na2EDTA), sodium metabisulfite (Na2S2O5))
solution of 0.1 M (the former can be more
effective). The advantage is that other trace
elements present in the soil also can be removed.
The only important issue is the concentration as
excess would have its own implications. It depends
on the utilization of the soil. The ground water
extraction and it use needs to be kept in mind. The
removal rates depend on the nature of fluid which
are being finalised after carrying out soil column
tests which are underway. The information about
the time period for flushing out can be obtained.
Removal Efficiencies of zinc by flushing with
different fluids have to establish in the laboratory
before attempting the same in the field.. Basically,
the removal rates of metal ions from soils depends
on rates of migration of ions by advection and
diffusion coefficient of zinc from the soil. These
are being determined through column tests.
Concentration (mg/l)
100
80
60
Porosity(n)=0.61
Time = 10 days
predicted
experimental
40
20
0
0
10
Depth (cm)
Fig. 5 Variation of Concentration of iron with Depth
5.1 Contaminant Transport rates for the removal

of metal ions
5.1.1 Removal of Zinc from Contaminated Soil
A case of salt induced heaving of floors and
pavement has been reported in Hindustan zinc
limited at Chanderia, Chattisgarh. It was thus
necessary to remove accumulated zinc salt form
soil. The removal rates and the nature of pore fluid
has been selected based on column test.
To find a suitable remediation technique or to find

the volume of fluid required for soil flushing
Column leach test can be used. The undisturbed
sample of contaminated soil is placed in the
column and the distilled water with or without is
passed through the soil sample. The effluent
concentrations are measured with time and also the
volume of effluent with time is noted. As the time
increases the concentration decreases due to
removal of contaminants from the soil.
A contaminated soil was collected from the waste
disposal site of Hindustan Zinc Ltd., Jaipur. The
initial concentration of this soil was determined
from batch leach test. The batch leach tests were
conducted with three fluids i.e., distilled water, 0.1
N HCL and 0.1 N HCL + 0.1 N EDTA. The soil
tested with distilled water alone has shown an
initial concentration of zero which represents the
presence of crystalline form of zinc in the soil. The
initial concentration of soil with 0.1 N HCL + 0.1
N EDTA is higher than that of 0.1 N HCL and
hence it is taken as the initial concentration of this
soil.
The column leach tests were conducted with 0.1 N
HCL and 0.1 N HCL + 0.1 N EDTA as source
solutions and it was found that the soil flushing
with 0.1 N HCL + 0.1 N EDTA is more faster than
Page 50
that of 0.1 N HCL. The results are as shown in Figs

5 & 6. Initial Concentration from Batch Leach Test
C0 = 4626 ppm.
1
0.8
0.1 N HCL + 0.1 N EDTA
C/C0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
No of Pore volumes
Fig 6. Column Leach Test with 0.1 N HCL + 0.1 N EDTA
1
0.8
7. REFERENCES
[1] Ramachandra, T.V. Management of
Municipal Solid Waste, Capital Publishing
Company, New Delhi .2006.
[2] Folkes, D. J. Fifth Canadian geotechnical
colloquium. Control of contaminant
migration by the use of liners. Canadian.
Geotechnical Journal. 1982; 19: 320344.
[3] Freeze, R. A. and Cherry J. A. Groundwater.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. NJ 1979.
604.
[4] Drury, D. Hydraulic considerations for choice
of landfill liner. Proc., Conference
Organized by British Geotechnical Society
and Cardiff School of Engineering,
University of Wales, Cardiff. 1997; 16-18th
September, 312-318.
[5] Ogata A. Theory of dispersion in granular
medium.
Professional
Paper,
U.S.
Geological Survey, 1970. 411-I.
0.1 N HCL
C/C0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.0
10.0
20.0
No of Pore volumes
Fig. 7 Column Leach Test with 0.1 N HCL
30.0
6. CONCLUSIONS
The following are important conclusion from this
presentation:
1. Transport parameters for the different ions
through soils can be obtained by matching the
experimental breakthrough curves with
theoretical curves obtained with assumed
values of contaminant transport parameters.
2. Both Finite Difference method with excel
spread sheet and Finite layer technique Using
Pollute v7 soft ware have been used to
generate theoretical breakthrough curves and
the parameters obtained by both the methods
are almost same.
3. Out of three schemes tested using Finite
different method (BTCS, Upwind and CrankNicolson), Crank-Nicolson method is the most
accurate method
4. Density of soil has significant effect on
contaminant transport parameters. With the
increase in density, Dispersion coefficient
decreases
and
Distribution
coefficient
increases.
5. The importance of mathematical modelling of
contaminant transport has been demonstrated
for the removal of zinc from contaminated soil.
Page 51
GEOSYNTHETICS FOR GROUND IMPROVEMENT

Sushovan Dutta1, Maheboobsab B. Nadaf 2, B. S. Asha3 and J. N. Mandal 4
1
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India, sushovan@iitb.ac.in

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India, Maheboob_nadaf@iitb.ac.in
3
Datta Meghe College of Engineering, Airoli, Navi Mumbai, 400 708, India, bsasha1967@gmail.com
4
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India, cejnm@civil.iitb.ac.in
2
Abstract
This paper depicts a brief overview on some preferable ground improvement techniques, prefabricated vertical drains
(PVDs), encased stone columns, geocell mattress and geofoam. When the subsoil on site is very weak to support the
structure, i.e., the soil possess low bearing capacity and suffer excessive settlement, it is necessary to improve the weak
soil by increasing its bearing capacity and reducing the settlement to the desired extent. Particularly, in urban areas
where the land is very expensive and the saturated soil is very poor to support the structure, the ground improvement
becomes compulsory. The prefabricated vertical drains and encased stone columns are installed inside the ground to a
certain depth, while the geocell mattress and geofoam are applied over the ground. The PVDs are installed to achieve a
rapid consolidation. The encased stone columns help in consolidation as well as enhance the ground stiffness. The
geocell mattress and geofoam are applied as reinforcements for ground modification.
Keywords: Ground Improvement, PVD, Encased Stone Column, Geocell, Geofoam
1. Introduction
With the rapid dwindling of good sites for construction activity
of challenging infrastructure projects, the need is being
increasingly felt for utilizing very low and marginal load
bearing sites. The need is even greater in high cost
metropolitan and coastal areas where demand for the
construction outstrips the land availability. Consequently,
many important and major projects such as airways, highways,
railway embankments, large buildings, container yards and
transport terminals have necessarily to be located on areas with
soft alluvial and marine clay deposits of considerable
thickness. Due to the very low shearing strength and high
compressibility of soil deposits, the safe bearing capacity is
very low and the settlements under nominal structural loads
tend to be excessive. Hence, it is required to improve the
ground by technically feasible and economically viable
methods for wider applications in various projects. Therefore,
techniques have to be adopted in such areas to achieve one or
more of the following objectives:
Reduction of post-construction settlements to tolerable
values
Enhancement of shearing strength (and hence, bearing
capacity) of soft soils
Control on rate of loading consistent with the rate of gain
of shear strength
Geosynthetic is an emerging, vast and potential field in many
civil engineering projects. Geosynthetics are recognized in civil
engineering community as cost effective, proven and reliable
materials to carry out civil engineering jobs in better, faster and

economical way. The applications of geosynthetics are vast
because they have versatility in functioning majorly as
reinforcements, separators, filters, drains and liquid barriers in
soil. With the advent of geosynthetics, the revolution of
utilizing them in different ground improvement systems for
weak or soft soils is picking up at an unprecedented pace. The
demand is increasing for the construction of different types of
projects on soft soil. With the technical and economic
feasibility as the major priority in any upcoming projects, the
geosynthetics in ground improvement methods are the norm of
the day.
In the absence of proper ground improvement, the following
may occur.
Excessive/differential settlement in structures
Decrease in structures life
Increase in maintenance cost
Several available ground improvement techniques can
generally be categorized as,
Removal and Replacement
Consolidation techniques: Sand drains, stone columns,
encased sand and stone columns, polymer prefabricated
vertical drains (PPVDs) with full surcharge, PPVDs and
vacuum consolidation with partial surcharge, natural
prefabricated vertical drain (NPVDs) with full surcharge,
NPVDs combined with stone column or sand column,
Thermo-PVD, solar powered drain, electro-osmotic
consolidation, vacuum dewatering and dynamic compaction
* Sushovan
Dutta. Tel.: +91 7506485429

E-mail: sushovan.@iitb.ac.in
Page 52
Dutta et. al. / INDECS-15

Geosynthetics reinforcement techniques: Encased sand
column, encased stone column, mechanically stabilized
reinforced soil wall, geocell or geoweb, geofoam
Densification: Piles (RCC, wooden, steel, and composite),
dynamic compaction, vibro compaction, compaction
grouting
Chemical stabilizations: Lime column, deep soil mixing, jet
grouting, injection grouting
Electro-kinetic stabilizations
The various development works on ground improvements
have been carried out by many researchers and scientists such
as Kjellman (1948), Richart (1959), Dastidar et al. (1969),
Hansbo (1979), Sengupta (1980), Hansbo et al. (1981),
McGown and Hughes (1981), Giroud (1982), Kremer et al.
(1983), Van Zanten (1986), Chen and Chen (1986), Koerner
(1990), Holtz et al. (1991), Mandal and Shiv (1992), Mandal
and Reddy (1992), Bergado et al. (1993, 2001 and 2008),
Ramaswamy (1994), Rawes (1997), Rao and Balan (2000), Bo
et al. (2003 and 2007), Mandal and Kamble (1998),
Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna (2006), Liang and Xu (2010),
Indraratna et al.(2008, 2010 and 2011) [1-29].
This paper provides a basic layout on some preferable ground
improvement techniques, consolidation (prefabricated vertical
drains), encased stone column, geocell mattress and geofoam.
2.
Correct
Choice
of
Ground
Improvement
Techniques
The choice of appropriate technique for ground improvement
depends on several factors such as the type of soil and the type
of improvement required i.e., increase in bearing capacity or
decrease in settlement or both needs to be considered. The time
and cost are also very important factors. The long time
consolidation and installation/construction time is not suitable
for any project. Application of huge and heavy equipments
may increase the cost. The risk of non-performance or cost of
time leads to expensive solutions. Sometimes, the advantage of
area of application of the technique can be taken to reduce cost
and time. The embankment can be designed for achieving 80%
consolidation and the remaining 20% consolidation can take
place during the construction of different pavement layers. The
availability of labor and materials also affect the time and cost.
The suitability of technology depends on the availability
of resources of the country. Countries such as India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand, China etc. have
abundant natural materials like jute, coir, sisal and bamboo.
The geotextiles made from such natural materials are called as
limited life geotextiles (LLGS) by Sarsby (1997) [30]. Their
technical applications can be made wherever feasible. Many of
the polymer based geosynthetics can be replaced by degradable
and eco-friendly natural geotextiles depending on the areas of
application. Mandal (1987) [31] recommended the use of jute
and coir for ground improvement systems. They have many
good technical properties:
Strength
Extensibility or stiffness
Flexibility
Durability
Natural fibers have been used in the construction industry since
fifth or fourth millennia BC. The villagers used mud-clay
reinforced with straw to build the dwelling units for their
shelter. Some vegetable natural fibers have low tensile strength
and poor durability. However, the tamarisk branches were used

with clay and gravel for the construction of the Great Wall of
China in 200 BC. The ropes were used for many centuries to
lift the heavy loads at dock sides and mine industries.
Currently, renewed natural fibers can be used by automobile
industry. The weight reduction of the door panels of cars are
about 20 % using flax-sisal fiber mat embedded in an epoxy
resin matrix. Natural fibers can be utilized in several
applications:
Usable for short period of time
Unpaved temporary access road (separation)
Embankment construction on soft clay (basal reinforcement)
Ground improvement (time dependent due to consolidation
and drainage)
Currently, the most promising fibers, jute and coir are
economically viable and vegetable fiber fabrics. Those have
high water absorption capacity as well as lower impact on
environment than manmade fiber does. Indigenous natural
geotextiles have certain major advantages and play significant
role for developing countries like India:
The raw materials are environment friendly, renewable
resources and available abundantly (India is the second
largest jute producer in the world), thus making sustainable
construction industry
Natural, bio-degradable, nourishes soil and return to the
ground without pollution
Low unit cost (Production and conversion cost low),
provides competitive cost and economical
Create new market to agricultural products (supports agro
industry) and jobs for local people
Increase range of crops
Farmers can grow and sell
New markets are primarily close to the production point
Money is attracted to rural areas and region without
incurring major expenditure on transportation
Helps in bringing down costly imports
3. Consolidation Technique
When the subsoil on site is very weak to support the structure,
the engineers have to face problems in most of the cases. This
means that the soil possess low bearing capacity and excessive
settlement. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the weak soil
by increasing bearing capacity and reducing the settlement to
the desired extent, particularly, in urban areas where the land is
very expensive and the saturated soil is very poor to support
the structure on it. The conventional system of ground
improvement is the installation of sand drains as shown in
Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Sand drain
Page 53
Since 1930, sand drains are used in various projects. They are
typically 200 mm to 600 mm diameter vertical drains and
spaced at 1.5 m to 6 m interval. The conventional vertical sand
drain technique is time consuming and very costly. The
availability of good quality sand is becoming scarce in current
years. Recently, the prefabricated vertical band drains are
replacing the sand drains. Compared to sand drain, the polymer
based prefabricated vertical drain (PPVD) is 100 mm in width
and 3-5 mm in thickness. They are placed typically at 1 to 2 m
spacing. The prefabricated vertical drains have many
advantages with respect to the sand drains. The band shaped
prefabricated vertical drains are easy to install in the soil as
well as causes least disturbance to the soil during installation.
The discharge capacity of band drain is more and consolidation
rate is higher than that of sand drain. In general, following are
the major benefits of using the prefabricated vertical drains.
Fig. 3. Different types of prefabricated vertical drains
- They decrease the required time to consolidate the soil

- They decrease the required surcharge for the compression of
the soil, and
- They increase the shear strength due to consolidation of the
soft soil
Fig.4. Drainage core wrapped with the geotextile material
The prefabricated vertical band drain is made of plastic fluted

or nub bed cores wrapped by the nonwoven spun bonded
geosynthetic filter. The prefabricated vertical drains are used to
accelerate consolidation of soft cohesive soils and dissipate
excess pore water pressure faster below the embankment as
shown in the Figure 2.
Fig. 5. Different types of natural prefabricated vertical drains

made of jute and coir geotextiles (Asha and Mandal, 2012)
Fig. 2. Geosynthetic embankment with prefabricated vertical

drains
Different types and shapes of prefabricated vertical drains are

shown in Figure 3. The drainage core is wrapped with
geotextile as shown in Figure 4. The main function of
geotextile is to filter the soil water in to the core, and the core
transports the water through it to the top of the ground surface.
Natural geotextile materials such as jute and coir can be used to
make prefabricated vertical drains, especially in country like
India, where they are available in abundance. The newly
developed and fabricated four different types of band shaped
PVDs, made of single-layer woven and non-woven jute sheath
wrapped around core of coir ropes or coir mats, designated as
Natural Prefabricated Vertical Drains (NPVDs 1, 2, 3 and 4)
are shown in the Figure 5. Physical properties of the fabricated
NPVDs along with a PPVD are given in Table 1.
The NPVDs are more appropriate low cost alternative choice to
PPVDs, especially in developing countries like India because
of following salient factors:
Asha and Mandal (2011) [32] have carried out the absorption
capacity and discharge capacity tests as control tests on
NPVDs. The test results are compared with the tests conducted
on a commercially available polymer-based prefabricated
vertical drain (PPVD). From the graph of absorption capacity
with time as shown in Figure 6, they observed that NPVD 2,
made from nonwoven jute sheath wrapped around coir ropes,
has the greatest water absorption capacity, and the PPVD has
the lowest capacity. NPVDs 1, 3 and 4 have almost the same
absorbency, as all of them are made of same woven jute filter
sheath. A minimum two hours of soaking is sufficient to
saturate the NPVDs. The discharge capacity of PVDs is greatly
affected by PVD configuration, confining stress due to
surrounding soil and hydraulic gradient within the soil. The
variation in structure and in the mechanism of flow through the
PPVD and the NPVDs needs to be considered whenever flow
comparisons are made. The discharge capacity tests carried out
on NPVDs and PPVD show that the discharge capacity
decreases as the compressive stress increases at all hydraulic
gradients for the PPVD and all NPVDs. As shown in Figure 7,
discharge capacity is greater in the PPVD than in the NPVDs.
NPVD 4, which is made of woven jute sheath and a corrugated
coir mat core, has a greater discharge capacity than NPVDs 1,
2 and 3 at the normal stresses and hydraulic gradients studied.
Technically feasible
More economical
Low energy utilization
Page 54
Table 1. Physical properties of NPVDs and PPVD (Asha and Mandal, 2012)
Test property/Unit
Type of PVD
NPVD 1
NPVD 2
NPVD 3
NPVD 4
PPVD
Sheath Type
Woven jute
Non-woven jute
Woven jute
Woven jute
Core type
Coir strands
Coir strands
Flat coir mat
85 -90
85 -90
85 -90
Corrugated coir
mat
85 -90
Non-woven
Polypropylene
Corrugated and
studded polypropylene
100
Width (mm)
Thickness at 2 kPa (mm)
11
12 -12.5
16 16.5
184-185
160-165
270-280
310-325
85
Tensile strength (kN/ 85mm wide drain)
6.2
2.25
5.75
5.75
Elongation at break (%)
10
25
10
10
35
2.8E-06
0.9E-06
2.5E-06
4.25E-06
13.5E-06
Weight per metre (gm)
Discharge capacity (m /s) at hydraulic

gradient, i = 0.5 under 250 kPa stress
3
is made of nonwoven jute sheath wrapped around coir ropes.

Although the nonwoven jute sheath has good water absorption
capacity, it gets compressed more easily than woven jute
sheath as the compressive stress increases. They also observed
that the flow conditions through all the NPVDs are linear at all
the hydraulic gradients as shown in Figure 8, satisfying the
theoretical requirement of PVDs; whereas for the PPVD, at all
stress levels, the curves are more or less linear up to a
hydraulic gradient i = 0.5 and beyond which the curves become
nonlinear, indicating turbulent flow.
Fig. 6. Variation in absorption capacity with time for NPVDs 1, 2,

3 and 4 and PPVD (Asha and Mandal, 2012)
Fig.7. Discharge capacity variation with normal compressive stress

at different hydraulic gradients for NPVDs and PPVD (Asha and
Mandal, 2012)
The reason for greater discharge capacity of NPVD 4 is that the

corrugations in the coir mat allow water to flow easily as well
as support the jute sheath better than other core configurations.
The lowest discharge capacity was observed in NPVD 2, which
Fig. 8. Discharge capacity variation with hydraulic gradient under

different normal compressive stresses, for PPVD and NPVDs
(Asha and Mandal, 2012)
Asha and Mandal (2011) have conducted laboratory large scale

consolidation tests on marine clay provided without and with
PPVD and NPVDs to observe consolidation efficiency of
NPVDs. As shown in Figure 9, the efficiency of NPVDs to
accelerate the consolidation process in marine clay soil can be
observed clearly from the figure. The respective settlement in
marine clay with PVDs at the end of 7 days under 10 kPa stress
Page 55
and 16 days under 50 kPa stress is more than the settlement in

marine clay without PVD indicates that in general PVDs aid in
accelerating consolidation process in soil. Among all the
different NPVDs, the settlement measured and rate of
settlement in marine clay with NPVD 4 at the end of 10 kPa
and 50 kPa stress condition is nearly identical to the settlement
measured in marine clay with PPVD.
[D] Capacity of the stone column resulting from increase in

resistance offered by the confining effect due peripheral
geosynthetics encasement.
A schematic view of geosynthetic encased stone column is
shown in Figure 10.
Fig. 10. Geosynthetics encased stone column
4.1. Encasements
Fig. 9. Laboratory large scale consolidation test (a) Stages of

loading, (b) Measured settlement vs. time in marine clay without
and with different PVDs (Asha and Mandal, 2011)
4. Geosynthetic Encased Stone Columns

Greenwood (1970) [33] reported that stone columns develop
their load carrying capacity through bulging and thereby
inducing near-passive pressure conditions in the surrounding
soil. Bergado et al. (1990) [34] found from field studies that
installation of granular piles increased the bearing capacity by
as much as four times and increased the factor of safety of
slopes by approximately 25%. They also reported improved
performance of stone columns compared to prefabricated
vertical drains. Malarvizhi and Ilamparuthi (2004) [35]
reported improved performance of geosynthetic-encased stone
columns based on small-scale laboratory tests on end bearing
as well as floating columns. Ayadat and Hanna (2005) [36]
performed experimental investigation regarding load carrying
capacity and settlement of stone columns encapsulated in
geogrid textile material and concluded that the ultimate
carrying capacity of a stone column increases with an increase
in the stiffness of the geofabric material used to encapsulate the
stone column.
Load carrying capacity of the ground treated with geosynthetic
encased stone column may be obtained by summing up
contribution of each of the following components under wide
spread load such as tanks, embankments, pavements etc.
[A] Capacity of the stone column resulting from the resistance
offered by the surrounding soil against its lateral deformation
i.e., bulging under axial load.
[B] Capacity of the stone column resulting from the bearing
support provided by the intervening soil.
[C] Capacity of the stone column resulting from increase in
resistance offered by the surrounding soil due to surcharge over
it.
Mainly, the encasements for stone columns are made of

polyester geogrid reinforcement. Different types of
encasements can be prepared using geosynthetic
reinforcements. As bamboo is easily available and cheaper in
India with respect to polyester geogrid and also environment
friendly, natural bamboo geogrid encasements can be prepared
to encapsulate the stone columns. Narrow bamboo sticks of 10
mm width with proper finishing were collected to prepare
bamboo encasements (Dutta et al., 2012) [37]. Figures 11 (a),
(b) and (c) show bamboo made encasement, bamboo made
encasement wrapped with jute geotextile and a polyester
geogrid encasement respectively. Wide width tensile strength
test on bamboo geogrid (200 mm width x 100 mm gauge
length) as per ASTM D4595 [38] is shown in Figure 12. Basic
properties of the bamboo geogrid and polyester geogrid are
reported in Table 2.
Fig. 11. (a) Bamboo encasement (b) bamboo made encasement

wrapped with jute geotextile (c) Polyester geogrid encasement
(Dutta et al., 2012)
Fig. 12. Wide width bamboo grid specimens (a) before tensile test
(b) after tensile test (ASTM D4595-11)
Page 56
Table 2. Properties of geogrid

Material
Bamboo
geogrid
Polyester
geogrid
Properties
Mesh size
Value
5 mm x5 mm
Ultimate tensile strength
110 kN/m
Ultimate stiffness
2200 kN/m
Mesh size
Ultimate tensile strength
5 mm x5 mm
32 kN/m
Ultimate stiffness
160 kN/m
4.2. Effect of Encasement Stiffness on Radial Deformation

From the finite element analysis in PLAXIS 2D, radial
deformation of stone column without and with full length
encasements were evaluated along its depth. Two full length
encasements, one representing the bamboo encasement of
stiffness 2200 kN/m and another representing the polyester
geogrid encasement of stiffness 160 kN/m, were modelled as
linear elastic geogrid. Radial deformation of stone column
along its depth is shown in Figure 8.38. The stone column was
installed in very soft clay at the center of the tank with
dimensions of the tank considered were 850 mm diameter and
500 mm height. End bearing stone column of 100 mm diameter
and 500 mm height with surrounding clay was loaded with a
200 mm diameter rigid plate so as to obtain uniform settlement.
The plate diameter was chosen such so as to simulate the single
stone column with its surrounding influence zone. The tank
was modeled large enough to avoid the boundary effect. 15node triangular elements were used to model the deformations
and stresses in the soil. In the analysis, un-drained MohrCoulomb model was used for soft clay and drained MohrCoulomb model was used for stone column. Properties of clay
and stone for the finite element analysis are reported in Table
3. Short term plastic analysis was used as calculation
procedure. The axisymmetric model of encased stone column
and generated very fine mesh are shown in Figures 13 (a) and
(b) respectively.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13. (a) Axisymmetric model of encased stone column (b) Fine
mesh generation
Ra dia l deforma tion (mm)
0
12
16
50
100
Table 3 Properties of clay and stone
150
Properties
Clay
Stone
Elastic modulus, E' (kPa)
4000
50000
Poissons ratio, '
0.4
0.3
Cohesion, cu (kPa)
10
Angle of internal friction,
45
It can be observed form Figure 14 that radial deformation of

stone column gets reduced when it is encased with geogrid
reinforcements. More uniform and minimum radial
deformation is obtained with increasing stiffness of the
encasements. Ordinary stone column (OSC) fails by bulging
within almost 2D length of the column with a significant radial
deformation of around 13 mm. Using Polyester geogrid and
Bamboo encasement radial deformation reduces to 5 mm and
1.4 mm respectively. Geogrid encasements provide excess
lateral confining pressure to the columns and prevent its radial
deformation. As the stiffness increases, more hoop tension gets
generated in the encasement and it provides more confining
pressure to the stone column.
Height (mm)
Parameters
200
250
300
350
400
450
OSC
ESC (160 kN/m)
ESC (2200 kN/m)
500
Fig. 14. Radial deformation of stone column without and with

encasement (OSC = Ordinary stone column; ESC = Encased stone
column)
5. Ground Improvement Using Geocell

In India, half of the subcontinents consist of black cotton soils
which are highly plastic and swelling in nature. It is a very
serious problem for the engineers to construct embankments or
reinforced soil retaining walls on swelling soils. The
conventional methods are excavation and replacement with
good quality filling materials or piling which is not economical
and practical. Alternatively, geocell mattress can be used as an
effective ground improvement technique.
Page 57
Geocell is a three dimensional honeycomb structures made of a

series of interlocking cells. A jute geocell mattress is shown in
Figure 15.
(2) The geocell-reinforced base acts as a mattress to restrain the

soil from moving upward outside the loading area.
The reinforcement mechanism of geocell mattress compared to
unreinforced case [40] is illustrated in Figure 16.
Fig. 15. Jute geocell mattress
Geocell may be made of
Geogrid
Non-woven and woven geotextile
Plastic and
Geofoam
The geometry of cell may be triangular, square,

rectangular, and hexagonal. It provides very good confining
effects. The deployment of geocell reinforced mattress ensure
stiff platform and drastically improve the bearing capacity of
weak soil. Mhaiskar and Mandal (1996) [39] conducted plate
load test on soft saturated marine clay subgrade to find out the
efficiency of geocell, effect of its cell geometry as well as
effect of relative density of the backfill material. They reported
considerable improvement in load carrying capacity as well as
reduction in settlement when the clay is reinforced with
geocell. It was found that the ultimate bearing capacity as well
as bearing capacity ratio of marine clay increases with
decreasing width to height ratio of geocell. A threedimensional finite element analysis was also carried out using
'ANSYS' to validate the experimental results. The finite
element results were found in accord with the experimental
results.
5.1. Reinforcement Mechanism of Geocell Mattress
Unlike the unreinforced base, geocell-reinforced base can
provide lateral and vertical confinement, tensioned membrane
effect, and wider stress distribution. As the geocell is a three
dimensional structure, it can provide lateral confinement to soil
particles within cells. Geocell mattress can provide the lateral
and vertical confinement in following ways:
Lateral confinement:
(1) As the load over the mattress increases, hoop stress is
generated in the cell wall resulting in the lateral confinement to
the infill material.
(2) Lateral confinement from the adjacent cells to prevent the
lateral expansion of any cell.
Fig. 16. Unreinforced and geocell-reinforced bases (Pokharel et al.,

2010)
5.2. Design Considerations of Geocell Mattress

The reinforcing effect can be increased by increasing the height
of cell, width of mattress and decreasing the equivalent
diameter of cell.
Effect of height:
As the height of cell increases, it will provide more frictional
resistance to the infill soil though after a certain height, no
further improvement may be obtained due to the local buckling
failure of the cell. Height of the cell should be designed based
on the footing width.
Effect of width:
As the width of cell increases, it will distribute the load over a
larger area improving the bearing capacity of foundation soil
though after a certain width no further improvement may be
obtained at a smaller settlement. At larger settlement, geocell
mattress as a whole will act as a tensile membrane as well as
foundation soil will provide more shear resistance at the
interface and as a consequence more improvement will be
observed compared to unreinforced case. The mattress width
should be designed based on the footing width.
Effect of equivalent diameter of the single cells:
As the equivalent diameter of the cell decreases, it will provide
more confinement to the infill soil in a unit volume as well as
the rigidity of the mattress in a unit volume will increase due to
the presence of more connections. Both the mechanism
contributes to the improvement in load carrying capacity
compared to the larger diameter cells.
Effect of tensile stiffness:
Vertical confinement:
(1) The friction between the infill material and the geocell wall,
and
As the tensile stiffness of the cells increases, the improvement

in load carrying capacity will be more. The junction strength of
geocells should be properly designed.
Page 58
Effect of infill soil:

If the infill soil used is frictional in nature with no apparent
cohesion, it will create higher shear resistance in the cell wallinfill interface compared to the infill soil with apparent
cohesion.
Depth of embedment:
The depth of embedment of the mattress should be properly
designed. From the literature review, it is found to be 10% of
the width of the footing. Otherwise the soil above the mattress
may fail by shear due to the presence of stiffer mattress
beneath it.
Effect of basal reinforcement:
(a)
If the geocell mattress is placed with planar geogrid

reinforcement at base, maximum benefit can be obtained.
6. Ground Improvement Using Geofoam
The geofoam is a super light material which is available in the
form of blocks or cellular honeycomb form. The size of the
block is about 600 mm by 1200 mm by 2400 mm. The block
size can vary from country to country. The other sizes can be
made to minimize the geofoam by cutting and trimming on the
site. Weight of the block varies from 11 kg/m3 to 40 kg/m3. Its
density is very less (about 100 times less) compared to
conventional fill material in geotechnical engineering.
Geofoams have been used in many structures around the world
for the last forty-five years. The life time of geofoam is about
70 to 100 years. Figure 17 depicts the development of geofoam
in geosynthetic family. Formation of geofoam and Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) picture of a geofoam bead are
shown in Figures 18(a) and (b) respectively. Figure 19 shows
the preparation of a modified geofoam made of geofoam beads,
fly ash and cement mix with appropriate proportion of water.
Classification of geofoam is presented in Figure 20.
(b)
Fig. 18. (a) Formation of geofoam (b) Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) picture of a geofoam bead
(a)
(b)
Fig. 19. (a) Mix of geofoam beads, fly ash, cement and water in
proper proportion (b) Prepared modified geofoam
Fig. 17. Development of geofoam in geosynthetic family
Fig. 20. Classification of geofoam
Geofoam may have wide applications in the field of Civil

Engineering. As for example, applications of geofoam as
Page 59
compressible inclusion behind reinforced concrete retaining

wall and as filling material beneath the pavement are pictured
in Figures 21 and 22 respectively.
References
[1] Kjellman, W. (1948). Accelerating consolidation of fine
grain soils by means of cardboard wicks, 2nd
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. 302-305.
[2] Richart, Jr., F. E. (1959). Review of the theories for sand
drains, Transactions of the American Society of Civil
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[3] Dastidar, A. G., Gupta, S. and Ghosh, T. K. (1969).
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[4] Hansbo, S. (1979). Consolidation of clay by band shaped
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Fig. 21. Placement of Geofoam as compressible inclusion behind

reinforced concrete retaining wall
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Fig. 22. Geofoam as filling material beneath the pavement
7. Conclusion
The correct choices of attractive, affordable and suitable
ground improvement techniques are mandatory. Practically
natural prefabricated vertical drain, encased stone column,
geocell and geofoam are ideal choices from economic point of
view in developing countries like India.
Natural prefabricated vertical drain (NPVD) is a low cost
alternative system to the artificial PPVD. NPVD is advocated
because it is more appropriate choice, technically feasible,
superior and more economical, low energy utilization,
especially in developing countries like India. A natural bamboo
encasement, a natural jute geocell mattress and a modified
geofoam are also advocated in this study.
With the advent of geosynthetics, the revolution of different
ground improvement systems for weak or soft soils are picking
up at an unprecedented pace. The technical and economical
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Page 61

(INDECS-15) ACE, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635 109, INDIA, 28-30 October 2015
SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF RC FRAMES WITH VARIOUS MASONRY IN-FILL

CONFIGURATIONS
S SURESH BABU1, SIDRAMAPPA V. ITTI2, R AND SRINIVASAN3
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering
Hosur, Tamilnadu -635109, India. Email: sunisurp@gmail.com

2 K.L.E. College of Engineering & Technology, Chikodi : 591 201,Belgaum, Karnataka India. Email: ittisv@gmail.com
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur,Tamilnadu-635109, India,
Email:bksrinivasan8@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper enlightens about the response or behavior of 3D RC frames with various configurations & amount of
masonry in-fill, under dynamic loading conditions. A1:3 scale, two bay three storey models of a typical office building
were constructed with various locations and percentage of masonry in-fill. Components of structure ie, structural subassemblages of columns, beams and slabs were casted from the same materials. A series of various ground motion tests
were performed on the building model using servo controlled hydraulic actuator. The dynamic characteristics, such as
frequency, acceleration and amplitude were identified at each frequency level. The effect of de-bonding of masonry infill with RC frames with increase in base acceleration was also observed in this study. Analytical models were developed
to predict the natural characteristics and dynamic properties of structure. In modal analysis, masonry infill was modeled
as equivalent diagonal strut and thickness of strut were taken as equal to infill thickness. Material properties and
boundary conditions were assigned suitably for infill.
Keywords: 3-D Reinforced Concrete Frames, Masonry Infill, Dynamic Loads.
1. Introduction
Masonry in-fill panels have been used in reinforced
concrete frame structures as partition walls. However,
because of the complexity of the problem, their interactions
with the RC frame often are neglected in the nonlinear
analysis of building structures. Such an assumption may lead
to an inaccuracy in predicting the response of a structure,
especially when it is subjected to strong lateral loads, such
as earthquake loads and wind loads. Due to this, aseismic
design procedures demand their considerations for
determining the ultimate capacity of the structure.
Furthermore, the study of their influence is also important to
assess the seismic behavior of existing buildings.
Accordingly, the effect of in-fill walls on the behavior of
frames is widely recognized and has been a subject to
numerous investigations in the last decades.
The masonry in-fills are in-variably constructed
after the basic frame work of the beams, columns and slabs
have gained sufficient strength. As a result, the bond of
masonry in-fill with the RC frame work is negligible at the

sides and top surface of the wall. Therefore, they are
classified as non-structural elements and the structures are
analyzed and designed by considering them only as dead

mass, while neglecting any kind of structural interaction of
such panels. This assumption of neglecting the effects of
masonry in-fill is reasonable and justifiable for the structure
under gravity loads. However, the same is not true for the
structures with masonry in-fill when it is subjected to lateral
loads like seismic loads and wind loads. Under seismic
loads, the stiffness additions due to masonry in-fills modify
the behavior of structure significantly by altering its
frequency. Many National and International Standards have
recommended different empirical formulations to tackle the
above problem by dividing it into two parts (i) Bare framed
structure and (ii) Framed structures with masonry in-fill.
They do not give due consideration to the location and
percentage of in-fill in the structures. Extensive researches
* S.SURESH
BABU . Tel.: +919994227629

E-mail: sunisurp@gmail.com
Page 62
Suresh babu et. al. / INDECS-15
have been carried out worldwide in the last five decades.

Many methods have been developed for the dynamic
analysis of RC frames with masonry in-fill incorporating
one or more simplifying assumptions regarding its stiffness.
The general layout of the idealized three-storey

prototype office building is shown in Fig.1 (a) and
1(b).Scaled down model (1:3) was employed for testing.
Un-Reinforced Masonry (URM) infill panels have a

very high initial in-plane lateral stiffness and low
deformability. Therefore, under seismic loads, the existence
of URM walls change the whole lateral force transfer
mechanism of the structure from a predominant frame action
to predominant truss action [3]
It is well understood that, considering the URM walls just as
dead mass is grossly incorrect, since it always over-predicts
the time period of structure because no consideration is
given to the stiffness of the wall panels [8]. This generally
under-predicts the forces attracted by the structure, and thus
making the structures unsafe. Yet, to avoid such ambiguities,
and to make lives of designers, various standards
recommend certain expressions to empirically evaluate the
time period of the structures. However, these experiments do
not give considerations to the amount and location of infill.
Most of the codes provide expressions which incorporate
only height and width of the structure as variables. Few
other codes, recommend more detailed formulations giving
due considerations to the walls in first storey only. The
argument is that the amount of infill panels in the first storey
greatly influences, while those in the upper stories simply
adds to the mass of frames, and its contribution to the
overall stiffness is considerably less. In the present study, an
attempt has been made to understand the behavior of RC
frames with various percentages and location of masonry infills under dynamic loading.
2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
Fig 1: Plan & Elevation
2.1 Prototype Structure
A typical three-storey moment resisting reinforced
concrete framed structure used for offices was designed. The
structure was considered as the representative of low-rise
buildings constructed in the zone-V. The prototype structure
was selected such that dynamic test could be performed on a
scaled model structure, using Servo Controlled Hydraulic
Actuator.
The structure was assumed to be built on
stiff soil/rock conditions such that, it not necessary to
consider soil-interaction or differential settlements. The
experimental tests were performed on 3D frames with
different configurations and percentage of in-fills. Bay width
of 3.6m and storey height of 3m has been considered for this
study. In this work, experiments on 3D frames were
performed and utilized to bring out the effectiveness of infill
at different locations and also to verify the numerical
designs obtained using a further simplified strut model. To
achieve this, dynamic tests were performed on 2-bay 3storey frames.
2.2 SCALE DOWN MODEL

It has now become usual to employ
models rather as part of general research and development
programme than with mere aim of solving specific problems
of construction. Models of RC Structures must accurately
reproduce the behavior of the prototype through all the
stages of loading up to the point of rupture, including the
type of failure. The modeling of RC frame with all the
physical properties presents many difficulties, mainly
because of its extreme inelastic property in both
compression and tension. In this study, materials used in
the construction of the model are identical to the materials in
the prototype structure. Therefore, the scale factors were
appropriately developed based on the principles of modeling
the same acceleration and material.
Page 63
2.3 Mass Similitude

Table 1 shows the scale factors for various
parameters for modeling dynamic behavior of structures
with constant accelerations, since gravitational acceleration
cannot be varied. The following table gives the scaling
factors for various quantities for 1: 3 scaling model.
Table 1: Similitude Relations
Description
S.No
Same Acceleration &

Material
Required
Provided
Geometric length
Elastic modulus
Acceleration
Forces
Stress
Strain
Area
Volume
27
27
Mass
27
10
Time
1.73
1.73
11
Critical Damping
While using scale factor of 1:3 the stiffness is

reduced by 1/9, where as the mass is reduced by 1/27. But to
attain the stiffness and mass similitude, these factors should
be same. By increasing the mass, the mass similarity can be
attained.In order to reproduce inertial effects, additional
masses were provided at appropriate points on the model
and were loosely attached, so that the stiffness and strength
of members cannot be altered.
Therefore to make the
reduction factor for mass as 1/9, the mass of model needs to
be added by 3 times the actual mass. The required additional
weights were attached only at the storey level of slabs for
convenience and these were not distributed to all the
members of the model. But, since the mass of the storey
slabs, beams and superimposed loads are substantially
greater than the mass of the columns, the errors introduced
are insignificant for the mass similitude.
2.4 Model Structure
The scale down models consist of columns of cross
section 116 mmx116 mm & beam cross section
100mmx110mm.The concrete mix was prepared using
ordinary Portland cement, fine sand and crushed gravel
having a ratio as per mix design of M25 concrete from
IS:10262-1982. Cement, sand and stone aggregates were
measured individually using weighing balance and machine
mixed. As per IS:516-1959,the representative samples of

100mmx100mmx100 mm size cubes were casted at each
stage and tested for evaluation of compressive strength.
Beams reinforcement has consisted of 2nosof 8mm diameter
MS bar throughout the member length. At the beam column
junction, both top and bottom bars of the beam were
provided with adequate development length. Shear
reinforcement has consisted of 6mm MS bars having a
spacing of 100mm centre to centre. Hoops were also
provided at junctions of beam-column. Column reinforced
bars were 4nosof 8mm diameter. The lateral ties 5mm MS
bars were placed at 100mm c/c. Masonry were constructed,
and tests were performed with infill.
3. FE Analysis of 3D RC Frames
FE analysis was performed by modeling the URM
panels as simplified strut models. The geometry of 3D
models was developed as per the dimensions with
appropriate boundary conditions, and finally the modal
analysis was carried out. Fig 2(a) & 2(b) shows the 3D
model with equivalent diagonal strut. The model was
analyzed using staad.pro software.
4. Hydraulic Actuator Tests on RC Frames:
Controlled specimens of 3D RC frames with
various configurations of masonry in-fill were tested by
applying dynamic loading with broad band excitation prior
to testing, the casted RC frames are carefully positioned for
actuator loadings. The frame mounted with the hydraulic
actuator is shown in Fig 3. During pre-testing, the frame
structure was thoroughly checked for cracks or damage after
positioning it with actuator. Accelerometers were placed and
their positioning are established based on controllability and
observability theory.
The sine sweep tests were carried out for a
frequency range of 1 to 50Hz, with acceleration levels of
0.50m/s2, 1m/s2 and 1.50m/s2. The response acceleration
graph obtained from sine sweep tests for bare frame and
masonry in-filled frame are shown in Fig3. Maximum
response was obtained separately at every frequency in the
test range. The graphs and de-bonding of masonry in-fill
with RC frames obtained from experimental investigations
are shown in Fig4 (a), (b) & Fig (5) respectively. The
analysis and test results are shown in table 2.
The maximum response acceleration for RC frame
without in-fill and with in-fill are given in table 3 & 4
respectively. A1 accelerometer is located at top, at which
high
magnification
is
recorded
compared
to
A2accelerometer at the bottom. Magnification of
acceleration increases as the de -bonding between masonry
in-fill and RC frame increases. Thus, the natural frequency
and damping was reduced due to the decrease in stiffness of
masonry in-fill.
Page 64
Table3. Maximum response accelerations in the

In-plane direction for frame without In-fill
Accelerometer
locations
Input accelerations(m/s2)
0.5
1
1.5
A1
6.54
7.21
7.88
A2
6.89
7.93
8.21
A3
7.68
8.61
8.98
Fig.2 (a) 3D FEM model with diagonal strut
Fig 3(a) 3D RC frame with infill mounted with SCHA
Fig.2 (b)3D FEM model with diagonal strut
Fig.3(b)3D RC frame without infill mounted with SCHA
Page 65
Fig.4 Positioning of Accelerometers
Fig 5(a): Debonding at column
Fig 5(b): Debonding at column

Fig 4(a)Graph showing response Acceleration in the
In-plane direction for Bare Frame (Freq 1Hz)
Fig 4(b)Graph showing response Acceleration in the In-plane

direction for Masonry In-filled Frame (Freq 1Hz)
Page 66
Frame with
infill
Standard
Indian
Code
Frame
without infill
Inplane
Outofplane
Inplane
Outofplane
5.58
5.65
5.71
5.71
5. CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions attained after the analysis are:
The masonry in-fill, although do not interfere in the
vertical load resisting system for the RC frame
structures, but they significantly affect the lateral
load-resisting system.
FE
Analyses
10.47
4.69
5.67
9.86
Euro Code
4.11
5.65
5.714
5.714
Fig 6(a) Debonding at Beam-Column Junction
Fig 6 (b) Debonding at Beam
The natural frequency of the structure with

complete in-fill is significantly higher than the
natural frequency of the bare framed structure.
The effect of de-bonding of masonry in-fill with
RC frames as the base acceleration is increased is
clearly seen in the test results of the 3D RC frames.
Due to the de-bonding effect the natural
frequencies and damping reduces whereas the
magnification factor of the output acceleration
increases.
The natural frequencies and damping values in 3D
RC frames will be high in the presence of masonry
in-fill. Hence the role of masonry infill in resisting
the lateral forces like earthquake and wind is
significant and has to be accounted during
designing of the structures.
REFERENCES
1. A. DAmbrisi M. De Stefano S. Viti (2008),
Seismic Performance Of Irregular 3D RC Frames,
The 14th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering. (doi:10.6088/ijcser.201203013053)
2.
ChetanK, R. RameshBabu (2010), Influence of

masonry infill on fundamental natural frequency of
2D Rc frames, Journal of structural Engineering,
Vol-37,
No-2.
(http://basharesearch.com/WCSET2014/wcset2014
004.pdf)
3.
C V R Murty and S K Jain (2000), Beneficial

influence of masonry infills on seismic
performance of RC frame buildings,Proc. 12th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
New
Zealand,
Paper
No.
1790.(http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/1790
.pdf)
Table 4: Comparison of Natural Frequencies [Hz]

obtained from Indian Code ,Euro code & FE Analyses.
Page 67
4.
Dhanasekhar M & AW Page (1987), The Influence

Of Brick Masonry Infill Properties On The
Behaviour
Of
In-Filled
Frames.ICE
Proceedings,593 605(doi.10.1680/iicep.1986.463)
5.
Diptesh Das and C.V.R. Murty (2004), Brick

Masonry In-fill in Seismic Design of RC
buildings,Indian
concrete
journal,39-42.(
http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2004_Cost_Implicat
ions_ICJ.pdf)
6.
Han-Seon Lee and Sung-Woo Woo (2002), Earth

Quake engineering & Structural Design, 353378.(Text book)
7.
HaroonRasheedTamboli
And Umesh.n.Karadi
(2012), Seismic Analysis Of RC Frame Structure
With And Without Masonry Infill Walls, Indian
Journal
Of
Natural
Sciences,
11371194(http://www.tnsroindia.org.in/JOURNAL/ISS
UE%2014%20final.pdf)
8.
Hemanath B. Kaushik, Durgesh C. Rai and

SudhirK.Jain (2006), Code approaches to seismic
design of masonry infilled reinforced concrete
frames: a state-of-the-art review Earthquake
Engineering Practice, (Vol 1, Issue 3), NICEE, IIT
Kanpur.( DOI: 10.1193/1.2360907)
9.
KulkarniP.B, PoojaRaut, Nikhil Agrawal (2013),

Analysis of Masonry Infilled R.C.Frame with &
without Opening Including Soft Storey by using
Equivalent Diagonal Strut Method, International
Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,
Volume
3,
Issue
9,
September
2013(http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper0913/ijsrp-p2109.pdf)
(http://conf.ncree.org.tw/Proceedings/i0951012/dat
a/pdf/4icee-0064.pdf)
12. Putul Hauldar, Yogendra Singh, D. K. Paul(2012),
Effect of URM infills on seismic vulnerability of
Indian code designed RC frame buildings,
Earthquake Engineering and engineering
vibration, June 2012, vol 11, Issue 2, pp 233241.(doi10.1007/s11803-012-0113-5)
10. SuyamburajaArulselvan, K. Subramanian, E.B.

PerumalPillai and A.R. Santhakumar, (2007). RC
Infilled Frame-RC Plane Frame Interactions for
Seismic Resistance. Journal of Applied Sciences, 7:
942-95(doi: 10.3923/jas.2007.942.950)
11. Yogendra Singh &Dipankar Das (2006), Effect Of
URM Infills On Seismic Performance Of RC
Frame Buildings, International Conference on
Earthquake
Engineering,
Paper
no
64.
Page 68
COMPRESSIBILITY AND CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY OF

CLAYEY SOIL-BENTONITE BACKFILLS
FOR SLURRY-TRENCH CUTOFF WALLS
Y. J. Du 1, R. D. Fan 2, S. Y. Liu 3, Krishna R. Reddy 4
1
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China

Email: duyanjun@seu.edu.cn
2
Email:ridong.van@gmail.com
3
Email: liusy@seu.edu.cn
4
Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA
Email: kreddy@uic.edu
Abstract
Locally available clayey soil and high-quality calcium-bentonite can be considered as an alternative backfill for soilbentonite vertical cutoff walls when suitable sandy soil and sodium-bentonite is not available at some sites. However,
studies on the chemical compatibility of clayey soil-calcium bentonite backfills when exposed to heavy metal
contaminants are very limited. The objective of this study is to evaluate the compressibility and hydraulic conductivity
of clayey soil/Ca-bentonite backfills when exposed to heavy metal contaminants through a series of oedometer tests.
Kaolin is used as the control clayey soil and it is amended with 10% Ca-bentonite (by dry weight basis), to prepare the
kaolin-bentonite backfills. Lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) is selected as a representative of the group of heavy metals. The
backfills are thoroughly mixed with Pb(NO3)2 solution with lead concentration of 60, 120, and 600 mmol/L and left for
two weeks before testing. The results reveal that the lead concentration and initial water content significantly affect the
compressibility of the backfills. The void ratio at an effective vertical compression stress of 1 kPa is a useful
characteristic parameter to predict compression index for various soil-bentontie backfills in this study and reported in
previous studies. The lead-contaminated backfills shows a maximum twentyfold increase in hydraulic conductivity when
compared with the clean backfill. The hydraulic conductivity valises of the uncontaminated backfills and backfills that
exposed to 60 mmol/L Pb(NO3)2 solution are generally less than the typical regulatory limit of 10-9 m/s; whereas the
hydraulic conductivity corresponding to void ratio higher than 0.9 may fail to meet such typical regulatory limit when
the backfill exposed to Pb(NO3)2 solutions with concentration higher than 120 mmol/L. Two empirical methods, based
on the framework of Kozeny-Carman equation and Sivapullaiah et al.s method, are assessed to predict the hydraulic
conductivity of the backfills. The predicted hydraulic conductivity values using these methods are found to fall in the
range of 1/3 to 3 times those obtained from the oedometer tests.
Keywords: Compression, Chemical Compatibility, Cutoff wall, Lead; Soil-bentonite
1. Introduction
The contamination of subsurface soils and groundwater with high
amounts of heavy metals, resulting from improper past disposal
practices and accidental spills is a critical problem around the
world [1-3]. Soil-bentonite vertical cutoff walls installed with the
slurry trenching technology are used widely as in-situ barriers to
control the migration of subsurface contaminated groundwater in
the United States, Canada and Japan [4]. Soil-bentonite vertical
cutoff walls are often preferred in these countries because they
possess relatively low hydraulic conductivity (typically lower than
10-9) and are generally cost-effective [4].
The influences of the fines content (FC), bentonite content (BC),
gradation of sand and amendment type and content (e.g., zeolite
and activated carbon) on the compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity (k) as well as the relationship between the
compressibility and the lateral deflection of sandy soil/Nabentonite (sandy SB) and sand-clay backfills have been well
understood in previous studies [5-14]. Recently, clayey soil with
high-quality Ca-bentonite are considered as alternative to make up
soil-bentonite backfills when high-quality natural Na-bentonite
(e.g., Wyoming bentonite) is scarce, while Ca-bentonite is
abundant at some sites (e.g., mainland of China and India).
Previous studies show that the clayey soil/high-quality Cabentonite
(clayey
SB)
backfills
perform
competitive
compressibility and hydraulic conductivity when compared with
conventional sandy soil/Na-bentonite backfills [12].
The chemical compatibility of engineered barriers (e.g., bentonite
filter cakes, sandy SB backfill, geosynthetic clay liners and
compacted sand-bentonite mixtures), usually defined as the degree
of change in engineering properties, particularly, the deterioration
of hydraulic conductivity when engineered barriers are exposed to
chemical liquids of engineered barriers, is an important
consideration in geoenvironmental applications [15]. The chemical
* Y.
J. Du. Tel.: +86-25-83793729

Fax: +86-25-83795086; E-mail: duyanjun@seu.edu.cn
Page 69
compatibility reflects the suitability of a particular engineered

barrier material for a particular contaminated site [16].
Considerable changes in liquid limit and compression index may
occur over time when engineered barriers are exposed to salts,
heavy metals or organic solutions. In particular, a considerable
increase (e.g., 4 to 10-fold) in hydraulic conductivity may occur,
and it even could fail to meet the typical regulatory limit of 10 -9
m/s when sandy SB backfills and Na-bentonite are exposed to the
chemical liquids [5, 17-20]. The changes in the engineering
properties can mainly be attributed to: (1) the squeeze of diffuse
double layer of Montmorillonitic soil particles; (2) surface charges
and structural characterization for kaolinite soils; (3) the
dissolution of carbonate bonds or cementation between clay
particles; and (4) the complex geochemical and mineralogical
changes [21-27]. By date, studies on the impacts of lead (Pb) on the
compressibility and hydraulic conductivity of clayey soil/Cabentonite slurry-trench wall backfills are non-existent.
In this study, a series of Atterberg limit and oedometer tests are
conducted to: (1) investigate the chemical compatibility in terms of
liquid limit, compressibility and hydraulic conductivity of clayey
soil/Ca-bentonite backfills by using Pb-contaminated liquids with
various concentrations; (2) identify the effects of Pb concentration
and effective vertical consolidation stress levels on the hydraulic
conductivity of the clayey soil/Ca-bentonite backfills; and (3)
examine two proposed empirical methods to predict the hydraulic
conductivity for the Pb-contaminated clayey SB backfills, based on
the Sivapullaiah et al. (2000)s method [28] and framework of
Kozeny-Carman equation.
2. Materials and methods

2.1. Constituent soils
The clayey soil-bentonite (hereinafter referred to clayey SB)
backfills are comprised of commercial kaolin and high-quality Cabentonite provided by MUFENF mineral processing plant in
Zhenjiang City, China. Kaolin is a good control soil for laboratory
tests as the base component of the backfills in order to investigate
the effects of HM contaminants and bentonite content on the
compressibility and hydraulic conductivity. This is due to the facts
that: (1) it is one of the most common minerals found in natural
clays; (2) it has a low organic content, and a consistent and uniform
mineralogy; and, (3) as a typical nonswelling soils, it has a
relatively lower liquid limit and activity, while hydraulic
conductivity for kaolin is nearly 10 to 1000 times higher than that
for bentonite in general .
Table 1 shows the physico-chemical properties of the kaolin and
bentonite clays used for this study. ASTM standards were used to
evaluate these physico-chemical properties, expect that the specific
surface area was determined by the Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl
Ether (EGME) method suggested by Cerato and Lutenegger [30].
The testing methods Based on the x-ray diffraction analysis, the
basal spacing (001) of the montmorillonite in bentonite is identified
as 15.48 , indicating that the bentonite used in this study is Cabentonite.
2.2. Testing Liquids
The chemical liquids of preparing specimens in this study consisted
of deionized water (DIW) and lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) solutions.
The Pb(NO3)2 solutions are used as a representative of the group of

HM contaminants. The Pb(NO3)2 solutions were prepared by
dissolving the Pb(NO3)2 solids in powder form (analytical reagent
grade) in DIW with initial Pb concentration (C0) of 60, 120, and
600 mmol/L. These concentrations is in the same range of those
selected in previous studies [15, 20, 31]. The DIW used in this
study (EC = 3.3 S/cm; pH = 6.8) is classified as Type IV per
ASTM D1193 (EC < 5.0 S/cm; pH = 5 to 8). The measured lead
concentration, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) of the Pb(NO3)2
solutions is presented in Table 2. The lead concentration was
measured by an atomic absorption spectrometer (iCE 3300,
Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.).
Table 1. Properties of constituent soils used in this study
Property
Specific gravity
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Classification
Specific surface area (m2/g)
pH
Constituent soil
Kaolin
2.66
29.1
19.5
CL
45.7
8.7
Bentonite
2.73
331.4
88.2
CH
378.5
10.0
Table 2. Relevant properties of Pb(NO3)2 solutions used in this study

Targeted lead
concentration
(mmol/L)
60
120
600
Measured lead
concentration
(mmol/L)
59
121
629
pH
4.53
4.31
4.13
Electrical
conductivity
(mS/cm)
8.9
13.7
36.9
2.3. Backfill preparation

The clayey SB backfills were prepared by thoroughly mixing a
predetermined mass of base mixtures with a predetermined volume
of distilled water or Pb(NO3)2 solution for 30 minutes with soil-tosolution ratio of approximately 1:1.5 using a paddle mixer. The
bentonite content of the clayey SB base mixtures was controlled to
be 10% by dry weight basis, which is defined using Eq. 1. The
bentonite content selected in this study is slightly higher relative to
the Na-bentonite (4 to 7%) widely used in practice [5], but may
encompass the typical range of Ca-bentonite content for potential
use in practice.
BC
mben
mkao +mben
(1)
where mkao and mben are the mass of kaolin and bentonite in the
mixture (on dry mass basis), respectively.
After that, the backfills were left for 15 to 20 days, and they were
mixed for 15 minutes in each day. The backfills were then
centrifuged for 5 min at 3000 rpm to solid-liquid separation. The
pore-fluid was collected for the purpose of measuring Atterberg
limits and adjusting initial water content of specimens for
oedometer tests. This method for preparing contaminated soil
specimen was also used in previous studies [19, 32]; and it
describes the worst operating condition: the clayey SB backfill is
fully penetrated by HM contaminants. The specific gravity, liquid
limit, plastic limit, and pH of the clayey SB backfills were
measured based on ASTM standards; while Methylene Blue-Spot
Method was used to evaluate the specific surface area. It should be
Page 70
note that coal oil was substituted for distilled water in specific
gravity measurement. The physico-chemical properties of the
backfills are summarized in Table 3. The backfill ID B10Pbj herein
denotes a specimen spiked with Pb(NO3)2 solution with Pb
concentration of i mmol/L.
Table 3. Properties of the backfills tested in this study
Property
Specific gravity
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Classification
Specific surface
area (m2/g)
pH
B10Pb0
2.67
53.3
25.9
CH
B10Pb60
2.66
40.8
21.7
CL
B10Pb120
2.69
39.8
21.9
CL
B10Pb600
2.75
38.4
21.2
CL
122.3
95.6
81.6
72.5
8.84
8.34
5.64
4.51
Two groups of clayey SB backfill specimens denoted as Model A

and Model B backfills with different initial water content were
prepared for oedometer tests. The initial water contents for the
Model A specimens were controlled to their corresponding liquid
limit. For the Model B specimens, the initial water contents were
controlled to the liquid limit value of their corresponding clean
(uncontaminated) one. A predetermined mass of the prepared
backfill was placed in a conventional consolidation ring made of
stainless steel with 61.8 mm in diameter and 20 mm in height. The
entrapped air bubbles were minimized by tapping the ring and
backfill at regular time intervals. The specimens were then
immersed in their corresponding pore-fluid that collected after
centrifugation for 48 h to reach saturation. An identical specimen
for all the specimens was prepared simultaneously and then
sacrificed for the measurement of the initial water content
immediately after saturation soaking step. Thus, the specimens in
this study are designated as B10PbiA or B10PbiB to denote a
specimen from Model A or Model B with bentonite content of 10%
that was mixed with i mmol/L Pb(NO3)2 solutions.
Table 4. Initial water content (w0), liquid limit (wL), void ratio at =1
kPa (e1) and compression index (Cc) of the specimens in this
study
Specimen ID
B10Pb0
B10Pb60A
B10Pb120A
B10Pb600A
B10Pb60B
B10Pb120B
B10Pb600B
w0 (%)
51.12
40.33
39.01
54.04
52.06
50.29
51.12
wL (%)
52.05
40.76
39.78
38.40
40.76
39.78
38.40
e1
1.72
1.39
1.31
1.22
1.51
1.48
1.44
Cc
0.41
0.28
0.26
0.26
0.31
0.30
0.29
2.4. Testing methods

The oedometer tests were conducted as per ASTM D 2435 , except
that the initial loading on the specimens was kept at 3.125 kPa.
This relatively low loading was chosen to avoid squeezing the soil
from the gap that exists between the specimen ring and porous
disks [12, 33]. The loading was then doubled for each incremental
step until a maximum loading of 1600 kPa was reached. The
duration of each loading was 24 hours. The top cap, guiding ring,
and base plate of oedometer cells are made of polyvinyl chloride
polymer (PVC) to prevent their chemical reactions with lead in
specimen and liquid in water bath.
At a given average effective vertical compression stress (ave),

defined as the mean value of two successive load increments,
values of hydraulic conductivity corresponding to higher than
6.25 kPa were estimated following Terzaghis one-dimensional
consolidation theory, as expressed by:
k cv mv w
(2)
where k is the hydraulic conductivity (m/s), cv is the coefficient of

consolidation (m2/s) determined using the Taylor (square-root-oftime) method in this study, mv is the coefficient of volume change
(kPa-1), and w is the unit weight of water (kN/m3). This method to
determine k value is extensively accepted [20, 28, 34-37]. The
method is likely to underestimate k value of clayey soils , but it is
used in this study for relative comparison of hydraulic conductivity
of various specimens. In recent, a preliminary comparative
assessment of k values estimated from the Terzaghis theory and
those measured directly from the falling-head method is made by
the authors. k values were directly measured for various types of
backfills, including clayey soil-bentonite, sand-bentonite and sandclay-bentonite backfills, using the falling-head tetsing procedure
recommended by Malusis et al. [8] and Hong et al. [11]. The results
indicate that the values of hydraulic conductivity calculated from
the Terzaghi's theory (ke) are well compared with those measured
using the falling-head method (k), especially for the soil-bentonite
backfills that possess relatively low k [13].
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Properties of the lead-contaminated backfills
The specific gravity, liquid limit, plastic limit, specific surface area,
pH values and soil classification of the backfills in this study are
listed in Table 3. It can be seen from Table 3 that the specific
gravity (Gs) increases with an increase in lead concentration; while
the liquid limit, plasticity index, specific surface area, and pH
values tend to decrease with increasing lead concentration. The
higher specific gravity of lead-contaminated backfills is due to a
much higher Gs value of lead. The liquid limit and plastic limit
values of clean (uncontaminated) backfills is approximately1.3 to
1.4 times and 1.2 times higher than these of lead-contaminated
backfills, respectively. In addition, the soil classification of the
backfills is changed from CH to CL after contaminated by lead
nitrate solutions, as shown in Table 3. The decreasing of liquid
limit, plasticity index, and specific surface area can be attributed to
the squeeze of diffuse double layers around bentonite particles,
which leads to the decrease in water-holding capacity and the
aggregation of clay particles. The result of specific surface area
reflects the decrease in water retention and sorption capacity, in
turn [39]. The pH values of the backfills decrease sharply when
lead concentration is higher than 120 mmol/L. This is due to the
fact that Pb(NO3)2 is a strong acid weak base salt; and therefore,
Pb2+ undergoes hydrolysis to give free hydrogen ions [40].
3.2. Compressibility
Figure 1 shows the void ratio (e) effective vertical compression
stress () compression curves on semi-logarithm scale for the
backfills tested in this study. The e-log() compression curves of
the specimens with an initial water content of their corresponding
Page 71
liquid limit (i.e., specimens in Model A) display a noticeable

inverse S shape. This inverse S shaped e-log() compression
curve and remolded yield stress (yr) were also observed in the
remolded natural clayey soils, Na-bentonite slurry, as well as
clayey SB backfills with an initial water content in the range of
approximately 0.5 to 2.0 times their corresponding liquid limits
[12, 33, 41]. This can be attributed to the existence of shear
strength of at relatively lower initial water content, which provides
certain resistance to sustain a low external compression stress, as
suggested in previous studies [33]. Thus, the compression index
(Cc) is determined from the linear portion of the e-log()
compression curve at the post-yield state in this study. The results
from Table 4 shows that compression index increases with an
increase in liquid limit. However, compression index of specimens
in Model is 1.1 to 1.2 times higher than that of specimens in Model
A for a given lead concentration, which indicating the effect of
initial water content on the compression index of leadcontaminated clayey SB backfills is considerable.
which can be generalized using a dimensionless parameter, e00.6eL,

as expressed by Eq. 4. The variations of compression index with
void ratio at = 1 kPa (e1) obtained in this study and these
reported in previous studies, including clayey soil-bentonite , sandbentonite and sand-clay backfills [10-14], is presented in Fig. 3.
The result indicates that the relationship between Cc and e1 for the
specimens tested in this study is very similar to the empirical
equation obtained by Fan et al. [12].
Fig. 2. Relationship between lead concentration (CPb) and compression

index ratio (Ccc/Cc0)
Fig. 1. e-log() compression curves of the backfills
Figure 2 presents variations of compression index ratio with lead

concentration for the specimens tested in this study. The
compression index ratio is defined as the ratio of the Cc obtained
from the lead-contaminated specimens (Ccc) to that based on
uncontaminated specimens (Cc0). The result indicates that when
lead concentration increases to 60 mmol/L, the compression index
ratio decreases sharply to 0.68 0.77; whereas it tends to decrease
slightly or keep remain stable when lead concentration is higher
than 120 mmol/L. Thus, it can be concluded that the compression
index of the clayey SB backfills is significantly affected by lead
contaminants at relatively low range of concentration; while the a
further increase in lead concentration had limited effect on
compression index. In addition, the compression index ratio of
specimens in Model B is approximately 1.1 1.2 times larger than
that of specimens in Model A due to the effect of initial water
content.
Fan et al. [12] suggested that there existed a unique empirical
relationship between compression index and void ratio at = 1
kPa (e1) for various types of soil-bentonite backfills, and the
proposed Cc - e1 relationship can be expressed by a quadratic
equation (Eq. 3). In addition, Fan et al. [12] suggested that the
single parameter, e1, in Eq 3 reflects the effects of initial water
content (i.e., initial void ratio, e0) and liquid limit (i.e., void ratio at
liquid limit, eL) on the compressibility of soil-bentonite backfills,
Fig. 3. Relationship between void ratio at =1 kPa (e1) and

compression index (Cc)
Figure. 4 presents the result of the relationship between e00.6eL and

e1 of the specimens tested in this study as well as results of clean
clayey soil-bentonite backfills and natural clays reported in
previous studies [11-13, 32, 42]. The predicted e1 using the
proposed empirical equation reported by Fan et al. [12] are found
to fall in the range of 0.7 to 1.8 times those evaluated based on elog() compression curve. In addition, multiple linear regression is
used to establish the correlation among e1, e0 and eL, as expressed
by Eq. 5 (R2 = 0.953). The predicted e1 using Eq. 5 falls in the
range of 0.7 to 1.35 times those evaluated ones, indicating a better
result of prediction when compared with predicted e1 values using
Eq. 4. Thus, it is concluded that Eqs. 3 and 5 can be used to
preliminarily estimate Cc value of clean clayey SB backfills and
these exposed to Pb(NO3)2 solutions.
Page 72

Cc 0.13e1 0.056e12
e1 1.168 e00.6 eL
(3)
0.772
e1 0.72eL +0.93e0 -0.78
initial water content has limited effects on the hydraulic

conductivity of lead-contaminated specimens tested in this study.
(4)
(5)
where e1 is the void ratio at = 1 kPa; e0 is the initial void ratio;

and eL is the void ratio at liquid limit.
Fig. 5. Variations in coefficient of consolidation (cv) with average

effective vertical compression stress (ave) for the backfills
Fig. 4. Relationship between predicted void ratio at =1 kPa (e1,p) and

void ratio at =1 kPa obtained from e-log() compression curve (e1)
Figures 5 and 6 presents the variations in coefficient of

consolidation (cv) as well as coefficient of volume change (mv),
with average effective vertical compression stress on duallogarithmic scale. The cv value is evaluated based on the Taylors
(square-root-of-time) methods. The results indicate that the cv value
tends to increase noticeably with an increase in average effective
vertical compression stress; while the mv value tends to decrease
considerably with increasing average effective vertical
compression stress for all the backfills. This result is similar to the
trend from uncontaminated sandy SB backfills [10] and zeoliteamended clayey-bentonite backfills [13]. The effect of lead
concentration on both cv and mv values for the lead-contaminated
backfills is insignificant. In addition, it is evident that the
coefficient of consolidation of uncontaminated backfills is
considerably larger than that of lead-contaminated ones. However,
the resulting cv values of the backfills in Model B that exposed to
120 and 600 mmol/L Pb(NO3)2 solutions tend to higher than others.
Fig. 6. Variations in coefficient of volume change (mv) with average

effective vertical compression stress (ave) for the backfills
3.3. Hydraulic conductivity

Figure 7 presents the variations of hydraulic conductivity (k) with
void ration (e) on semi-logarithmic scale. It is can be seen from
Fig. 7 that both e - log(k) relationships are approximately linear.
The hydraulic conductivity of lead-contaminated specimens is
approximately 4 to 20 times higher than that of uncontaminated
specimen. The hydraulic conductivity values for uncontaminated
specimens and specimens that exposed to 60 mmol/L Pb(NO3)2
solution are generally less than the typical regulatory limit of 10 -9
m/s; whereas the hydraulic conductivity of the specimens exposed
to Pb(NO3)2 solutions with lead concentration higher than 120
mmol/L fail to meet such typical regulatory limit until void ratio is
lower than approximately 0.9. In addition, the result indicates that
Fig. 7. Relationship between hydraulic conductivity (k) and void ratio

(e) on a semi-logarithm scale for the backfills in this study
Page 73
To better understand the effect of lead concentration on hydraulic

conductivity of the specimens tested in this study, the relationships
between slat concentration (C) and hydraulic conductivity
corresponding to void ratio of 0.79 to 0.94 are presented in Fig. 8.
In addition, for the purpose of comparing the results obtained in
this study with that of sandy SB backfills, the results reported by
Malusis et al. [15] are presented in Fig. 8, in which sandy SB
backfills were permeated with 10 to 1000 mmol/L calcium chloride
(CaCl2). The designations of SW101, NG, and MSB in Fig.
8 are the same meanings reported by Malusis et al. [15] . The
reason for choosing k values corresponding to e = 0.79 0.94 is
because this range of void ratio are available from all specimens
tested in this study; and therefore, it allows for a comparison
among the different specimens. The result indicates that the
hydraulic conductivity of the clayey SB backfills as well as the
sandy SB backfills reported by Malusis et al. [15] tends to increase
significantly once they are exposed to salt solutions; and the k-C
relationship remains stable when cation concentration is relatively
high. Thus, there exists a threshold concentration, beyond which
the effect of salt concentration on the hydraulic conductivity is
insignificant. The critical concentration for the backfills with
Pb(NO3)2 solution tested in this study as well as sandy SB backfills
with CaCl2 solution reported by Malusis et al. [15] is
approximately in the range of 50 to120 mmol/L.
Fig. 8. Relationship between metal concentration (C) and hydraulic

conductivity (k) corresponding to void ratio of 0.79 to 0.94
Figure 9 presents the variations of hydraulic conductivity ratio with

average effective compression stress on dual-logarithmic scale to
investigate the effect of stress state on the hydraulic conductivity.
The hydraulic conductivity ratio is defined as the ratio of the k
obtained from the lead-contaminated specimens (kc) to that based
on uncontaminated specimens (kw) for a given bentonite content
and a similar void ratio, and it is denoted by kc/kw. The hydraulic
conductivity ratio tends to increase with an increase in lead
concentration; whereas the increase in hydraulic conductivity ratio
tends to diminish with increasing average effective compression
stress, which is more noticeable when backfill is exposed to
Pb(NO3)2 solution with relatively high lead concentration
(approximately 120 and 600 mmol/L). This is due to the fact that
the decrease in void ratio is likely to increase the overall sizes of
the individual pores within backfill, thereby increasing the
tortuosity of seepage path. Thus, the increase in stress state can
enhance the chemical compatibility (i.e., the decrease in hydraulic
conductivity ratio) of clay SB backfills. However, earth pressure in

a soil-bentonite backfill is unlikely to thoroughly eliminate the
negative effect of HMs contaminants on the hydraulic conductivity
considering that the lateral earth pressure might be lower than 90
kPa [7].
Fig. 9. Relationship between average effective compression stress (ave)

and hydraulic conductivity ratio of (kC/k0) of the backfills
When the bentonite is contaminated by the Pb(NO3)2 solution, the

swell potential (i.e., repulsive stress between clay particles) of
bentonite significantly reduces due to the exchange of readily
exchangeable cations with Pb ions and consequent contraction of
diffuse double layer of bentonite particles. The degree of
contraction of the diffuse double layer or reduction in swell
potential of the bentonite increases with increasing Pb
concentration . In addition, the reduced soil pH, i.e., increased
concentration of hydrogen (H+) ions, with respect to the elevated
Pb concentration is also attributable to the contraction of the
diffuse double layer based on the Gouy-Chapman theory.
Nevertheless, it is noted that the limited decrease in the pH of
backfills with respect to Pb concentration (see Table 3) may have
insignificant effect on the hydraulic conductivity of backfills unless
the pH value is less than 2.0 [43].
The engineering behavior of metal-treated kaolin is dominantly
controlled by its fabric [23]. The influence of metal concentration
on the properties of kaolin crucially depends on the relationship
between pH at isoelectric point for edge (IEP edge, typical value is
5.8 for commercial kaolin) and soil pH. When the soil pH is >
IEPedge and the metal concentration is lower than the "convergence
concentration", a deflocculated fabric forms, leading to a slight
reduction in the hydraulic conductivity [27, 42, 44]. When the
metal concentration is higher than the convergence concentration,
the face-to-face (FF) aggregation or FF aggregate in edge-to-face
(EF) floc would form regardless of the soil pH, resulting in an
increased hydraulic conductivity as compared to the clean kaolin.
The Pb concentrations of the backfills presented in this study are
deemed higher than the convergence concentration for the two
valence-metals concentration (e.g., 2 mmol/L for CaCl2 solution
[27]). Therefore, hydraulic conductivity of the kaolin clay
composed in the backfills would decrease with the increase in the
Pb concentration, which is similar to that for bentonite as
mentioned above.
The hydraulic conductivity values in this study are estimated
indirectly based on the oedometer test results. Direct measurement
Page 74
based on either the rigid-wall permeameter or the flexible-wall

permeameter tests is recommended. On-going additional research
is aimed at addressing all of these limitations.
3.4. Predictive method for k

Several methods have been reported in published literature for
predicting hydraulic conductivity of clays, and most of them are
originated from Kozeny-Carman (KC) equation, Taylor (1948)s
method and Nagarajs method [45]. In this study, two empirical
equations are assessed to predict the k of thePb-contaminated
clayey SB backfills based also on Sivapullaiah et al. (2000)s
method [28] and the framework of KC equation. The Sivapullaiah
et al. (2000)s method is initially used to predict k of sandbentonite mixtures, while the KC equation has been used to predict
hydraulic conductivity for most saturated soils including sandy
soils and natural clays [46, 47]. Recently, an empirical equation
based on the framework of KC equation is proposed to predict k of
clean (uncontaminated) clayey SB backfills [12].
Sivapullaiah et al. (2000)s method is based on the assumption that
e-log (k) relationship is linear. The result of e-log (k) relationship
for the backfills in this study is therefore expressed as:
e S k log k I k
S k 1.9 wL 0.152
(7)
I k 23.5wL 2.96
(8)
e 23.5wL 2.96
1.9 wL 0.152
e3
log k 1.18log 6
11.49
wL 1 e
(11)
where wL is in %.
(6)
where Sk and Ik are the slope and intercept of the equation,

respectively; and k is the hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
corresponding to a given e value. As presented in Fig. 10(a) and
10(b), both the Sk-wL and Ik-wL relationships are approximately
linear, as expressed by Eqs. 7 and 8. The R2 values for Eqs. 7 and 8
are 0.951 and 0.971, respectively. When Eqs. 7 and 8 are
substituted in Eq. 6, it yields Eq. 9, which predicts the hydraulic
conductivity of the backfills in this study.
log kp
study can be described using a unique linear function, which is

quite similar to the proposed equation obtained from
uncontaminated clayey soil-bentonite backfills reported by Fan et
al. [12] . The log(k) - log[e3/(wL6(1+e))] relationship determined
using a Least-Square-Root method is expressed by Eq. 11 with R2
value of 0.953.
Fig. 10. Relationship between liquid limit (wL) and slope (Sk) and
intercept (Ik) form the e-log(k) relationship expressed using Eq. 6: (a)
slope (Sk) and (b) intercept (Ik)
(9)
where kp is the predicted hydraulic conductivity in m/s and wL is in

%.
The KC equation is commonly used to estimate hydraulic
conductivity and it is expressed by:
k Cs
w
e3
2
w SSA 1 e
(10)
where Cs is the shape coefficient that reflects the pore shape and
tortuosity of the channels, w is the unit weight of water, w is the
dynamic viscosity of water, SSA is the specific surface area, and e
is the void ratio. Fan et al. [12] suggested that the SSA value in the
original form of KC equation could be replaced by a function of wL
(wL3) considering that wL is a basic soil parameter to be determined
using conventional laboratory testing methods. In addition, Sanzeni
et al. [47] suggested that an inaccurate SSA value would lead to a
significant discrepancy in the predicted k of clayey soils.
Figure 11 presents the k - e3/(wL6(1+e)) relationship on duallogarithmic scale. The results show that data of log(k) log[e3/(wL6(1+e))] relationship for all specimens tested in this
Fig. 11. Relationship between hydraulic conductivity (k) and

dimensionless parameter e3/[wL6(1+e)] based on the original form of
Kozeny-Carman equation on dual-logarithm scale
The predicted hydraulic conductivity (kp) values using Eqs. 9 and

11 are compared with those estimated from the oedometer tests, as
shown in Fig. 12. It can be seen from Fig. 12 that the kp values are
generally in the range of 1/3 to 3 times the k measured during the
oedometer tests. In addition, the results imply that liquid limit is an
important property that reflects the change in k value due to the
impact of heavy metal contaminants. Therefore, it is concluded that
both proposed method are reasonably suitable to predict k for leadcontaminated clayey soil-bentonite backfills tested in this study.
Page 75
diffuse double layer of bentonite and the aggregation of

kaolin particles caused by the lead contamination.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the financial support of the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51278100,
41330641 and 41472258), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu
Province (BK2012022), Key Laboratory of Geotechnical and
Underground Engineering Foundation (Tongji University) (Grant
No. KLE-TJGE-B1202), and Scientific Research Foundation of
Graduate School of Southeast University (Grant No. YBJJ1343).
References
Fig. 12. Relationship between hydraulic conductivity (k) evaluated
from oedometer tests and predicted hydraulic conductivity (kP) using
Eqs. 9 and 11
3. Conclusions
Clayey soil/Ca-bentonite backfill is an alternative to make up
soil-bentonite backfills for slurry cutoff walls when high-quality
natural Na-bentonite is scarce. However, the chemical
compatibility of clayey soil/Ca-bentonite backfills when
contaminated by lead remains unknown. This study investigated
the chemical compatibility of clayey soil/Ca-bentonite backfills in
terms of changes in liquid limit, compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity with respect to lead concentration. Based on the
results presented in this study, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
1.
The liquid limit, plastic limit, specific surface area and pH
decreased with increasing lead concentration. The soil
classification of the backfills is shifted from high-plasticity
clay (CH) to low-plasticity clay (CL) after Pb-contamination.
2.
The compression index decreased considerably with
increasing lead concentration. The unique relationship
between compression index (Cc) and void ratio at 1 kPa (e1)
for the lead-contaminated and clean backfills was expressed
by: Cc = 0.125e1 + 0.055e12.
3.
The hydraulic conductivity for the clayey soil/Ca-bentonite
backfills were significantly affected by lead concentration
and bentonite content. The hydraulic conductivity increased
significantly with increasing lead concentration; it even
exceeded the typical regulatory limit of 10-9 m/s when the Pb
concentration was relatively high. The hydraulic conductivity
ratio is found to increase with increasing bentonite content at
a given lead concentration.
4.
Two empirical equations, namely the Sivapullaiah et al.s
(2000) method and the proposed method based on the
framework of KozenyCarman equation, were applied to
predict the hydraulic conductivity values for the leadcontaminated clayey soil/Ca-bentonite backfills. The results
indicate that the predicted hydraulic conductivity values
using the two proposed equations were within a range of 1/2
to 2 times those obtained from the oedometer tests.
5.
The changes in the liquid limit, compression index and
hydraulic conductivity of the backfills with respect to the lead
concentration are mainly attributed to the contraction of
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Page 78
STABILITY ASPECTS PERFORMANCE OF NON-PERFORATED VS PERFORATED

QUARTER CIRCLE BREAKWATERS A STUDY
Prof. Arkal Vittal Hegde

Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, NITK, Surathkal. Mangaluru, 575025, India,
Abstract
Quarter circle breakwater (QCB) is one of the few new types of breakwaters developed in recent
times. It is a composite breakwater made up of a quarter circle shaped caisson with concrete base
slab standing on a rubble mound base. These breakwaters are technically advanced, economically
viable and aesthetically pleasing. The paper discusses the experiments conducted on non-perforated
QCB as well as seaside perforated QCB with spacing to diameter ratio of perforations of 8, in order
to determine the critical (minimum) weight required to resist the sliding forces caused by wave
action. Critical weight required to prevent sliding of the structure for different wave and structure
specific parameters was expressed in terms of dimensionless stability parameter, and it is a function
of incident wave steepness and depth parameter. The investigations were carried out for the
breakwater models, and the variations were recorded graphically using these non-dimensional
parameters, obtained by applying Buckinghams theorem. The wave climate off the Mangaluru
coast of Karnataka state in India was considered for wave loading on the structure. Incident wave
heights used in the flume varied from 3 to 18 cm, wave periods ranged from 1.4 s to 2.5 s, water
depths of 35 cm, 40 cm and 45 cm were used in the experiments. The adopted model scale was of
1:30. It was found that non-dimensional stability parameter decreases as incident wave steepness
increases for both non-perforated and seaside perforated breakwaters for all ranges of d/gT2 values.
Also, it was found that critical weight required for sliding stability is more in non-perforated QBW
as compared to seaside perforated QCB. Typically, there was a decrease of 12 to 20% in W/Hi2
values for perforated structures, depending upon the d/gT2 value.
Keywords: Quarter circle breakwater, Incident wave steepness, Dimensionless stability parameter, Dimensionless depth
parameter, Buckingham theorem.
1. Introduction
More than 40% of global population lives in the coastal areas
because of their socio-economic features. The protection of coastal
area is a continuous challenge for the coastal engineers and coastal
protection works such as the seawalls, offshore breakwaters, groins
and beach nourishment are being designed and installed to
overcome the coastal problems. As all of these structures are not
completely successful in fulfilling their structural and functional
requirements, research is going on in the domain of coastal defense
structures with the development of breakwaters, like berm
breakwaters, floating pipe breakwaters, semicircular and quarter
circle breakwaters and other types of protection structures.
Emerged perforated quarter circle breakwater (EPQCB) is a surface
piercing precast reinforced concrete caisson having perforations on
its seaside circular face with a bottom slab resting on a low-mound
rubble base. The concept of perforated seaside face was derived to
absorb most of the incident wave energy and the vertical wall on
rear side is used to avoid wave transmission to the lee side. Figs. 1
and 2 show emerged, non-perforated and perforated quarter circle

breakwater sections respectively with a free board, which means
crest level of the structure is raised above the still water level and
further, in the present studies there is no wave overtopping allowed
over QCB crest. In other words, the crest is so elevated as to cause
no wave overtopping. The paper discusses the sliding stability of
the breakwater, which is a function of incident wave height (Hi),
water depth (d), radius of the caisson (R), ratio of spacing to
diameter of perforations (S/D), height of the structure (ht) and
wave period (T).To ensure publication quality and uniformity, the
following requirements have been prepared to assist authors in
preparing papers for the Conference. If these requirements are not
followed, papers will be sent back for revision and re-submission.
2. Literature review
Qie et al. (2013) have conducted studies on partial coefficients for
design of quarter circle caisson breakwater for the purposes of safe
design of the structure. Jiang et al. (2008) have conducted twodimensional (vertical) wave numerical model and also physical
model studies to research the performances of quarter circle
breakwater (QCB) by comparing the hydraulic behavior of
Page 79
Arkal Vittal Hegde. / INDECS-15
Fig. 1 (a)
Fig.1 (b)
Fig. 1 (a) Cross section of emerged non-perforated QBW model, (b) Cross section of EPQCB model (all dimensions are in m)
Fig. 2 Longitudinal section of wave flume used with details
Page 80
Arkal Vittal Hegde/ INDECS-15

the increase in force is stabilized by increasing the weight of
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experiments were conducted in the two dimensional
monochromatic wave flume of the department in order to
determine the critical weight required to resist the sliding of the
non-overtopping EPQCB model. Two models were studied, one
breakwater by adding additional weight into the caisson. In all of

the cases, it is found that the non-dimensional stability parameter
(W/Hi2) decreases with the increase of incident wave steepness
(Hi/gT2).
non-perforated and other seaside perforated model with S/D=8.
From Figures 5 and 6, it may be seen that as the dimensionless
Variations in critical weight required for sliding stability with
depth parameter d/gT2 increases, the value of W/Hi2 also increases
different wave specific and structure specific parameters were
for the given wave steepness. This is because higher the water
studied, and were recorded graphically using non-dimensional
depth, greater is the area of the QBW model structure exposed to
parameters
using
wave action, and hence, the increase in d/gT2 imparts more force
Buckinghams theorem. Effect of perforations on sliding stability
and therefore increase in W/Hi2 means more structure weight is
was studied by comparing the results of two models. Non-
required for stability in larger depths.
obtained
from
dimensional
analysis
dimensional stability parameter W/Hi2 was used to represent the

stability of the structure. The equations for the best-fit plots of
W/Hi2 Vs wave steepness Hi/gT2 was found out by least square
regression. It was found that logarithmic fit gave the maximum
value of R2 in all the cases. The results obtained from the
experimental work, and discussions on same are presented in
Influence of perforations
The effect of perforations plays a crucial role in reducing pressures,
especially closer to SWL [Isaacson and Subbiah (1991);
Mallayachari and Sundar (1995)]. Generally, the value of W/H i2
decreases with the increase in percentage of perforations because,
subsequent sections.
the increase in percentage of perforations on the seaside of the

Influence of incident wave steepness and depth parameter
QCB model generates more turbulence inside the caisson chamber,

which causes more energy dissipation. Increase in percentage of
The graphs of non-dimensional stability parameter (W/Hi2)
perforations, generates less force of impact on the QCB caisson,
against the incident wave steepness (Hi/gT2) are plotted for
hence the critical weight required to resist sliding would be
different ranges of values of dimensionless depth parameter
reduced. The variation of stability parameter with incident wave
(d/gT2), for a constant radius to breakwater height ratio (R/ht) of
steepness for each range of d/gT2 values for a non-perforated QCB
0.902. Figures 3 and 4 respectively represent the variation of
model and a seaside perforated QCB model with S/D=8, is
W/Hi2 with incident wave steepness Hi/gT2 for all four ranges of
discussed here below.
d/gT2 values, for constant R/ht=0.902 for an emerged nonperforated QCB and an emerged perforated QCB with S/D=8.
It may be seen that the non-dimensional stability parameter W/Hi2

decreases with increase in the percentage of perforations. The
From Figures 3 and 4 above, it may be noted that for all the ranges
percentage reduction in W/Hi2 with perforations called as
of depth parameter values for the two models, as the incident wave
%[W/Hi2]red for all the ranges of d/gT2 is calculated from equation
steepness
parameter
(1) in order to investigate the effect of perforations. Equation (1) is
decreases, i.e. critical weight required for sliding stability
valid for the range of values of variables used in the present
decreases. This is due to fact that long period waves (low
experiments.
increases,
the
dimensionless
stability
steepness) exert more force on the caisson, demanding higher

critical weight, and short period (steep) waves transfer less force,
%[W/Hi2]red = {([W/Hi2]non-perforated - [W/Hi2]S/D=8) / ([W/Hi2]non-
hence low critical weight is required. The disturbance caused by
perforated)}*100
.......(1)
* Corresponding
author. Tel.: +1234567890

Fax: +9876543210; E-mail: Author.Name@iasks.org
2010 International Association for Sharing Knowledge and Sustainability.
Page 81
Fig. 3 Variation of stability parameter with incident wave steepness and depth parameter for a constant R/ht=0.902 for a nonperforated QBW model
Page 82
Fig. 4 Variation of stability parameter with incident wave steepness for a constant R/ht=0.902 for seaside perforated QBW
model with S/D=8
Page 83
Fig. 5 Variation of stability parameter with incident wave steepness and depth parameter for a constant R/ht of 0.902 for a seaside
perforated QBW model of S/D ratio 8
Fig. 6 Variation of stability parameter with incident wave steepness and depth parameter for a constant R/ht of 0.902 for a non-perforated
QBW model
Table 1 below shows the percentage reduction in stability

parameter for seaside perforated QCB compared to nonperforated QCB, with non-perforated model as reference, for
all the ranges of d/gT2.
Table 1. Variation of %[W/Hi2]red for perforated model with S/D=8 for different ranges of d/gT2
d/gT2
0.005 0.010
0.010 0.015
0.015 0.020
0.020 0.024
%[W/Hi2]red for
12.8-12.9
16.80-26.10
15.67-15.06
20.38 18.36
Perforated QBW with

S/D=8
Page 84
4. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results obtained and discussion carried out,
following conclusions have been drawn:
Non-dimensional stability parameter W/Hi2

decreases as incident wave steepness increases
for both non-perforated and seaside perforated
breakwaters for all the ranges of d/gT2 values.
Mallayachari, V. and Sundar, V. Standing wave pressures

due to regular and random waves on a vertical wall. Ocean
Eng., 1995, 22: 859-879.
Jiang, X., Gu H., and Li, Y. Numerical simulation on
hydraulic performances of quarter circular breakwater.
China Ocean Engineering, 2008, 22 (4), 585-594.
Critical weight required for sliding stability is

found to be more for non-perforated QCB
compared to seaside perforated QCB. Typically,
there is a decrease of 12 to 20% in W/Hi2
parameter, depending upon the d/gT2 values.
Qie, L., Xiang, Z., Xuelian J., and Yinan, Q. Research on

Partial Coefficients for Design of Quarter-circular Caisson
Breakwater, J. Marine Sci. Appl., 2013, 12: 65-71.
W/Hi2 is found to increase with increase in

d/gT2 for both breakwaters for the given wave
steepness.
5. REFERENCES
Isaacson, M. Measurement of regular wave reflection.
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering,
1991, 117(6): 553-569.
Isaacson, M. and K. Subbiah. Numerical simulation of
random wave forces near the free surface. J. Offshore Mech.
Arctic Eng., 1991, 113: 14-42.
Page 85
ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS IN

SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION
Ranjith Dissanayake1 and Chaminda Bandara2
1
University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 22400, Sri Lank, ranjith@fulbrightmail.org

2
University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 22400, Sri Lanka,
chamindasbandara@yahoo.com
Abstract
Bridges risk facing unexpected loadings due to floods, landslides, tsunamis, earthquakes, blasts and various accidents.
Displacement of bridges due to erosion and collapsing of abutments, lateral pressure generated by exceeding water
levels and floating debris etc are common. Even though there are provisions for accidental loading used during bridge
designs, managing the risk of damages completely is not possible (e.g. the tsunami damages in Sri Lanka in December
2002, Japan in March 2011).Building new bridges generally consumes more money and time than repairing and
retrofitting of damaged bridges. Therefore, the latter can be considered more sustainable. However, proper methods are
necessary to assess the level of damages and to verify the fitness of such bridges prior to repair and retrofitting. In the
assessment, there are two important criteria to consider. One is the amount of fatigue damage to the bridge due to usual
past vehicle loading and hence the remaining fatigue life of the bridge. The other is the magnitude of damage caused to
the bridge by the unexpected loading. In order to determine the fitness of a damaged bridge for reuse, condition surveys
are usually carried out. Using a validated numerical model of the damaged bridge (a finite element model, FEM),
efficient decisions are possible as such models can be loaded with past loading histories as well as future expected
loadings and then the stresses and deflection can be obtained from the FEM. Then the fitness of the damaged bridge can
be verified and elements which need to be replaced or retrofitted can be determined. The case study is about a 34 m
long, 5.2 m wide, single spanned, double lattice girded, wrought iron railway bridge, located at Puttalam (Bridge No. 02
on the railway track between the Puttalam Cement Factory and Limestone Quarry, used for transporting limestone)
which was built about 40 years ago and damaged and displaced from its abutments by floods. The bridge was then
placed on temporary timber abutments for several years.With the increase in cement production, the owners of the
bridge wanted to use heavier locomotives on this railway track and also increase the number of trips. Therefore, there
was a need for an assessment of bridges on this track in order to determine whether the bridges can be used further or
should be demolished and new bridges built in its place.In order to do the assessment, a condition survey was carried out
on all the bridges on the track. One of the bridge was found weak as this had been damaged by floods. Then an analysis
was done by modeling the bridge (FEM) by using general purpose SAP 2000 program and validating the FEM by using
results of a field loading test (the bridge was temporarily erected on timber abutments for several years). Both static and
dynamic loading tests were carried out using an M2 locomotive with 6 numbers of 13.16 ton axles for 5 different loading
cases to measure the displacement, strain and acceleration at pre-determined (critical) members of the bridge. The future
fatigue life of the bridge was estimated using the prescribed last method. The future life was found as 30 years with a
factor of safety of 3. Further, using the validated model, the ability of the bridge for higher loading situations was
confirmed. The cost, estimated for retrofitting work and constructing new reinforced concrete abutments was much less
than that for constructing a new bridge. Therefore it was decided that rehabilitation of the bridge with necessary
retrofitting work is more sustainable than demolishing it and constructing a new one. The bridge is now in use after
being repaired, retrofitted and placed on new abutments.
Keywords: Damage assessment, Steel bridges, Retrofitting, Sustainability, Fatigue damage
1. Introduction
Bridges risk facing unexpected loadings due to floods,
landslides, tsunamis, earthquakes, blasts and various
accidents. Displacement of bridges due to erosion and
collapsing of abutments, lateral pressure generated by

exceeding water levels and floating debris etc are
common. Even though there are provisions for accidental
loading used during bridge designs, managing the risk of
Page 1
damages completely is not possible (e.g. the tsunami

damages in Sri Lanka in December 2002, Japan in
March 2011).
on this track in order to determine whether the bridges

can be used further or should be demolished and new
bridges built in its place.
Building new bridges generally consumes more money

and time than repairing and retrofitting of damaged
bridges. Therefore, the latter can be considered more
sustainable. However, proper methods are necessary to
assess the level of damages and to verify the fitness of
such bridges prior to repair and retrofitting. In the
assessment, there are two important criteria to consider.
One is the amount of fatigue damage to the bridge due to
usual past vehicle loading and hence the remaining
fatigue life of the bridge. The other is the magnitude of
damage caused to the bridge by the unexpected loading.
In order to do the assessment, a condition survey was

carried out on all the bridges on the track. One of the
bridge was found weak as this had been damaged by
floods. Then an analysis was done by modeling the
bridge (FEM) by using general purpose SAP 2000
program and validating the FEM by using results of a
field loading test (the bridge was temporarily erected on
timber abutments for several years). Both static and
dynamic loading tests were carried out using an M2
locomotive with 6 numbers of 13.16 ton axles for 5
different loading cases to measure the displacement,
strain and acceleration at pre-determined (critical)
members of the bridge. The future fatigue life of the
bridge was estimated using the prescribed last method.
The future life was found as 30 years with a factor of
safety of 3. Further, using the validated model, the
ability of the bridge for higher loading situations was
confirmed.
BS 5400: Part 10: 1980 [6] and District line fatigue of

riveted under bridges, Infrastructures Consultancy
Services (Engineering Services Group), London
Underground Limited, June 1998 [5] provide two
methods used to determine the remaining fatigue life of
bridges. However, using such codes without due care
and modifications for local conditions may provide
misleading results. The procedure introduced by
Siriwardane & Dissanayake et al., [3] is one of the
procedures developed (using wrought iron railway
bridges in Sri Lanka) based on past stress histories of
critical bridge elements using present day measured
strains and applying damage indicator based sequential
law to estimate the fatigue life.
In order to determine the fitness of a damaged bridge for
reuse, condition surveys are usually carried out. Using a
validated numerical model of the damaged bridge (a
finite element model, FEM), efficient decisions are
possible as such models can be loaded with past loading
histories as well as future expected loadings and then the
stresses and deflection can be obtained from the FEM.
Then the fitness of the damaged bridge can be verified
and elements which need to be replaced or retrofitted can
be determined.
2. The Case Study
The case study is about a 34m long, 5.2m wide, single
spanned, double lattice girded, wrought iron railway
bridge,
located at Puttalam (Bridge No. 02 on the railway track
between the Puttalam Cement Factory and Limestone
Quarry, used for transporting limestone) which was built
about 40 years ago and damaged and displaced from its
abutments by floods. The bridge was then placed on
temporary timber abutments for several years.
The cost, estimated for retrofitting work and constructing

new reinforced concrete abutments was much less than
that for constructing a new bridge.
Therefore it was decided that rehabilitation of the bridge
with necessary retrofitting work is more sustainable than
demolishing it and constructing a new one. The bridge is
now in use after being repaired, retrofitted and placed on
new abutments.
3. Condition Assessment
3.1. Condition Survey
Several deficiencies were identified during visual

inspections such as corroded places in the bridge deck
and in load carrying members, missing bracings, missing
timber sleepers, improper arrangement of sleepers,
improper alignment of the rail track on the bridge deck,
increased thicknesses of the members due to oxides,
missing rivets, replacements of rivets by nuts and bolts
and etc., as shown in Fig.1. According to the information
received about the flood damage, the bridge had got
displaced gradually due to erosion of abutments. The
bridge had not been loaded at the time when the
displacement occurred. There were no signs of damages
to any element due to this incident.
With the increase in cement production, the owners of

the bridge wanted to use heavier locomotives on this
railway track and also increase the number of trips.
Therefore, there was a need for an assessment of bridges
Page 87
The bridge and individual elements were measured

including the sizes of webs and flanges and their current
thicknesses, thicknesses of gusset plates, sizes of rivets
and bolts etc., (main girders of the bridge are of equal
span, each 33.65 m end to end, cross girders are placed
at the panel points of the main girders and also at the
centers of each panel, there are two longitudinal girders
connected between cross girders in each panel and there
are bracings between main girders, the rail is of gauge
1.75m and etc.).
Fig. 1. Corroded load carrying elements
3.2. Modelling the bridge
The bridge was modeled using SAP 2000 as a three

dimensional frame element model. Effective measured
thicknesses were applied for the members of the model
as much as possible. Riveted connections were assumed
as fully fixed and rotational stiffness behavior with a
magnitude of 18,200 kNm/rad was assumed at
connections of cross girders and bottom chord of main
truss girder [3].
3.3. Onsite loading tests
Fig. 2. Defective connections
Fig. 3. Missing elements and rivets
A series of tests were carried out on site in order to

determine the behavior of the bridge under loading,
dynamic factors and for the validation of the finite
element model. An M2 engine (6 Nos., of 13.16 ton
axels) was used for loading the bridge at 5 separate
loading cases; the center of the engine stopped at 1/4 of
the length of the bridge, stopped at mid span of the
bridge, stopped at 3/4 of the length of the bridge, the
train traveling at a speed of 10 km/hr and the train
traveling at a speed of 20 km/hr. In all the loading cases,
displacement measurements (horizontal and vertical) of
the mid span of the main girder were measured using 2
displacement gauges, strain measurements at four
selected locations were obtained by using strain gauges
and acceleration at the mid span using an acceleration
gauge.
3.4. Validation of the model
Values obtained at the field loading test for horizontal

and vertical displacement of the main girders and strains
at 4 critical elements were compared with that obtained
from the FEM for similar loading cases. As the readings
from onsite displacement and strain gauges and the
numerical results obtained from the model are quite
close, it was concluded that the FEM would behave in a
similar way to the actual bridge. Therefore the model
was used to find numerical results of anticipated loads of
the bridge.
\
3.5. Checking the bridge for anticipated higher loading
Fig. 4. Temporary abutment
The FEM was loaded with an engine of weight 100 tons

(with 6 axels) which is the anticipated engine which will
be used on the bridge in the future. Then the strains,
Page 88
stresses and displacements at critical members

(elements) were observed. Fig.2 shows the finite element
model with critical members and Table 1 shows the
stresses developed in these critical members against the
yield strength and hence the factors of safety of each
member. As the factors of safety of all the critical
members are within reasonable limits, it was decided
that the bridge is safe for 100 ton engines subject to
further analyses and improvements as mentioned in the
next sections.
stresses were multiplied by a dynamic factor of 1.3 (for

diesel engines) and load factors corresponding to
weights of all the types of trains traveling on this bridge
[3]. The past life span of the bridge was divided into 2
periods (2 loading blocks), loading block 1 from 1970 to
2000 (diesel engines M2, WDM 6 of 75 tons and
carriages of 25 tons each) and loading block 2 from 2000
to 2010 (diesel engine M2 & carriages) depending on the
trains that traveled on the bridge assuming a constant
sequence of trains. The loading of the bridge in the
future (from 2010 upwards) was predicted with M6
engines (100 tons, 16.7 tons/axel, 6 axels), WDM6
engines and carriages traveling per a given train
timetable. Using the reservoir counting method, the
stress ranges were determined.
4.2 Damage indicator based sequential law, Siriwardane,
Dissanayake et al (2009)
Fig. 5. Critical elements of the bridge
Table 1. Factor of safety for critical members
Critical
member
Yield stress /
MPa
Developed
stress/ Mpa
Factor of
Safety
276
245
97.953
2.501
291
245
96.781
2.531
60
245
68.916
3.555
106
245
60.515
4.049
159
245
96.313
2.544
163
245
64.968
3.771
4. Fatigue life of the bridge

4.1 Fatigue life evaluation
In order to avoid errors that can occur when using BS

5400 Part 10: 1980 which uses the Miners rule which
does not take the effects of the sequence of loading in to
account, the damage indicator based sequential law that
capture the loading sequence effect of variable amplitude
loads more precisely was used in the life evaluation
method developed by Siriwardane, Dissanayake et al. In
this method, a full range S-N curve (Wohler curve) for
wrought iron is used and the equation of the S-N curve is
given by;
N 1050
20
N 1000000000
0.202
(1)
For a considered stress range i, having a number of

cycles ni, the damage indicator Di can be obtained from
the equation;
Di = (i(eq)-i)/(u-i)
(2)
where, u is the ultimate tensile strength amplitude (or

range) for rotating bending test-based S-N curves and
i(eq) is the ithlevel damage stress amplitude obtained
from the Wohler curve for (Ni ni) number of cycles.
In load carrying structural elements, repeated

applications of stresses that are not sufficient to cause
failures by a single application create cracks which
propagate gradually until failure of the element. These
failures are called fatigue failures [6].
The damage indicator Di is transformed to the next stress

range i+1 having ni+1 number of cycles using the
equation;
Determination of fatigue life of a bridge has a risk of

errors as life evaluation methods are based on various
assumptions and statistics. This risk can be mitigated by
estimating the life using the most appropriate method.
where, '(i+1)eq is the damage equivalent stress amplitude

or stress range at the level i+1.
The stresses obtained from the validated FEM for critical

members were used for the life evaluation. These
'(i+1)eq = Di(u-i+1)+i+1
(3)
The number of cycles N(i+1)R that corresponds to '(i+1)eq

is obtained from the Wohler curve and the residual life at
the level i+1, N(i+1)R is obtained from the equation;
Page 89

N(i+1)R = N(i+1)R ni+1
(4)
maintenance. Fig.3 shows the bridge after improvement

work.
The stress amplitude (i+1)eq that corresponds N(i+1)R is

obtained from the Wohler curve. The Damage indicator
of the (i+1)th level stress range Di+1 can then be
determined from the equation;
Di+1 = (i+1(eq)-i+1)/(u-i+1)
(5)
Applying the same procedure for all the stress levels, the
damage indicator for the past (loading blocks 1 and 2)
can be obtained and then this indicator is used to
calculate the future fatigue life for the expected loading
block.
4.3 Fatigue life
The fatigue lives obtained for three critical elements

using the above method is given in Table 2. The most
critical element with respect to its fatigue life is the
middle cross girder which has a fatigue life of 93 years.
The bridge is expected to be reused for another 30 years.
Therefore, evaluation verifies that the bridge is capable
of being reused for 30 years with a factor of safety of 3.1
(93 years / 30 years).
Table 2. Future fatigue life of critical elements
Fig. 6. Bridge after improvement work
Member
Future Fatigue Life (Years)
Main girder
1059
6. Verification tests
Diagonal truss member
94
Middle cross girder
93
Verification tests are important for rehabilitated bridges

in order to verify the structural soundness. Such
verification tests can be done by loading the bridge and
measuring its deflections and strains of critical elements.
Regular inspections together with verification tests
minimize the risk of collapsing the bridge during its
commissioning.
5. Improvements
As per the assessment results, the following
improvements were recommended. ( a ). Placing the
bridge on newly built reinforced concrete abutments, ( b
). Making the railway track straight near the bridge to
reduce lateral forces (stresses), ( c ). Cleaning the steel
structure completely using sand blasting techniques, ( d )
rectifying defects, retrofitting or replacing defective parts
(these improvements increase the fatigue life of these
elements as well as the stiffness of the bridge), ( e ).
Applying a corrosive resistant paint, ( f ). Placing new
steel sections for missing elements and well tight high
strength bolts for all missing rivets, ( g ). Aligning the
railway track as smooth as possible to reduce vibration, (
h ). Placing sleepers at regular intervals, ( i ). Providing a
proper river bank protection and ( j ). Regular
Further, there are changes to material properties of

bridge elements due to various actions during its
rehabilitation (and retrofitting). The bridge discussed in
this paper was moved from its previous temporary
abutment to new abutments without dismantling it.
(Note: the bridge is assembled by rivets. Elements
dismantling and re-joining by new rivets is not easy).
Verification tests are useful after such work for
identifying the status.
6.1 Verification test procedure
A series of loading tests on the bridge was carried out
using an M2 engine (6 numbers of 13.16 ton axles)
under different static and dynamic loading conditions as
mentioned below. Deflections and strains at critical
locations of the bridge were measured.
Page 90
The loading cases used are; case 1: the center of the

engine was stopped at 1/4 of the length of the bridge and
measurements were taken, case 2: the center of the
engine was stopped at the mid span of the bridge and
measurements were taken, case 3: the engine was
allowed to travel at a speed of 10 km/hr and
measurements were taken and case 4: the train was
allowed to travel at a speed of 20 km/hr and
measurements were taken.
In order to take measurements, two displacement gauges
were fixed at the mid span of a main girder; one below
the flange of the main girder, fixed vertically to measure
the vertical displacement and the other touching the web
of the main girder, fixed horizontally to measure the
horizontal displacement. Strain gauges were fixed at
three pre-defined locations on critical elements to
measure the strains for all four loading cases.
6.2 Analysis of verification test results
Maximum vertical and horizontal displacements of the
bridge at static loading were observed as 6.40mm and
0.16mm respectively. Further, at dynamic loading, the
maximum vertical and horizontal displacements in the
recent test were 6.55mm and 0.45mm respectively.
When comparing these new results with the
displacement values obtained before improvement
works, a clear reduction in the displacement
measurements were seen. Due to the retrofitting works
(especially due to replacement of weak elements by new
elements and by strengthening connections with the use
of bolts where they were missing), the stiffness of the
structure has improved.
For the 3 elements in which the strains were measured
and stresses were calculated, it was found that the
maximum stresses happen when the engine moves at
20km/hr (loading case 4). The factors of safety
calculated for these 3 members for loading case 4 are
2.40, 2.28 & 18.04 and they are reasonably safe values.
As the verification tests have shown improvements with
regard to deflections of the bridge and reasonable factors
of safety for the three critical elements with regard to
strains and stresses, it was concluded that the
improvement works are successful.
7. Conclusions
Constructing a new bridge usually consumes more time
and money than rehabilitating and retrofitting an existing
bridge. There are ways to assess the possibility of
reusing old and/or damaged bridges. This paper explains
one such assessment method applied to a damaged steel
railway bridge using onsite non-destructive tests, finite

element models and principals of fatigue life. Further,
the bridge so assessed and retrofitted was subjected to
verification tests which have proved that the method
used is successful.
Most of the old highway steel bridges and railway
bridges in Sri Lanka are nearing the end of their design
lives. Knowing the future life spans of these bridges is
very important because, then the relevant authorities can
plan for their rehabilitation or replacement in advance,
thereby contributing to sustainable development. The
method described in this paper can be applied practically
in Sri Lanka to carry out life assessments of steel
bridges.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the collaboration of the team
who worked on the investigation of railway bridge No.
2, Puttalam, especially the assistance of Technical
Officers, Mr. J.D. Gamlathge, Mr. C.W. Jayawardane
and the kind support given by the Authority of the
railway track.
References
[1] Dissanayake, P.B.R.: Risk Assessment and
Retrofitting Methodology, Assessment Report of
Bridge No.02, Puttalam, 2011.
[2] Dissanayaka,
P.B.R.,
Bandara
A.M.A.C.S.,
Rathnayaka R.M.S.U.P.: Investigation Report of
Bridge No.02, Puttalam, 2012.
[3] Siriwardane, S.C., Ohga, M., Dissanayake, R., and
Tatsumasa, K.: Remaining Fatigue Life Estimation
of Existing Railway Bridges. New York, Nova
Science Publishers Inc., 2009.
[4] Siriwardane, S.A.S.C., Ohga, M., Dissanayake,
P.B.R., and Kaita, T. : Structural Appraisal based
Different Approach to Estimate the Remaining
Fatigue Life of Railway Bridges, Structural Health
Monitoring, Vol. 9 (4), pp.323-339, 2010.
[5] Infrastructures Consultancy Services, Engineering
Services Group, Civil Infrastructure Design, District
line fatigue of riveted under bridges, London
Underground Limited, London, 1998.
[6] Code of Practice for Fatigue, Steel Concrete and
Composite Bridges, BS 5400, Part 10: 1980, British
Standard Institute, London.
Page 91
SHORTTERM SHORELINE CHANGES ALONG

KARNATAKA COAST, INDIA: A GEOSPATIAL APPROACH
ATEETH SHETTY1 *, K.S. JAYAPPA2 , PRAVEEN G. DESHBHANDARI3 ,
A.S. RAJAWAT4 , RATHEESH RAMAKRISHNAN5
1
Department of Marine Geology, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri, Mangalore,

Karnataka, India 574 199, athith89@gmail.com
2
Karnataka, India 574 199, ksjayappa@yahoo.com
3
Karnataka, India 574 199, praveendeshbhandari@gmail.com
4
Geo-Sciences Division, Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation,
Ahmedabad, India 38 0015, asrajawat@sac.isro.gov.in
5
Geo-Sciences Division, Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation,
Ahmedabad, India 38 0015, ratheeshr@sac.isro.gov.in
Abstract
The shoreline is one of the most rapidly changing coastal landforms. Accurate detection and frequent monitoring of
shorelines are very essential to understand the coastal processes and dynamics of various coastal features. In the present
study, an attempt is made to understand short-term shoreline changes during 2014 along the Karnataka coast which
extends from Devbagh in the north to Talapady in the south covering a total length of ~ 320 km. Landsat-8 Operational
Land Imager (OLI) satellite images during pre-monsoon, immediately after the monsoon and post-monsoon periods have
been analyzed using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques to demarcate shoreline positions. Beach profiles are carried out
to assess the impact of natural (including sea-level rise), anthropogenic and hydrological factors on coastal morphology
of this region. The study reveals that erosion is found in almost all the beaches of Karnataka during south-west monsoon
whereas after the monsoon they get accreted gradually till the end of fare weather season. Thus Remote Sensing and GIS
techniques along with field investigations can provide sustainable approach to the coastal zone management.
Keywords: Shoreline Changes, Remote Sensing, GIS, Beach Profiles, Coastal Zone Management
1. Introduction
Understanding the shoreline positions and erosion/accretion trend
through time are of elemental importance to coastal scientists,
engineers and managers [2], [9]. Shoreline position measurements
for various time periods can be used to derive quantitative
estimates of rate of progradation / recession. Coastal processes in
the study area are controlled by the natural processes - waves,
littoral currents, offshore relief and river mouth / sea-level changes
and anthropogenic activities, such as construction of coastal
structures, sand mining and dredging of navigation channels [21],
[22]. The RS and GIS applications have proved effective in
delineation of coastal configuration and coastal landforms,
detection of shoreline positions, estimation of shoreline and
landform changes, extraction of shallow water bathymetry [17],
[21], [22], [24], [26], [31], [35], [36], [39], [40]. Beach profiling in
any given location (i.e., cross sectional contour of a beach,
perpendicular to the shoreline) is the simplest method to quantify
parameters of beach morphology and reconstruct the trends of
beach evolution [7]. The profile surveys are used to establish direct
measures of sediment movement, to evaluate shoreline changes and

compute beach volume changes along and across the shore [14].
Beach volumes tend to increase over time at a changing shoreline,
leading to progradation of the foreshore. An envelope of profile
variation is important in calculating long-term trends, where
repeated surveys are necessary to separate gradual changes from
short-term fluctuations [20], [30], [38]. Calculation of cross section
areas and estimation of accreted / eroded volume of sand on the
beach is possible by monitoring beach profiles throughout the year
and comparing the maximum and minimum profiles [5]. Beach
profiling contributes to a better understanding of coastal processes
by providing quantitative information on the spatial / temporal
evolution of beaches, which is crucial for coastal management [12].
Response of beach profile configuration to natural and
anthropogenic changes is useful in selecting the most appropriate
engineering design required to mitigate coastal erosion and
accretion alongshore [19]. In the present study, beach profiling and
shoreline change analysis was carried out during pre-monsoon
(March), immediately after the monsoon (October) and postmonsoon (December) periods of 2014 along Karnataka coast.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9036238769

E-mail: athith89@gmail.com
Page 92
Ateeth et al. / INDECS-15
2. Study Area
Karnataka coast measuring ~320 km length consists of three
districts - Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada and lies
between 12o45' - 15o00' N latitude and 74o00' E - 75o00' E
longitude (Fig. 1). It is a wave dominated coast with complex
geomorphology. The northern part of the coast having headland,
pocket beaches and southern part of the coast is characterized by
spits and straight sandy beaches. This coast is influenced by two
monsoons: (1) the southwest (summer) monsoon (June-September)
which is stronger than (2) the northeast (winter) monsoon
(October-November). During southwest monsoon, the coastal
current is stronger and sets-in clockwise direction, while during the
northeast monsoon, it is in the counter clockwise direction. As a
result, littoral current in the study area are directed towards south
during November-April when waves approach from WNW and
NW directions and towards north from May-October when waves
approach from SW, WSW and W directions [16], [18], [27].
Elevations of beaches have been measured along these profile lines

at an interval of 3 m or less whenever any distinct morphological
features such as cliffs, ridges, erosional scarps etc. were present on
the beach. Dumpy level method, using survey telescope, a levelling
staff and a measuring tape, was employed to fix the elevation of
reference points. A simple, rapid and low cost method suggested by
[11] was used to measure the profiles in the present study with the
help of only two wooden rods and a measuring tape. Wooden rods
are 5 ft long and the major markings are made at an interval of 1 ft
and they are further divided into one inch intervals throughout. A
minor elaboration is a small wooden pad nailed to one end of each
rod to prevent the rod from sinking into loose sand. The profile
survey data were then plotted and analysed on graph software for
seasonal volume change studies.
3.2. Shoreline Change

Landsat - 8 (Operational Land Imager) satellite images (Table 1)
acquired during March, October and December 2014 have been
selected in order to understand the shoreline change caused by
natural processes and / or anthropogenic activities.
Table 1. Details of Satellite data
Satellite
(Sensor)
Dates of
acquisition
Tidal
Spatial
height (m) resolution
Path
Row
Landsat 8
(OLI)
13-03-2014
0.50
146
50, 51
07-10-2014
0.78
10-12-2014
0.27
30.0 m
Satellite images were geometrically corrected using Ground

Control Points (GCP) with Root Mean Square (RMS) error of < 0.3
pixel using Erdas Imagine v2013 software. In order to understand
the shoreline change, vector layers were created from the above
mentioned satellite data products using ArcGIS v10.1 software.
Permanent vegetation was considered as shoreline and erosion /
accretion analysis was carried out for all the locations and periods.
The overlaid image divided automatically into different polygons at
the intersect of the input and overlaid polygons. Accordingly, the
polygons developed outside the input theme were identified as
accretion and polygons developed inside the input theme was
identified as erosion.
4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Beach Morphological Change
Fig. 1. Study area showing the locations of beach profiles

and shoreline positions
3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Beach Morphological Change
Beach profiling was carried out during different seasons at 25
selected beach locations on the coastline of Karnataka during
March, October and December, 2014 to understand the spatial and
temporal beach morphological changes. Reference points were
fixed at the backshore where negligible change is observed by
wave or wind action. Profile surveys were conducted perpendicular
to beach from reference point to low water line or mean sea level.
Beach profiling is the traditional and simplest method with highest

accuracy to understand the morphological evolution of beaches.
This method can be extensively used for high resolution regional
scale coastal management and planning. It helps in estimating the
cross section area and accreted / eroded volume of sediment on the
beach throughout the year by surveying the profiles over a period.
The results based on these surveys are illustrated in this section and
an attempt has been made to infer the seasonal changes (Fig. 2).
Stable landmarks were selected during first survey (March, 2014)
and the same were considered as bench marks for the next two
surveys. In beach volume analysis, the true volumes above and
below the master profile was calculated using Graph software.
Beach sediment volume, volume difference (survey-to-survey and
baseline-to-survey) at all the locations are given in Table 2.
Photographs of the changes in pre-monsoon, monsoon (October)
and post-monsoon seasons at selected locations of Karnataka coast
are shown in the figure 3.
Page 93
Page 94
Page 95
Fig. 2. Changes in Shoreline and Beach Profiles at selected locations of Karnataka coast
during pre-monsoon, immediately after the monsoon and post-monsoon periods
Page 96
Fig. 3. Changes in pre-monsoon (a), immediately after the monsoon (b) and post-monsoon seasons (c) at selected locations of Karnataka coast
Page 97

Table 2. Beach volume changes (in m3) along selected locations of
Karnataka coast
Location
Mar
2014
Oct
2014
Dec
2014
Mar to
Oct 14
Oct to
Dec 14
Mar to
Dec 14
Talapady
19.92
9.55
23.61
-10.37
+14.06
+3.69
Someshwara
20.49
48.96
63.52
+28.47
+14.56
+43.03
Ullal
30.89
4.00
26.53
-26.89
+22.53
-4.36
Bengre
355.60
212.86
259.53
-142.74
+46.67
-96.07
Thanirbhavi
242.54
179.63
268.47
-62.91
+88.84
+25.93
Panambur
205.64
100.09
150.16
-105.55
+50.07
-55.48
Surathkal
155.76
82.12
108.37
-73.64
+26.25
-47.39
60.34
72.63
85.01
+12.29
+12.38
+24.67
Sasihitlu
111.89
99.43
89.64
-12.46
-9.79
-22.25
Hejamady
150.68
147.29
168.26
-3.39
+20.97
+17.58
Yermal
128.36
102.03
130.27
-26.33
+28.24
+1.91
Kaup
216.49
77.60
132.38
-138.89
+54.78
-84.11
Malpe
150.23
72.96
86.54
-77.27
+13.58
-63.69
Kodi Bengre
28.97
1.61
7.71
-27.36
+6.10
-21.26
Kota
41.07
28.31
34.19
-12.76
+5.88
-6.88
Maravanthe
58.90
56.20
62.26
-2.70
+6.06
+3.36
177.14
160.88
195.52
-16.26
+34.64
+18.38
67.98
40.43
35.16
-27.55
-5.27
-32.82
Manki
253.60
211.44
235.46
-42.16
+24.02
-18.14
Apsarakonda
271.54
338.72
289.85
+67.18
-48.87
+18.31
31.84
39.69
45.24
+7.85
+5.55
+13.40
8.30
6.81
3.32
-1.49
-3.49
-4.98
Om beach
12.93
17.05
23.70
+4.12
+6.65
+10.77
Karwar
74.95
67.23
69.60
-7.72
+2.37
-5.35
Devbagh
50.62
29.30
37.18
-21.32
+7.88
-13.44
2926.67
2206.82
2631.48
-719.85
424.66
-295.19
Mukka
Nesthar
Murdeshwara
Vannalli
Tadadi
Total
+ Accretion; - Erosion
The results based on beach profiles, suggest more sediment

volume during pre-monsoon (2,926.67 m3) and comparatively less
during October (2,206.82 m3) of 2014. It can be attributed to
calm waves which carry the sediment from offshore during the
pre-monsoon period and the beaches are built up and they
become narrow as the sediment is taken offshore by high waves.
During March 2014, high beach volume was estimated at Bengre
(355.60 m3) and low at Tadadi (8.30 m3), whereas during October
2014 high beach volume was estimated at Apsarakonda (338.72
m3) and low at Kodi Bengre (1.61 m3). During December 2014
high beach volume was estimated at Apsarakonda (289.85 m3)
and low at Tadadi (3.32 m3). Comparison of March and October
profiles revealed maximum accretion of 67.18 m3 at Apsarakonda
and maximum erosion of 142.74 m3 at Bengre. Whereas October
and December profiles revealed maximum accretion of 88.84 m3
at Thanirbhavi and maximum erosion of 48.87 m3 at
Apsarakonda and comparison of pre-monsoon and post-monsoon
profiles revealed maximum accretion of 43.03 m3 at Someshwara
and maximum erosion of 96.07 m3 at Bengre (Table 2). The
results of the profile change analysis revealed that Ullal, Bengre,
Panambur, Surathkal, Sasihitlu, Kaup, Malpe, Kodi Bengre,
Kota, Murdeshwara, Manki, Tadadi, Karwar and Devbagh
beaches were eroding and the remaining beaches were accreting
during the study period. Spatial variations in erosion / accretion
pattern of beaches are the result of temporal variability in the
intensity and reversibility of wave directions and associated
longshore currents, wind induced circulation, coastline
orientation and existing coastal protection structures [8], [13],
[29]. The information on the state of the current erosion and the
possible prediction of its impact is important in coastal
monitoring [25]. The study related to the response of beach
profile configuration to natural and anthropogenic changes is
helpful in selecting the suitable engineering design to mitigate
coastal erosion and accretion [19]. Analysis of beach profiles is
helpful in understanding the variability in cross-shore elevation
patterns and volume change that occur along a profile line. Beach
response to coastal processes can be interpreted from geometric
and volumetric comparison of beach profile sets [14]. To protect
the eroding beaches in the study area, seawalls have been
constructed. However, most of these structures failed to serve the
purpose and led to severe erosion at some places and increase in
beach slope in front of seawalls as well as on adjacent beaches
[18], [23].
4.2. Shoreline change

Geospatial techniques and multi-spectral satellite images have
been utilized to demarcate the shoreline positions of different
periods. Shoreline positions of different time periods have been
digitized accurately by taking permanent vegetation into
consideration. The vector layers were superimposed and overlay
analyses of shoreline changes were carried out to estimate the
area of erosion and accretion between different periods. The
results based on multi-spectral satellite images, suggest more
changes in shoreline positions between pre- and monsoon
(341,255 m2) and comparatively less during the pre- and postmonsoon seasons (133,880 m2) of 2014. Between March and
October, high erosion was noticed at Maravanthe (26,839 m2)
and low at Vanalli (2,392 m2), and during October-December,
high accretion was noticed at Karwar (25,601 m2) and low at
Talapady (2,225 m2). Comparison of pre- and post-monsoon
shorelines revealed the maximum accretion of 9,718 m2 at
Bengre and maximum erosion of 34,188 m2 at Apsarkonda
(Table 3). The results of the shoreline change analysis revealed
that at Bengre, Thanirbhavi, Surathkal and Karwar the shoreline
Page 98
Mar to Oct
2014
Oct to Dec
2014
Mar to Dec
2014
Talapady
-10557
+2225
-8332
Someshwara
-5690
+3481
-2208
Ullal
-11282
+4892
-6390
Bengre
-7680
+17399
+9718
Thanirbhavi
-15388
+10742
+2061
Panambur
-15549
+15522
+869
Surathkal
-12388
+12397
+4
Mukka
-12034
+9884
-1946
larger on gentler slopes. Considerable interannual and interdecadal

sea-level changes at a coast are forced primarily by large-scale
winds [4], [15], [34], large changes in salinity [33], [34] as well as
steric oscillations, which are due to the changes in specific
volume [32]. [3] has developed a model which estimates the
shoreline recession with respect to rise in sea level. If this model is
considered for Karnataka coast, it suggests every mm rise of sealevel will result in a shoreline retreat of about one meter [10].
Erosion / accretion is a cyclic phenomenon, which is normal along
this coast. Beaches along the barrier spit are subjected to erosion
due to migration of rivers mouth. Both natural processes (waves,
littoral currents, river mouth and sea-level changes and variation in
offshore relief) and anthropogenic activities (construction of
coastal structures, sand mining and dredging of navigation
channels) are responsible for shoreline changes [6], [10], [18], [21].
Shoreline configuration and beach slope influence the natural
sediment movement in addition to other nearshore parameters [28].
Increase in sediment transport rates corresponds with areas of
shoreline erosion, while decrease in sediment transport rates
alongshore corresponds with shoreline accretion.
Sasihitlu
-11207
+7427
-1334
5. Summary and Conclusion
Hejamady
-13895
+7427
-6481
Yermal
-16331
+14795
-1577
Kaup
-11409
+7228
-4193
Malpe
-15560
+1824
-13696
Kodi Bengre
-17634
+2402
-15238
Kota
-18828
+10085
-8787
Maravanthe
-26839
+8810
-18029
Nesthar
-3078
+8023
-4954
Murdeshwara
-10129
+5786
-4344
Manki
-12760
+9945
-2848
Apsarakonda
-26529
+22351
-34188
Vannalli
-2392
+10510
-8117
Tadadi
-3407
+6355
-2931
Om beach
-11723
+9621
-2378
Karwar
-25035
+25601
+1518
Devbagh
-23931
+23882
-79
-341255
+258614
-133880
was prograding and at the remaining beaches it was retreating

during the study period.
Table 3. Erosion and accretion (in m2) along selected locations of
Karnataka coast
Location
Total
+ Prograding; - Retreating
Monsoonal rainfall is one of the important factors that control the

coastal processes and determines the freshwater discharges through
river systems along this coast. A strong relationship was reported
between the variability of rainfall and sediment transport, where
high sediment discharges are recorded with high rainfall [1], [37].
Further, high wave activity during intensive monsoon makes the
sea rough, and erodes the sediment along the coast, resulting in
change of the shoreline configuration. Whereas, low rainfall results
in reduction of sediment supply to the coastal region. In addition,
the larger and strong waves and undertow processes continuously
disturb and erode the nearshore bed during monsoon season and
therefore sediments are triggered into suspension and transported.
Sea-level rises have direct impact on the shoreline changes which
correspond to higher shift to the zone of wave action on the beach.
This would be reflected in a shoreline recession which will be
The results based on beach profiles, suggest more sediment volume

during pre-monsoon (2,927 m3) and comparatively less during the
October (2,207 m3) of 2014. Results of beach profile analysis
revealed that Ullal, Bengre, Panambur, Surathkal, Sasihitlu, Kaup,
Malpe, Kodi Bengre, Kota, Murdeshwara, Manki, Tadadi, Karwar
and Devbagh beaches were eroding and the remaining beaches
were accreting during the study period. During October, width of
the beaches reduced greatly and minimum volume of sediment was
stored in them. The sediment volume was high during the premonsoon season compared to the post-monsoon season. Although
cyclic in nature, the large-scale erosion takes place during SW
monsoon and later in post-monsoon period the lost sediment is
regained but due to human innervations related actives reduce the
ratio of sediment gain and loss. The results based on multi-spectral
satellite images, suggest more changes in shoreline positions
between pre-monsoon and immediately after the monsoon (341,255
m2) and comparatively less during the pre- and post-monsoon
seasons (133,880 m2). The results of the shoreline change analysis
revealed that at Bengre, Thanirbhavi, Surathkal and Karwar the
shoreline was prograding and at the remaining beaches it was
retreating during the study period. Both natural processes and
anthropogenic activities are responsible for erosion / accretion of
the beaches in the study area.
Acknowledgement
The First author (A S) is thankful to the Space Applications Centre,
ISRO, Ahmedabad for the award of fellowship under MOP-3.
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Page 100
TRAFFIC CONGESTION STUDY FOR COIMBATORE DISTRICT

USING GIS
Anitha Selvasofia.S.D 1, Prince Arulraj.G 2
1
SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641035, TamilNadu, sofiasamuel2912@gmail.com

SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641035, TamilNadu, princearulraj@yahoo.com
Abstract
The urbanization in developing countries indicates that more people live in cities than before. The trend of urbanization,
population increase and increase in the number of registered vehicles induces pressure on traffic movements and makes
living in urban area more difficult. Traffic congestion is one of the major problems faced by many transportation
decision makers for urban areas. The problem has many impacts on social, economic and development aspects of urban
areas. Hence the solution to this problem is not straight forward. It requires a lot of efforts, expertise, time and money.
General congestion related data collection and congestion management measure is labour intensive and a heavy
investment is needed for these mitigation measures. Latest technologies like GIS and GPS will help to analyze the live
traffic situation and suggest the cost effective measures to mitigate the congestion. An attempt has been made to use
GPS and GIS effectively to find a solution for traffic congestion problem. In this paper a comprehensive GIS based
interactive Traffic Congestion Management System has been developed for the Coimbatore national highway
transportation network. National highways NH 47 and NH 209 were selected for modelling. NH47 connects Salem and
Kanyakumari. This NH passes through the cities Salem erode- Coimbatore Palakkad Thrissur Aluva Kochi
Alappuzha Kollam Trivandrum Nagercoil and Kanyakumari. Among these cities, Coimbatore is one of the busiest
and congested city. NH 209 connects Dindigul and Bengaluru. This NH passes through Palani Udumalaipettai
Pollachi Coimbatore Sathyamangalam Bannari Chamrajanagar and Kollegal. In this route methods to reduce the
congestion have been suggested.
Keywords: Congestion Management, GIS, GPS, Modeling, Regression Analysis.
intersections along the road),extreme traffic congestion
sets in .Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of
1. Introduction
The word traffic originally meant trade(as it still does)
and comes from the old Italian verb traffic. Traffic is
formally organized in many jurisdictions , with marked
lanes , junctions , intersections , interchanges ,traffic
signals or signs. Traffic laws are the laws which govern
traffic and regulate vehicles.The laws and the informal
rules have been developed over time to facilitate the
orderly and timely flow of traffic. Events which disturb
the flow and may cause traffic to degenerate in to a
disorganized mess include: road construction, collisions
and debris in the road way on particularly busy
freeways. A minor disruption may persist in a
phenomenon known as traffic waves. A complete
breakdown of organization may result in traffic
congestion. Traffic congestion is a condition on road
networks that occurs as usage increases and is
characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and
increased vehicular queuing. When traffic is large
between the interaction vehicles slows the speed of the
traffic stream, resulting in some congestion. As the
demand approaches the capacity of a road ( or of the
traffic or modal split generates demand for space greater

than the available road capacity. This point is commonly
termed as saturation. A Geographic Information System
(GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate,
analyse, manage, and present all types of spatial or
geographical data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used
for geographical information science or geospatial
information studies to refer to the academic discipline or
career of working with geographic information systems
and is a large domain within the broader academic
discipline of Geo-informatics. In a general sense, the
term describes any information system that integrates
stores, edits, analyses, shares, and displays geographic
information. GIS applications are tools that allow users
to create interactive queries (user-created searches),
analyse spatial information, edit data in maps, and
present the results of all these operations.
Kernel Density calculates the density of features in a
neighbourhood around those features. It can be
* Corresponding
author. Tel.: +91 9894352472

E-mail: sofiasamuel2912@gmail.com
Page 101
Anitha Selvasofia.S.D et. al. / INDECS-15
calculated for both point and line features. Possible uses

include finding density of houses, crime reports or
density of roads or utility lines influencing a town or
wildlife habitat. The population field could be used to
weigh some features more heavily than others,
depending on their meaning, or to allow one point to
represent several
GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry

into behaviors and patterns of previously considered
unrelated
realworld
Name
of the
Office
observations. For example, one address might represent

a condominium with six units, or some crimes might be
weighed more severely than others in determining
overall crime levels. For line features a divided highway
probably has more impact than a narrow dirt road and a
high-tension line has more impact than a standard
electric pole.
Cbe
South
Cbe
North
Cbe
Central
Cbe
West
Total
2. Study Area
Annur is a taluk of Coimbatore rural district, located to
the north of the city of Coimbatore on the way to Sathy.
It is located about 31 km north of Coimbatore, in the
Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The latitude and longitude of
Annur are 11o23'00" N and 77o10'00" N. Sathy Road(NH
209) is a busy arterial road in city of Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, India. The distance form Coimbatore to Annur is
31 km . Figure 1 shows the boundary of NH47 and
NH209 in Coimbatore. Avinashi is a city that is located
to the east of the city
information.
Fig.2.
Vehicles Registered During the Year 2013

Two
Car
Auto Te
Bu Lor
whee
/Thr mp s
ry
ler
ee
o
whe
eler
1815
2
4400 316
120 21 940
1745
0
4247 178
20
39 36
1285
4
3354 342
364 31 125
1144
9
1416 179
130 8
194
5990 1341
129
5
7
1015 634 99 5
The methodology adopted is shown in
Fig. 1. Boundary of NH47 and NH209 in Coimbatore.

of Coimbatore on the way to Erode. The latitude and
longitude of Avinashi is 11o19'528" N and 77o26'861" E
.NH 47,is a national highway which is a busy road from
Coimbatore to Avinashi. The distance from Coimbatore
to Avinashi is 42 km.
2.1. Methodology
GIS uses spatial-temporal location as the key
index variable for all other information. Just as a
relational database containing text or numbers can relate
many different tables using common key index
variables, GIS can relate unrelated information by using
location as the key index variable. Any variable that can
be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally,
can be referenced using GIS. Locations or extents in
Earth spacetime may be recorded as dates/times of
occurrence, and x, y, and z co-ordinates representing,
longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively. These
GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems
of temporal-spatial reference. This key characteristic of
Fig. 2. Methodology
2.1.1. Data Collection
In order to study the existing traffic conditions from

Coimbatore to Avinasi and Coimbatore to Annur, the
following data were collected and used
Traffic volume data

Roadway geometric data
Page 102
Traffic Survey
Latitude and longitude
4.30P.M. In NH 47 Lakshmi mills was found to be the

zone with heavy traffic. In NH 209 Ganaphathy was
found to be the place with maximum traffic.
2.1.1.1 TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

The details of the vehicles registered in the past two
years in the RTO office are given in Table1 and Table2.
Table 1.Number of vehicles registered in the year
2013
Table 2.Number of vehicles registered in the year

2014
Name of
the
Office
Cbe
South
Cbe
North
Cbe
Central
Cbe
West
Total
Vehicles Registered During the Year 2014

Two Car
Auto Te
Bu Lor
whe
/Thr mp s
ry
eler
ee
o
whe
eler
2269 5500 395
150 26 117
0
5
2181 5309 223
25
49 45
2
1606 4192 428
454 39 156
7
1431 1770 224
163 10 242
1
7488 1677 1270 792 12 161
0
1
4
8
2.1.1.2 ROADWAY GEOMETRIC DATA

In geographical information system, the land area is
digitized with toposheets as base map. The collected
toposheets as follows
Fig. 3. Toposheet of Coimbatore

2.1.1.3 TRAFFIC SURVEY
Traffic Survey has been carried out during peak
hour and non-peak hours. The peak hour timing are
8.00-10.00A.M,1.00-2.00P.M and 4.30-6.00P.M.The
non-peak hour timing are 10.00-1.00P.M and 2.00-
Table 3. Vehicle Count per day

Vehicle Count per day near Lakshmi mills
(NH209)
S.No Time Two
Four
Heavy
Wheeler Wheeler Vehicles
1.
8.00
1483
135
64
2.
8.30
1635
150
71
3.
9.00
1539
140
60
4.
9.30
1203
150
106
5.
10.00
1364
107
100
6.
10.30
1409
130
72
7.
11.00
1358
100
50
8.
11.30
1186
130
80
9.
12.00
1396
129
80
10. 12.30
1428
150
50
11.
1.00
1603
180
67
12.
1.30
1749
120
80
13.
2.00
1697
133
70
14.
2.30
1284
140
78
15.
3.00
1303
140
100
16.
3.30
1386
152
100
17.
4.00
1562
138
70
18.
4.30
1324
130
70
19.
5.00
1195
152
90
20.
5.30
1458
160
80
21.
6.00
1704
141
100
22.
6.30
1642
128
80
3. REGRESSION ANALYSIS
One of the most powerful uses of regression
analysis is to predict the values of the dependent
variable, sometimes for a future time period, but more
generally, for any given set of values of the explanatory
variables. This makes it a very powerful tool for policy
analysis since a variety of scenarios can be simulated
and compared relatively easily and quickly. For the NH
47 the dependent and independent variables considered
are as follows:
Dependent variable - Time
Independent variables Number of two wheelers,
four wheelers, heavy vehicles.
The mathematical model obtained was,
Time(Peak) = 8.494 0.005*no of two wheelers +
0.27*no of four wheelers + 0.29*heavy vehicles
(1)
Time(Non Peak) = 8.528 -0.001
*no of two wheelers +0.072* no of wheelers
- 0.118* no of heavy vehicles
(2)
For the NH 209 the mathematical model obtained was,
Time(Peak) = 33.360 0.009 * no of two wheelers
0.067 * no of four wheelers 0.066
Page 103
* no of heavy vehicles
Time(Non Peak) = 5.202 0.007 *
no of two wheelers 0.011 * no of four wheelers
0.115 * no of heavy vehicles
(3)
can be
Fig.6. Geo referenced Toposheet
(4)
3.2 CREATING THEMATIC MAP
The thematic maps were created. One map was
created for NH47 and the other was created for NH209.
The Thematic map for NH47 contains the road between
Coimbatore and Annur Boundary of the highway and
important places along the road. The Thematic map for
NH209 contains the road between Coimbatore and
Avinashi Boundary of the highway and important places
along the road
Fig. 4. Graph showing the Vehicle movement

From this analysis it was found that,
1) A correlation coefficient (R) value of 0.891 was
obtained, which is acceptable and it indicates a
fair positive correlation.
2) An increase in time will increase the number of
vehicles. So, when time is increased the number
of vehicle also increases and hence, Time and
vehicle are directly proportional. The model
developed also establishes the same.
Fig.5. Bar chart showing the Predicted Registered

Vehicle
Thus the mathematical model developed was
acceptable. Hence, this model can be used to predict
future number of vehicle in the NH.
3.1 ANALYSIS USING GIS
The Survey of India topographical map at a scale of
1:25000 was scanned as the raster input. Existing maps
Fig. 6. Line Kernel density

Kernel Density calculates the density of features in a
neighbourhood around those features. It can be
calculated for both point and line features. Possible uses
include finding density of houses, crime reports or
density of roads or utility lines influencing a town or
wildlife habitat. The population field could be used to
weigh some features more heavily than others.Kernel
density was applied for NH209 and NH47.The kernel
density for NH47 varies from 0-100%. Kernel Density
between 0-30% indicates that there is no Traffic
congestion and it falls under `non-peak hour while the
range of 31-100% falls under high Traffic congestion
and it falls under peak hour.
.The kernel density for NH209 varies from 0-100%.
Kernel Density between 0-30% indicates that there is no
Traffic congestion and it falls under non-peak hour while
the range of 31-100% falls under high Traffic congestion
and it falls under peak hour.
4. Conclusion
`
In developing countries like India, cities are growing
very fast. Coimbatore is a cosmopolitan city which gives
opportunity for educational activities, job and tourist,
due to the vast development of technology. Population
of Coimbatore
increases rapidly, which leads to
increase in number of vehicles .The vehicle population
in Coimbatore is increasing at alarming rate. The
number of registered vehicles also increases rapidly
Page 104

number registered vehicles for the year 2013 two
wheeler is 59905 and four wheeler is 14432, heavy
vehicles is 2028 and for 2014 two wheeler is 74880 and
four wheeler is 18041, heavy vehicles is 2534.Based on
anlyses in SPSS it is found that the time increases
number of vehicles also increases. Also with use of GIS
kernel density establish the traffic congestions in NH
roads. This way GIS can be used all the ways to
carefully analyse all the criteria and successfully give
good solution that is acceptable to everyone .the study
presented above has been made only for two NH roads.
Congestion management activities include.
Redesigning traffic signal timing to improve
progressive traffic movements along arterial
road ways
Road widening Projects to improve level of
service
All these approaches and others require a system wide
traffic and road way data in order to formulate effective
management strategies.
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Page 105
PRIORITIZATION OF EROSION POTENTIAL AREA THROUGH

MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS IN VENKATAPURA WATERSHED,
KARNATAKA: A RS AND GIS APPROACH
Photo of First
Author
Praveen G. Deshbhandari , C. Krishnaiah
in
JPEG Format
Department of Marine Geology, Mangalore University Mangalagangothri, 574 199, India,

praveendeshbhandari@gmail.com, krishnaiah56@yahoo.com
Photo of Second
Author (if any)
in
Abstract
JPEG Format
Soil erosion is one of the most significant and widespread form of soil degradation that has environmental and economic
impacts. The geomorphological characteristics of a watershed are commonly used for solving various hydrological
problems of the un-gauged watersheds in inadequate data situations. Therefore, in this study to find out the most
vulnerable sub-watershed to soil erosion using morphometric analysis and prioritization were carried out on Sixteen subwatersheds of Venkatapura watershed, Karnataka. An evaluation of quantitative geomorphic parameters was made to
study basin characteristics and its influence on erosion in micro watersheds. A Remote Sensing and GIS based
conceptual method was used in this study, based on results sub-watersheds have been classified into three categories as
high, medium and low. The highest priority zone consists of seven sub-watersheds, medium of seven and low of two sub
watersheds. High priority indicates that watersheds are much more susceptible to soil erosion hence it should be provide
with immediate soil resource management measures.
Keywords: Morphometric analysis, Watershed, Erosion, Prioritization, GIS
study an attempt has been made to prioritize erosion prone subwatersheds on the basis of morphometric analysis
1. Introduction
Soil erosion is the biggest threat to the conservation of soil and
water resources. A heavy rainfall is the main cause of erosion
during monsoon months. Economically, soil erosion affects the
productivity of land and hence conservation strategies assume lead
roles in the development programs. [6] The amount of soil erosion
is mainly affected by vegetation cover, topographic features,
climatic variables, and soil characteristics.
Soil erosion and degradation of land resources are significant
problems in a large number of countries. In order to ensure
sustainable management of natural resources and to implement
necessary soil conservation techniques, the areas with soil erosion
risk should be determined and classified according to potential
erosion risk levels. Monitoring soil Erosion in all watersheds by
installing gauzes is difficult. In these situations geomorphologic
characteristics of a watershed are commonly used to solve
hydrological problems.
The watershed management planning highlights the management
techniques to control erosion in the watershed area.[8] Drainage
analysis is very important for watershed planning since it gives an
idea about the basin characteristics in terms of slope, topography,
soil condition, runoff characteristics, surface water potential etc.
Remote sensing and GIS have been used as tools in watershed
development, management and studies on prioritization of subwatersheds. Several recent and past studies, the watersheds are
prioritized on various basis such as morphometry, Universal Soil
Loss Equation (USLE), Sediment Yield Index (SYI), land use/land
cover etc. [1], [3], [4], [5], [7], [9], [11], [22], [28], [29] In this
2. Study area
The Venkatapura watershed is one of the west flowing river basins.
It is located between1358'48" to 1408'46" N latitude and
7428'48" to 7444'35"E longitude in the southern part of Uttara
Kannada and western part of Shivamogga districts of Karnataka
state. It originates in the Western Ghat, flowing for about 45 Km
with a catchment of 335 km and confluence into Arabian Sea near
Venkatapura. [14] Lithogically the study area comprises laterites ,
schists and metabasalt. The tributaries of river exhibit dendritic
drainage pattern. The study are receives an average annual rainfall
is ~2750 mm.
Fig. 1. Location map of Venkatapura Watershed
Corresponding author. Tel.: +8762201544

E-mail: praveendeshbhandari@gmail.com
Page 113
Praveen G. Deshbhandari et. al. / INDECS-15
3. Methodology
Base map of the study area prepared from the Survey of India
(SOI) toposheets. Watershed boundary was delineated and drainage
network was derived from SOI toposheets, which was overlaid on
the Landsat data to update and modify in terms of channel numbers
and lengths. The Hortons law was followed for stream ordering.
According to Hortons low un-branched stream considered as first
order stream, when two first order streams join to form second
order. Two second order steams join together to form third order
and so on.
According to the guidelines of [2] the mean area of watershed is

less than 500 km 2 (_+ 50%). Watershed is further classified into
16 sub-watersheds of fourth order streams. Hence, The subwatersheds were designated as SW1 to SW14. Morphometric
analysis was performed through the measurement of linear aspects,
areal aspects and relief aspects of the watershed using standard
methods. (Table 1) The results of the morphometric parameters are
computed to analyze erosion potential zones in the
study area.
SOI Topo maps
Scanning
Geometric correction
Mosaicing
Geometric correction
Extraction of study area
Drainage layer
Sub- watershed
Morphometric Analysis
Basic
Parameters
Linear
Parameters
Areal
Parameters
Compound Value
PRIORITIZATION
Fig. 2. Flowchart of the methodology used in this study
Page 114
Fig. 3. Sub-watershed map of Venkatapura Watershed

Table 1. Formulae adopted for computation of morphometric parameters
Serial No.
1
Morphometric Parameter
Stream Order (Nu)
Formula
Hierarchial rank
References
2
3
Stream Length (Lu)

Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Drainage density (Dd)
Length of the stream

Rb = Nu / (Nu + 1)
Nu = Total no. of stream segments of order 'u'
D = Lu / A
Lu = Total stream length of all orders
A = Area of the basin (km2)
Stream frequency (Fs)
Fs = Nu / A
Nu = Total number of streams of all orders
[12]
Texture ratio (T)
T = Nu /P
Nu = Total number of streams of all orders
P= Perimeter of the basin
[24]
Circularity ratio (Rc)
Rc = 4* *A/P2
Where, Rc = Circularity ratio;
= Pi value i.e. 3.14;
A=Area of the basin (km2);
P=Perimeter (km)
[17]
Form factor (Ff)
Ff = A/Lb2
Lb2= Square of the basin length
[13]
Elongation Ratio (Re)
Re = 2 v (A / Pi) / Lb
Where, Re = Elongation Ratio
A = Area of the Basin (km'-)
Pi = 'Pi' value i.e., 3.14
Lb = Basin length
[23]
10
Compactness Coefficient (Cc)
Cc = Pc/P u
Where, P c= Perimeter of watershed;
P = Perimeter of circle of watershed area
[27]
[26]
[13]
[23]
[12]
Page 115
4.1.3. The basin length (L)

The basin length corresponds to the maximum length of the basin
measured parallel to the main drainage line. The basin length of
sub-watersheds varies from 54.97 km and the values of L are
shown in table 2.
4. Results
The various morphometric parameters in the Venkatapura
watershed were determined and summarized in Table 2 and 3.
4.1. Basic Parameters
The basic parameters such as stream numbers, stream length,
area, perimeter, basin length of the watershed were calculated
using GIS software and are discussed below.
4.1.4. Stream Order (Nu)

The designation of stream orders is the first step in drainage basin
analysis and is based on a hierarchical ranking of streams. In the
present study, ranking of streams has been carried out based on
the [26] method. The order wise Nu of all sub-watersheds are
represented in Table 2.
4.1.1. Perimeter (P)

The perimeter is the total length of the drainage basin boundary.
The perimeter of the sub-watersheds are recorded in Table 2
4.1.5. Stream Length (Lu)

The number of streams of various orders in a sub-watershed was
counted and their lengths were measured. The order wise length
of streams of sub- watersheds are given in Table 2
4.1.2. Area (A)

The computed basin area ranging from 3.96 Km2 to 31.69 Km2.
The area of all sub-watersheds are represented in Table 2
Table 2. Basic morphometric parameters

Subwatershed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Basin
area
(Km2)
31.69
13.05
27.18
7.71
12.79
6.85
14.97
19.01
9.65
4.96
12.74
3.96
33.81
7.42
14.60
5.11
Perimeter
(Km)
30.80
16.29
34.64
14.25
15.97
12.55
17.37
20.21
15.18
9.59
15.47
9.25
27.64
13.72
16.41
9.94
Basin
length
(Km)
11.35
3.95
13.24
4.69
5.29
3.43
5.96
5.01
4.49
3.29
5.23
3.36
7.76
4.95
5.40
3.68
Nu
I
59
25
119
28
93
71
73
82
50
31
89
19
204
40
58
25
Nu
II
12
9
48
7
46
15
15
17
11
8
16
5
39
18
10
6
4.2. Derived Parameters

The derived parameters are computed through the measurement
of linear and aerial aspects of catchment using standard methods
and are discussed below.
4.2.1. Bifurcation ratio (Rbm)
The term bifurcation ratio (Rb) may be defined as the ratio of the
number of the stream segments of given order to the number of
segments of the next higher order. [23], [25] Rbm reflects the
complexity and degree of dissection of a drainage basin. The
lower values of Rbm are characteristics of the sub-watersheds
which have suffered less structural disturbances. [24], [20] Higher
Rbm values indicates potential for flash flooding. [22] SW3 has
highest Rb value (7.15) and whereas SW12 as lowest Rbm
(2.76)value.
4.2.2. Drainage density (Dd)
III
3
2
3
2
6
3
2
4
3
2
3
2
6
2
2
2
IV
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
75
37
171
38
146
90
91
104
65
42
109
27
250
61
71
34
Lu
(Km)
I
29.41
12.78
54.43
13.42
37.10
23.96
41.45
46.78
23.34
12.56
44.08
9.33
91.02
17.31
23.79
13.23
Lu
(Km)
II
15.28
4.52
13.22
4.11
7.75
6.73
8.73
11.63
5.30
3.70
7.53
1.74
23.44
4.70
8.14
2.00
III
8.92
4.34
3.47
1.88
7.60
3.61
2.71
11.14
4.76
2.14
5.16
0.95
17.67
4.09
3.21
1.79
IV
9.53
3.83
15.33
3.46
5.48
2.57
4.89
1.75
2.64
1.33
2.53
2.07
9.37
1.26
4.04
1.44
63.15
25.49
86.46
22.89
57.95
36.89
57.80
71.32
36.05
19.75
59.32
14.11
141.51
27.38
39.20
18.47
Drainage density (Dd) is a measure the total stream length in a

given basin to the total area of the basin. [26] The lower
drainage density of any watershed indicates that it has permeable
subsurface material, good vegetation cover and low relief and
vice versa. [10], [16] The highest drainage density (5.38) was
observed in SW 6 and lowest Dd (1.95)was observed in SW2.
4.2.3. Stream frequency (Fs)
It is the total number of stream segments of all orders per unit
area. [12] Stream frequency is inversely related to permeability,
infiltration capacity and directly related to the relief of
watersheds. [18], [19] Sub-watershed SW1 (2.36) showed the
highest Fs and similarly the sub-watershed SW6 showed the
lowest Fs. (2.36)
4.2.4. Circulatory ratio (Rc)
The circularity ratio is the ratio of the area of the basins to the
area of circle having the same circumference as the perimeter of
the basin. [17], Higher Rc is indicative of circular shape of the
Page 116
watershed and of the moderate to high relief and permeable

surface 9 [22], The Rc values varies from 0.28 (SW3) to 0.68
(SW15)
According to Horton (1945), T is the total number of stream

segments of all orders per perimeter of that area., It depends upon
a number of natural factors such as climate, rainfall, vegetation,
rock and soil type, infiltration capacity, relief and stage of
development of a basin [24] The dt< 2 indicates very coarse,
between 2 and 4 is related to coarse, between 4 and 6 is moderate,
between 6 and 8 is fine and >8 is very fine drainage texture. The
T values of sub-watersheds varies from 2.27 (SW2) -9.13 (SW5),
which indicates that all textures. Drainage texture is greatly
influenced by infiltration capacity. [13] Regions of low
infiltration capacity will give rise to higher T and thus will lead to
more erosion. [22]
4.2.5. Form factor (Rf)

Form factor is the dimensionless ratio between basin area and the
square of basin length. [12] The value of Rf would always less
then 0.7854 in perfectly circular basin. The highest Rf (0.83) was
observed in SW2 and lowest value (0.15) was observed in SW3.
4.2.6. Elongation ratio (Re)
Elongation ratio (Re) is defined as the ratio of diameter of a circle
having the same area as of the basin and maximum basin length
[23]. Generally it varies from 0.6 to 1.0 depends upon climate
and geology. The sub-watersheds shows lower elongation ratio
values which are high susceptible to erosion. The sub-watershed
elongation ratio varies from 0.44 (SW3) to 1.00(SW2)
4.2.8. Compactness coefficient (Cc)

According to Gravelius (1914), compactness coefficient of a
watershed is the ratio of perimeter of watershed to circumference
of circular area, which equals the area of the watershed. [15] The
Cc of a watershed directly corresponds to the infiltration capacity
of the watershed. [22] The sub-watershed compactness coefficient
ranging
from
0.04
(SW13)
to
0.21.(SW12)
4.2.7. Texture ratio (T)
Table 2. Derived morphometric parameters

Subwatershed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Rb
I/II
II/III
4.91
2.77
2.47
4.00
2.02
4.73
4.86
4.82
4.54
3.87
5.56
3.80
5.23
2.22
5.80
4.00
4.50
16.00
3.50
7.66
5.00
7.50
4.25
3.66
4.00
5.33
2.50
6.50
9.00
5.00
4.16
3.00
III/IV
3.00
2.00
3.00
2.00
6.00
3.00
2.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
3.00
2.00
6.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
Rbm
Dd
Fs
Rc
Rf
Re
3.97
3.09
7.15
3.16
5.22
4.24
4.78
4.35
3.73
3.29
4.63
2.76
5.91
4.40
4.26
1.99
1.95
3.18
2.96
4.53
5.38
3.85
3.75
3.73
3.97
4.65
3.55
4.18
3.68
2.68
2.36
2.83
6.29
4.92
11.41
13.13
6.07
5.45
6.73
8.45
8.55
6.80
7.39
8.21
4.86
2.43
2.27
4.93
2.66
9.13
7.16
5.23
5.14
4.27
4.37
7.04
2.91
9.04
4.44
4.32
0.41
0.61
0.28
0.47
0.63
0.54
0.62
0.58
0.52
0.67
0.66
0.58
0.55
0.49
0.68
0.24
0.83
0.15
0.35
0.45
0.58
0.42
0.75
0.47
0.45
0.46
0.35
0.56
0.30
0.49
0.55
1.0
0.44
0.66
0.76
0.86
0.73
0.98
0.77
0.76
0.76
0.66
0.84
0.62
0.79
0.04
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.08
0.14
0.07
0.06
0.11
0.17
0.08
0.21
0.04
0.14
0.07
3.05
3.61
6.64
3.41
0.64
0.37
0.69
0.17
4.3. Prioritization of Sub-watersheds

For prioritization of sub-watersheds in water resources
management, the morphometric analysis uses some very crucial
linear and shape morphometric parameters. These are termed as
erosion risk assessment parameters. Linear parameters such as
drainage density, stream frequency, mean bifurcation ratio,
drainage texture, length of overland flow have a direct
relationship with erodibility whereas shape parameters such as
elongation ratio, circularity ratio, form factor, basin shape and
compactness coefficient have an inverse relationship with [10],
[21] Hence, ranking of the watersheds has been carried out for
giving highest priority/rank based on highest value in case of
linear parameters and lowest value in case of shape parameters.
[4], For prioritization of sub-watersheds, in case of linear
parameters, the highest value was given ranking of 1, next higher
value was given a ranking of 2 and so on. After the ranking has
been assigned based on each parameter, the rating value for all the
Cc
nine micro-watersheds were averaged so as to arrive at a

compound value. (Cp) In this study The sub-watersheds where
classified as high (4.5-7.625),medium ( 7.626-10.750) and low (
10.751-13.875) priority based on the compound value. According
to results seven sub-watersheds (SW3, SW5, SW6, SW7, SW11,
SW13 and SW13) falls in high priority whereas seven subwatersheds (SW1, SW4, SW8, SW9, SW10, SW12 and SW16)
fall in medium priority and two sub-watersheds (SW2 and SW15)
fall in low priority class. Fig. 4. shows priority of sub-watersheds.
Page 117
Table 3. Prioritization sub-watersheds using morphological parameters

Subwatershed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Rb
10
14
1
13
3
9
4
7
11
12
5
16
2
6
8
15
Linear Parameters
Dd
Fs
15
16
16
15
12
10
13
13
3
2
1
1
6
11
7
12
8
8
5
4
2
3
11
7
4
6
9
5
14
14
10
9
T
15
16
7
14
1
3
5
6
11
9
4
13
2
8
10
12
Rc
2
10
1
3
12
6
11
9
5
15
14
8
7
4
16
13
Rf
2
16
1
4
8
14
7
15
11
9
10
5
13
3
12
6
Shape Parameters
Re
2
16
1
4
8
14
7
15
11
9
10
5
13
3
12
6
Cc
2
8
3
11
9
13
6
4
10
15
7
16
1
12
5
14
Compound
rank
8.00
13.87
4.50
9.37
5.75
7.62
7.12
9.37
9.37
9.75
6.87
10.12
6.00
6.25
11.37
10.62
Final
Priority
Medium
Low
High
Medium
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
High
High
Low
Medium
Fig. 4. Prioritzation of Sub-watersheds in Venkatapura Watershed
5. Conclusion
Watershed prioritization is one of the most important aspects
of natural resource management programme. A morphometric
analysis is an efficient technique for prioritization of subwatersheds. The present study demonstrates GIS based
conceptual method for prioritization of sub-watersheds in
Venkatapura Watershed. The results reveals that seven sub-
watersheds (SW3, SW5, SW6, SW7, SW11, SW13 and

SW13) shows very high priority. i.e. which are highly
susceptible to erosion.
The immediate water and
conservation measures can be required in these watersheds
Page 118
Acknowledgements
The Authors are thankful to chairman of the department and
Co-ordinator, UGC-SAP (DRS-I) programme for extending
laboratory facilities.
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Page 119
EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX FOR SURFACE AND

SUBSURFACE WATERS IN URBAN AREA OF BANGALORE
Prasad C S M V1 , Dr. Inayathulla M2
1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, UVCE,Bangalore University,

Bangalore-560056,India; email: csmvprasad@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, UVCE, Bangalore University,
Bangalore-560056, India; email: drinayath@gmail.com
Abstract
The world's fresh water resources are unequally distributed both in time and in space. Until recently water
resource management focused on reallocating water to when and where it was required, a supply-side or fragmented
approach. Nowadays there are signs that water resource availability is dwindling - due to both population growth and
increased per capita water use - and ecosystems are being damaged. To face this challenge a new holistic approach is
needed. This approach includes the integrated or conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources and takes
account of social, economic and environmental factors. Moreover, it recognizes the importance of water quality issues.
Land use has significant impact on water resources in terms of quantity and quality. The emphasis of
integrating land and water resources management seems inevitable as land use changes not only have a major impact on
water resources but also has a great potential for modifying hydrological cycle within a river basin.
The quality of the available water must be evaluated to see how it fits the intended use. Conceptually, water
quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply that will influence its suitability for a specific use. It is necessary
that the various stretches of water bodies are maintained at the characteristics quality, which will sustain the respective
uses of the stretches. It is possible to accomplish the task by controlling the pollution caused by human activities.
Keywords: Water Quality Index, Pollution, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Alkalinity
1. Introduction
The Greater Bangalore Metropolitan Area has spatially
grown from 69 sq.km (as in 1949) to 741 sq.km (as in
2012) with a population of 6.8 million. Meeting the
water needs of the growing population along with the
expansion of water supply networks to upcoming areas
of Bangalore city continue to remain as a major
challenge to the authorities. Bangalore North District has
seen sudden changes in terms of land use patterns.
The water table which was 80 feet deep below a few
years back, is today at a depth of 800 feet in some areas.
Indiscriminate discharge of untreated domestic sewage,
industrial effluents, leachates from solid waste dumps,
agricultural runoffs. etc into streams, lakes has resulted
in ground water pollution in Bangalore City and
surroundings.
Bangalore being situated on a ridge, the natural
drainage of Bangalore is divided into three valleys, viz.,
Hebbal Valley, Koramangala and Challaghatta Valley
and Vrishabhavathi Valley. The water demands of
Bangalore since times have been met by Hesaraghatta
lake, Tippagondanahalli reservoir and various stages of
*
Cauvery Water Supply Schemes. The supply of water

from the old reservoirs viz., Hesaraghatta lake and
Tippagondanahalli reservoir have become unreliable
owing to declined flow in Arkavathi river catchment.
Functioning of the Stage IV Phase II of Cauvery Water
Supply Scheme by 2012 will seal the upper limit of
water draft from Cauvery river to Bangalore City, as per
Cauvery Water Tribunal allotment. The current water
demand of Bangalore is estimated as 1219 million liters
per day. The availability of water from all the above
mentioned sources is 923 million litres per day, thus
creating a shortage of 296 million litres per day. The
problem is likely to aggravate more with the merger of
seven city municipality corporations and one town
municipality corporations with Bruhat Bangalore
Mahanagara Palike. Bangalore Water Supply and
Sewerage Board, the agency entrusted to supply water to
Bangalores population is finding it difficult to supply
the declared water supply of 110 LPCD, thus driving
more than 40% of the population to depend on ground
water. The water table which was 80 feet deep below a
few years back, is today at a depth of 800 feet in some
areas. Indiscriminate discharge of untreated domestic
Prasad C S M V, Tel.: +919972835799
E-mail-csmvprasad@gmail.com
Page 113
Prasad C S M V et. al. / INDECS-15
sewage, industrial effluents, leachates from solid waste

dumps, agricultural runoffs. etc into streams, lakes has
resulted in ground water pollution in Bangalore City and
surroundings. The lakes which catered to the water
supply needs of some localities have become useless due
discharge of effluents and many lakes have vanished due
to silting, solid waste dumping and also encroachments.
2. Aims and Objectives
The main aim of this lesson is to discuss the different
types of water qualities like physical, chemical and
microbial aspects and the objectives are
a.To study the physical, chemical and microbial qualities
of the water,
b.To learn the different types of procedures to analyze
the parameters of water qualities and
c.To learn different water quality standards and
guidelines for drinking, agricultural and industrial
purposes.
Water quality is a term used here to express the
suitability of water to sustain various
uses or processes. Any particular use will have certain
requirements for the physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of water; for
example limits on the concentrations of toxic substances
for drinking water use, or restrictions on temperature and
pH ranges for water supporting animals. Consequently,
water quality can be defined by a range of variables
which limit the water. Although many uses have some
common requirements for certain variables, each use will
have its own demands and influences on water quality.
laboratory. The main elements of water quality

monitoring are, therefore, on-site measurements, the
collection and analysis of water samples, the study and
evaluation of the analytical results, and the reporting of
the findings. One purpose of a monitoring programme is,
therefore, to gather sufficient data (by means of regular
or intensive sampling and analysis) to assess spatial and
or temporal variations in water quality.
4. Evaluation of Water Quality Index
4.1 Methodology
Surface and sub-surface water samples were collected
from HEBBAL area, and analysed for selected
parameters. The following methodology was adopted for
the study purpose.
4.2. Classification of Study Area
Surface and sub-surface water samples were collected at
16 different locations of HEBBAL region.
To study the quality of ground water and surface water
samples number of locations are as shown in the Fig.1
3. Water Quality
The composition of surface and underground water is
dependent on natural factors (geological, topographical,
meteorological, hydrological and biological) in the
drainage basin and varies with seasonal differences in
runoff volumes, weather conditions and water levels.
Large natural variations in water quality may, therefore,
be observed even where only a single watercourse is
involved. Human intervention also has significant effects
on water quality.
The effects of faecal pollution vary appreciably in space
and time. Eutrophication results not only from point
sources, such as wastewater discharges with high
nutrient loads (principally nitrogen and phosphorus), but
also from diffuse sources such as run-off from livestock
feedlots or agricultural land fertilized with organic and
inorganic fertilizers. Pollution from diffuse sources, such
as agricultural runoff, or from numerous small inputs
over a wide area, such as faecal pollution from
unsewered settlements, is particularly difficult to control.
The quality of water may be described in terms of the
concentration and state (dissolved or particulate) of some
or all of the organic and inorganic material present in the
water, together with certain physical characteristics of
the water. It is determined by in situ measurements and
by examination of water samples on site or in the
Fig. 1
4.3. Selection of Sampling Points
The already existing tube wells and open wells

were selected for the purpose of collecting
groundwater samples from the study area.
The sampling points were located in areas

where there was no treated water supply and
groundwater is the only source of drinking
water.
Page 114
4.4. Analysis and Discussions
K = Proportionality constant derived from the equation
Table 1. Water quality classification based on WQI value.
WQI value
Water quality status
<50
50-100
100-200
200-300
>300
Excellent
Good Water
Poor water
Very poor water
Water unsuitable for
drinking
K = 1/( n
(1.b)
1/Sn)
Sn = Recommended drinking water standard as per B I S.

5. Results and Discussions
The Water Quality Index of the groundwater in study
area of groundwater in study area is established from
important physicochemical parameters in different
seasons. The mean values of various physicochemical
Table 2. Drinking water standards, recommending agencies and unit weights
Sl.No.
Parameters
Standard Permissible Value

(Sn)
Recommended
Agency
1/Sn
Unit Weight
PH
8.5
ICMR/BIS
0.118
0.192
EC
300
ICMR
0.003
0.005
TDS
500
ICMR/BIS
0.002
0.003
Total Alkalinity
120
ICMR
0.008
0.014
Chlorides
250
ICMR
0.004
0.006
Total Hardness
300
ICMR/BIS
0.003
0.005
DO
ICMR/BIS
0.200
0.325
BOD
ICMR
0.200
0.325
Ca
75
ICMR/BIS
0.013
0.022
10
Mg
30
ICMR/BIS
0.033
0.054
11
Sulphate
150
ICMR/BIS
0.007
0.011
12
Nitrate
45
ICMR/BIS
0.022
0.036
4.5. Water Quality Index

WQI is a system of ranking the quality of water in the
environment by numerical means. The index assigns a
number to a body of water to indicate its quality. The
applications of WQI can be summarised as follows:
It can provide a way to summarise overall water
quality conditions in a manner that can be
communicated to general public.
It can tell us whether the overall quality of water
bodies poses a potential threat to various uses of
water.
It can be used as a broad tool to indicate success in
protection and remediation efforts.
Computation of water quality indices: The WQI can be
calculated using the formula as shown here.
WQI= Antilog W n n= 1 log 10 qn
(1)
Wn = K/Sn
(1.a)
Where Wn = Weight age factor computed from
parameters during seasons for the calculation of WQI

are presented in Table 3. Season wise Water Quality
Index calculations are depicted in Table 4, 5 and 6. The
Water Quality Index obtained for the groundwater in
different seasons of study period i.e., rainy season,
winter season and summer season are 163.812, 171.465
and 186.05 respectively, which indicate the poor quality
of water (Yogendra et.al, 2007).
5.1. pH
pH is one of the most important factors that determines
the suitability of water for various purposes. In the
present study pH value ranged between 7.0 and 7.9. The
average pH values of the lake water was7.2 during rainy
season, 7.5 during winter season and 7.7 during summer
season. pH of water was relatively high in the summer
season and low in monsoon and winter season. However,
when the average values for three seasons are taken into
account the water body was found to be slightly alkaline.
This is in accordance with earlier work done by Sisodia
(2006), Yogendra (2007) and Thakor (2011).
Page 115

Table 3. Seasonal variations of the physico-chemical parameters of groundwater in study area
Parameter
EC
(-S/cm)
TDS (Mg/l)
T. Alkalinity
(Mg/l)
Chlorides
(Mg/l)
Hardness
(Mg/l)
DO (Mg/l)
BOD (Mg/l)
Ca mg/l
Mg mg/l
Sulphates
mg/l
NO3 mg/l
Sampling Locations
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
Min.
Value
Rainy
7.1
7.3
7.0
7.6
7.1
7.2
7.0
7.6
7.2
Winter
7.8
7.8
7.6
7.3
7.0
7.2
7.0
7.8
7.5
Summer
7.8
7.9
7.6
7.7
7.4
7.6
7.4
7.9
7.7
Rainy
1192.5
1130.0
1296.0
1083.5
1087.0
1852.5
1083.5
1852.5
1273.6
Winter
1110.3
1080.8
1424.8
1079.8
1043.0
1778.0
1043.0
1778.0
1252.8
Summer
1388.7
1116.3
1549.3
1167.3
1207.7
1933.3
1116.3
1933.3
1393.8
Rainy
535.9
557.8
733.3
531.4
543.5
752.3
531.4
752.3
609.0
Winter
462.6
462.2
585.3
440.1
233.6
897.2
233.6
897.2
513.5
Summer
599.6
626.3
815.7
578.4
421.0
982.1
421.0
982.1
670.5
Rainy
287.5
196.3
267.5
200.0
206.3
410.0
196.3
410.0
241.3
Winter
216.0
199.0
288.5
209.0
211.5
439.0
199.0
439.0
244.5
Summer
194.7
162.7
330.7
168.0
169.3
417.3
162.7
417.3
250.4
Rainy
217.4
232.4
249.9
224.9
219.9
344.0
217.4
344.0
248.1
Winter
250.5
236.5
272.5
229.0
212.5
314.0
212.5
314.0
252.5
Summer
328.0
250.7
289.3
289.3
294.3
367.0
250.7
367.0
303.1
Rainy
237.2
271.2
338.4
224.9
217.8
456.3
217.8
456.3
291.0
Winter
206.6
211.9
380.6
216.5
220.0
440.9
206.6
440.9
279.4
Summer
244.0
198.7
387.7
208.0
203.8
508.7
198.7
508.7
291.8
Rainy
4.8
3.2
3.6
5.0
6.1
4.9
3.2
6.1
4.6
Winter
2.5
2.5
4.3
3.5
5.7
4.3
2.5
5.7
3.8
Summer
3.5
3.0
3.2
3.9
4.2
2.5
2.5
4.2
3.4
Rainy
16.0
16.0
20.0
12.0
16.5
22.0
12.0
22.0
17.1
Winter
18.8
17.5
17.0
13.3
11.3
25.5
11.3
25.5
17.2
Summer
23.3
15.0
17.3
14.3
14.3
26.0
14.3
26.0
18.4
Rainy
32.0
48.3
38.9
45.8
33.9
47.1
32.0
48.3
41.0
Winter
24.3
30.9
51.0
37.3
30.7
76.5
24.3
76.5
41.8
Summer
26.5
22.9
25.6
26.3
48.5
103.1
22.9
103.1
42.2
Rainy
38.4
36.8
46.7
27.0
32.5
59.7
27.0
59.7
40.2
winter
35.6
32.9
61.8
30.1
35.0
60.9
30.1
61.8
42.7
Summer
49.5
34.5
79.0
39.7
36.4
91.3
34.5
91.3
55.0
Rainy
13.2
13.4
24.6
9.7
13.2
15.6
9.7
24.6
14.9
Winter
14.4
10.6
31.5
11.4
11.8
24.7
10.6
31.5
17.4
Summer
13.8
7.4
29.7
9.1
17.2
28.1
7.4
29.7
17.6
Rainy
12.5
12.8
10.1
13.1
11.3
10.9
10.1
13.1
11.8
Winter
15.5
13.6
9.1
12.3
9.0
13.4
9.0
15.5
12.2
Summer
16.3
13.0
11.2
12.7
11.0
12.3
11.0
16.3
12.8
Season
Max.
value
Mean
Page 116

Table 4. Calculation of Water Quality index of groundwater in study area in Rainy Season
Rainy Season
Quality
Standard
Observed
Unit Weight
Rating
Sl.No.
Parameters
Value
1/Sn
Values
(Wn)
(Sn)
(Vn)
( n)
PH
8.5
0.118
0.192
7.2
13.333
EC
300
0.003
0.005
1273.6
424.533
TDS
500
0.002
0.003
609
121.800
Total Alkalinity
120
0.008
0.014
241.3
201.083
Chlorides
250
0.004
0.006
248.1
99.240
Total Hardness
300
0.003
0.005
291
97.000
DO
0.200
0.325
4.6
104.167
BOD
0.200
0.325
17.1
342.000
Ca
75
0.013
0.022
41
54.667
10
Mg
30
0.033
0.054
40.2
134.000
11
Sulphate
150
0.007
0.011
14.9
9.933
12
Nitrate
45
0.022
0.036
11.8
26.222
Wn=0.998
Weighted
(Wnqn)
2.555
2.297
0.395
2.720
0.644
0.525
33.820
111.039
1.183
7.251
0.108
0.946
Wnqn=163.48
Water Quality Index = 163.812

Table 5. Calculation of Water Quality of groundwater in study area index in Winter Season
Winter Season
Sl.No.
Parameters
Standard
Value
(Sn)
1/Sn
Unit Weight
(Wn)
Observed
Values
(Vn)
Quality
Rating
( n)
PH
8.5
0.118
0.192
7.5
33.333
EC
300
0.003
0.005
1252.8
417.600
TDS
500
0.002
0.003
513.5
102.700
Total Alkalinity
120
0.008
0.014
244.5
203.750
Chlorides
250
0.004
0.006
252.5
101.000
Total Hardness
300
0.003
0.005
279.4
93.133
DO
0.200
0.325
3.8
112.500
BOD
0.200
0.325
17.2
344.000
Ca
75
0.013
0.022
41.8
55.733
10
Mg
30
0.033
0.054
42.7
142.333
11
Sulphate
150
0.007
0.011
17.4
11.600
12
Nitrate
45
0.022
0.036
12.2
27.111
0.614
Wn=0.998
Weighted
(Wnqn)
6.387
2.260
0.333
2.756
0.656
0.504
36.526
111.688
1.206
7.702
0.126
0.978
Wnqn=171.12
Page 117

Table 6. Calculation of Water Quality index of groundwater in study area in Summer Season
Summer Season
Sl.No.
Parameters
Standard
Value
(Sn)
1/Sn
Unit Weight
(Wn)
Observed
Values
(Vn)
Quality
Rating
( n)
PH
8.5
0.118
0.192
7.7
46.667
EC
300
0.003
0.005
1393.8
464.600
TDS
500
0.002
0.003
670.5
134.100
Total Alkalinity
120
0.008
0.014
250.4
208.667
Chlorides
250
0.004
0.006
303.1
121.240
Total Hardness
300
0.003
0.005
291.8
97.267
DO
0.200
0.325
3.4
116.667
BOD
0.200
0.325
18.4
368.000
Ca
75
0.013
0.022
42.2
56.267
10
Mg
30
0.033
0.054
55
183.333
11
Sulphate
150
0.007
0.011
17.6
11.733
12
Nitrate
45
0.022
0.036
12.8
28.444
0.614
Wn=0.998
Weighted
(Wnqn)
8.942
2.514
0.435
2.823
0.787
0.526
37.879
119.481
1.218
9.921
0.127
1.026
Wnqn=185.68
Fig. 2 Graphical Representation of Seasonal WQI

The alkaline nature of water was a characteristic
throughout the study period with slight seasonal
variation in the lake. In the present investigation pH
value were within the ICMR standards (7.0- 7.9)
5.2. Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Electrical conductivity is the ability of water to allow
electric current through it and is expressed in -s/cm. In
the present the average EC values of the lake water was
1273.6 mhos/cm during rainy season, 1252.8
mhos/cm during winter season and 1393.8 mhos/cm
during summer season. Season wise it is found to be
high during summer season.
5.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

The total dissolved solids in Jakkur lake water was 609
mg/L in rainy season, 513.5 mg/L during winter season
and 670.5 mg/L during summer season. The
concentration of TDS is high in summer and rainy
season, which may be due to addition solids from runoff
water, sewage and industrial effluents to the lake.
5.4. Total Alkalinity
Alkalinity value less than 100 mg/L is desirable for
domestic use. According to ICMR the maximum
permissible limit is 120 mg/L. The observed average
Page 118

value of total alkalinity was 241.3 mg/L during rainy
season, 244.5 mg/L during winter season and 250.4
mg/L in summer season. Higher values of alkalinity
registered during summer might be due to the presence
of excess of CO2 product as a result of decomposition
process coupled with the mixing of sewage and domestic
waste. The low alkalinity during rainy season may be
due to dilution.
5.9. Calcium (Ca)
5.5. Chloride
5.10. Magnesium (Mg)
Chloride occurs in all types of natural waters. The high

concentration of chloride is considered to be an
indication of pollution due to high organic waste of
animal origin. Chloride value obtained in the study was
248.1 mg/L during rainy season, 252.5 mg/L during
winter season and 303.1 mg/L in summer season. The
chloride in groundwater was found within the acceptable
limit of 250mg/L in rainy season and above the
permissible limit in winter and summer season.
Magnesium occurs in water mainly due to the presence

of olivine, biotite, augite and talc minerals. Permissible
limit of magnesium is 30 mg/L. The observed average
value of magnesium was 40.2 mg/L during rainy season,
42.7 mg/L during winter season and 55.2 mg/L during
summer season. Agricultural runoff might be responsible
for the high levels of Magnesium in lake water.
5.6. Total Hardness
Sulphate ion does not affect the taste of water if present

in low concentration. The sulphate ion concentration was
14.9 mg/L during rainy season, 17.4 mg/L during winter
season and 17.6 mg/L during summer season. The
sulphate in ground water was found within the
acceptable limit of 150 mg/L.
The observed average total hardness value was 291 mg/L

during rainy season, 279.4 mg/L during winter season,
and 291.8 mg/L during summer season. Higher values of
hardness in summer and rainy season can be due to high
rate of evaporation of water and addition of calcium and
magnesium from surface runoff. Thakor (2011) stated
that addition of sewage and human use may be the
reason of elevation of hardness.
5.7. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
The average dissolved oxygen was 4.6 mg/L during
rainy season, 3.8 mg/L during winter season and 3.4
mg/L during summer season. The maximum dissolved
oxygen in the water in study area was recorded in rainy
season. Thereafter it started declining gradually and in
summer reached the lowest concentration. This can be
attributed to addition of infiltration of effluents
containing oxidizable organic matter and consequent
biodegradation and decay of vegetation at higher
temperature leading to consumption of oxygen from
water.
5.8. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand is a parameter to assess the
organic load in a waterbody. Many researchers have
recorded higher BOD values in polluted water. The flow
of sewage water, industrial effluents and the agricultural
runoff might be responsible for the high levels of BOD.
The average BOD values of Jakkur lake was 17.1 mg/L
during rainy season, 17.2 mg/L during winter season and
18.4 mg/L during summer season. The values of BOD in
some areas were recorded much above permissible limits
indicating presence of decomposable organic matter in
ground water also.
Calcium occurs in water mainly due to the presence of

limestone, gypsum, dolomite and gypsiferrous minerals
(Srinivas et. al., 2011). Permissible limit of calcium is 75
mg/L. The observed average value of calcium was 41
mg/L during rainy season, 41.8mg/L during winter
season and 42.2 mg/L during summer season.
5.11. Sulphate
5.12. Nitrate
Nitrate is the most important nutrient in an ecosystem.
The source of nitrate is the biological oxidation of
organic nitrogenous substance (Kalavathy et. al., 2011).
Nitrate value obtained in the study was 11.8 mg/L during
rainy season, 12.2 mg/L during winter season and 12.8
mg/L during summer season. In the present study water
samples of all the seasons showed low concentration of
nitrate well below permissible levels as per the
standards.
6. Conclusions
At the outset, high value of WQI (Rainy season 163.812, Winter - 171.465 and in Summer-186.05)
indicates that the water quality is poor and unsuitable for
drinking. Further, the seasonal values of WQI indicate
that in summer season lake water is more affected than
during rainy and winter season. The seasonal variations
of index values are due to variation in physicochemical
characteristics of lake water. The reason for high index
values were continuous discharge of agricultural runoff,
industrial effluents and inadequately treated sewage
effluent flowing into the streams in the study area.
Application of water quality index (WQI) in this study
has been found useful in assessing the overall quality of
water. This method appears to be more systematic and
gives comparative evaluation of the water quality in
different seasons of the year. It is also helpful for public
to understand the quality of water as well as being a
Page 119

useful tool in many ways in the field of water quality
management.
7. References
[1]. APHA (1995): Standard Methods (18 Ed.) for
the examination of water and waste water,
APHA, AWWA, WPCE, Washington DC.
[2]. Bhaven N. Tandel, JEM Macwan and Chirag K.
Soni (2011): Assessment of Water Quality Index
of small lake in south Gujarath region, India,
Proceedings of ISEM-2011, Thailand.
[3]. BIS 10500, 1991: Specifications for drinking
water, Indian Standard Institutions (Bureau of
Indian Standards), New Delhi.
[4]. Brown R.M, N.J. Mccleiland, R.A. Deiniger,
M.F.A. Oconnor (1972), Water quality index
crossing the physical barrier, Proc. Int. Conf. on
water pollution research, Jerusalem, 6, 787-797.
[5]. ICMR Manual of standards of quality for
drinking water supplies (1975). ICMR, New
Delhi.
[6]. Kalavathy S., T. Rakesh Sharma and P.
Sureshkumar (2011), Water uality Index River
Cauvery in Tiruchirappalli district, Tamilnadu,
Arch. Environ. Sci., 5, 55-61.
[7]. Kankal N.C, M.M. Indurkar, S.K. Gudadhe and
S.R. Wate (2012), Water Quality Index of
Surface Water Bodies of Gujarat, India, Asian J.

Exp. Sci. Vol. 26, No1; 39-48
[8]. Ramakrishnaiah C.R, C. Sadashivaiah and G.
Ranganna (2009), Assessment of Water Quality
Index for theGroundwater in Tumkur Taluk,
Karnataka State, India; E-Journal of Chemistry,
6(2), 523-530.
[9]. Sisodia Rashmi and Chaturbhuj Moundiotiya
(2006), Assessment of the waterquality index of
Wetland Kalakho lake, Rajasthan, India; Journal
of Environmental hydrology; 14 (23),1-11.
[10].Srinivas P., G.N Pradeep kumar, A. Srinivas
Prasad and T. hemalatha (2011), Generation of
Groundwater Quality Index Map A case study,
Civil and Environmental Research; 1 (2), 9-21.
[11].Thakor F.J, D.K Bhoi, S.N Pandya and Nikitaraj
B. Chauhan (2011), Water Quality Index(WQI)
of Pariyej Lake Dist. Kheda Gujarat, Current
World Environment; 6 (2), 225-231.
[12].WHO (1992). International Standards for
Drinking Water. World Health Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland
[13].Yogendra
K.
and
E.T.
Puttaiah
(2008),Determination of water quality index and
Suitability of an Urban Waterbody, Shimoga
Town, Karnataka, Proceedings of 12th world
Lake Conference 342-346.
Page 120
HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS OF WATERSHED USING

IDF CURVES & RUNOFF MODELS
M Inayathulla1 , M. Raghunath2, C. Rangaraj3& Y A Narayanaswamy 4
1
U.V.C.E Bangalore University. Bangalore- 560056, India, drinayath@gmail.com

Assistant Director, SPFU-TEQIP, DTE Bangalore India, raghu.spfu@hotmail.com
3
Professor in Civil Engineering, Sri SIT, Tumkur, India, drrangarajc@gmail.com
4
SET Jain University, Ramanagara District-562112, India, yanresearchjain@gmail.com
2
ABSTRACT
Quantification of short duration high intensity rainfall is generally done using IDF (IntensityDuration-Frequency) curves, based on historic rainfall data of significant years. Due to non-availability of
short duration rainfall data, an attempt is made to derive short duration empirical reduction formula to
understand urban hydrology. Bangalore is a rapidly growing city in terms of population and intense urban
growth. Today about 70 per cent of the 262 water tanks in 1961 in Bangalore have disappeared leading to
surface flooding. Daily rainfall data of5 stations for the years 1998 to 2011 collected from Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) were used in the study. The missing rainfall data, during this period was
interpolated by Airthematic_mean method. The IMD empirical reduction formula was used to estimate the short
duration rainfall. The rainfall depth for various return periods were predicted using different probability
distributions and analyzed. The Chi-Square goodness of fit was used, to arrive at the best statistical distribution
among Normal, Log-Normal, Gumbel and Pearson. Chi-Square test showed that log-normal is the best
probability distribution for the 5 stations considered. The IDF curves were plotted for short duration rainfall of
5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120, 720 and 1440 minutes for a return period of 2, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 years for
stations with peak rainfall values.
Key Words: Sub-watersheds-Hydrological studiesIDF Curves, Runoff models.

1. Introduction
With the nonlinear interactions between rainfall
and runoff processes as described by various urban
runoff models, synthetic design storms are required
for the estimation of the complete runoff
hydrographs for urban drainage design surface and
groundwater
management
purposes. Many
frameworks have been conceived in different
countries for the computation of design storms [1],
with varying shapes, storm durations, time to peak,
maximum intensity and total volume of rainfall;
however, none matches every situation, forcing
hydrologists to perform assessment processes
before using a design-storm model at a new site
[2]. Peyron et al. (2005)[3] proposed a procedure
to systematically evaluate design storms models for
specific locations. First, the targeted design storms
for different return periods, based on rainfall data
from Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves,
were
constructed.
Then,
these
synthetic
hyetographs were used as input in the model to
obtain the respective runoff values (peak flows and
volumes). Thus, the runoff properties estimated
from the design storms were compared to those
values obtained from observed historical storms to
assess the accuracy of different design storm
models. Based on this approach, the best design
storm can be selected for the design of urban
drainage systems and groundwater recharge
structures.
Keeping the above aspects in view, Suryanagar

sub watershed of Urban Bangalore is taken up for
hydrological studies. These studies are concerned
about water conservation, storage and management
with the motto of recharging groundwater.
2. Study Area
The study area is located between Latitude
124732N and Longitude 774159 E as shown in
figure .1 The study area covers an area of 172.42
km2 and attains maximum elevation 950m and
minimum elevation of 880m. Suryanagara Township
is situated on the Anekal main road, Chandapura
near by cities Benahalii, Attibele, Bangalore.
Suryanagara located at distance of 25 km from
Bangalore. physiography of the area is characterized
by undulating topography with pediplains, pediment
and valley fills. The mean annual total rainfall is
about 920 mm with about 60 rainy days a year over
the last ten years.. The summer temperature ranges
from 17 C to 36 C, while the winter temperature
ranges from 12 C to 25 C. Thus, Bangalore enjoys
a salubrious climate all round the year.
The area of the watershed is obtained from
delineating the toposheets covering 57 H/9 and 57
H/10 of 1:50000 scale by using ARC GIS software.
The area of the watershed is found to be 172.42km2
Page 121
THIESSEN POLYGON MAP
Hosahalli
Sarjapura
Jigani
Attibele
Anekal
Source; SOI Toposheets 57H/9

and 57H/10
Legend
0
4
Kilometers
Source; SOI
Stations
0
1,950 3,900
7,800
11,700
15,600
Meters
Boundary
DPR THIESSEN POLYGON
Study area- Suryanagar (Source : SOI Toposheet)
Thiessen polygon showing rain gauge stations
Fig No.1: Location Map of Study Area

3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency-Curves
IDF stands for Intensity-Duration Frequency.
Rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the total
amount of rain (rainfall depth) falling during a
given period to the duration of the period It is
expressed in depth units per unit time, usually as
mm per hour (mm/h). The period of time over
which rainfall is measured is called duration. The
number of times, during a specified period of years,
that precipitation of a certain magnitude or greater
occurs or will occur at a station is called frequency.

[4]. The IDF-relationships give an idea about the
frequency or return period of a mean rainfall
intensity or rainfall volume that can be expected
within a certain period, i.e. the storm duration. In
this sense the storm duration is an artificial
parameter that can comprise any part of a rainfall
event. (IDFCURVE, 2012)
4. Frequency Analysis using Frequency Factor
Page 122
The magnitude of xT of a hydrologic event may be
represented as the mean plus the departure xT
of the variate from the mean i.e., x = + x [5]
The departure may be taken as equal to the product
of and a frequency factor KT are functions of the
return period and the type of distribution to be used
in the analysis. The above equation may be
expressed as
= +
which may be
approximated by = +
. [5]. In the event
the variable analysed is y = In(x), then the same
method is applied to the statistics for the logarithms
of the data using
= +
and the required
value of is foundby taking the antilog of [5].
Short duration rainfall using IMD for Hosahalli
raingauge station is tabulated in Table 1
Table 1: Short duration rainfall by using IMD empirical formula for Hosahalli station
Rainfall
(mm)
Year
Duration in
Minutes
1998
82
1999
80.4
2000
120.4
2001
112
2002
25
2003
47
2004
76.8
2005
68.4
2006
45.4
2007
53.4
2008
70.1
2009
95.2
2010
56.2
2011
68.1
10
12.42
12.17
18.23
16.96
3.79
7.12
11.63
10.36
6.87
8.09
10.62
14.42
8.51
10.31
15.64
15.34
22.97
21.37
4.77
8.97
14.65
13.05
8.66
10.19
13.37
18.16
10.72
12.99
in mm where, time t is in hours
15
30
60
17.91
17.56
26.29
24.46
5.46
10.26
16.77
14.94
9.92
11.66
15.31
20.79
12.27
14.87
22.56
22.12
33.13
30.82
6.88
12.93
21.13
18.82
12.49
14.69
19.29
26.20
15.46
18.74
28.43
27.87
41.74
38.83
8.67
16.29
26.63
23.71
15.74
18.51
24.30
33.00
19.48
23.61
5. Normal distribution
Normal probability distribution, also called
Gaussian distribution refers to a family of
distributions that are bell shaped. The PDF for a
normal random variable x is
=
exp
> 0
Where exp is the exponential function with base e

= 2.718. is the mean and the standard deviation.
1/ ( (2)) is a constant factor that makes the area
under the curve of f(x) from - to equal to 1.
The curve of f(x) is symmetric with respect to x =
because the exponent is quadratic. Hence for =
0 it is symmetric with respect to the y-axis x = 0.
The frequency factor for normal distribution is
given by
=
. This is same as the standard
normal variate z i.e., frequency factor
= z.
Figure 2 shows the variation of Normal distribution
for different durations and results are tabulated in
Table2. The scope of this study was to develop IDF
curve and to derive IDF empirical formulae for the
5 stations considered for the study area
Suryanagara Bangalore, so that the estimation of
rainfall depth and intensity for any standard
duration and return period in the study area
considered can be obtained with minimum effort.
And also to estimate the surface runoff for the
study area by using different methods can be
obtained
with
minimum
effort.
120
35.82
35.12
52.59
48.92
10.92
20.53
33.55
29.88
19.83
23.32
30.62
41.58
24.55
29.75
720
65.08
63.81
95.56
88.89
19.84
37.30
60.96
54.29
36.03
42.38
55.64
75.56
44.61
54.05
1440
82.00
80.40
120.40
112.00
25.00
47.00
76.80
68.40
45.40
53.40
70.10
95.20
56.20
68.10
Daily rainfall data for 14 years i.e., 1998 to 2011

was collected for 5 stations in and around
Suryanagara,
Bangalore
from
Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD), Government of
India. The missing rainfall values were calculated
using the airthematic mean method and the IMD
empirical reduction formula was used to estimate
the short duration rainfall. Using different
probability distributions the rainfall depth was
found out for different durations and standard
return period, and subsequently the rainfall
intensity was found out for calculated rainfall
depths. The Chi-Square goodness of fit was used to
arrive at the best statistical distribution among
Normal, Log-Normal, Gumbel and Pearson.IDF
curve was plotted for short duration rainfall of 5,
10, 15, 30, 60, 120, 720 and 1440 minutes for a
return period of 2, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200
years for station with peak rainfall values. The use
of IDF curves becomes cumbersome and hence a
generalized empirical relationship was developed
through method of least squares. The daily 24 hour
rainfall data for the years 1998 to 2011 was
collected from IMD for 5 stations located in and
around Suryanagara, Bangalore. The five stations
are Anekal, Attibele, Jigani, Sarjapura and Hosalli.
The missing rainfall values for the years 1998 to
2011 were calculated and tabulated in table3.
Page 122
0.1
0.06
0.08
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.02
0
0
10
15
20
Normal For 5 Min
10
15
20
25
Normal For 10 Min
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0
0
10
20
30
10
Normal For 15 Min
20
30
40
Normal For 30 Min
Fig. No2: Variation of Normal Distribution For Different Durations

Table 2 : Estimation of maximum rainfall intensity for various return period by normal distribution for Hosahalli
Normal
Distribution
Duration in
minutes
5
10
15
30
60
120
720
1440
Normal
Distribution
5
10
15
30
60
120
720
1440
Return period T
Mean
Standard
Deviation
10.82
13.63
15.61
19.66
24.77
31.21
56.72
71.46
3.95
4.98
5.69
7.17
9.04
11.39
20.7
26.08
2
Rainfall
Depth
(mm)
13.55
17.07
19.54
24.62
31.02
39.09
71.03
89.49
Return period T
10.82
13.63
15.61
19.66
24.77
31.21
56.72
71.46
3.95
4.98
5.69
7.17
9.04
11.39
20.7
26.08
3
Rainfall
(mm/hr)
162.62
102.44
78.18
49.24
31.02
19.54
5.92
3.73
Rainfall
Depth
(mm)
13.78
17.36
19.87
25.03
31.54
39.74
72.22
90.98
25
14.10
17.77
20.34
25.62
32.29
40.68
73.93
93.14
5
Rainfall
(mm/hr)
165.32
104.15
79.48
50.05
31.54
19.87
6.02
3.79
Rainfall
Depth
(mm)
13.93
17.55
20.10
25.31
31.89
40.19
73.03
92.01
50
169.26
106.62
81.36
51.24
32.29
20.34
6.16
3.88
14.12
17.80
20.37
25.66
32.33
40.74
74.03
93.27
10
Rainfall
(mm/hr)
167.20
105.33
80.38
50.63
31.89
20.09
6.09
3.83
Rainfall
Depth
(mm)
14.04
17.69
20.25
25.51
32.15
40.50
73.61
92.74
Rainfall
(mm/hr)
168.52
106.16
81.01
51.02
32.15
20.25
6.13
3.86
100
169.49
106.77
81.48
51.31
32.33
20.37
6.17
3.89
14.13
17.81
20.38
25.67
32.35
40.77
74.09
93.34
200
169.60
106.84
81.53
51.35
32.35
20.38
6.17
3.89
14.13
17.81
20.38
25.68
32.35
40.77
74.09
93.34
169.61
106.85
81.54
51.36
32.35
20.38
6.17
3.89
Page 123
Duration in
minutes
5
10
15
30
60
120
720
1440
Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviations of Short Duration Rainfall

Standard
Standard
Standard
Mean
Mean
Mean
Deviation
Deviation
Deviation
HOSAHALLI
ANEKAL
ATTIBELE
10.82
3.95
11.45
3.95
11.13
4.48
13.63
4.98
14.43
4.74
14.02
5.64
15.61
5.69
16.52
5.43
16.05
6.46
19.66
7.17
20.81
6.84
20.22
8.14
24.77
9.04
26.22
8.62
25.48
10.25
31.21
11.39
33.04
10.86
32.10
12.92
56.72
20.7
60.03
19.74
58.33
23.48
71.46
26.08
71.46
25.24
73.49
29.65
5
10
15
30
60
120
720
Standard
Deviation
SARJAPURA
9.68
2.91
12.20
3.66
13.96
4.20
17.59
5.29
22.17
6.66
27.93
8.39
50.75
15.25
1440
63.94
Mean
Duration in
minutes
JIGANI
20.73
6. Rainfall depth and intensity

The short duration rainfall depths were
calculated for the years 1998 to 2011 from IMD
empirical reduction formula. Then the mean and
standard deviations of short durations of 5, 10, 15,
30, 60, 120, 720 and 1440 minutes were estimated.
These estimated mean and standard deviations
were used in Normal, Log-Normal, Gumbel and
Pearson
probability distribution methods to
Standard
Deviation
Mean
15.46
19.48
22.3
28.09
35.39
44.59
81.03
6.84
8.62
9.87
12.44
15.67
19.74
35.88
102.09
45.2
determine the rainfall depths and intensity for

standard return periods of 2, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100
and 200 years for 5 stations. It was found that the
rainfall depths increased with the increasing time
duration. But the rainfall intensity decreased
appreciably with increasing duration. These
distributions were subjected to chi-square goodness
of fit test to find the best distribution. The table4
shows specimen calculations for Hosahalli station
Table 4: Specimen calculations for Hosahalli station

NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
Duratio
Observe
n in
d values
minutes
Expected
values
5
10
15
30
60
120
720
1440
10.82
13.63
15.61
19.66
24.77
31.21
56.72
71.46
13.97
17.61
20.15
25.39
31.99
40.31
73.25
92.29
Chisquare
values
0.71
0.90
1.02
1.29
1.63
2.05
3.73
4.70
LOG-NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
Expected
values
13.48
16.99
19.45
24.50
30.87
38.89
70.68
89.05
7. IDF curve
It was found from chi-square test that lognormal distribution gave the best results with
minimum deviations from the observed values.
Hence the IDF curve was plotted from log-normal
Chisquare
values
0.52
0.66
0.76
0.96
1.21
1.52
2.76
3.47
GUMBELS
DISTRIBUTION
Expected
values
17.52
22.08
25.26
31.82
40.11
50.53
91.84
115.71
Chisquare
values
2.56
3.23
3.69
4.65
5.87
7.39
13.43
16.92
PEARSON TYPE
III
DISTRIBUTION
ChiExpected
square
values
values
16.17
1.77
20.37
2.23
23.31
2.54
29.37
3.21
37.06
4.08
46.63
5.10
84.75
9.27
106.77
11.68
values for each station considered. The IDF curve

is plotted with duration in minutes on the abscissa
and rainfall intensity in mm/hr on the ordinate for
standard return periods.
Page 124
Figure 3 represents the rainfall IDF curves for five
stations in the study area i.e., rainfall intensityduration-frequency curve for short durations of 5,
10, 15, 30, 60, 120, 720 and 1440 minutes and
return periods of 2, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200
years for Log-normal distribution. The use of IDF
curves becomes more cumbersome and hence a
generalized empirical relationship of the form i
x t
was developed for each station, for the
various return period considered. Rainfall IDF
empirical equation constant x and y were calculated
for different return period by the method of leastsquares. IDF empirical equation was formed by
putting the value of x and y in the mentioned
equation format for each return period separately.
Table 5 gives the empirical constant x for 5 stations
for the return periods considered.
It is seen that the empirical constant y remains
constant for all return period and for all stations
with a value of 0.6667 or 2/3. The empirical
Station
2
465
478
483
408
678
Table 5: Empirical constant x for 5 stations for different return periods

Return Periods
3
5
10
25
50
100
474
481
486
489
489
490
487
493
498
500
501
502
494
502
507
510
511
512
415
420
424
426
426
427
695
707
715
720
721
722
Rainfall Intensity(mm/hr)
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
1
10
100
1000
Duration (min)
10000
200
490
502
512
427
722
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
1
10
HOSAHALLI
Hosahalli
Anekal
Attibele
Sarjapura
Jigani
constant x varies at lower return periods and tends

to become constant with higher return periods.
These IDF empirical equations will help to estimate
the rainfall intensity for any specific return period
in Urban in a short time and more easily for the
locations considered
8. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve
Number Model:
The SCS developed an index, which is called as the
runoff Curve Number (CN) to represent the
combined hydrologic effect of soil, land use,
agriculture treatment class, hydrologic condition
and antecedent soil moisture. These factors can be
accessed from soil surveys, site investigations and
land use maps, while using the SCS hydrologic
models for design. Fig 4, 5 & 6 show the Curve
Number Map generated, rainfall runoff relationship
and CWC Hydrograph for the study area. Weighted
curve number and runoff estimation is tabulated in
Table 6 & 7.
100
1000
10000
JIGANI
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
1
10
100
Duration(min)
1000
10000
ANEKAL
Fig. 3: IDF Curves for Rain Gauge Stations
Page 125
CURVE NUMBER MAP
Legend
73
CN
Source; Soil map, Land use/Land cover map and

Hydrological soil group map
0
1,450 2,900
5,800
8,700
77
53
81
60
83
66
86
67
88
71
91
72
96
11,600
Meters
Figure 4: Curve Number Map

Table 6. Weighted Curve Number
Watershed
Area (Sq km)
CNI
CNII
CNIII
SURYANAGARA
172.42
58.13
76
88.12
Table 7: Runoff Estimated for Surynagara Catchment

Year
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Average
Maximum
Minimum
Rainfall(mm)
1387.3
1518.4
1374
886.6
669.3
617.8
1111.2
1204.2
417.2
1076.6
1079.8
1196.5
898.8
903.2
584.4
995.02
1518.4
417.2
Runoff(mm)
498.81
560.48
427.69
313.96
227.69
58.28
251.24
352.60
48.66
259.70
329.57
390.71
209.69
240.18
141.54
287.39
560.48
48.66
Page 126
suryanagara watershed
600
y = 0.4259x - 136.37
R = 0.8817
500
300
200
100
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Rainfall(mm)
Figure 5: Rainfall-Runoff relationship of watershed.
Discharges(m3/s)
Runoff (mm)
400
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
tm = 4.84hr
W75=2.45h
r
WR75=1hr
W50=4.02h
r
Trial1
Trial2
WR50=1.52hr
10
12
14
16
Time (hrs)
Fig 6: CWC Unit Hydrograph for the Suryanagara watershed
Page 127
9. CONCLUSIONS;
Among the various available probability

distribution functions Log_ Normal
distribution had the best approximation of
rainfall intensity for various return periods.
Study showed that i = x * (td)-y was the best
form of IDF empirical equation for
Suryanagara, Bangalore.
These IDF equations will help to estimate
the rainfall intensity for any specific return
period in Suryanagara, Bangalore in a short
time and more easily.
The runoff models developed in this study
(ie..Rational, SCS- CN model and Unit
hydrograph method) is useful for designing
surface drain network for recharging ground
water and for surface water management.
References
[1]
Marsalek, J. and Watt, W.E. (1984) Design
Storms for Urban Drainage Design.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering
11(3), 574-584.
[2]
Peyron, N., Nguyen, V.T.V. and Rivard, G.
(2005) Un modele optimal de pluie de projet
pour la conception des reseaux de drainage
urbain. Annales du batiment et des travaux
publics, 35-42.
[3]
Peyron, N. (2001) Design Storms for Urban
Runoff Estimation. Project Report, McGill
University, Montral, Canada.
[4]
Food and Agriculture Organization, (2012),
Rainfall
Runoff
Analysis,
Rainfall
Characteristics,
http://www.fao.org/docrep/U3160E/u3160e
05.htm
[5]
Chow V.T., D.R. Maidment and L.W.Mays,
1988, Applied Hydrology, McGraw- Hill,
Chapter 10 Probability, Risk and
Uncertainty Analysis for Hydrologic and
Hydraulic Design: 361
Page 128
GROUNDWATER PROSPECTUS MAP FOR KOLAR TALUK SUBWATERSHEDS

M Inayathulla 1*, Y A Narayanaswamy2, Shashishankar.A3 & Chalapathi k4
1
U.V.C.E Bangalore University. Bangalore- 560056, India, drinayath@gmail.com

SET Jain University, Ramanagara District-562112, India, yanresearchjain@gmail.com
3
SET Jain University, Ramanagara District-562112, India, shashianant@gmail.com
4
U.V.C.E Bangalore University. Bangalore- 560056, India, chalapathi10k@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The present work is an attempt to integrate RS and GIS based analysis and methodology in
groundwater potential zone identification in the Kolar Taluk subwatersheds, Kolar Ditrict, study area. The
information on geology, geomorphology, soil, slope, Lineaments, Drainage network and land use/land cover
was gathered, in addition, GIS platform was used for the integration of various themes. The composite map
generated was further classified according to the spatial variation of the groundwater potential. Six categories
of groundwater potential zones namely poor to nil, moderate to poor, moderate, good to moderate, good and
very good were identified and delineated. The hydrogeomorphological units like pediplain weathered and
alluvial plain and are potential zones for groundwater exploration and development and valley fills associated
with lineaments is highly promising area for ground water recharging. The spatial variation of the potential
indicates that groundwater occurrence is controlled by geology, land use / land cover, slope and landforms.
Key Words: Sub-watersheds-Hydrological studies- -Groundwater-water , Groundwater prospectus map.
1. Introduction
Groundwater is the water that is found underneath
the Earth's surface at profundities where all the
pore (open) spaces in the soil, sediments, or rock
are completely stacked with water. Groundwater of
any structure whether from a shallow well or a
significant well, devises and is refilled (energized)
by precipitation. Groundwater is a piece of the
hydrologic cycle, beginning when a piece of the
precipitation that falls on the Earth's surface sinks
(infiltrates) through the soil and enters (seeps)
diving to wind up groundwater. Groundwater will
at long last come back to the surface, discharging
to streams, springs, lakes, or the oceans, to
complete the hydrologic cycle.
Geophysical methods are conventionally employed
for groundwater prospecting though there are
several methodologies to locate and map the
occurrence and distribution of groundwater. The
advent and development of new technologies, such
as remote sensing with its advantages of spatial,
spectral and temporal availability of data have
proved to be useful for quick and useful baseline
information about the factors controlling the
occurrence and movement of groundwater like
geology, geomorphology, land use/cover, drainage
patterns, lineaments etc. Further, remote sensing
techniques provide a synoptic view of large areas,

facilitating better and quicker assessment,
development and management of water resources
with collateral information.
The integration of remote sensing and GIS has
proven to be an efficient tool in groundwater
studies [1,2] where remote sensing serves as the
preliminary inventory method to understand the
groundwater prospects/conditions and GIS enables
integration and management of multi-thematic
data. In addition, the advantage of using remote
sensing techniques together with GPS in a single
platform and integration of GIS techniques
facilitated better data analysis and their
interpretations.
Krishnamurthy et al.[3] applied digital
enhancement techniques for groundwater in a hard
rock terrain of parts of the Raichur district,
Karnataka. The geological structures were
highlighted by filtering. Band subtraction brought
out the vegetation along valley fills and moistureladen lineaments. Based on the results, a package
was suggested which could be used on an
operational basis for groundwater targeting in
typical hard-rock crystalline formations.
Ramamurthy et al. [4] a study was conducted to
find out the groundwater potential zones in
Page 129
Varahanadhi Sub basin, Tamil Nadu India.

Thematic maps such as geology, geomorphology,
land use/land cover, lineament, drainage, soil,
rainfall maps are prepared in the Arc GIS. The
thematic maps and data are integrated in to GIS
environment where it is digitized, registered, stored
analyzed and finally overlaid to classify the
groundwater potential zones.
Ramakrishna and D.Nagaraju,[5] utilized IRSLISS-II data along with other data sets extract
information on the hydrogeomoiphic features of a
hard rock terrain in the Piriyapatna area of mysore
district of Karnataka, India. Tattekere watershed is
in general part of hard rock ter-rain, which is
mainly covered by Granite Gneissic Complex.
Based on the integrated thematic maps, weighted
analysis in Arc GIS ground water resource prospect
map of the area has been prepared and discussed.
2. Study area
The study area geographically lies between North
latitude 12 46 to 13 58 and East Longitude 77
21 to 78 35 as shown in figure 3.3 The study
area covers an area of 231..37 km2 and attains
maximum elevation 920m and minimum elevation
of 820m. It is located at distance of 72 km from
Bangalore. It is land locked district and hard rock
terrain of Karnataka in the maiden (plain) region.
The district lies almost in the central part of
peninsular India, which has immense bearing on its
geoclimatic conditions. The topography of the
district is undulating to plain. Kolar district falls in
the Eastern dry agro climatic Zone. The mean
annual total rainfall is about 744 mm with about 60
rainy days a year over the last ten years. The
summer temperature ranges from 20 C to 40 C,
while the winter temperature ranges from 10 C to
22 C. Thus, entire district experiences tropical
climate throughout the year, Kolar district owes its
prosperity and development to the existence of
ancient tanks.
The area of the watershed is
obtained from delineating the toposheets covering
57K/4 on 1:50000 scale by using ARC GIS
software. The area of the watershed is found to be
231.37km2 The Location map of the study area is
shown in Fig: .1
3. Morphometric Analysis
based on a hierarchic ranking of streams. Stream

length measurements and statistical analysis of a
stream length of overland flow is among the most
commonly used attributes in linear aspects.
One of the first attribute to be quantified in
morphometric analysis is the designation of the
stream orders. The channel segments are ordered
numerically from streams head water to point
somewhere down stream. Numerical ordering
begins with the tributaries at the streams headwater
being assigned as 1st Stream segment resulting
from the joining two 1st order segments is given an
order of 2nd Two second order streams form a 3rd
order stream, and so on. The highest order stream is
known as trunk or principal stream through which
all discharge of the watershed passes through the
outlet. In the present study, the highest stream
order obtained is 5th order and hence it is designed
was 5th order and hence it was designed as 5th
order watershed. In Order to know the total number
of streams in each order, the segment of each order
was numbered. The number of stream segments of
any given order will be lesser than the next lower
order but more numerous than the next higher
order. The concept of stream order is used to
calculate other indicators of drainage character of a
watershed. Fig 2 shows the stream order assigned
to Kolar Taluk Sub watershed for the
morphometric analysis.
Plotting the number of streams and stream order
(Fig 3) reveals a good relationship between them.
Table 1&2 shows all the morphometric analysis of
the study area.
Table 1&2 shows the watershed wise
morphometric characteristics and parameters
respectively of Kolar Taluk subwatersheds. A fig 3,
4 & 5 shows the regression of stream order on
number of stream segments of the Kolar Taluk sub
watersheds and the regression of stream order on
mean stream length of the Kolar Taluk sub
watersheds.
The drainage density reflects the land use, affects
the infiltration and watershed response time
between precipitation and discharge. The drainage
density of the area varies from 1.38 to 2.95
km/sq.km indicating that the sub watersheds are
coarse textured.
For morphometric analysis the drainage map from

SOI on 1:50000 has used. The morphometric
analysis was divided into 3 types as linear aspects,
areal aspects and relief aspects. Linear aspects
include the measurements of the linear features of
drainage system such as stream order, stream
length, etc. The allocation of the stream orders is
Page 130
ACE,
Hosur, Tamilnadu-635 109, INDIA, 28-30 October 2015
Fig:1 The Location map of the study area
Fig2: Stream Order Map of Watershed
Page 131
Table 1 Sub watershed wise morphometric characteristics of Kolar taluk watershed

WS
No
Area
(Sq.km)
Highest
stream
order
Perimeter
(km)
Stream Order
Stream Length (km)
16.63
19.36
14
13.72
6.32
11.74
34.54
28.91
68
17
40.56
14.95
9.25
19.98
33.32
28.21
96
27
55.47
14.06
8.9
19.98
29.75
26.36
56
15
38.82
14.64
5.7
15.95
23.88
22.67
18
15.06
5.29
1.08
15.95
6
7
33.95
31.06
25.56
30.91
4
5
22
20
6
6
2
1
1
1
21.4
19.77
9.98
9.6
13.69
6.7
1.82
8.36
15.86
28.24
25.87
33
25.11
10.48
2.66
1.82
15.86
Watershed
Ruggedness
Number
(Rn)
0.04
0.08
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.00
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.005
0.002
0.0028
0.002
0.001
0.0010
0.001
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.001
Watershed 2
100
No of streams
100
No of streams
0.49
0.38
0.33
0.45
0.40
0.53
0.78
0.36
Relative
Relief
(Rhp)
0.56
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.58
0.41
0.65
0.53
Relief Ratio
(m)
0.44
0.39
0.36
0.43
0.40
0.46
0.56
0.38
Max. Relief
(km)
2.97
3.42
3.13
3.51
4.24
6.77
4.49
4.45
Form
Factor
(Rf)
5.84
9.57
10.11
8.12
7.74
7.69
6.61
8.87
Circularity
Ratio (Rc)
1.14
2.63
3.96
2.59
1.01
0.93
0.91
1.63
Elongation
Ratio (Re)
1.51
2.45
2.95
2.52
1.57
1.94
1.38
1.98
Width (km)
4.52
2.81
3.73
5.52
5.72
2.24
2.03
3.19
Length (km)
3.75
3.42
3.64
3.91
3.17
2.83
2.89
2.79
Stream
frequency
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Drainage
density (Dd)
WS
No
Stream
Length
Ratio (Rl)
Mean
Bifurcation
Ratio
(Rbm)
Table 2 Sub watershed wise morphometric parameters of Kolar taluk watershed
10
10
1
1
2
Stream order
stream order
Page 132
Watershed 3
Watershed 4
100
No of streams
10
10
1
1
Watershed 5
Watershed 6
100
No. of Streams
100
No of streams
Stream order
Stream Order
10
10
1
1
Stream order
stream order
Watershed 7
Watershed 8
100
No. of Streams
100
No of streams
No of Streams
100
10
10
1
1
3
Stream order
Stream order
Fig. 3 Regression of stream order on number of streams of all sub watersheds

Page 133
Watershed 1
Mean Stream Length
(kms)
Mean Stream Length

(Kms)
100.00
10.00
1.00
Watershed 2
10
0.1
0.10
2
Stream order
2
3
stream order
Watershed 4
10
1
0.1
1
Stream Order
Mean stream length (kms)
Mean Stream Length (kms)
Watershed 3
100
10
1
0.1
1
1
0.1
3
Stream order
10
10
1
0.1
1
1
0.1
5
10
StreamOrder
Watershed 8
100
Stream order
Watershed 7
Watershed 6
100
Stream order
Watershed 5
100
10
1
0.1
1
Stream order
Fig. 4 Regression of stream order on mean stream length of all sub watersheds
Page 134
Stream Frequency (no/sqkm)
following thematic maps were used. Lithology,

Slope, Soil, Land use, land covers Lineaments,
y = 2.0088x - 2.3434
R = 0.8898
Hydro-geomorphology, and surface drains (Table 3).
Were prepared as shown in Fig.4a, b, c,d e & f
Table 3: Characteristic Features of Thematic Layers
2
1
0
Thematic
Layers
Geomorphology
Characterstics
Fig. 5 Regression of Drainage density on Stream

frequency
The length of overland flow suggests that the surface
Land use and

land cover
Slope
Land forms, Weathered zones

etc.,
Rock
type,
weathering
character,
thickness
of
weathering, joints, fracture etc.,
Forest area, barren land,
vegetation land etc.,
Slope percent
runoff will reach the stream faster. The values of
Soil
Permeability, Porosity, texture
Lineaments
Faults, fracture etc.,
Drainages
Drain network, drainage density
Drange Density (km/sq km)
Lithology
stream frequency for eight watersheds exhibits positive

correlation with the drainage density values of the area
indicating the increase in stream population with
respect to increase in drainage density. Stream
frequency value for the watershed varies from 0.91 to
3.96 this indicates that the stream frequency is low.
The circularity ratio varies from 0.41 to 0.65 for the
watersheds. Its low, medium and high values are
correlated with youth, mature and old stage of the
cycle of the tributaries in sub watershed of the
region. The elongation ratio ranges from 0.38 to 0.56
which indicates that the watershed is more elongated
to elongated.
Fig 4a Geomorphology Map of the Study Area
4. Groundwater Prospect Map

The groundwater prospect map is a systematic
effort and has been prepared considering major
controlling
factors.
The
map
depicts
hydrogeomorphological aspects, which are essential

as basis for planning and execution of groundwater
mapping.
In order to demarcate the groundwater
potential zones using GIS for the study area the
Fig 4b. Lithology Map of the Study Area
Page 135
Fig 4c Lands Use / Land Cover Map of the Study Area
Fig 4e. Lineament map of the study area
Page 136
Fig 4f. Lineament density map of the study area
Fig 4i Slope Map of the Study Area
Page 137
Fig 4j Soil Map of the Study Area
Fig 4h Drainage map of the study area
Page 138
Fig 4i Drainage Density Map Of the Study Area

In the first step of integration,
Geomorphology layer (L1) and Lithology layer (L2)
maps were integrated by intersect option and a new
integrated layer (R1) is generated 183 polygons of
layer L1 (geomorphology layer) and 2 polygon of
layer L2 (Lithology layer) has resulted in the
generation of integrated layer (R1) with 199
polygons. The maximum and minimum WCV are 15
and 40 respectively. In the second step, the integrated
layer R1 layer containing 199 polygons (the resultant
of geomorphology and lithology) was intersected
with the landuse and land cover layer (L3) which has
415 polygons and it resulted in the generation of
integrated layer R2 with 873 polygons. The
minimum and maximum WCV are 20 and 65
respectively. In the third step, integrated layer R2
containing 873 polygons was intersected with the
Slope (L4) which has 55 polygons, which resulted in
the generation of integrated layer R3 containing 1419
polygons. The minimum and maximum WCV are 25
and 90 respectively. In the fourth step, Soil layer
(L5) containing 272 polygons was intersected with
the integrated layer R3 having 1419 polygons, this
resulted in the generation of integrated layer R4
containing 1802 polygons. The minimum and

maximum WCV are 30 and 115 respectively. In the
fifth step, Lineament layer (L6) containing 275
polygons was intersected with the integrated layer R4
having 1802 polygons, which resulted in the
generation of integrated layer R5 containing 2113
polygons. The minimum and maximum WCV are 35
and 140 respectively. In the sixth step, Drainage
layer (L6) containing 443 polygons was intersected
with the integrated layer R5 having 2113 polygons,
which resulted in the generation of integrated layer
R6 containing 2713 polygons. The minimum and
maximum WCV are 35 and 165 respectively.
Theoretically, if WCV of the all the layers
which are integrated, a maximum of 165 and
minimum of 35 WCV must be obtained. But
practically maximum of 155 and minimum of 50
WCV are obtained. This shows that the overlap of
some of higher weights polygons with one another in
the integrated layer. Based on the total weights
obtained by integration the study area has been
delineated into Very Good, Good, Good to Moderate,
Moderate, Moderate to Poor and Poor to Nil
groundwater potential zones (Fig 5, Table 4).
Page 139
Fig 5 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL ZONES MAP OF THE STUDY AREA

Table 4 INTEGRATED GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL ZONES
Higher
Weight
age value
Lower
weight
age value
8.04
155
135
51.28
22.16
135
115
Good to
Moderate
8.09
3.48
115
95
Moderate
114.78
49.61
95
75
Moderate to
Poor
8.41
3.63
75
60
Poor to Nil
30.19
13.04
60
45
Sl.
No
Groundwater
category
Area
Km2
Very Good
18.61
Good
% of
total
area
Ground water structures feasible

Dug wells fitted with low power pumps and
tube wells fitted with hand pumps
Dug well, dug well cum bored well and tube
well fitted with hand pump
This zone is mainly controlled by geologic
structure. Dug well and tube well fitted with
hand pump
Dug well, dug-cum bored well, with tube well
This zone mainly comprises areas where the
recharge condition and the water-yielding
capacity of the underlying materials are
neither suitable nor poor. Dug-cum bored
wells are fitted.
Generally, groundwater structures will not be
successful. Dug well dug-cum-bored well
may be constructed. Surface water should be
harnessed and roof top rainwater harvesting
schemes may be adopted.
Page 140
5. Conclusions
From Groundwater Potential map, it is observed that
Kolar Taluk watershed is having Moderate Ground
water prospect zone. Ground water potential maps
thus developed will be useful for planning surface
drainage networks and construction of ground water
recharge structures in very good ground water
potential zones.
References
[1].
Krishnamurthy J., Venkatesa Kumar N.,

Jayaraman V. and Manivel M.(1996): " An
approach to demarcate groundwater potential
zones through Remote Sensing and a
Geographical
Information
System".
International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol.
17, No. 10, 1996. p 1867-1884.
[2].
Saraf A.K. and Choudhury P.R(1998):

"Integrated remote sensing and GIS for
groundwater exploration and identification of
artificial recharge sites", International Journal
of Remote Sensing, Vol. 19, No. 10, 1998, p
1825-1841
[3].
Krishnamurthy J., Manavalan P. and Saivasan

V., "Application of digital enhancement
techniques for groundwater exploration in a
hard-rock terrain", International Journal of
Remote Sensing, Vol. 13, No.15, 1992, p
2925-2942
[4].
Ramamoorthy. P, Arjun. A, Gobinath. K,

Senthil Kumar. V, Sudhakar . D Geo Spatial
Analysis of Groundwater Potential Zone
Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques in
Varahanadhi
Sub
Basin,Tamilnadu,
International Journal Of Science, Engineering
and Technology-2014 www.ijset.In.
[5].
Ramakrishna, D.Nagaraju, Mohammad suban

lone, Siddalingamurthy.S, and Sumithra.S
Groundwater Prospectus Studies of Tattekere
Watershed, Mysore District, Karnataka, India
Using
Remote Sensing And GIS,
International Journal of Remote Sensing &
Geoscience (IJRSG)-2014 www.ijrsg.com.
Page 141

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION ASSESMENT USED BY GIS AND

REMOTE SENSING -BHARAMASAGAR AT CHITHRADURGA DIST,
KARANATAKA
V. Praveena Kumara*1, Bgayalakshmi*2, Lingananda*3M V.Sivani*4 Shobha udaya*5
*1
MSc Applied Geology,Department of Geology*1*2BSc Geography,*1*2*31sem, , *4*5BTech, 3rd SEM, Dept of
Engineering, Central University of Karnataka, Kadaganchi Village, Dist-.Kalburgi,State- Karnataka, country - India.
Tel: +91 9901744719 E-mail: praveenakumarav@gmail.com
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
This paper describes the studies conducted generation of a digital data base for using spatial data modeling using Remote sensing
and GIS techniques for the Bharamasagara watershed in Chithrdurga District. This digital data base serves as a ready reckoned- tool
for pollution risk assessment and aids in faster decision making process in issues related to development.The studies consisted in
development of a digital data base for the Bharamasagar water shed of 900sq.kmsL depicting Land use, Land cover changes in
classes such as Barren Rocky, Water Bodies, Semi-Evergreen Forest, Evergreen Forest, Litho logy, geo-morphology and
Agricultural Area by calculating the area in hectares of the resulting Land use/Land cover types for each study years and
subsequently comparing the results. Thus the study detects land use changes between the year 2000 to 2009 by using Land and
LISS-3 satellite images.Information on Land use/Land cover in the form of maps and statistical data is very vital for spatial
planning, management and utilization of land. In the study, Remote Sensing and geographic information system (GIS) were used in
order to study Land use/Land cover changes. Land use change may influence many natural phenomena and ecological processes,
including runoff, soil erosion and sedimentation and soil conditions. The Areas are changing due to various human activities, natural
conditions and development activities. According to the user requirements, updating of land use mapping is required to various
departments. Monitoring of Land use/Land cover changes which would help to plan the development activities. Change detection
has shown that the Barren Rocky area increased between 2000 and 2009 by 22.26% from 5825.21 ha to 7121.87 ha, Evergreen
Forest area increased between 2000 and 2009 by 24.83% from 16333.40 ha to 20388.85 ha, Water Body area decreased between
2000 and 2009 by 2.02% from 10822.37 ha to 10603.42 ha,
Keywords: Satellite, Hectors, Land, GIS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.INTRODUCTION
The increasing availability of geospatial data provides an
opportunity for environmental engineers to contribute to the
identification of Potentially Polluting Sites. To adequately
assess the environmental risk of these sites, relevant
information must be collected and converted into a multiscale geodatabase suitable for site inventory and geo-spatial
analysis. However, the successful collection and integration
of data model information requires some effort to normalize
and standardize the data based on recognized international
standards.Local governments need tools that make the most
of available information to target high risk locations for
pollution movement and to evaluate current and future
impacts of on-site systems. Hence this spatial data models
can be used to identify, manage, monitor and plan remedial

measures for the vulnerable site. These data models require
less time, effort and are economical when compared to
conventional survey or non-spatial data modelling methods.
These data can also be used for preparedness planning and
reduce the risk of human beings experiencing the after effects
of the pollution.
2. Content
In classification process, Supervised Classification method in
GRASS was performed based on a set of user-defined
Page 142
V. Praveen kumara, et. al. /INDECS-15
classes, by creating the appropriate user-defined polygon.

The methodology of extracting Land uses / Land cover from
satellite image is shown in fig 1. In supervised classification
process, User-Defined Polygon function reduces the chance
of under estimating class variance since it involved a high
degree of user controls. Training points were repeatedly
selected from the whole study area by drawing a polygon
around training sites of interests. Land use / Land cover
classes of these training points were extracted with respect to
general knowledge obtained from topographic maps and field
visits. The supervised classification was performed using the
maximum likelihood algorithm. To evaluate the accuracy of
the classified image, Accuracy Assessment tool in GRASS
was used. The reference class values were compared with the
classified class in error matrix. Then overall accuracy and
kappa values were computed by using users accuracy (a
measure of commission error) and producers accuracy (a
measure of omission error) of each class. Calculation of the
Area in hectares of the resulting land use/land cover types for
each study year and subsequently comparing the results. The
comparison of the land use/land cover statistics assisted in
identifying the percentage change, trend and rate of change
between 2000 and 2009.
2.1 Data Acquired and Source
For the study, Landsat and LISS-3 satellite images of

Bharamasamdra watershed were acquired for two
Epochs; 2000 and 2009. Landsat satellite image of the
year 2000 was obtained from U.S .Geological Survey
(USGS), LISS-3 satellite image of the year 2009 was
obtained from BHUVAN website.
These class values are taken as the reference points, to

make a comparison with the class values of the
classified images. The overall accuracy and KAPPA
statistics are used to assess classification accuracy
based on error matrix. Overall accuracy is computed
by dividing the total correct value (i.e. sum of the
major diagonal) by the total number of pixels in the
error matrix. Accuracy assessment is performed for
2000 & 2009 LU/LC maps. An overall accuracy of
79.80% for 2000 & 83.65% for 2009 are obtained.
2.4 Change Detection Analysis
The most commonly used Change Detection methods
are,i) Image overlay,ii)Classification comparisons of
land cover statistics or Calculate the area in hectares
of the resulting Land use/Land cover types for each
study years and subsequently comparing the results,iii)
Change vector analysis,iv) Principal component
analysis,v) Image rationing, vi) The differencing of
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).
The method used in this project is classification
comparison of land cover statistics. The comparison of
the Land use/Land cover statistics, assisted in
identifying the increase and decrease in area under
different classes between 2000 and 2009 as shown in
table 2. The change in area can be interpreted with
reference to time of acquisition of image i.e. 2000
image is acquired on December and also 2009 image
on December, which shows a seasonal variation.
2.5 Illustrations
2.2Data types & their Source

The trend of change can then be calculated by dividing
observed change by sum of changes multiplied by
100(Trend) percentage change = observed change *
100 (1)Sum of change In obtaining annual rate of
change, the percentage change is divided by 100 and
multiplied by the number of study year 2000 2009.
2.3 Accuracy Assessment

In order to assess the classification accuracy, 200
points are generated randomly throughout each image
usingthe Add Random Point utility in GRASS A
class value is then entered for each of these points.
Figure: 1 LULC map of the Year 2000
Page 143
2.6 Tables
SL
No.
Data
Type
Data
product
Resolution
Source
Landsat
image
20-122000
30
USGS
LISS-3
15-122009
23.5
BHUVAN
geologically acceptable setting formunicipal and

waste disposal sites, and also helps users to direct
resources for further evaluation.
3. Conclusion
Land use maps resulted from Landsat and
BHUVAN images and classification shows a
satisfactory comparison. An average accuracy of
79.80% for Landsat and 83.65%for LISS-3 has
been obtained from classification accuracy
assessment. The urban areas and significant open
areas are not identified successfully in the
classified land use maps. Overall this appears to be
a quick and satisfactory way to obtain ground
cover information for a watershed of this size
when sufficient ground data are either not available
or for any reasons are difficult to obtain.
Therefore, remote sensing imagery can be used
successfully in providing up to date information.
The study demonstrated the use of spatial
data modelling for pollution risk assessment by
remote sensing and GIS is an effective method for
pollution vulnerability assessment. The GIS
technology has provided an efficient environment
for analyses and high capabilities of handling
spatial datasets.This spatial data can prove to be a
very valuable tool for those who are in
management position because it gives a very
comprehensive indication of vulnerability to
environmental contamination.
Figure: 2 Depth of Ground Water

When the state or local administrator has limited
resources available to devote to environmental
protection, they are forced to focus these resources
in certain areas. The spatial data model helps
identify areas, which are more or less vulnerable
than others to contamination. This delineation
allows administrators to direct their resources to
those vulnerable areas most critical to
environmental contamination, thereby making use
of most of the limited resources available.
The spatial data thus prepared for

Bharamasamdra Watershed helps the planners in
broadly screening areas for waste disposal sites,
industrial sites etc.The environmental atlas also
helps users to recommend the most hydro-
Page 144
References
[1] David Keith Todd, Groundwater Hydrology,
John Wiley India Pvt Ltd., second edition, 1980.
[2] Zubair, Ayodeji Opeyemi, Change detection in
land use and land cover using remote sensing data
and GIS, Department of Geography, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan (Masters thiesis- October, 2006)
3] Ravinder Kaur and K.G. Rosin, Ground Water
Vulnerability Assessment Challenges and
Opportunities, 2009
Page 145

(INDECS-15)ACE, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635 109, INDIA, 28-30 October 2015
SCS-CN AND GIS BASED APPROACH FOR ESTIMATION OF SURFACE

RUNOFF IN SITA-SWARNA BASIN, UDUPI DISTRICT
Anil, B1, Shivanna2, M.S.Vinaya3
1, 2
Department of Marine Geology, Mangalagangotri, Mangalore University, Konaje- 574 199, Karnataka
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur-635 109, Tamil Nadu
anilbaindur@gmail.com, shivannag@rediffmail.com, msvinaya@gmail.com
Abstract
Runoff is one of most important hydrological variables that are used in catchment treatment, ground water
recharge study, planning for optimal use of reservoirs, organizing rivers and warning flood. The per capita
availability of land for cultivation has been decreasing over the years. In India, the availability of accurate
information on runoff is scarcely available in few selected sites. Therefore, water and the related land resources
must be developed, utilized and managed in an integrated and comprehensive manner. Advances in
computational power and the growing availability of spatial data have made it possible to accurately predict the
runoff. Remote sensing and GIS techniques are being increasingly used for planning, management and
development of natural resources. The study area, Sita-Swarna basin geographically lies between 13008 and
13035 N latitude and 74041 and 75011 E longitude with an area of 1438.38 Sq. km. The thematic layers such as
land use/land cover and soil maps were derived from remotely sensed data and overlayed through ArcGIS
software to assign the curve number on polygon wise. The daily rainfall data of four rain gauge stations in and
around the basin (2009-2013) was used to estimate the daily runoff from the basin using Soil Conservation
Service - Curve Number (SCS-CN) method. The runoff estimated from the SCS-CN model (SCS, 1972), a
versatile and widely used procedure for runoff estimation to know the variation of runoff potential with different
land use/land cover and with different soil conditions.
Keywords: Sita-Swarna Basin, SCS-CN Method, Runoff, GIS, Remote Sensing
1. INTRODUCTION
In India, the availability of accurate information on
runoff is scarcely available in few selected sites.
Water is one of the most vital requirements
foreconomic and social development. Human
population of the Indian subcontinent is ever
increasingthereby increasing the demand for water
fordomestic, agricultural and industrial use.
However, the quantum of rainfall and surface
wateravailabilityhas remained the same; thus,
resulting inover-exploitation of ground water,
declining watertable levels and deterioration of
water quality. Advances in computational power
and the growing availability of spatial data have
made it possible to accurately predict the runoff.
The possibility of rapidly combining data of
different types in a Geographic Information System
(GIS) has led to significant increase in its use in
hydrological applications. The curve number
method (SCS, 1972), also known as the hydrologic
soil cover complex method, is a versatile and
widely used procedure for runoff estimation. This
method includes several important properties of the
basin namely soil's permeability, land use and
antecedent soil water conditions which are taken
into consideration. Jasrotia et al., 2002used a
mathematical model to estimate rainfall, runoff in
conjunction with remote sensing data and GIS

using SCS CN method and runoff potential map.
The runoff was estimated from SCS curve number
model modified for Indian condition by
conventional data base and GIS for Dikrong river
basin (Ashish Pandey et al., 2004). In Geographic
Information System (GIS) the overlay analysis is a
common, widely used method for analyzing and
evaluating geospatial data. Overlay analysis
employs various thematic layers in a GIS to
determine relationships across the layers and
subsequently enables to derive specific outputs
based the mathematical and scientific approaches.
2. OBJECTIVES
To prepare thematic maps on surface and
sub-surface features viz., Land Use/ Land
Cover, Soil, Drainage.
Determination of Curve Number (CN)
values by integrating the land use/land
cover map and hydrological soil group
(HSG) map using overlay analysis in GIS
domain.
Determination of Antecedent Moisture
Condition (AMC) by total rainfall of 5
days period preceding storm.
Page 146
Anil B, Shivanna, M S Vianya / INDECS-15

Calculation of recharge capacity and
direct runoff using standard SCS-CN
model.
3. STUDY AREA
The study area Sita-Swarna basin falls under Udupi
district, Karnataka between North latitudes
130800 - 133500 & East longitudes
744100- 751100 with an area of 1438.39
sq.km as delineated from the Survey of India (SOI)
toposheet numbers 48K/10, 48K/11, 48K/14,
48K/15, 48K/16, 48O/2, 48O/3 and 48O/4 on 1:
50000 scale. Udupi district is bounded on the north
by Uttara Kannada district, on the east by Western
Ghat, on the south by Dakshina Kannada district
and Arabian Sea on the west. The rivers Sita and
Swarna originate on the Western Ghats and flow
for a considerable distance in the Coastal plain,
before they form a common estuary at about 10km
north of Udupi and discharge an average of 54 m3
s1 of water into the Arabian Sea, of which
significant part is being discharged during the
monsoon. The climate is marked by heavy rainfall,
high humidity and small variation in temperatures.
The average annual rainfall of the area is about
3623 mm. Of this, about 82% of the rainfall is
received during the southwest monsoon and the rest
during northeast and inter-monsoon months. It is
the main source of drinking water to Udupi
District. Several large scale and small scale
industries are located along the coast. Economy of
Sita-Swarna drainage basin is mainly based on
agriculture, aquaculture and medium to small scale
Industries.
Figure 1: Location Map of the Study Area
4. METHODOLOGY
In order to estimate the surface runoff in the study

area, a multi-parametric dataset comprising satellite
data, conventional maps including Survey of India
(SOI) topographic sheets are used. The softwares
used for this study includes ERDAS Imagine 9.2
and ArcGIS 10. The details of the Primary &
Secondary data used for this study are summarized
in the Table 1, Table 2 & Table 3 respectively.
Satellite
Path/Row
Acquisition
Date
IRS-P6
97-64 A
28/10/2013
(Resourcesat-1)
&B
(5.8m)
Table 1: Details of Satellite data used
Swath
70KM
Toposheet No
Scale
Contour
Interval
Source
48K/10, 48K/11,
48K/14, 48K/15,
48K/16, 48O/2, 48O/3,
48O/4
1:50,000
20m
SOI
Table 2: Details of Toposheet used
The methodology adopted for the study is

mentioned in the following Flowchart (Figure2). In
order to prepare various thematic layers of the
study area, toposheets along with the satellite data
was used to update drainage, land use / land cover
and soil map. The map of drainage is shown in the
Figure 3. The rainfall data of four gauge stations
pertinent to Sita-Swarna basin for a period of 2009
to 2013 was used for estimation of runoff. The
runoff estimated from the SCS-CN model (SCS,
1972), a versatile and widely used procedure for
runoff estimation to know the variation of runoff
potential with different land use/land cover and
with different soil conditions.
Existing Maps
Scale
Source
Drainage
1:50,000
SOI
National Bureau of
Soil Survey &
Landuse / Land
1:50,000
Landuse Planning
Cover
(NBSS&LUP,
ICAR)
National Bureau of
Soil Survey &
Soil
1:50,000
Landuse Planning
(NBSS&LUP,
ICAR)
Department of
Rainfall Data
Economics &
(2009-13)
Statistics, Govt. of
Karnataka
Table 3: Details of Secondary data used
4.1 SCS Curve Number Model
Page 147
Basin wise runoff was calculated by Soil

Conservation Services Curve number (SCS-CN)
method, which is associated with curve number and
curve number depends on land use/ land cover,
hydrological soil group (HSG) and Antecedent
Moisture Content (AMC). HSG are four types as
A, B, C, D from highest to lowest infiltration rate
respectively and AMC as I, II & III condition from
driest to wettest.
INPUT DATA
SOIL MAP
LU/LC MAP
AMC
this study. The runoff curve number, CN, is then

related as,
=
25400
254
Generally, CN has a range from 0 to 100; lower

numbers indicate low runoff potential while
largernumbers are for increasing runoff potential. If
the area consists of patches of land use / land cover
then a weighted curve number (CNw) for the
RAINFALL
am
SOIL VEGETATIN INDEX
CN
WCN
SCS CN MODEL
Figure 3: Drainage Map of the Study Area
RUNOFF
Figure 2: Methodology to estimate surface runoff by SCS CN
Model
basincan be obtained by weighing them in

proportion of the area and given as follows:
CNw = (CNi *Ai) /A
4.2 Runoff Volume

Surface runoff is mainly controlled by the amount
of rainfall, initial abstraction and moisture
retentionof the soil. The relation of runoff with
rainfall is given as follows by (Ponce and Hawkins,
1996).
Q = (P - 0.2S) 2 / (P + 0.8S) &
I=P-Q
Where, I is infiltration (mm), Q is runoff (mm); P
is rainfall (mm); S is the potential maximum soil
moisture retention after runoff begins (mm); Ia is
the initial abstraction (mm), Ia = 0.2S is taken in
4.3 Antecedent Moisture Condition

The Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) is the
index of catchment wetness which is determined by
total rainfall of 5 days period preceding storm. The
AMC value is intended to reflect the effect of
infiltration on both the volume and rate of runoff
according to the infiltration curve. An increase in
index means an increase in the runoff potential.
SCS developed three antecedent soil-moisture
conditions and labeled them as I, II, III, according
to soil conditions and rainfall limits for dormant
and growing seasons. Classification of Antecedent
Moisture Condition is shown in Table 4.
AMC
Class
Description of soil condition
Lowest runoff potential. The watershed soils are dry enough for satisfactory cultivation
II
Average condition
III
High runoff potential. The watershed is practically saturated from antecedent rains
Total five day antecedent

rainfall (cm)
Dormant season Growing season
< 1.27
< 3.56
1.27 - 2.79
3.56 - 5.33
> 2.79
>5.33
Page 148
Table 4:Classification of Antecedent Moisture Conditions (AMC)
4.4 Hydrological Soil Group Classification

The hydrological soil groups as defined by the Soil
Conservation Service (1972) were classified into A,
B, C & D according to their minimum infiltration
rate. Table 5 shows the hydrological soil group
classification. CN values were determined from
hydrological soil group and antecedent moisture
conditions of the basin. The Curve Number values
for AMC-I and AMC-II were obtained from AMCII (Chow et al. 1988) by the method of
conservation. Runoff curve numbers (AMC II) for
hydrologic soil cover complex are shown in Table
6. The Hydrological Soil Group map of SitaSwarna Basin is shown in the Figure 4.
Figure 4: HSG Map of the Study Area
Description
Minimum
Infiltration
rate (mm/hr)
Soils in this group have a low runoff potential (high-infiltration rates) even when thoroughly wetted.
They consist of deep, well to excessively well drained sands or gravels. These soils have a high rate of
water transmission.
7.62 - 11.43
Soils in this group have moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wettedand consists chiefly of
moderately deep to deep, well-drained to moderatelywell-drained soils with moderately fine to
moderately coarse textures. Thesesoils have a moderate rate of water transmission.
3.81 - 7.62
Soils have slow infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chieflyof soils with a layer that
impedes the downward movement of water, or soilswith moderately fine-to fine texture. These soils
have a slow rate of watertransmission.
1.27 - 3.81
Soils have a high runoff potential (very slow infiltration rates) whenthoroughly wetted. These soils
consist chiefly of clay soils with high swellingpotential, soils with a permanent high-water table, soils
with a clay layer nearthe surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious material. These soilshave a
very slow rate of water transmission.
0 - 1.27
Soil
Group
A
Table 5: Hydrologic Soil GroupClassification (Mc. Cuen, 1982)
Sl. No.
Hydrologic Soil Group
Land Use
A
Agricultural land without conservation (Kharif)
72
81
88
91
Double crop
62
71
88
91
Agriculture Plantation
45
53
67
72
Land with scrub
36
60
73
79
Land without scrub (Stony waste/ rock out crops)
45
66
77
83
Forest (degraded)
45
66
77
83
Forest Plantation
25
55
70
77
Grass land/pasture
39
61
74
80
Settlement
57
72
81
86
10
Road / railway line
98
98
98
98
11
River / stream
97
97
97
97
12
Tanks without water
96
96
96
13
Tank with water

100
100
100
Table 6: Runoff curve numbers (AMC II) for hydrological soil cover complex (Source: Chow et al, 1988)
96
100
5.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Page 149
Based on the hydrological soil group, in Sita &

Swarna basin constitute maximum area of
hydrological soil group C (84.91% & 79.58%)
followed by group B (10.23% & 7.72%), group D
(2.6% & 10.36%) and group A (2.26% & 2.34%)
respectively. Fig. 5 shows the LU/LC map of the
Sita-Swarna basin. Similarly, the study area was
identified by thedifferent type of land use / land
cover classes, viz., crop land of about 22.89%&
13.53%, 36.28% & 48.96 of area covered by
agriculture plantation, forest area of about 27.15%
& 23.52%, land with scrub area is occupied by
4.7% & 2.51% and about 8.62% & 11.48% of the
area is occupied by settlements,tanks and rocky
area in both Sita and Swarna basin respectively. In
general, among the different land cover types the
crop land plays the major role for the direct surface
runoff. Fig. 6 shows the curve number map of the
Sita-Swarna basin. From SCS-CN analysis, the
maximum runoff for the Sita basin was estimated
to be 4566.3 mm in the year 2009 and 2797.7 mm
for Swarna basin and minimum runoff of 1539.4
mm for the Sita basin in the year 2013 and 1882.8
mm for Swarna basin in the year 2012. Table 8
shows the annual rainfall and runoff for SitaSwarna basin for the period 2009 to 2013. Fig. 7 &
8 shows the rainfall runoff relationship for SitaSwarna basin. The rainfall and runoff are strongly
correlated with correlation coefficient (r) value
being 0.985 & 0.833.
Type of Land Use
Area (Km2)
Crop Land (Double + Single)

Agriculture Plantation
Forest (Evergreen/Deciduous)
Scrub Forest
Land with Scrub
Land without Scrub
Barren Rocky
Settlement (High + Low Density)
Sita
146.83
232.72
175.67
0.8
26.66
3.5
8.11
31.6
Swarna
79.36
287.16
137.88
0.11
13.55
1.19
7.15
45.58
Water Bodies (Tanks/Streams)
15.59
14.59
Figure 5: LULC Map of the Study Area
Sita
Year
Swarna
2009
Rainfall
(mm)
7074.8
Runoff
(mm)
4566.3
Rainfall
(mm)
5436.6
Runoff
(mm)
2797.7
2010
4192.4
1829.4
4896.4
2111.3
2011
4541.2
2187.9
5337.0
2440.7
2012
3995.7
1950.1
4151.0
1882.8
2013
3985.0
1539.4
4829.0
2156.1
Table 8: Annual Rainfall and Runoff for Sita-Swarna basin
Table 7: Land uses in Sita-Swarna basin
Figure 6: Curve Number Map of the Study Area
Page 150
REFERENCES
Runoff (mm)
5000
y = 0.9252x - 1987.2
R = 0.9853
4000
3000
1.
2000
1000
0
0
2000
4000
Rainfall (mm)
6000
8000
Figure 7: Rainfall Runoff relationship for Sita basin
Runoff (mm)
3000
2500
y = 0.6298x - 827.14
R = 0.833
2000
1500
1000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Rainfall (mm)
Figure 8: Rainfall Runoff relationship for Swarna basin
6. CONCLISIONS
From the SCS-CN analysis, it is clear that, very

low quantities of the infiltration are predicted, due
to presence of more than70-80% of impermeable
soil in the Sita-Swarna basin.Since Sita-Swarna
basin provides drinking and domestic water to the
entire district, the demand for the water may
increase with time. Theanalysisshows that there
isabout 40-45% of water is lost during the monsoon
due to surface runoff and reaching the Arabian Sea
through streams and rivers. So, keeping future need
and requirement, some kind of interventions are
required at watershed level to store and
rechargegroundwater to overcome water sacristy
problem and long term sustainability of ground
water extraction. The study clear shows that, GIS
based SCS-CN method is playing an important role
in estimation of surface runoff for given
basin/watershed effectively and also these model
parameters can be used in estimation of surface
runoff from the ungauged area. It is concluded that,
the SCS-CN analysis at Micro-watershed level with
updated LU/LC data can further fine-tune the
runoff estimation, which helps in planning and
implementation of development activities at a
larger scale.
Mysooru R. Yadupathi Kutty (2011),

Principles of Hydrology, Publisher I.K.
International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp.
133-158.
2. Somashekar R. K.et al. (2011), Runoff
estimation and morphometric analysis for
Hesaraghatta watershed using IRS-ID LISS III
FCC satellite data, Journal of Indian Society
of Remote Sensing, Vol.39,pp. 95-106.
3. Patil J. P. et al. (2007), Development of a GIS
Interface for Estimation of Runoff from
Watersheds, Springer Science.
4. Gupta P. K. et al. (2008), Predicting the spatiotemporal variation of run-off generation in
India using remotely sensed input and Soil
Conservation Service curve number model,
Current Science, Vol. 95, No. 1.
5. Sindu D. et al. (2013), Estimation of surface
runoff in Nallur Amanikere watershed Using
SCS-CN Method, International Journal of
Research in Engineering and Technology.
6. D. Ramakrishnan et al. (2009), SCS-CN and
GIS-based approach for identifying potential
water harvesting sites in the KaliWatershed,
Mahi River Basin, India, Journal of Earth
System Science, Vol. 4, pp. 355-368.
7. Mishra S. K.et al.(2004),Evaluation of the
SCS-CN-based
model
incorporating
antecedent moisture, Journal of Water
Resources Management, Vol. 18, pp. 567589.
8. K. X. Soulis et al. (2012), SCS-CN parameter
determination using rainfall-runoff data in
heterogeneous watershedsthe two-CN system
approach, Hydrology and Earth System
Sciences, Vol. 16, pp. 1001-1015.
9. Roger Cronshey et al. (1986), Urban
Hydrology for Small Watersheds, Published
by U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2nd
Edition,pp. 13-28.
10. Mc. Cuen, R. H. (1982), A guide to
hydrologic analysis using SCS methods,
Englewood Cliffs:Prentice Hall Inc.
Page 151
PERFORMANCE OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE IN ACIDIC

ENVIRONMENT
Shankar H. Sanni 1, Dr. R. B. Khadiranaikar 2
1
Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587 102, India, shsanni@gmail.com

2 Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587 102, India, rbknaikar@gmail.com
Abstract
The present paper focuses the experimental work done in accessing the durability of geopolymer concrete compared to
conventional concrete in acidic media. The molarity used for the preparation of geopolymer specimens is 12. The grade
chosen for the investigation were M-30 and M-40. The alkaline solution used for present study is the combination of
sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution with the ratio of 2.50. The test specimens were 150x150x150 mm cubes,
cured in ambient room temperature. The performance evaluation of the specimens were assessed by immersing GPC and
OPC specimens in 5% sulphuric acid solution separately, periodically monitoring surface deterioration and depth of
dealkalization, changes in weight and strength over a period of 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 days. The test results indicate that
the geopolymer concrete has an excellent resistance to acid attack when compared to conventional concrete. Thus we
can say that the production of geopolymers have a relative higher strength, excellent volume stability and better
durability.
Keywords: geopolymer concrete, fly ash, molarity, sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide, sulphuric acid
1. Introduction
Construction industry is one of the major users of the natural
resources like cement, sand, rocks, clays and other soils. The
ever increasing unit cost of the usual ingredients of concrete
have forced the construction engineer to think of ways and
means of reducing the unit const of its production. At the same
time, increased industrial activity in the core sectors like
energy, steel and transportation has been responsible for the
production of large amounts like fly ash, blast furnace slag,
silica fume and quarry dust with consequent disposal problem
[1].
The geopolymer technology was first introduced by Davidovits
in 1978. His work considerably shows that the adoption of the
geopolymer technology could reduce the CO2 emission caused
due to cement industries. Davidovits proposed that an alkaline
liquid could be used to react with aluminosilicate in a source
material of geological origin or in by-product materials such as
fly ash to make a binder [2]. Geopolymer is synthesized by
mixing aluminosilicate-reactive material with strong alkaline
solutions, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
hydroxide (KOH), sodium silicate or potassium silicate. The
mixture can be cured at room temperature or temperature cured
[3]. Fly ash is the most common source material for making
geopolymers. Normally, good high-strength geopolymers can
be made from class F fly ash [4]. Alkaline activating solution is
important for dissolving of Si and Al atoms to form
geopolymer precursors and finally alumino-silicate material.
The most commonly used alkaline activators are NaOH and
KOH [5-9].
2. Experimental Investigations
Materials:
The following materials have been used in the experimental
study [12]
a) Fly Ash (Class F) collected form Raichur Thermal
power plant having specific gravity 2.00.
b) Ground granulated blast furnace slag collected from
JSW Steel Ltd., Vidyanagar, Toranagallu, Bellary
having specific gravity 2.90.
c) Fine aggregate: Sand confirming to Zone III of
IS:383-1970 [20] having specific gravity 2.51 and
fineness modulus of 2.70.
d) Coarse aggregate: Crushed granite metal confirming
to IS:383-1970 [20] having specific gravity 2.70 and
e) Water : Clean Potable water for mixing
f) Alkaline liquids: Specific gravity of
i) Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) = 1.16
ii) Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) = 1.57
Tests were conducted on specimen of standard size as per IS:
516-1959 [21]. For the present investigation two types of
mixes were designed, they are designated with the specific
identification as given in Table 1.
Table 1: Specimen Identification
Type of mix
Geopolymer
concrete
Identification
GPC
Conventional
concrete
OPC
Source Materials used

Fly ash (60%), GGBS
(40%), CA, FA, Alkaline
solutions
Cement, CA, FA, Water

Fax: +9876543210; E-mail: shsanni@gmail.com
Page 152
Shankar H. Sanni et. al. / INDECS-15
Mix design of geopolymer concrete

In the design of geopolymer concrete mix, coarse and fine
aggregates together were taken as 77% of entire mixture by
mass. This value is similar to that used in OPC concrete in
which it will be in the range of 75 to 80% of the entire mixture
by mass. Fine aggregate was taken as 30% of the total
aggregates. The density of geopolymer concrete is taken
similar to that of OPC as 2400 kg/m3 [10]. The details of mix
design and its proportions for different grades of GPC are
given in Table 2.
used for the preparation of alkaline solutions) and dosage of

super plasticizer was added to the mix according to the mix
design details. The fly ash and alkaline activator were mixed
together in the mixer until homogeneous pate was obtained.
This mixing process can be handled within 5 minutes for each
mixture with different ratios of alkaline solution. After casting
the specimens, they were kept in rest period for two days and
then they were demoulded. The demoulded specimens were
kept for ambient air curing.
Alkaline Solution
In geopolymerization, alkaline solution plays an important role.
The most common alkaline solution used in geopolymerization
is a combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium
hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) or potassium
silicate (K2SiO3). In this study, a combination of sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate was choosen as the alkaline
liquid. Sodium based solutions were choosen because they are
cheaper than Potassium based solutions. Generally sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate are readily available in market in
the form of pellets and gel (liquid). The pellets of NaOH are
dissolved in one liter of water for the required concentration.
When sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solutions mixed
together polymerization will take place liberating large amount
of heat, which indicates that the alkaline liquid must be used
after 24 hours as binding agent.
Fig. 1 Alkaline solution
Table 2: GPC mix design details for 12 Molarity with FA and

GGBS
Materials
Coarse
aggregates
20 mm
14 mm
7 mm
Na2SiO3/ NaOH
Fine sand
Fly ash
GGBS
NaOH solution
Na2SiO3 solution
Super Plasticizer
Extra water
Mass (kg/m3)
M-30
M-40
277.20
277.20
369.60
369.60
646.80
646.80
2.50
2.50
554.40
554.40
228.41
152.28
236.52
157.68
48.95
45.06
122.36
112.65
5.70
5.91
38.06
39.42
Mixing, Casting, Compaction

geopolymer concrete
and
Curing
Fig. 2 Slump cone test
Acid attack test on concrete specimens
of
GPC can be manufactured by adopting the conventional

techniques used in the manufacture of Portland cement
concrete. In the laboratory, the fly ash and the aggregates were
first mixed together dry on pan for about three minutes. The
liquid component of the mixture is then added to the dry
materials and the mixing continued usually for another four
minutes (Fig.1).
The addition of sodium silicate is to enhance the process of
geopolymerization [11]. For the present study, concentration of
NaOH solution is taken as 12M with Na2SiO3 / NaOH as 2.5
for all the grades of GPC mixes. The workability of the fresh
concrete was measured by means of conventional slump test
(Fig. 2). In order to improve the workability, superplasticizer
Conplast SP-430 with a dosage of 1.5% by mass of the fly ash
was added to the mixture. Extra water (other than the water
To access the quality of geopolymer concrete mixes they were

subjected to aggressive media like immersing the specimen in
acidic environment. The acidic environment was selected
mainly, as we are aware of the conventional concrete which
will disintegrate badly. Hence a comparison will be studied
with geopolymer concrete mixes with conventional concrete.
Preparation of the solution

For the present study it was aimed to prepare the sulphuric acid
with 5% concentration. The concentrated sulphuric acid with
98% purity and density of 1.84 g/ml was selected for the
preparation. For this following formula was used
S = D1 * [(A1/A2) -1]
Where,
A1= Concentration of commercially available concentrated
sulphuric acid
D1= Density of concentrated sulphuric acid of concentration
C1, gm/ml
A2 = Concentration of desired diluted sulphuric acid for testing
S = Volume of water added per ml of sulphuric acid of
concentration, A1 to get diluted sulphuric acid of concentration
A2. From this calculation, we need about 11 ml of concentrated
sulphuric acid to mix with 989 ml of distilled water to get 1 liter
of 5% acid solution for the investigation.
Page 153
Results and Discussions

Workability
Fresh GPC mixes were found to be highly viscous and
cohesive with medium to high slump. The workability of the
geopolymer concrete decreases with increase in the grade of
the concrete, this is because of the decrease in the ratio of water
to geopolymer solids by mass. For a given geopolymer
concrete, the total mass of water in the mixture is taken as the
sum of the mass of water in the sodium silicate solution, the
mass of water in the sodium hydroxide solution and the mass
of extra water added to the mixture. The mass of geopolymer
solids is the sum of the mass of fly ash, the mass of sodium
hydroxide flake and the mass of sodium silicate solids (the
mass of Na2O and SiO2 in sodium silicate solution). The test
data shown in Figure are somewhat analogous to the wellknown effect of water-to-cement ratio on the compressive
strength of OPC concrete, although the chemical processes
involved in the formation of the binders of both these types of
concretes are entirely different.
The compressive strength lost during the period of exposure in

acidic media for the mixes are presented in Fig. 5 to 6. The
GPC mix retained the characteristic strength with both the
grades of concrete, but there was reduction in characteristic
strength for OPC mixes in range of 12.5% to 30% for both the
grades of concrete. The geopolymer concrete mixes are high
resistant to sulphuric acid attack because they do not have free
lime content in the matrix composition. On contrary, the OPC
specimens do contain the free lime content in the matrix, which
leads to the hydration reactions of Portland cement and this
free lime and also the C-S-H gel of the matrix are easily
attacked by acids. The disintegrated GPC and OPC specimens
after 90 days of exposure are presented in Fig. 3 to 4. The
action of acids on cement paste leads to a conversion of all the
calcium compounds, unreacted residue of C3S and C2S in
cement grains, calcium hydroxide, calcium silicate hydrate and
calcium acuminate hydrate to the calcium salt of the attacking
acid. As a result of the conversion, the binding capacity of the
hardened cement is destroyed. The observations made in the
present investigation match with the findings of the earlier
research [14, 15, 16].
Specimens in the acidic media

The cube specimens of GPC and OPC mixes were submerged
in acid environment of known concentration. To perform the
acid studies, immersion techniques was adopted. After 28 days
of casting, 150 mm cube specimens were immersed in 5%
sulphuric acid solution kept in a plastic tubs such that there was
a minimum of 30 mm depth of acid over the top surface of
specimens. To maintain the uniformity of acidic solution, it
was stirred regularly at least twice in a day. Care was taken to
maintain the concentration of solution, which was replaced at
regular intervals. The pH of the solution was monitored
periodically using pH meter. The results were summarized
after 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 days of curing period..
Fig. 5 Compressive strength with days of exposure (M30)
Visual appearance
There was no noticeable change in the colour of the
geopolymer concrete specimens. Even after the exposure for 90
days these specimens remain structurally intact though surface
turned little softer and at the verge of slippage of aggregates,
but there was no significant change in mass and shape.
Whereas, in case of OPC specimens, a deposition of a white
layered gypsum crystals was observed on the exposed surface.
These specimens were in highly deteriorated condition with
noticeable bulging. The surfaces were rough and yellowish in
colour. (Fig. 3 and 4)
Conclusions
Fig. 3 GPC specimens after

after 90 days of exposure
Compressive strength
Fig. 4 OPC specimens

90 days of exposure
Based on the experimental investigations carried out, it can be

concluded that geopolymeric materials perform much better in
acidic environment compared to Portland cement The better
performance of geopolymeric materials than that of Portland
cement in acidic environment might be attributed to the lower
calcium content of the source material as a main possible
factor, since geopolymer concrete does not rely on lime like
Portland cement concrete.
Page 154
References
[1] Narasimhan, M. C. Patil, B. T, and Shankar H. Sanni
Performance of Concrete with Quarry Dust as
fine
aggregate An Experimental Study, Civil Engineering
and Construction Review, September, 1999, pp. 19-24.
[2] Rangan, B. V. Studies on low-calcium fly ash based
Geopolymer concrete, Indian Concrete Institute, 2006, pp.
9-17.
[3] Davidovits, J. Geopolymer chemistry and application,
Institute Geopolymer, France, 2008, pp. 585.
[4] Schmucker, M and MacKenzine, KJD., Microstructure of
sodium
polysialate
siloxogeopolymer,
Ceramic
International, 31, 2004, pp. 433-437.
[5] Fenandez-Jimenez, A and Palomo, A., Characteristics of
fly ashes, Potential reactivity as alkaline cements, Fuel,
2003, pp. 2259-2265.
[6] Davidovits, J., Chemistry of Geopolymeric systems
Terminology, 99 International Conference, Saint-Quentin,
France, 30 June-2 July 1999.
[7] Fernandez-Jimenez, A., Palomo, J. and Puertas, F., Alkali
activated slag mortars, mechanical strength behavior,
Cement and Concrete Research, 29, 1999, pp. 1323-1329.
[8] Hua Xu, van Deventer, J.S.J., The Geopolymerisation of
Alumino-Silicate Minerals, International Journal of
Mineral Processing, 59(3), 2000, pp. 247-266.
[9] Hardjito, D., Wallah, S.E., Sumajouw, DMJ and Rangan,
B.V., On the development of fly ash based geopolymer
concrete, ACI Materials Journal, 101(52), 2004, pp. 467472.
[10] Rangan, B. V., (2008), Mix design and production of fly
ash based geopolymer concrete, The Indian Concrete
Journal, 82(5), pp. 7-14.
[11] R. B. Khadiranaikar and Shankar H. Sanni, Variation of
alkaline solutions on mechanical properties of geopolymer
concrete, ICI Journal, 15(1), 2014, 24-31.
[12] Shankar H. Sanni, Experiemental Investigations on
properties of geopolymer concrete, Ph.D thesis submitted
to Visvesvarya Technological University, Belagavi, 2015.
[13] M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology, (S. Chand and
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002).
[14] Suresh Thokchom, Partha Ghosh and Somnath Ghosh,
Resistance of fly ash based geopolymer mortars in
sulphuric acid, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied
sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2009, pp. 65-70.
[15] Rajamane, N.P, Nataraja, M.C, Lakshmanan, N and
Dattatreya, J. K., Sulphuric acid resistance of geopolymer
concrete, Proceedings of Asian Conference on concrete

ACECON 2010, IIT Madras, Dec. 2010, pp. 789-794.
[16] Dinakar, P., Babu, K. G. and Manu Santhanam, Durability
properties of high volume fly ash self concretes, Cement
and Concrete Composites, Vol. 30, No. 10, 2008, pp. 880886.
[17] M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology, S. Chand and
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002
[18] IS: 2386 (Part-IV)-1963, Methods of test for aggregates
for concrete-mechanical properties, Bureau of Indian
standards, New Delhi.
[19] IS: 456-2000, Code of practice for plain and reinforced
concrete, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[20] IS: 383-1970, Specification for coarse and fine aggregates
from natural sources for concrete, Bureau of Indian
[21] IS: 516-1959, Methods of test for strength of concrete,
Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[22] IS:3812-2003, Specifications for fly ash for use as
pozzolana and admixture, Bureau of Indian standards,
New Delhi.
Page 155
LIGHT WEIGHT FLYASH AGGREGATE CONCRETE AN ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY APPROACH
GEENA GEORGE 1, Dr. ASHA.K 2
Department of Civil Engineering , East Point College of Engg & Technology, Bangalore .India.
geenasajith@gmail.com
2
Department of Civil Engineering , MVJ College of Engineering, Bangalore. India,

ashasavi@gmail.com
Abstract
The environmental impacts of crushed stone aggregates become a source of increasing concern in most parts of the
Country. Pollution hazards, noise, dust, blasting vibrations, loss of forests and spoiling of natural environment are the
bad impacts caused due to extraction of aggregates. Landslides of weak and steep hill slopes are induced due to
unplanned exploitation of rocks. In a developing country like India, coal is a major source of fuel for production of
electricity which in turn produces large quantity of fly ash which is an environmental hazard. Disposal of such a huge
quantity poses challenging problems, in the form of land usage, health hazards and environmental dangers. Both in
disposal as well as in utilization, utmost care has to be taken to safeguard the interest of human life, wild life and
environment .Under such circumstances both the environmental issues can be brought together to produce a ecofriendly
solution by developing fly ash aggregates which can replace natural aggregates to some extent.The purpose of this paper
is to provide an overview of utilization of Fly ash as an alternative for natural aggregates in the production of light
weight concrete .
Keywords: Fly Ash, Fly ash Aggregates, Pelletization
1. Introduction
Any country's economic & industrial growth depends on the
availability of power. In a developing country like India where the
coal is a major source of fuel for power generation. About 60%
power is produced using coal as fuel. Indian coal is having low
calorific value (3000-3500 K cal.) & very high ash content (3045%) resulting in huge quantity of ash is generated in the coal
based thermal power stations.. With the commissioning of super
thermal power plants and with the increasing use of low grade coal
of high ash content, presently the annual production of Fly Ash in
India is about 220 million tonnes in the year 2011-2012 with 65000
acre of land being occupied by ash ponds and is expected to cross
1000 million tonnes by the year 2030 and pose serious ecological
problems.
In India, only a small quantity of the total ash produced is currently

utilized in use of ash in concrete, brick making, soil-stabilization
treatment and other applications. In growing need for electricity in
India, 70% of power is generated through thermal power plants.
The environmental dreads from these plants include air pollution
due to particulate emission, water pollution and shortage of land
for dumping the fly ash. Further, the poor quality of Indian coal
has high ash content, which worsens the disposal problem. Most
of the ash generated from the power plants is disposed off in the
vicinity of the plant as a waste material covering several hectares of
valuable land. Instead of dumping the fly ash as landfills, fly ash is
widely used as cement replacement material, pavement base,
blocks etc., in these days.
Geena George. Tel.: +919449820116

E-mail: geenasajith@gmail.com
Page 156
With increasing concern over the excessive exploitation of natural

aggregates, synthetic lightweight aggregate produced from
environmental waste is a viable new source of structural aggregate
material. Though the artificial aggregate production attained
attention in research field, in India it is not implemented widely.
This may be due to the availability of natural resources, relatively
higher initial cost for manufacturing and the energy required for
curing. There are also methods like cold bonding which does
not require energy for curing of artificial aggregates. This paper
discuss about the use of fly ash in the flyash aggregates in the light
weight concrete.
Impact of Modern Concrete Use

The usage of concrete worldwide is twice as much as steel, wood,
plastics, and aluminum combined. Concretes use in the modern
world is only exceeded by the usage of naturally occurring
water.Concrete is also the bases of a large commercial industry,
with all the positives and negatives that entails. In the United states
alone, concrete production is a $30 billion per year industry,
considering only the value of ready-mixed concrete sold each year.
Given the size of the concrete industry, and fundamental way
concrete is used to shave the infrastructure of the modern world, it
is difficult to overstate the role this materials plays today.
2.1. Literature Review
1.A. Sivakumar and P. Gomathi carried out the research work on
Pelletized fly ash lightweight aggregate concrete. They concluded
that conversion of fly ash with aggregate is technically feasible and
are found to be light weight in nature.
2.Dr.J.B.Behera, Dr.B.D.Nayak, Dr.H.S.Ray and Dr.B.Sarangi
examined the use of sintered fly ash aggregate in concrete as a
partial replacement of granite aggregate. They concluded that in
addition to light weight characteristics, the sintered fly ash concrete
possesses strength and deformation characteristics similar to
concrete with natural granite aggregate.
3.Gao Li-Xiong, Yaoyan and Wang Ling, China building materials
Academy, Beijing found light weight aggregate concrete made with
sintered fly ash aggregate showed good workability, high
compressive strength and low absorption of water.
4. Mehnet Gesoglu, TuranOzturan and ErhanGunegisi found the
compressive strength of concrete ranging from 20 to 50Mpa was
practically produced by using light weight fly ash aggregates. They
also found the increase in splitting tensile strength of concrete due
to increase in aggregate crushing strength of fly ash aggregates.
5.HaydarArsian and Gokhan Baykal investigated the fly ash
aggregates produced from fly ash and cement mixing by
pelletization method and evaluated Engineering properties such as
crushing strength, specific gravity, water absorption, particle size
distribution, surface characteristics and shear strength properties of
the manufactured aggregates experimentally. The experimental
investigation showed that these aggregates are a good alternative

for wide range of civil Engineering applications.
6.Gokhan Baykal and ATA Gurhan Doven studied the properties of
fly ash aggregates made by pelletization process such as unit
weight, specific gravity, water absorption, crushing value test,
California bearing ratio (CBR), Direct shear tests, soundness tests,
compressive and flexural strength and obtained good results when
compared to conventional aggregates in concrete
2.2.Lightweight Aggregates
In conventional concrete, weight of concrete is one of the
parameters to compare with weight of fly ash aggregate concrete.
Normally density of concrete is in the order of 2200 to 2600 kg/m3.
This heavy self weight makes an uneconomical structural material
compared to low self weight of fly ash aggregate concrete. In order
to produce concrete of desired density to suit the required
application, the self weight of structural and non structural
members are to be reduced. Hence economy is achieved in the
design of supporting structural elements which lead to the
development of light weight concrete.
Lightweight aggregate concrete is the concrete made by replacing
the usual material aggregate by lightweight aggregates. Though
lightweight concrete cant always substitute normal concrete for its
strength potential, it has its own advantages like reduced dead load,
and thus economic structures and enhanced seismic resistance, high
sound absorption and good fire resistance. Because of the above
reasons the study on fly ash aggregate concrete is taken in this
research work.
Heat treatment usually results in relatively thick pore walls that
give the aggregates suitable compressive strengths. The porosity of
all these aggregates results from heat treatment, either naturally or
artificially induced. A porous but relatively impermeable texture
not only makes these materials lightweight but also makes them
both thermal and acoustic insulators, desirable for bulk use in floor
and roof fill and with an added advantage of saving weight in
concrete.In this broad range, lightweight aggregate concretes can
be used for bridge decks; concrete walls and floors; concrete
frames using precast, prestressed, or post-tensioned girders; precast
tilt-up panels; poured barge and ship hulls; and lightweight
concrete masonry units. In bulk form, the aggregates are also
sometimes used as railroad ballast, as highway and embankment
fill, and in the surface course of bituminous paving mixtures.
Reducing the dead load of structures can be a major advantage in
construction.
2.2.1. Properties Of Light Weight Aggregtes

The principal properties desired in materials used as lightweight
aggregates
Light weightreduces dead load (weight in place) and facilitates

the physical handling of the materials
Page 157
Strengthmaintains the structural integrity of the end

product,such as in concrete products
Thermal and acoustical propertiesnormally the result of air

spaces, voids, or pores in the lightweight aggregate materials
High fire resistancelow probability of physical breakdown at

temperatures below the melting point of the aggregate
Toughnessminimum tendency to crack or break if nailed or

stressed in construction use.
material like cement, lime, bentonite, metakaolin, kaolinite, glass

powder and ceramic powders are added. Characteristics of class-C
and class-F are given in the table:2
2.2.3.1.FLYASH AGGREGATE PRODUCTION

There are two basic methods to produce an aggregate from fly ash:
agglomeration of the fine fly ash particles to form aggregate-size
pellets, and bonding of the material in the pellets. This gives the
pellets strength and other properties necessary to meet the criteria
for a lightweight aggregate.
Pelletizing Process
Other properties that are sometimes considered ,depending on the
application, include the following are low water absorption,
resistance to freezing and thawing , low shrinkage characteristics
and minimum thermal expansion, good bonding with cement ,
chemical inertness, good elastic properties , abrasion resistance.
2.2.2. FLY ASH
Fly ash is a pozzolan. Pozzolan as a siliceous or siliceous and
aluminous material that itself possesses little or no cementitious
value, but that will, in finely divided form and in presence of
moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide (CH) at
ordinary temperatures to form compounds having cementitious
properties; there are both natural and artificial pozzolans.
All fly ash exhibit pozzolanic properties to some extent For this
simple reason it is rapidly becoming a common ingredient in
concrete all over the world. Most of the reasons for using fly ash in
any proportion are practical, such as increasing strength and
durability, decreasing heat of hydration, and decreasing
permeability. The use of fly ash as a performance-enhancing
ingredient in concrete is one of the most outstanding examples of
industrial ecology-i.e., making effective use of waste resources,
and ultimately eliminating the concept of waste altogether.
2.2.3. FLY ASH AGGREGATES
The chemical composition and physical characteristics of the fly
ash from a coal-fired furnace are controlled by the type of coal and
the processing conditions of the furnace . However, the pozzolanic
properties of the fly ash mainly depend upon the mineralogy and
particle size of the ash. Fly ash consists mostly of SiO2. The SiO2
can be amorphous (glassy and rounded) and crystalline (sharp and
pointed)1. The largest fraction of fly ash consists of glassy spheres
of two types: solid and hollow (cenospheres). The amorphous
glassy particles are the primary contributor to the pozzolanic
reaction.
The two types of fly ash are specified in ASTM C 618, namely
class-C and class-F classified based on the chemical composition
resulting from the different types of coal burning. Class-C fly ash is
normally produced from the burning of sub-bituminous coal and
lignite and class- C fly ash. The flyash aggregates are porous
material and to improve the strength of the pellet the binder
The desired grain size distribution of an artificial lightweight

aggregate is either crushed or by means of agglomeration process.
Agglomeration (also called "pelletizing') can be performed by two
distinct methods.One is by agitation, where fly ash particles are
introduced onto an inclined rotating disk along with a wetting agent
and an appropriate binder. Balling of the material occurs by the
formation of 'seeds' which ultimately grow into pellets of a certain
maximum size, usually about 3/8 in. to 5/8 in. in diameter.
The other method is the pressure or extrusion method where
agglomeration is accomplished by using a continuous piston-type
press where more or less rectangular or cylindrical pellets are
formed, that are 3/8 in. to 1/2 in. in size. The extrusion process
generally results in a product having a higher density than the
spherical pellets produced by agitation .
The pelletization process is used to manufacture artificial
lightweight coarse aggregate using fly ash. Pelletization depends on
(i) speed of revolution of pelletizer disc, (ii) angle of pelletizer disc,
(iii) moisture content, and (iv) duration of pelletization.The
different types of pelletizer machine were used to make the pellet
such as disc or pan type, drum type, cone type and mixer type.
With disc type pelletizer the pellet size distribution is easier to
control than drum type pelletizer. With mixer type pelletizer, the
small grains are formed initially and are subsequently increased in
particle size by disc type pelletization .The dosage of binding agent
is more important for making flyash balls .
Bonding
The bonding of the green pellets can be accomplished in three
ways: firing, hydrothermal processing, and cold bonding. There are
different methods of firing method. One method is the continuous
rotary kiln whereby the material is heated in a rotating, almost
horizontal kiln to produce the lightweight aggregate product. In
another method utilizes a traveling sintering grate that transports
the material through a sintering oven. The combustible portion is
provided by the organic portion of component materials such as the
carbon fraction of the fly ash as measured by a loss on ignition test.
In the hydrothermal process ,also called cold bonding is
accomplished by adding lime and/or cement to fly ash in order to
achieve a chemical reaction that will bond the materials together.
After the fly ash and lime have reacted, the mixture is pelletized in
Page 158
an inclined rotating drum. The pellets are then placed in an

autoclave to harden under pressurized saturated steam conditions.
The product from the cold bonding process is thought to possess
inferior properties to those of the other two processes due to the
lack of firing .
Curing and drying of flyash aggregate
After the formation of flyash aggregate, the fly ash aggregate
which are formed are out from the cement mixer and then it is dried
for about 24 hours. Then the dried fly ash aggregate is then cured
in the water tank for 30 days. Curing of 30 days is done to attain
the strength of the flyash aggregate.
Workability of Concrete
Flyash aggregates usually also have high water absorption, which
can reduce the workability. Therefore, aggregates are usually presoaked to compensate for the reduction in workability; however,
there is probably a tendency to increase the water dosage, which
leads to further reductions in strength.
Drying And Curing Of Fly Ash Aggregates

The fly ash aggregates were taken out from the mixer and allowed
to dry for a day. The dried aggregates were cured in the water tank
for 28 days . The fly ash aggregates are shown in figure:2
Properties of Fly ash Aggregates

The shape and texture of aggregate affects the fresh property of the
concrete. Fly ash aggregate is rounded in shape while natural
gravel is angular in shape . Rounded aggregates promotes
workability of concrete while the angular nature of natural gravel
gives a better bonding property but requires more cement mortar
for better workability .The Physical Properties of Natural granite
Aggregate and Fly ash Coarse Aggregate are given in the table:3
2.2.3.2.Hardening Process of Flyash Aggregates

The hardening of pellets is done by different process such as cold
bonding, sintering and autoclaving. Cold-bonded fly ash aggregates
are hardened by different curing process namely normal water
curing, steam curing and autoclaving. Autoclave and steam curing
method is less effective to improve the properties of aggregate as
compare to normal water curing method. Among accelerated cured
class C fly ash aggregate, autoclaved aggregates has properties
closer to the normal water cured aggregate due to the dense
microstructure formation. The way of curing is important in
enhancing the aggregate strength. Hence, for high-early strength .
autoclaving may be adopted whereas normal curing gives better
results. In sintering method the cold bonded pellets are burned in a
muffle furnace at temperature range of 800 to 1200C. The mineral
particles in the binder fuse together to form the crystalline structure
(CSH) and results in higher strength of the aggregate.
Mix Design
The mix design of lightweight aggregate concrete is different from
the conventional concrete mix design. It is more complex due to
the porous nature of aggregates. Since the flyash aggregates are
porous in nature it requires extra water for good workability. The
mix design concepts are usually based on the production of higher
strength matrix to low water cement ratio for the weaker aggregate.
The gradation of aggregate is important to improve the engineering
properties in the concrete mix for that different aggregate grading
size distributions are required The design of flyash aggregate are
followed in two methods; loose volume calculation and absolute
solid volume calculation. The lightweight aggregate is pre-wetting
before addition of concrete mix.
Fig:1 Flyash aggregates
Microstructural Characteristics Of Flyash Aggregate

Concrete
The durability and strength aspects of concrete affected by its
aggregate and cement paste as well as the interfacial zone between
them.In normal concrete the aggregate-cement paste interface is the
weakest part of the micro-structural system where cracks begins,
strongest component is normal aggregate. But, in Flyash aggregate
concrete is the interaction between the cement paste-aggregate is
complex . This type of aggregate are porous in nature, absorbs
more water which yielded to the surrounding matrix. The porosity
of flyash aggregate can vary between 25 to 75% depending on the
manufacturing process used. For applied micromechanical method
considered the perfect bonding between the aggregate and mortar
.Normally sintered fly ash lightweight aggregate were produced by
heat and polymer treatment so that to improve their strength,
absorption and pozzolanic activity according to their properties of
aggregate by change to the microstructure. SEM analysis to
observe the higher magnification to see more uniform distribution
of small pore size in the sintered fly ash aggregate at the
temperature treated aggregate as 1200 to 1300C .Mechanical
interlocking plays an important role for strengthening the interface
Page 159
2.4. Tables
Table 1.Physical Properties of Natural granite Aggregate and Fly ash Coarse Aggregate
Material
Cement
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Fly ash aggregate
Specific gravity
3.155
2.71
2.77
1.32
Water absorption
(%)
0.2
0.1
7.6
Table 2.Physical and chemical characterization of flyash

Some definition of fly ash
Low calcium fly ash
types according to ASTM
C618
High calcium fly ash
Fly ash from
Bituminous coal and anthracite
Subbituminous and lignite
Reaction characteristic
Pozzolanic
Pozzolanic and hydraulic
Definition by ASTM C 618
Class F
Class C
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 70 %

Free moisture, max: 3,0 %
LOI, max: 6,0 %
SO3, max: 5,0 %
CaO, max: No limit
Amount retained when wet sieved
on 45 m: Max. 34 %
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 50 %

LOI, max: 6,0 %
SO3, max: 5,0 %
CaO, max: No limit (Note: CaO > 10
%) Amount retained when wet sieved
on 45 m: Max. 34 %

C618
Low calcium fly ash
Fly ash from
Pozzolanic
Table 3. Physical Properties of Natural granite Aggregate and Fly ash Coarse Aggregate
Properties
Natural granite Aggregate
Fly ash Coarse Aggregate
Shape
Angular
Spherical
Specific gravity
2.66
1.41
Bulk density (Kg/m3)
1715
912
4.75mm to 20mm
4.75mm to 20mm
Water absorption (%)
1.16
21
Crushing value (%)
24.94
30.70
Impact value (%)
23.86
22.52
Size (mm)
Page 160
References
3. Conclusion
Fly ash aggregates shows results comparable with natural

gravel and the natural resource is in the side of depletion, fly
ash aggregates can be considered as a replacement material for
coarse aggregate.It also improves the property of concrete as
fly ash is a pozzolanic material. The obtained aggregates can be
considered for various applications like wall panels, masonry
blocks, roof insulation material, structural load bearing
elements etc. Use of sintered fly ash as coarse aggregate can
reduce the cost of construction and it is useful in environmental
point of view.
Concrete with density 2150 kg/m3 can be achieved using fly
ash aggregates while density of normal concrete mix goes up to
2600 kg/m3 .The rounded shape of fly ash aggregate gives
better workability compared to the angular natural gravel. Low
specific gravity compared to natural gravel proves it to be a
light weight aggregate material and fly ash has been consumed
in large volume when it is used as a coarse aggregate
replacement material due to its occupation of large volume in
concrete. This in turn reduces the problem of dumping as
landfills to greater extent.
The water absorption of fly ash aggregate is much higher than
that of natural gravel which is the major disadvantage which
can be eliminated by various treatment methods .
[1] A. Sivakumar and P. Gomathi Pelletized fly ash

lightweight aggregate concrete Journal of Civil Engineering
and Construction Technology Vol. 3(2), pp. 42-48, February
2012
[2] . Manikandan, R., Ramamurthy, K., 2008, Effect of curing
method on characteristics of cold bonded fly ash aggregates,
Cement & Concrete Composites, 30, pp 848853
[3] Mehmet Gesoglu, Turan O zturan, Erhan Gu neyisi,
2007, Effects of fly ash properties on characteristics of
coldbonded fly ash lightweight aggregates, Construction and
Building Materials, 21, pp 18691878.
[4] Geetha, S., Ramamurthy, K., 2010, Reuse potential of low
calcium bottom ash as aggregate through pelletization, Waste
Management, 30, pp 15281535.
[5]
Rajamani N.P, Annie peter J. ,Sabitha D. and
Gopalakrishanan S. (2004). Studies on development on
bonded fly ash aggregates for use as coarse aggregate in
structural grade concretes New building materials
andconstruction world Vol 10,issue 4, Oct (pp 60 to 70).
[6] Dr. J.P. Behera, Dr. H.S. Ray, Dr. B.D. Nayak and Dr. B.
Sarangi. (2004). Light weight concrete with sintered fly ash
aggregates. A study on partial replacement to normal granite
aggregate. Institution of Engineers, India (IE(I)) Journal CV
Vol 85 August2004, PP 84 to 87.
Page 161
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL CONCRETE

COMPOSITE COLUMNS
1
R.THIRUMALAI
Asst. Professor, Dept of Civil Engineering,

Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur,Tamil Nadu India -635 109
thirumalai063@gmail.com
Abstract
Composite columns of the steel and concrete have been used and studied worldwide, but filled tubular columns
need more attention. Extensive research work has been done in Japan in the last 15 years. This project presents an
experimental and analysis study on the behavior of steel concrete composite columns under axial and lateral load.
Totally 22 number of specimens (9 number kept hallow without concrete filled, 9 with concrete filled and 4 under
lateral load).Columns specimens where made with different cross section, various shapes and various thickness of
steel tube. The concrete filled in the steel tubes is M20 grade. And the strength comparison of different cross-section,
shape and thickness columns, comparison of experimental failure loads with the predicated failure loads in accordance
with method described in eurocode-4 ,part 1.1and specimens where analyzed by ANSYS SOFTWARE.
Keywords:Composite, ANSYS,EUROCODE-4.1.
1. Introduction
Concrete filled steel tubular columns have many
excellent structural properties, such as high compressive
strength, large ductility and large energy absorption
capacity. Then, composite tubular columns have been
gradually used widely in the world.The strength of steel and
concrete for building structures is getting higher with the
development of new materials. The cross section with high
strength materials becomes smaller, and consequently a
column becomes more slender.The greatest advantage of
this concept is that the two materials are put to their ultimate
use. The steel jacket confines the concrete and provides the
flexural strength for the system.The presence of the concrete
delays steel problems in compression zones such as local
and overall buckling and also provides stiffness for the
column.The main advantage of CSC columns is the no usage
of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
2. Strength by Design Code(EUROCODE-4.1)
EC4 is the most recently completed international standard in
composite construction. EC4 covers concrete - encased and
partially encased steel sections and concrete-filled sections
with or without reinforcement.EC4 considers confinement
effects for circular sections when relative slenderness has
value less than 0.5. EC4 uses limit state concepts to achieve
the aims of serviceability and safety by applying partial
safety factors to load and material properties. It is the only
code that treats the effects of long-term loading separately.
The ultimate axial force of a circular column is,
PP = Aa* 2a + Ac* Ck * 1 + 1* { t / d } * { fy / fck}

Where,
1= 10[
1 {10e /d}.
=
+
{
1
2
20
20 } * {10e / d}.
a = { fy / a }.Ck = { fck / c }.
PP plastic resistance of columns.Aa&Ac- Area of the steel
and concrete.t thickness of steel.d outer diameter of the
columns.fy&fck yield strength of steel and concrete.a& c
- partial safety factor for steel and concrete.
Pcr = 2*{ (EI)e/l2}, (EI)e = Ea Ia + 0.8 EcdIc.

Ecd = { Ecm / c },Ecm = 5000 ( fck)1/2
(EI)e - Effective elastic flexural stiffness of the composite
column,Ia&Ic second moments of area of steel and
concrete.Ea& Ec - modules of elasticity of steel and
concrete.c - partial safety factor concrete is reduced to 1.35
as per eurocode 4.
Non Dimensional Slenderness
= (PP/PCR)(1/2)
Reduction Factor
Xx = 1/ { x + (x2 - 2) (1/2)}
Where ,
x = 0.5 [ 1 + ( - 0.2 ) + ]
Page 162
3.Casting and Testing of Circular Steel Concrete
Composite Columns
Casting of circular steel concrete composite column
of various thickness where casted
S.No
Inner Diameter
Thickness
2mm
1
60mm
85mm
110mm
4mm
6mm
2mm
4mm
6mm
2mm
4mm
6mm
Table 1. circular steel concrete composite column of various thickness
3.1. Testing Procedure
Each specimen was tested under axial compression

loading in a loading frame at structural laboratory. The
column of the test assembly was placed in a loading frame
the column was centered accurately using plumb bob to
avoid eccentricity at the both ends of the column mild steel
plate support condition was provided. The axial load is
achieved by using spherical steel ball having 55mm in
diameter and 0.6 kg of mass was used in between the two
mild steel plates to ensure proper verticality of support mild
steel plates are welded and are aligned using 6mm diameter
mild steel smooth bar which are used in on the fur sides of
the plate.
The column is lifted by 2000 KN capacity
hydraulic jack which is kept at the bottom of the testing
platform above which the steel plate bottom support was
placed. Then the test specimen is placed bottom support and
the top support is placed over the top column head and
finally it touches the load cell which is pivoted in the
horizontal element of the loading frame. The column vertical
alignment was checked before start testing. The column was
loaded under axial compressive load (10KN) by hydraulic
jack which is kept at the bottom of the column. The column
is loaded after the failure and buckling of column. For
Lateral load the hydraulic jack is placed in horizontal
direction and connected to the specimen.
levels, temperature distributions, pressure, etc. It permits an

evaluation of a design without having to build and destroy
multiple prototypes in testing. The ANSYS program has a
variety of design analysis applications, ranging from such
everyday items as dishwashers, cookware, automobiles,
running shoes and beverage cans to such highly
sophisticated systems as aircraft, nuclear reactor
containment buildings, bridges, farm machinery, X-ray
equipment
and
orbiting
satellites
ANSYS/LS-Dy is a tightly integrated program that
combines industry-leading finite element technology with
explicit nonlinear dynamic solution capabilities.
4.1.Results and Discussion
For axial loading a set of detailed experiments have

been conducted on hollow and filled steel tubular columns
under axial loading. The hollow section is failed due to
buckling around the circumference of the specimen.
For lateral loading, Support conditions of the
composite column is one end fixed at bottom and other is
free at top. Lateral load is applied at free end with intensity
of 50 KN. For C1 maximum displacement occurs at free end
with 0.0625 mm. Minimum displacement occurs at 100 mm
at 0.0069 mm.
For C2 maximum displacement occurs at free end
with 0.1234 mm and minimum displacement occurs at 100
mm at 0.0137 mm. For S1Maximum displacement occurs at
free end with 0.1234 mm and Minimum displacement occurs
at 100 mm at 0.0137 mm. For S2 maximum displacement
occurs at free end with 0.039 mm and Minimum
displacement occurs at 100 mm at 0.0043 mm.
3.2. Software analysis (ANSYS)
ANSYS, Inc. has developed product lines that allow you to

make the most of your investment and choose which product
works best in your environment. ANSYS is a finite element
analysis (FEA) code widely used in the computer-aided
engineering (CAE) field. ANSYS software allows engineers
to construct computer models of structures, machine
components or systems; apply operating loads and other
design criteria; and study physical responses, such as stress
Fig 1. Cross section and plan of

circular composite column
Fig 2. cross section and plan

of square composite column
Page 163
COMPRESSSIVE STRENGTH (kN)

O.D
mm
S.NO
L/D
T
mm
(AC)
mm2
(Aa)
mm2
Concrete filled column

EUROCODE-4
TEST
VALUE
HOLLOW
COLUMN
37
62
17
2327.4
191.6
64.68
90
64
16.5
2327.4
389.5
107.8
127.8
66
16
2327.4
593.7
176.2
190
66
87
12.1
5674.50
270.17
108.1
120
67.2
89
12
5674.50
546.6
143.7
170
81.3
91
11.6
5674.50
829.3
363.30
400
90.3
112
9.4
9503.31
348.7
348.53
390
87.1
114
9.2
9503.31
703.7
437.71
470
175.1
116
9.1
9503.31
1064.9
527.51
630
266.2
Table 2. Compressive Strength For Columns

Load
Sno
Shape
Circle
Square
Size
As per software analysis
Thickness
intensity
of steel wall
at free
Minimum
Maximum
end (kN)
displacement(mm)
displacement(mm)
100mm
50
0.0069
0.0624
(dia)
50
0.0069
0.0624
100*100
50
0.0137
0.1234
mm
50
0.0043
0.039
Table 3. Lateral load as per software results
4.2. Strength comparison between the thickness of steel
200
150
100
50
0
190
127.8
90.1
49
37
65.5
hollow
filled
THICKNESS (mm)
Fig 3 : For 60mm Diameter
LOAD (KN)
LOAD(KN)
250
210
200
150
100
170
120
67.2
81.1
91
50
Hollow
Filled
0
2
THICKNESS (mm)
Page 164
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
116
THICKNESS (mm)
112
eurocode
-4
102
Filled
89
Hollow
66
630
700
600
470
500
390
400
266.2
300
175.1
200
87.1
100
0
2
4
6
LOAD(KN)
LOAD(KN)
DIAMETER ( mm)
Fig .5 : For 110 mm Diameter
Fig .6 : Comparison of EUROCODE 4 VALUE Vs

TEST VALUE
0.07
DISPLACEMENT
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
C1
0.01
C2
0
0 to 10
10 to
20
20 to
30
30 to
40
40 to
50
50 to
60
60 to
70
70 to
80
80 to
90
90 to
100
C1
0.0069 0.0138 0.0208 0.0277 0.0346 0.0416 0.0485 0.0555 0.0624
C2
0.0069 0.0139 0.0208 0.0278 0.0347 0.0417 0.0486 0.0556 0.0625
10 CM INTERVALS
Fig. 7 : Displacement Of Circular Column 50 kN Load Intensity
DISPLACEMENT
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 60 to 70 70 to 80 80 to 90
90 to
100
S1
0.0137
0.0274
0.0411
0.0548
0.0685
0.0822
0.096
0.1097
0.1234
S2
0.0043
0.0086
0.013
0.0173
0.0216
0.026
0.0303
0.0347
0.039
10 CM INTERVAL
S1
S2
Fig.8. Displacement of Square Column 50 Kn Load Intensity
Page 165
5. Conclusion
A set of detailed experiments have been

conducted on hollow and filled steel tubular
columns. The hollow section is failed due to
buckling around the circumference of the
specimen.
But the filled column gives the strength,

2to4 times greater than hollow columns.
As the thickness of the steel wall increases,

strength of the columns increases.
The experimental test value satisfies the

eruocode-4 theoretical value of steel
concrete composite columns
Displacement of 4 mm thick circular

column is less than 0.16% of 3 mm thick
circular column.Displacement of 4mm thick
square column is less than 68.39% of 3 mm
thick square column.
Displacement of square column is greater

than 49.35% of circular column under
lateral load. Performance of circular column
under lateral load is good compared with
square column.
References :
1.Workshop
on
steel-concrete
composite
structures in ANNA UNIVERSITY.
2. Indian code IS: 11384: 1985 CODE OF
PRACTICE FOR COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
IN STRUCTURAL STEEL AND CONCRETE
3. EUROCODE-4 : DESIGN OF COMPOSITE
STEEL AND CONCRETE STRUCTURE:PART
1.1.
4. Johansson M, Gylltoft K. Behaviour OF
CIRCULAR STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE
STUB
COLUMNS.
JOURNAL
OF
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, 2002, 128(8):
1073-1081.
5.Behavioural Studies On Hollow Double Skinned
Steel Concrete Composite Columns
,By
N.Balasubramanian,
R.B.Karthika
And
Dr.R.Thenmozhi, GCT Cbe.
6. Concrete-filled double-skin tubular columns with
external steel rings,C.X. Dong and J.C.M. HO.
7. Behaviour Of Hollow Concrete-filled Steel
Tubular Composite Elements, Artiomas Kuranovas,
Audronis Kazimieras Kvedaras .
8. Plastic mechanism analysis of CHS stub columns
strengthened using CFRP,
M. Elchalakani,M.R. Bambach.
9. New concrete-filled hollow FRP composite
column, Amir Mirmiran.
Page 166
EFFECT OF FIBRE REINFORCEMENT ON STRENGTH AND

STIFFNESS IMPROVEMENT OF COHESIVE SOIL
Suchit Kumar Patel1, Baleshwar Singh2
1
Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, India, p.suchit@iitg.ernet.in
Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, India, baleshwar@iitg.ernet.in
Abstract
A study has been conducted to investigate and quantify the strength and stiffness improvement behaviour of a cohesive
soil (MI) by reinforcing with glass fibres. The influence of fibre length (10, 20 and 30 mm) and fibre content (0.25, 0.5,
0.75 and 1% by dry weight of soil) on compressive and shear strength was examined by conducting unconfined
compression, triaxial compression and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests. The test results show that the compressive
strength, shear strength parameters, stiffness modulus and energy absorption capacity of the fibre-reinforced soil have
significantly improved. Compressive strength of the reinforced soil is found to enhance by two fold along with
accumulation of ductile behaviour during deformation. The maximum improvement in CBR value is found nearly 2.5
times that of the original soil. The maximum improvement in cohesion, friction angle and energy absorption capacity
have occurred for 20 mm long fibre of 0.75% fibre content. The strength improvement ratio of the reinforced soil is
observed to be higher at lower confining pressure irrespective of fibre content and length. The stiffness modulus
improvement is found to be larger at initial strain than at larger axial strain.
Keywords: Fibre reinforcement, unconfined compression strength, shear strength, stiffness modulus, CBR
2. Experimental Programme
1. Introduction
The basic idea of fibre-reinforced soil has been developed from the
protection principle of soils in nature by plant roots [1]. In past
decades, several research works has been carried out to improve the
engineering performance of soils by using fibre-reinforcement
technique. Majority of work started with initial research on fibrereinforced cohesionless soil to understand the mechanisms. Fibrereinforced fine-grained soils have also been studied through
unconfined compression tests [2-4], tensile strength tests [5-6]
California Bearing Ratio tests [4, 7] and triaxial tests [8-11].
Locally available soils are used as foundation material and in
several earth structures such as road pavement, dam and retaining
wall backfill. These applications need strength characterization of
the soil which may not satisfy the required criteria. With this in
view, the soil can be improved by reinforcing it with randomly
distributed discrete fibres as tensile element. Glass fibres have
some advantage over other synthetic and natural fibres as it is more
resistant to ageing, heat and aggressive chemical environment and
has very good tensile strength. It is important to specify the
optimum combination of reinforcement for field applications.
This study investigates the influence of glass fibre inclusion on the
strength and stiffness behaviour of a locally available cohesive soil
under different loading condition. The results of a series of
unconfined compression (UC) tests, triaxial tests (CD) and CBR
tests (soaked and unsoaked) on soil-fibre composite specimens are
presented.
2.1. Materials and Methods

A locally available fine-grained soil classified as MI was used. The
plastic and liquid limits of the soil were 25% and 46%. Glass fibres
of 0.15 mm diameter were used as reinforcing material. Three
different fibre lengths (L = 10, 20, 30 mm) and different
percentages of fibre content (fc = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1% by dry
weight of the soil) were chosen to prepare soil-fibre specimens at
the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of the
soil. Unconfined compressive test on the specimens was conducted
at an axial strain rate of 1.2 mm/min. Triaxial testing of specimens
was carried out at four different confining pressures ranging from
100 to 400 kPa with a shearing strain rate of 0.12 mm/min. The
deviatoric stress was applied up to 20% axial strain level or up to
failure of specimen whichever occurred earlier. CBR test of the
specimens was done under both unsoaked and soaked conditions.

3.1. Unconfined Compression Tests
3.1.1. Axial Stress-Strain Response
Axial stress-strain response showing the effect of fibre content and
fibre length is presented in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. It is clear
from these figures that fibre has very significant effect on stressstrain response. The peak strength of the soil mix increases with
both fibre content and fibre length up to certain limit. It is also seen
Suchit Kumar Patel. Tel.: +9508996424

E-mail: p.suchit@iitg.ernet.in
Page 167
Patel and Singh / INDECS-15
that the fibre-reinforced soil exhibits smaller loss of post-peak

strength, and the loss still becomes less pronounced for higher fibre
content. Even after peak, the reinforcement supports the soil and
reduces the post-peak loss in strength. The results indicate that the
optimum fibre content depends on the fibre length. For L = 20 mm,
the strength improves up to 0.75% fibre content (Fig. 1). For
various fibre contents, the strength is found to improve up to 20
mm fibre length (Fig. 2).
300
the addition of fibres improved the deformation behaviour along

with the strength. The fibres have imparted ductility to the natural
soil which can sustain more deformation.
Table 1. Peak UC strength and axial strain of fibre-reinforced soil
L (mm)
fc (%)
Peak stress
(kPa)
10
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
137
157
185
205
201
182
241
279
249
187
237
261
247
Axial stress (kPa)
250
200
20
150
fc = 1%
fc = 0.75%
100
fc = 0.5%
fc = 0.25%
50
30
Stress
improvement
(%)
19.5
47.5
67.5
63.5
44.5
103.5
141.5
119.5
49.5
99.5
123.5
109.5
Peak axial
strain (%)
2.7
4.5
5.4
7.5
8.6
5.3
6.1
8.9
10.8
5.9
7.0
10.3
9.7
No fibre
0
0
10
15
20
Axial strain (%)

Fig. 1. Effect of fibre content on stress-strain response (L = 20 mm)
300
Axial stress (kPa)
250
200
150
100
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
50
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
Fig. 2. Effect of fibre length on stress-strain response (fc = 0.75%)
Table 1 shows the peak stress, percentage improvement in peak

stress and the failure axial strain of the reinforced soil. For 10 mm
long fibre, the highest strength improvement is from 137 kPa for
the parent soil to 205 kPa i.e. almost 67.5% for 0.75% fibre
content. In case of 20 mm long fibre, the strength has modified to
279 kPa (141.5%) for 0.75% fibre content, while for 30 mm long
fibre the maximum enhancement in strength is 261 kPa (almost
123.5%) for 0.75% fibre.
The strength of soil has improved significantly for all fibre
inclusions, and the improvement is higher for 20 mm fibre for
almost all fibre contents. The failure axial strain of fibre-reinforced
soil increases with both fibre content and fibre length, showing that
Fig. 3. Failure pattern of fibre-reinforced soil (a) unreinforced (b) L =

10 mm, fc = 0.25% (c) L = 10 mm, fc = 0.5% (d) L = 20 mm, fc = 0.25%
(e) L = 20 mm, fc = 0.5% and (f) L= 30 mm, fc = 1%
Fig. 3 indicates typical failure patterns of tested specimens with

different fibre length and content combinations. In unreinforced
specimen, a single major crack can be seen running from top to
bottom (Fig. 3a) indicating sudden failure i.e. brittle behaviour of
soil after its peak strength. With addition of fibres, the specimen
failure pattern has changed. Instead of the single major crack,
multiple small cracks appear up to the half portion of specimen. At
Page 168
Stiffness modulus at any particular strain can be obtained by

dividing the axial stress at that strain with the corresponding strain.
Table 2 shows the stiffness modulus value at strain corresponding
to peak, half-peak and a particular axial strain of 2.7%, which is the
failure strain of plain soil. The initial stiffness or pre-failure
stiffness of soil at smaller strain seems to be improved significantly
as can be noted from the stiffness value at 2.7% strain. Only at
higher fibre dose (fc = 1%) stiffness is found to decrease in more
visible way. The soil reinforced with 20 mm fibre is showing
higher stiffness response for all cases.
Table 2. Stiffness modulus of fibre-reinforced soil
L
(mm)
fc (%)
10
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
20
30
At Peak
(MPa)
At half-peak
(MPa)
5.18
3.62
3.05
2.75
2.34
4.2
4.03
3.25
2.2
3.17
3.48
2.62
2.55
7.29
5.96
5.93
4.83
3.63
7.29
7.22
5.92
4.17
5.82
5.89
4.81
4.8
At 2.7%
strain
(MPa)
5.18
5.21
5.96
6.15
3.61
6.27
8.41
8.67
6.87
5.81
7.41
7.85
7.24
fc = 1%
fc = 0.25%
No fibre
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
600
(b)
500
400
300
200
fc = 1%
100
fc = 0.5%
fc = 0.75%
fc = 0.25%
No fibre
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
Fig. 4. Effect of fibre content (a) 3 = 100 kPa, L = 20 mm (b) 3 = 400

kPa, L = 20 mm
Table 3. Peak deviatoric stress and strength ratio
fc (%)
3
(kPa)
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
3.2. Triaxial Tests

3.2.1. Deviatoric Stress-Strain Response
Figs. 4 and 5 present the effect of fibre content and fibre length on
deviatoric stress-strain response under low (3 = 100 kPa) and high
(3 = 400 kPa) confining pressure respectively. The stress-strain
response at initial smaller deformation is similar for all soil-fibre
specimens. The deviatoric stress is found to increase with confining
pressure and fibre content. The strength is found to improve up to
0.75% fibre content and 20 mm length. Table 3 lists the peak
deviatoric stress and strength ratio (reinforced peak
stress/unreinforced peak stress) under any particular confinement.
The strength ratio of soil is noted to be the maximum at low
confining pressure (100 kPa) for all fibre combinations which
further decreases with increase in confinement. The maximum
strength ratio is found to be 1.87 for 20 mm fibres of 0.75% content
under 100 kPa confining pressure and the least value is 1.19 for 10
mm fibres under 400 kPa confining pressure.
(a)
fc = 0.75%
fc = 0.5%
500
Deviatoric stress (kPa)
3.1.2. Stiffness Modulus Response
600
larger strain, the smaller multiple cracks appear all around the
specimen and it further increases with fibre content and length. At
high fibre content of 1%, no obvious single dominated failure plane
is found (Fig. 3f). The gradual increase in axial strain during
compression leads to network of tiny cracks that form progressive
failure zones with a barrelled failure shape of the specimen. Overall
in specimens with fibre reinforcement, the fibres confine the soil
particles and increase the global stability of the soil by arresting the
deformation behaviour.
0.25
0.5
0.75
10 mm
Peak
Stress
stress
ratio
(kPa)
200
1
230
1
276
1
312
1
243
1.21
279
1.21
333
1.2
372
1.19
285
1.42
324
1.41
382
1.38
414
1.32
319
1.59
354
1.54
395
1.43
435
1.39
282
1.41
318
1.38
371
1.34
396
1.27
20 mm
Peak
Stress
stress
ratio
(kPa)
200
1
230
1
276
1
312
1
272
1.36
310
1.34
370
1.34
396
1.27
318
1.59
357
1.55
411
1.49
428
1.37
374
1.87
420
1.83
467
1.69
497
1.59
338
1.69
386
1.68
432
1.56
468
1.5
30 mm
Peak
Stress
stress
ratio
(kPa)
200
1
230
1
276
1
312
1
261
1.3
297
1.29
346
1.25
380
1.21
298
1.49
338
1.47
389
1.41
417
1.34
339
1.69
367
1.59
404
1.46
436
1.4
286
1.43
330
1.43
346
1.25
380
1.21
Page 169
350
600
500
fc = 1%
300
400
300
fc = 0.75%
fc = 0.5%
fc = 0.25%
No fibre
250
q (kPa)
(a)
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
200
150
100
200
50
100
0
0
0
0
10
15
Axial strain (%)
L
(mm)
10
400
300
20
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
30
0
5
10
400
500
600
700
Table 4. Shear strength parameters of fibre-reinforced soil
500
300
p (kPa)
(b)
100
200
Fig. 6. Failure envelope of fibre-reinforced soil (L = 20 mm)
600
200
100
20
15
20
fc
(%)
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
c (kPa)
67.6
82
100
118
103
95
120
141
124
90
109
132
114
Improvement
in cohesion
1.21
1.48
1.74
1.52
1.41
1.77
2.1
1.83
1.33
1.61
1.95
1.69
()
9
10
10.6
9.8
9.4
9.8
10
10.4
10.3
9.7
9.8
9.3
8.7
Improvement
in friction
1.11
1.17
1.09
1.04
1.09
1.11
1.15
1.14
1.07
1.09
1.03
0.97
Axial strain (%)

Fig. 5. Effect of fibre length (a) 3 = 100 kPa, fc = 0.75% (b) 3 = 400
kPa, fc = 0.75%
3.2.2. Shear Strength Parameters

The shear strength parameters (c and ) of the fibre-reinforced soil
have been calculated by plotting p-q plots, where {p = (1 + 3)/2
and q = (1 - 3)/2}. Fig. 6 depicts the failure envelope for 20 mm
long fibre at different fibre content. It can be noticed that the
envelopes are more or less parallel to each other. With addition of
fibres, the intercept of the failure envelope is shifting upwards. The
shear strength parameters determined from the failure envelopes
are summarized in Table 4. It can be noted that the cohesion
induced by fibres improves significantly up to 0.75% fibre content
for all fibre lengths and up to 20 mm fibre length at any particular
fibre content. The friction angle of soil increases slightly for all soil
fibre mix except for 30 mm fibre at 1% content, where it becomes
less than that of plain soil. Maximum improvement in cohesion (c)
parameter is 1.83 times (for 20 mm fibre at 0.75% content) and
friction angle () is 1.17 times (for 10 mm fibre at 0.5% content)
that of plain soil.

Typical stiffness modulus variation of fibre-reinforced soil showing
the effect of fibre content and fibre length is presented in Fig.7a
and Fig. 7b. Stiffness modulus is found to increase with fibre
content, fibre length and confining pressure. Initial stiffness
modulus at smaller strain is found to be higher and it further
decreases nonlinearly with strain indicating stiffness reduction with
strain increment. At higher strain stiffness variation almost become
parallel to each other and effect of fibre length and fibre content
become least significant. Nevertheless the stiffness of reinforced
soil is higher than that of plain soil for all strain levels studied.
Stiffness modulus increases with fibre dose and fibre length and
maximum improvement in stiffness is found for 0.75% fibre
content and 20 mm long fibre for all confining pressures.
Page 170
35
10
(a)
fc = 1%
fc = 0.75%
25
fc = 0.5%
20
fc = 0.25%
EAC (MJ/m3)
Stiffness modulus (MPa)
30
No fibre
15
10
7
6
5
4
5
0
0
10
15
3
0.00
20
0.25
Axial strain (%)
35
0.50
0.75
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
9
8
EAC (MJ/m3)
25
1.00
Fibre content (%)
10
(b)
30
(a)
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
20
15
10
5
(b)
400 kPa
300 kPa
200 kPa
100 kPa
7
6
5
4
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
Fig. 7. Stiffness modulus response (3 = 100 kPa): effect of (a) fibre

content and (b) fibre length
3
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
Fibre content (%)

Fig. 8. Energy absorption capacity (EAC) response (a) effect of fibre
content, 3 =400 kPa (b) effect of confining pressure, L = 20 mm
3.3. CBR Tests

3.2.4. Energy Absorption Capacity
3.3.1. CBR Response
The improvement in toughness due to fibre inclusion can be
quantified by comparing the energy absorption capacity (EAC) for
the fibre-reinforced soil with that for the plain soil. The energy
absorption capacity is calculated by taking into consideration the
area under the deviatoric stress-strain curve up to axial strain of 20
%. Figs. 8a and Fig. 8b show the effect of fibre reinforcement
(fibre content and length) and confining pressure. It is observed
that more energy is needed to start deformation of soil and fibre at
higher confining pressure. The maximum increase in EAC is from
5.54 MJ/m3 for plain soil to 8.8 MJ/m3 for 20 mm long and 0.75%
fibre content reinforced specimen.
Fig. 9 presents the effect of fibre content on CBR values for 10 mm

and 20 mm long fibres calculated from load-penetration curves at
2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration depth. The CBR value
corresponding to 5 mm penetration is found to be maximum for all
soil-fibre combinations. After repetition of tests, the same response
was observed. Therefore the CBR value at 5 mm penetration is
considered for further study of strength behaviour. CBR values
calculated at 5 mm penetration are summarized in Table 6 for both
unsoaked and soaked conditions. The CBR values of plain soil are
8.05% and 2.74% for unsoaked and soaked conditions. With fibrereinforcement, the values have improved maximum up to 1.77 and
1.54 times for 20 mm and 0.75% fibre in unsoaked and soaked
conditions.
Page 171
Table 6. Secant modulus of fibre-reinforced soil
24
L
(mm)
20
fc
(%)
CBR (%)
16
10
12
8
L = 20 mm_5 mm
L = 20 mm_2.5 mm
L = 10 mm_5 mm
L = 10 mm_2.5mm
4
0
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
20
1.00
Fibre content (%)
30
Fig.9 Effect of fibre content on CBR at different penetration depth
Table 6. CBR values of fibre-reinforced soil

L
(mm)
10
20
30
fc
(%)
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
Unsoaked
CBR
(%)
8.05
12.95
16.03
18.42
14.15
17.07
19.84
22.31
16.87
13.68
16.61
19.35
14.46
Improvement
(%)
60.86
99.13
128.82
75.77
112.30
146.46
177.14
109.56
69.93
106.33
140.37
79.62
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
Unsoaked
Secant
modulus
(MPa)
19.63
31.54
40.93
46.63
36.9
41.01
44.2
53.51
41.09
28.18
39.92
46.47
30.36
Improvement
(%)
60.67
108.51
137.54
87.98
108.91
125.16
172.59
109.32
43.55
103.36
136.73
54.66
Soaked
Secant
modulus
(MPa)
6.68
6.69
7.2
9.43
8.4
12.43
15.51
16.61
12.77
8.48
10.11
11.83
11.14
Improvement
(%)
0.15
7.78
41.17
25.75
86.01
132.18
148.65
91.17
26.95
51.35
77.09
66.76
Soaked
CBR
(%)
2.74
3.01
3.32
3.87
3.45
5.11
6.81
6.97
5.24
3.48
4.15
4.85
4.57
Improvement
(%)
9.85
21.17
41.24
25.91
86.49
148.54
154.38
91.24
27
51.46
77
66.79
4. Conclusion
Based on the results obtained from the present study, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1.
2.
3.
3.3.2. Secant Modulus Response
4.
Secant modulus calculated at 5 mm penetration depth is shown in
Table 7. The modulus of soil has improved significantly with fibre
inclusion. Improvement of modulus is more pronounced with fibre
length and content under both unsoaked and soaked conditions up
to a limit of 20 mm length and 0.75% content. Improvement lies in
range of 43 to 172% for unsoaked soil and 0.15 to 148% for soaked
soil. Maximum improvement of 172% and 148% is for 20 mm long
fibre of 0.75% content for unsoaked and soaked conditions.
Improvement in unsoaked condition is almost 2.7 times (19.63
MPa to 53.51 MPa) and 2.5 times for soaked specimen (6.68 MPa
to 16.61 MPa). Improvement for 10 mm fibre under both condition
is smaller compare to other fibre length with very small
improvement under soaked condition for lower percentage (0.25 to
0.5%) it is below 10% indicating almost no improvement.
5.
Glass fibre reinforcement improves the deformation behaviour

of the cohesive soil by increasing failure strain and changes
the brittle behaviour of parent soil to more ductile behaviour
by arresting the failure pattern. The maximum improvement in
unconfined compressive strength is 141.5% for 20 mm long
fibre of 0.75% content.
Stiffness modulus of reinforced soil at failure strain level of
plain soil improves from 5.18 MPa for unreinforced soil to
8.16 MPa for soil reinforced with 20 mm fibre of 0.75%
content.
Cohesion is induced by the fibres and maximum improvement
is for 0.75% fibre for all fibre length used. Friction angle of
soil improves marginally up to 0.5% fibre content.
CBR value of soaked soil is reduced by almost by one third
than that of unsoaked soil.
Fibre-reinforced soil shows greater CBR values with
maximum improvement of 177% and 154% for 20 mm fibre
of 0.75% content in unsoaked and soaked cases.
References
[1] Waldron LJ. The shear resistance of root-permeated
homogeneous and stratified soil. Soil Science Society of
America Proceedings, 1977; 41: 843-849.
[2]
Freitag DR. Soil randomly reinforced with fibres. Journal of

Geotechnical Engineering, 1986; 112, 8: 823-826.
Page 172
[3] Al Wahab RM, El-Kedrah MM. Using fibres to reduce tension

cracks and shrink/swell in compacted clays. Geoenvironment
2000, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 46, Y. B. Acar and
D. E. Daniel (eds.), ASCE, Vol. 1, 791805.
[4] Nataraj MS, McManis KL. Strength and deformation properties
of soils reinforced with fibrillated fibres. Geosynthetic
International Journal, 1997; 4, 1: 65-79.
[10] Estabragh AR, Bordbar AT, Javadi AA. Mechanical behaviour

of a clay soil reinforced with nylon fibres. Journal of Geotech
and Geological Engineering, 2011; 29: 899-908.
[11] Ozkul ZH, Baykal G. Shear strength of clay with rubber fibre
inclusions, Geosynthetics International, 2006; 13, 5: 173-180.
[5] Maher MH, Ho YC, Mechanical properties of kaolinite/fibre

soil composite. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1994;
120, 8: 1381-1393.
[6] Zeigler S, Leshchinsky D, Ling HI, Perry EB. Effect of short
polymeric fibres on crack development in clays. Soils and
Foundations, 1998; 38,1: 247253.
[7] Hazirbaba K, Gullu H. California Bearing Ratio improvement
and freezethaw performance of fine-grained soils treated with
geofibre and synthetic fluid. Cold Regions Science and
Technology, 2010; 63: 5060.
[8]. Prabakar J, Sridhar RS. Effect of random inclusion of sisal fibre
on strength behaviour of soil. Construction and Building
Materials, 2010; 16, 123-131.
[9] Sivakumar Babu GL, Vasudevan AK. Strength and stiffness
response of coir fibre-reinforced tropical soil. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 2008; 20, 9: 571-577.
Page 173
BEHAVIOR OF CIRCULAR FOOTING RESTING ON REINFORCED SAND

Sangameshwar Patil1, P.G Rakaraddi2
1 Post -Graduate student, Department of Geotechnical engineering, Basaveshwar Engineering College,
Bagalkot 587102 Karnataka, India, sangameshwarpatil87@gmail.com
2 Professor in civil dept, Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot 587102 Karnataka, India,
pgraddi@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
In this investigation series of laboratory model test has been carried out to evaluate the response of circular footing
resting on plastic bottle reinforcement. These days disposal of plastic waste is a major issue and which leads to harmful
effect on environment. To avoid disposal problem and to improve the geotechnical properties of the soil these waste
products can be utilized. In this project plastic bottles are used as reinforcing materials to improve the load carrying
capacity of soil. Series of model test is carried out on circular footing with waste bottles as reinforcement. Bottle
reinforcement is used with different L/D ratio, number of layers and change in spacing of reinforcement layers. Test is
carried out for three different densities of sand (=16.48kN/m3, 17.07kN/m3 and 17.26kN/m3). The test result has shown
that providing reinforcement below the footing increase in the bearing capacity of soil. The effective utilization of bottle
reinforcement, the optimum depth should be (U/B=0.35) which is found to be good from the results and the foundation
soil should be in higher density.
Keywords: Sand, Ultimate load, Reinforcement, U/B ratio, L/D ratio
1. Introduction
Super Structure which is built on soil should resist the load
coming on the soil. In India some of the areas have low
bearing capacity which cannot carry load coming from the
super structure. Nowadays availability of land is less and
which leads to increase in the cost of the land as well as cost
of the structure. To overcome this problem either soil should
be replaced or foundation should be well designed. It is
difficult to replace the existing soil, so engineers should
design the foundation in such a way that it should resist the
load coming on it. Different types foundation are used
square footing, circular footing, strip footing. These
foundations undergo large unequal settlement in low bearing
areas, for this raft foundation is preferred which will avoid
the unequal settlement of the structure. In raft foundation
disadvantages are there as huge area has to excavate and
should provide bracing all over the area which will avoid the
caving of the soil. This method leads to increase in the cost
of construction. So to reduce the cost of the construction
reinforcement is provided below the footing within the
influencing depth which will reduce the settlement of the
structure as well as reduce the cost the construction.
Reinforcement which can be provided below the footing is,
geogrid, geocell, confinement etc., which are available in
market which are used as reinforcing materials. These
materials are costly which are available in market. So in this

investigation to avoid that waste plastic bottles are used as
reinforcing materials. These days plastic bags and plastic
materials causing environmental problem. Use of these
materials as a reinforcing material environmental problems
can be avoided and as well as cost also reduces.
In this investigation behavior of circular footing resting on
reinforced sand is evaluated through model plate load test.
More than 40 series of tests are carried out on varying the
parameters. The parameters varied in these tests are density
of soil, U/B ratio of first layer reinforcement, L/D ratio of
reinforcement, number of layers and spacing between the
layers. From the test results shown that the use of plastic
bottle as reinforcement increases in the load carrying
capacity of soil.
2. Literature Review
Research work is carried out on using reinforcement below
the footing. Some of the researchers carried out are reviewed
in this investigation they are as follows, Sujit Kumar et.al
(2001) carried out test on strip footing geocell as
reinforcement. In this some of the parameters varied are
pocket size, height and width of geocell mattress. From the
results concluded that increase in the bearing capacity of soil
by 8 times than the unreinforced case, Al- Aghbari (2007)
carried out test on circular footing with structural skirts
below the footing. The parameter varied in the test is
Page 174
Sangameshwar Patil and P.G.Rakaraddi / INDECS-15
structural depth ratio which results shown that increases in

the bearing capacity, Gupta et al. (2014), Chandrawanshi et
al. (2014), Gupta et al. (2014) they carried the series of tests
on confinement below the footing which leads to increase in
the bearing capacity of soil.
3. Methodology
For the present study the sand is used from the Malaprabha
river, Bagalkot district, Karnataka, is used as soil medium.
Properties of sand is determined as per IS 2720 and same is
presented in table 1. As per IS 2720 part 4 soil classified as
poorly graded sand which lies in the range of Cu<6 and
Cc1 hence soil is classified as poorly graded sand. The
model footing used in this investigation is circular of having
diameter of 11.30 cm and thickness 10 mm. Footing is
placed on the above sand bed for different densities which
is filled in the wooden box of size 600mm x 600mm x
600mm by raining technique method. Densities are
predetermined by varying height of fall in the laboratory and
which is presented in table 2. Table 2 shows the value for
different densities corresponding to angle of internal
friction. Reinforcement is used in this investigation is waste
plastic bottles which were collected from local areas and
which were cut for different L/D ratios which is presented in
table 3. These cut plastic bottles were joined together using
the tie wire and placed below the footing at different depth.
First reinforcement layer is determined and which is placed
at 0.35 U/B ratios which is given in table 4, while placing
the second layer and third layer the spacing between the
layers is varied are (i) zero (ii) 4cm (iii) 6cm and (iv) 8cm.
The test is carried out on the experimental setup as shown in
fig.2. Vertical loading on the footing is applied with the help
of screw jack of 5 tonne capacity is load is measured using
proving ring of capacity 1000 kg and displacement is
measured by LVDT which is placed diagonally on the
footing. LVDT capable of measuring 0.01mm.
Fig 2.Line diagram of experimental setup

Table 1.Properties of sand used in the study
Characteristics
Value
IS classification
SP
D10
0.39
D30
0.64
D60
1.05
Uniformity of coefficient (Cu)
2.69
Coefficient of curvature (Cc)
Minimum Void ratio
0.46
Maximum void ratio
0.73
Specific gravity
2.59
Minimum dry density
14.61 kN/m3
Maximum dry density
17.36 kN/m3
Table 2. Density and the associated heights of fall in the raining

technique with angle of internal friction for the sand used in the
present study.
Height of
Density (kN/m3)
Angle of internal
friction()
fall(cm)
15
16.48
330
30
17.07
360
45
17.26
370
Fig 1. Particle size distribution characteristics of sand used in the study
Page 175
4.2 Reinforced
Static tests are carried for circular footing on reinforced
case. Initially tests were carried to determine the optimum
depth of first reinforcement layer (U) which is as follows,
Fig 3. Layout and configuration three dimensional reinforcement

layers in the test.
For circular footing reinforced with waste plastic bottles the

load settlement curve is plotted for the density 16.48kN/m 3
is shown in fig 4 for different U/B ratio 0.30, 0.35, 0.40 and
0.45 respectively. As per IS (1888/1982 [15]) ultimate load
carrying capacity is determined by double tangent method
and also for densities 17.07kN/m3 and 17.26kN/m3 is
exclusively shown in table 4.
Table 3. Different L/D ratio of reinforcement

Diameter of
Length of
L/D
bottles
bottles
ratio
(D)
(L)
75mm
15mm
0.20
75mm
20mm
0.26
75mm
25mm
0.33
75mm
30mm
0.40
Sl.no
The U/B ratio corresponding to depth first reinforcement

was given in table 4.
Table 4. U/B ratio corresponding first reinforcement depth
U/B ratio
First reinforcement Depth

(U)
0.30
0.35
30 mm
35 mm
0.40
40 mm
0.45
45 mm
Fig.4. Load - Settlement curves for L/D ratio 0.2 for different U/B ratio
Table 4. Ultimate bearing capacity of reinforced sand for different
densities and U/B ratio.
Ultimate Load (kN) for the density of
U/B
ratio
0.30
0.35
0.40
16.48
kN/m3
0.42
0.68
0.50
17.07
kN/m3
0.57
0.80
0.55
17.26
kN/m3
0.84
1.00
0.80
0.45
0.47
0.50
0.77
Tests were carried out on reinforced and unreinforced soil.

Tests results are discussed as follows,
4.1 Unreinforced
Tests are carried out on circular footing without
reinforcement and the results obtained for the densities
16.48kN/m3, 17.07kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 are 0.20 kN,
0.38 kN and 0.70 kN.
Increase in the density of soil increase in the ultimate load

carrying capacity of soil with the provision of reinforcement
below the footing. From the fig 4 and table 4 the ultimate
load carrying capacity values for U/B 0.35 for the densities
16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 are 0.68 kN,
0.80 and 1.00 kN respectively. The values obtained are
higher than the U/B ratio 0.30, 0.40 and 0.45, hence U/B
ratio 0.35 is optimum in this investigation.
Page 176
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Fig 5. Load - Settlement curves for the density of 16.48 kN/m3 and L/D ratio (a) 0.20 (b) 0.26 (c) 0.33 and (d) 0.40
Figure 5 shows load-settlement curve for the density 16.48 kN/m3 for different reinforcement layers and for L/D ratios
0.20, 0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 shown in figure (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.
Page 177
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Fig 6.Load - Settlement curves for density of 17.07 kN/m3 and L/D ratio (a) 0.20 (b) 0.26 (c) 0.33 and (d) 0.40
Figure 6 shows load-settlement curve for the density 17.07 kN/m3 for different reinforcement layers and for L/D ratios 0.20,
0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 shown in figure (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.
Page 178
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
3
Fig-7: Load - Settlement curves for the density of 17.26kN/m and L/D ratio (a) 0.20 (b) 0.26 (c) 0.33 and (d) 0.40
Figure 7 shows load-settlement curve for the density 17.26

kN/m3 for different reinforcement layers and for L/D ratios
0.20, 0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 shown in figure (a), (b), (c) and (d)
respectively.
From the figure 5, 6 and 7 the ultimate load carrying
capacity values are given in the table 5. Fig 5, 6 and 7
represents for the densities 16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and
17.26 kN/m3 for L/D ratios 0.20, 0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 for one,
two and three layers respectively. From the figures 5, 6 and
7 and table 5 the values obtained for the density 16.48 for
L/D ratios 0.20,0.26,0.33 and 0.40 with one, two and three
layer are (i) 0.68,0.90, and 1.00 kN (ii) 0.80, 1.03 and 1.12
kN (iii)1.04, 1.32 and 1.59 kN and (iv) 0.72, 0.84 and 0.98
kN, for the density 17.07 kN/m3 (i) 0.80, 1.03 and 1.26 kN
(ii) 1.09, 1.24 and 1.42 kN (iii) 1.38, 1.51 and 1.80 kN and
(iv) 0.90, 1.12 and 1.27 kN, for the density 17.26 kN/m3 (i)
1.00, 1.19 and 1.48 kN (ii) 1.30, 1.60 and 1.80 kN (iii) 1.58,
1.79 and 2.21 kN and (iv) 1.00, 1.38 and 1.54 kN
respectively. From the values obtained it can be observed
that increase in the load carrying capacity for the L/D ratio
0.33 and which is for three layers and for L/D ratios 0.20,
0.26 and 0.40 decrease in the load carrying capacity. The
optimum value obtained for the density 17.26 kN/m3 for L/D
ratio 0.33 and for three layers is maximum i.e 2.21 kN and
the remaining values are given in table 5. For this series of
test second layer is placed at a depth of 5.5 cm from the
topmost layer and similarly third layer is placed at a depth of
5 cm from the second layers respectively.
Page 179
Table 5. Load carrying capacity values for various cases

Density (kN/m3)
L/D ratio
Unreinforced
Number of layers
1
Ultimate load (kN)

0.20
0.68
0.20
0.90
1.00
0.80
2
3
1
2
3
1.03
1.12
1.04
1.32
1.59
1
2
3
0.72
0.84
0.98
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
0.38
0.80
1.03
1.26
1.09
1.24
1.42
1.38
1.51
1.80
1
2
3
1
0.90
1.12
1.27
0.70
1.00
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1.19
1.48
1.30
1.60
1.80
1.58
1.79
2.21
1.00
1.38
1.54
0.26
16.48
0.33
0.40
Unreinforced
0.20
17.07
0.26
0.33
0.40
Unreinforced
0.20
17.26
0.26
0.33
0.40
4.3 Variation in Spacing of Reinforcement

From the fig 5, 6 and 7 and table 5 the values obtained for
the reinforcement layer placed at the constant depth
throughout the test which is at 5.5 cm, hence the placing of
reinforcement layer which will effect on the load carrying
capacity, so for this case some tests are carried out by
varying the depth of reinforcement layers for the densities
16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 for the

optimum L/D ratio 0.33 respectively. Topmost layer kept
constant depth at 3.5cm from the surface, the depth of
second and third layer varied with (i) Zero (ii) 4cm (iii) 6 cm
and (iv) 8cm respectively.
Page 180
(a)
(b)
Fig 8. Load - Settlement curves for the density 16.48 kN/m for (a) Two and (b) Three layers with different spacings (i) Zero (ii) 4 cm (iii) 6 cm and
(iv) 8 cm
3
Fig 9. Load - Settlement curves for the density 17.07 kN/m3 for (a) Two and (b) Three layers with different spacings (i) Zero (ii) 4 cm (iii) 6 cm and
(iv) 8 cm
Page 181
(b)
(a)
Fig 10. Load - Settlement curves for the density 17.07 kN/m3 for (a) Two and (b) Three layers with different spacings (i) Zero (ii) 4
cm (iii) 6 cm and (iv) 8 cm
Table 6. Load carrying capacity values for different spacing, L/D ratio 0.33 and for two and three layers
Density (kN/m3)
L/D ratio
Number of layers (N)
2
16.48
0.33
17.07
0.33
3
17.26
0.33
3
Spacing (S)
Ultimate Load
(kN)
0
4
6
8
1.10
1.20
1.40
1.08
1.28
1.40
1.62
1.10
0
4
6
1.28
1.46
1.60
1.18
0
4
6
1.39
1.54
1.88
8
0
1.20
1.41
1.60
6
8
0
1.90
1.30
1.51
1.80
6
8
2.24
1.38
Page 182

Fig 8, 9 and 10 shows the load settlement curves for the densities 16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 for two
and three layers with varying the spacing of the reinforcement i.e. (i) Zero, (ii) 4 cm, (iii) 6cm and (iv) 8 cm and the
ultimate values obtained from the fig 8, 9 and 10 is represented in Table 6 respectively. The load carrying capacity of
soil increases with increase in the spacing of reinforcement from zero, 4cm, 6cm and 8cm. the optimum values obtained
for the spacing 6 cm for the densities 16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 for two and three layers are 1.40 and
1.62 kN, 1.60 and 1.88 kN and 1.90 and 2.24 kN respectively.
5. Conclusion
The behavior of circular footing resting on reinforced
sand has been investigated by using model circular
footing. The results shown that the load carrying
capacity of circular footing increases with provision of
reinforcement below the footing. increase in the load
carrying capacity of footing is also depend on placing of
reinforcement. The optimum results obtained for the
density 17.26 kN/m3 for L/D ratio 0.33 for three layers
and depth of reinforcement is constant. for optimum L/D
ratio the varying the spacing of reinforcement given
better results for the depth 6 cm. the optimum usage of
reinforcement depth is 6cm and the density 17.26 kN/m3
respectively.
[6] Moghaddas Tafreshi, S.N and Dawson, A.R. (2010)

Comparison of bearing capacity of a strip footing on
sand with geocell and with planar forms of geotextile
reinforcement", Geotextile and Geomembranes, Vol.28,
pp.72-84.
[7] Kumar.K.V.S.P, Venkata Koteswara Rao Pasupuleti
and Satish Kumar Kolluru. (2012). Bearing Capacity Of
Square Footing on Geocell Sand Mattress Overlying
Clay Bed. International Journal of Emerging trends in
Engineering and Development, Issue 2, Vol.5, pp, 563-
References
[1] Dash, S. K., Krishnaswamy N.R and Rajagopal K.

(2001).Bearing capacity of strip footings supported on
geocell
reinforced
sand,
Geotextiles
and
Geomembranes, Vol.19, pp.235-236.

(2003). Model studies on circular footing supported on
geocell reinforced sand underlain by soft clay,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol.21, pp.197-219.
[3] Al-Aghbari, M.Y. (2007). Settlement of Shallow
Circular Foundations with Structural Skirts Resting on
Sand, The Journal of Engineering Research Vol. 4,
No.1 (2007) 11-16.
[4] Sireesh, S, Sitharam, T.G and Dash,S.K., (2009).
Bearing capacity of circular footing on geocell sand
mattress overlying clay bed with void, Geotextiles and
[5] Gupta, R and Trivedi, A. (2009). Bearing capacity
and settlement of Footing Resting on Confined Loose
Silty Sands. Electronic Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol.14, pp.1-14.
573.
[8] Krishna. A, Viswanath B and Keshav Nikita (2014).
Performance of Square Footing Resting On Laterally
Confined Sand International Journal of Research in
Engineering and Technology, Vol.03, pp, 110-114.
[9] Ravi Gupta, Rakesh Kumar and P.K. Jain (2014).
Behavior of Circular Footing Resting On Two
Dimensionally
And
Three
Dimensionally
Skirted
Foundations In Medium Dense Sand International

Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies,
Vol.3 pp, 45-47.
Behavior of Circular Footing Resting On Three
Dimensional Confined Sand, International Journal of
Advanced Engineering Technology, Vol.5, Issue 2, pp,
11-13.
[11] Sareesh Chandrawanshi, Rakesh Kumar, Dr. Suneet
Kaur and Dr. P.K. Jain, (2014), Effect Of Skirt on
Pressure Settlement Behavior of Model Circular Footing
In Medium Dense Sand,
International Journal of
Page 183
Advanced
Engineering
Technology,
Vol.
5,Issue
2,pp,01-05.
[14] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 13) 1986,

Method of test for soils, direct shear test, New Delhi,
India.
[12] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 3/See Indian

Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 3/See 2) 1980, Methods of
[15] Indian Standard - IS: 1888 1982, Method of load
test for soils, determination of specific gravity, fine,
test on soils, New Delhi, India
medium and coarse grained soils, New Delhi, India.

[13] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 4) 1985, Method
of test for soils, grain size analysis-mechanical method,
New Delhi, India.
Page 184

(INDECS-15)
SEISMIC EVALUATION AND RETROFITTING OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE BUILDINGS
Dr.A.Vijayakumar1* Dr.D.L.Venkatesh Babu2 Dr.A.R.Santhakumar3
1
Professor and HOD of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Engineering and

Technology, Coimbatore,641109, Tamilnadu, India,vijayakumarciet@gmail.com
2
Professor and HOD of Civil Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education,
JSS Campus, Uttarahalli, Bangalore, 560060, India, drdlvbabu@gmail.com
3
Former, Dean of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai and Former Emeritus
Professor, I.I.T.Madras,Tamilnadu,600025, santhaar@gmail.com,India.
Abstract
It is known a fact, that the globe is facing a serious threat of natural disasters from time to time. With particular
record to earthquake reoccurrence, the consequences are loss of human lives and destruction of properties, which
ultimately affects the natural economy. As the occurrence of an earthquake cannot be predicted and prevented,
preparedness of the structures to resist earthquake forces becomes more important. Keeping the view of constant
revision of the seismic zones in India, lack of proper design and detailing of structures against earthquake, this paper
aims to evaluate the performance of a typical selected R.C. building with respect to seismic vulnerability. For this
seismic evaluation, a pushover analysis has been performed by software SAP 2000. The analysis results showed the
performance levels, behaviour of the components and failure mechanism of the building. It also showed the sequence of
hinge formation. Based on the analysis the elements which needed retrofitting were identified. The deficiency of the
member was strengthened with varying configuration and layers of externally wrapped E- Glass Fiber Reinforced
Polymer sheets. More particularly, the effect of the number of GFRP layers and its orientation were investigated in
detail.
Keywords: RC building, Seismic Evaluation, Pushover Analysis, Performance level, GFRP.
1. Introduction
Coimbatore is a fast growing city in India
which is located in seismic Zone-III. Many reinforced
concrete frame buildings in Coimbatore were designed
and built prior to 2002. The seismic code IS 1893 was
revised in 2002. Hence, buildings built prior to 2002 do
not comply with the codal requirement. Further, some of
the Coimbatore buildings built OVER the past few years
even after 2002 are seismically deficient because of lack
of awareness of the seismic behavior of structures. Most
of the existing buildings in this city are designed for
gravity loads only. Most of the buildings which have
infilled walls have not considered infills in their design.
In Coimbatore many of the existing buildings
are with masonry infills as non-structural element. The
analyses as well as design of the frames are carried out
by considering the mass but neglecting the strength and
stiffness contribution of infill. Therefore, the entire
lateral load is assumed to be resisted by the frame only.
A large number of existing buildings in Coimbatore need
seismic evaluation due to various reasons such as
noncompliance with the codal requirements, updating of

code, poor design practice and change the use of the
building. However, the existing deficient structures in
Coimbatore, which is in Zone III, can be provided with
some rehabilitation to sustain the expected performance
level.
The reports ATC 40 [1] and FEMA 273 [2]
highlight the non-linear static pushover analysis. It is an
efficient method for the performance evaluation of a
structure subjected to seismic loads. The step by step
procedure of the pushover analysis was to determine the
capacity curve, demand curve and performance point.
These reports deal with modeling aspects of the hinge
behavior, acceptance criteria and procedures to locate the
performance point. Mehmet Inel and Hayri Baytan
Ozmen [3] point out that the effect of plastic hinges in
nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete buildings.
Analysis was done for four and seven storey reinforced
concrete buildings to represent low and medium rise
buildings. The frames were modeled with default and
user defined hinge properties to study possible
differences in the results of pushover analysis.
Comparison of response was also made in terms of base
Page 185
A.Vijayakumar et. al. / INDECS-15
shear capacity, displacement capacity and deformation of

hinges. User defined plastic model was found to be
effective than the default hinge model. From the above
discussion it was concluded that comparison studies are
made between pushover analysis and inelastic time
history analysis in evaluating the performance of
existing building.
FEMA 172 [4] this handbook described
techniques that engineers can use to solve a variety of
seismic rehabilitation problems in existing buildings, a
broad spectrum of building types and building
components (both structural and nonstructural).
Techniques are illustrated with sketches, and the relative
merits of the techniques are also discussed.
Fig. 1. Plan of the Existing Hostel Building
Shailesh Agrawal and Ajay Chourasia [5] the

nonlinear static analysis of RC building was performed
using pushover approach before and after retrofitting.
The comparison of strength parameters and pushover
curve indicates that there was increase in ductility. As
regards to stiffness of the building, it is seen that it
remains more or less same up to linear stage, while in
nonlinear stage every point increase after retrofitting.
The strength of the building was correlated with base
shear, the net enhancement in strength after retrofitting.
Amar Prakash and Thakkar [6] the present
paper deals with the seismic retrofitting of an existing
fourteen storied RC building frame located in seismic
zone IV. The study included seismic evaluation and
retrofitting of RC framed building, by using steel bracing
and infill masonry walls. The seismic performance of
two retrofitting techniques such as steel bracing (V,
diamond and cross pattern) and infill walls were
relatively compared. Among three patterns of steel
bracing, cross pattern shows better performance than V
and diamond bracing patterns.
2. Description of the Frame Structures
The present study was to evaluate the behavior of
G+2 reinforced concrete frame building subjected to
zone III level earthquake forces. The three dimensional
reinforced concrete structures were analyzed by
nonlinear static analysis (Pushover Analysis) using
SAP2000 software. The analysis results showed the
performance levels, behavior of the components and
failure mechanism of the building. It also showed the
sequence of hinge formation. Based on the analysis, the
elements which need retrofitting were identified.
Figure 1 shows the plan of the building representing
the X and Y direction used for analysis. The building
exists in Coimbatore and is a typical example of many
such buildings in this region. It was built with M15
concrete and Fe415 steel.
IS 456:2000 demands M20 to be the concrete

grade for structural applications. However, many
buildings in Coimbatore region were built with only
M15 grade concrete. In order to check the vulnerability
of such buildings, the strength of concrete and grade of
steel based on test results was used in the pushover
analysis.
For the selected building the strength of
concrete was assessed as 16.5 N/mm2 using rebound
hammer test and strength of steel was assessed as Fe420
N/mm2 based on tensile strength test .These values were
used in the pushover analysis. The chosen G+ 2 existing
hostel building and total height of the building is 8.79 m.
The building is 25.41 m in length and 11.95 m in width.
Typical floor to floor height is 2.93 m and slab thickness
is 140 mm.
With reference to, Mohamed Nour El-Din AbdAlla [7] beam and column members had been defined as
frame elements with the appropriate dimensions and
reinforcements. Slabs were defined as an area element
having the properties of shell elements with required
thickness. Slabs had been modeled as rigid diaphragms
based on Sundar and Elangovan [8]. Soil structure
interaction was not considered and columns have been
restrained in all six degrees of freedom at the base. The
building was constructed in the medium soil site
conditions.
3. Pushover Analysis
The non-linear static procedure or simply push
over analysis is a simple option for estimating the
strength capacity in the post-elastic range. This
procedure involves applying a predefined lateral load
pattern which is distributed along the building height.
The lateral forces are then monotonically increased in
constant proportion with a displacement control node of
the building until a certain level of deformation is
reached. The applied base shear and the associated
lateral displacement at each load increment are plotted.
Page 186
Based on the capacity curve, a target displacement which

is an estimate of the displacement that the design
earthquake will produce on the building is determined.
The extent of damage experienced by the building at this
target displacement is considered as representative of the
damage experienced by the building when subjected to
design level ground shaking.
analysis was 2924 kN at a displacement of 0.030 m in Y

direction. In Y direction the base shear was more
compared to X direction because of configuration of the
columns in the frames.
4. Nonlinear Plastic Hinges Properties

This requires the development of the force deformation curve for the critical sections of beams and
columns by using the guidelines FEMA 356 [9]. The
force deformation curves in flexure were obtained from
the reinforcement details and were assigned for all the
beams and columns. The Nonlinear properties of beams
and columns have been evaluated using the section
designer and have been assigned to the computer model
in SAP2000. The flexural default hinges (M3) and shear
hinges (V2) were assigned to the beams at two ends. The
interacting (P-M2-M3) hinges assigned for all the
columns at upper and lower ends.
It is the plot of the lateral force (V) on a
structure, against the lateral deflection (d), of the roof of
the structure. This is often referred to as the push over
curve. Performance point and location of hinges in
various stages can be obtained from pushover curves as
shown in the Figure 2. Five points labeled A, B, C, D
and E are used to define the force deflection behavior of
the hinge. The points labeled A to B Elastic state, B to
IO- below immediate occupancy, IO to LS between
immediate occupancy and life safety, LS to CP- between
life safety to collapse prevention, CP to C between
collapse prevention and ultimate capacity, C to Dbetween ultimate capacity and residual strength, D to Ebetween residual strength and collapse and greater than
E collapse.
Fig. 3. Pushover Curve in X- Direction
Fig. 4. Pushover Curve in Y- Direction
5.2 Capacity Spectrum and Building Performance

Level
The bare frame performance point was obtained
at a base shear level of 1016.436 kN and displacement of
0.015 m in the X direction as shown in Figure 5. In this
performance point the structure reached immediate
occupancy level as shown in Figure 6. The performance
point was obtained at a base shear level of 1,330.743 kN
and displacement of 0.0044 m in the Y- direction as
shown in Figure 7. In this performance point the
structure reached collapse prevention level as shown in
Figure 8. Therefore, it was seen that the structure has
more critical in the Y direction compared to the X
direction as expected.
Fig. 2. Different Stages of Plastic Hinge
5. Analysis Results and Discussions

5.1 Pushover Curve
Pushover curves for the building in X and Y
direction are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. These
curves depict the global behavior of the frame in terms
of its stiffness and ductility. For bare frame base shear
from pushover analysis was 1288 kN at a displacement
of 0.180 m in X direction. The base shear from pushover
Page 187
Fig. 5. Capacity Spectrum in X-Direction
Fig. 8. Hinges Formation in Y- Direction at

Performance Level
5.3 Plastic Hinge formation

Plastic hinge formation of the building was
observed in X and Y direction obtained at different
displacements levels. Plastic hinge formation starts with
beam ends and later proceeds to base of columns of
lower stories then propagates to upper stories and
continues with the yielding of interior intermediate
beams. However, yielding occurs at designated events
such as B (yielding), IO (Immediate occupancy), LS
(Life safety) and last hinge CP (collapse prevention)
respectively, the amount of damage in this direction was
expected be limited based on the predicted displacements
as below.
Fig. 6. Hinges Formation in X- Direction at
Performance Level
Fig. 7. Capacity Spectrum in Y-Direction
In X direction the first hinge formation occurs

at a load of 664.45 kN and at a displacement of 0.007 m.
The moment and rotation value for point B (Yielding)
were 1.5767 kNm and 0.0017 radians respectively. The
moment and rotation value for point IO (Immediate
occupancy) were 1.5849 kNm and 0.00254 radians
respectively. The moment and rotation value for point
CP (collapse prevention) were 1.9344 kNm and 0.0356
radians respectively.
observed in Y direction obtained at different
Page 188

as below.
be strengthened by using locally practiced strengthening

techniques, before an earthquake.
The first hinge formation occurs at a load of

664.45 kN and at a displacement of 0.007 m. The
moment and rotation value for point B (Yielding) were
1.5767 kNm and 0.0017 radians respectively. The
The member-level retrofit approach can be used

for the seismic strengthening of the existing RC
structure. The member level retrofit approaches include
the Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) wrapping
techniques which are used for strengthening of the
existing building.
Based on the analysis result, it is concluded

that, earthquake occurs in Coimbatore region which is
located in Zone-III. This existing hostel building will
first yield in the Y direction because of weak beams. The
base shear capacity was low in the Y direction as
compared to the X direction for first hinge formation
levels and also at the performance point level this
building reached immediate occupancy level in the X
direction and collapse prevention level in the Y
direction. It is seen that this building is more critical in
the Y direction compared to the X direction as expected.
Therefore weak beams in the Y-direction must be
strengthened by using any one of the strengthening
6. Seismic Retrofitting on Existing Rcc
Building
Many existing structures located in Coimbatore
are inadequate based on current seismic design codes. In
addition, a number of major earthquakes during recent
years underlined the importance of mitigation to reduce
seismic risk. Seismic retrofitting of existing structures is
one of the most effective methods of reducing this risk.
In recent years, a significant amount of research has been
devoted to the study of various strengthening techniques
to enhance the seismic performance of RC structures.
However, the seismic performance of the structure may
not be improved by retrofitting or rehabilitation unless
the engineer selects an appropriate intervention
technique based on seismic evaluation of the structure.
Therefore, the basic requirements of rehabilitation and
investigations of various retrofit techniques should be
considered before selecting an appropriate seismic
retrofit scheme up gradation of structures.
If an earthquake occurs in Zone - III
Coimbatore region, this building will first yield in Y
direction because of weak beams. The base shear
capacity is low in Y direction when compared to X
direction for first hinge formation levels and also at the
performance point level, this building has reached
immediate occupancy level in X direction and Collapse
prevention level in Y direction. It is found that this
building is more critical in the Y direction compared to
X direction. Therefore weak beams in Y-direction must
This experimental study was made to discuss

about the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beams
which were strengthened using various configurations
and layers of GFRP composites, which were bonded to
the surface of the beams. The test observations and
results provided information about the effectiveness of
strengthening configuration, percentage increase in load
carrying capacity, moment rotation and ductility of
composite beams
Based on the scale factor 1:2, the RCC beams
of cross section 220 mm x 250 mm and length 2000 mm
was chosen for experimental studies. The following
strengthening configurations were adopted using GFRP
mats for flexure beams. Externally they were wrapped by
a (i) Single layer at two vertical sides and at the tension
bottom face (GB1) and (ii) Double layers at two vertical
sides and at the tension bottom face (GB2).
6.1 Experimental Programme
A two point loading system was adopted for
testing beams for flexure. During testing of beams,
deflection corresponding to each increment of load, yield
load, ultimate load and mode of failure were observed
and recorded. After the curing period of 28 days was
over, the beam was washed and its surface was cleaned
for clear visibility of cracks. The support points were
provided with a hinge support at both ends by steel rod
welded to the base plate. The load was applied by means
of 500kN capacity hydraulic jack powered by hand
operated hydraulic pump.
6.2 Experimental Results
The RCC beams were tested on the flexural test
as per specifications. The behavior throughout the static
test up to failure was recorded using acquisition of data
on deflection behavior and the ultimate load carrying
capacity. The crack pattern and the mode of failure of
each beam were also discussed. All beams were tested
up to their ultimate strengths. The beam (B1a) was taken
as a control beam; beams (GB1 and GB2) were
strengthened with single layer and double layer GFRP
wrapping.
Page 189
6.2.1. Load versus Deflection and Failure Modes
dial gauges.
The load deflection histories of all the beams

were recorded. The mid-span deflection of each beam
was compared with that of their respective control beams
B1a. Also the load deflection behavior was compared
between wrapping beams having the same
reinforcement. It was noted that the behavior of the
flexure deficient beams when bonded with GFRP sheets
were better than their corresponding control beams. The
graphs comparing the mid-span deflection of wrapping
beams and their corresponding control beams are
discussed. The use of GFRP sheet had effect in delaying
the growth of crack formation.
In beam GB1, the strengthening was done by

wrapping of single layer of GFRP sheet for two vertical
sides and at tension bottom face. The ultimate load
carrying capacity of the beam was 67 kN and the
corresponding deflection was 29 mm. The yield load was
57 kN and at a deflection of 9.5mm as shown in Figure
11.
The control beam B1a was designed to fail by

flexure. The beam B1a was tested up to 42 kN and
corresponding deflection was 20 mm. The yielding of
steel was found at 37 kN and corresponding deflection
was 8 mm. Using this load and deflection of data, load
versus deflection curve was plotted as shown in Figure 9.
Fig. 11 . Load versus Deflection Curve for Beam
GB1
Fig. 12. Failure Pattern of Beam GB1

B1a
Fig.10. Failure Pattern of Beam B1a
During progress of the experiment, it was

observed that flexural cracks initiated near mid span and
further increase of loading caused widening of flexural
cracks in the portion between the loading points. In the
later stages of loading, shear cracks were also propagated
from the supports and further propagated diagonally as a
diagonal crack up to the top of the beam as shown in
Figure 10. Ultimately the beam was failed by flexure.
From the Figure 9 it may be noticed that the centre dial
gauge deflection was more compared to right and left
Initial cracks were not visible on the beams.

Further with increase of loading, propagation of the
cracks took place but it had poor visibility of cracks due
to the covering of the GFRP sheet. The failure was
initiated by the stretching of fiber wrap at the bottom in
the flexure zone followed by the crushing of concrete in
compression zone as shown in Figure 12.
From Figure 11, it was observed that GB1 had a
linear load of 54% higher when compared to B1a. By the
use of GFRP wrapping in the beam GB1, the initial
cracks were formed at higher loads than in their
respective control beam B1a. This showed that the use of
GFRP wrapping was more efficient in the case of
strengthening of flexure. Maximum percentage of
increase in ultimate strength was 60% for GB1 when
compared to B1a.
Page 190
in the amount of strengthening materials. The deflection

at yield level increases as the stiffness of the beam
increases. This is due to the delay in the steel yielding
that occurs when the quantum of strengthening material
is increased.
For the beams strengthened with GFRP
laminates they experienced deflections of 9.5 mm and
11mm for beams GB1 and GB2 at yield level
respectively. These values indicated the higher deflection
when compared to control beam B1a of 8mm. Similarly
deflections of 29 mm and 38 mm for beams GB1 and
GB2 respectively at ultimate level were also observed.
These values indicated higher deflection when compared
to control beam of B1a 20 mm.
GB2
Therefore, the increase in the strength of the

beam depends upon the increase in the number of
laminates provided to the beam. The presence of GFRP
laminate beam inhibits the development of the diagonal
cracks. There was a significant difference in the load
which causes this initial crack. The load versus
deflection behavior was better for beams retrofitted with
GFRP wrapped beams.
6.2.2
Moment versus Rotation Curves
In beam GB2, strengthening was done by

wrapping of double layer of GFRP sheet at two vertical
carrying capacity of the beam was 92 kN and
corresponding deflection was 38mm. The yield load was
78 kN and deflection of 11mm as shown in Figure 13.
The control beam B1a had a linear moment

rotation curve in the initial stage. The moment found was
3.50 kNm and rotation 0.04 radians at the ultimate level.
The moment found was 3.08 kNm and rotation 0.016
radians at yield level. When the steel starts yielding, the
beam gradually loses its stiffness. Finally, it fails when it
reaches the maximum strain in concrete.
Initial cracks are not visible on the beams.

Further with the increase in loading propagation, the
cracks took place but it had poor visibility due to the
covering of the GFRP sheet. The failure was initiated by
the stretching of fiber wrap at the bottom in the flexure
zone followed by the crushing of concrete in
The beam GB1 had a linear moment and

rotation value of
4.75 kNm and 0.019 radians
respectively. It showed 54% higher moment at the linear
level when compared to B1a. As a result, concrete
undergoes higher strains before failure. Due to improved
ductility of concrete, steel reaches its strain limit only at
the time of failure.
From the Figure 13, it was observed that GB2

had a linear load of 111% higher when compared to B1a
and 36% higher when compared to GB1. By the use of
GFRP wrapping in the beam GB2, the initial cracks were
formed at higher loads than in their respective beams
B1a and GB1. This showed that the use of GFRP
wrapping was more efficient in the case of strengthening
of flexure. Maximum percentage of increase in ultimate
strength was 119% and 37% when compared to B1a and
GB1.
The ultimate moment and rotation value of GB1

value of moment carrying capacity of GB1 was 60%
higher when compared to B1a.
All the strengthened beams and that

experienced mid span deflections were higher than those
of the control beam at their failure loads as shown in
Figure 11 and Figure 13. The values of mid span
deflection were increased, because ductility of the beams
increases
due
to
the
increase

rotation value of 6.5 kNm and 0.022 radians
respectively. It showed 111% higher moment at the
linear level when compared to B1a and 36% higher when
compared to GB1. As a result, concrete undergoes higher
strains before failure. Due to improved ductility of
concrete, steel reaches its strain limit only at the time of
failure. The ultimate moment and rotation value of GB2
were 7.66 kNm and 0.075 radians. The value of moment
carrying capacity was 119% higher when compared to
B1a and 37% higher when compared to GB1.
Page 191
All the strengthened beams that experienced

mid span rotations were higher than those of the control
beams at their yield moments and ultimate moments.
Since high ductility of the strengthened beams the mid
span rotations were increased.
For beams strengthened with GFRP laminates
experienced rotation of 0.019 radians and 0.022 radians
for beams GB1 and GB2 at yield moment respectively.
These values indicated that higher rotation when
compared to control beams B1a of 0.016 radians.
Similarly, rotation of 0.058 radians and 0.075 radians for
beams GB1 and GB2 respectively at ultimate levels were
observed. These values indicated higher rotations when
compared to control beam B1a of 0.04 radians.
Therefore, the rotation capacity is also
increased dramatically when used with GFRP
strengthening techniques. This is advantageous in
seismic retrofitting of structures according to the study
of Shailesh Kr Agrawal and Ajay Chourasia (2003).
4.50% respectively. These beams exhibited higher values

as compared with the control beam B1a.
The
energy ductility index for GB2 was 27% higher when
compared to GB1.
The increase in ductility in strengthened beams
exhibited higher values in both the cases when compared
to control beams. Therefore all strengthened beams
showed adequate ductility, due to GFRP strengthening.
They can survive the Zone III earthquake forces.
Hence, it is concluded that GFRP wrapping improves
seismic resistance of the building.
7. Conclusions
Conclusion Based on Analytical Results:
6.2.3. Ductility of the Composite Beams

Ultimate
Yield
Types of deflection deflection
Beam
(u)
(y)
(mm)
(mm)
B1a
20
8
()
(Increase of
() over the
control
beam (%)
2.5
GB1
29
9.5
3.05
22
GB2
38
11
3.45
38
Conclusion based on Strengthening Results:
Maximum percentage of increased in ultimate

strength was 60% and 119% for single layer of
GFRP (GB1) and double layer of GFRP (GB2)
when compared to unstrengthen beam (B1a).
By using double layer of GFRP (GB2) ultimate
strength was increased 37% when compared to
single layer of GFRP (GB1). Therefore, the
increase in the strength of the beam depends
upon the increasing number of laminates
provided to the beam.
By using single layer of GFRP (GB1) observed

that had a linear load of 54% higher when
compared to unstrengthen beam (B1a). By
using double layer of GFRP (GB2) observed
compared to unstrengthen beam (B1a) and 36%
higher when compared to single layer of GFRP
(GB1).

experienced deflections of 9.5mm and 11mm
for beams GB1 and GB2 at yield level
respectively. These values indicated that higher
deflection when compared to control beam B1a
of 8mm. Similarly deflections of 29mm and
38mm for beams GB1 and GB2 at ultimate
level respectively were observed.
Table 1. Comparison of Displacement Ductility of Tested Beams
Increase of
(E) over the
( control
beam
(%)
Types of
Beam
Ultimate
load
(Eu)
(kN)
Yield load
(Ey)
(kN)
E)
B1
42
37
1.13
GB1
67
57
1.17
3.54
GB2
92
78
1.18
4.50
Table 2. Comparison of Energy Ductility of Tested Beams
As per table 1, the percentage of displacement

ductility index for strengthened beams GB1 and GB2
were 22% and 38% respectively. These beams exhibited
higher values as compared with the control beam B1a for
displacement ductility index. The displacement ductility
index for GB2 was 13% higher when compared to GB1.
Similar to the displacement ductility index, the
percentage of energy ductility index values for
strengthened beams GB1 and GB2 were 3.54% and
Based on analysis, the beam first reaches its

capacity at performance point level.
The base shear capacity was low in Y direction
as compared to X direction at first hinge
formation level.
If an earthquake occurs in Coimbatore region
which is in Zone-III, this building will first
yield in Y direction because of weak beams.
Therefore weak beams in Y-direction must be
strengthened by using any one of strengthening
Page 192
8.
The moment rotation relation has discussed.
Maximum percentage of increased in moment
carrying capacity was 60% and 119% for single
layer of GFRP (GB1) and double layer of
GFRP (GB2) when compared to unstrengthen
beam (B1a). By using double layer of GFRP
(GB2) moment carrying capacity was increased
37% when compared to single layer of GFRP
(GB1). Therefore, the increase in the strength of
the beam depends upon the increasing number
of laminates provided to the beam.
The percentage of displacement ductility index
for strengthened beams GB1 and GB2 were
22% and 38% respectively. These beams
exhibited higher values as compared with the
control beam B1a for displacement ductility
index. The displacement ductility index for
GB2 was 13% higher when compared to GB1.
The percentage of energy ductility index values
3.54% and 4.50% respectively. These beams
control beam B1a. The energy ductility index
for GB2 was 27% higher when compared to
GB1.
The increased in ductility for strengthened
beams exhibited higher values in both cases
when compared to control beams. Therefore all
strengthened beams were showed adequate
ductility, due to GFRP strengthening. They are
particularly important for strengthening of
existing concrete structures using composite
elements, to resist the seismic effects. This was
very helpful in seismic retrofitting of structures
to survive the Zone III earthquake forces.
References
1.
ATC 40. Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of

Concrete Buildings. Applied Technology
Council, 1996.
2.
FEMA 273. NEHRP Guidelines for the

Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings. Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Washington
D.C., 1997.
3.
Mehmet Inel, Hayri Baytan Ozmen. Effect of

Plastic Hinge Properties in Nonlinear Analysis
of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Engineering
Structures, 2006, pp.1494-1502.
4.
FEMA 172. NEHRP Handbook of Techniques

for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing
Buildings. Building Seismic Safety Council,
Washington D.C., 1992.
5.
Shailesh KR, Agrawal, Ajay Chourasia.

Nonlinear Static Analysis For Seismic
Evaluation and Retrofit of RC Buildings.
Workshop on Retrofitting of Structures, Indian
Institute of Technology Roorkee, India, 2003,
pp.116-124.
6.
Amar Prakash, Thakkar SK. A Comparative

Study of Retrofitting of RC Building.
pp. 159-173.
7.
Mohamed Nour El-Din Abd-Alla. Application

of Recent Techniques of Pushover for
Evaluating Seismic Performance of Multistory
Buildings. Faculty of Engineering, Cairo
University Giza, Egypt, September 2007.
8.
Sundar N, Elangovan G. Evaluation of Inelastic

Response of Reinforced Concrete Frames using
Pushover Analysis. Thesis, Sastra University,
Kumbakonam, 2000.
9.
FEMA 356. Prestandard and Commentary for

the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings.
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston
V.A., 2000.
Page 193

CONSTRUCTION ACCIDENTS INDIAN SCENARIO

D. Kamalnataraj 1, Dr. V. Ramasamy 2
1
Research Scholar, Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India,kamalnatarajsgi@gmail.com

Adhiparasakthi engineering college, Melmaruvathur, 603319, India, rams_apec@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Construction industry is one of the most hazardous with an average of one fatal accident every ten minutes. Such huge
number of accidents and fatalities causes social and economic loss including the loss of productivity. The root causes
for such accidents were analyzed universally and majority of the cases indicates the constant negligence towards safety
by the project personnel, in recent years partly due to the structural collapse accidents. Both the human and the economic
costs of accidents worldwide are enormous, This paper identify the effect and their expensive defeat of investment and
human loss in construction accidents expected the knowledge shared Construction professional involved in construction
projects to plan an accident prevention strategy properly
Keywords: Construction Accidents, Construction Safety, Structural collapse, PPE, Construction Projects
1. Introduction
1.2 Structural Collapses in India:
The construction industry is significantly more hazardous

than most others economic sectors [3]. Trying to reduce the
incidence of construction failures is a continuous process and
organization such as Occupational Safety and Health
Administration [2] and others are dedicated to this goal [7].
The European Foundation found that 60% of the accidents it
surveyed could have been eliminated, reduced, or avoided
with more thought during the design stage (John A.
Gambatese [8]. A study on U.K. construction industry
revealed that there is a certain relationship between safety of
construction and decisions made in design process regarding
the accident causation.
Every year, India loses an average of 2,658 people to

different kinds of structural collapses; that is around 7 deaths
a day [3]. India has witnessed a significant number of
building collapses in the past 18 months. There have been
seven major building collapses in three Indian cities
(Mumbai, Chennai, and Vadodara) alone, resulting in a total
of 234 deaths, along with innumerable injuries and economic
losses [1]
.
The Indian professionals say, Safety standards always have
been an issue in India, whose building boom is helping the
country maintain an economic growth of almost 9% a year.
But as the number and scale of the airport, toll roads,
skyscraper and mall projects increase, so the risk of tragedy
rises. The number of accidents is also climbing in mining,
manufacturing and brick-making as those industries expand.
Big construction companies tend to train workers and
provide for safety. But the industry remains dominated by
small contractors who pay little attention.
A study of building failures in the US covering 11 years
from 1989 to 2000 recorded 225 failures (including both
partial and total collapses) with a total loss of lives of 97
persons. This implies about 9 lives lost per year on average
in the US, as compared to our record of 234 deaths in 18
months from just 7 selected collapses [3]. India has seen
1.1 Structural Collapses Worldwide:

There are annually at least 60,000 fatal accidents on
construction sites around the world, according to ILO
estimates. This means that one fatal accident occurs every
ten minutes in this sector, and that around 17% of all fatal
accidents at work (1 in every 6) happen on construction sites.
Young workers aged 15-24 are much more likely to suffer
non-fatal but serious accidents at work compared to their
older colleagues [3].
Page 194
frequent building collapses, many blamed on lax safety and

substandard materials [5].
The objective of this study is to find out factors leading to
accidents in construction projects using two approaches
which are event area breakdown structure and the nature of
fall accident analysis. In this paper, current profile of
accident records of India is presented. This paper also
presents the nature of accidents. The event area and their
potential active failures leading accidents are described. It is
expected the knowledge shared in this paper assist all people
involved in construction projects to plan an accident
prevention strategy properly.
2. BACKROUND PAPERS FOR CASE STUDIES
Apart from design failures which results in disasters, more
case studies prove that design criteria and limits adopted
does have strong impact over the accidents occurring at
construction sites. A 1996 paper showed that 50% of general
contractors interviewed identified poor design features are
affecting safety (Smallwood 1996).A European study
published that 60% of the accidents could have been
eliminated or reduced with more thought during the design
(European Foundation 1991).Researchers in the U.K. found
that, the design changes would have reduced the likelihood
of 47% of the 100 construction accidents (Gibb et al
2004).An American researcher found that construction
design was linked to accidents in approximately 22% of 226
injury incidents in Oregon, Washington, and California and
to 42% of 224 fatality incidents between 1990 and 2003
(Behm 2004).
3. Construction output in 2015 (billions in USD)
Construction industry spend investment worldwide ,the India
is the one of most leading investment for 620 billion USD in
the year (2015) This indicate the Indian construction
companies getting rapid development to improve the
infrastructure in this meanwhile the construction accidents
also it is crowning (India and china) in graph showing
worldwide In [3]
FIGURE 1 Construction output in 2015 (billions in USD)
Table 1 - Estimated numbers of fatal and non fatal

accidents world wide
Region
Estimated
fatal accidents
(ILO)
All accidents
report
to
(ILO)
15879
17416
40133
90295
76886
53292
39372
17977
Fatal
accidents
reported to
( ILO)
14316
7853
222
12736
3051
145
2009
1416
EME
FSE
IND
CHN
OAI
SSA
LAC
MEC
WORLD
351250
41748
9031431
7527083
343004
928
61329
141349
27015
776938
153785
4. Construction accidents an Indian scenario
In India, the construction industry is the second largest

employer next to agriculture. The annual turnover of the
construction industry is about Rs 4,000 billion, which is
more than 6 per cent of the National GDP even as it employs
a large work force. The average Fatal Accident Frequency
Rate (FAFR) in the Indian construction industries is 15.8 for
1000 employees as against 0.23 in the USA, avoid such
fatalities a culture of safety, including conduct of induction
training at the commencement at work place, mock drills
from time to time and periodic refreshing courses besides
appointment of safety officer, one each for every 1,000
construction workers is required .The number of fatality
caused by structural collapses in India in 10 years from 2003
to 2015 is given below graphically.
Page 195
Construction accidents like collapse structure make major

cost defeat from other industry ,in Tamilnadu various type of
structure collapse occurred in past three years ,In above fig
showing
Major defeat occurred in moulivakkam (Chennai) is
nearly 11 storied building is cost of construction is
approximately 250 cores and no of fatality is also very high
200
0
Collapse of
Structure (Bridge)
Collapse of
Structure (Others)
Fig 3 Accidental death and injured rate caused by collapse of structure

in the year 2013
Engineers generally concentrate only on productivity but it

became difficult when the execution is carried by way of
accidents in construction industry. This results losses in
investment; changes in schedule, affect in productivity, The
general attempts by the client, contractor and the designers
are always towards the attitude of cost savings where the
attempt to the prevention of accidents is negligible. This type
of attitude of construction professionals lack to concentrate
in safety aspects to protect this type major building accident.
2013
Collapse
400
2012
Suffocations
600
Collapse of
Structure
(Building)
Collapse of
Structure (Dam)
2011
Fall into
800
Collapse of
Structure (House)
Electrocutions
1000
Fire
1200
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Explosion
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) statistics show that

Tamil Nadu accounts for a significantly larger number of
deaths in building collapses than neighbors Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka and Kerala. NCRB data also reveals that more
people are likely to die in a single collapse in Tamil Nadu
than in other states (The Times of India, 2013).
Fall from height
Fig 2 Number of fatality caused by structural collapses in

India
As a predominant factor in controlling the accidents the

expected hazards at site can be controlled during the design
stage of the project itself. This study is an attempt to analyze
the role of the designers in controlling the hazards at site and
their attitude towards safety, the root causes for such
accidents were analyzed universally and majority of the
cases indicates the constant negligence towards safety by the
project personnel.
2014
Fig 4 various types of accidents in past four years

There are many accidents leading to fatal and serious injuries
in construction. Fig 5 shows the natures and expense of
accidents in under construction .This results make afraid to
Investment the capital was complete defeat to the
construction companies this make vanish the company
India faced major destructions within last two decades in
both under and post construction sites. Studies reveal that
major structural collapses are due to deficient structural
design, poor detailing, substandard materials, worst
workmanship, poor maintenance, combination of any of
these factors. It is expected that even if a building does fail,
it would give adequate warning so as to ensure safe egress
and prevent loss of life.
Nevertheless, recent building
collapses in India were instant without much warnings /
indications or there was not much inspections on the
structure. Lack of such regular inspections in both under and
post construction structures are also a reason for these type
of major loss. The subject study attempted to assess the
Page 196
potential damages of the structure using a detector and

communicate the same to the occupants / employees for safe
evacuation.
India has had a national law in place since 1996 that
aims to ensure the welfare of construction workers. But
Indian states have been slow to adopt the law and implement
it, which is required for its provisions to take effect. India
also faces a shortage of safety inspectors for construction

sites
Fig 6 show the rate of fatal occurred past three years this
graph show to excite construction industry is most hazards
industry to the construction labour this type of accidents
make demand to labour
Collapse of old
building(Triplicane,
Collapse of school
building(Viruthunagar)
Collapse of multi storey
building(Thenampet,
Collapse of star hotel
building(Mahabalipuram,
building(Madurai)
Collapse of shopping
complex(Trichy)
Collapse of hotel
building(Puzhuthivakkam,
building(Moulivakkam,
Collapse of godown
compound wall(Thiruvallur)
Collapse of formwork of
university

building(Madurai)

building(Madurai)
Scaffolding
falls(Puducherry)
Crane crash at a metro rail

site(Chennai)
Collapse of collage building

(Kancheepuram)
Collapse of
building(coimbatore)
Collapse of two storey

building(Thiruvallikani,
DEFEAT IN COST(APPROXIMATE) IN LAKHS
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1436910- 23- 24- 3-Oct- 14- 30- 19- 23- 19- 4-Apr- 28- 6-Jul- 30Jun- Aug- Aug- Aug- Sep- Sep- Sep- 12 May- Jun- Jul-13 Jul-13 Sep- 14 Jun- 14 Mar12
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
15
Fig 5 OCCRANCE OF CONSTRUCTION ACCIDENTS IN 2010-2015 IN TAMIL NADU
Page 197
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Collapse of
Collapse of collage
building (Kancheepuram)
site(Chennai)
Scaffolding
falls(Puducherry)
building(Madurai)
building(Madurai)
Collapse of old
Collapse of school
building(Thenampet,
building(Mahabalipuram
building(Madurai)
complex(Trichy)
Collapse of hotel
building(Puzhuthivakka
Collapse of godown
compound
university
NUMBER OF FATALITY
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
15
Fig 6 Numbers of fatal in past three years in Tamilnadu constructions
3. Conclusion
Recent building crashes are instant collapse of heavy
weighed structures over the occupants due to the soil
settlement that is down ward movement of building. The
occupants are unaware about the dames and hesitant in
reacting towards such emergency situations resulting in
loss to life, property etc. Engineers generally concentrate
only on productivity but it becomes difficult when the
execution is carried by way of accidents in construction
industry. This approach further emphasize to loss in
investment; changes in schedule, affect productivity. The
engineers should concentrate on safety aspects through
design in initial stage, in order to eliminate the
construction accidents. Safety of human life is a serious
threat in these structural collapses. Both the human and
the economic costs of accidents worldwide are
drastically increasing frequently worldwide. Even
though there are enormous economic losses, the loss of
human lives can be avoided if the structural collapse is
predicted .this paper recognizes the responsiveness to
construction accidents challenge to civil Engineering
professional.
Reference
[1] Complete collapse of building standards, The
Hindu business line, October 5, 2014, article no.
6473308.
[2] Eric MARKS and Jochen TEIZER (2012),

Proximity sensing and warning technology for heavy
construction equipment operation, Construction
Research Congress 2012, ASCE 2012.
[3] I.L.O (2005), Prevention: A Global Strategy
Promoting Safety and Health at Work. The ILO Report
for World Day for Safety and Health at Work,
International Labour Office , Geneva, 2005.ISBN 92-9117107-8
[4] In South India, TamilNadu records most building
collapse deaths, The Times of India, July 4, 2012,
article no. 14661723.
[5] India building collapse: Scores Trapped in
Chennai, BBC News India, 29 june, 2014, no.
28076572.
[6] Ivan W.H. Fung, Y.Y. Lee, Vivian W.Y. Tam, H.W.
Fung (2014), A feasibility study of introducing chin
straps of safety helmet as a statutory requirement in
Hong Kong construction industry, Safety Science 65
(2014) 70 78.
[7] Janet K. Yates and Edward E. Lockely (2002),
Documenting and Analyzing Construction Failures,
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
January/February 2002. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE) 07339364(2002) 128:1
[8] John A. Gambatese Michael Behm Jimmie
Page 198

W. Hinze, Viability of Designing for Construction
Worker Safety, Journal of Construction Engineering
and Management (ASCE)/September 2009.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE) 0733-9364(2005) 131:9(1029)
[9] Mr.N.Sambamurty, SK.Hasane Ahammad (2013),
Prevention of Train Accidents Using Wireless Sensor
Networks, International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications, ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol.3,
issue 6, Nov-Dec 2013, PP.1592-1597
[10] Naresh Fernandes, Samir Patil, Jennifer OBrien,
Shivam Vij (2015), Across India 2600 people die every
year in building and other structural collapses, scroll.in,
article no. 668636.
[11] Narito KURATA, Billie F.SPENCER, Jr. Manual
RUIZ SANDOVAL (2004), Building Risk
Monitoring Using Wireless Sensor network, 13th world
conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver,
B.C., Canada, August 1-6, 2004, Paper No.1406.
[12] Nie Jia Yau, Ming Kung Tsai, Hao Lin Wang,
Dong Mou Hung, Chih Shian Chen, Wen Ko Hsu
(2014), Improving bridge collapse detection and on-site
emergency alarms: A case study in Taiwan, Safety
Science 70 (2014) 133 142.
[13] P.H. Galanis, J.P. Moehle (2012), Development of
Collapse Indicators for Older-Type Reinforced Concrete
Buildings, 15th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal, 24 28 september, 2012.
[14] Szymberki.R (1997), Construction Project Safety
Planning, TAPPI journal, 80(11), 69-74.
[15] Ung Kyun Lee, Joo Heon Kim, Hunhee Cho,
Kyung In Kang (2009), Development of a mobile
safety monitoring system for construction sites,
Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 258 264.
[16] Vicki Kaskutas, Ann Marie Dale, Hester Lipscomb
et al (2010), Changes in fall prevention training for
apprentice carpenters based on a comprehensive needs
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227.
Page 199

ECOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF WASHBOWL FROM DISCARDED PRINTED

CIRCUIT BOARD
A.G.GANESHKUMAR1, Dr.G.RANGANATH2, Dr CHANNANKAIAH3,
1 Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, 635109, India, aggkdesign@gmail.com
2 Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, 635109, India, principal@adhiyamaan.ac.in
3 Adhiyamaan College of Engineering Hosur, 635109, India, hod_mech@adhiyamaan.ac.in
Abstract
The environmental costs of e-waste disposal, from toxic incinerator emissions to groundwater landfill poisons, have been reported
with increasing frequency and alarm. The Printed circuit board PCB is one of the major e-waste, which causes toxic to our
environment. In India people started using sanitary wares is increasing from last 5 years only. The foreign countries are starting to
establish their companies in India. The cost of the product is also increasing because of demand in the market. Therefore PCB boards
are powdered and sieved it to 80 micron size. The sieved powder is mixed with the epoxy resin, epoxy hardener and White color
pigment for fabricating the specimen. The specimens are tested under different mechanical and ecological conditions. Finally, the
composition 50% of PCB powder is mixed with 50% of bonding material is suitable for fabricating the washbowl by compression
molding technique. The washbowl which is fabricated is used to achieve lower cost and weight when compared to ceramic washbowl.
Keywords: E-Waste PCB, Epoxy resin, Colour Pigment, Fabrication and Ecological.
1. Introduction
An e-waste consists of a highly toxic material like Arsenic,
Barium, Beryllium, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, etc., which
cannot be decomposed easily and occupies more land area. The
dumping of e-wastes spoils the fertility of the soil and causes a
lot of hazards to the ecosystem. These wastes can be reduced by
properly recycling it and converting them into some useful
products. The recycling process involves the collection of
various types of E-waste like Printed circuit board (PCB). Then
soldering parts and waste materials are segregated from the
exceeding E-waste materials and shredded into small size
particles. The small sizes of Printed circuit board are then made
into powder. The technique that we use here to make the
washbowl is compression molding. The normal washbowl
production involves the raw materials which are of more cost
and requirement is high. But here we use the E-wastes that are
less economical and performance is far better than the normal
washbowl.
These procedures outline the requirements for the management

of PCB-contaminated waste materials generated in laboratories,
other academic areas and facilities and services operations. The
identification of possible sources of PCB-contaminated
materials, analysis and administrative requirements are outlined.
Decontamination procedures as they apply to emergencies are
also addressed.
Fig.1. Waste PCBs

2.1. PCB Recycling Processes
2. Experimental
Page 200
The waste PCBs recycling is the process of recovering land or

waste PCBs and reprocessing the material into useful products,
sometimes completely different in form from their original state.
For instance, this could mean convert from PCBs to powder by
routing machine.
material, giving it an advantage when working with expensive

compounds.
2.2. Materials: Waste PCBs Powder

The obtained powder contains some broken parts which cannot
be grinded and some abrasive particles which are very fine. So
the powder obtained is separated to some standard mesh sizes by
using sieves. The sieves used by us in the process of segregation
are 80 micron size and 150 micron size. These sizes are selected
because of the smaller particle size of the powder obtained.
Fig.2. Waste PCB Powder
Fig.5. Compression molding
Fig.3. 80 micron size

Fig.6. Molding Process
2.3.1. Parameters of Compression Molding

As two different types of powders are obtained after mashing, in
order to select a better powder with good physical properties
such as Density, impact strength, tensile strength, compressive
strength and hardness, some standard tests are made of the
powder obtained by making sample specimens.
The quantity of charge (molding material) pouring into the mold.

Pressure of the molding process Range of pressure 13.8 - 20.7
MPa, Mold temperature ranges from 149C - 191C. Cure time
variables. The period required to harden thermosetting material
to partial and complete polymerization is called cure time.
2.4. Mold Preparation for Specimen
For preparation of specimens, initially mold is prepared by using
sheets. For making specimen for tensile test, and hallow
cylindrical mold is prepared with 20mm diameter and 100 mm
length.
2.3. Compression Molding

Compression molding is a method of molding in which the
molding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open,
heated mold cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug
member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact
with all mold areas while heat and pressure are maintained until
the molding material has cured. The process employs
thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form
of granules, putty-like masses, or performs. Compression
molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for
molding complex, high strength fiberglass reinforcements.
Advanced composite thermoplastics can also be compression
molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly
oriented fiber mat or chopped strand. The advantage of
compression molding is its ability to mold large, fairly intricate
parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods
compared with other methods such as transfer molding
and injection molding; moreover, it wastes relatively little
Fig.7. Mold for specimen

2.5. Specimen Preparation
The 80 micron size powder is chosen because it has more
density. The strength is also more when compared to the other
micron sizes. The powder is mixed with the epoxy resin in 50:50
ratios along with Gardner and white color pigment is added.
These are mixed by using hand stirring process. The mold is
coated with the wax for non-sticky purpose. Then the mixture is
Page 201
poured into the both cylindrical and square shape molds.

Afterwards is tightened with bolts and nuts. Finally, it is placed
in the oven for the time period of 1 hour at 60 O C.
Fig.8. Hand stirring
Fig.10. Mixture is pasted into mold
Fig.9. Wax coated molds
Fig.11. Mold is tightened
replaces transmission of load through levers and knife edges,

which are prone to wear and damage due to shock on rupture of
test pieces. Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram.
Fig.14. Before Tensile Test
Fig.15. After Tensile Test

(sample-I)
Fig.16. After Tensile Test (sample-II)

3.1.1. Calculations
Sample I - (50% PCB POWDER + 50% EPOXY)
Breaking load
= 850 N
Area
= 28.286 mm2
Tensile strength = Breaking load / Area
= 850 / 28.286
= 30. 050 N/mm2
Elongation
= 6. 000%
Fig.12. Cylindrical specimen Fig.13. Square shape specimen
Figure: Stress Vs Strain
3. Mechanical Tests
The fabrication of PCB (Printed Circuit Board) is tested by
Universal Testing machine, Hardness testing machine. It helps to
identify the strength and hardness of the washbowl.
The following test is carried out by using the above machines.
1. Tensile test
2. Compression test
3. Rockwell Hardness test
3.1. Tensile Test
Tension test is conducted by gripping the test specimen between
the upper and lower cross-head, Compression, transverse,
bending, shear and hardness tests are conducted between the
lower crosshead and the table. The lower cross-head can be
raised or lowered rapidly by operating the screwed columns thus
facilitating ease of fixing of the test specimen.
Universal Testing Machine is designed for testing metals and
other materials under tension, compression bending, transverse
and shear loads. Operation of the machines is by hydraulic
transmission of load from the test specimen to a separately
housed load indicator. The hydraulic system is ideal since it
Fig.17. Tensile Test (sample 1)
Sample 2 - (50% PCB POWDER + 50% EPOXY)

Breaking load
= 770 N
Area
= 28.286 mm2
= 770 / 28.286
= 27. 221 N/mm2
Page 202
Elongation
= 4. 000%
Breaking load
= 29,095 N
Area
= 316.490 mm2
= Breaking load / Area

= 29,095 / 316.490
= 91. 930 N/mm2
Figure: Load Vs Displacement

3.2. Compression Test
Compression tests are used to determine how a product or
material reacts when it is compressed, squashed, crushed or
flattened by measure fundamental parameters that determine the
specimen behavior under a compressive load. These include the
elastic limit, which for "Hookean" materials is approximately
equal to the proportional limit, and also known as yield point or
yield strength, Young's Modulus (these, although mostly
associated with tensile testing, may have compressive analogs)
and compressive strength. Compression tests can be undertaken
as part of the design process, in the production environment or in
the quality control laboratory, and can be used to: Assess the
strength of components, e.g. automotive and aeronautical control
switches, compression springs, bellows, keypads, package seals,
PET containers, PVC / ABS pipes, solenoids etc.
Fig.22. Compression Test (sample 1)
Breaking load
= 31,195 N
Area
= 341.568 mm2

= 31,195 / 341.568
= 91. 328 N/mm2
Fig.19. Before Compression Test Fig.20. After Compression

Test (sample-I)
3.3. Rockwell Hardness Test

Fig.21. After Compression Test (sample-II)
3.2.1. Calculations
The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on

the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied.
Hardness covers several properties: resistance to deformation,
resistance to friction and abrasion. The term refers to stiffness or
temper or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. The
greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to
deformation. By measuring the depth of the indentation,
Page 203
progressive levels of forcing are measurable on the same piece.

The indenter may either be a steel ball of some specified
diameter or
a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120 angle
and 0.2 mm tip radius, called Brale. The hardness number is
expressed by the symbol HR and the scale designation.
3.3.1. Tabulation
Rockwell Hardness L scale, Major Load: 60kg, Minor Load:
10kg, Ball Indenter
Table 1. Rockwell hardness
Hardness Value
(hr L scale)
78.5
80.7
87.3
3.Hot water test 4.Cold water test

4.3.1.
Test Using Acid as the Medium,
The weight of the slab is weighed by using the digital weighing

machine.3% HCL acid is prepared by using 200 ml of water and
6ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is diluted by using the
distilled water. The pH value of the acid has been noted before
dipping the slab. The slab is submerged in the acid for the
duration of 120 hours. After that the slab is removed and heated
in the oven for 1 hour at 600C. The slab is removed and weighed
again to check whether any changes in weight. The pH of the
acid solution is also checked.
88.0
4. Ecological Tests
Fig.24. while dipping in acid
The fabrication of PCB (Printed Circuit Board) is tested by using

HCL acid and Water (hot and cold). It helps to identify the
corrosion and decolourisation of the washbowl.
1. Corrosion test 2.Decolourisation test 3.Odour test.
4.1. Corrosion Test
Corrosion testing refers to the processes conducted by
laboratories in order to solve, prevent or mitigate problems
related to corrosion. These processes can be applied in industrial
materials and infrastructure products, and are often used in
failure analysis.
All corrosion laboratories are composed of expert failure
analysts, chemists and engineers that are all certified in
corrosion testing. Such tests can provide useful information in
order to make sound decisions regarding selection of materials,
processing and treatment.
4.2. Decolourisation Test
After the corrosion test there may be removal of material will
take place. That will lead to change in color is known as
decolourisation. Decolourisation is inspected by visual method.
4.3. Odour Test
An odor is caused by one or more volatilized chemical
compound, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or
other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction. Odours are also
commonly called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and
unpleasant. The terms fragrance and aroma are used primarily by
the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and
are sometimes used to refer to perfumes. In contrast, malodor,
stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe
unpleasant odor.
Above three tests are carried under by
1.Acid test
2. Water test,
Fig.25. After dipped in acid
Table 2. Test Using Acid as the Medium

Time Period: 120 hours
Sl
No
Weight in gms
Before
After
1.
14.964
2.
3.
pH Value
Before(28C)
After( 29C)
14.964
2.28
2.38
14.811
14.811
2.28
2.30
14.833
14.831
2.28
2.40
4.3.1.1 Conclusion for Acid as the Medium

No appreciable change in weight and pH value. Because
negligible amount of ions only moved from the surface of the
material with acid.
4.3.2. Test Using Demineralized (DM) Water at 23oc 32oc
The testing procedure for DM water, The weight of the slab is
weighed by using the digital weighing machine. Water is poured
in a beaker up to 200ml. The pH value of the water has been
noted before dipping the slab. The slab is submerged in the
water for the duration of 120 hours. After that the slab is
removed and heated in the oven for 1 hour at 60 0C.The slab is
removed and weighed again to check whether any changes in
weight. The pH of the water is also checked.
Page 204
Fig.31. After dipped in soft water

Fig.26. DM water
Fig.27. While dipping in DM

Water
Table 4. Test using soft water at 23oC 32oC

Weight in gms
Sl.
No
Fig.28. After dipped in DM water
Before
After
9.
14.540
10.
11.
pH Value
Before(30C)
After(28C)
14.538
7.76
9.37
14.477
14.478
7.76
8.94
14.391
14.398
7.76
8.78
4.3.3.1. Conclusion for Soft Water

Table 3. Test using DM water at 23oC 32oC
No appreciable change in weight. Increase in basic nature is
noted due to the slight dissolution of the temporary oxide film
from the surface of the sample.

Weight in gms
pH Value
4.3.4. Test Using Hard Water At 23oc 32oc
Sl.
No
Before
After
Before (30C)
After (28C)
6.
14.713
14.712
7.12
9.01
7.
14.792
14.794
7.12
9.11
8.
14.637
14.636
7.12
9.03
4.3.2.1. Conclusion for DM Water
Fig.32. Hard water
Fig.33. While dipping in hard water
Demineralized water means no ions, Oxides from the surface of

sample will be free to dissolve into the bulk of the medium
therefore pH increases drastically.
4.3.3. Test Using Soft Water At 23oc 32oc
Fig.34. After dipped in Hard Water

Table 5. Test using hard water At 23oC 32oC
Fig.29. Soft water
Fig.30. While dipping in soft water
Weight in gms
Sl.
No
Before
After
pH Value
Before(30C)
After(28C)
Page 205
12.
15.440
15.454
9.33
9.62
13.
15.220
15.230
9.33
9.66
14.
15.427
15.441
9.33
9.66
DM water means no ions. Oxides from the surface of sample

will be free to dissolve into the bulk of the medium therefore pH
increases drastically. Oxide is facilitated by an increase in
temperature. Increase in temperature leads to decrease in
solubility products, which in turn results in increased
precipitation of salt particles.
4.3.4.1.Conclusion for Hard Water
Table 7. Test using soft water at 50oC
Increase in weight in hard water medium is due to the protective

coating formed by the ions present in the medium, Increase in
basic pH is noted, due to the dissolution of temporary oxide
films formed on the surface of the sample.
Sl.
No
Weight in gms
pH Value
Before
After
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
18.
15.749
15.804
7.18
7.43
19.
15.427
15.468
7.18
7.50
20.
14.966
15.013
7.18
7.58
4.4 Test Using Water at 50oc

machine. Water is poured into a beaker up to 200 ml. The pH
value of the water has been noted before dipping the slab. The
slab is submerged in the water. The beaker is placed in the oven
at 50OC for the duration of 168 hours. After that the slab is
removed and heated in the oven for 1 hour at 60 0C. The slab is
4.4.2.Conclusion for Soft Water

from the surface of the sample. Oxide is facilitated by an
increase in temperature. Increase in temperature leads to
decrease in solubility products, which in turn results in increased
Fig.35. Beaker placed in oven
Fig.36. After dipped in DM

water (hot)
Table 8. Test using hard water at 50oC

Sl
No
Weight in gms
Before
Fig.37. After dipped in soft

water (hot)
Fig.38. After dipped in

hard water (hot)
Table 6. Test using DM water at 50oC

Sl.
No
Weight in gms
Before
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
21.
14.800
14.846
8.96
8.77
22.
15.772
14.822
8.96
9.03
23.
14.842
14.884
8.96
9.10
4.4.3. Conclusion for Hard Water
pH Value
After
Before(30C)
After( 31C)
15.
15.060
5.107
7.15
8.06
16
15.097
5.142
7.15
8.07
17.
14.993
5.042
7.15
7.99
4.4.1.Conclusion for DM Water
After
pH Value

coating formed by the ions present in the medium. Increase in
films formed on the surface of the sample. Oxide is facilitated by
an increase in temperature. Increase in temperature leads to
decrease in solubility products,, which in turn results in increased
4.5. TEST USING WATER AT 10OC
machine. Three different types of water are selected.
Page 206
Demineralized water, Soft water and Hard water. Water is

poured into a beaker up to 200ml. The pH value of the water has
been noted before dipping the slab. The slab is submerged in the
water. It is placed in the refrigerator at 10 oC for the duration of
168 hours. After that the slab is removed and heated in the oven
for 1 hour at 600C. The slab is removed and weighed again to
check whether any changes in weight. The pH of the cold water
is also checked.
25.
15.079
15.086
6.28
7.25
26.
15.780
14.795
6.28
7.48
27.
15.806
15.816
6.28
7.23
4.5.2. Conclusion for Soft Water

from the surface of the sample. Inappreciable difference in
weight. Decrease in solubility products, value of salts not
appreciably affected low ion deposition.
Fig.39. Beaker placed in the

refrigerator

water (cold)

Sl
No

soft water (cold)
Fig.42. After dipped in hard

water (cold)
Table 9. Test using demineralized water at 10oC

Sl
No
Before
pH Value
4.5.1.
After
Before
(30C)
After
( 31 C)
5.
14.990
15.090
6.90
8.65
17.
15.244
15.251
6.90
8.83
24.
15.132
15.137
6.90
8.82
pH Value
Before
After
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
28.
14.747
14.758
8.09
8.26
29.
14.963
14.978
8.09
8.37
30.
14.815
14.826
8.09
8.35
Weight in gms
Weight in gms

films formed on the surface of the sample. Inappreciable
difference in weight. Decrease in solubility products, value of
salts not appreciably affected low ion deposition.
5.
3D Model of the Washbowl
Conclusion for Demineralized Water

increases drastically. Decrease in solubility products, value of
Fig.43. 3D model of the washbowl

Sl
No
Weight in gms
Before
After
pH Value
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
5.1 Area Calculation of Washbowl

Area at top
= length breadth
= 22.522.5
Page 207
Area at bottom
= 506.25 mm2
= length breadth
= 14.514.5
= 210.25 mm2
6. Recycling the Specimen

The prepared specimen is also can be recycled by grinding
process. The powder which we got is also mixed with the
bonding material to fabricate the any product. The recycled
powder has some bonding materials it will increase the strength.
When every time of recycling the strength value increases.
suitable to attain the increase in property of strength (tensile and

compression) and hardness. The washbowl is fabricated by using
compression molding technique. Because of better surface finish
and increase in strength.
The fabrication of washbowl which is made from PCB powder is
used to reduce the increasing number of electronic waste. The
product made from E-waste is also again can be converted into
powder by grinding process.
Acknowledgement
We wish to thank all the faculties in Mechanical Department,
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, helped us giving
suggestions and motivations for this work. Also thanking all that
indirectly involved in this work.
REFERENCES
[1]
Fig.44. After powdering the specimen
7.
Results and Discussion
The E-waste cannot be decomposed easily and occupies more

land area. The dumping of e-wastes spoils the fertility of the soil
and causes a lot of hazards to the ecosystem. These wastes can
be reduced by properly recycling it and converting them into
some useful products. The PCB is powdered and added to the
bonding materials like epoxy resin, epoxy hardener and white
colour pigment to prepare the cylindrical and square shape
specimens and is used to analyze the mechanical and ecological
behavior of washbowl. The specimens are prepared by using
50% of PCB powder and 50% of bonding material
The mechanical property of the specimen is
Tensile strength
: (25 30) N/mm2
: (91 92) N/mm2
Hardness
: (80 88) HR L
SCALE
7.1. The Ecological Property of the Specimen
Cheng-Hsien Wua, Yu-Rey Panb June 2008 The study

of injection/compression liquid composite molding.
[2]
K. Moria, M. Umedab, M. Murakamia April 2005

determination of material constants and prediction of
fracture in sintering of ceramic products.
[3]
. Aksoy, Z. Ertrk, K. ztrk, H. Celtic, J.S. Ward,

March 2007 A study of ergonomic factors in
washbasin design.
[4]
Peeranart Kiddee, Ravi Naidu, Ming H. Wong 2013

Electronic waste management approaches: An
overview, Waste Management 33 12371250.
No appreciable change in weight and pH value, There are only

negligible amount ions transformation only takes between the
specimen and the medium. Corrosion takes in the hard water
medium only that too negligible amount, There is no change in
the odour while before and after testing.
8.
Conclusion
The Washbowl is fabricated from the results of the test

specimens which is made from the Printed Circuit Board
powder, Epoxy Resin, Epoxy Hardner and white color pigment
it helps us to achieve low cost and weight when compared to the
ceramic washbowl. The washbowl is fabricated by using 50% of
PCB powder and 50% of bonding material. The selected ratio is
Page 208
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORATION PLANNING IS KEY TO EMISSIONS AND ENERGY

CONSERVATION
P.Ponnurangam*
Assistant Professor, S.A. Engineering College, Chennai 600 077, India, yabas123@gmail.com
Abstract
The Transport Sector of India is largely dependent on the Energy resources accounting to nearly 11% of its total primary
energy use which is predicted to reach 20% by 2030. Fuel usage in transportation sector is bound to increase by 87% in
20 years with a decrease in the available diesel stock and an alarming increase in the demand. Also the growing vehicle
population has increased the contribution of Vehicular Pollution to the Urban Air Pollution from 60% in the year 1990 to
90% in 2010. In order to eliminate these risks the interaction between these sectors should be studied in detail. Since
there was a lack of interdisciplinary works involving the sectors of Transport Energy and Emissions interaction based
on a Systems Approach this study is focused on carrying out an in depth study of the same based on Systems Dynamics
principles. The major objective of the work is to study and appreciate the existing energy and emissions scenarios in
Chennai city, to procure data through inventory on energy requirement and emission standards from transportation
sector and to build a System Dynamics (SD) model using STELLA simulation software to determine the Energy
requirement and Emissions levels from the transport sector in the year 2026.
Keywords: Transportation Energy; Transportation Emission; Demand and supply of Energy consumption, Emission
standards; Sustainable Planning; Simulation Modeling.
1. Introduction
India is the sixth largest energy consumer in the world. The
transport sector of the country accounts to nearly 19% of global
energy use which is projected to reach 50% by 2030. Studies
disclose the fact that at the present rate of economic growth, energy
needs may increase by 16% and more with respect to the present
scenario. This increase in energy use leads to an increase in Carbon
di-oxide emissions also. It has been projected that the greenhouse
gases emission will increase at a rate of 7% per annum. Hence
proper planning measures should be adopted to reduce the
increasing energy demand and concomitant reductions in
emissions.
1280Mtoe in 2030, which is about 3.5%. This demand is higher

than the World average of 1.6%. As a result, India will become
more dependent on imports and hence will be exposed to global
supply risks and external price shocks casting a shadow on the long
term sustainability, economy and security of its energy
requirements. Hence a collective effort and unified policy direction
is the need of the hour to face the challenges.
1.2. Objectives of the Study
1.1. Need for the Study

In 2005, Indias transport sector consumed 11% of its total primary
energy demand (16.9 % of commercial energy supply). 78 % of
this demand was consumed by Road Transport, 11% by Aviation,
10% by rail transport and 1 % by Inland water. The transport sector
is set to grow at over 6% per annum on the back of rising economic
activity and a rapid surge in the vehicle stock. By 2030, the share
of transport sector is likely to double to about 20% of the primary
energy demand. Globally, the share of the Indian transport sector is
likely to triple from its low of 2% in 2005 to about 6% in 2030.
The growth of transport sector, primarily driven by road transport
will remain heavily dependent on the availability and affordability
of oil. For the energy requirement of the country as a whole, coal
will however remain a dominant fuel with its share of 48% of total
energy needs in 2030, followed by oil at 25%. The total demand of
primary energy is likely to go up from 566Mtoe in 2006 to
To study and appreciate the existing energy scenarios in

Chennai city.
To collect secondary data on energy requirement in
transportation sector and level of emissions in
transportation sector.
To build a System Dynamics model using STELLA
software that would address transport, energy and
emissions interactions.
To determine the Energy demand levels from the
transport sector in the year 2026.
To suggest appropriate measures that would ensure
developments towards achieving sustainability in
transportation planning.
2. Review of Literature
Several researches have been conducted to study the trend of
energy scenarios in Chennai city with regards to Transportation and
energy sector. It is time to look back at the past to know what has
been achieved and what new techniques have been developed so
far. Thus related works in this field of study have been reviewed
and are presented below.
Corresponding author. Tel.: 09952608829

E-mail: yabas123@mail.com
Page 209
P.Ponnurangam / INDECS-15
2.1.1. Transportation and Energy Interaction

Beimborn (2005) in his paper studied about the Transportation
energy: its supply, demand and the future. An energy model was
built to determine the energy demand for the year 2000 to 2050.
Population, energy intensity and GDP were taken as input, the
values were projected for the 50 years and the results were found.
Population was predicted to increase by 50%. This leads to an
increase in GDP of about 300%. Demand for petroleum was found
to increase by 91%. A decline of 1.11 % in energy intensity led to a
total energy demand increase by 172% and 42% decline in
hydrocarbon production. Stock of petroleum is declining at a faster
rate and a marketed imbalance between supply and demand was
observed. The author has concluded that there is no easy long term
solution, but only a combination of thousands of actions like Price
increase, Conservation, use of alternative Fuels like Natural gas,
LPG, CNG, Methanol, Ethanol etc., Electricity, Hydrogen and Biodiesel can lead towards a sustainable transportation.
Kibira et al (2011) in their study System Dynamics Modeling of
Corn Ethanol as a Bio Transportation fuel in the United States
modelled using system dynamics the use of Corn Ethanol as a bio
transportation fuel in the United States. The authors say that
continued strong growth of the corn ethanol industry will depend
on profitability by both suppliers and producers. This in turn will
be influenced by several factors such as demand, government
incentives, feedstock availability and prices, processing plant
capacity, and efficient farm and ethanol processing technologies.
Therefore they use system dynamics modeling to construct the
causal-loop structure of the corn ethanol industry and a stock and
flow diagrams to explore how changes in projected factors will
affect the industry. This paper explores different possible growth
scenarios of the industry for the next twenty one years. The paper
has described a system dynamics model that can be used to study
the state of corn ethanol fuel industry in the U.S., and the effect of
changes to the forecast future trend on the operating parameters.
Kwon and Hyeong (2009) did A System Dynamics Model of
Alternative Fuel Vehicles Market under the Network Effect.
According to the system dynamics model of this study, if there is a
significant network effect on vehicle operating costs, it is difficult
to achieve the shift to AFV even in the long term without a policy
intervention because the car market is locked in to the current
structure. Network effect was caused by an increasing return to
scale in fuel supply sector as well as in maintenance service sector.
It was also related to the fact that the reliability and awareness of
consumers on new products increases with the growth of the
market share of the new products. The authors say that if there was
a significant network effect for vehicle operating costs, it would
have been difficult to achieve the shift to AFVs even in the long
term without a strong policy intervention because the car market is
locked in to its current structure. Network effects can be caused by
increasing returns to scale in the fuel supply sector as well as in the
maintenance service sector. They are also related to the fact that the
reliability and awareness of consumers of new products increases
with the growth of the market share of the new products. AFVs
which rely on the fuel supply infrastructure of conventional cars
such as hybrid cars should have less of a network effect for
operating costs. These vehicles would have less difficulty in
increasing their market share than AFVs which require a
fundamentally different fuel supply infrastructure from
conventional cars (e.g. hydrogen fuel cell cars). Therefore the

authors concluded that, it could be effective to put a policy focus
on the former type of AFVs (with less of a network effect: same
fuel supply infrastructure as conventional cars) even if the latter
type of AFVs (with a significant network effect: different fuel
supply infrastructure from conventional cars) have more
environmental benefit in the long term, by the time the cost gap
between conventional cars and AFVs decreases substantially.
Mi and Zhou (2009) in their paper studied Transportation, energy
consumption and carbon emission in china. The authors says that
road transport plays a dominant role while railway transport has
been in short supply in Chinese inter-city \transportation system.
Rail transportation is the most energy-efficient as for the unit
energy consumption of t transportation. Fossil fuels such as coal,
oil, and gas are the major source of world energy, accounting for
more than 80 % of the total energy produced. The distribution of
population is uneven in China because 94% of the population is
beneath the southeast of the Heihe-Tengchong line. Rail
transportation becomes the first choice of the citizens for its large
capacity, low energy consumption, safety and economic under such
situation. Because of the inadequacy of the railways transport
capacity, the new transportation demand mainly depends on the
roads, which leads to high energy consumption, carbon emission
and severe environment pollution. Provided the cargo turnovers
research to 40% of the total turnover, 210 million tons of coal will
be saved and 400 million tons of CO2 will be reduced. China has
invested huge amount of money in the construction of high speed
railways. However, both the operating mileage and the
passenger/freight turnovers are lag behind the roads. The low
efficiency of the sector monopoly is an important cause. The
government should learn from the development mode of the
highway and the aviation to achieve the diversification of
construction-operation and permits the local and private capital
to enter into the railway market to enhance the line coverage and
transport capacity.
2.1.2. Ttransport and Energy Sector in India
Kumar et al (2000) in his study National Energy Map for India:
Technology Vision 2030 examined the role that various
technological options could play under alternative scenarios of
economic growth and development, resource availabilities, and
technological progress. For this purpose, they have chosen an
integrated energy-modelling framework that would facilitate the
creation and analysis of various scenarios of energy demand and
supply at the national level, as well as provide a detailed
representation and analysis at the technological level for each
category of resource as well as sectoral endues demand. After an
extensive survey of existing models, the MARKAL (MARKet
ALlocation) model was selected to examine the pathways for
optimal energy supply to meet the endues services in the five
energy-consuming sectors (agriculture, commercial, residential,
industrial, and transport) under various scenarios. MARKAL is a
dynamic linear programming representation of a generalized
energy system. Exogenously estimated useful energy demands
were provided to the model over a modelling time frame of 2001
31 using population and GDP as the key drivers to growth. Seven
alternative scenarios were set up against the business-as-usual
(BAU) scenario to examine variations with regards to economic
growth and technological development.
Page 210
The total energy consumption in the transport sector was found to

increase by about 14 times from 43 Mtoe in 2001 to 461 Mtoe in
2031. By targeting action on the demand as well as supply sides in
the transport sector by enhancing the use of public transportation a
reduction of about 190 Mtoe of energy can be achieved in 20201.
Introduction of cleaner fuels such a low sulphur diesel, ethanol
blending, and bio-diesel are recommended by the author to reduce
the consumption of petroleum products and thereby their import
dependency.
Ramachandra and Shwetmala (2009) in their paper synthesised
about The emissions from Indias transport sector: State-wise. In
this study, a decentralized emission inventories were prepared for
road transport sector of India in order to design and implement
suitable technologies and policies for appropriate mitigation
measures. The author have stated that Globalization and
liberalization policies of the government in 90s have increased the
number of road vehicles nearly 92.6% from 19801981 to 2003
2004. These vehicles mainly consume non-renewable fossil fuels,
and are a major contributor of green house gases, particularly CO2
emission. In this paper they have focussed on the state wise road
transport emissions (CO2, CH4, CO, NOx, N2O, SO2, PM and
HC), using region specific mass emission factors for each type of
vehicles. The country level emissions (CO2, CH4, CO, NOx, N2O,
SO2 and NMVOC) are calculated for railways, shipping and
airway, based on fuel types. In India, transport sector emits an
estimated 258.10 Tg of CO2, of which 94.5% was contributed by
road transport (20032004). Among all the states and Union
Territories, Maharashtras contribution is the largest, 28.85 Tg
(11.8%) of CO2, followed by Tamil Nadu 26.41 Tg (10.8%),
Gujarat 23.31 Tg (9.6%), UttarPradesh 17.42 Tg (7.1%), Rajasthan
15.17 Tg (6.22%) and, Karnataka 15.09 Tg (6.19%). These six
states account for 51.8% of the CO2 emissions from road transport.
The total CO2 emission for Indian transport was 258.10 Tg
in20032004. Among all type of transport, road and aviation were
first and second major contributor of air pollution. The road
transport sector has contributed 94.5% and 53.3% of total transport
emission of CO2 and CO. Among all the states and UT,
Maharashtras contribution is the largest, 28.85 Tg (11.8%) of
CO2, followed by Tamil Nadu 26.41 Tg (10.8%), Gujarat 23.31 Tg
(9.6%), Uttar Pradesh 17.42 Tg (7.1%), Rajasthan 15.17 Tg
(6.22%) and, Karnataka 15.09 Tg (6.19%). The total of these six
states accounts for 51.8% of the CO2emissions from road transport.
3. Study Area
Chennai is the fourth largest metropolitan city of India which
covers an area of 426 sq.km and recorded a population of 46.81
lakhs in 2011. The Chennai Metropolitan Area which extends over
an area of 1189 sq.km recorded the population of 86.96 lakhs in
2011 and the density is 11,000 per sq.km. The population of
Chennai in 1639 was 40,000 and today the city is estimated to have
a population of 7.5 million, which gives a population density of
about 6482 per sq.km. This rapid increase in population leads to
traffic congestion and imbalanced supply and demand of transport
facilities. Thus it is imperative to study a transportation and energy
interaction in Chennai city and to provide an early warning on the
robustness of both present and future situation. Fig.1 depicts the
index map of the study area.
Chennai City
CBD
Fig.1 Index Map of Study Area
3.1. Software Used

The model of transport and energy interaction using the System
Dynamics (SD) has been implemented in the STELLA
environment (STELLA 9.1 package). The modeling tool which is
an object-oriented simulation environment allows the development
of Transport Energy interaction models with significantly less
effort than using traditional programming languages. It has a userfriendly graphical interface and supports modular program
development. Using this tool, the modeler defines objects
representing physical or conceptual system components and
indicates the functional relationships among these objects. Building
on these strengths, the general architecture of a Transport and
Energy Interaction model will be described.
4. Methodology
The methodology for the model development and analysis of the
same has been provided in the form of a flow chart in Figure 2.
Carrying out a review of various literatures in the study area is the
initial work required. Based on the review, a methodology to
analyse the work to be carried out has been figured. The need for
study and the primary objectives to be fulfilled have been
established as given in the earlier chapters. The analysis starts with
the data collection required for the study. As far as this study is
concerned, the data required is only secondary data which has been
collected from various journals and reports pertaining to the data.
After the model conceptualisation has been carried out, model
building, analysis and testing the model for various scenario
options has been carried out. Based on the results obtained suitable
recommendations for policy options have been given.
Page 211
Need for the Study
Formulation of Objectives
Selection of Study area
Collection of Data
Secondary data
CCTS, Wilbur Smith Associates, Aug 2010
Energy and Emission data from various

literatures
Projected/Expected Modal split form Second

master plan
Primary data
Relevant Information on Transport and

Energy and Emission Sector and Service
volume levels on urban roads
Existing Transportation Modal mix
Existing Levels of Service
SD Model Development using STELLA

Model Calibration
Model Behavior
Model Evaluation & Scenario Analysis
Results, Inferences & Recommendations
Fig.2. Study Methodology Chart
5. Data Collection
5.1. Population Sector
Total birth and death rates are increasing from decade to decade but
their rates decreasing. The registered birth rate in Chennai City
segment was 24.06 in 1991 and reduced to 22.62 in the year 2003.
The death rate also declined from 9.20 in 1981 to 8.01 in 2003.
However, net natural increase in population had been decreasing
from year to year from 22.00 in 1981 to 14.61 in 2003. According
to 2001 census, migrants to Chennai city from other parts of Tamil
Nadu State constitute 74.5 percent. The growth of in-migrant
population shows a declining trend from 36.80 percent in 1961 to
21.57 percent in 2001. Migrants from other parts of India constitute
23.8 percent and the remaining 1.71 percent of the migrants is from
other countries. Table.1depicts the migration details of the Chennai
city.
5.2 Transportation Sector
With respect to the transport sector, the data which are of
prime concern are vehicle population and the existing Modal Split
in the city which have been obtained from the Second Master Plan
for Chennai, CMDA report. Statistics of Transport Department,

Chennai which gives the data regarding the total number of
commercial and non-commercial vehicles in the city and the data
considered for this study have been given in Table.2. The MTC
buses with a fleet size of around 3500 buses cater to 36 lakhs
trips/day.
5.3 Energy Sector
The Energy sector the fuels which were of prime concern were
Petrol and Diesel. Hence data pertaining to the fuel consumption
per day by Petrol and Diesel driven vehicles have been collected
from earlier studies and presented in the Table.3 and the respective
Fuel Efficiency values have been used in the model analysis.
5.4 Emission Sector
The Emission sector the emission factors for trace gas emissions
from vehicles have been collected from earlier studies and
presented in the Table.4 and the respective emissions values have
been used in the model analysis.
Page 212
Table 1. Migration to Chennai City (in Lakhs)
Total Migration in the City
1961
17.49
4.47
69.45
1.71
26.6
0.25
3.90
6.44
Percent of
Total
Migrants in
the Total
Population
36.80
1971
26.42
5.51
70.61
2.00
25.63
0.29
3.76
7.80
29.52
1981
32.84
7.19
71.28
2.55
25.31
0.34
3.41
10.08
30.70
1991
38.43
6.44
70.51
2.42
26.47
0.28
3.01
9.18
23.90
2001
43.43
6.98
74.49
2.23
23.80
0.16
1.71
9.37
21.57
Total
Population
Year
Other Parts of
Tamil Nadu
No.
Percent
Other Parts of
India
No.
Percent
Other Countries
No.
Percent
Total
Source: www.cmdachennai.gov.in
Table 2. Vehicle Population in Chennai City in the 2006 to 2011
Vehicles / Year
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Buses
2803
3084
3260
3280
3421
3464
0.11
Auto Rickshaw
41316
39330
51113
44973
49062
63640
Taxi
283
284
1165
1252
1259
1268
Private Bus
883
926
2376
874
2702
2906
Mini Bus
902
961
1709
1129
2095
2217
Motor cycles
6.72
7.86
8.96
10.41
13.71
15.63
Scooters
2.86
2.98
3.12
3.20
3.33
4.03
Mopeds
4.69
4.76
4.82
4.90
4.97
6.15
Two Wheelers
14.27
15.60
16.90
18.51
22.01
25.81
Cars
3.35
3.66
4.00
4.41
4.82
5.80
Total (in lakhs)
18.08
19.71
21.5
23.43
27.41
32.34
2.00
0.16
97.73
100
Source: www.tn.gov.in
Table 3. Average Fuel Consumption by Different Classes of Vehicle
Average Distance Covered
Fuel Efficiency
Fuel Consumed
Two Wheelers
(km/day)
18
(km/l)
53
(Litres/veh/year)
124
Three Wheelers
96
Cars
22
Type of Vehicle
Mini Bus (Diesel)
22
Bus
151
21 (Petrol)
13.5(Petrol),
1669
593
14.0(Diesel),
571
13.0(LPG),
618
15.0(CNG)
535
8.7
4.1(Diesel)
897
13415
Source: Report of the Expert Group, Government of India Report, February, 2010
Page 213
Table 4. Trace Gas Emissions Factors for Vehicles
Pollutant
Two
Auto
Wheeler
Rickshaw
515.20
26.6
3.60
3.60
NOX
12.00
CH4
Bus
Omni / Bus
Cars
Taxi
CO2
515.20
60.30
223.60
208.30
CO
2.20
5.10
1.98
0.90
12.00
0.19
1.28
0.20
0.50
0.09
0.09
0.18
0.18
0.17
0.01
SO2
1.42
1.42
0.013
0.029
0.053
10.30
PM
0.56
0.56
0.05
0.20
0.03
0.07
HC
0.87
0.87
1.42
0.14
0.25
0.13
(g/km)
Source: Ramachandra, T.V., Shwetmala, Emissions from Indias transport

Sector: Statewise synthesis, Atmospheric Environment (2009)
6. System Dynamics Model Development

The system Dynamics model development process is summarized
in the schematic diagram of a model life cycle in Figure 3. The
modeling process starts with defining the purpose/goal of the
system. Then boundaries of the system to be modeled are specified.
This is followed by identification of key variables in the system
that affects the system, the most. Then behavior of the key variable
is described, the stocks and flows are indentified, and their
structure is mapped in the modeling tool using basic building
blocks. Quantitative information, i.e., equations and data, is
included in the model structure. The model is run to test the
behavior. The model is then evaluated and adjustments are made.
Once the model is replicating system behavior, it is ready for
simulation modeling. Figure 4. Depicts the overall casual loop
diagram of Transport, Energy and Emission interaction.
Define purpose of
system
Specify System
boundaries
Identify key variables of system
Describe behavior of key variables
Identify stocks and flows in the system
Map system structure in modeling
Run model to test system
Apply model for simulation

Fig.3 System Dynamics Model development Life Cycle
6.1 Population Sector

After the identification of key variables, the model for the
population sector has been developed based on the causal loop
diagram. The System Dynamics model for Chennai City segment
population sector is shown in Figure 5. The various parameters
considered for building the population sector model are as follows:
Fig. 4 Overall Casual Loop Diagram
POP
BR
DR
Total Population
Birth rate
Death Rate
Page 214
IMR
OMR
BN
DN
IMN
OMN
In Migration rate
Out Migration rate
Birth Normal
Death Normal
In Migration Normal
Out Migration Normal
In this sector, Population of the Base Year, Birth Rate, Death Rate,
In Migration and Outmigration are considered. The size of the
population is influenced by both the net birth rate and net migration
rate. The net birth rate equals the total number of births per year
minus the total number of deaths. Similarly, the net migration rate
equals the number of in-migrants minus the number of out
migrants. However, the number of births and deaths as well as net
in-migrants can be defined as a yearly percentage of the population.
Hence, the population model contains one level and four rates as
stated below:
ADT
FE
FC
-Average distance travelled by the vehicle per day

-Fuel efficiency of the vehicle
-Total fuel consumed by the vehicle
The following vehicles were considered under various sectors for

the study. The major sectors taken into account were Public
transport vehicles (Bus), IPT vehicles (Auto Rickshaw and Taxi),
Personalised vehicles (Two Wheelers and Cars) and Other Vehicles
Sector (Private Bus and Mini Bus). The vehicle growth is assumed
from the past trend. Using the values of Average Distance travelled
per day and Fuel Efficiency in km/litre and the projected values of
vehicle population, the final value of Fuel consumption has been
determined. In this study, the total trips made by Rail contributing
to Public Transport sector have been analysed. Sub-Urban rail
system within the city operates on electricity and hence is devoid of
emissions. The demand of electricity by rail sector has not been
accounted in this research.
Population (t) = Population (t-dt) + (Birth_Rate + migration_Rate

Death_Rate - Out_Migration_Rate) * dt
IPT VEHICLES
TOT Auto
Chennai City segment population is the level variable. The level is

influenced by the Birth Rate, Death Rate, In-Migration and OutPOPULATION MODEL
Migration rate.
Total FC Auto
Auto Inc
ADT per day Auto

FE per Auto
~
GR Auto
DN
~
Auto TripsAuto TR
IMN
IMR
CAR VEHICLES
POP
DR
BR
Tot FC PC
Tot PC
ADT per day PC
Table 1
BN
OMR
Tot Cars
OMN
FE per PC
Graph 1
Car Inc
Tot FC DC
Fig. 5 Population Sector Model for Chennai City
6.2 Transport, Energy and Emission Sector

Based on the causal loop diagram the System Dynamics model
addressing the interactions between transport energy, emission
sector has been developed which is given in Figure 6. The various
parameters considered for building of transport sector model are as
follows:
TOT
GR
Tot DC
~
GR Cars
~
Car Trips
ADT per day DC

FE per DC
Car TR
-Total Vehicle Population

-Vehicle growth rate
Page 215
SHARE OF TRANSPORT TRIPS
Two Wheeler Vehicles
Table 4
Auto Trips
Tot TW
Tot FC TW
Tot Trips
Bus Trips
Tot Public Trips

Car Trips
TW Inc
Tot Priv ate Trips
ADT per day TW

FE per TW
GR TW
TW Trips
TW TR
TW Trips
PUBLIC VEHICLES
FUEL CONSUMPTION
Tot bus
Total FC Auto
Tot FC bus
Tot FC bus
Bus Inc
Tot Public FC
ADT per day Bus

Tot FC
FE per bus
~
~
GR bus
Tot FC PC
Tot Priv ate FC
Bus TR
Tot FC TW
Bus Trips
Tot FC DC
Fig.6 Transport, Energy and Emission Sector Model for Chennai City
Page 216
8. Recommendations
7. Results
This system dynamics models are tested with various scenarios
analysis and policy options. They are following:
Scenario I - Do Minimum (Allowing the existing trend to

continue)
Scenario II Partial Condition Scenario (Augmentation

of Public Transport and Restricting growth of
personalized modes)
Scenario III - Desirable Scenario (Augmentation of

Public Transport and Restricting growth of personalized
modes)
7.1 Scenario I Do Minimum
At the present growth rate of vehicles in Chennai, Public transport
would share 51% of the total trips whereas personalized transport
would share 49% of the total trips in the year 2026. Fuel Consumed
by the personal modes of travel viz. Petrol Driven cars, Diesel
driven cars and Two Wheelers are 12, 13.3 and 20.8 lakhs liters per
day respectively in the year 2026. This shows an alarming increase
of about 300% to 400% in the fuel consumption by personalized
modes of travel which would correspondingly increase the demand
for Petrol and diesel. Personalised modes of transport contribute to
the major share of pollution in the city amounting to 40% roughly.
7.2 Scenario II Partial Condition Scenario
In the Partial Efforts scenario (Scenario II), simulation has been
carried out such that minimal efforts are undertaken by the
government to achieve a Modal Split of 64:36 between Public and
Private Mode. In order to facilitate the above condition, the Public
transport has been augmented in a phase wise manner to reach a
growth rate of 7% by 2026 and simultaneously the growth rate of
Two Wheelers and Cars have been restricted to almost half of the
existing value i.e. 4% and 5.5% respectively in 2026. On
comparison with Scenario I, a remarkable decrease to 13% and
23% could be observed in Scenario II with regard to the trips made
by cars and two wheelers. This decrease leads to a modal split
value of 64:36 between public and private modes of travel.
Decrease of about 60% is noted in the emissions from the
personalised vehicles and emissions per capita in public transport
are much lesser than that observed in personalised vehicle sector.
7.3 Scenario III Desirable Scenario
Based on this scenario, the Modal Split between Public and private
modes of travel have been achieved as 70:30. This increase in
Public transport trips can be attributed to the introduction of Metro
Rail, Mono Rail, BRTS and increasing the ridership in MRTS.
When compared with Do Minimum condition, Fuel consumption in
personalized mode of travel is found to reduce by about 65% in the
case of Petrol driven cars, 65% in diesel driven cars and by 50% in
Two Wheelers. Totally 40% reduction in Energy has been achieved
by incorporating CNG by 50% and 2 lakhs Fuel cell vehicles. This
reduces the load on Petrol and Diesel demand. Adoption of EURO
IV emission norms in addition to achieving a modal split of 70:30
reduces the emissions from vehicles to a sustainable 50 90%.
From the study carried out, the following recommendations are

given.
There is an immediate need to restrict the growth of

personalised vehicles and augment the public transport.
This augmentation can be attributed to increasing the
MTC fleet size, introduction of Metro Rail and Mono rail
in the city.
In order to achieve the Modal Split of 70:30, the MTC

fleet size increases to 9000 efficient services. Also the
Metro rail and Mono Rail services should be
implemented on time and operated with maximum
efficiency.
The growth rate of Two Wheelers and Cars should be

restricted to 2% and 1.5% respectively in the year 2026
to achieve the above mentioned policy of the
government.
EURO IV emission norms should be made mandatory by

2018 if not at least by 2026. This reduces the emission
load from the vehicles.
Since there is no specification for CO2 emissions from

vehicles it is found to be on the rising trend. Hence the
government should take needful steps to provide
emission standards for CO2 as well and hence reduce the
contribution of CO2 emissions in the Greenhouse gases.
This policy leads to a considerable reduction in pollution

load of the city making it a place with reduced
environmental hazards.
Since the results of Partial scenario prove to be much

better than Do Minimum condition, it is recommended
that even if the desired condition of achieving a Modal
Split value of 70:30 cannot be done at least the
government should strive towards achieving a modal split
of 64:36.
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Sustainable Transportation System Anna University,
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Interaction - A Systems Approach Anna University,
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the Future, UWM-CUTS Energy, ITE District 4 Meeting,
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Edition, Eastern Economy Edition, Prentice Hall of India,
New Delhi, 1996.
[5]
Ghosh. A Service Sector in India & Role of Foreign Direct

Investment, the Management Accountant, Vol. 46 No. 11,
2011; pp. 984-987.
[6]
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Dynamic Energy Model for a Sustainable Transportation
System,1995.
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the Future, UWM-CUTS Energy, ITE District 4 meeting,
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India, New Delhi, 1996.
[9]
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Direct Investment,
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[11]
Kadiyali.L.R. Traffic and Transportation

Khanna publishers, New Delhi, 1985.
[12]
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India for an interdependent world, 2006.
[13]
Kavin. J, Naveen Kumar. S and Raja. P.K., Macro Level

Simulation Model Building for Sustainable Transportation
Planning, Research project, Anna University, Chennai,
2009.
[14]
Kumar A., Shirish S. G. and Mahesh V. National Energy

Map for India: Technology Vision 2030, TERI press, 2000.
[15]
Poudenxa P. and Merida W., Energy demand and

greenhouse gas emissions from urban passenger
transportation in Canada, 2005.
[16]
Paul. H. A System Dynamics Model of Transportation

Energy Demand, the 1987 International Conference of the
System Dynamic Society, China, 1987, pp. 383-397.
[17]
Ramachandra, T.V., Shwetmala, (2009) Emissions from

Indias transport sector: State wise syntheses, Atmospheric
Environment doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.07.015
Planning,
[18] Report of the Expert Group on a Viable and Sustainable

System of Pricing of Petroleum Products, Government of
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Page 218
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS BY FINITE ELEMENT

APPROACH
1,
Photo of First
Author
JPEG Format
Barnali Ghosh S. K. Prasad,

E. P.C.E.T, Bangalore,560049, India, barnalighosh08@gmail.com
2
S. J. College of Engineering, Mysore, 570006, India, prasad_s_k@hotmail.com
1
econd Author (if

any)
Abstractin
Earthen
JPEGslopes
Format are beautiful and most important geotechnical structures. It is very important to maintain their stability.
Stability of earth slopes by Limit equilibrium approach is a familiar analysis. Presently, a number of geotechnical
software are being used for this purpose. This paper describes numerical analysis of slope stability problems by using
the software Slope/w (Geo-slope 2007) based on limit equilibrium principles. The software also uses finite element
analysis for the estimation of stress distribution in the sloping mass. The minimum factor of safety (FOS) and the
critical slip surface are determined using the MorgensternPrice method and the results are compared with those from
Bishops modified method, Janbus Simplified method and Mohr-Coulombs expression. A parametric study is made on
the influence of pore water pressure, cohesion, angle of internal friction, and unit weight on the factor of safety for slope
stability problems.
Keywords: Limit equilibrium, Factor of safety, Geo-slope, slope stability problems
2.
1.
Methodology
Introduction
The slope stability analyses are performed to find the

safe and economic design of slopes. In the analysis of
slopes, factor of safety is primarily used to determine
how near or far slopes are from failure. When this ratio
is more than one, resistive shear strength is greater than
driving shear stress and the slope is considered as stable.
When this ratio is nearer to one, shear strength is nearly
equal to shear stress and the slope is close to failure. If
Factor of Safety is less than one, the slope has already
suffered failure. Limit equilibrium types of analysis for
assessing the stability of earth slopes have been in use in
geotechnical engineering for many decades. The
software SLOPE/W (GEOSLOPE 2007) provides
solution to many methods such as: Bishops Modified
method, Janbus Simplified method, Spencer method,
Morgenstern-Price method (M-PM) and others.
SLOPE/W is a component of a complete suite of
geotechnical products called GeoStudio. SLOPE/W has
been designed and developed to be a general software
tool for the stability analysis of earth structures.
GEOSLOPE
is
developed
by
GEO SLOPE
International, Canada, based on limit equilibrium
principles. A finite element analysis is also introduced to
estimate the distribution of stresses in the sloping mass.
In this study, SLOPE/W has been used to compare the

accuracy and efficiency of most common Limit
Equilibrium based methods for the analysis of stability
of slopes..
General Limit Equilibrium Method
A general limit equilibrium (GLE) method encompasses
the key elements of all the methods available in
Slope/W. The GLE formulation is based on two factors
of safety equations. One equation gives the factor of
safety with respect to moment equilibrium, F m (equation
1) while the other equation gives the factor of safety with
respect to horizontal force equilibrium, Fl (equation 2).
The terms in the equations are c' for effective cohesion,

' for effective angle of friction, u for pore water
pressure, N for slice base normal force, W for slice
weight, D for Concentrated point load, for inclination
of slice base and , R, x, f, d are the geometric
parameters. F is Fm when N is substituted into the
Barnali Ghosh Tel.: 9845108358

E-mail: barnalighosh08@gmail.com
Page 219
Barnali Ghosh, S.K.Prasad. / INDECS-15

moment factor of safety equation and F is Fl when N is
substituted into the force factor of safety equation.
Ordinary method
The simplest form of factor of safety by Ordinary
Method in the absence of any pore-pressures for a
circular slip surface is given in the equation
MorgensternPrice method and the results are compared

with those of Bishops modified method and Janbus
Simplified method. The situations studied included,
(i) Stability analysis changing the slopes (H: V).
(ii) Stability analysis with changed values of cohesion
(C) and angle of internal friction ().
(iii) Stability analysis of dry slope.
(iv) Stability analysis with different piezometric level.
2.1 Stability Analysis with changing slopes
Here, c is the cohesion, is the slice base length, N is the

base normal (W cos ()), is the friction angle, W is the
slice weight, and is the slice base inclination
Bishop's simplified method
In 1950's Bishops simplified method was developed
which included inter-slice normal forces, but ignored the
inter-slice shear forces. A simple form of equation for
factor of safety in the absence of any pore water pressure
is by this approach is given by:
FS is on both sides of the equation as noted above. The

equation is not unlike the Ordinary factor of safety
equation except for the ma term, which is defined as
Janbus Method
Janbus simplified method is identical to Bishops
method, except that it satisfies only horizontal force
equilibrium. Like Bishops method, Janbus method
includes the interslice normal forces but not shear forces.
Morgenstern-Price Method
This method considers not only the normal and
tangential equilibrium but also the moment equilibrium
for each slice in circular and non-circular slip surfaces. It
is solved for the factor of safety using the summation of
forces tangential and normal to the base of a slice and the
summation of moments about the center of the base of
each slice. The equations were written for a slice of
infinitesimal thickness. The force and moment
equilibrium equations were combined and a modified
Newton-Raphson numerical technique was used to solve
for the factor of safety satisfying force and moment
equilibrium. The solution required an arbitrary
assumption regarding the direction of the resultant of the
interslice shear and normal forces.
In this paper, the minimum factor of safety (FS) and the

critical slip surface have been determined using the
The objective of the analysis was to compute the

minimum factor of safety and locate the critical slip
surface. Fig.1 presents the schematic diagram of the
slope with piezometric line considered 1m below the toe
level for the present study. The slope (2-horizontal: 1vertical) is having total height of 14 m over rock at 4m
below the base of the cut.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a slope
The problem was first modeled in SLOPE/W using a

MohrCoulomb soil model without tension cracks and
solved using M-PM with half-sine inter-slice force
function. The problem was solved with same cohesion,
angle of internal friction and unit weight but with
different slopes. The corresponding Factors of Safety
(FS) were computed (Table 1). The Critical Slip Surface
corresponding to lowest FS obtained is shown in Fig.2.
Table 1: Factor of Safety with changing slopes
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Slope stability
method used
M-PM
H:V
1.5:1.0
1.672
1.7:1.0
2.0:1.0
FS
1.232
1.806
1.320
1.484
Fig. 2 Critical Slip Surface for SLOPE/W Analysis using M-PM

with a slope of 1.5H: 1V
Page 220

Table 3 : Factor of Safety with changing unit weight
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
3
Slope stability
method used
Unit weight (kN/m )
FS
Upper layer
M-PM
Lower layer
15.0
1.672
18 1.734
.0
20 .0
1.806
18.0
1.983
20.0
22.0
1.484
1.425
1.401
Fig. 3 Free body diagram and force polygon of a slice
2.2 Stability Analysis with varying cohesion (C) and

angle of internal friction ()
Analysis is carried out with a slope of 2:1(H:V), keeping
the unit weight same and piezometric line constant. The
values of cohesion and angle of internal friction are
varied. Unit weight for the upper layer is taken as 15
kN/m3 and that for the lower layer is taken as 18 kN/m3.
The entry and exit values of the slope are kept the same.
The corresponding FS was computed (Table 2). The
Critical Slip Surface corresponding to lowest FS
obtained is shown in Fig. 3.
with varying unit weight
Table 2: Factor of Safety with changing C and
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Slope stability
method used
M-PM
C (in kN/m2) and (in

degrees)
Upper
Lower
layer
layer
5 & 10
1.672
5 & 10
1.734
5 & 20
5&
1.806
20
10 1.983
& 20
10 & 25
2.4 Stability Analysis with a dry slope

FS
1.023
1.228
1.484
Analysis is done with a slope 2:1(H:V) and keeping the

slope, unit weight as same and piezometric line constant
we have changed the values of cohesion and angle of
internal friction. Unit weight for the upper layer is taken
as 15kN/m3 and for the lower layer is taken as 18kN/m3.
The entry and exit values of the slope were kept as same.
obtained is shown in Fig.6.
Table 4: Factor of Safety with changing C and for a dry slope
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Slope stability
method used
M-PM
with a varying C and
C and
Upper
layer
Lower
layer
5 & 10
1.672 5 &1.806
20
5 & 10
1.734 10 &1.983
20
5 & 20
10 & 25
FS
1.139
1.395
1.685
2.3 Stability Analysis with varying unit weight ()

slope, cohesion and angle of internal friction as same and
piezometric line constant we have changed the values of
unit weight. Entry and exit values of the slope were kept
as same. The corresponding FS was computed (Table 3).
The Critical Slip Surface corresponding to lowest FS
with changing C and for a dry slope
Page 221
2.4 Stability Analysis with different piezometric level

slope, unit weight cohesion and angle of internal friction
as constant every time we have changed the water level.
Unit weight for the upper layer is taken as 15KN/m3 and
for the lower layer is taken as 18 kN/m3. Cohesion for
the upper layer and lower layer is taken as 5 and 10 and
angle of internal friction for upper and lower layer was
taken 20 and 25 respectively. The corresponding FOSs
were computed (Table 5). The Critical Slip Surface
corresponding to highest FS obtained is shown in Fig.7.
Table 5: Factor of Safety with changing piezometric level
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Water level
Slope stability
above the toe of
method used
the slope
M-PM
1.672
1m
1.806
1.734
2m
1.983
3m
4m
FS
1.450
1.462
1.485
1.524

with Water level 4m above toe
3. Comparison with other methods and M-PM

Comparison is made with Ordinary method, Bishops
method and M-PM for a slope 2:1(H:V), Unit weight for
the upper layer is taken as 15 kN/m3 and that for the
lower layer is taken as 18 kN/m3. Cohesion for the upper
layer and lower layer are taken as 5 and 10 kN/m2 and
angle of internal friction for upper and lower layer ares
taken 20 and 25 degrees respectively The entry and exit
values of the slope were kept as same. The
corresponding FS was computed (Table 6). The Critical
Slip Surface corresponding to lowest FS (Janbus
method) obtained is shown in Fig. 8.
Table 6 : Factor of Safety with different methods
Slope stability method

used
FS
Janbu
Ordinary
Bishops
M-PM
1.297
1.386
1.483
1.484
Fig. 8 Critical Slip Surface for SLOPE/W Analysis using Janbus

method
4. Concluding Remarks
The scope of this study was to compare various stability
evaluation methods using GEOSLOPE. Firstly, the factor
of safety with different slopes was calculated and found
that the maximum stability was achieved with higher H:
V ratio (flatter slope), increased cohesion and angle of
internal friction. Further, it was observed that the slope
was stable under dry condition than that piezometric
line. Besides, it was inferred that stability of slope
gradually decreased when the water level increased. The
Factor of safety obtained by different methods was
compared and it was found that Janbus method gave the
least factor of safety, whereas M-PM produced the
highest factor of safety.
The analysis of slope stability problems by using the
geotechnical engineering software SLOPE/W provides
global understanding of the problem with a possibility to
view the detailed forces on each slice and to understand
failure mechanisms. From the present analysis, it is
found that the four parameters studied, namely shear
parameters, height of slope, inclination of slope and unit
weight of sliding mass have significant influence on the
slope stability.
References
[1] Bishop, A. W. (1955). The use of slip circles in stability
analysis of slopes. Geotechnique, 5(1), 7 17.
[2]
GeoStudio (2004). Tutorial Manual,

International Ltd, www.geo-slope.com.
GEO-SLOPE
[3]
Janbu, N. (1968). Slope Stability Computations.

(Geoteknikk, NTH). Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Technical University of Norway.
[4] Krahn, J. (2004). Stability Modeling with SLOPE/W. An

Engineering Methodology, Published by GeoSlope
International.
[5] Morgenstern, N. R. and Price, V. E. (1965). The Analysis of
the Stability of General Slip Surfaces. Geotechnique,
15(1), 77 93.
6] D.G Fredlund, and J. Krahn, Comparison of slope stability
methods of analysis, Canadian Geotechnical Journal. Vol.
14, No. 3, pp. 429-439. 1977
Page 222

[7] D.G. Fredlund, J. Krahn, and D.E. Pufahl, The
Relationship between Limit Equilibrium Slope Stability

Methods, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1981 .
[8] J.M. Duncan, State of the art: Limit equilibrium and finite
element analysis of slopes, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol. 122, pp. 577-596, 1996.
[10] SLOPE/W., An Engineering Methodology", Geo-Slope

International, Calgary, Canada, 2007.
[11] K.E. Petterson, The early history of circular sliding
surfaces". Gotechnique, 5: 275296, 1955.
[12] W. Fellenius , Calculation of the stability of earth dams,
In Transactions, 2nd Congress on Large Dams,
Washington, Vol. 4, pp. 445, 1936.
[9] E. Spencer, A method of analysis of embankments

assuming parallel inter-slice forces, Geotechnique, Vol.
17, No. 1, pp. 11-26, 1967.
Page 223
SIMULATION MODELING OF SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURES

DEVELOPMENT IN PERI URBAN AREAS
- A CASE STUDY OF CHENNAI
Abirami Krishna. A1 , Devi Priyadarisini. K2, Dr.Umadevi. G3
JPEG Format
M.E Student,Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India, abiramikrishna92@gmail.com

Research Scholar, Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India, devpriya910@gmail.com
3
Professor, Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India, gudevi11@gmail.com
Third Author (if

any)
in
Abstract
JPEG Format
Peri urban areas refer to the settlements beyond or about cities. The population growth rate of peri urban areas of Chennai is
3.5 compared to the city growth rate of 1.25. The current population of Chennai Metropolitan Area is about 8.7 million and
estimated to reach about 12.5 million by 2026. Majority of this increase is expected to settle in suburban and peri urban areas
as the city is already reaching saturation. Fundamental root cause for traffic congestion is improper neighbourhood planning
which does not account the holding capacity of basic infrastructures and its impact on transportation infrastructure. So
planning should be done to estimate holding capacity based on all basic infrastructures.
The main objective is to develop a system dynamics simulation model for peri urban areas. The developed model will be used
for assessing its possible and preferable growth directions through various scenario analyses based on economic considerations
and suggest the best scenario to ensure a growth towards sustainable development in the long run. The outcome of the study is
evolving optimum density norms by considering basic infrastructures such as transportation, water supply, sanitation,
electricity and telecommunication. Analysis would be done towards achieving dynamic balancing between holding capacity of
land use development and carrying capacity of transportation network of study zones. In do minimum condition, the existing
trend of growth rates has been allowed to continue till 2026. For basic infrastructures sector, projects under construction are
accounted. In desirable scenario simulation has been carried out such that supply augmentation and demand management is
incorporated. For basic infrastructures sector, all new proposals are introduced to make Demand/Supply ratio less than 1 with
quality of life as criteria. In land use sector a density of 259 persons/hectare is achieved by accelerating the land use
intensification trend on par with the population increase.
Keywords: Peri Urban, Sustainable Infrastructure , System Dynamics
growth in the worlds urban population is taking place in the
1. INTRODUCTION
cities of the developing countries and most of this urban

growth is occurring on the metropolitan fringe. Nearly
Over the last 20 years, the urbanization rates in the

advanced industrialized countries have stabilized, and in
many countries declined but contrary to that the urban
population growth in the low-income and developing
countries has risen dramatically. Nearly, all of the future
percentage of the worlds total urban population lives in

informal settlements, many located on the urban fringe.
While the overall increase in urbanization have been
striking, considerable variations exist between the different
regions of the world. Chennai city is literally bursting and
there is inadequacy of proper housing and other basic
Page 224
Abirami Krishna et. al. / INDECS-15
infrastructures for thousands of people. The urban area
3.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
problems of traffic congestion, pollution, lack of basic

infrastructure facilities and environmental degradation also
haunts the life of city people. Life of people in Chennai is
infrastructures of peri urban areas to build appropriate
filled with unpleasant experiences on a daily basis. High
simulation model
living costs, extended travel time of daily trips, overloaded
public transportation
and
systems, lack of proper basic
To study the transportation network and other basic
To test and validate the model for various scenario

policy
infrastructure, water scarcity, pollution, health problems,
development.
cramped spaces, absence of open spaces are some common
problems faced by the people of Chennai city.
sustainable
options
for
ensuring
sustainable
To recommend the best scenario for achieving

transportation
and
infrastructure
development to enhance quality of life in the study area

Unplanned and unrealistic growth of built up areas
inclusive of roads, water supply, electricity, drainage,
4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
telecommunication, population density limits, insufficient

mass transport facility are the major causes for the problems
In this study, a System Dynamics model relating

Transport, land use and infrastructure sectors have been
faced by the urban dwellers.
built. Data relating to vehicular growth and population

in the present scenario has been collected and simulated
2. NEED FOR STUDY
to find the future demand and supply. The holding

The growth in peri urban areas is very rapid, land use
changes occur in a large scale from agricultural to
residential and commercial. The population growth rate of
peri urban areas of Chennai is around 3.5 compared to the
city growth rate of around 1.25. Unregulated growth,
haphazard
developments,
low
quality
housing
and
inadequate infrastructure facilities are synonymous with peri

urban areas of Chennai. The current population of Chennai
Metropolitan Area (CMA) is about 8.7 million and is
estimated to reach about 12.5 million by 2026. Majority of
this increase is expected to settle in suburban and peri urban
areas as the city is already reaching saturation. Lack of
proper transportation and other various infrastructure
facilities in the peri urban areas leads to people migrating to
places with proper transportation facilities and other
infrastructure facilities. This can be prevented by providing
the proper needs of the people but at the same time proper
and planned growth have to be carried out with a check on
population density norms for the peri urban areas for a
sustainable growth.
capacity of the land use for present and future demand

is simulated. The level of infrastructure facility such as
water and electricity from the present and future
simulated levels of population has also been identified.
The model has been subjected to various scenario
analysis aimed at studying the interaction between
Transport, landuse and infrastructure of the study area
under various conditions. The impacts of the policies
framed by the government to achieve sustainability in
transport and infrastructure with respect to economic
development have been analyzed at a macro level. A
comparison of the results under various scenario
options has been carried out to determine the
advantages of the policy measures to be adopted. Based
on the results, suitable recommendations of policies
have been provided. The impact of Transport, landuse
and infrastructure on the Economy of the nation can
also be studied. The impact of these scenarios quantify
the quality of life has been analyzed in this study
5
SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT
DYNAMICS
MODEL
Page 225
algebraic relationships, graphs and Tables. For ease of

Generally the model building process can be
divided into two phases namely the Conceptual phase
presentation, the symbols used for flow diagramming of

System Dynamics are presented in the Figure 2.
and the Technical phase. The various phases in model

building process are as shown in Figure 1 and each phase
with its characteristics is presented here. The first phase
of problem definition involves recognizing and defining
a problem. System Conceptualization is to commit to
paper the important influences believed to be operating
within the system mostly in the form of causal-loop
diagram. In the next phase, models are represented in the
form of computer code that can be fed into the computer
in the form of computer programming languages. In the
Model Behaviour phase, computer simulation is used to
determine how all the variables within the system behave
over a period of time. Numerous tests must be performed
Figure 2. Flow Diagramming Symbols
on the model in the Model Evaluation phase to evaluate
The concept of the stocks and flows in System
its quality and validity. In the final phase, the model is
Dynamics is very appropriate to deal with a transport energy
used to test alternative policies that
economy interaction modeling. The System Dynamics
might be
implemented in the system under study.
approach is based on theory of feedback processes. A

feedback system is influenced by its own past behaviour.
This system has a closed loop structure that brings result
from past interactions of the system. The System Dynamics
model development process is summarised in the schematic
diagram of a model life cycle in Figure 3. The modeling
process starts with defining the purpose/goal of the system.
Then boundaries of the system to be modelled are specified.
This is followed by identification of key variables in the
system that affects the system, the most. Then behaviour of
the key variable is described, the stocks and flows are
Figure 1. Phases in Model Building Process
identified, and their structure is mapped in the modeling tool

using basic building blocks. The model is run to test the
The System Dynamics tool used in this study has four

basic building blocks namely Stock, Flow, Connector and
Converter. Stocks or levels are used to represent anything
that accumulates. Flows or rates represent activities that
behaviour. The model is then evaluated and adjustments are

made. Once the model is replicating system behaviour, it is
ready for simulation modeling.
5.1 Model Verification
increase and decrease stocks. Connectors are used to

establish the relationship among variables in the model
The purpose of model verification is to assure that the
represented graphically as arrows. Converters transform
conceptual model is reflected accurately in the computerized
input to output which can accept input in the form of
representation. The conceptual model quite often involves

some degree of abstraction about system operations, or some
Page 226
amount of simplifications of actual operations. It provides
5.3 Model Validation
answers to the questions like Is the conceptual model

(assumptions on system components and system structure
Validation is the overall process of comparing the
parameter values, abstractions and simplification) accurately
model and its behaviour to the real system and its behaviour.
represented by the operational model (i.e., by the
After the model has been calibrated using the original
computerized representation).
system data set, a final validation is conducted using the

second system of data set. If unacceptable discrepancies
between the model and the real system are discovered in the
final validation effort, the modeler must return to the
calibration phase and modify the model until it becomes
acceptable.
6. METHODOLOGY
The methodology of this work is depicted in the figure

5. Essentially the steps involved are data collection,
analysis, model building and to suggest appropriate
mitigation measures.
Figure 3. System Dynamics Model Development Life Cycle
5.2 Model Calibration
Calibration is the iterative process of comparing the
model to the real system, making adjustments (or)
manipulations (or even major) changes to the model,
comparing the revised model to reality, making additional
adjustments comparing again and so on. The model
calibration process can be pictorially represented as in
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Iterative Process of Calibration of a Mode
Page 227
7.
STUD
Y
ARE
A
Peri
Urban
settle
ments along OMR are selected as study area. It includes
Perungudi,
okkiyam
Thoraipakkam,
karapakam
and
sholinganallur. Perungudi and Sholinganallur are Town

Panchayats and Okkiyam Thoraipakkam and karapakkam
comes under Village Panchayats of St.Thomas Mount
Panchayat union as of old Chennai City limit concerned as
depicted in Fig.1. The reason behind the selection of study
area is that the southern group consisting of developments
from Perungudi to Sholinganallur exhibits a very high
growth rate.
Page 228
Fig 8. Peak hour volume
Fig 7.Study Area

Fig 9. Vehicle Composition
8.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Figure 9 illustrates the vehicle composition of
8.1
General
Chennai IT corridor. Two wheeler and car proportion in the
Holding capacity can be determined by considering
total volumes are observed around 53 and 35 percent and
Traffic volume as primary data and demography, land use
Buses (governments and private & institutional) is around 4
and norms on basic infrastructures as secondary data. The
percent only. This seems to be an unhealthy proportion with
collected data are briefly discussed.
regard to environment consideration and Level of Service
8.2 Primary data collection

Primary data collection involves Local trips bounded in
(LOS).
8.3
the study area. It is achieved through traffic volume surveys

at 3 different locations of Old Mahabalipuram Road
between 3.30 p.m and 8.30 p.m. The locations include
Perungudi, Thoraipakkam, Sholinganallur.
Secondary data collection

Collection of secondary data includes Demographic
data, Land use data and norms on basic infrastructures such

as Water supply, and Electricity.
8.3.1
Demographic data
Fig 8 shows the peak traffic volume observed at 3

survey locations and it depicts that the peak traffic volume is
the highest at Perungudi location.
Fig 10 shows the demographic profile of study area.

From the figure it is observed that Thoraipakkam census
town has highest population of 56642 with 14524
households.
Page 229

of the study area is around 500 units/month out of which
TNEB is able to meet only 80% of the demand. Details of
existing substations in study area is obtained from Tamil
Nadu Transmission Corporation Limited (TANTRANSCO)
and tabulated below.
Table 2 Details of Substations in Study area
Fig 10. Demographic profile
Source: Compiled from census
2011
8.3.2 WATER SUPPLY DATA

Water supply requirement and supply data have been
collected from CMDA Second master plan as listed in Table
Name of the Sub
Voltage ratio in
Capacity in
Station
KV
MVA
Perungudi
110/33/11
132
Sholinganallur
110/11
32
Source: TANTRANSCO
2 and 3.
Table 1 Estimated water requirement 2026
8.3.4 Land Use data
Category in
CMA
Population
in lakhs
Rate of water
supply in lpcd
Total
requirement
in MLD
Chennai City
58.56
150
1230
Municipalities
and Town
panchayats in
CMA
47.90
125 for
Municipalities
100 for Town
panchayats
796
Rest of CMA
19.88
80
223
Total
126.34
Land area corresponding to each and every land use is

extracted from Geo referencing Land use map obtained from
CMDA by using AutoCAD 2015. The extracted results are
given in table 3.
2249
Table .3 states the Total domestic supply and industrial supply

by CMWSS board.
8.3.3 ELECTRICITY DATA

Electricity demand and rate of supply is obtained by Tamil
Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). Average electricity demand
Table 3.Extent of Land use
Land Use
Perungudi
Thoraipakkam
Karapakkam
Sholinganallur
Ha
Ha
Ha
Ha
Primary Residential
152.6
39
289
48
22.4
611.4
40
Mixed Residential
51.8
13
79.7
13
34
14
116.4
Institutional
84.2
21
17.5
18.1
32.36
Industrial
49.2
12
135.9
23
93.5
39
423.9
28
Water body
17.7
48.6
140.29
Agricultural
8.6
Commercial
21
8.7
33.24
Page 230
Non Urban
1.3
14.11
CRZ
140.74
Road Network
30.9
30.9
8.5
23.36
Total
395
100
601.6
100
242
100
1535.8
100
Source: Compiled from CMDA Land use map
9. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
9.1 General
Simulation model has been developed for population sector
and infrastructures sector using the STELLA simulation
software
With
the
System dynamics (SD)
model,
relationship between the population growth and its level of

population and its supply of all basic infrastructures are
established and density norm for all basic infrastructures are
determined. Optimum density norm is said to be the
Fig 10. SD Model for Population Sector
minimum among all. Holding capacity is calculated based

on the optimum density norm.
The existing land use data is used to know the existing area
9.2 Model Development Land Use Sector
for allocating the projected population and the future land

use proportion can be formulated for corresponding
Stella model for land use sector is built by considering
population growth. Intuitive scenarios can be analysed for
existing residential land area and future developable floor
the developed model. The different patterns of possible
area. By accounting residential growth rate extent of land
present and future growth are generated and holding
area in projected year is calculated.
capacity is determined towards achieving sustainable
Existing residential floor area for every year can be
development for the study area.
developed with respect to the growth rate of residential

intensity and available residential area of each zone.
9.2
Model Development Population Sector
FDFA1= Existing residential area (Remaining % from

already developed) * Plot coverage for constructing house*
Population model has been built to estimate the

projected population as given in Fig 7 by accounting birth
rate, death rate, immigration and out migration rate.
Population (t) = Population (t-dt) + (Birth_Rate +
Inmigration_Rate Death_Rate Out_Migration_Rate) *
dt
Undeveloped remaining FSI

FDFA2= Existing residential area (% yet to be developed) *
Plot coverage for constructing house* Undeveloped FSI
FDFA = FDFA1 + FDFA2
Residential area= Existing residential area (% from already
developed)
Plot
coverage
for
constructing
house*Developed FSI
Page 231
If existing growth trend continues, V/C of horizon year

is 2.53 which is 2 times higher than base year V/C.
SD model for density estimates an average density of

233,176,186 persons/hectare in do minimum scenario
for Transportation, Water supply, and Electricity sector
respectively.
It infers that the density corresponds to water supply

sector is very minimum when compared to other
infrastructures which explicit the stress on water
infrastructure and emergent need of funds for its
Fig 11. SD Model for Land Use Sector
improvement.
9.3 Model Development Transport Sector
Scenario II Partial (partial implementation of new

proposals)
Model for transportation sector is built by accounting

present vehicular volume and growth rate of vehicles in
In partial scenario few new proposals are introduced in
order to determine the volume/ Capacity ratio and given in
all basic infrastructures and corresponding density is
Fig 12.
estimated based on available land area in Partial

scenario.
In this scenario D/S comes around 0.97 which is 22%

reduction when compared to do minimum scenario.
Introducing an elevated corridor reduces the V/C ratio

to 1.52 which is 40% reduction than do minimum
scenario.
Scenario III Desirable (Effective implementation
of all new proposals)
In desirable scenario implementation of desalination

plant, Power plants in phase wise manner to enhance
Quality of Life is considered.
In this scenario average D/S ratio of 0.8 is achieved

through effective implementation of various proposals
Fig 12. SD Model for Transport Sector
which is 36% reduction than do minimum.
10.1 FINDINGS
Scenario I Do Minimum (Allowing the existing trend
to continue)
Results of Demand/ Supply (D/S) ratio model shows

that in do minimum scenario the D/S is found to be
1.245.
In desirable scenario, combination of growth restriction

and introduction of elevated corridor results in a V/C
ratio of 0.96.
In desirable scenario by incorporating elevated

corridor, desalination plants, Power plants in phase
wise manner the dynamic balancing of holding
Page 232
capacity of land use sector with carrying capacity of
For electricity sector, a power plant has to come up
basic infrastructures is achieved.
which may be implemented in 4 phases to augment
The resultant maximum density is in a range of 94 to
the
259 persons/hectare for Sholinganallur and Perungudi
units/capita/month to 111.11 units/capita/month.
respectively which is actually the minimum density of
all infrastructures put together.
supply
rate
of
electricity
from
88.88
An approximate cost of 70.45 billion will be

needed to implement all the proposals of desirable
scenario whereas 35.22 billion will be needed for
10.2
INFERENCES
Desirable scenario is achieved by incorporating growth

restriction eliminating certain percentage of car and two
wheelers and introducing an elevated corridor of
capacity 3600 PCUs/hour and bypassing HCV and
allowing only 30% of LCV.
For Water supply sector, the D/S ratio of horizon year
comes around 1.32, 1.20 and 1 in do minimum, partial
and desirable scenario respectively
REFERENCES
For Transportation Sector, a reasonable reduction in V/C

ratio of 2.53 in Do minimum scenario to 0.96 in
the partial implementation of proposals.
For Electricity sector Since there is no power plant

proposal in the study area, present D/S ratio of 1.25 gets
carried over up-to horizon year in do minimum scenario
whereas in Partial scenario, if 2 phases of a power plant
proposal gets completed D/S ratio comes around 1.10 in
horizon year and in desirable scenario, if all 4 phases of a
power plant proposal gets completed, a D/S ratio of 1.00
is achieved in horizon year.
10.3
RECOMMENDATIONS
[1] Douglas Webster (May 2002),On the Edge:

Shaping the Future of Peri urban East Asia, a
discussion paper, pp 5-8, Asia/Pacific Research Center
(A/PARC).
[2] Haroldo Torres, HumbertoAlves and Maria
Aparecida De Oliveira (2007), Sao Paulo peri urban
dynamics:
Some
social
environmentalconsequences,
causes
Environment
and
and
Urbanization, Vol. 19, No.1 , pp 207-223.

[3] Agricultural and ResourceEconomics Review,
Vol.32/1. pp. 83-102.
[4] John O. Browder, James R. Bohland and Joseph L.
Scarpaci (Sep 1995),Patterns of development on the
metropolitan
fringe:
Urban
fringe
expansionin
Bangkok, Santiago and Jakarta, Journal of American

Planning Association, Vol. 61, Issue 3, pp 310-327.
[5]
Karthik.N
and
et
al.
(2011),Infrastructure
Development of Medavakkam, B.E thesis, Division of

Transportation Engineering, Anna university, Chennai.
[6] Second Master Plan for Chennai Metropolitan Area
For land use sector, a desirable density is achieved
2026, Vol.1 pp 68-80, and Vol.3 pp 157-181, Chennai
by restricting the population growth trend as well as
Metropolitan Development Authority.
augmenting the land use intensification rate on par
[7] Sekar S P and kanchanamala S (2011), Analysis of
with population increase.
growth dynamics of Chennai metropolitan Area, ITPI
For Transportation sector, the growth trend of
journal December 2011.
personalized mode has to be decreased by

augmenting the public transportation facilities such
as BRT.
For water supply sector a total of 4 desalination

plants are to be implemented before 2026 in order
to achieve a D/S ratio of 1.
Page 233
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF POST TENSIONED PSC GIRDERS DESIGNED

AS PER IS 1343:2012
Bharath B.M. 1, Dr. K. Manjunath 2 Puja M. Singh 3
1
M.Tech Student, M.C.E., Hassan, 573201, India, bharath0491@gmail.com

Professor and H.O.D., M.C.E., Hassan, 573201, India, kmnrpur@gmail.com
3
Scientist, ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore, 560017, India, pujam@isac.gov.in
2
Abstract
An attempt is made to evaluate the safety of a post tensioned girder in different limit states. The explicit level of safety
can be assessed only by employing probabilistic methods. Reliability Analysis of post tensioned PSC girders is carried
out in limit states of flexure, shear and deflection. Fifteen typical girders are designed as per IS 1343:2012 for different
spans by developing a program in MATLAB software. Monte Carlo simulation technique and Advanced First Order
Second Moment (AFOSM) methods using Fisselers algorithm are employed in the reliability analysis. The geometric
properties, material properties and loading are considered as random variables.
The study investigates reliability index and probability of failure of post tensioned PSC girders. Programs are developed
in MATLAB for each of limit states and the histograms and probability density functions are plotted which would assist
in assessment of probability of failure. The deterministic design of post tensioned PSC girder is carried out at ISRO
satellite centre Bangalore, where actual construction of a roofing system with PSC girders for Satellite Integration Hall
is going on at the time of present work. STAAD Pro V8i software is used for modeling and analysis of the structural
system. The reliability analysis is carried out by developing programs in MATLAB software.
Keywords: PSC girders, IS 1343:2012, STAAD Pro V8i, MATLAB
1. Introduction
2.1. Available Data
The prestressed concrete is considered entirely as a concrete

structure with tendons supplying the pre-compression which
transforms brittle material like concrete into an elastic one. It can
be visualized as a beam subjected to two types of forces- initial
prestress and external load.
In recent years, PSC girder design is moving towards a more
rational method commonly known as limit states design. This type
of design procedure takes into account more information than the
elastic methods of design of structural components. This semiprobabilistic design includes uncertainties in the strength of various
materials, in loads and load combinations, and modeling errors in
analysis procedures. Further the limit state design is being replaced
by reliability based design which considers the probability,
however low it may be, of the resistance becoming lower than the
action. The resistance and action being random due to inherent
randomness of material strength, geometry of members and loads
acting upon, the reliability based design attempts to ensure explicit
level of safety in the presence of randomness.
The effective span of the simply supported PSC girder is 34.3m.

The slab thickness is of 100mm and the girder is designed for live
load and dead load.
Live load = 1.5 x 5 = 7.5 KN/m
Super imposed dead load = 4.013 x 5 = 20.07 KN/m
Dead Load is works out to be = 28.98 KN/m
2.1.1. STAAD Pro Model
The roofing system is modeled and analyzed in STAAD Pro Vi8
software. The results of bending and shear at different sections are
obtained and the section is designed based on this results.
2. Deterministic Design
The deterministic design of the PSC girder is carried out at ISRO
satellite center, Bangalore. The roofing system consists of 12 Post
tensioned PSC girders with 5m centre to centre spacing. One of the
PSC girders is selected for the present study.
Fig. 1. STAAD Pro model of Roofing System
*
Bharath B.M. Tel.: +91 8970099510

E-mail: bharath0491@gmail.com
Page 234
Bharath et. al. / INDECS-15
The section obtained from preliminary design is checked for

requirements of minimum section modulus, eccentricity,
prestressing force and permissible tendon zone.
3.1. Design of PSC Girders using MATLAB.

A computer program is developed in MATLAB software and hence
many number of typical PSC girders for different span range shall
be designed for the reliability analysis.
Fifteen typical girders are designed from span 20m to 34m, the
thickness of the top flange is fixed as 100mm. Lins method is
adopted in the computer program and the sections are checked for
its safety in limit states of Flexure, Shear and Deflection.
It should be noted that the cross sections of these fifteen girders are
uniform along the length of the span, but the section which
designed and constructed in the field (at ISRO Satellite centre) is as
shown in the fig 2 and fig 3.
3.2. Reliability Index and Probability of Failure
Fig. 2. Cross section at centre span
The adequacy of a design can be measured by means of a non

dimensional number called reliability index. It is a traditional
notation of the safety limit associated with the ultimate limit states.
A limit state function is given by,
g=R-S
(1)
Where, R is the resistance and S is the action.
If g > 0, the structure is safe and the probability of failure is given
by, Pf = Prob (g < 0)
3.3 Methods of Assessment of Reliability
Fig. 3. Cross section at support
2.2. Prestress Losses and Check for Stresses

The stresses in PSC girder are checked at 14th day, 28th day before
and after the application of super imposed dead load and at infinity
days (at service) after accounting for live load.
2.2.1. Prestress Losses
14th day Loss due to friction and Loss due to elastic shortening of
the girder
28th day Loss due to creep and shrinkage from 14th to 28thday and
Relaxation loss of prestressing steel from 14th to 28th day
Infinity Loss due to creep and shrinkage from 28th to infinity day
Relaxation loss of prestressing steel from 28th to infinity
days
Monte carlo simulation technique and Advanced first order second

moment methods using Fisselers algorithm are used for reliability
evaluation of PSC girders in the present study.
The statistics of basic variables are extracted from the available
literature and tabulated in table 1.
Variable
Bias
Geometric Properties
Dimensions (H,b,d,e)
1.03
Area (Tendon, Concrete, Steel)
1.03
Material Properties
Characteristic strength of tendon
1.04
Characteristic strength of concrete
1.1
Characteristic strength of steel
1.04
Loading
Dead load
1.05
Live load
1.2
COV
(%)
Distribution
Type
3
1.5
Normal
Normal
2
18
2
Normal
Normal
Normal
15
30
Normal
Normal
Table 1. Statistics of basic variables
3.4 Generation of Resistance Statistics

2.3. Check for Limit States of Flexure, Shear and Deflection.
The designed section is checked for its moment carrying capacity,
shear carrying capacity and its resistance against deflection.
Suitable amount of anchorage reinforcement is provided to take
care of the bursting tension.
The results are discussed in section 4.
3. Reliability Analysis
Reliability is the probability of an item performing its intended
function over a given period of time under the operating
conditions encountered.
Reliability analysis is carried out with the help of MATLAB
software.
Resistance models corresponding to each limit states are developed.

During the reliability analysis of the current design, resistance
model is calculated by performing Monte-Carlo simulations and
AFOSM methods using Fisselers Algorithm. 30000 data sets were
randomly generated for each cross section, and each data set
randomly as a function of statistical models for the variables
involved bias [mean/nominal], coefficient of variation [ COV =
standard deviation/mean], distribution type etc.
3.4.1. Resistance Model for Limit State of Flexure
Two resistance models are used depending upon the position of
neutral axis. If the neutral axis lies in the flange, the resistance
model is given by,
Mu = fpu Aps (d 0.42 Xu)
(2)
Page 235
If the neutral axis lies in the web, the resistance model is given
by,
Mu = fpu Apw (d 0.42Xu) + 0.675 fck (b-bw) Df (d 0.5 Df)
(3)
Where,
fpu
= Ultimate stress of prestressing strands
Aps
= Area ofc total prestressing steel
Apw
= Area of prestressing steel for web
Nominal longitudinal reinforcement of 2050 mm2 (0.2% of the cross

section) is provided in addition to tensioned reinforcement. Two
legged 10mm and 12mm diameter stirrups are provided at 200mm
c/c near center span and support respectively.
The deflection of the girder is works out to be 69.81mm and the
permissible deflection being higher i.e., 137.2mm, the section is safe
against deflection. 16mm diameter Fe 500 spiral eight turns at
50mm pitch is provided as anchorage reinforcement for bursting
tension of 284.93 KN.
3.4.2. Resistance Model for Limit State of Shear

The ultimate shear resistance of the section is estimated by
considering flexure shear and web shear cracking modes.
For web shear cracking mode, equation 3 is used as resistance
model and equation 4 is used for flexure shear cracking mode in
addition to shear carried by the stirrups and it is given by equation
5.
Vc = 0.67bwD(ft2 + 0.8fcpft)
(3)
Vc = [1-0.55(fpe /fpu)]cbwd + M0 (V/M)
(4)
Vcs = (0.87fydtAsv / Sv)
(5)
Where, ft = 0.24fck
M0 = 0.8 ft(I / Y)
Resistance statistics of the fifteen typical girders in terms of

reliability index and probability of failure in three limit states is
tabulated in table 4 and table 5.
Limit States
Flexure
Uncracked in
flexure
Shear
Cracked in
flexure
Deflection
Table 4.
3.4.3. Resistance Model for Limit State of Deflection

The resistance model for deflection of flanged section is obtained
by combining equation 6 with maximum permissible limit of
deflection l/250.
a = - (5(g + q)L4 / (384EI))
(6)
Equation 6 is the deflection of a beam with parabolic tendons
having an eccentricity e at the centre and zero at the support.
Limit States
Flexure
Uncracked in
Shear
The loss of prestress and check for prestress losses are tabulated in
table 2 and table 3.
Time
Period
(Days)
Frictio
n Loss
(KN)
ES
Loss
(KN)
Creep
Loss
(KN)
14
400.99
135.07
14 - 28
55.124
57.74
147.66
28 infinity
223.506
182.842
268.316
Table 2.
Time
Period
2.312
(compression)
28th
day
6.257
(compression)
At
infinity
days
7.917
(compression)
Table 3.
Relaxati
on Loss
(KN)
-
Prestress Losses
Actual Stress
Top
Bottom
( N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
14th
day
Shrinkage
Loss (KN)
Permissible Stress
Top
Bottom
(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
17.39
15.744
0
(compressi
(compression)
(tension)
on)
15.6
5.762
(compress
0 (tension)
(compression)
ion)
15.6
0.4
(compress
0 (tension)
(compression)
ion)
Check for Stresses
Cracked in
flexure
Fifty strands are provided in the design with three cables having
twelve strands and two cables having seven strands. The strands
are of 12.7mm diameter with an effective area of 98.7 mm2. The
prestressing force provided is 6983.62 KN.
4.71 to 5.73
10-5 to 10-8
8.35 to 6.18
10-16 to 10-9
10.95 to 8.07
10-21 to 10-15
6.27 to 6.21
10-9
Resistance Statistics ( Mote Carlo Simulation

Technique)
flexure
4. Results
Monte Carlo simulation technique
Pf
Deflection
Table 5.
FOSM method using Fisselers algorithm
Pf
3.57 to 3.94
10-4
5.30 to 4.68
10-7 to 10-5
8.82 to 5.56
10-18 to 10-7
7.12 to 6.80
10-12 to 10-11
Resistance Statistics ( FOSM Method)
Histograms and probability distribution curves are plotted for all the
girders in limit states of flexure, shear and deflection. A typical
histogram and probability curve of moment of resistance for girder
of 20m span are shown in figure 4 and figure 5. Similarly
histograms and probability distribution curves are plotted for all
fifteen typical girders in other two limit states also.
F
R
E
Q
U
E
N
C
Y
MOMENT OF RESISTANCE (Nmm)

Fig. 4. Histogram of Moment of Resistance
Page 236
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Fig. 5. Probability Distribution Curve
[8]
5. Conclusion
An attempt is made to evaluate the safety of a post tensioned
girder in different limit states. The explicit level of safety can be
assessed only by employing probabilistic methods.
Scientific Engineering and Research (IJSER), ISSN: 23473878, Volume 2, Issue 8, August 2014.
Ayman M. Okeil, Abdeldjelil and Daniel A. kuchma.
Reliability assessment of FRP strengthened concrete bridge
girders in shear. Journal of composites for construction @
ASCE / January/February 2013.
Ayman M. Okeil, Sherif El-Tawil, Mohsen Shahawy. Flexural
reliability of RC bridge girders strengthened with CFRP
laminates. M.S. thesis Work,
Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Central Florida,
Orlando, FL 32816-2450.
Gunjan Agrawal, Baidurya Bhattacharya. Partial safety factor
design of rectangular partially prestressed concrete beams in
ultimate flexural limit state. Journal of Structural Engineering,
No. 37-31, Vol. 37, No. 4, October-November 2010 pp. 257
267.
Khaliq Mohamed Burhan. Generation of resistance statistics
of PSC bridge girder in limit state of flexure. M.Tech thesis
work, Dept of Civil Engineering, M.C.E. Hassan
Hayder A. Rasheed; Kyle H. Larson; and Robert J. Peterman.
Analysis and design procedure for FRP-strengthened
prestressed concrete T-girders considering strength and
fatigue. Journal of composites for construction asce /
september/october 2006.
Reliability index denotes the probability of failure in a given limit

state. The reliability index can be evaluated by digital simulation
like Monte Carlo simulation method or by closed form solutions
like first order second moment method using Fizzlers algorithm.
The deterministic design is obtained by limit state method as per
IS 1343:2012. A program is prepared for the deterministic design
using MATLAB software. Digital simulation is done by using
MATLAB platform.
Probabilistic variations of moment of resistance and that of
external bending moment are obtained by digital simulation.
Normal probability distribution is used to characterize randomness
in resistance and applied action. The goodness of fit of normal
distribution is established by K.S. test.
Similar studies are made in limit states of shear and deflection.
The reliability index is evaluated in these limit states.
It is concluded that the reliability index is not uniform in different
limit states. Hence the explicit safety factor varies for different
limit states.
Reliability based design can be used to achieve a target level of
reliability. The target reliability index can be specified depending
upon the importance of the structure.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
Amit Saxena, Dr. Savita Maru. Comparative study of the

analysis and design of T-beam girder and box girder
superstructure. International Journal of Research in
Engineering & Advanced Technology (IJREAT), ISSN:
2320-8791, Volume 1, Issue 2, April-May, 2013.
Vishal U., N. G. Gore, P. J. Salunke. Analysis and design of
prestressed concrete girder. International Journal of
Inventive Engineering and sciences (IJIES), ISSN: 23199598, Volume-2, Issue-2, January 2014.
Rajamoori Arun Kumar, B. Vamsi Krishna. Design of
prestressed concrete T-beams. International Journal of
Page 237
EFFECT OF NUMBER OF LOADING CYCLES ON DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF

SOLANI RIVER SAND
J. Chavda1, B. K. Maheshwari2, G. R. Dodagoudar3
1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India,
jiteshchavda03@yahoo.in
2
Professor, Department of Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India,
bkmahfeq@iitr.ac.in
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India, goudar@iitm.ac.in
Abstract
During earthquakes, soil plays a great role for the safety of supported structures. Dynamic soil properties are very useful
in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering problems like ground response analysis, seismic soil-structure interaction,
problems due to liquefaction, etc. The two important parameters required for analysing the above problems are the shear
modulus and damping ratio of the soil. The recent developments in numerical analysis for the nonlinear dynamic
response of ground due to strong ground motions have increased the demand for proper evaluation of dynamic soil
properties corresponding to medium and large strains. In the present work, the dynamic soil properties of Solani river
sand from Uttarakhand, India were evaluated using cyclic triaxial and bender element tests. The number of loading
cycles were varied and their effects on the degradation of modulus values and increase in damping have been studied.
The modulus reduction curves at different strains were obtained. From the test results, for the low to high strains range,
the shear modulus of the sand is changing with change in number of cycles of loading. At low shear strain, the shear
modulus increases with increase in number of cycles. At high strain of 1%, the shear modulus is reducing with increase
in number of cycles. This understanding will be helpful in better design of foundations subjected to earthquake loads.
Keywords: Shear modulus, Damping ratio, Cyclic triaxial test, Bender element test, Modulus reduction curve.
1. Introduction
The recent developments in numerical analysis of nonlinear
dynamic response of ground due to strong ground motions
have increased the demand for realistic evaluation of dynamic
soil properties corresponding to large strains. The parameters
affecting the dynamic properties of soils have to be considered
and evaluated properly. In numerical analysis, the modulus
reduction and damping curves are needed for wide range of
strains so that the proper nonlinear analysis can be attempted.
The present study provides the results of modulus values at
four different strains levels, i.e., 0.06%, 0.1%, 0.3% and 1%.
As part of the studies, the sample preparation, saturation and
consolidation have also been explained in the paper.
Sr.
No.
1
Particular
Notation
Value
Soil type
SP
2
3
Specific gravity
Coefficient
uniformity
Coefficient
curvature
of
Gs
Cu
Poorly graded
sand
2.68
1.96
of
Cc
1.15
0.120 mm
0.180 mm
0.210 mm
0.235 mm
0.86
0.54
Grain size
Maximum void ratio
D10
D30
D50
D60
emax
Minimum void ratio
emin
2. Properties of Sand
A grain size distribution curve obtained for the Solani river
sand is depicted in Fig. 1. and the grain size parameters are
given in Table 1 along with the other index properties.
Table 1: Index properties of Solani river sand
3. Sample Preparation
The modulus reduction and damping curves are less sensitive
to the specimen preparation method, degree of saturation and
drainage conditions [21] [10]. The remolded specimens are
prepared using moist tamping compaction method putting the
sand in three layers. Membrane correction is not considered,
since the membrane penetration per unit area is negligible.
Area correction is also not considered to the cyclic triaxial
loading data.
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution curve
The void ratio (e) corresponding to the relative density of sand

(Dr) is expressed as
J. Chavda Tel.: +919773134790

E-mail: jiteshchavda03@yahoo.in
Page 238
J. Chavda, et al. / INDECS-15
e emax Dr (emax emin )
(1 )
where Dr is the relative density, emax is maximum void ratio,

emin is the minimum void ratio, and e is the desired void ratio at
a particular relative density of sand.
d
max
E
2(1 )
After evaluating the value of void ratio e, dry unit weight of

sand () was determined by the following equation
G
d s w
1 e
where d is dry unit weight of sand, Gs is specific gravity of

sand, and w is unit weight of water.
4. Saturation and Consolidation

All the specimens are saturated by passing deaired water so as
to achieve higher saturation at lower back pressure and in less
time. The incremental back pressure saturation is adopted for
saturation and all the specimens are saturated using a back
pressure of 313 5 kPa to achieve Skempton's pore pressure
parameter B in excess of 0.98. The back pressure is kept
constant for all the tests to eliminate the eect of back pressure
on modulus and damping. The specimens have been tested at a
relative density of 50% with void ratio (e) of 0.7 and are
isotropically consolidated to an eective conning pressure of
100 kPa.
For the estimation of G, one of the most reliable methods to
characterize small strain shear modulus (Gmax) is the
measurement of shear wave velocity (V s) through sample by
the bender element test:
Gmax vs2
max
where G is the shear modulus, is the shear strain and is the

Poisson's ratio that may be taken as 0.5 for saturated undrained
specimen [20]. A damping ratio D, is a measure of the
dissipated energy versus the elastic strain energy and is
computed by
1 AL
4 AT
where AL = Area enclosed by the hysteresis loop and AT =

Area of the shaded triangle as shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 3 depicts variation of axial strain with number of cycles
of loading. As a consequence of loading, a decrease in
deviatoric stress is noted and is shown in Fig. 4. The variation
of pore pressure build up with number of cycles of loading is
shown in Fig. 5. The effective stress path is drawn for the
above strain loading at a axial strain of 0.67% with confining
pressure of 100 kPa for the sand sample having void ratio of
0.7 (Fig. 7).
where Gmax is maximum shear modulus of sand at low strain,

Vs is shear wave velocity obtained from the bender element
test, and is density of the soil sample.
5. Formulation Used
The shear modulus is evaluated as the slope of a secant line
that connects the extreme points on a hysteresis loop at a given
shear strain, as shown in Fig. 2. As the cyclic strain amplitude
increases, the shear modulus decreases.
Fig. 3. Applied axial strain
Fig. 2. Hysteretic stress strain relationship

From the cyclic triaxial test results, a hysteresis loop similar to
Fig. 2 is obtained by plotting the axial strain () versus deviator
stress (d). The slope of the secant line connecting the extreme
points on the hysteresis loop is the young modulus (E) [20]:
Fig. 4. Induced deviator stress
Page 239
Fig. 5. Pore pressure variation with no. of cycles

Fig. 8. Hysteretic loop at axial strain of 0.1%
Fig. 6. Effective stress path for e = 0.7, f = 1 Hz, effective

confining pressure = 100 kPa, = 0.67%
With increase in shear strain, the effect of number of cycles
should be considered for the evaluation of dynamic shear
modulus.

Figures 7-10 depict the hysterisis loops at the axial strains of
0.06%, 0.1%, 0.3% and 1% respectively. It is noted from Fig. 7
that at low shear strain the effect of number of cycles of
loading on the dynamic shear modulus is less as compared to
the higher shear strain.
Fig. 10. Hysteretic loop at axial strain of 1%
Page 240
Fbb ( )
Gmax
G
1 ( max )
max
Loop 10
Loop 1
where Gmax is the maximum shear modulus at low strain, is

the shear strain amplitude and max is the maximum shear
stress.
The modulus reduction curve obtained for Loops 1 and 10 with
considering all the strain levels is shown in Fig. 13. At low
strain, the modulus related to Loop 10 is higher and at higher
strain the modulus is lower as compared to the results
corresponding to Loop 1. Figure 14 shows the backbone curves
along with the hyperbolic soil model. The hyperbolic soil
model captures the backbone curve well in the compression
quadrant. The modulus reduction curve developed using the
hyperbolic soil model is shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 11. Hysteretic loop for e = 0.7, f = 1 Hz, Effective

confining pressure = 100 kPa, = 1%
The sand was compacted to achieve relative density of 50%.
The test has been performed with sample height of 88 mm and
diameter of 50 mm. The test was conducted at an effective cell
pressure of 100 kPa. From Fig. 11, it can be observed that at
high strain of 1%, the shear modulus reduces with increasing
number of cycles. It is noted that around 10th loop modulus
gets stabilized, however a slight variation is observed around
30th loop. Figure 12 depicts the backbone curve developed as
part of the testing at different strain levels for Loops 1 and 10.
Fig. 13. Modulus reduction curve considering Loops 1 and 10
Fig. 12. Backbone curve for Loops 1 and 10

The maximum value of shear modulus, Gmax, (i.e., small strain
shear modullus) is obtained from the bender element tests. The
value of Gmax = 90.123 MPa.
The hyperbolic soil model has been used to check the data
obtained from the cyclic tri tests. The performance of cyclic
nonlinear models can be illustrated by a very simple example
in which the shape of the backbone curve is described by =
Fbb(). The shape of any backbone curve is tied to two
parameters the initial (low strain) stiffness and the high strain
stiffness of the soil. For the simple example, the backbone
function, Fbb(), can be described by a hyperbola [9]:
Fig. 14. Backbone curve with hyperbolic soil model
Page 241
Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute

of Technology, Roorkee, December, 2010; 17-19, 2010.
[9] Kramer SL. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.
[10] Kokusho T. Cyclic triaxial test of dynamic soil properties
for wide strain range. Soils and Foundations, 1980; 20(2),
45-60.
[11] Kirar B, Maheshwari BK, Jakka RS. Dynamic properties
of Solani sand reinforced with coir fibers. Proc. of 15th
September, Lisbon, Portugal, 2012.
Fig. 15. Modulus reduction curve with hyperbolic soil model
6. Conclusions
Based on the test results, it is concluded that at low to high
strain, the shear modulus of sand is changing with change in
the number of cycles of loading. With specific to low shear
strain, the shear modulus increases with increase in number of
loading cycles. At high strain of 1%, the shear modulus
decreases with increase in number of loading cycles. The
hyperbolic soil model has been used to check the data obtained
from the tests. It is noted that the basic hyperbolic soil model
can predict the behavior of sand realistically under cyclic and
dynamic loading.
7. References
[1] ASTM D3999-91 (2003). Test method for the
determination of the modulus and damping properties of
soils using the cyclic triaxial apparatus, Annual book of
ASTM
standards,
ASTM
International,
West
Conshohocken, PA.
[2] Govindaraju L. Liquefaction and dynamic properties of
sandy soils, Ph. D. Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 2005.
[3] Hardin BO, Drnevich VP. Shear modulus and damping in
soils: measurement and parameters effects. J. of Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 1972;
98(SM6), 603-624.
[12] Kale SS, Maheshwari BK, Kaynia AM. Dynamic

properties of Solani sand under cyclic loads. Proc. of the
14th Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee,
Roorkee, December 2010.
[13] Maheshwari B.K, Kale SS, Kaynia AM. Dynamic
properties of Solani sand at large strains: A parametric
study. International J. of Geotechnical Engineering,
2012;6 (3): 353-358.
[14] Prakash S. Soil Dynamics. Singapore: McGraw Hill Book
Co., 1981; 274 -336.
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properties of Solani sand under cyclic loads. Proc. 14th
Page 242
CONCRETE PERFORMANCE WITH ADMIXTURES OF FLY ASH AND

COPPER SLAG CONCERNING MECHANICAL AND
DURABILITY ASPECTS FOR NORMAL STRENGTH
VELUMANI.M 1, NIRMALKUMAR.K2 SATHISH.S 3
1
Assistant Professor, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu, India,

mvelumani84@gmail.com
2
Professor, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Erode,
nirmalkumar@kongu.ac.in
3
UG Student, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu, India,
sathish.ce00@gmail.com
Abstract
Fine Aggregate is one the most important material in the concrete. River sand is extensively used for fine
aggregate. On overuse of the aggregate, the source is declined and also the cost of aggregate is increased. On the other
side, the copper slag and fly ash is disposed in massive amount and these waste is ensue many environmental
complications. Copper slag is an industrial by-product produced in large quantities by the process of manufacturing
copper in Sterlite industries. Fly ash is produced from the thermal power plant for the period of burning the coal. The
objective of this work is to study the strength and corrosion resistive properties of concrete containing copper slag as
fine aggregate (0% to 100%) along with fly ash (0% to 30%) by weight of cement. The property of resistance to
corrosion is evaluated based on the performance of the concrete for the penetration of chloride ions by means of Rapid
Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) and Gravimetric weight loss method. From the results obtained through the above
experiments, it is found that replacement of sand by fly ash along increases the strength of concrete; increases corrosion
resistance in addition to overall properties of concrete. Assessment of slump aspects of concrete including copper slag as
a fine aggregate and fly ash as a cement replacement is as important as the mechanical properties. In this study of
compressive strength and durability aspects of concrete such as ultrasonic pulse velocity, rapid chloride penetration, acid
resistance test and sulphate resistance tests these test results indicate that copper slag and fly ash in concrete give the
good results. When compared to normal concrete this conventional concrete gives good resistances. After 28, 60, 90
days of immersion in 5% magnesium Chloride solution, Copper slag concrete showed better resistance to chloride ion
penetration. The conventional concrete gives the good resistance for water absorption with compare than the normal
concrete. After done the all the primary experiments of concrete, optimum percentage addition of the fly ash by weight
of cement in concrete containing copper slag as fine aggregate was also determined.
Keywords: copper slag, fly ash ultrasonic pulse velocity, rapid chloride penetration, acid resistance test, sulphate
resistance tests.
1. Introduction
In the separation of copper, slag is a by-product

obtained during the matte smelting and refining of
copper has been reported by Biswas and Davenport
(2002). The major constituent of a smelting charge are
sulphides and oxides of iron and copper. The charge also
contains oxides such as SiO2, Al2O3 CaO and MgO,
which are either present in original concentrate or added
as flux. It is Iron, Copper, Sulphur, Oxygen and their
oxides which largely control the chemistry and physical
constitution of smelting system. The main reason for the
premature failure of reinforced concrete structures is

corrosion of the reinforcements. The use of new mortars
based on ternary mixtures, an alternative to ordinary
Portland cement (OPC), requires extensive research in
order to check its passivizing properties for
reinforcements and the instability or permanence of the
passive state achieved. Pozzolonas and slag extends the
market for concrete by improving specific properties of
concrete products, allowing them to be constructed with
other materials or placed in environments that would
have precluded the use of Portland cement alone. In
properly formulated concrete mixtures, Pozzolonas and
slag have been shown to enhance long-term strength,
decreased permeability, increased durability, and
reduction in thermal cracking of bulk concrete. The
Page 243
workability of concrete reduces due to the free flow of

water left in the concrete due to less absorption of water
by copper slag. On 50% replacement of copper slag, it
also gives more strength than conventional concrete
Arivalagan.s, (2013). An experimental investigation was
conducted on the properties of concrete to study the
effect of using copper slag as a fine aggregate. There
was more than 70% improvement in the compressive
strength of mortar with 50% copper slag substitution in
comparison with the control mixture. The volume of
permeable voids decreased with the replacement of up to
50% copper slag Khalifa S. Al-Jabri (2011). This work
reports an experimental procedure to investigate the
effect of using copper slag as partial replacement of
sand. The result indicated that workability increases with
increase in copper slag percentage. The highest
compressive strength obtained was 46Mpa (for 100%
replacement) and the corresponding strength for control
mix was 30Mpa Meenakshi Sundarvizhi. S (2011). High
performance concrete should be designed to have the
advanced workability and better durability than those of
conventional concretes. Thus this research was
performed to evaluate the potential use of copper slag as
sand replacement in the production of high performance
concrete D. Brindha, S. Nagan, (2010). This research
study was conducted to investigate the performance of
high strength concrete (HSC) made with copper slag as a
fine aggregate. The result shows that the water demand
was reduced by almost 22% at 100% copper slag
replacement compared to the control mixture .Khalifa
S.Al-Jabri et al (2009). Investigated the effect of using
copper slag as a replacement of sand on the properties of
high performance concrete (HPC). Concrete mixtures
were prepared with different proportions of copper slag
ranging from 0% (for the control mix) to 100%.
Addition of up to 50% of copper slag as sand
replacement yielded comparable strength with that of the
control mix. However, further additions of copper slag
caused reduction in the strength due to an increase of the
free water content in the mix Al-Jabri (2009). Copper
slag is also used as fine aggregate in the design of
bituminous concrete and semi dense bituminous
concrete, which increases the property of the bituminous
mixes Gorai, B., Jana, R.K. and Premchand, M (2003).
Thus this study focused on the effect of copper slag by
surrogating fine aggregate in M35 grade Portland
Pozzolona cement concrete and they were cured for 7
days, 28 days, 60 days and 90 days. Then the obtained
results were compared with the conventional concrete
made using Portland Pozzolona cement. Reinforced
concrete structures are exposed to harsh environments
yet is often expected to last with little or no repair or
maintenance for long periods of time (often 100 years or
more). To do this, a durable structure needs to be
produced. For reinforced concrete bridges, one of the
major forms of environmental attack is chloride ingress,
which leads to corrosion of the reinforcing steel and a
subsequent reduction in the strength, serviceability, and
aesthetics of the structure. The different mechanisms of
chloride penetration are presented, followed by a further
elaboration of the chloride diffusion theory. The
influence of basic properties of concrete on its chloride

penetrability is also discussed. Chloride penetration of
concrete pavement structures is determined through the
Rapid Chloride Permeability test (RCPT), which
typically measures the number of coulombs passing
through a concrete sample over a period of six hours at a
concrete age of 7, 28, and 56 days. In a composite
material, such as concrete, the parameters of the mixture
design and interaction between them determine the
behaviour of the material.
The rate of ingress of chlorides into concrete depends
on the pore structure of the concrete, which is affected
by factors including materials, construction practices,
and age. The penetrability of concrete is obviously
related to the pore structure of the cement paste matrix.
This will be influenced by the water-cement ratio of the
concrete, the inclusion of supplementary cementing
materials which serve to subdivide the pore structure
McGrath, 1996, and the degree of hydration of the
concrete. The older the concrete, the greater amount of
hydration that has occurred and thus the more highly
developed will be the pore structure. This is especially
true for concrete containing slower reacting
supplementary cementing materials such as fly ash that
require a longer time to hydrate Tang and Nilsson, 1992;
Bam forth, 1995. Because these conductors influence the
results so that a higher coulomb value than would
otherwise be recorded is determined, the method still
could serve as a quality control test. It can qualify a mix,
but not necessarily disqualify it Ozyildirim, 1994.
Chloride permeability is an inherent property of concrete
and needs to be assessed independently for long term
durability, especially in the design and construction of
structures to be built in a salt-laden environment.
Wherever there is a potential risk of chloride-induced
corrosion, the concrete should be evaluated for chloride
permeability Joshi and Chan, (2002).
2. MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES
2.1 CEMENT
The cement used in this project is Ordinary Portland
Cement of 43 Grade from Ultratech Cement Company.
This cement is most widely used in the construction
industry in India.
2.2 COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATE
Coarse aggregate of 20mm size and fine aggregate
of zone III from Karur area of TamilNadu
2.3 COPPER SLAG
The slag is a black glassy granular material, by
product of Sterlite Industries Limited (SIL), Tuticorin,
Tamil Nadu, India
2.4 FLY ASH
Page 244
Fly ash of class C is obtained from thermal

power plant, Mettur, TamilNadu, India was used.
3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
3.1 Physical properties of OPC and Fly ash
Ordinary Portland cement from Ultratech Cement
Company is used for super grade. The cement is
produced as per the IS (Indian standard) specification
given in IS: 1489 Part-I-1991.Fly ash of class C is
obtained from thermal power plant. IS: 3812 Part-I 2003 The Physical properties of Ordinary Portland
Cement and Fly ash are given in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Physical properties of OPC and Fly ash
S.No
4.
Physical
properties
Fineness
modulus
Initial setting
time
Final setting
time
Soundness
5.
Specific gravity
1.
2.
3.
OPC
Fly ash
335.7
m2/kg
28 min
397
m2/kg
130 min
595 min
290 min
0.8%
0.20%
3.15
2.14
Component
Silica (sio2)
Alumina ( Al2so3)
Iron oxide ( Fe2o3)
Calcium oxide (Cao)
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Sulfuric trioxide
( so3)
3.4 VARIOUS REPLACEMENTS OF COPPER

SLAG AND FLY ASH IN CONCRETE
The various replacements of Copper slag and
Fly ash are given in Table 3.4
Table 3.4 Replacement of Copper slag and Fly ash
S.NO
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Cement
(%)
100
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
Fly ash
(%)
0
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
3.2 Chemical properties of OPC and Fly ash
4. TESTING OF MATERIALS
The Chemical properties of Ordinary Portland

4.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS
Table 3.2 Chemical properties of OPC and Fly ash

Component
OPC (%)
Fly ash (%)
Silica (sio2)
Alumina
(Al2SO3)
Iron oxide
(Fe2O3)
Calcium oxide
(CaO)
Magnesium oxide
(MgO)
Sulfuric trioxide
(SO3)
20.85
58.65
4.78
15.65
3.51
6.08
63.06
3.50
2.32
0.28
2.48
0.16
CS (%)
33.05
2.79
53.45
6.06
1.56
1.89
FA
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
0
CS
(%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
The sample of aggregate was split into various

fractions, each consisting of particles of the same size.
The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle
size distribution in a sample of aggregate. The aggregate
used for making concrete are 4.75mm, 2.36mm,
1.18mm, 600 micron, 300 micron, and 150 micron. The
aggregate passes through 40mm and retained at 4.75mm
as coarse aggregate and the aggregate passes through
4.75mm and retained at 150 micron as fine aggregate.
Sieve can be done manually or mechanically. From the
below Fig.4.1, it is unstated that the fineness modulus of
copper slag (3.76) is more than the fineness modulus of
fine aggregate (2.73).Thus, the copper slag can be used
as fine aggregate in concrete.
3.3 CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF COPPER

SLAG
The Chemical components of Copper Slag are given
in Table 3.3
Table 3.3 Chemical components of Copper Slag
Page 245
Fig.4.1 Sieve Analysis

4.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The Specific gravity of aggregate is made use of in
design calculation of concrete mixes. The specific
gravity is calculated as the ratio between the weight of a
given volume of the material and weight of an equal
volume of standard material. Specific gravity of
aggregate is required in calculating the factor in
connection with the workability measurements. The
Specific gravity of materials are given in Table 4.1
Table 4.1 Specific gravity of materials
Specific
S.No
Material
gravity
1.
Cement
3.15
2.
Fly ash
2.14
3.
Fine aggregate
2.65
4.
Copper Slag
3.91
5.
Coarse aggregate
2.64
Fig.5.1 Workability of concrete

6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE
6.1 COMPRESSION TEST
In order to determine the compressive strength cube
mould of size 150150150 mm were casted. The cubes
were casted for different percentage of copper slag from
0% to 100%. The mould is cleaned and oiled properly
along its faces. Then the concrete is compacted properly
using tamping rod. Then the cubes are kept curing for
7day,28 day,60 day and 90 day. The compression test is
done according to the specification IS 516:1959. The
compressive strength is calculated using the formula
Compressive strength =P/A
5. TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE
Slump test is the most commonly used method of

measuring the consistency of concrete. A concrete is
said to be workable if it can be easily mixed and easily
placed, compacted and finished. This result in large
voids, less durability and less strength the increase in
water cement ratio increases the slump and workability
but decreases the strength of concrete. From the below
Fig.5.1 shows the workability of concrete as Slump
value
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
(N/mm2)
5.1 Slump test
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
% OF REPLACEMENT OF COPPER SLAG
7th day
28th day
60th day
90th day
Fig.6.1 Replacement % Vs Compressive Strength

From the above fig 6.1 it is known that in the 7 th day
testing the compressive strength is maximum at 40% on
surrogating fine aggregate by copper slag which is
about 46.98 N/mm2 where the conventional concrete
having compressive strength of 21.62N/mm2 . On 28th
day testing the compressive strength 63.54N/mm2 by
surrogating 40% of fine aggregate were the conventional
concrete contain compressive of about 41.33N/mm2 .
On 60th day compressive testing it is also found that the
Page 246

maximum strength is 40% (81.68 N/mm2) surrogating
fine aggregate. Whereas on 90th day compressive testing
the maximum strength is at 40% (119.65 N/mm2)
surrogating fine aggregate.
6.2 SPLIT TENSILE TEST
For testing split tensile strength concrete cylinder of
size 150 mm diameter and 300mm height were casted
with different percentage of copper slag. The mould
where properly cleaned and oiled then the concrete is
filled in three layer then each layer is compacted using
tamping rod. It is cured for 7, 28, 60 and 90 days. The
load is applied until the failure occurs and failure lode is
noted. The split tensile strength is calculated using the
formula
Split tensile strength=2P/LD
SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH

(N/mm2)
surfaces of the beam were painted in white colour with

the objective of observing the crack development during
testing. The load was kept constant while cracks were
marked and photographed. The inclined crack width at
load points or supports and corners of the opening was
monitored. The deflections were measured using dial
gauge in mid span and under the load point. Dial gauge
having sensitivity of 0.01mm was used to trace the
deflection profile of the beam by placing along the
center line of the beam. The average modulus of rupture
(flexural strength) was determined using the following
expression.
Fcr =
Where,
Fcr= Modulus of rupture
P= Ultimate load in KN
L= Length of beam in mm
B= Width of specimen in mm
D= Depth of specimen in mm
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
7th day
28th day
60th day
90th day
Fig 6.2.1 Replacement % Vs Split Tensile Strength

From the fig 6.2 the split tensile strength of concrete
with 40% surrogating fine aggregate by copper slag has
the maximum split tensile strength. In that 7 th day, 28th
day, 60th day and 90th day. On surrogate concrete the 7th
day split tensile strength is 6.24 N/mm2 where the
conventional concrete is about 4.23 N/mm2. In 28th day
it is about 7.25 N/mm2 where conventional concrete is
about 4.89 N/mm2. In 60th and 90th day it is about 7.89
N/mm2 and 8.06 N/mm2 where the conventional concrete
is 5.29 N/mm2 6.02 N/mm2. 3.6. Flexural strength on
reinforced concrete beam Reinforced concrete beams are
typically used in framed structures. Flexural strength,
also known as modulus of rupture, bend strength, or
fracture strength a mechanical parameter for brittle
material, is defined as a materials ability to resist
deformation under load. The transverse bending test is
most frequently employed, in which a rod specimen
having either a circular or rectangular cross-section is
bent until fracture using a three point flexural test
technique. Tests were carried out on reinforced concrete
beam specimens of size 1100mm x 100mm x 150mm
shown in fig 3.3. Testing was carried out in the UTM
(Universal Testing Machine). The tested beams were
instrumented to measure the applied load, deflection
along the beam span, strains at the mid span. Both side
Fig 6.2.2 Reinforcement details
Fig.6.2.3.Experimental setup
Page 247

The flexural strength tests were carried out for 28
days. For each concrete mixture, 1100 x 100 x
150mm beams were casted for conventional and for
optimum replacement percentage, improved
mechanical properties compared to nominal
concrete mixture. The graph plotted against load
versus deflection is shown. The load deflection
curve indicates that the concrete specimens
replaced with copper slag are withstanding with
higher loads.
u = Deflection corresponding to 0.8 Pu

y
= Deflection corresponding to
Py
Fig.6.3.1 Trilinear moment-curvature relationship
Fig.6.2.4 load vs. deflection

6.3. Ductility
Ductility of reinforced structures is a desirable
property where resistance to brittle failure during
flexure is required to ensure structural integrity.
Ductile behavior in a structure can be achieved
through the use of plastic hinges positioned at
appropriate locations throughout the structural
frame. These are designed to provide sufficient
ductility to resist structural collapse after the yield
strength of the material has been achieved. The
available ductility of plastic hinges in reinforced
concrete is determined based on the shape of the
moment-curvature relations. Theoretical momentcurvature analysis for reinforced concrete structural
elements indicating the available flexural strength
and ductility can be constructed providing that the
stress-strain relations for both concrete and steel are
known. Moment-curvature relationship can be
obtained from curvature and the bending moment
of the section for a given load increased to failure.
The ductility factor for various beams are shown in
T and Fig.6.3.2
Where,
= Ductility factor
Fig.6.3.2. Ductility factor

6.4. ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST
A reference bar is provided to check whether the
instrument is zero initially. The pulse time for the bar is
marked on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transduced
faces before placing it on the opposite ends of the bar.
Adjust the SET REF control until the reference bar
transit time is obtained on the instrument read out. For
maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1
micro second range be selected for path length up to
400mm. Having determined the most suitable test points
on the material to be tested make careful measurement
of the path length L. Apply car plant to the surface of
the transducers and press it hard on to the surface of the
material. Do not move the transducers while reading is
taken as this can generate noise signals and error in
measurements. Continuous holding of the transducers
onto the surface of the material, until a constant reading
appears on the display .It is the time in microsecond for
the ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance L. The mean
value of the display readings should be taken when the
unit digit hunts between the two values.
Pulse velocity =
The ultrasonic pulse velocity of the hardened concrete
values are given in the below Table 6.4.
Page 248

6.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of the hardened
concrete values
S.N
o
Replaceme
nt % of
copper slag
in concrete
CC S (0%)
CS10
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
CS 20
CS30
CS40
CS50
CS60
CS80
CS100
Replace
ment %
of fly
ash in
concret
e
Cc (0%)
Fly ash
30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
Dist
ance
in
(mm
)
Tran
smit
time
(sec
)
Pulse
velocit
y in
(KN/s
Concrete
quality
150
32.2
4.615
Excellent
150
30.8
4.870
Excellent
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
30.5
31.6
34.1
33.4
32.2
30.7
29.8
4.747
4.870
5.208
4.491
4.615
4.886
5.208
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
produced in decomposing silage) are about the most

aggressive agents to concrete. Depending on the type of
acid, the attack can be mainly an acid attack, or a
combination of acid followed by a salt attack. It cannot
cause deterioration in the interior of the specimen
without the cement paste on the outer portion being
completely destroyed.
6.5. WATER ABSORBTION TEST

The full size blocks shall be completely immersed in
clean water at room temperature for 24 hours. Then the
blocks are removed from the water and allowed to drain
for one minute by placing them on a 10mm or coarse
wire visible surface mesh and dried blocks weighed
immediately.
After weighing, all blocks shall be dried in a ventilated
oven at 100 to 11500c for not less than 24 hours and then
two successive weighing are taken at an intervals of 2
hours shows an increment of loss of not greater than 0.2
percent of the last previously determined mass of the
specimen.
The absorption percent =
x 100
Fig6.6 Acid resistance test

From the above fig 6.6 it is known that 28days curing
concrete compressive strength is maximum at 30% on
surrogating fine aggregate by copper slag which is about
50 N/mm2 after acid resistance test. From the test results
up to 30% surrogate concrete gives the good results.
6.7. SULPHATE RESISINTING TEST:
Many soils are rich in sulphate, which can have
deleterious effects on the concrete. Field experience has
demonstrated that sulphate attack usually shows itself in
the form of loss of adhesion and strength.
Table 6.5 Results for Water Absorption Test
S.N
o
Mix id
CC
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
S10
S20
S30
S40
S50
S60
S80
S100
Fly ash
(0%)
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
Weight
of
saturated
specimens
(Kg)
Weight of
oven dried
specimens
(Kg)
Saturate
d water
absorpti
on @ 56
days
(%)
8.6
8.74
8.87
8.92
9.04
9.26
9.48
9.53
9.76
8.4
8.6
8.7
8.79
8.88
8.90
8.95
8.76
8.69
2.3
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
3.2
3.0
2.7
3.1
6.6. ACID RESISTING TEST:

Acid attack generally occurs where the calcium
hydroxide is attacked enthusiastically, although all the
Portland cement compounds are disposed to degradation.
Acidic solutions both mineral (such as sulphuric,
hydrochloric, nitric, and phosphoric acids) and organic
(such as lactic, acetic, formic, tannic, and other acids
Fig6.7 sulphate resistance test

The above fig shows the results, after the concrete cube
immersing in the sulphate liquid. In 28days engrossed in
sulphate, the concrete compressive strength value is
maximum at 30% surrogate concrete. After that
surrogated concrete compressive strength value has been
decreasing moderately with respect to copper slag
percentage. From the results 30% of copper slag gives
the good sulphate resistance.
Page 249

6.7. Rapid Chloride Penetration Test:
Chlorides penetrate through crack-free concrete by
a variety of mechanisms: capillary absorption,
hydrostatic pressure, diffusion and evaporative transport.
Of these, diffusion is predominant. Diffusion occurs
when the concentration of chloride on the outside of the
concrete member is greater than inside. This results in
chloride ions moving through the concrete to the level of
the rebar. When this occurs in combination with wetting
and drying cycles and in the presence of oxygen,
conditions are right for reinforcement corrosion.
Concrete disc specimens of size 100mm diameter and
50mm thick were cast for various replacement
percentages of sand and cement with copper slag and fly
ash in concrete. After 24 hours, the disc specimens were
removed from the mould and subjected to curing for 90
days in chloride free distilled water. After curing, the
specimens were tested for chloride permeability. All the
specimens were dried free of moisture before testing.
The test involves obtaining 100 mm (4 in.) diameter
core of cylinder sample from the concrete being tested.
A 50 mm (2 in.) specimen is cut from the sample. The
side of the cylindrical specimen is coated with epoxy.
When the epoxy is dried, it is put in a vacuum chamber
for 3 hours. The specimen is saturated with vacuum for 1
hour and allowed to soak for 18 hours. It is then placed
in the test device (see test method for schematic of
device). The left-hand side () of the test cell is filled
with a 3% NaCl solution. The right-hand side (+) of the
test cell is filled with 0.3N NaOH solution. The system
is then connected and a 60-volt potential is applied for 6
hours. Readings are taken for every 30 minutes. At the
end of 6 hours, the sample is removed from the cell and
the amount of coulombs passed through the specimen is
calculated.
Table 6.7. Rapid Chloride Penetration Test
Mix (%)
Charge passed
in Coulombs
CC
CS10+FA30
CS20+FA30
CS30+FA30
CS40+FA30
CS50+FA30
CS60+FA30
CS70+FA30
CS80+FA30
CS100+ FA30
623.89
913.62
1033.01
1210.35
1487.47
1700.31
1901.42
2053.33
2144.76
2389.95
As per ASTM
C1202 Chloride
penetrating rate
Very low
Very low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
7. CONCLUSION
1.
From the test results, it has been founded that

the average pulse velocity is above 5 km/sec for
40% copper slag replacement with fine
aggregate and 30% replacement with cement.
2.
The sieve analysis test proves that the copper

slag can be surrogated for fine aggregate in
concrete.
3. Water absorption in replaced concrete is lower
than the conventional concrete.
4. Rapid Chloride Penetration in replaced concrete
is lower than the conventional concrete.
5. As the subrogation of copper slag increases, the
workability of concrete decreases because of
free water left in the concrete.
6. The compressive strength on concrete is found
to be increased by surrogating fine aggregate
with 40% of copper slag.
7. By surrogating 40% of fine aggregate by
copper slag, the split tensile strength is
increased.
8. It has been understood that for a 40%
replacement, the density of the mix becomes
high and free from pores.
9. Up to 40% replacement of copper slag with fine
aggregate showed very less water absorption
than conventional concrete.
10. Beyond 40%, the segregation and bleeding
effect of copper slag and fly ash mixed concrete
increases, thereby increasing value of water
absorption.
11. Finally this overall review concluded that the
effect of different kinds of industrial waste in
concrete properties like slump value,
workability, mechanical properties of hardened
specimen and durability were studied. This
paper will also encourage the utilization of
copper slag and fly ash derived from various
industries.
Acknowledgements:
I
am
extremely
thankful
to
my
guide
Dr. K.NIRMALKUMAR, Professor, Department of
Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Perundurai-638052 for his invaluable guidance,
constant support and motivation during my paper
work.
REFERENCES
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Behaviour of Concrete in Terms of Flexural, Tensile and
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as Admixture, International Journal of Engineering and
Innovative Technology (IJEIT) VOL. 3, Issue 4, Pages
462-465 October 2013.
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Kogyo Daigaku Kenkyu Shuroku, Vol. 23, pp. 79-85,
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dust addition on mechanical properties of concrete,
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and building materials, Vol.23, pp. 2132-2140, 2009.
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35-46 , (2005),.
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21. Kyong .Y and Kyum Kimb.E An experimental
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re-use of iron and steelmaking slags. VII International
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Page 251
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF

MASONRY PRISM WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICK AND MORTAR
Dr. K.Vidhya1 , Dr. S. Kandasamy2
1
Mahendra Engineering College, Namakkal, Pincode - 637 503, India, vidhya22047@gmail.com

Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Pincode - 641 013, India, swamykandhan@gmail.com
in
JPEG Format
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental study on the stress-strain behavior of masonry prisms constructed with
three types of brick like pond ash brick, fly ash brick, and clay brick. The three types of mortar were used in this study,
weak mortar (1:6), intermediate (1:4.5) and strong mortar (1:3), as per codal provision of IS: 1905. From the
experimental results an analytical expression for youngs modulus has been derived and presented in this paper. The
variation of compressive strength development also discussed with respect to bricks and mortar in the masonry prism.
The mathematical expression was validated with experimental test data by regression analysis.
Keywords: Compressive strength, Youngs modulus, stress-strain behaviour, masonry prism.
1. Introduction
Construction of masonry walls using brick and mortar is a
standard practice in almost all types of building. This
versatility is due to low cost material, good acoustic and
thermal insulation properties and easy availability of raw
materials and skilled labour. Masonry walls are constructed as
infill walls in reinforced concrete structures. Masonry can be
constructed with fly ash bricks, conventional clay bricks,
hollow blocks, concrete blocks, etc. Mechanical properties
such as compressive strength, elastic modulus and stress-strain
of bricks and mortar influence the properties of brick masonry.
Masonry involves essentially brick and mortar. Promoting
environmental protection measures such as minimizing the
usage of natural clay soil for brick making and maximizing the
usage of pond ash, coal ash bricks have been developed.
Among them pond ash bricks stand as noteworthy. In this
investigation, compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
have been determined for three types of brick, mortar and
masonry prism. An attempt has been made to study the stressstrain behaviour of three types of masonry prism consisting of
pond ash bricks, fly ash bricks and conventional clay bricks.
Mathematical expression for masonry compressive strength has
been developed by regression analysis of experimental data.
Hemant B. Kaushik et al (2007) studied the uniaxial monotonic
compressive stress-strain behaviour and other characteristics of
local handmoulded burnt clay solid bricks, mortar and
unreinforced masonry prisms. A simple analytical model was
presented for obtaining the non-linear stress-strain curves for
masonry. The non-linear stress-strain behaviour is a function of
only the compressive strength of bricks and mortar cubes. The
model was based on six control points on the stress-strain
curves, which can be effectively used to define the
performance limit states of the masonry material or member.
K.S. Gumaste et al (2007) studied the strength and elasticity of

brick masonry prisms and wallettes under the application of
uniaxial compressive load. The brick masonry prism and
wallette were constructed as stack bonded and English bonded
using table moulded bricks and wire cut bricks. The strength
and elastic modulus of brick under compression for strong
brick-soft mortar and soft brick-strong mortar combinations
were evaluated. Empirical relationship for compressive
strength of masonry as a function of brick and mortar strength
was developed. Elastic modulus of masonry prism irrespective
of bonding type is lesser for table moulded brick masonry
prism than for wirecut brick masonry prism. Ali A. Jaber
(2010) conducted experiments on three types of masonry unit
(clay bricks, concrete blocks and grouted concrete blocks) to
determine the compressive strength and stress-strain behaviour.
A simple empirical equation by linear regression analysis to
find out the compressive strength of masonry was developed.
The compressive strength of concrete-grouted concrete blocks
is greater than that of clay bricks and concrete blocks. Higher
the number of layers in a prism, its compressive strength gets
reduced. The stress-strain curves for masonry prism made up of
concrete blocks and grouted concrete blocks exhibit the same
behaviour. T.C. Nwofor (2012) studied the mechanical
properties of unreinforced clay brick masonry. The longitudinal
and lateral strains developed in the masonry prisms due to
loading applied parallel and perpendicular to the bedding plane
were determined and the modulus of elasticity in two
orthogonal directions was obtained. An equation to determine
the modulus of elasticity of prism from the compressive
strength of prism was derived. The modulus of elasticity of
brick prism is lesser when loading is applied parallel to the
bedding plane and greater when loading is applied
perpendicular to the bedding plane.
Three different types of brick such as conventional clay brick,
fly ash brick and pond ash brick were used in these
Dr.K.Vidhya Tel.: +91 9842022047

E-mail: vidhya22047@gmail.com
Page 252
Vidhya. K. et. al. / INDECS-15
experiments. The stress-strain curves for three types of brick

were obtained by averaging the stress-strain data from 6
samples of each type of brick. Totally 18 brick specimens were
used for this study. Modulus of elasticity of the various bricks
was found by using compressive stress-strain curves of brick.
Three different grades of mortar viz 1:3, 1:4.5, 1:6 were used
for this study. The compressive strength and Youngs modulus
of three grades of mortar was found out. For this study, totally
18 mortar cube specimens were used.
3.1 Casting of brick prism

Masonry prisms were constructed using combinations of three
types of brick and three types of mortar grade. The casting of
masonry brick prism is shown in Figure 1. Brick specimen of
size 230 mm x 110 mm x 75 mm was used for this
experimental study. The height of five-layer brick masonry
prism with 10-mm thick mortar joints was about 400 mm for
conventional clay brick, pond ash and fly ash prism. Table 1
shows the details of the masonry prisms. Totally 54 specimens
were used for the stress-strain behaviour of unreinforced brick
masonry prism under uniaxial compressive loading.
3.3 Experimental
set up for brick masonry prism
The masonry prism was tested by the Universal Testing

Machine (UTM) of capacity 100 tonnes for stress-strain
characteristics of brick masonry prism. A five-layer height of
masonry prism was used to find the secant modulus of the
masonry prism. A compressometer with least count of 0.01 mm
was used to find the deformation of the prism. The prism was
placed with the frame setup in which a compressometer was
fixed at lateral directions to the frame. The adjustment screw
with pivot rod was used to place the specimen at the centre and
tighten the frame with masonry prism. The compressometer
was centrally pivoted with the masonry prism so as to note the
lateral movement of the prism under the load. The whole
assembly of prism with the compressometer was placed at the
centre of the loading platform of UTM under uniaxial
compression without any eccentricity. The load was applied
gradually at uniform rate and at equal intervals of loading and
the corresponding deflections was noted from the
compressometer till the failure occurred. The ultimate load or
failure load of masonry prism was noted. The test setup for
masonry prism is shown in Figure 2.
Table 1. Test specimen detail for brick prism

Type of the
masonry
Grade of
mortar
1:3
No. of
specimens
6
1:4.5
1:6
1:3
6
6
6
1:4.5
1:6
1:3
Pond ash brick
1:4.5
masonry (PABM)
1:6
Total number of specimens
6
6
6
6
6
54
Conventional clay
brick masonry
(CCBM)
Fly ash brick
masonry
(FABM)
3.2 Experimental setup for brick and mortar:

The Youngs modulus test for conventional clay brick, fly ash
brick and pond ash brick was conducted by using universal
testing machine (UTM) of capacity 100 tonnes. A dial gauge
with least count of 0.01 mm was used to measure the
deflection. Figure 1 shows the experimental setup of brick and
mortar specimen. Uniaxial compressive load was applied
gradually at uniform rate and the corresponding deflections
were measured with the help of dial gauges at equal intervals
of loading. The dial gauges were removed before the failure
occurred in specimen. The ultimate load was noted for three
types of brick and three grades of mortar.
Fig. 1 (a). Experimental setup

for brick
Fig. 1(b). Experimental setup

for mortar
(a) Brick masonry prism placed in

(b) Behaviour of brick masonry
the UTM
prism during testing
Fig. 2. Experimental setup for brick masonry prism
4 Results and Discussion

The test results of Youngs modulus of the clay bricks, pond
ash bricks and fly ash bricks and mortar of grades such as
strong, intermediate and weak have been analysed. The secant
modulus of the conventional clay brick masonry prism, pond
ash brick masonry prism and fly ash brick masonry prism was
determined.
4.1 Stressstrain behaviour of brick

Table 2 shows the summary of test results for bricks under
application of uniaxial loading. For clay bricks, the mean
compressive strength value is 5.2 N/mm2, the failure strain
varies from 0.0023 to 0.0062 and the Youngs modulus ranges
from 1198 N/mm2 to 2536 N/mm2. For pond ash bricks,
ranges from 0.0045 to 0.0069 and the Youngs modulus varies
from 1575 to 3012 N/mm2. For fly ash brick, compressive
strength value is 8.5 N/mm2, the failure strain varies from
0.0056 to 0.0092 and the Youngs modulus ranges from 2015
to 3247 N/mm2. The Youngs modulus of brick gets increased
with increase in the compressive strength of brick. The
Youngs modulus of pond ash brick is 17 % higher than that of
clay brick and 10 % lesser than that of fly ash brick.
Page 253
Table 2. Test results for bricks under uniaxial loading

Identification
Conventional
Clay Brick
(CCB)
Pond Ash Brick
(PAB)
Fly Ash Brick
(FAB)
Ultimate
load
(kN)
Ultimate
stress
(N/mm2)
Failure
strain
Youngs
modulus
(N/mm2)
125.48
5.20
0.0042
1926
192.23
7.60
0.0056
2254
215.15
8.50
0.0075
2526
Table 4 Test results for masonry prism under uniaxial loading

Mortar
grade
1:3
1:4.5
1:6
4.2 Stressstrain behaviour of mortar
Masonry
type
CCBM
PABM
FABM
CCBM
PABM
FABM
CCBM
PABM
FABM
Ultimate
load
(kN)
65.74
87.50
105.12
59.76
78.43
100.13
46.76
63.80
78.43
Ultimate
stress
(N/mm2)
2.60
3.46
4.26
2.35
3.10
3.85
1.85
2.52
3.10
Failure
strain
0.0033
0.0042
0.0058
0.0048
0.0060
0.0063
0.0057
0.0065
0.0067
Secant
modulus
(N/mm2)
1700
2224
2657
1512
1810
2349
1120
1496
1922
Table 3 shows the compressive strength, failure strain and

Youngs modulus values of strong, intermediate and weak
mortar. For 1:3 mortar, the average compressive strength value
is 21.4 N/mm2, failure strain varies from 0.0069 to 0.0105 and
the Youngs modulus values range from 2618 N/mm2 to 4321
N/mm2. For weak mortar, the compressive strength value is
11.34 N/mm2, failure strain ranges from 0.0055 to 0.0108 and
the Youngs modulus ranges from 485 N/mm2 to 762 N/mm2.
The Youngs modulus of 1:4.5 is 34 % lower than that of 1:3
mortar. The mortar compressive strength is high since the
Youngs modulus of mortar is also higher. With increase in the
grade of mortar, the Youngs modulus of mortar also gets
increased. The 1:3 mortar grade has high Youngs modulus
value compared to mortars of other grades.
Fig. 3. Stress vs strain for masonry prism
Table 3: Test results for mortar under uniaxial loading
Identification
1:3/mortar
1:4.5/mortar
1:6/mortar
Ultimate
load
(kN)
516.91
286.85
113.75
Ultimate
stress
(N/mm2)
21.40
11.34
4.50
Failure
strain
0.0085
0.0082
0.0078
Secant
modulus
(N/mm2)
3543
2345
628
4.3 Stressstrain behaviour for masonry prism

The stressstrain behaviour for three brick types namely clay,
pond ash and fly ash brick with three mortar grades (strong,
intermediate and weak mortar) is determined under application
of uniaxial loading as given in Table 4. The Youngs modulus
of pond ash brick with strong mortar prism is 31% higher than
clay brick prism and 16.2% lesser than fly ash brick prism. The
Youngs modulus value of fly ash bricks is high compared to
other bricks such as pond ash brick and clay brick, fly ash
bricks have high compressive strength. The Youngs modulus
of pond ash brick prism with intermediate mortar is 20% higher
than clay brick prism and 23% lesser than fly ash brick prism.
The Youngs modulus of pond ash brick prism is 34% higher
than that of clay brick prism and 22% lesser than that of fly ash
brick prism with weak mortar.
5 Analytical Expression for Youngs Modulus

Figures 4, 5 and 6 show the plots of compressive strength vs
Youngs modulus of brick, mortar and masonry prism
specimens. The Youngs modulus is 179 to 500 times of
compressive strength of brick. The mean value of Youngs
modulus is 313 times of compressive strength of brick. The
Youngs modulus of mortar varies from 84 to 334 times of
compressive strength of mortar. The mean Youngs modulus
value of mortar is 179 times of compressive strength of mortar.
The Youngs modulus of mortar ranges from 485 N/mm2 to
4321 N/mm2. The Youngs modulus of masonry varies from
330 to 870 times fm. The average value of Em is found to be
531 times of compressive strength of prism.
For brick specimen,
For mortar specimen,
For masonry prism,
Eb = 312 fb
Ej = 179 fj
Em = 595 fm
where,
Eb, Ej and Em are Youngs modulus of brick, mortar and
masonry respectively in N/mm2
fb,fj and fm are Compressive strength of brick, mortar and
Figure 3 shows the stress-strain curves for masonry prisms

with strong mortar. The stress-strain curves show linear trend
up to one third of compressive strength for all types of brick
prism. After the development of cracks in the brick, the stressstrain curves display nonlinearity.
Page 254
tests. As presented in Eurocode6 (CEN 1996), the three

compressive strengths can be related as
fm = k fb fj
--------- (1)
where k, and are constants. In Eurocode6 (CEN 1996), the

values of and have been specified as 0.65 and 0.25
respectively and k varies from 0.4 to 0.6 depending upon the
brick properties and brick-mortar joint configuration.
Dayaratnam (1987) studied the data obtained from experiments
by employing regression analysis of data and proposed
different values for the constants k, and . The resultant
equation is presented below.
fm = 0.275 fb0.5 fj0.5
Fig. 5. Compressive strength vs Youngs modulus of brick
----------(2)
Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC 2002) have

proposed the following equation for estimating the masonry
compressive strength:
fm = A (400+Bfb) (psi)
---------(3)
where A = 1.0 for inspected masonry, B varies from 0.20 to
0.25 for different mortar grades. The unit of fb in the above
equation is psi.
Bennett et al (1997) conducted experiments on hollow
structured clay tiles and suggested a conservative estimation of
masonry prism strength. The masonry prism strength equals
three-tenths of the brick compressive strength.
Hemant B. Kaushik et al (2007) have determined the prism
strength by regression analysis of experimental results and
deduced by making use of the Eurocode6 (CEN 1996)
presented the following equation:
Fig. 6. Compressive Strength Vs Youngs Modulus of Mortar
fm = 0.63 fb0.49 fj0.32
----------(4)
In the present study, through comprehensive experimental

studies and by unconstrained regression analysis of Eurocode6
(CEN 1996) equation fm = k fb fj , values for k, and have
been obtained as 0.34, 0.92 and 0.16 respectively using leastsquare fit method. The equation is presented below
fm = 0.46 fb0.69 fj0.2
----------(5)
Equation (5) is used to determine the masonry compressive

strength from the compressive strength of brick and mortar
obtained experimentally.
Fig.7. Compressive strength vs Youngs modulus of prism
The prism strengths derived from equation (present study) are

four different analytical relations proposed by Eurocode6
(CEN 1996), Dayaratnam (1987), Bennett et al (1997), MSJC
(2002) and Hemant et al (2007) are compared and presented in
Table 6.
6 Determination of Compressive Strength of Masonry

The intrinsic property of masonry is denoted by the symbol fm.
It can be used in the design of many masonry elements,
particularly the walls. It is also used to estimate E m and for
plotting the masonry stress-strain curves. Thus fm stands out as
one of the most basic and essential properties for designing a
masonry. At times, it is not feasible to conduct compressive
testing of masonry prisms. Albeit, values of compressive
strength of brick (fb) and compressive strength of mortar (fj)
can be taken from design codes or determined by conducting
Page 255
Table 6. Comparison of compressive strength vales of brick masonry prisms

Experimental Value (N/mm2)
Mortar
grade
1:3
1:4.5
1:6
Analytical Value (N/mm2)
Brick
type
fb
fj
fm
Present
study
(eq. )
Dayaratnam
(1987)
Eurocode
(CEN
1996)
Benette
(1997)
MSJC
(2002)
Hemant
CCBM
5.20
21.40
2.60
2.65
2.90
3.14
1.56
3.93
3.77
PABM
7.60
21.40
3.46
3.44
3.51
4.02
2.28
4.47
4.54
FABM
8.50
21.40
4.26
3.72
3.71
4.32
2.55
4.67
4.79
CCBM
5.20
11.34
2.35
2.33
2.11
2.68
1.56
3.93
3.07
PABM
7.60
11.34
3.10
3.03
2.55
3.43
2.28
4.47
3.70
FABM
8.50
11.34
3.85
3.27
2.70
3.69
2.55
4.67
3.91
CCBM
5.20
4.50
1.85
1.94
1.33
2.13
1.56
3.93
2.29
PABM
7.60
4.50
2.52
2.52
1.61
2.72
2.28
4.47
2.75
FABM
8.50
4.50
3.10
2.72
1.70
2.93
2.55
4.67
2.91
References
6. Conclusion
The following conclusions are derived from the present study:
The compressive strength of masonry prism gets

increased with increase in the compressive strength
of brick and mortar.
The ultimate compressive strength of coal ash brick
masonry prism with all mortar proportions is 1.3
times higher than conventional clay brick masonry
prism.
Modulus of elasticity of the masonry prism varies
from 330 to 870 times of the prism compressive
strength.
The modulus of elasticity of masonry prism gets
of masonry prism.
The Youngs modulus of pond ash brick is 31 %, 20
% and 34 % higher than clay brick prism with strong
mortar, intermediate mortar and weak mortar
respectively.
Mathematical expression is established to find out
the masonry strength and compared with the
experimental results and Eurocode.
[1]
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Compressive properties of structural clay tile prisms,
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[2]
Milad M. Alshebani & Sinha, S.N. : Stress-strain

characteristics of Brick Masonry under Uniaxial
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[3]
Sarangapani, G., Venkatarama Reddy, B & Jagadish,

K. S.: Structural characteristics of bricks, mortar and
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[4]
Ewing, B.D. & Kowalsky, M.J.,:Compressive

behaviour of unconfined and confined clay brick
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[5]
Sarangapani, G., Venkatarama Reddy, B. & Jagadish,

K.S.: Brick-mortar bond and masonry compressive
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Rank Building Product Industry,
Salem, Tamil Nadu for casting the brick specimens.
Special thanks to Dr.T.Palanisamy, Professor and
Controller of Examination, K.S.R. College of
Technology, Tiruchengode and Prof. Ganapathy,
Professor, Sona College of Technology Salem for their
special guidance.
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IS1905, 3rd Rev., Bureau of Indian Standards, New
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[17]
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methods of test of burn clay building bricksPart 1:
Determination of compressive strength, IS 3495, 3rd
Rev., Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[18]
Indian Standards (IS), (1992b). Indian standard

Determination of water absorption, IS 3495, 3rd
[19]
Indian Standards (IS), (1995), Indian standard code

of practice for preparation and use of masonry
mortars, IS2250, 5th Rev., Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
[20]
European Committee of Standardization (CEN),

(1996), Design of masonry structures. Part 1-1:
General rules for buildingsReinforced and
unreinforced masonry. ENV 1996-1-1, Eurocode 6,
Brussels, Belgium.
[21]
Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC), (2002),

Building code requirements for masonry structures,
ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02, American
Concrete Institute, Structural Engineering Institute of
the American Society of Civil Engineers, The
Masonry Society, Detroit.
Venkatarama Reddy, B.V & Uday Vyas, V.:

Influence of shear bond strength on compressive
strength and stress-strain characteristics of masonry,
International Journal of Materials and Structural
Integrity, Vol. 41, 1697-1712,2008.
Ali A. Jaber, Effect of masonry units type and
concrete grouting on compressive strength of prisms,
Engineering and Technology Journal, Vol. 28, No.
13, 2638-2653,2010.
Mohammed, A & Hughes, T.G.: Prototype and
model masonry behaviour under different loading
conditions, International Journal of Materials and
Chitra Ganapathi, S, Rama Chandra, A, Murthy,
Nagesh R. Iyer , Lakshmanan, N, Bhagavan, N.G. :
Experimental and Numerical study on in-plane
behaviour of brick masonry wall panels, International
Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics, Vol 11,
Issue 03, 431,2011.
[13]
Nwofor, T.C.: Experimental determination of the

mechanical properties of clay brick masonry,
Canadian Journal on Experimental, Construction and
Civil Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 3 : 127-144, 2012.
[14]
Feng. Wu, Gang Li, Hong, Li, & Jin-Quin Jia. :

Stress-strain characteristics of traditional adobe block
and masonry, International Journal of Materials and
Structural Integrity, No. 46, 1449-1457, 2012.
[15]
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structures (1987), Oxford and IBH, New Delhi,
India.
Page 257

(INDECS-15)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE COMBINED LOAD RESPONSE OF

MODEL PILES DRIVEN IN SAND
Prasad Pujar 1, P.G Rakaraddi 2
1
Post -Graduate student ,Department of Geotechnical engineering, Basaveshwar Engineering

college,Bagalkot,587102,India, prasad.puar54@gmail.com
2
Professor in civil department, Basaveshwar Engineering college, Bagalkot, 587102, India,
pgraddi@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Most of the pile foundations in high rise structures are subjected to combination of both axial and lateral loads. Only a
few experimental studies have been performed on the response of piles subjected to combined loading, although the load
applied on a pile is usually a combination of both a vertical and lateral load in practice. In addition, with post
experimental results available in the literature are inconsistent with respect to the effects of axial loads on the lateral
capacity of piles. The objective of this investigation is to assess the influence of axial loads on the lateral response of
circular model group of piles of different spacing configurations driven in sand through model pile combined load tests.
A series of lateral load tests were performed on the model piles driven in rectangular tank filled with sand of densities of
17.1 kN/m3, 17.5 kN/m3 and 17.8 kN/m3 subjected to different axial loads. Different combinations of pile spacing 3D,
5D and 7D and axial loads V=0, 0.25Vult, 0.5Vult are considered in the present study. The results from the combined load
test are used to study the effect of combined loading on p-y curves and also the lateral response of pile groups of
different configurations under combined loading in sand. The combined load test results showed that the presence of an
axial load on the model pile group driven in sand increases the lateral load carrying capacity, for the lateral deflection of
the model pile group decreases. The effect of combined loading is more in pile group of 5D pile spacing than in 7D pile
pacing, and least in case of pile group of 3D pile spacing.
Keywords: Pile group, Pile head deflection, combined loading, ultimate load, p-y curve
1. Introduction
Where the shallow foundations undergo excessive settlement
and shear failure pile foundations are going to be used. They
are generally used to support the foundation of structures such
as bridges, tall buildings, retaining walls, sea front structures.
Piles are dissected separately as a rule despite the fact that
Piles connected on Piles are generally a mix of both vertical
and horizontal loads. In present practice, Piles outline is
completed independently for pivotal and sidelong loads in
light of the supposition that the impacts of these Piles are
autonomous of one another [13, 16]. Initial an extreme
vertical load limit is computed, and after that, the Pile is
examined for horizontal burdens with the geometry coming
about because of pivotal burden computations. The
fundamental purpose behind this methodology in outline is
that Pile reaction under joined stacking is more mind
boggling and hard to dissect than Pile reaction under either
vertical or horizontal stacking. Broad exploration has been
performed on Pile establishments subjected to either pivotal
loads or horizontal loads, even though pile response under
combined loads can be significantly different due to the
interaction of axial and lateral loads. Piles are utilized to
bolster mixes of vertical and sidelong loads also individual
vertical loads and lateral loads. Piles subjected to combined
loading is very complex, the present practice is to piles freely

for horizontal burden to determine their flexural behaviour
and vertical loads to determine their bearing capacity and
settlement. The literature available in this field is very scanty.
The limited information on this aspect based on the analytical
investigations (Ramasamy 1974; Davisson and Robinson
1965; Goryunov 1975) reveals that for a given lateral load,
the lateral deflection increases with the combination of
vertical loads.
However, field investigations (McNulty 1956;
Bartolomey 1977; Zhukov and Balov 1978) and experimental
(Pise 1975; Sorochan and Bykov 1976; Jain et al. 1987)
suggest a decrease in lateral deflection with the combination
of vertical loads [4, 5, 6, 8, and 12]. Anagnostopoulos and
Georgiadis (1993) attempted to explain this through an
experimental model with 2 dimensional finite element
analyses and concluded that the modified status of soil
stresses and local plastic volume changes in the soil
continuum under combined vertical and lateral loads cannot
be accounted for in general by the conventional subgrade
reaction [14].
2. Methodology
Page 258
Prasad Pujar and P. G Rakaraddi / INDECS-15
Krishna river sand, Krishna mandal, Andhra Pradesh sand is

used as soil medium. The properties of the sand are given in
table 1. From the laboratory test results, according to IS 2720
part 4 if Cu<6 and Cc<1 then the soil is classified as poorly
graded sand. The group of piles (2X2) is driven with different
pile spacing (3D, 5D, 7D) in the sand different densities filled
in the testing tank of size 600mm x 600mm x 600mm by
raining technique method. To attain the densities of
17.1kN/m3, 17.5kN/m3 and 17.8kN/m3, the sand is made to
fall from different heights. The pile group driven in sand and
the combined loading is analyzed separately with the vertical
load equal to zero (pure lateral load case), 0.25Vult, and
0.5Vult, the vertical load is applied prior to the lateral load
(the VPL case). Vertical load is applied using jack of 5 tone
capacity is measured using proving ring and the lateral pile
head deflection is measured by two LVDT. The loading was
continued till the settlement of the pile is just more than 20%
of pile diameter. The load-displacement curves are plotted.
The testing tank was emptied and the same procedure is
followed to carry out all other tests. The experimental setup is
shown in fig.2.
Fig -3: Photographic view of Experimental setup
Fig. 4. Photographical view of model steel piles
Fig-1: Particle size distribution characteristics of sand used in the

study
Fig. 3.2 Photographical view of model pile caps

Fig 2-: Line diagram of experimental setup
Table -1: Properties of sand used in the study
Property
Value
Specific gravity (G)
2.59
Page 259
Grain size analysis

D10,mm
D30,mm
D50,mm
D60,mm
Coefficient of uniformity, (Cu)
Coefficient of curvature, (Cc)
I.S. Classification
0.36
0.52
0.84
2.33
0.9
Poorly graded sand,
SP
Angle of internal friction

(degrees) for different densities
= 17.1 (kN/m3)
= 17.5 (kN/m3)
= 17.8 (kN/m3)
32.50
350
37.50
loading. The vertical load increments are 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 0.75
of Vult.
3.2.1 Load-deflection curves

densities and pile spacing
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The experiments were carried out as explained
in chapter III by varying different parameters like
density, pile spacing, percentage variation of vertical
load etc. and their results were plotted, tabulated and
presented in this chapter. Based on the test results
discussions were made and also presented in this
chapter.
3.2 Loads-deflection curves
The load verses lateral deflection of the pile is
plotted to study the behaviour of the group of piles from the
Pile
Spacin
g
Relative
Density
Ultimate Lateral Load (kN)
3D
17.1 KN/m3
0.082
17.5 KN/m3
0.083
Vult=0
0.25Vul
t
0.101
the
different
The fig 3.1 to fig 3.9 shows the load-deflection curve for
3D spacing and varying density of 17.1 kN/m3, 17.5
kN/m3 and 17.8 kN/m3 respectively for different varying
vertical loads. The ultimate lateral loads for different
densities and pile spacing is shown in Table. 3.1.
Table 3.1 Ultimate lateral loads for different densities and
spacing
pile
0.20
0.18
0.16
Applied Lateral Load (kN)
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
for
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V=0.5Vult
0.02
0.5Vult
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Pile Head Deflection (mm)
0.147
Fig 4.1 Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles with 3D

spacing
embedded in the sand having 17.1 KN/m3 density
0.126
0.166
0.22
0.20
5D
0.096
0.129
0.172
17.1 KN/m3
0.088
0.124
0.188
17.5 KN/m3
0.10
0.128
0.254
17.8 KN/m3
0.106
0.134
0.284
17.1 KN/m3
0.086
0.120
0.144
17.5 KN/m3
0.087
0.126
0.24
17.8 KN/m3
0.102
0.127
0.252
0.18
17.8 KN/m3
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5 Vult
0.04
0.02
0.00
7D
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Fig 3.2 Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles with

3D spacing embedded in the sand having 17.5 KN/m3 density
results obtained by the experiments carried out for low density

(17.1 KN/m3), medium density (17.5 KN/m3) and high density
(17.8 KN/m3) sand with varying pile spacing of 3D, 5D and 7D
to examine behaviour of the group of piles under combined
Page 260
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.16
0.14
0.20
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.02
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

spacing embedded in the sand having17.8 KN/m3 density

0.30
0.24
0.28
0.22
0.26
0.24
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.75Vult
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
0.00
0
Fig 3.8 Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles

with 7D spacing embedded in the sand having 17.5 KN/m3
density

spacing embedded in the sand having 17.1 KN/m3 density
0.28
0.26
0.28
0.24
0.26
0.22
0.30
0.24
0.30
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.02
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.00
0.0
0.18
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.04
0.20
4.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Pile Head deflection (mm)


From fig 3.1-3.9 and from table 3.1 it is observed

that
0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
1) For the increase in the density, the lateral load

carrying capacity of the group of piles also
increases in the absence of vertical load (i.e
V=0) and also in the presence of vertical load.
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0

2) In the presence of vertical load, the lateral load

carrying capacity also increases as the vertical
load increases up to 0.5 Vult and decreases at
0.75 Vult at all the density levels.
3) The case of zero case carries the minimum
lateral load and the case with vertical load
Page 261
0.5Vult carries more lateral load at all the

density levels. This effect is same in all the
three pile spacing (i.e 3D, 5D, 7D).
0.08
4) The least lateral load is carried by the pile

group with 3D pile spacing with V=0 (0.082
kN) at low density level (17.1 kN/m^3) and the
maximum lateral load is carried by the pile
group with 5D pile spacing with V=0.5Vult at
higher density level (17.8 kN/m^3).
0.10
3.2.2 Load-deflection curves for the different pile

spacing
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Fig 3.10 Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles with V=0
0.16
0.14
The load-deformation curves for the group of piles

embedded in low density (17.1 KN/m3), medium density
(17.5 KN/m3) and high density (17.8
KN/m3) homogeneous sand are plotted with varying pile
spacing of 3D, 5D, 7D with varying the vertical load as
shown in fig 3.10 to fig 3.21.
In the fig. 3.10 to fig. 3.21 the
comparison made by comparing the different pile
spacing. The graphs are plotted for the applied lateral
load vs pile head deformation for the same vertical load
and same density, but for different pile spacing. The
ultimate lateral loads for different pile spacing is shown
in Table 3.2.
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
Table 3.2 Ultimate lateral loads for the different pile spacing
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Relative
Density
Pile
Spacing

Vult=0
0.25Vult
0.5Vult
3D
0.082
0.101
0.147
5D
0.088
0.124
0.188

V=0.25 Vult embedded in the sand having 17.1 KN/m3 density
0.24
17.5
KN/m3
0.22
0.20
7D
0.086
0.120
0.144
3D
0.083
0.126
0.166
5D
0.10
0.128
0.254
17.1
KN/m3
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.04
0.02
7D
0.087
0.126
0.24
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
17.8
KN/m3
3D
0.096
0.129
0.172
5D
0.106
0.134
0.284
7D
0.102
0.127
0.252
Fig 3.12 Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles with V=0.5
Vult embedded in the sand having17.1 KN/m3 density
Page 262
0.12
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
5.0
0.00
embedded in the sand having17.5 KN/m3 density
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

V=0.25Vult embedded in the sand having17.8 KN/m3 density
0.16
0.14
0.32
0.30
0.12
0.28
0.10
0.26
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

0.12
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.32
0.30
0.28

V=0.5 Vult embedded in the sand having17.8 KN/m3 density
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
From fig 3.10 - 3.18 and from table 3.2 it is observed

that
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.18
0.16
As the density increases the lateral load carrying

capacity increases in all the pile spacing.
1). The lateral load carrying capacity increases as
the pile spacing increases from 3D spacing to
5D spacing but decreases at 7D spacing.
2). The effect of vertical load on the lateral load
carrying capacity of group of piles is more in the case of
0.5Vult than in case of 0.25 Vult and least in case with
zero axial load.
0.14

spacing and varying vertical load
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
The load-deformation curves for the group of piles embedded

in low density (17.1 KN/m3), medium density (17.5 KN/m3)
and high density (17.8 KN/m3) homogeneous sand are plotted
with varying pile spacing of 3D, 5D, 7D with varying the
vertical load as shown in fig 4.22 to fig 4.33.
In the fig 3.22 to fig 3.33 the comparison made by
comparing the different densities. The graphs are plotted for
the applied lateral load vs pile head deformation for the same
vertical load and same pile spacing, but for different densities.
The ultimate lateral loads for different pile spacing and varying
vertical loads is shown in Table 3.3
Page 263
.
Table 3.3 Ultimate lateral loads for the different pile spacing and
varying axial loads
Pile
Spacing
0.12
Ultimate
Lateral Load
(kN)
Density
(kN/m^3)
0.10
17.1
17.5
17.8
V=0
0.082
0.083
0.096
V=0.25Vult
0.101
0.126
0.129
V=0.5Vult
0.147
0.166
0.172
0.088
0.10
0.106
V=0.25Vult
0.124
0.128
0.134
V=0.5Vult
0.188
0.254
0.284
0.08
0.06
3D
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
V=0
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5D

spacing and V=0
0.16
0.14
7D
0.12
0.086
0.087
0.102
V=0
V=0.25Vult
0.120
0.126
0.127
V=0.5Vult
0.144
0.24
0.252
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Fig 3.20
Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles

with 3D spacing and V=0.25 Vult
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
Fig. 3.22 Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles with 5D

spacing and V=0
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.16
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
0.14
0.00
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Pile Head Deformation (mm)

0.0
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5

spacing and V=0.25 Vult
Page 264
0.32
0.30

that
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
1)
0.18
In all the pile spicing and all the vertical load levels
the higher density carries the more lateral load.
0.16
0.14
0.12
2)
0.10
0.08
Lateral load carrying capacity of group of pile is

more in case of V = 0.5Vult carries the more load
and V = 0 case carries the less load.
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
3)
The effect of vertical load is more in case of the

pile group of spacing 5D than 7D and 3D. And the
effect is minimum in case of pile group with 3D
spacing.

0.14
0.12
0.10
4. CONCLUSION
0.08
0.06
Based on the observations made in the results and
0.04
discussions, the accompanying conclusions are

17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
drawn.
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
1)
Fig 3.25 Load-Deformation curve for the group

piles with 7D spacing and V=0
of
As the density increases, the lateral load carrying

capacity of the group of piles also increases in the
absence (i.e V=0) and also in the presence of
vertical load.
0.16
Applied Lateral Laod (kN)
0.14
0.12
2)
The effect of vertical load is more in case of the pile
0.10
group of spacing 5D than 7D and the effect is
0.08
minimum in case of pile group with 3D spacing
0.06
irrespective of vertical loads.
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
3)
The effect of vertical load on the lateral load
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
carrying capacity of group of piles is more in the
5.0
case of 0.5Vult than in case of 0.25Vult and least in

0.30
case with zero axial load.

4)
0.28
0.26
3D spacing to 5D spacing in all the vertical loading
0.24
There is increase average lateral load of 44% from
cases and pile spacing.
0.22
0.20
5)
0.18
0.16

the case of zero vertical load to the case of 0.5V ult
0.14
0.12
for all pile spacing and density cases.
0.10
0.08
0.06
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5

Page 265
REFERENCES
[1]
Evans, L.T. (1954). Bearing Piles Subjected to Horizontal Loads,

Symposium on Lateral
Load Tests in Piles, ASTM Special
Technical Publication, No.154, pp. 30-35.
[2] Indian Standard - IS: 1498 1970 Classification and
Identification of Soils for General
Engineering Purposes,
New Delhi, India.
[3] Poulos, H.G. (1971a). Behavior of Laterally Loaded Piles: ISingle Piles. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., ASCE, 97(5), 711-731.
[4] Pise, P.J. (1975). Investigations on Laterally Loaded Pile Groups,
Symposium on Recent Developments in the Analysis of Soil
Behavior and their Application to Geotechnical
Structures,
Sydney, Australia, pp. 129-144.
[5] Sorochan, E.A. and Bykov, V.I. (1976). Performance of Groups of
Cast-In Place Piles
Subjected to Horizontal Loading,
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 13(3), pp.
157-161.
[6] Bartolomey, A.A. (1977). Experimental Analysis of Pile Groups
under Lateral Loads, 9th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 187188.
[7] Karasev, O.V., Talanov, G.P., and Benda, S.F. (1977).
Investigation of the Work of Single Situ-Cast Piles under
Different Load Combinations, Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, 14(3), pp. 173-177.
[8] Zhukov, N.V. and Balov, I.L. (1978). Investigation of the Effect
of a Vertical Surcharge
on Horizontal Displacements and
Resistance of Pile Columns to Horizontal Loads, Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, 15(1), pp. 16-21.
[9] Indian Standard-IS: 2720(Part 3)1980 Methods of test for soils,
determination of
specific gravity, fine, medium and
coarse grained soils", New Delhi.
[10] Indian Standard-IS: 2720 (Part 4)-1985 Methods of test for
soils, grain size analysis- mechanical method, New Delhi.
[11] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 13)1986 Method of test for
soils, direct shear test.
New Delhi, India.
[12] Jain, N.K., Ranjan,G., and Ramasamy, G. (1987). Effect of
Vertical Load on Flexural Behavior of Piles, Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol.18, pp. 185-204.
[13] Brown DA, Shie CF. Some numerical experiments with a three
dimensional finite element model of a laterally loaded pile. J
Comput Geotech 1991;12:14962.
[14] Anagnostopoulos C., Georgiadis M. 1993. Interaction of axial
and lateral pile responses. J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE, 119(4),
793-798.
[15] Bowles J.E. 1988. Foundation Analysis and Design, 4th Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y.
[16] S.Karthigeyan, Ramakrishna, VVGST. and Rajagopal, K. (2007).
Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Vertical Load on the
Lateral Response of Piles, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 133( 5): 512-521.
[17] S.Karthigeyan,. and Rajagopal, K. (2009). Lateral response of
22 pile group under combined axial and lateral loading. Proc.
Of Indian Geotechnical Conference 2009 (IGC-2009), Dec. 1619, 2009, Guntur, 665-668.
[18] S. Karthigeyan "Lateral Response pile group under combined
loading in sandy soil, Indian Geotechnical Conference 2010.
[19] Byung Tak Kim and Gil Lim Yoon Laboratory Modeling of
Laterally Loaded Pile Groups in Sand, KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering (2011) 15(1):65-75 DOI 10.1007/s12205-0110924-3
[20] Murugan M, Natarajan C, Muthukkumaran K "Behaviour
Laterally Loaded Piles in Cohesionless Soils" International
Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904,
Volume 04, No 06 SPL, October 2011, pp. 104-106.
[21] Jintae Lee, Monica Prezzi, and Rodrigo Salgado Experimental
Investigation of the combined load Response of Model Piles
Driven in Sand, Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 34, No.6.
2011.
[22] Jintae Lee, Monica Prezzi, and Rodrigo Salgado Influence of
Axial Loads on the Lateral Capacity of Instrumented Steel Model
Piles, International Journal of Pavement Research and
Technology Vol.6 No.2 Mar. 2013.
Page 266
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF THIN ELEMENTS USING IMPACT

ECHO METHOD
S.Christi 1, K.Sivasubramanian 2, V.Venkatesan 3, K.N.Lakshmikandhan 4,
P.Sivakumar 5
1
Post Graduate Student , AMS Engg College,Namakkal-637031, Email: christi.au1993@gmail.com

2
Scientist, Structural Engineering Research centre, Chennai-600113, Email: ksiva@serc.res.in
3
Assistant Professor, University College of Engineering, Ariyalur-621704, Email: vvn6030@gmail.com
4
Scientist, Structural Engineering Research centre, Chennai-600113, Email: kandhan@serc.res.in
5
Scientist, Structural Engineering Research centre, Chennai-600113, Email: pskumar@serc.res.in
Abstract
Impact-echo method is an advanced non-destructive testing method being popularly used for the evaluation of thicker
sections above 100mm. However, with the aim of widening the range of the Impact-echo method, it has been proposed
to investigate thinner sections. The impact-echo method conventionally relies on the lamb wave resonance to identify the
location of the defects or to evaluate the thickness of the sections. The present work aims to use the shift in frequency
caused by flexural modes to identify defects in thinner sections. A one inch grid has been adopted to carry out the
investigation. Large amount of data has been collected and processed to arrive at the 2D representation from which the
defect locations can be interpreted easily. Two funicular shells have been investigated in the present work with one of
them having cracks. The results provided a different insight into the non-destructive analysis of structural elements like
shells. The observations made from the shell results are found to be different to those of the plane walls. Here, the
frequency shift has been found to occur at locations other than defect locations. This is believed to be due to the shape of
the structural element. Because of this reason, when the second shell with cracks was tested, the location of the cracks
could not be explicitly identified. However, on superimposing the results from the two shells, the location of the cracks
have been identified. The study indicates that more focused research in this area needs to be carried out to improve the
understanding on identifying defects in curved structural elements. The results of the IE method have been compared
with the IRT results and the effectiveness of the IE method has been established.
Keywords: Impact-echo, funicular shell, non-destructive testing, defect, wave resonance
1. Introduction
change and its ability to perform for the newer demands needs
to be estimated. So, that the evaluation of structure is very
important.
For the last few decades, construction of civil engineering

structures has been taking place at a brisk rate all around the
world. After keen consideration in using high quality materials,
care in proportioning of materials, and skilled workmanship, it
is almost impossible to prevent the formation of defects like
honeycomb, and voids due to some environmental and
manmade effects. Precautions are being taken during the
construction stage to ensure better quality of construction. Inspite of this, sometimes the structures behave differently
because of the flaws that creep in during execution. Many-atimes in existing structures, the demands of the structure
For this non-destructive evaluation partially destructive

methods are used to complement the results obtained from
NDT, in the field. Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods have
evolved from the methods like Rebound hammer method and
ultrasonic pulse velocity method to the present day advanced
methods like Impact-Echo method, Ultrasonic Pulse Echo and
Ground penetrating Radar. The present day NDT methods use
elastic wave propagation to identify the depth of the concrete
specimen / component and to identify the location of the flaws
and their severity. The present work focuses on the impactecho method for non-destructive evaluation.
Page 267
Christi et. al. / INDECS-15
2. Impact-Echo Method
The impact-echo (IE) method has three basic components
(ASTM C1383-98, 2010), namely,
Different sized mechanical impactors to produce shortduration impacts, the duration of which needs to be
proportional to size of the structural element (Sansalone
and Carino, 1986),
A sensitive transducer to measure the surface response of
the reflected P-waves,
Data acquisition system to receive, process, and transmit
the waveforms to the computer as IE signal.
Fig. 1. Single-column format figure
Steel spheres are used as impactors as they are convenient

impact sources for producing repeatable impacts with the
sources impact duration proportional to the diameter of the
ball. The importance of impact duration is discussed in the
following section. Further development in the method led to
the use of steel balls attached to steel rods for ease of use and
carrying purposes. Besides, the use of steel rods enables one to
apply the test method in any orientation, whether it is a vertical
wall or a ceiling. The transducer contains small piezoelectric
crystals, protected by an outer metal casing. Piezoelectric
crystals produce a voltage difference when they are displaced
and vice-versa. These voltage differences are then recorded by
the data acquisition unit as the signal, for further processing.
The transducers utilized in impact-echo testing are wideband
transducers.
2.1. Experimental Setup
The impact-echo equipment used during the experiments is
shown in Fig. 1 (Sansalone, 1986). The impact-echo equipment
included the following items:
A sensor with frequency ranges from 1 kHz to 70

kHz (Proctor, 1982).
There are nearly ten sphere steel balls of different

diameters which are connected to each other by thin
metal rods. Their diameters are 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm,
6.5 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm, 11.5mm, 13 mm, 16.5 mm,
20 mm. Among them the 8mm sphere ball impactor
is used here in case of thin element.
A data acquisition system which enables the logging

of data from the transducers to the computer by
converting and storing the analog signals as digital
outputs.
A BNC cable that connects transducers to the data acquisition
system. The BNC cables are used for both analog and digital
signals and are preferred by many electronic test equipment
manufactured in recent years. It was designed as a cable to
minimize wave reflection or loss. It was named after its
bayonet mount locking mechanism and its two inventors - Paul
Neill and Carl Concelman.
2.2. Test Procedure

Impact-echo method is conventionally a point based data
collection technique. Hence, grid points need to be marked on
the test structures in order to streamline the data collection
process. A 1 inch (2.5cm) grid has been adopted for the NDE
of all the test structures considered in this study. Before
conducting any test on a structure, it is preferred to analyse the
different impactors for their functionality. This is especially
important in this study as the conventional practice used for
thick structural components would not be very useful in the
evaluation of thin structural components. This is because the
recommendations on the selection of different impactors in the
literature (Sansalone, 1997, 1986; Sansalone and Streett, 1997)
are recommended for the development of the P-wave resonance
for a corresponding depth. However, the present work relies on
flexural modal frequencies to identify the defects. Hence, these
recommendations from the literature would not be appropriate.
Therefore, all the impactors are tested for their effectiveness.
Impactor size was found to be a major factor affecting impactecho test results. The right type of impactor size selection was
a key factor for the success of the tests. Based on the
preliminary investigation and prior experience, it has been
observed that the 8mm steel ball impactor is effective for the
evaluation of thin structural elements.
Another important parameter to be considered is the distance
between the impact point and the position of the transducer. An
impactor-receiver spacing of 50mm (2 in.) and an impact
duration of approximately 40s has been found to be effective.
The following test procedure has been used at each girder point
during investigation:
The approximate expected frequencies for the reflections
from the concrete or from any inner cracks or voids were
assessed through trial and error.
Five trails have been carried out on each grid point over the
each point of the specimen.
The results of the test were processed and analyzed.
The whole data are plotted and the difference in the solid
surface and cracked surface were identified by calculating
the variations in the frequency.
An analog signal changes over time and can be represented
as a mathematical function with time as the free variable
and the signal itself as the dependent variable. A discretetime signal is a sampled version of the analog signal: the
values are collected at fixed intervals such as
microseconds, rather than continuous recording.
Digital signals are digital representations of discrete-time
signals. Precise measurement of an analog signal would
Page 268
require an infinite number of digits and therefore is not

possible. The resultant data stream after the approximation
of this signal by a certain predefined precision is collected
as a digital signal as shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4.
by three factors: (1) subsurface configuration, (2) surface

condition; and (3) environment.
3.1. Equipment for IRT method
In IRT technique, even for a small test area, thousands of
readings would have to be made simultaneously in order to
outline the anomaly precisely. Since this is not practically
feasible, high resolution infrared thermographic cameras are
used to inspect large areas of concrete collecting data from
thousands of points at every instant efficiently and quickly.
There are two types of infrared cameras available:
(1) Focal Plane Array (FPA) cameras, and

(2) Single active element scanner cameras.
Fig. 2. Schematic of stress wave propagation
4. Specimen Details
The specimens used in this study are shells of size 1m1m with
depth or thickness 20mm and rib of the shell 50x50mm. Here,
two spherical shells are used one with cracks and the other
without cracks. The shell is funicular and is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 3. Wave propagation in Impact-echo concept
Fig. 5. Top view of the funicular shell
4.1. Grid marking
.
Fig. 4. Impact-echo system (Freedom Data PC)
3. Infrared Thermography (IRT)

In the present work, the infrared thermography technique is
employed as the second NDT technique to validate the results
of the IE method. According to the fundamental Law of
Planck, all objects above absolute zero emit Infrared radiation.
This radiation only becomes visible to the human eye when the
temperature is above about 500C. Infrared monitoring
equipments have been developed which are capable of
detecting infrared emission and visualizing them as a visible
image. The sensitive range of the detector lies between 2 and
14 microns. The 2 to 5.6 micron range is generally used to
visualize temperature between 40C and 2000C and the 8 to 14
micron range is used for temperature between -20c and
ambient temperatures.
Generally, anything deeper than 10 cm will only show after a
long period of time (>1 hr) as a temperature change on the
surface. Since, the infrared system measures surface
temperatures only, the temperatures measured are influenced
In the shell, grid lines are marked every 2.5 cm along X- and
Y-directions. Nearly, 40 rows are marked in a shell. Fig. 6
shows marking of gridlines for the shell 1.The data is collected
at all grid points on the curved shell structure. The curved
shape of the structure posed difficulty in positioning of the
transducer. The sensor needs to be positioned normal to the
evaluation surface to ensure effective capturing of the signal.
However, the tri-point support at the base of the sensor helps in
positioning the sensor over the varying slope of the shell.
Fig. 6. Grid Point Marking on funicullar shell
Page 269
In total 40 rows are marked with an interval of one inch. Each

rows carry 40 points. At every grid point five data are
collected. Totally 8000 data are collected in one shell. After
collecting all the data, processing is done. Then, the data are
plotted in a 2D view for interpretation of the results.
elements from undamaged ones. While the first represents a

good shell without cracks, the second shows a different pattern
thus indicating presence of cracks.

The shell specimens are tested by using impact echo method to
identify defects, especially cracks. Cracks are many-a-times
superficial and are hence visible to the naked eye. However,
their influence on the frequency is studied in the present work.
Under these circumstances the NDT methods play a vital role
in detecting the presence of defects. The data collected on the
shells are analyzed by using Olson impact-echo instrument.
Collecting and processing of data are could be carried out with
the tailor-made user-friendly WinTFS software. The Olson
instrument uses an industrial PC with appropriate data
acquisition boards to capture the data and hence process it. The
initial settings adopted for data acquisition is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8. Impact Echo test results for Shell 1
Fig. 7. Initial settings of Olson instrument
Based on the data collected using the IE instrument, the 2D

plot is developed for the shell 1 and is shown in Fig. 8. The
results indicate two regions. The pink regions represent the
stiffer regions of the shell. Owing to its shape, the shell offers
certain regions of flexibility as represented by the blue regions.
These regions allow the flexural modal vibrations. Hence, low
frequencies dominate the data. They differentiate themselves
from the other stiffer regions. The apex of the shell can be
observed to be stiffer. Also, the presence of the edge beams
makes the regions stiffer, thus producing differential
frequencies. The pattern obtained in Fig. 8 is particularly
representative of the shape of the spherical shell. The portion
below the frequency range 1200 Hz are indicated in blue
colour. However, it needs to be noted here that the shell is in
good shape without any damage.
The shell 2 is a replica of the shell 1 except that it had
developed cracks on its surface due to stresses developed
during demoulding. The impact-echo data has been collected
on shell 2 similar to that for shell 1. The size and number of
grid points are maintained the same for these two specimens.
The IE result obtained for the shell 2 is shown in Fig. 9. The IE
results do not show an understandable pattern matching the
crack pattern observed on the shell. This is because of the
shape of the test structure. When compared to the results of
shell 1, the results of the shell 2 are different. Thus, from a first
look it can be observed that the Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 have different
pattern. Thus adopting techniques like digital image
correlation, it would be possible to identify damaged structural
Fig. 9. Impact Echo test results for the shell 2
As, the crack pattern is not explicitly evident from the Fig. 8
and Fig. 9, the two results are superimposed to obtain the better
results of cracked pattern and it is shown in Fig. 10. The ability
to vibrate has been observed to change in shell 2 when
compared to shell 1. This is represented as pink / rose colour
regions in Fig. 10. The red line indicates the actual crack
pattern observed on the shell 2. In addition to the regions
beside the crack locations, some regions between two cracks
are observed to provide possibilities for varied frequency
vibrations as is highlighted by the text in Fig. 10.
The results of the IE method in Fig. 10 can be compared with
the infrared thermography method shown in Fig. 11. For better
clarity the black and white colour pallet is used in Fig 11. Here,
black colour denotes defective concrete regions and white
colour represents sound material.
Page 270
sound condition showed a different pattern to that was

expected. This variation in the frequency content on a shell
with uniform thickness has been concluded to be due to the
shape of the structure. This is because such patterns have never
been reported in the literature when slabs or walls are
investigated. In the shell 2, differences in frequencies have
been observed which should be due to the shape of the
structure.
Fig. 10. Superimposed result of shell 1 and 2
The interpretation of the results from the second shell alone

was not possible. The identification of the crack pattern has
been difficult because of the differential frequencies produced
because of the shape of the structure. However, using the
superimposed results of the shell 1 and shell 2, the portions in
the pink color have been found to closely follow the crack
locations. The present work has indicated the difficulty in
assessing structural elements like shells and also emphasises
the need for more focused research in this area for improved
applicability of the impact-echo method.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank SERC, for providing the
platform to perform this work. The paper is published with the
approval of the Director, CSIR-Structural Engineering
Research Centre, Chennai.
References
Fig. 11. Thermography result of shell 2
The NDE of the shells indicate that the evaluation of such

structural elements is not as straight forward as plain structural
elements. The impact-echo results have been found to vary
owing to the shape of the shell and this has made interpretation
more complicated. Thus, more studies on such structures need
to be carried out, to improve the understanding of the impactecho method. Also, if impact-echo method has to be applied to
heritage structures, the investigation on shells cannot be
disregarded.
From this study, it has been clear that impact-echo method can
be effectively used for non-destructive evaluation of thin
structural elements also. However, when it comes to curved
structural elements like the shells, complications seem to arise
and more research needs to be carried out to improve the
understanding in this area.
6. Conclusions
The present work focused on investigating two shells with one
carrying cracks. The IE results of the shell 1 which was in
[1] ASTM Standard C1383-98a, (2010), Standard Test

Method for Measuring the P-Wave Speed and the
Thickness of Concrete Plates Using the Impact-Echo
Method, American Society of Testing Materials
International, USA.
[2] Proctor, T, (1982), Some details of the NBS Conical
transducer, Journal of Acoustic emission, 1(3), 173,
178.
[3] Sansalone, M, (1986), Flaw detection in concrete using
transient stress waves, PhD thesis, Cornell university,
220.
[4] Sansalone, M, (1997), Impact echo The complete
story, ACI structural journal, 94(6), 777-786.
[5] Sansalone, M, and Carino, N.J, (1986), Impact echo: A
method for flaw detection in concrete usng transient
stress waves, NBSIR 86-3452, National bureau of
standards, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 222
[6] Sansalone, M, and Streett, W.B, (1997), Impactecho: Nondestructive testing of concrete and masonry,
Bullbrier Press.
Page 271
A REVIEW ON CHARACTERIZATION AND APPLICATION OF

FLY ASH ZEOLITES
Channabasavaraj.W1
1
Assistant Professor, Don Bosco College of Engineering, Bangalore, Karnataka.

India-560074; Email-builderraju@yahoo.com
Abstract
zeolites are aluminosiliceous minerals which are well-known for their porous crystal structures and chemical
characteristics. Due to these capabilities, researchers have synthesized zeolites from substances containing alumina and
silica, viz. kaolin, sediments, etc. In this context, fly ash has been perceived to be a prospective raw material for
zeolitization since it can undergo geopolymerisation in an alkaline medium at specific conditions of temperature and
pressure.
Since several decades, naturally occurring zeolites have been used for animal husbandry and agri- and aquaculture. Furthermore, due to their hollow cage-like structure, they are also being used as molecular sieves, ionexchangers and catalysts. Moreover, their remarkable cation-exchange capacity, CEC, enables them to be used as an
additive to fertilizers so as to increase the nutrient retention capacity of the soil thereby increasing the fertility of the land
and boosting the crop yield. Being an agrarian nation, the Indian economy would be greatly affected by enhanced
fertility of the land following a cost-effective manner of nutrient addition and retention, wherein fly ash based zeolites
would play a very significant and crucial role. This is also due to the inherent nature of the zeolites, which makes them
an excellent sorbent which helps cleaning up of the polluted soils and water bodies. Also, the sorption characteristics
of zeolites can also be employed for removal of ammonia from the waste water.
This calls for development of appropriate process for large-scale industrial production of the ash based zeolites,
exhibiting high CEC value, for their utilization in various walks of the society (viz., environmental clean-up activities) It
is believed that opportunely synthesized zeolites could become a panacea for sustainable development.
Keywords: Zeolite, sythesis, Fly ash, environmental clean-up.
1.
Introduction
Generation of electricity by combustion of coal in thermal

power plants releases a colossal amount of fly ash as the
major by-product which is usually dumped into the lagoons,
thereby consuming valuable land area. Consequently, there
has been a wide interest in using it for various purposes such
as land reclamation, soft soil stabilisation, manufacture of
bricks, cement, acidic waste scrubber, carbon nanotubes, etc.
Apart from these conventional applications, fly ash
has also been employed to synthesize zeolites, which owing
to their high silica and alumina contents. Primarily, zeolites
are aluminosiliceous minerals which are well-known for
their porous crystal structures and chemical characteristics.
Due to these capabilities, researchers have synthesized
zeolites from substances containing alumina and silica, viz.
kaolin, sediments, etc. In this context, fly ash has been
perceived to be a prospective raw material for zeolitization
since it can undergo geopolymerisation in an alkaline
medium at specific conditions of temperature and pressure.
Consequently, several synthesis methods have been
proposed by varying the reaction conditions (viz., pH, Si/Al
ratio, type of reaction and interaction time) and reactants
(viz., NaOH, KOH, Na2CO3, Ca(OH)2, NH4F, etc).
*
Since several decades, naturally occurring zeolites

have been used for animal husbandry and agri- and aquaculture. Furthermore, due to their hollow cage-like structure,
they are also being used as molecular sieves, ion-exchangers
and catalysts. Moreover, their remarkable cation-exchange
capacity, CEC, enables them to be used as an additive to
fertilizers so as to increase the nutrient retention capacity of
the soil thereby increasing the fertility of the land and
boosting the crop yield. Being an agrarian nation, the Indian
economy would be greatly affected by enhanced fertility of
the land following a cost-effective manner of nutrient
addition and retention, wherein fly ash based zeolites would
play a very significant and crucial role. This is also due to
the inherent nature of the zeolites, which makes them an
excellent sorbent (i.e., a material with good sorption
characteristics), which helps cleaning up of the polluted soils
and water bodies. Also, the sorption characteristics of
zeolites can also be employed for removal of ammonia from
the waste water.
Moreover, the physical, chemical, mineralogical,
bacteriological and thermal characterization of the
synthesized zeolites has been carried out for determining
their suitability in various industrial and environmental
applications.

E-mail: builderraju@yahoo.com
Page 1
Channabasavaraj.W / INDECS-15
Incidentally, studies conducted by previous researchers for

synthesizing fly ash zeolites, for their usage in agri- and
aqua-culture, and other environmental clean-up projects,
have been generally restricted to laboratory, which often
turn out to be uneconomical and tedious. This calls for
development of appropriate process(es) apt for large-scale
industrial production of the ash based zeolites, exhibiting
high CEC value, for their utilization in various walks of the
society (viz., environmental clean-up activities such as
contaminated soil remediation, sludge sediment treatment,
heavy metal removal from water and clean-up of large water
bodies). It is believed that opportunely synthesized zeolites
could become a panacea for sustainable development.
1.1. Structure of zeolites
Zeolites are crystalline, hydrated aluminosilicates
of tectosilicate type [42] i.e., a three-dimensional framework
of SiO4 tetrahedral having their four oxygen atoms shared by
the adjacent tetrahedra. Some of these quadrivalent Si atoms
are replaced by the trivalent Al atoms thus creating a
deficiency of a positive charge which is responsible for its
cation exchange capacity (CEC). This charge is balanced by
monovalent ions such as Na+ and K+ or divalent ions such as
Mg2+ and Ca2+ elsewhere in the structure. The deficient
oxygen atoms in zeolites have more affinity for divalent
cations than for monovalent cations. These charge balancing
cations are exchangeable with other ions (viz., NH4+, Cs+,
Sr2+) depending on the sizes of the pores and ions [54].
The general formula for a zeolite is
M2/nO.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O where M is any alkali or alkaline
earth element, n is the valence charge on that element, x
varies from 2 to 10 and y varies from 2 to 7. The Al2O3 and
SiO2 are the structural cations because they form the
tetrahedral framework with oxygen [42].
1.2. Types of zeolites
Based on their genesis, zeolites are of two types,
viz. natural and synthetic.
1.2.1. Natural zeolites
Natural zeolites are formed due to geological and
environmental effects. The ash from volcanoes settles in
closed environments, such as lakes, and undergoes chemical
changes in the presence of an alkaline medium resulting in
the formation of zeolites. Some common natural zeolites.
Clinoptilolite is the most common natural zeolite having a
Si/Al ratio of 5.7 [62] and is widely used in fertilizers
because of its strong affinity for ammonia. It has also been
used for removing caesium and strontium from radioactive
wastes. Clinoptilolite also acts as a substrate for the growth
of microorganisms, especially the nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
azotobacter [4]
1.3. Synthetic zeolites
Synthetic zeolites are created artificially from
materials capable of contributing a silica-alumina gel such
as fly ash, kaolin, river sediments, etc [60] [56] [30] [24].
Apparently, such zeolites will contain impurities which were

originally present in the parent raw material.
1.4. Methods of synthesis of zeolites
Different methods of synthesizing zeolites from fly
ash have been devised depending on the reactants and their
reaction conditions.
1.4.1. Hydrothermal method
In hydrothermal method, the fly ash is treated with
an alkali solution and further cooled down for
crystallization. The reaction may be carried out in open or
closed environment. This is the simplest and most popular
method for obtaining zeolites [1] [18] [22] [34] [35] [16].
1.4.2. Fusion and hydrothermal method
The alkali is fused with fly ash at temperatures
ranging from 30C to 750C. This enables the crystalline
phases in the raw material to dissolute to an amorphous state
and, subsequently, hydrothermal treatment is carried out,
resulting in higher yield of zeolites compared to the
conventional hydrothermal method [48] [59] [60] [34].
1.4.3. Molten salt method
In molten salt method, a mixture of fly ash, a base
(viz., NaOH, KOH or NH4F) and a salt (viz., KNO3, NaNO3
or NH4NO3) is heated to molten temperatures. The absence
of water is the main advantage of this method [52] [15].
1.4.4. Ultrasonic method
The fly ash or other aluminosilicates, such as
kaolinite, along with a mineralizer (viz. alkali) is subjected
to ultrasonication. This allows a larger amount of fly ash
particles to dissociate into the suspension resulting in a
higher yield of zeolites. Moreover, this process results in the
evolution of heat, even up to 75C, within a short time (viz.,
10 minutes) thus avoiding an additional hydrothermal
treatment of the mixture [3] [37] [29] [6].
1.4.5. Microwave assisted hydrothermal method
Microwave assisted hydrothermal method is a
technique to accelerate the ordinary hydrothermal process by
initially microwave heating the raw materials and further
subjecting the mixture to hydrothermal treatment
1.5. Factors affecting the synthesis
The factors affecting the synthesis of zeolites are
Si/Al molar ratio of reactants and products, initial material
composition, pH, reaction time, temperature and pressure
[7]. The zeolitization process can be augmented by lowering
the silica content in fly ash using a suitable silica reduction
technology thereby increasing the concentration of alumina.
Also, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of
the synthesized products decide their applications in
Page 2
agriculture and industry.

1.6. Applications of zeolites
Zeolites possess excellent properties such as ion
exchange capacity, dehydration and rehydration abilities and
adsorption. They are molecular sieves which can selectively
absorb ions that fit into the niches in their structures [2] Fig.
1.1 shows a brief outline of the various agricultural and
industrial applications of zeolites.
1.6.1. Agricultural applications
The high cation exchange capacity (CEC) and
water retention of zeolites make them useful for agricultural
purposes [42]. Traditionally, zeolites have been used in
agriculture in Eastern Europe, Japan and Cuba [32].
1.8.3. Industrial applications

Gas separation and removal: Researchers [55] [44]
have used zeolites for the separation and removal of gases
such as CO2, SO2 and H2O from low grade natural gas
streams. Zeolites have been employed on On-Board
Oxygen Generating Systems (OBOGS) for removing
nitrogen from the compressed air for supplying oxygen to
cabin crews in aircrafts at high altitudes [31].
1.8.4.
Petrochemical industry
Zeolites have been used for multifunctional

purification of mineral oils [58] and for adsorptive
purification in reconditioning and regeneration of used
lubricating oils [9]. They also act as catalysts in petroleum
refining [8] [46].
1.6.2. Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs)

1.8.5. Molecular sieves
Fresh swine or chicken manure can be used to
saturate zeolite with ammonia. This ammonia-saturated
zeolite, when applied to the soil, acts as a slow release
nitrogen fertilizer [51] [19] Sodium, in high concentration, is
toxic to plant life [10] [40] and hence sodium based zeolites
are not recommended for agriculture [19].
1.6.3. Soil conditioning
Zeolites can help to increase the porosity of the
soil. They also favor the growth of microorganisms such as
azotobacter [4].
1.7. Aquaculture
In fish hatcheries, ammonia is formed by the
decomposition of excrement and unused food due to the
closed environmental conditions preventing proper
recirculation or purification which is the main cause of
disease and mortality in fish. Zeolites can be added to the
fish tanks and shrimp ponds as a sorbent for removal of
ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide [41] [42]
[47]
1.8. Animal husbandry
1.8.1. Livestock feed additives
Many researches have been conducted on the
effects in addition of zeolites to feeds of swine [39] [25],
[18] [27] and [47] has reported an improvement in the
calorific efficiency of the poultry due to the zeolite intake
[42]. Zeolites have even been found to be effective in
preventing certain metabolic diseases in cows [50].
1.8.2. Water treatment
Zeolites have been used for sludge and water
purification by the removal of heavy elements such as SOx
and COx [17] and heavy metals such as Ni [26] They have
also been used for the removal of ammonia from wastewater
[47] [54] [21] [56].
Zeolites have been used to separate molecules

based on their sizes and shapes. They have also been utilized
for trapping molecules for analysis [14] [63].
1.8.6. Oil spill clean-up
Zeolites synthesized from fly ash have been
successfully employed to clean-up oil spills in water.
Zeolite-X acts as an excellent hydrophobic sorbent of the oil
present in water [57].
1.8.7. Building materials and construction
Natural zeolites have been used as admixture to
prevent bleeding, segregation and delamination of concrete
for stabilization of cement volume [23].
2.
MATERIALS USED FOR SYNTHESIS OF

ZEOLITES
2.1. Fly ash

Being an industrial by product, fly ash is
inexpensive and found in abundance. It contains a large
amount of silica and alumina along with other impurities.
2.2. Sediments
River sediments have been successfully employed
to synthesize zeolites using fusion and hydrothermal method
[60].
2.3. Kaolinite
Kaolinite when heated to high temperatures, such
as 550C, forms metakaolinite which is heated along with a
base (such as NaOH) to form zeolites [37].
Page 3
Fig. 1.1 Different agricultural and industrial applications of zeolites

Table 3.1 Synthesis proportion and zeolites obtained [18]
3.
Material
Fly
Ash (g)
NaOH
NaCl
Temp
(C)
Reaction
time (hr)
24
Zeolites
synthesized
NaX
Si
Al
1.10
Na+K+Ca+Mg
Si
0.59
10
200ml-3M
NIL
75
10
200ml-1M
100ml-3M
105
24
NaP1
1.43
0.45
10
400ml-5M
200ml-3M
105
24
Sodalite
1.21
1.06
METHODOLOGIES USED FOR SYNTHESIS OF

ZEOLITES: A REVIEW
3.1.
Hydrothermal method
[18] Used the rudimentary hydrothermal method to

synthesize zeolites from Class F fly ash at atmospheric
pressure (refer Error! Reference source not found.). The
thermostability of zeolite structures obtained (viz. NaX,
NaP1 and sodalite) was analysed at 300C, 500C and
700C. The water absorption efficiency of Materials X and P
were measured to be equally good as silica gel. High ion
selectivity for heavy metals have also been observed for all
the zeolites based on their atomic weights (viz. Cd2+ > Cu2+
Zn2+ > Co2+). Material X has been seen to contain a high
amount of Na-X which has a possibility to replace the
commercial 13X. It can also be used as a gas absorbent due
to the wide microspores and high thermostability. The
authors have claimed the method to be economical and
energy efficient although non-zeolitic impurities were also
produced.
3.2. Fusion
[48] Have synthesized X-type zeolite by alkali
fusion followed by hydrothermal treatment at 90C. The raw
fly ash was initially sieved, calcined (to remove unburnt
carbon) and treated with HCl (to remove iron and hence
increase the activity for zeolitization). They have reported
maximum values SiO2/Al2O3 ratio and degree of
crystallinity at a fusion temperature of 550C. Also, the

maximum SiO2/Al2O3 ratio = 1.72 has been achieved at an
aging time (stirring time at room temperature) of 18 hours.
The authors have found that 6 hours of hydrothermal
treatment was the optimum time duration for maximum
surface area of zeolites.
[60] Have used river sediments collected from
Suzhou Creek, Shangai, China to synthesize zeolites since
they contain silica (69.0%) and alumina (11.8%). The
sediment was initially heated at 800C for 30 minutes
resulting in the transformation of illite and kaolinite into
amorphous state. Further, the sample was fused with NaOH
at different Si/Al ratios by adding aluminium hydroxide
hydrate followed by heating at 350-750C for 15min 4hours. Liquid/solid ratio was kept at 2.5-20ml/g by adding
distilled water and the solution was stirred at 95C for 2-24
hours. Na-P1, Na-X, hydroxysodalite, F Linde A and
Faujasite were obtained at different proportions depending
upon the synthesis parameters as shown in Tables 3.2 and
3.3. The authors have also verified previous findings [33]
that reactants having low Si/Al ratio results in the synthesis
of zeolites having low Si/Al ratio while a high Si/Al ratio of
reactants produces zeolites with high Si/Al ratio. A
crystallization time of 2 hours is sufficient for zeolitization
since no effect has been noticed beyond this temperature.
Page 4
Table 3.2. Details of zeolites synthesized from river

sediments [60]
Si/Al
Si/Al
NaOH/se CEC SSA
Zeolite
of
of
2
diment
(cmo (m /
obtained sedi
zeolit
(g/g)
l/kg)
g)
ment
e
Na-P1
5
1.6
295
40
1.67
Hydroxy
1
2
115.6 16.5
0.84
sodalite
Table 3.3. Influence of Si/Al ratio of sediment on zeolites
synthesized [60]
Si/Al of
sediment
NaOH/sediment
(g/g)
Zeolite(s)
synthesized
1.2
Na-P1
Na-P1, Na-X,
2
Hydroxysodalite
Faujasite,
1-3
1.2
Hydroxysodalite,
and F Linde A
Researches have been conducted for the application
of natural and synthetic zeolites in agriculture. High plant
growth and better yield are the common observations of
many such studies.
5
Agriculture: [11] have carried out tests on zeolites

synthesized from Lipari pumice by adding them to the soil
both directly and as fertilizer mixtures for spinach
cultivation. The authors have recommended the
application of less than 50g/m2 of Faujasite, due to its high
water adsorption capacity, to the soil before sowing and
the addition of fertilizers after the germination phase.
[12] Have synthesized zeolites (viz. faujasite and
hydroxy-sodalite) from Lipari pumice by hydrothermal
treatment with aqueous NaCl having 12% weight of NaOH
for 7h at 95C. They have reported a significant increase in
yield and fruit sizes on application of these zeolites on Vitis
vinifera and Prunus persica in Italy with their yield having
doubled on application of NPK fertilizer with 90% zeolites
and 25% respectively.
[36] Has used fly ash for the synthesis of zeolites and
potassium silicate fertilizer and for flue gas desulfurization.
[53] Have studied the use of clinoptilolite in
agriculture for fertilizer efficiency, gas and water absorption,
ion exchange and soil amendment. Zeolites retain the
fertilizers without breaking down and release them when
required by the plants thus preventing the leaching of these
fertilizers from the root zone. The application of zeolites has
been observed to have enhanced the yield of apple,
vegetables, grapes and other fruits. They absorb gases in
animal husbandry sheds which reduces the undesirable
odours due to ammonia and H2S content. In fish tanks, they
have been used to remove the high concentration of
ammonia in the water. They also remove Pb, Cd and Cu
present in contaminated soils. Clinoptilolite absorbs toxins
in animals thus performing the role of a mycotoxin binder.
[20] Have investigated the properties of zeolite as
controlled release fertilizers. They have demonstrated that

by adjusting the reaction time, different types of zeolites can
be synthesized. They have also listed the existing diversified
zeolite markets which include agricultural, industrial,
commercial and household uses.
[59] Have synthesized zeolites in agricultural soil
under alkaline condition by addition of either fused fly ash
or NaOH powder at 30C and 60C for six months. They
have reported the almost complete conversion of the fly ash
into zeolite X and zeolite P. Their results have validated
existing studies showing that low Si/Al ratio at high
temperatures (i.e. 60C) favors formation of zeolite P while
high Si/Al ratio at low temperatures (i.e. 30C) results in the
synthesis of zeolite X. The authors have stated that the
addition of fly ash stimulated the Si and Al in soil to take
part in the zeolitization by partial dissolution due to the
alkaline medium which was inferred from the fact that the
amount of zeolites synthesized was higher than the quantity
of fly ash added. The pre-treated fly ash also biased the
reaction towards the synthesis of a certain zeolite, viz.
zeolite X which is preferred because of its higher cation
exchange capacity due to lower Si/Al and higher specific
surface area compared to zeolite P [13] the organic matter
and minerals present in the soil did not hamper the synthesis.
[22] Have synthesized Na and K zeolites from fly ash
at 140C and 150C for 24 hours with and without agitation
by varying H2O/Al ratios from 25 to 420. Analcime was the
main zeolite synthesized at the optimum H2O/Al ratio of
57.4. These zeolites were applied up to 5% to yellow
gravelly loamy sand and Bassendan sand for pot plant trials
of canola, spinach and wheat. The authors have observed the
amounts of Cd and Hg in plant shoots to decrease with
increase in zeolite.
[5] Have investigated the effects of natural zeolites
viz. analcime and phillipsite on grape cultivation by
conducting five trials, the first being the control soil without
any mineral fertilizer. The zeolites were added individually
and also by mixing with equal amount (by weight) of
manure. They reported that the use of analcime increased the
yield, after two years, by 115% when added alone and 160%
when mixed with manure while the same methodology using
phillipsite, after one year, were 83% and 146% respectively.
The zeolites increased the cation exchange capacity of the
soil and also created a favorable site for growth of nitrogenfixing microorganisms. The authors have also reported an
increase in the sugar content by 5-27% and a decrease in
acidity from pH =3.75 to 4.52.
Waste treatment: [49] have analyzed the efficacy of
fly ash zeolites and commercial zeolites for purification of
MSW landfill leachates and liquid cattle farm waste by
stirred tank test and column test. In the stirred tank, the
increase in the sedimentation time and agitation time have
not shown any increase in the purification of the sample.
The results of the column test have shown better reduction
of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total kjeldahl nitrogen
(TKN) and P-PO4 at a lower flow rate (viz., 50ml/min).
Heavy metal removal : [45] have studied the
adsorption of heavy metals (viz. Zn, Cu, Mn and Pb) using
Page 5
zeolites synthesized from fly ash by hydrothermal method.

The concentrations of metals varied from 100 to 3000 mg/l.
The authors have concluded that the adsorption capacity of
the fly ash increased 2 to 25 times due to zeolitization.
Adsorbent : [38] have synthesized zeolite from fly
ash by fusion and hydrothermal method. They have checked
its ability to remove water in ethanol solution and have
reported a water adsorption of 95% from the ethanol.
Ammonia removal : [62] have used clinoptilolite,
a natural zeolite, to remove ammonia from water. In water,
ammoniacal nitrogen (N-NH4+) is present in two forms, viz.
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion (NH4+). They have
studied the effects of zeolite concentration and exposure
time on the N-NH4+ removal and have calculated the degree
of ammonia removal and the sorption capacity. The effect in
the exposure time has been observed to be insignificant in
the amount of ammonia uptake.
4.
CONCLUSION
Following are the main conclusion drawn from the present

study.
1. Fly ash is a by-product generated in an thermal power
plant, which is considered as a waste material and
which can be utilized to manufacture useful product
called as Zeolite
2.
Zeolite is a porous material which has high CEC and

which help to trap required material in its porous
structure.
3.
Zeolites can be effectively used for cleaning up of

water bodies, by spreading the zeolites on water
surface and allowed to sorb the unwanted constituents
present in that particular water body.
4.
Fly ash synthesised zeolites can be used for removal of

heavy metals by hydrothermal method.
5.
Fly ash zeolites and commercial zeolites are used for

purification of MSW landfill leachates and liquid cattle
farm waste by stirred tank test and column test. In the
stirred tank, the increase in the sedimentation time and
agitation time have not shown any increase in the
purification of the sample.
6.
Zeolites synthesized from Lipari pumice by adding

them to the soil both directly and as fertilizer mixtures
for spinach cultivation, which increases water holding
capacity of the soils.
5.
1.
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Page 8
DE-FLUORIDATION USING TEA RESIDUE

PRIYA.V1, Dr. SAMPATH KUMAR.M.C 2 , Dr.BALASUBRAMANYA.N
ACE, Hosur, 635109, India, bksbsg@yahoo.com

BMSCE,Bangalore,560019, India,sampathkumarmc61@gmail.com
AIT,Bangalore,560107, India, balasubramanyan@acharya.ac.in
2
Abstract
Fluoride is one of the most potent groundwater pollutants. Excess intake (>1.5 mg/l) may cause fluorosis (dental,
skeletal and non-skeletal) along with sundry neurological complication. Technologies already have been developed to
abstract fluoride from imbibing dihydrogen monoxide by coagulation, membranefiltration, ion exchange,etc.Removal of
fluoride from the ground dihydrogen monoxide is a tedious process and uneconomic. This paper deals with the
desideratum for environmental cordial and low cost technology for the abstraction of fluoride. One such technology
includes adsorption and which is efficacious for abstraction of fluoride. Tea residue which is a household waste was
efficaciously utilized in the abstraction of fluoride abstraction from aqueous medium. The results inferred that the defluoridation capacity of the adsorbent increases with increase in initial concentration.
Keywords:Fluoride, adsorbent, de-fluoridation.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Dihydrogen monoxide supply engineering, it is essential to
provide toxic free dihydrogen monoxide. Fluoride being a
deleterious content in imbibing dihydrogen monoxide should be
kept in allowable limit .Because Low concentration causes dental
caries. High concentrations - Cause skeletal fluoridise, a crippling
bone disease. Some ground waters, including those in Hawaii, Sri
Lanka, Malawi and Tanzania are kenned to have high
concentrations of fluoride ion.Genrally Groundwater contains high
concentrations of fluorides. In Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu
and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab and
Uttar Pradesh at some locations, the concentration may reach as
high as 10mg/L. In Tamilnadu, It is estimated that about 121
blocks in 19 districts are found to have high fluoride concentration
in ground dihydrogen monoxide. High fluoride levels are found in
districts
like
Dharmapuri,
Krishnagiri,
Tuticorin,
Dindigul,Thirunelveli.
The abstraction of fluoride from dihydrogen monoxide is one
of the most consequential issues due to its ill effects on human
health and environment. According to World Health Organization
the maximum permissible limit of fluoride concentration in
imbibing dihydrogen monoxide is 1.5 mg /L. There are lot of
methods developed for abstracting excess of fluoride in imbibing
dihydrogen monoxide, such as the ion exchanger, coagulation,
membrane techniques and electrochemical methods. However the

high cost of the above technologies makes them unpractical for
developing countries. Among these techniques, adsorption seems to
be an efficacious and economical one. This work investigates the
potential of tea waste from most proximate shop for abstraction of
fluoride ions from aqueous solutions. Tea residue can be
efficaciously utilized as an adsorbent for which it has to be initially
treated for colour and odour abstraction. The tea residue amassed
from most proximate teashop was utilized in upcoming process.
Soluble and coloured components were abstracted from tea residue
by washing it with boiling dihydrogen monoxide. This was
reiterated until the dihydrogen monoxidewas virtually achromic.
After exhaustively washing, the adsorbent was sun dried and it is
kept in oven for 24 hours. The fluoride dosage is given a contact
time of 1 hour and is kept in magnetic stirrer for 30 minutes. The
dihydrogen monoxide is then filtered and subjected to all imbibing
dihydrogen monoxide parameters test. Determinately, the fluoride
was efficaciously abstracted by this process.
2.NEEDTO GO FOR FLUORIDE REMOVAL IN WATER
HUMAN BODY PARTS
1. Fluoride in Brain
EFFECTS
The high levels of
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Page 280
priya. et. al. / INDECS-15
fluoride
(3ppm+)
affect the nervous
system
directly
without first causing
skeletal fluorosis.
2. Fluoride in pineal gland:
Fluoride is known to
affect
mineralizing
tissues but effects
upon the developing
brain have not been
considered
previously.
The pineal gland

located between the
two hemispheres of
the
brain
is
responsible for the
synthesis
and
secretion of harmone
melatonin.
The
Harmone
Melatonin
is
responsible for bodys
sleep-wake
cycle,
helps to protect the
body
from
cell
damage.
The pineal gland is a

major
target
for
fluoride accumulation
in humans where it
likely
to
cause
decreased melatonin
production and to
have other effects on
normal
pineal
function.
3.On teeth
Ingestion of excess
fluoride,
most
commonly in drinking
water
can
cause
fluorosis
which
affects
the
teeth
andbones.
Clinical
dental
fluorosis
is
characterized
by
staining and pitting of
the teeth, In more
severe cases all the
enamel
may
bedamaged.
In skeletal fluorosis,
fluorides accumulates
in
the
bone
progressively
over
many years.
The symptoms are

Stiffness andpain in
joints, In severe cases
the bone structure
may change.
4.On bone:
Table.1 Effect of Flouride on human

2.1.FLOURIDE ALSO CAUSES
a.
Arthritis
b.
Hip fracture
c.
Early puberty
d. IQ deficiency
2.2COMMONLY ADOPTED
METHODS
Activated Alumina
Ion exchange
Reverse osmosis
Electrodialysis
Nalgonda process
Contact precipitation
Bone charcoal
Calcined clay
Water Pyramid/ Solar Dew
FLUORIDE
REMOVAL
Due to high cost for processing, the above technologies are unfit
for developing countries. Therefore, there is a great need for
environmental friendly and low cost technology. One such low
cost technology is adsorption and is effective for removal of
fluoride.Thus, we suggest tea residue as an effective adsorbent in
fluoride removal
2.3ADSORPTION PROCESS:
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules
from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface. This process
engenders a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent.
This process differs from absorption, in which a fluid (the
absorbate) permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid (the
absorbent). Adsorption is a surface-predicated process while
absorption involves the whole volume of the material. The term
sorption encompasses both processes, while desorption is the
inversion of it. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon..
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3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
3.1. PROCEDURES TO CONVERT TEA RESIDUE AS AN
EFFECTIVE ADSORBENT
The tea residue was collected from teashop.
Soluble
and coloured components were removed from tea by washing with
boiling water. This was repeated until the water was virtually
colourlessAfter thoroughly washing, the adsorbent was sundried
and it was burned in Muffle Furnace at 100 C for 90 minutes.
Fig..4
Jar
test
apparatus
for
optimum
dosage
Fig1. Tea residue from tea shop

gm/l of Tea Residue
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Turbidity (NTU)
5
3
2
4
Table.2 Determination of Optimum Dosage
6
Fig. 2Activated tea residue
4
2
0
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
gm/l of activated tea residue

fig.3 Activated tea residue used for de fluoridation
The dried tea residue was sieved and stored in sealed polythene
bag.
3.2.INITIAL FLUORIDE TEST:

Fluoride concentration in the taken sample is measured using the
spectrophotometer and is found to be 1.63mg/l.
Graph 1 Optimum dosage of Tea resedue

3.3.2. INITIAL TREATMENT
First the Activated Tea Residue of 0.2 gm/l is added to
the raw water of 1Lis added and the solution is left undisturbed for
an hour. Then the treated water is placed over the magnetic stirrer
for half an hour for complete stirring of the sample water. After the
completion of stirring process the water is left untouched for 15
minutes and then the water is filter-ed.
3.3. FLUORIDE TREATMENT

3.3.1. OPTIMUM DOSAGE OF TEA RESIDUE
The optimum dosage of tea residue was determined using
jar test apparatus and the resulting graph was plotted. It was
observed that the optimum dosage was about 0.2 g/l.
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Page 282
Parameters
Fluoride
TDS
Turbidity
Hardness
Sulphate
Fig .5 Magnetic Stirrer

3.3.3. FILTRATION PROCESS:
Filtration of our sample was done using filter paper.
For mass filtrations, sand bath is preferred.
Sand filters are used for water purification. There are three main
types;
1.
2.
3.
Rapid (gravity) sand filters

Up flow sand filters
Slow sand filters
All three methods are used extensively in the water industry

throughout the world. The first two require the use of flocculant
chemicals to work effectively while slow sand filters can produce
very high quality water free from pathogens, taste and odour
without the need for chemical aids.
Ordinary
water
Treated
water
1.63 mg/l
452 mg/l
1NTU
79 mg/l
172 mg/l
1.25 mg/l
476 mg/l
2 NTU
83 mg/l
176 mg/l
Iron
0.5 mg/l
Ph
6.6
BOD
24 mg/l
COD
70 mg/l
DO
7.3 mg/l
fig.6 Sand bed filtration
0.54 mg/l
6.8
42 mg/l
100 mg/l
6.7 mg/l
Limits
1-1.5 mg/l
<500 mg/l
5-10NTU
75-150 mg/l
150-250
mg/l
0.3-1 mg/l
6-8.5
-
4TESTS CONDUCTED:
Ph is tenacious by Ph meter.
Fluoride,iron is resolute bySpectrophotometer.
Sulphate is resolute bySpectrophotometer.
Turbidity is tenacious by Turbidity Meter.
TSS,TDS and Hardness is tenacious by laboratory tests.
DO,BOD is resolute by DO meter
COD is tenacious by COD apparatus.
5RESULTS:
5.1
EFFECT
ON
VARIATION
IN
INITIAL
CONCENTRATION:
The initial concentration of fluoride in dihydrogen monoxide was
incremented by integration of NaF (Sodium Fluoride). It was
incremented to about 5.2 mg/l, and the optimum dosage for that
was found to be 0.25gm/l. Homogeneous treatment procedures
were followed and it was observed that the de fluoridation capacity
increases with increase in adsorbent dose. The fluoride level
decremented to 1.18 mg/l which denotes de fluoridation was
proximately about 77.1% Thus, as the initial concentration
increases, the de fluoridation rate withal increases.
gm/l of Tea Residue Added

0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Turbidity(NTU)
6
4
2
3
Table3 Optimumdosage of Tea Residue
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Page 283
7
6
5
4
T urbidity
3
2
1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
gm/l of tea residue

Fig 7. Optimum dosage of Tes residue
5.2
EFFECT
ON
VARIATION
OF
DOSAGE
OF
ADSORBENT:
The dosage of the adsorbent (TEA RESIDUE) was incremented
and the degree of de fluoridation was observed. Since the
incrementation in the quantity of the adsorbent results in the
incrementation in the surface area of the adsorbent; more de
fluoridation is achieved. Thus, the de fluoridation utilizing tea
residue was initiated at a dosage of 0.2gm/l and was directly
proportional to the dosage.
6 CONCLUSION:
An incipient medium, waste tea residue has been developed for
fluoride abstraction in this study. Numerous advantages of the
waste tea residue make the waste an excellent adsorbent for
abstraction of fluoride .The defluoridation capacity increases with
incrementing adsorbent dose and initial concentration of fluoride.
The efficiency varies depending on the amount of activated tea
residue integrated and the concentration of fluoride ions in
dihydrogen monoxide. The de fluoridation commences at a dosage
of 0.2 mg/l and as the initial concentration of fluoride increases;
efficacious de fluoridation is achieved by incrementing the dosage
of adsorbent. The household waste tea residue seems to be an
efficacious as well as economical in fluoride abstraction, and it is
best suited for developing countries. Therefore, the activated tea
residue is promising material for fluoride abstraction from aqueous
solution as well as contaminated groundwater.
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fluoride in drinking water organized by Govt. of

Madhyapradesh at Bhopal, 22-24 Jan 2001.
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Christoffersen, J, Christoffersen, M.R. and Larsen R.
(1991)Regeneration of surface coating of bone char used
for defluoridation of waterWater resources journal,
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fluoride by coconut coir pit carbonIndian journal of
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Eckenfemder W.W.Jr.(2000),Industrial water pollution
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Fox K.R. (1981),Removal of inorganic contaminants
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EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
Gopalkrishnan S. Narsimha S.and Seenipandian
C.(1991),Incidence of fluorosis in ten village near
Tuticorian-suggestions for prevention and controlIndian
kournal of Environmental Protection, 11:02:118-123.
Huxstep M.R. (1981)Inorganic contaminants removal
from driking water by reverse osmosisEPA-600/2-81
Office of research and development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
Hocin G, Francoise P, Jacqueline S. Gerald P. and
Mohd.M.(2002),Defluoridation of ground water by a
hybrid process combining adsorption and donnan
dialysisJournal of desalination, 145:287-291
Jin Cao, Yanzho, Jianwei Liu, Ruoden Xirao, Sangbu
Danzeng,Dawei Daji and Yu Yan (2003),Brick tea
consumption as the case of dental fluorosis among children
from monzol, Kazak and Yugu population in chinaLour of
food and Chemical Toxicology, 35:827- 833.
J. Cao, Zhao Yan and Liu Jianwei (2000)Fluoride
ignition through water edibles and cosmetics A case study
of Jhabua (MP)Int. Seminar on Environmental Planning
and Management, VRCE, Nagpur, 71-73.
Arulanantham A, Ramcrishna T.V. and Balsubramaian

N.(1992)Studies on fluoride removal by coconut shell
carbonJour of Environmental Protection, 12:07:531- 535.
Azizian F.(2001)Removal of fluoride from potable water
using activated aluminaProcd of Int. workshop on
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Page 284
International Conference on Infrastructure Development for Environmental Conservation and

Sustenance (INDECS-15) ACE, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635 109, INDIA, 28-30 October 2015
SOLUBILISATION OF METALS FROM e-WASTE USING Penicillium chrysogenum

UNDER OPTIMUM CONDITIONS
J. Senophiyah Mary 1, Dr. T. Meenambal2
1
Research Scholar, Department of Environmental Engineering, Government College of Technology,

Coimbatore, India,senophiyah.may8@gmail.com
2 Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore,
tmeenambal_gct@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
World today is run by the electronic gadgets which have become in dispensable, but they are a bane to
the environment once they turn into electronic waste or e-waste. The purity of metals in PCBs is higher than
that of rich-content minerals. Therefore, recycling of PCBs is an important subject not only in the treatment of
waste but also for the recovery of valuable materials. Bioleaching is the recent method in which the microbe
dissolves the metals present in the solid matrix of waste into soluble form for further extraction of metals. The
paper describes the mechanisms of the novel technology and the factors influencing the chemical reaction with
the participation of Penicillium chrysogenum fungi. It presents the results of laboratory tests of leaching of metals
from the scrap mobile phone printed circuit board. The maximum solubilization of 60 % Copper and 82 % Lead
present is scrap mobile phone PCBs, was obtained by optimizing the growing conditions of fungi Penicillium
chrysogenum he optimized bioleaching parameters are pH 3 with rotation speed of 160 rpm at temperature of
25C with inoculum concentration of 100 %.
Key Words: Bioleaching, solubilisation, e-Waste, Heavy metal extraction)
1. Introduction
Electronic waste or Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE) is the Electrical and Electronic
Equipment which is no longer fit for its originally
intended use and are desired for recovery, recycling or
disposal. It comprises a whole range of electrical and
electronic items such as refrigerators, washing machines,
computers and printers, televisions, mobiles, i-pods, etc.,
many of which contain toxic materials. Many of the trends
in consumption and production processes are
unsustainable and pose serious challenge to environment
and human health. Typically PCBs contain 40% of metals,
30% of organics and 30% ceramics. The metal content
varies from 20% to 40% by weight and averages 30%.
Practically all electronic devices contain printed circuit
boards (PCBs), which are composed of three types of
materials:
- a non-conducting substrate or laminate;
- printed conducting tracks; and
- components mounted on the substrate.
In developing countries, most of the e-waste is mixed
along with municipal solid waste and ends up in landfills
and is generally not recycled. Alternatively, several types
of unsafe recycling processes are carried out to recover a
small fraction of materials from e-waste, which can be
detrimental to the health of people working and living

around the recycling sites and to the environment.
Methods to recover materials from discarded products
include manual disassembly, open burning to remove
plastics and obtain the encased metals and acid digestion
to recover precious metals. The recycle and recovery
includes the unit operations like dismantling, segregation
of ferrous metal, non-ferrous metal and plastic by
shredder process, refurbishment and reuse, recycling /
recovery of valuable materials and treatment/disposal of
dangerous materials and waste. Bioleaching is a process
of dissolution of metals from their mineral source by
certain naturally occurring microorganisms, so that the
elements can be recovered by solvent extraction method.
Bioleaching represents the clean technology process with
the low cost and low energy level compared with the
conventional thermal solid waste treatment techniques.
Mineralytic effects of bacteria and fungi on minerals are
based mainly on three principles, namely acidolysis,
complexolysis, and redoxolysis. Microorganisms are able
to mobilize metals by (1) the formation of organic or
inorganic acids (protons); (2) oxidation and reduction
reactions; and (3) the excretion of complexing agents.
Sulfuric acid is the main inorganic acid found in leaching
environments. It is formed by sulfur-oxidizing
microorganisms such as thiobacilli. A series of organic
acids are formed by bacterial (as well as fungal)
Page 285
J senophiyah mary,Dr. T .Meenambal/ INDECS-15
metabolism resulting in organic acidolysis, complex and

chelate formation. A kinetic model of the coordination
chemistry of mineral solubilization has been developed
which describes the dissolution of oxides by the
protonation of the mineral surface as well as the surface
concentration of suitable complex forming ligands such as
oxalate, malonate, citrate, and succinate. Proton-induced
and ligand-induced mineral solubilization occurs
simultaneously in the presence of ligands under acidic
conditions.
2. Exprimental
II
20.310
III
18.956
IV
19.894
The mounted components of the PCBs were

removed with the help of screw drivers. Then their
individual weights are noted down as in table 2.2.
2.1. Strains
Bioleaching has been considered as key technology for fly
ash treatment, electronic scraps, spent batteries, spent
petroleum catalysts during last several years. Different
researchers have applied bacterial species like
Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans as well as Acidithiobacillus
ferrooxidans and fungal species like Apsergillus niger to
recover metals such as Al, Ni, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr from ewaste.
Table 2.2 Mass of samples after the removal of

mounted parts
Sample No.
Weight (g)
13.214
II
14.019
III
13.604
IV
14.132
2.2. Collection of sample

Scrap mobile phone PCBs used were procured
from the local market. The PCBs are marked as sample I,
ii, iii and iv. the individual weights of the pcbs are noted
by weighing each piece of PCB.
2.3. Removal of coating over PCB:

PCB is coated with epoxy resin polymer and brominated
flame retarder. This coating prevents the PCB from any
fire accidents. That green coating is removed by the usage
of Sodium Hydroxide solution. The trial and error method
is carried out in order to remove the coating. The trial was
started with 1 M sodium hydroxide solution and ended up
with 10 M sodium hydroxide solution.
Fig. 1. Scrap mobile phone printed circuit board
Table 2.1 Mass of the collected sample

Sample No.
Weight (g)
19.064
2.3.1. Treatment with sodium hydroxide solution

In the first trial, the coating removal is carried out with
1M Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The 1M Sodium
Hydroxide solution is prepared by accurately weighing 4
gm NaOH pellets and dissolving it in 100 ml of distilled
water. Then a part of PCB is kept dipped overnight in 1 M
NaOH and then washed under running tap water. The
washed water was replaced by fresh distilled water until
the adhered NaOH was removed (approximately 4-5
times). This was monitored by determining pH of washed
water. Neutral pH of washed water confirms the complete
removal of NaOH. The washed PCBs were then used
Page 286
further. It is seen after washing, that the coating was not

removed.
Then trials were carried out with 2 M, 4 M, 6 M, 8 M and
10 M NaOH solution.
Peptone Dextrose -
40.0 g/L
20.0 g/L
The growth medium containing following composition of

nutrients was selected as a control media for bioleaching
of metals.
Sucrose
Sodium Nitrate
KH2PO4
MgSO4. 7H2O
KCl
Yeast extract
The microorganism was grown under
at 25C in a rotary shaker at 160 rpm.
100 g/L
1.5 g/L
0.5 g/L
0.025 g/L
0.025 g/L
1.6 g/L
aerobic conditions
2.5. Bioleaching: Inoculation with e- waste
Figure 2. PCB in sodium
In my study, two step bioleaching is carried out. In the

first step, organism was inoculated in the 100 ml
bioleaching medium and kept in rotary shaker for two
days in the absence of electronic scrap.
In the second step, 1 gram of powdered sample was added
to the previously inoculated media and kept in shaker. The
formed metabolite in the initial stage was used for metal
solubilization.
2.6. Growth curve analysis
Growth of microorganism was observed on the
basis of optical density for SDB, control medium and in ewaste at 315 nm. The absorbance was noted for every 24
hour and calibration curve is drawn in which the
maximum absorbance denotes the highest growth of the
organism.
The variation of pH was observed for every 24 hour using
pH meter.
Fig. 3. PCB- after the hydroxide solution

2.4. Fungal stain
The freeze-dried culture of Penicillium chrysogenum

obtained from MTCC was suspended by pouring the full
content into a tube containing 1-2 ml of sterile water and
gently shaken and the tube was left at room temperature
for 4-12 hrs. As indicated on ampoule, culturing of
Penicillium Chrysogenum was done in the Sabouraud
Dextrose Broth medium containing,
Fig. 4. Optimization of wavelength for growth curve

analysis
Page 287
the inoculum concentration at constant pH of 5,

temperature of 25C and rotation speed of 160 rpm. The
variation of pH during the bioleaching process was
observed for every 24 hour.
VARIATION OF INOCULAM
CONCENTRATION
8
7
6
5
10%
pH
Fig. 5. Growth curve after the addition of PCB
30%
50%
70%
100%
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
TIME IN
Fig. 7. Variation of inoculam concentration
3.
Fig. 6. Variation of pH during bioleaching
2.7. Optimization of growth of P. chrysogenum in ewaste

2.7.1.
Effect of incubation period
The growth of the microbe in the e- waste was observed
for every 24 hour at the constant pH of 5, rotation speed
of 160 rpm, temperature of 25C and the optimum growth
was found out.
2.7.2.
Result and discussion
3.1. Pretreatment
The pre chemical treatment carried out with
Sodium Hydroxide solution shows that the immersion of a
PCB sample in 1M and 2M NaOH solution does not have
any impact on coating. Immersion of a PCB sample in 4M
and 6M NaOH solution shows a slight removal of coating.
While the treatment with 8M NaOH solution did not
brought about complete removal of coating, 10 M NaOH
solutions resulted in the complete removal of coating.
Table 3.1 shows the weight of PCBs after pretreatment.
Effect of pH
Table 3.1 Treatment with sodium hydroxide solution
The growth of the species in the e- waste was observed by

varying the pH at constant rotation speed of 160 rpm,
temperature of 25C and the optimum pH for the growth
of microbe were found out.
2.7.3.
Effect of rotation speed
The growth of the microbe in the e- waste was optimized

by varying the rotation speed at constant pH of 5,
temperature of 25C, incubation period of 92 hour and the
optimum rotation speed was found out.
2.7.4.
Trial
No.
1
2
3
4
Molarity of
sodium
hydroxide M
1
2
4
6
10
Effect of inoculum concentration
The optimum inoculum concentration for the better

solubilization of copper and lead was found by varying
Result
No change in coating
No change
Light removal of coating
Most of the coating still
remain in PCB itself
Few chemical coating
remain attached to the
metal. Not a complete
removal of coating
Complete removal of
green coating.
Page 288
3.2. Crushing
The filing of PCB yielded a powdered sample whose
diameter ranges between 0.5 mm to 1mm particle size.
Fig. 10. Calibration curve for iron
Fig. 8. Powdered sample

3.3. Analysis
Analysis of metal concentration in acid igested PCB
sample was carried out in UV VIS spectrophotometer.
Calibration curve for Copper, Aluminium, Iron, Lead and
Nickel are drawn by observing the absorbance of stock
solution and unknown concentration of corresponding
metals are obtained from the calibration.
Fig. 11. Calibration curve for lead
Fig. 9. Calibration curve for copper
Fig. 12.Calibration curve for nickel
Page 289
Table 3.2 Concentrations of metals in the sample after

dilution
Metals
Copper
Aluminium
Nickel
Lead
Iron
2.45
0.13
0.11
0.3
0.165
The metal content that was analysed with

spectrophotometer showed that metals like aluminium,
nickel, iron are found in trace amount, while high

percentage of copper is identified. The metal
concentration of sample is in the table 3.2.
The sample was initially diluted to the dilution
factor of 100000. Also from previous study it was found
out that 10000 ppm equals 1%. Using this relationship the
obtained concentration was converted to percentage of
metal. Then the metals present in 1 gm of the sample were
found out.
Thus the 1 gm of sample contains 245 mg of
copper, 30 mg of lead, 16.5 mg of iron, 6 mg of
aluminium
and
11
mg
of
Nickel.
GROWTH CURVE IN
BIOLEACHING MEDIUM
OD AT 315 nm
2.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
Fig. 13. Concentration of metals in PCB

The growth of P. chrysogenum in SDB and Bioleaching
medium (sucrose) in the absence of e- waste showed the
maximum growth at 315 nm. The highest absorbance
was found on 6th day after which the death phase starts.
When e- waste was added intitially the microbe lagged in
its growth for two days. The optimum growth was
observed on 9th day of inoculation.
6
8
TIME IN DAYS
10
12
Fig. 15. Growth curve in bioleaching medium
Fig. 16. Growth curve when sample added (Variation

in incubation period)
3.5. Optimization
Fig. 14. Growth curve in SBB
The parameters like incubation period, pH, rotational

speed of shaker, temperature for the maximum
solubilization of copper and lead are optimized. The
leached sample was diluted and analysed for the
determination of concentration of metals in UV VIS
spectrophotometer. The absorbance spectra for copper
Page 290
and lead are noted and their unknown concentration in

leachate was obtained from the calibration curve.
3.5.1. Variation in incubation period
The maximum solubilization of lead and copper are
observed on 21st day of inoculation.
3.5.2. Variation in pH
The optimum leaching efficiency of copper and lead was
observed at pH 3. Initially, the inoculation with e- waste
resulted in increase of pH due to the alkaline nature of ewaste. Inoculation in the media with pH 4 and pH 5
resulted in their own reduction in pH ranging between 2
to 3, three days after the addition of e- waste due to the
production of some organic acid by the fungi.
Fig. 18. Growth curve at pH 3
3.5.3. Variation in rotation speed

Maximum solubilization of copper and lead was
observed at the rotation speed of 160 rpm.
3.5.4. Variation in inoculum concentration
The inoculum concentration of 100 % showed the
maximum solubilization of copper and lead by 60 % and
82 % respectively with incubation period of 21 days.
Fig. 17. Growth curve AT pH 2

Page 291
Fig. 21. Variation in rotation speed
Fig. 22. Percentage metal solubilization: pH

optimization
Fig. 23. Percentage metal solubilization rotation speed optimization

Variation in inoculum concentration
Fig. 24. Percentage metal solubilization on inoculum optimization
Page 292
4.
Conclusion
Penicillium chrysogenum was obtained as

freeze dried culture from Microbial type culture
collection and Gene bank (MTCC), Chandigarh. It was
revived in distilled water. It was then grown in
Sabouraud dextrose broth and bioleaching medium
(sucrose).
Penicillium chrysogenum was cultured for in
control (bioleaching medium). After every 24 hours,
samples were collected and absorbance was noted in UV
VIS Spectrophotometer. Then the growth curve was
plotted.
Bioleaching parameters like pH, Rotation
speed, incubation period, inoculum concentration were
optimized for the extraction of copper and lead. Analysis
of metals in the leachate was analyzed using UV VIS
spectrophotometer. The concentration of copper and lead
in final leachate are 180000 ppm and 56000 ppm
respectively. The optimum pH of 3 and rotation speed of
160 rpm, incubation period 21 days, inoculum
concentration of 100 % gave the maximum solubilization
of copper and lead by 60 % and 82 % respectively.
5.
1)
2)
3)
REFERENCES
N.N. Adhapure, P.K. Dhakephalkar, A.P.
Dhakephalkar, V.R. Tembhurkar, A.V. Rajgure,
A.M. Deshmukh, 2014, Use of large pieces of
printed circuit boards for bioleaching to avoid
precipitate contamination problem and to simplify
overall metal recovery, MethodsX,
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/mex.
Jain Amit, Sareen Rajneeth, 2006, E-waste
assessment methodology and validation in India.
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste
Management, 8, pp 40-45.
Kurian joseph, 2007, Electronic waste
management in IndiaIssues and Strategies,
CISA, environmental Sanitary Engineering
centre, 2007(Centre for environmental studies,

Anna University, Chennai, India).
4) M.A. Rivero Hudec, M. Sodhi, and D. Goglia
Arora, June, 2009, Biorecovery of metals from
electronic waste, Latin American and Caribean
Conference for Engineering and Technology, Vol
46, pp 55.
5) William J. Hall, Paul T. Williams, 2007,
Separation and recovery of materials from scrap
printed circuit boards, Vol 51, Elseiver,
//www.sciencedirect.com.science/article/
6) Waldir A. Bizzo, Valdelis F. Andrade, 2014,
Characterization of printed circuit boards for
metal and energy recovery after milling and
mechanical separation, Materials,Vol 7.
7) Micheal P. Fuller, Peter R. Griffiths, Diffuse
reflectance measured by Fourier transform
infrared
spectroscopy,//pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/
8) Dietmar Rienecke, Friedrich Fister, 2010,
Quantitative determination of organic
compounds by diffuse reflectance in FTIR,
Renewable sciences, //pubs.acs.org//
9) K.S. Mohd Taha, A. Salminton, 2011,
Concentration profile behavioral from digestate
television printed circuit board for metal recovery
via electrolysis, http://scialert.net/abstract/
10) UV spectrophotometric determination of Cu (II)
in synthetic mixture and water sample, 2010,
Journal of the Chinese chemical society, vol 57, p
622-631. //www.hct.edu.om//
11) Joanna Willner, Agnieszka Fornalczyk, 2013,
Extraction of metals from electronic waste by
bacterial leaching, Environment Protection
Engineering, Vol. 39, No. 1.
12) T. R. Mankhand, K. K. Singh, Sumit Kumar
Gupta, Somnath Das, 2012,Pyrolysis of Printed
Circuit BoardsInternational Journal of
Metallurgical Engineering 2012, 1(6): 102-107.
Page 293

BEHAVIOR OF SINGLE PILE IN HORIZONTAL AND SLOPING GROUND UNDER

COMBINED LOADING
Jyoti S Patil 1, P G Rakaraddi 2
1
2
Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587103, India, jyoti.patil91@gmail.com

Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587103, India, pgraddi@yahoo.com
Photo of First
Author
in
JPEG Format
Abstract
Slopes sometimes are either man made or natural on which either structure are placed or construction activities
are carried out. Some examples of earth slopes are rail embankments, river training bunds, and excavation for mines
results in slope over which certain structures are required to be built. These structures are often tall and subjected to
large lateral loads, such as storms, winds, water, earth pressure and earthquakes. The main objective of the project is
experimental, where a testing apparatus has to be fabricated to conduct laboratory model test in sand. In each test,
number of parameters is varied such as: density (16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3) of sand, ground condition i.e.
sloping ground (150 and 200) and horizontal ground, relative position of the pile and loading conditions. The
comparisons of ultimate lateral load capacity for different densities at different positions in different ground conditions
were studied. The experimental results showed that the load carrying capacity decreases in the sloping ground when
compared to that of pile in the horizontal ground. It defines that the lateral capacity of pile on slope depends upon
relative position of the pile with respect to slope. The increase in the ground slope has very significant effect on ultimate
lateral load and pile head deflection of the pile. Since the lateral resistance offer in front of the pile is less compared to
horizontal ground which leads to the arching effect in soil reducing the lateral load capacity.
Keywords: Pile foundation, Sloping ground, Load-deflection curves, combined loading.
1. Introduction
The fast growing metropolitan areas and industrialization
has resulted from economic globalization, which has led to
build heavier and taller structures on marginal sites, where
surface soils are weak and preferring shallow foundations
are usually not the best design solution. Pile foundations are
slender structural elements used to transfer loads from
structures into lower level below the ground level. Many
transmission towers, high rise buildings, and bridges are
constructed near steep slopes and are supported by piles
[21]. Sometimes Earth slopes are either man made or natural
on which either structure are placed or construction activities
are carried out. Typical examples of earth slopes are rail
embankments, river training bunds, dredging for berthing
structures, excavation for mines results in slope over which
certain facilities are required to be built. These facilities are
often tall and subjected to large lateral loads, such as violent
winds, water, earth pressure and earthquakes [19] [21].
Many studies have been undertaken on piles subjected
to axial (tension or compression) load and lateral load or
combination of these loads [19].The response of piles under
combined loading is more complex and difficult to analyze
[7]. However little information is available for studying the
behavior of single pile in sloping ground condition under
different loading conditions [10][19][21][17]. In this project
the studies are carried out to investigate the effect of slope

on the lateral capacity of single pile with respect to pile head
deflection and its comparison with the horizontal ground.
Generally, there are many readily available solutions
(empirical, semi-empirical, numerical and analytical) for the
analysis and design of piles [11]. However, the current
design assumptions treat the behavior of single pile in
sloping ground and horizontal ground at different positions
with varying densities. In order to address the lateral load
carrying capacity and pile head deflection acting on the pile,
an analysis can be achieved through experiments.
The main focus of the project is experimental,
where a testing apparatus has to be fabricated to perform
laboratory model test in sand. In each test of the pile,
number of parameters is varied such as: density (16.9kN/m3,
17.3 kN/m3 and 17.6 kN/m3) of sand, ground condition i.e.
sloping (150 and 200) and horizontal ground, relative
position of the pile. The model setup box is prepared of
wood with the dimensions supporting the stress zone of
influence of model pile made up of mild steel in sand. A
several number of tests on single pile made up of mild steel
embedded in different density of sand attained by sand
raining technique will be conducted. The pile is embedded at
different positions (+9D, +5D, +3D, 0, -3D,-5D,-9D) on
horizontal (+) and sloping (-) ground which is subjected to
combined loading (vertical + Lateral) with different
combinations of constant vertical load (0Vult, 0.25Vult,
0.50Vult and 0.75Vult) and incremental lateral loads [17] [20].
Page 294
2. Materials and Experimental Study

Pile testing plays an important role in the field of deep
foundation design. A comprehensive laboratory tests are
carried out on sand in order to determine its deformation
pattern under combined loading when modeled steel piles
were driven through horizontal and sloping ground. The
method of testing the pile has been explained here.
The properties of materials used in present work are
i. Soil medium
The medium of soil used in the present study is
collected from Krishna river sand, Krishna Mandal, Andhra
Pradesh. The grain size analysis test was carried out
according to IS 2720 (Part 4)-1985 [1][4]. The basic and
index properties of the sand are determined from laboratory
experiments according to IS code of practices. The sand is
filled in the test tank at different densities that is 16.9kN/m3,
17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3. The angle of friction () is to be
obtained from the laboratory direct shear test and the results
are summarized in Table No 1 and 2 .The soil is graded as
poorly graded soil and symbolic representation as
SP[2][5][6]
Table 1. Basic and index properties of Krishna river
sand used in the study
Sl.No
1.
Parameters
Results
Seive analysis
Effective Size, D10(mm)
D30(mm)
D60(mm)
Uniformity coefficient(Cu)
Coefficient of curvature(Cc)
0.36
0.52
0.84
2.33
0.9
Specific Gravity(G)
2.7
Maximum dry unit weight

(kN/m3)
Minimum dry unit weight
(kN/m3)
18
16.1
Table 2. Density determined for different height of fall

by raining technique and Angle of internal friction ()
determined from direct shear test.
Height of fall mm)
100
200
300
Density (kN/m3)
16.9
17.3
17.6
Angle of internal
31.5
34.5
36.5
friction()
ii.Model pile
The model pile is made up of mild steel. They are
of 15mm diameter and 300mm length (L/D=20, where D=
diameter of pile). One end of the pile is tapered at an angle
of 40o which is to be embedded into the sand and other end
of the pile is threaded to fix it to the pile cap.
iii.Box
The sand tank is made up of size 600mm x 600mm
x 600mm. The tank is stiffened at all the sides with wooden
battens of 50mmx25mm in section to avoid the bulging of
the tank during preparation of sand bed and also during
loading process.
iv.Screw jack
A hand operated jack will be used in the present
study having a capacity of 2T.
v.Loading Plates
Loading Plates are used for the application of the
lateral load. The loading plates of 0.14 kg, 0.5 kg, 1 kg and
1.5kg are used.
vi.Loading Frame
The loading frame consists of two vertical iron L
section channels of size 4cm width, 6mm thickness and
height 2 meter from the ground level, which is 1.5 m apart,
and the horizontal C section steel channel used size of 4cm
width, 6mm thickness. The handed operated screw jack is
fixed in the inverted direction at the centre of horizontal
section.
vii. LVDT with display unit
The deflection is measured using LVDT which is
connected to display unit.
viii. Proving ring
The proving ring are of 25mm run with 5 tons with
least count of (1div = 0.063KN).
2.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The schematic line diagram of the experimental setup is
shown in Fig. 1. The present investigation was carried out in
the Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory of the civil
engineering department, Basaveshwara Engineering College,
Bagalkot India. All the tests were conducted using the setup
shown in Fig. 1, which consists of
i) Inverted Screw jack
ii) Pile
iii) Loading Frame
iv) Proving Ring
v) Load Cells
vi) LVDT with display unit.
Page 295
In present, the study is focused on single pile. The

position of piles and slope angles are varied for three
different soil densities.
Table 3. Parameters to be varied
Sl.No
Parameter
1
Soil density
Ground
Condition
Position of pile
Fig. 1. Photographical view of experimental setup.
Load
Combinations
Variations
16.9 KN/m3, 17.3 KN/m3 and

17.6 KN/m3
Horizontal ground, 150 slope
and 200 slope.
+9D,+5D,+3D,0,-3D,-5D&-9D
(+ Horizontal,- Slope, Ddiameter of pile)
Lateral load only.
0.25Vult + Lateral load
2.2.3 Loading Procedure

The model pile is driven directly into the sand bed
at relative positions. The lateral load is applied towards the
slope. For the application of the load high tension wire is
used. The schematic representation of the set up is shown in
Fig.1. The model test pile is embedded in both horizontal
and sloping ground at relative positions ((+9D, +5D, +3D, 0
Crest, -3D,-5D,-9D) on horizontal (+) and sloping (-)
ground. The Vertical load is applied through a jack
connected to proving ring and sometimes also with load cells
and lateral load is applied by using load plates. LVDT
connected to display unit is used to measure the horizontal
displacement of the pile head under different combined
loading conditions. The embedment length of the pile in the
present study is kept 290mm constant and the eccentricity of
60 mm is also maintained constant vertically for application
of lateral load. The vertical load (0Vult, 0.25Vult, 0.50Vult and
0.75Vult) is kept constant and lateral deformations are
recorded for each increment of lateral loading. The test is
repeated for three different densities and two different
slopes.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of relative position of pile.
3. Results and Conclusion

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.2.1 Sand bed preparation
For conducting model tests, the sand bed is to be
prepared in the test tank using a raining technique. The
height of fall to achieve the desired density is to be
determined prior by conducting a series of trials with
different heights of fall. The density achieved was confirmed
by collecting samples in small containers of known volume
placed at different depths in the test tank at the time of
filling and determining the density of sand. After preparing
the sand bed in the test tank, the top surface of the sand bed
is leveled and sloping ground is made by marking the depth
to get respective slope on either side of the box. This pattern
is followed for all the test series.
2.2.2 Parameters to be varied
This chapter includes observations and discussions of the

results obtained from the experiments carried out to
examine.
i) Deflection of Pile head for combined load( Vertical +
Lateral)
ii) Behavior of pile in sloping and horizontal ground.
There are several interpretation methods to evaluate the
ultimate loads [22] [23]. For the present study, the ultimate
load was determined by the line drawing corresponding to
3mm (20% of pile diameter) pile head displacement to the
respective graph corresponding to ultimate load carrying
capacity in kN. The results obtained are discussed and
shown in below figures.
Page 296
3.1 LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVES OF SINGLE PILE

FOR 150 SLOPING GROUND
0.030
0 Vult
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
Pile head displacement in mm
0.030
0.50 Vult
0.025
Lateral load in kN
The Load Deflection curve is plotted from the test

results, the ultimate load is obtained by drawing a line
corresponding to 3mm (20% of pile diameter) on X axes
which cuts the graphs of different position and extend the
intersecting points on Y axes, the corresponding values will
be the ultimate lateral load (Qu) [9].
The load deflection curves of single pile for
different density of 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.9kN/m3
for 150 sloping ground with different combined loading
conditions are shown in Fig 3, 4 and 5 respectively. The Fig
3 (a), (b), (c) and (d) represents the load deflection curves
for 16.9kN/m3 density with the loading condition of 0Vult,
0.25Vult, 0.5Vult and 0.75Vult respectively. The same is
represented in Fig 4 and Fig 5 for 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3
respectively. From the Fig 3 - 5 and table 4it is observed
that;
The ultimate lateral load (Qu) obtained for the
density 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3 is
tabulated in table 4. From which it is clear that
lateral load carrying capacity of the pile depends on
density, loading combinations, ground condition
and also relative position of pile.
The ultimate lateral load carrying capacity of the
pile increases, with increase in the application of
vertical load that is from 0Vult, 0.25Vult, 0.50Vult
and 0.75Vult.The value of Qu increases with the
increase in the density of soil medium.
As density increases, the lateral load carrying
capacity of the pile also increases irrespective of
presence or absence of vertical load.
In Horizontal ground, the load carrying capacity
increases with the increase in the distance from the
crest0 i.e., away from the slope (+3D, +5D and
+9D).
In Sloping ground, the load carrying capacity
crest 0 i.e., towards the slope (-3D, -5D and -9D).
At relative position 0 Crest, the lateral load
carrying capacity is less compared to horizontal and
sloping ground.
As vertical load is increased, the ultimate lateral
load carrying capacity also increases both in
horizontal and sloping ground.
The ultimate lateral load (Qu) decreases in the
sloping ground when compared to that of pile in the
horizontal ground.
0.020
0.015
0.010
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
(b)
0.005
0.000
0
(c)
Page 297
0.030
0.25 Vult
0.75 Vult
0.030
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
0.000
Pile head deflection in mm

(d)
(b)
Fig. 3. LoadDeflection curve for density 16.9 kN/m3 (a) 0Vult

(b ) 0.25Vult (c) 0.50Vult (d) 0.75Vult
0.50 Vult
0.035
0 Vult
0.030
0.030
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
0.000
0

(c)
Page 298
0.030
0 Vult
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
0.035
0.25 Vult
0.75 Vult
0.030
0.030
0.025
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
+0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.020
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(d)
(b)

Page 299
0.055
0.50 Vult
0.035
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.050
0.045
0.030
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.040
0.025
0.020
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.035
0.75 Vult
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.000
(c)
(d)

Table 4.Ultimate lateral loads of Single Pile for horizontal ground and 150 slopes obtained from the graphs.
Error
Density of
sand
(kN/m3)
1.7e+
16.9
17.3
17.6
Vertical
loading
Conditions
+9D
+5D

+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0 Vult
0.0240
0.0235
0.0230
0.0180
0.0190
0.0210
0.0220
0.25 Vult
0.0260
0.0223
0.0210
0.0160
0.0178
0.0180
0.0195
0.50Vult
0.0265
0.025
0.0240
0.0125
0.0215
0.0225
0.0240
0.75 Vult
0.0280
0.0265
0.0245
0.0130
0.0205
0.0215
0.0240
0 Vult
0.0265
0.0248
0.0223
0.0145
0.0205
0.0210
0.0215
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0215
0.0225
0.0230
0.0240
0.50Vult
0.0325
0.0310
0.0270
0.0125
0.0220
0.0230
0.0270
0.75 Vult
0.0335
0.0310
0.0240
0.0120
0.0215
0.0220
0.0240
0 Vult
0.0270
0.0265
0.0255
0.0165
0.0215
0.0220
0.0240
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0175
0.020
0.0210
0.0220
0.50Vult
0.0320
0.0275
0.0260
0.0180
0.0210
0.0230
0.0240
0.75 Vult
0.0480
0.0410
0.0270
0.0160
0.020
0.0210
0.0230
Page 300
3.2 LOADS-DEFLECTION CURVES OF SINGLE

PILE FOR 200 SLOPING GROUND
0 Vult
0.025
Lateral load in kN
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
0.25 Vult
0.035
0.030
0.025
Lateral load in kN

corresponding to 3mm (20% of pile diameter) [9]. The
Load Deflection curves for 200 slope, different
densities, different loading conditions and different
relative positions are shown in the following figures.
The load deflection curves of single pile for different
density of 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3 for 200
sloping ground with different combined loading
conditions are shown in Fig 6, 7 and 8 respectively. The
Fig 6 (a), (b), (c) and (d) represents the load deflection
curves for 16.9kN/m3 density with the loading condition
of 0Vult, 0.25Vult, 0.5Vult and 0.75Vult respectively. The
same is represented in Fig 7 and Fig 8 for 17.3kN/m3 and
17.6kN/m3 respectively. From the Fig 6 - 8 and table 5, it
is observed that;
density 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3
is tabulated in table 4.2. From which it is clear
that lateral load carrying capacity of the pile
depends on density, loading combinations,
ground condition and also relative position of
pile.
The ultimate lateral load carrying capacity of
the pile increases, with increase in the
application of vertical load that is from 0Vult,
0.25Vult, 0.50Vult and 0.75Vult.The value of Qu
increases with the increase in the density of soil
medium.
capacity of the pile also increases irrespective
of presence or absence of vertical load.
increases with the increase in the distance from
the crest0 i.e., away from the slope (+3D,
+5D and +9D).
the crest 0 i.e., towards the slope (-3D, -5D
and -9D).
carrying capacity is less compared to horizontal
and sloping ground.
sloping ground when compared to that of pile in
the horizontal ground.
0.030
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
(b)
Page 301
0.50 Vult
0.030
0.030
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0 Vult
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(c)
0.75 Vult
(a)
0.030
0.035
0.25 Vult
0.030
0.025
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0

(d)
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
(b)

Page 302
0.50 Vult
0.035
0 Vult
0.030
0.030
0.025
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
0.020
(c)
(a)
0.75 Vult
0.035
0.25 Vult
0.035
0.030
0.030
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
(d)
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
0.020
-0.005
0
(b)

Page 303
0.50 Vult
0.035
0.030
0.05
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.75 Vult
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
-0.005
0
(c)
0.00

0
(d)

Table 5 Ultimate lateral loads of Single Pile for horizontal ground and 200 slopes obtained from the
graphs.
Error
Density of
sand
(kN/m3)
1.7e+
Vertical
loading
Conditions
+9D
+5D
+3D
0 Vult
0.0240
0.0235
0.0230
0.0160
0.0180
0.0190
0.0215
0.0250
0.0222
0.0210
0.0125
0.0160
0.0175
0.0185
0.25 Vult
17.6
-9D
16.9
17.3

0
-3D
-5D
0.50Vult
0.0260
0.025
0.0240
0.0110
0.0180
0.0215
0.0235
0.75 Vult
0.0275
0.0265
0.0245
0.0110
0.0180
0.0200
0.0230
0 Vult
0.0260
0.0248
0.0220
0.0125
0.0175
0.0185
0.0210
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0170
0.0190
0.0210
0.0240
0.50Vult
0.0325
0.0310
0.0270
0.0090
0.0175
0.0180
0.0270
0.75 Vult
0.0335
0.0310
0.0240
0.0110
0.0180
0.0195
0.0230
0 Vult
0.0270
0.0265
0.0255
0.0130
0.0180
0.0205
0.0225
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0140
0.0170
0.0180
0.0200
0.50Vult
0.0320
0.0275
0.0260
0.0140
0.0180
0.0220
0.0240
0.75 Vult
0.0480
0.0410
0.0270
0.0145
0.0180
0.0205
0.0225
Page 304

Comparing the results from Fig 3 8 and tables
4 and 5, it is observed that;
The increase in the ground slope has very
significant effect on ultimate lateral load and
pile head deflection of the pile. Since the lateral
resistance offer in front of the pile is less
compared to horizontal ground which leads to
the arching effect in soil reducing the lateral
load capacity.
The lateral load carrying capacity decreases as
the slope increases from 150 to 200 for all the
densities of the soil.
The ultimate lateral loads on the horizontal
ground exhibits small variations for different
slope angles (150 and 200).
As the slope angle increases from 150 to 200,
the ultimate lateral load decreases upto 16 %.
4. Conclusion
Laboratory model test results of single pile for different
density 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3 at
different positions with different loading and ground
conditions have been presented in the chapter 4. Based
on the results, following conclusions were drawn.
The increase in the density of soil leads to the
increase in the load carrying capacity of single
pile irrespective of slopes.
The load carrying capacity decreases in the
It defines that the lateral capacity of pile on
slope depends upon relative position of the pile
with respect to slope.
+5D and +9D).
and -9D).
and sloping ground.
load capacity.

the ultimate lateral load decreases up to 16 %.
Acknowledgments
The successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mentioning the people who made it
possible. So it is with the gratitude that I acknowledge
the help, which crowned my efforts with success. I am
extremely thankful and indebted to my guide Dr. P. G.
Rakaraddi for his able guidance, valuable time spent,
relentless effort and constant encouragement in the entire
tenure of the Project work. It will not be an over
statement that the entire journey of the research work is
enlightened with his vision and mission. My special
thanks go to our department staffs, attainders and friends
for their cheerful support during execution of project.
Last but not the least I extend my thanks to my entire
family members and all others who helped me directly or
indirectly in completion of this task.
Page 305
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Page 307
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON STRENGTH AND FIRE

RESISTANCE OF HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
K.ATHI GAJENDRAN1, Dr.R.ANURADHA2, Dr.G.S.VENKATASUBRAMANI3
1
Ph.D Scholar, Karpagam University, Coimbatore, 641 021, India, k.adhigajendran@gmail.com

2
SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, PIN Code, India, anuradhastalin@gmail.com
3
Paavai Engineering College, Namakkal, 637018, India, E-mail
Abstract
The aim of this Study is to evaluate the performance of High performance concrete (HPC) containing supplementary
cementations materials such as Fly ash and silica fume and Metakaolin.. This study is mainly concentrated on the Compressive
strength and split tensile strength and flexural strength at age of 28 and 56 days. M60 grade HPC mixes incorporating
different percentages of high reactivity metakaolin and silica fume by weight of cement along with suitable super plasticizer.
The results of the study indicate that the strength properties of HPC mixes improved by incorporating metakoalin and silica
fume up to a desirable content of 15% and 5% respectively by weight of cement.
Fire represents one of the most severe environmental conditions to which structures may be subjected and hence the
provision of appropriate fire safety measures for structural members is an important aspect of design. This may be achieved
only by understanding the physical and mechanical properties of the selected construction materials at elevated temperatures
and their influence on the overall performance of the structure. The damage to concrete caused by fire can range from minor
aesthetic blemishes to more serious damages such as external cracking, delamination, spalling, internal micro cracking and
chemical changes. An attempt has been made in this paper to study the effect of elevated temperature ranging from 300 to
900oC on High performance concrete cubes and prisms exposed to durations of 30 minutes, 60 minutes and 90 minutes. High
performance concrete of grade M60 was developed by a suitable mix design procedure.
Keywords: Metakoalin, Silica fume, High performance concrete, Fire technology
1. Introduction
Concrete provides better fire resistance than many
building materials. This excellent fire performance is mainly
due to concretes constituent materials (i.e. cement and
aggregates) which, when chemically combined, form a
material that is essentially inert and has poor thermal
conductivity. The only potential risk to the concrete during
fire occurs in the form of spalling, which principally affects
High Performance Concrete (HPC). High performance
concrete (HPC) having excellent deformability and
segregation resistance. Temperature is one of the important
factors which affect the durability of concrete. High
temperature associated with other factors like high humidity
has significant effect on the durability of concrete. High
temperature causes dramatic physical and chemical changes,
resulting in the deterioration of the concrete. An assessment
of the degree of deterioration of the concrete structure after
exposure to high temperatures can help Engineers to decide
whether a structure can be repaired rather than required to be
demolished. Civil and Structural Engineers are often not
familiar with fire safety issues, and fire protection design is
currently being overlooked by structural consultants in their
projects. The fire resistance depends on many parameters

such as grade of concrete, grade of steel, fire load, duration
of fire, cover to concrete, type of aggregate, size of members
etc. Only very few literature is available on fire resistance of
HPC. An attempt has been made to carry out an
experimental investigation to understand the behaviour of
HPC under fire load.
1.1 High Performance Concrete
American Concrete Institute defines High
Performance Concrete as A concrete which meets special
performance and uniformity requirements that cannot
always be achieved routinely by using only conventional
materials and normal mixing, placing and curing practices.
In general HPC mixes possess high durability and high
strength when compared to that of the normal conventional
concrete.
For producing HPC, it is well recognised that the use of
supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume
(SF), fly ash (FA) are necessary. When these materials are
used as mineral admixtures, they improve the strength and
durability properties of the concrete.
Page 308
Athi Gajendran et. al. / INDECS-15
High performance concrete works out to be economical,

even though its initial cost is higher than that of
conventional concrete because the use of High Performance
Concrete in construction enhances the service life of the
structure and the structure suffers less damage which would
reduce overall costs.
Yaragal et al. [13] determined the strengths of cube
specimens subjected to elevated temperatures ranging from
100_C to 800_C, in steps of 100_C with a retention period
of 2 h. After exposure, weight losses and the residual
compressive strength retention characteristics were studied.
Test results indicated that weight and strength significantly
reduced with an increase in temperature. As the exposed
temperature increases, loss in weight of specimen increased,
above 200_C. With increase in grade of concrete, there was
a decrease in loss of weight of specimen after subjecting to
elevated temperatures. In general there was a substantial loss
(74%) in strength of M20, M25 and M30 grades of concretes
when exposed to higher temperatures. However for M35,
M40 and M45 grades, strength loss was around 80%. The
observed minimum residual strength was found to be 18%
for M45 at 800_C. Equations to predict the residual
compressive strength for two ranges of temperature were
derived for NSC.
Li et al. [10] investigated the effect of temperature exposure
on compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and
flexural strength of normal and high-strength concrete
(HSC). Oil furnace was used in this study for heating the
specimens. The temperature time curve was close to the
standard curve, which conformed to Chinese standard GB/T
9978 to 1999. After being heated to temperatures of 200_C,
400_C, 600_C, 800_C and 1,000_C respectively, the
mechanical properties of HSC were found. The influence of
temperature, water content, size of specimen, strength and
temperature profiles on mechanical properties of HSC was
discussed. They concluded that the strength losses in larger
specimens were found to be less.
Noumowe et al. [11] carried out an investigation to
understand the behavior of conventional vibrated high
strength concrete and self-compacting high strength concrete
at high temperature. Based on the results they concluded
that, the residual mechanical properties of self-compacting
high strength concretes were similar to that of conventional
HSC. The risk of spalling for self-compacting high
strength concrete was greater than that of conventional HSC.
The test results showed that severe spalling could occur with
self-compacting HSC even at a heating rate as low as
0.5_C/min.
Tao et al. [12] reported the results of a laboratory

investigation carried out to study the effects of high
temperatures ranging from room temperature to 800_C on
the compressive strength of SCC and HSC. It was reported
that the hot compressive strength of SCC decreased with
increase in temperature. It was found that grade of concrete
had an effect on the strength loss of concrete, especially in
the temperature range below 400_C. Higher grades of SCC
resulted in higher loss 1270 Fire Technology 2014 of
strength. But this difference was found to be less in the
permanent strength loss stage. Compared with normal
strength SCC, high strength SCC was found to possess a
larger compressive strength when exposed to high
temperature. It was also reported that addition of
polypropylene fibers decreased the strength. However the
addition reduced the probability of explosive spalling.
Anand.N et al [1] studied an experimental investigation has
been carried out to find the
behaviour of SCC beams
exposed to higher temperatures. The reduction in the
ultimate load and flexural strength of the specimens that are
cooled by spraying water was found to be more than that of
the specimens cooled by air. The specimens that are kept at
900oc for 90 minutes collapsed completely when cooled by
spraying water. The specimens that are cured for 56 days
exhibited similar behaviour even though the 56 day strength
of the specimens were higher than the 28 day strength. The
56 day strength of the reference specimens were nearly
15.38% higher than the 28 day strength. The loss of strength
of the specimens exposed to 900 o c for 30 minutes, 60
minutes and 90 minutes were found to be much higher than
the other exposure conditions.
Chan.L et al [14] carried out an experimental program to
study the mechanical properties and pore structure of high
performance concrete (HPC) and normal strength concrete
after exposure to high temperature. After the concrete
specimens were subjected to temperature of 800 C, their
residual compressive strength was measured. The porosity
and porosimetry. The test results showed that (HPC) had
higher residual strength, although the strength of (HPC)
degenerated more sharply than the normal strength
concrete after exposure to high temperature. They found that
the changes in pore structure could be used to indicate the
degradation of mechanical property of (HPC) subjected to
high temperature.
2.Material And Properties
2.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is manufactured in the
form of different grades, the most common in India being
Page 309
Grade-53, Grade-43, & Grade-33. OPC is manufactured by

burning siliceous material like limestone at 1400 degree
Celsius and thereafter grinding it with gypsum. Properties of
Coarse Aggregate are shown in table 1.
aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the

fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and
to act as a workability agent.
2.4 Fly Ash
Table 1 Properties of Cement

Particulars
Test Value
Fineness modulus
5%
Specific gravity
3.15
Consistency
30%
Initial setting time
35 min
Final setting time
590 min
2.2 Coarse Aggregates

Coarse aggregate contributes to impermeability of concrete,
provided that it is properly graded and the mix is suitably
designed. Coarse aggregate in cement concrete contributes
to the heterogeneity of the cement concrete and there is a
weak interface between cement matrix and aggregate surface
in cement concrete. These two factors result in lower
strength of concrete. But in HPC, by restricting the
maximum size of aggregate and also by making the
transition zone stronger by usage of mineral admixtures, the
cement concrete becomes more homogenous and there is a
marked enhancement in the strength properties as well as
durability characteristics of concrete. Properties of Coarse
Aggregate are shown in table 2.
Table 2 Properties of Coarse Aggregate
Particulars
Test Value
Fineness modulus
2.66
Specific gravity
2.64
Water absorption
0.25%
Bulk density
1638 kg/m3
2.3 Fine Aggregate

The sand was first sieved through 4.75mm sieve to remove
any particles greater than 4.75mm. For increased workability
and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the fine
Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverized coal,

usually from coal-fired power plants1. Fly ash solidifies in
the exhaust gases and is collected by electrostatic
precipitators or filter bags. The chemical composition and
physical characteristics of the fly ash from a coal-fired
furnace are controlled by the type of coal and the processing
conditions of the furnace3. These vary not only from one
plant to another but also within the same plant. Variations in
the chemical composition of fly ashes are, therefore natural.
Fly ash increases the workability of concrete. Workability
refers to the ease with which the concrete is mixed, placed
and cured without losing its homogeneity. At equivalent
slump fly ash concrete is more workable than that of a plain
cement concrete. Less water is needed for the same slump
and the concrete gets more cohesive and the occurrence of
segregation decreases. Fly ashes generally have a negative
effect on the early compressive strength of concrete. But, it
increases the later strength gain.
2.5 Metakaolin
It has been well recognised that the use of pozzolanic
materials like silica fume (SF) and fly ash (FA) is necessary
for producing high performance concrete.Metakaolin is a
thermally activated alumina-silicate material obtained by
calcining kaolin clay within the temperature range 650800C.
It is fired (Calcined) under carefully controlled conditions to
create an amorphous alumina silicate that is reactive in
concrete. Like other pozzolans (fly ash and silica fume are
two common pozzolans), metakaolin reacts with the calcium
hydroxide (lime) byproducts produced during cement
hydration.
Calcium hydroxide accounts for upto 25% of the hydrated
Portland cement, and calcium hydroxide does not contribute
to the concretes strength or durability. Metakaolin
combines with the calcium hydroxide to produce additional
cementing compounds, the material responsible for holding
the concrete together. Less calcium hydroxide and more
cementing compounds means stronger concrete. It is very
fine and highly reactive, gives fresh concrete a creamy,
nonsticky texture that makes finishing easier.
Caldarone MA (1994), Metakaolin is compatible with most
concrete admixtures, such as superplasticizers, retarders,
accelerators, etc. Based on previous experience, replacing
Page 310
10-15% of the cement with Metakaolin gives us an optimal

performance.BB Sabir (2001), It has been reported that the
concrete incorporating 10% MK had a higher compressive
strength at all ages upto 180 days. MHZhang et al., When
compared with SF concrete at the same level of replacement,
MK concrete showed a faster strength development at early
ages, but had similar strength after 28 days. Physical and
Chemical Properties of Metakaolin is shown in table 3 and
table 4.
Table 3 Physical Properties of Metakaolin (ASTRAA
chemicals)
Appearance
Off-white
Ph
4.5-5.5
Bulk density
0.4-0.5
Specific surface area
19-20
Specific gravity
2.6
Table 4 Chemical Properties of Metakaolin

(ASTRAA chemicals)
concrete is required. Chemical Properties of Silica Fume

(ASTRAA chemicals) shown in table 5.
Table 5 Chemical Properties of Silica Fume (ASTRAA
chemicals)
SiO2
99.5%
Al2O3
0.08%
TiO2
0.04%
CaO
0.01%
MgO
0.01%
L.O.I
0.28%
Alkalies
0.29%
2.7 Super Plasticizer

The super plasticizer used in this study is CONPLAST
SP430 ConplastSP430 confirms to IS:9103 :1999 as a water
reducing admixture and carries license from Bureau of
Indian Standards. It also complies with IS 2645:1975 and
BS 5075 Part 3 and ASTM C494 Type F. ConplastSP430 is
based on a blend of specifically selected organic polymers.
It is supplied as a dark brown liquid, instantly dispersible in
water. Conplast430 disperses the cement particles
effectively in the concrete mix and hence exposes a larger
surface area to the hydration process. This effect is used
either to increase the strength or to produce high workability
concrete or reduce cement content of concrete or to retard
the setting time of concrete.
Si
52.0 %
Al2O3
46.0%
Fe2O3
0.60 (max)%
TiO2
0.65(max)%
CaO
0.09(max)%
3.1 Fresh Concrete Property
MgO
0.03(max)%
Na2O
0.10(max)%
K2O
0.03 (max)%
Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material

which can be moulded into any shape. The relative
quantities of cement, aggregate and water mixed together
control the properties of concrete in the wet state as well as
in the hardened state.
3. Test On Hardened Concrete (HPC)
2.6 Silica Fume
3.2 Workability Studies
It is a very reactive and effective pozzolanic material due to

its fine particle size and high purity of SiO2 (99.5%)
content. It enhances the mechanical properties, durability
and constructability in concrete. It is used in the production
of High strength & High performance concrete. The
recommended dosage is 7-10% of the cement weight added
to the concrete. Silica fume is the most commonly used
mineral admixture in high strength concrete. It is used in the
construction of high performance concrete structures like
bridges where the strength and durability properties of the
3.2.1 Slump Cone Test

The slump value plays a major role in HPC. By the value of
slump it is possible to know the effectiveness in HPC . Due
to low water/binder ratio the slump value should be
minimum. The slump values also determine the robustness
of the mix, segreation,bleeding in the mix. The minimum
value of slump is to be 40mm and a maximum of 80mm for
a fresh HPC. The slump values for different mixes are
shown in table 8 Slump flow is obtained as shown in Fig 1.
Page 311
5. Mechanical Properites
5.1 Compressive Strength Test Result
Compression Test Compression test is the most common test
conducted on hardened concrete, because it is an easy test to
perform and most desirable characteristic properties of
concrete are qualitatively related to its compressive strength.
The compression test is carried out on specimen in cubical
or in cylindrical shape. Table 9 shows the compressive
strength for various mixes (8).
Fig 1 Slump flow value

Table 8 Slump flow
Table 9: Cube compressive strength of concrete at

Slump (mm)
Mix
different ages
proportions (%)
Case 1
55
Case 2
52
Case 3
50
Case 4
46
Case 5
58
Case 6
52
CASES
4. Mix Proportion
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
(N/mm )
(N/mm )
(N/mm )
(N/mm2)
Case 1
44.29
53.82
63.33
65.86
Case 2
25.480
33.39
38.66
45.69
Case 3
18.45
25.92
42.34
48.93
Case 4
23.26
29.37
47.15
55.80
Case 5
21.79
27.03
50.22
61.75
Case 6
20.41
27.53
44.32
56.49
5.2 Split Tensile Strength Test
Mix proportion is shown in table 6 and 7.

Table 6 Mix ratio
Mix no
7 Days
Case
Case
Case3
Case4
Case5
Case6
1 (in
(in
(in
(in
(in
%)
(in
%)
%)
%)
%)
%)
The split tensile results show that the concrete containing

admixtures 15 %SF, 5%MK, 50%FA, 30% C, has better
split tensile strength compared to the normal conventional
concrete and also other concrete mixes containing
admixtures. It is noticed that the strength gain happens only
in later stages in case of admixture concrete unlike normal
concrete. The other mixes too have achieved a considerable
strength, but it is less when compared to Case 5 which is
shown in table 10.
Cement
100
30
30
30
30
30
Fly ash
50
50
50
50
50
Table 10 Split tensile strength of cylinder at different age
Silica fume
10
15
20
of loading
Metakaolin
20
15
10
Table 7 Mix Proportion

Water
Cement
Fine aggregate
Coarse
aggregate
141.61
lit/m3
504.21
kg/m3
683.24 kg/m3
1108.13 kg/m3
0.280
1.35
2.19
MIXES
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
Case 1
2.91
3.04
3.61
3.70
Case 4
2.28
2.43
3.01
3.41
Case 5
2.24
2.34
3.24
3.72
Case 6
2.037
2.24
3.04
3.37
Page 312
5.3 Flexural Strength Test
Case 4
3.31
3.57
4.66
5.12
Concrete as we know is relatively strong in compression and

weak in tension. Tensile stresses are likely to develop in
concrete due to drying shrinkage, rusting of steel
reinforcement, temperature gradients and many other results.
Direct measurement of tensile strength of concrete is
difficult. Neither specimens nor testing apparatus have been
designed which assure uniform distribution of the pull
applied to the concrete beam rest are found to be measure
the flexural strength property of concrete. The test was
carried out on 100 x 100 x 500 mm size prism. The test
results were tabulated in table I1 using the stress values the
flexural strength of binder (9).
Table 11 Flexural strength of prism at different age of
Case 5
3.4
3.71
4.91
5.57
Case 6
3.11
3.51
4.61
4.93
loading
Mixes
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
Case 1
4.45
4.79
5.49
5.65
6. Fire Resistance
Concrete as we know is relatively strong in
compression and weak in tension. Tensile stresses are likely
to develop in concrete due to drying shrinkage, rusting of
steel reinforcement, temperature gradients and many other
results. Direct measurement of tensile strength of concrete is
carried out on 100 x 100 x 500 mm size prism were cast.
Half of the prism was cured for 28 days. After curing, all the
prism specimens were dried to exposure high temperatures.
The details of the tests carried out the shown in the table 12.
Table 12 Details of the test carried out

Tempertures (oC)
Reference Prism with
RCC
Room Temperature
300
Duration of heating
(min)
-
Nature of Cooling
-
No of specimens tested
3
3
Air
300
Room Temperature to
300
30, 60, 90
9
3
Water spraying
300
Room Temperature to
600
30, 60, 90
9
3
Air
600
Room Temperature to
600
30, 60, 90
9
3
Water spraying
600
Room Temperature to
900
30, 60, 90
9
3
Air
900
Room Temperature to
900
30, 60, 90
9
3
Water spraying
900
30, 60, 90
Page 313
Table 13 Compressive strength and Flexural strength of HPC cubes and prisms at 28 days
6.1 Testing of HPC Prism Subjected to Elevated

Temperature
An electric furnace was used to heat the specimens.
The
inner
dimensions
of
the
furnace
are
500mmx500mmx500mm. The sides and top are lined with

electrical heating coils embedded in refractory bricks. The
control panel has a temperature controller to prevent damage
to the furnace by tripping out, if the temperature inside the
Page 314
7. Result and Discussions

As per above results, the normal conventional concrete for
M60 mix is achieved according to standards. But, the
concrete containing admixtures explicit slower strength gain
at 7 days, when compared to M60 concrete with 100%
cement mixes shown in fig 2.
At 28 days, the mix containing 15%SF, 5% MK, 50%FA, 30
% C showed a better strength gain compared to the other
mixes containing admixtures. At 56 days, the mix containing
15 % SF, 5% MK, 50% FA, 30%C has attained the desired
grade proving that there is an increase in the later strength
gain in the concrete containing admixtures [9]. Case 2 and
case 3 shows very less strength gain at 56 days due to the
inherent properties of the concrete mix itself. Due to that, we
have omitted case 2 and case 3 for split tensile strength tests.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
7 Days
14 Dyas
case 6
case 5
case 4
case 3
case 2
28 Dyas
case 1
Compressive strength in
N/mm2
more for the specimens cooled by spraying water than the

specimens cooled by air. The compressive strength and
flexural strength decrease when duration of exposure
increases. When the specimens are heated from room
temperature to 300oC, 600oC and 900oC, The reduction in
the compressive and flexural strength of specimens were
found to be 8%, 30%, 50% and 7%,34.28%,72% for air
cooled specimens and 24%,40%,68% and 14%,52%,84% for
the specimens that are cooled by water as shown in figures
5,6,7 and 8. The specimens that are kept at 900 oC for 30
minutes, 60 minutes, and 90 minutes were found to be
critical than the other specimens.
56 Days
Cases
Fig 2 Variation in compressive strength of different cases
SPLIT TENSILE
Split tensile strength in
N/mm2
furnace exceeds the specified temperature. The maximum

operating temperature of the furnace is 1200 oC. The HPC
prisms exposed to fire in two ways. In the first case HPC
prism were kept inside the furnace and the furnace is heated
from room temperature to 300oC, 600oC and 900oC. In the
second case the furnace was heated to the required
temperature (300oC, 600oC and 900 oC) and the specimens
were kept inside the furnace for the required durations of
30minutes, 60minutes and 90minutes. After exposing the
specimen to desired temperature and duration as shown in
the table 20, the furnace was switched off and the specimens
were taken out of the furnace. The specimens were naturally
allowed to reach the room temperature in case of air cooling
and in case of water cooling; water is sprayed over the
heated specimens till the specimens are cooled completely.
Flexural strength of the specimens was found at 28 th day on
the reference specimens and other specimens subjected to
elevated temperatures.
Based on test result case 5 is achieved optimized value
The compressive strength of the above mixes was done and
the case 5 shows good compressive results. Hence the
further fire resistance will be based on the case 5.
Based on compressive value case 5 fly ash 50% and cement
30% and SF 15% and MT5% gives higher compression
value, so it is consider as an optimized value, Fire
Resistance are based on only optimized value. The following
tests are carried out for Fire studies shown in table 13.
4
3
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
Case 1 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6

Cases
56 Days
Fig 3 Variation in split tensile strength for different cases
The flexural strength test results show that that at 56 days,

the normal concrete and the concrete containing admixtures
show a similar strength. This again proves that at later ages,
Case 5 test results are similar to Case 1 test result as shown
in fig 4.
From Table 13 it can be seen that compressive strength and
flexural strength decreases when the exposure temperature
increases. Also the reduction in the load carrying capacity is
Page 315
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
case 1
case 4 case 5
Cases
case 6
Fig 4 Variation in Flexural strength for different cases
100
80
60
40
300
20
600
900
30
60
90
minutes minutes minutes
TIME
Fig 7. % Reduction in strength w.r.to reference
Fire resistance
% Reduction in strength
w.r.to reference cubes
(Air cooled)
w.r.to reference prism (air
cooled)
Fire resistance
prism (Air cooled)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Fire resistance
300
600
900
30
60
90
TIME
% Reduction in
strength w.r.to
reference prism
Flexural strength in N/mm 2
100
80
60
40
20
0
300
600
30
60
90
900
TIME

cubes (Air cooled)
% Reduction in
strength w.r.to
reference cubes
Fire resistance
100
80
60
40
20
0
Fig 8. % Reduction in strength w.r.to reference cubes

(water cooled)
References
300
600
900
TIME

(Water cooled)
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Concrete on the Performance of Self Compacting
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Beams
Subjected
to
Elevated
Temperatures, Fire Technology (Springer Sciences),
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Performance
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[3] Jian-Tong Ding, Zongjin Li (2002), Effects of
Metakaolin and Silica Fume on Properties of
Concrete, ACI materials journal,, vol. 99, No.4,
pp.393-398.
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Structural concrete incorporating high volumes of
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Gajendran,
R.Anuradha
and
Dr.G.S.Venkatasubramani, Mechanical Properties
On High Performance Concrete By Replacing The
Cement By Flyash, Silica Fume And Metakaolin,
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research
ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 10, Number 3 (2015) pp.
5881-5886.
[9] K.Athi
Gajendran,
R.Anuradha
and
Dr.G.S.Venkatasubramani, Reduction Of Global
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of high-strength concrete after fire. Cem Concr Res
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High-strength self-compacting concrete exposed to
fire test. J Mater Civ Eng 18:754758
[12] Tao J, Yuan Y, Taerwe L (2010) Compressive
strength of self-compacting concrete during high
temperature exposure. J Mater Civ Eng 22:1005
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[14] Chan YN, Peng GF, Anson M (1999) Residual
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Page 317
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON CONCRETE USING SELECTED

WASTE MATERIALS AS PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF FINE
AGGREGATE
Mr. A.Arunraj
Assistant Professor
Easwari Engineering College,
Ramapuram, Chennai - 89, Tamil Nadu.
E-Mail: ias.arun001@gmail.com
Abstract
A modern lifestyle, alongside the advancement of technology has led to an increase in the amount and type of waste
being generated, leading to a waste disposal crisis. This study takes the waste that is generated form plastic and rubber
materials. In order to dispose or to reduce the accumulation of certain kinds of waste, it has been suggested to reuse
some of these waste materials to substitute a percentage of the primary material used in ordinary Portland cement
(OPC). Recycling process not only helps conserve natural resources, but also helps to solve a growing waste disposal
crisis. Many properties of the concrete can be changed by adding industrial waste in it. One such method by
introducing rubber and plastic in concrete mix. It is perfect way to modify the properties of concrete effectively. To
evaluate these replacements on the properties of the OPC mixes, a number of laboratory tests were carried out. These
tests included workability, Density, compressive strength. The mechanical properties are satisfied the requirements of
reinforced concrete. The main finding of this investigation revealed that the two type of waste material could be used
in concrete mixtures.
Keywords - Waste plastic, Tyer rubber,
1.
INTRODUCTION
A substantial growth in the consumption of Plastic
and Rubber is observed all over the World in recent
Years, Which has led to hug quantities of unwanted
Plastic & Rubber related product waste. These wastes
are Not Biodegradable and will remain in a landfill
without any degradation for a very long time and their
accumulation may provoke fire or health hazards and
cause troublesome environmental problem. So we are
decided to reuse in this waste. Plastic are durable and
degrade very slowly; the chemical bond that make
Plastic so durable make it equally resistant to natural
processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one billion
tons of plastic waste have been discarded and may
persist for hundreds or even thousands of years.
Concrete is by far the most widely- used man made
construction material and studies indicate that it will
continue to be so in the years and decades to come.
The advances in concrete have paved way for the
reutilization of waste materials in concrete which help
to prevent environmental pollution whilst contribution
to the design of more economical building. The use of
rubber and plastic in concrete has become increasingly
popular generating significant research interest over the
past twenty years. Owing to the increase in number of
cars worldwide, the accumulation of huge volume of

scrap tyer has become a major waste problem.
Big amount of use Rubber and Plastic
cumulate in the world.
One of most popular method is to fill used
tyers in landfills, as due to low density and
poor degradation in land fill.
1.1 Plastic waste
Plastic have become now integral part of the
day today life. These non-biodegradable products are
used and thrown out which lead to the environmental
pollution. The plastic waste is low weight, flexible, heat
resistance, shatterproof and corrosion resistance. In
recent time significant research is underway to study
the possibility of disposal of this waste in mass concrete
where strength of concrete may not major criteria under
consideration, such as heavy mass of concreting in The
properties of plastics are defined chiefly by the organic
chemistry of the polymer such as Toxicity, Hardness,
Density, Resistance to heat Organic solvents, Oxidation,
and Ionizing radiation.
1.2 Tyer Rubber
Crumb rubber is a term usually applied to
recycled rubber from automotive and truck scrap tires.
Page 318
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
2.1.3 Tyer Rubber
Continued processing with a granulator and cracker
mill, possibly with the aid of mechanized means,
The tyer rubber size is typically between 4.75 to
reduces the size of the particles further. The particles
0.425mm in returned tyer rubber factory.
are sized and classified based on various criteria.
The granulated is sized by passing through a
2.1.4 Waste Plastic
screen, the size based on a dimension (1/4). Mesh
The waste plastic in crashed with factorys in below
refers to material that has been sized by passing through
2.36mm size.
a screen with a given number of holes per inch.
For example, 10 mesh crumb rubber has passed through
a screen with 10 holes per inch resulting in rubber
2.1.5 Coarse aggregate
granulate that slightly less 1/10 of an inch. The exact
size will depend on the size of wire used in the screen.
Coarse aggregate form a local commercial quarry with
Literature Review
a maximum nominal size of 20mm was used.
Z.Li, F.Li & J.S.L.Li, 1998, Properties of Concrete
Incorporating Rubber Tyer Particles, Magazine of
concrete Research.
Rubberized concrete has lower
compressive & flexural strength than normal concrete.
A cylindrical compressive strength of 29 Mpa con be
achieved by coating rubber particles with cement paste.
This investigation suggests that replacing some of
fine aggregate in concrete by rubber tyer particles may
be suitable in application such as driveways, sidewalks,
or in road construction where strength is not high
priority but higher toughness is preferred. Rubberized
concrete is also a very good candidate for application
where structure vibration control is required, such as in
structural base isolation and machine foundations.
Malek Nataynesh, Iqbal Marie and Ibrahim Asi,
1876, Use of Selected Waste Materials in Concrete
Mixes, Waste Management. The increase of the surface
area of the recycled crushed concrete, due to its
irregular shape, necessitates an increase of cement and
water. A comparison between the cost of crushing glass,
plastic and concrete with that of supplying prime
aggregate should be considered in the project
management plans, taking into consideration the
availability of prime material and location. The strength
of concrete mixes was improved by the partial
replacement of fine aggregate with crushed glass
aggregate. Using glass of different percentage showed
no significant effect on the slump, which showed that
higher the percentage used the lesser, was the slump.
2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Cement
The cement used in the present study is the locally
available Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of 53
grades.
2.1.2 Fine aggregate
The fine aggregate used was natural river sand having a
2.36 mm nominal maximum size.
2.1.6 Water
Water used conforms IS 3025 (Part 22,23), water to be
used for mixing and curing should be free from
injurious or deleterious material. Potable water is
generally considered satisfaction.
Table 1 Physical Properties of Aggregate
Property
Fine
aggregate
Rubber Plastic Coarse

waste waste aggregate
Specific
gravity
2.67
3.02
2.73
2.81
Fineness
modulus
3.88
4.32
4.078
Water
absorption
25
35
23
1.86
3. MIX PROPORTION
The concrete mix design as recommended by
IS: 10262-2001was used to prepare test samples and its
details are shown Table2. The mix proportion is M30
grade of concrete. There are three different mix prepare.
(1) Replacing of fine aggregate in waste Plastic. (2)
Replacing of fine aggregate in waste Tyer rubber. (3)
Partially replacing for fine aggregate in waste Plastic
and Tyer rubber. The replacing for fine aggregate 5%,
10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50% and
55% .the fine aggregate volume base mix in concrete.
A compressive strength study of concrete mix
is carried out to find the effect of replacing fine
aggregates Plastic, Tyer Rubber and both Waste,
without superplasticizer. Properties of waste Plastic and
Tyer Rubber mix concrete, slump, compressive strength
and Flexural strength, have been studied and the result
are as follows.
4.1 Compressive Strength
Page 319
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
Figure 5: Fine aggregate replacing for waste Tyer

rubber
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
28 Days compressive strength
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Figure 2: Fine aggregate replacing for waste Plastic
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20%
0%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
15%
14 Days Compressive strength
10%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0%
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
The compressive strength is mainly related to
the water cement ratio. As the w/c ratio decrease, the
compressive strength increases. The effect of replacing
7 Days Compressive Strength
of waste plastics and rubber with fine aggregate on the
50
concrete compressive strength on 7Days, 14Days and
45
28Days is shown below Figure. It could be seen from
40
the figure that the compressive strength was reduced
35
30
significantly by 40% when replacing of waste plastic
25
and tyer rubber, 45% reduced in compressive strength
20
in replacing of both waste
15
10
5
0
50
45
40
35
30
25
rubber
20
15
10
5
0

rubber
Page 320
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
5. CONCLUSION
The following results are based on the
libratory study reported in this paper.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
55%
Any other investigation tyer rubber and plastic

waste replacement for fine aggregate in cement
concrete may different with changes in mix proportion.
Figure 7: Fine aggregate replacing for plastic waste and

Tyer rubber
The compressive strength on 28 days of age is

summarized.
Compressive strength of concrete
depended on three factors by replacement of fine
aggregate with waste material such as Grain size of the
replacing of tyer rubber, plastic waste and both wastes.
In general compressive strength was reduced
with increased percentage of wastes replacing in cement
concrete.
The rubber waste 30% replacement in concrete

increased in compressive strength.
The plastic waste 35% replacement in concrete

Plastic and Tyer rubber waste 40%

replacement in concrete increased in
compressive strength.

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
REFERENCES
1.
Is 456-2000 Plan and Reinforced Concrete Code

of Plan
2.
IS 10262-2009 Concrete Mix Proportioning

Guideline
3.
Azmi.N.J, Mohammed.B.S, Al-Mattarnch.H.M.A,

2008, Engineering Properties of Concrete
Containing Recycled Tyer Rubber. International
Conference on Construction and Building
Technology.
4.
BabooRaj, S.Tabin Rushad, Bhavesh Kr, and

S.K.Duggal, 2012, Study of Waste Plastic Mix
Concrete with Plasticizer.
5.
Bandodkar.L.R, Gaonkar.A.A, Gonkar.n.D and

Gauns.Y.P, 2011, PET Bottles as Partial
Replacement for Sand, International Journal of
Earth Sciences and Engineering.
6.
Benazzouk.A, Iqbal Marie, Ibrahim Asi, 2003,

Effect of Rubber Aggregate on the Physic
Mechanical Behavior of Concrete Composites,
Journal of Physical Science.
7.
Eshmaiel Ganjian, 2009, Scrap-Tyer-Rubber

Replacement for Aggregate and fill in Concrete,
Construction and Building Material.

Tyer rubber
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
55%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Tyer rubber
Page 321
8.
9.
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
El-gammal.A, Abdel-Gawgd.A.K, El-Sherbini.Y,
and Shalaby.A, 2010, Compressive Strength of
Concrete Utilizing Waste Tyer Rubber. Journal of
Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied
Sciences.
Gavela.S, Karakosta.C, Nydriotis.C, kaselouriRigopoulou.V, Kolias.S and Andre Opoulos.A,
2004, A Study of Concrete Containing
Thermoplastic Waste as Aggregates, Concrete
International.
10. Gintautas Skripkiunas, Audrius Grinys, Benjaminas

Cernius, 2007, Deformation Properties of
Concrete with Rubber Waste Additives.
11. Malek Batayneh, Iqbal Marie, Ibrahim Asi, 2007,
Use Selected Waste Material in Concrete Mixes,
Waste Management.
12. Mostafizur Rahman.MD, MD.Akhtarul Islam and
Mainuddin Ahmed, 2012, Recycling of Waste
Polymeric Material as a Partial Replacement for
Aggregate in Concrete, International Conference
on Chemical, Environmental and Biological
Sciences.
13. Li.Z, Li.F, Li.J.S, 1998, Properties of Concrete
Concrete Research.
14. Ramadevi.K, Manju.R, 2012, Experimental
Investigation on the Properties of Concrete with
Plastic PET (Bottle) Fibre as Fine Aggregate ,
International Journal of Emerging Technology and
Advanced Engineering Website.
15. Sallam.H.E.M., Sherbini.A.S, Seleem.M.H, 2008,
Impact Resistance of Rubberized Concrete,
Engineering Research Journal.
16. Yunping xi, Yue Li, Jae s.Lee, utilization of solid
waste (Rubber Particles) as aggregates in
concrete, International Workshop on Sustainable
Development and Concrete Technology.
Page 322
INFLUENCE OF CLAY MINERALS ON BITUMINOUS MIX

M.Mahalakshmi1, Dr.S.Suresh babu 2, Dr.K.E.Prakash3, S.Vimal4
1
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India, maha_manju@yahoo.com

2
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India, sunisurp@gmail.com
3
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Karnataka 590018, prakashke@gmail.com
4
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India,vimalcric@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper focuses on the influence of clay minerals such as Bentonite and Kaolinite on bituminous mix. The
optimum percentage of clay mineral (Kaolinite) and influence of various particle sizes of clay mineral (Bentonite) on
blending with bitumen were experimentally studied by conducting various rheological and mechanical tests on
bituminous mix. The comparison is made between the properties of conventional and clay modified bitumen. The
optimum percentage of Kaolinite to be blend with bitumen is found to be 20% and their effects were discussed, also it is
observed that by reducing the size of the Bentonite clay, the properties of bituminous mix gets enhanced and thus the
stability were improved using clay minerals in this research.
Keywords:Kaolinite, Bentonite, clay modified bitumen.
1. Introduction
Flexible pavements are essential for conveyance in
India. The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the
pavement surface which instigates directly under the wheel
load. Bituminous surfacing is utilized as a wearing course
due to its properties. Thick bituminous layer on exposure
leads to failure through rutting and bleeding. This failure is
due to high temperature susceptibility which causes decrease
in stability of the bituminous layer. So, to amend the
temperature susceptibility and stability of the bituminous
concrete, clay minerals such as kaolinite and bentonite were
integrated to the bituminous mix.
The material utilized for the composite and the reason abaft
the cull is expounded below:
2. Materials
2.1 Bitumen -Bitumen is a black, viscous non crystalline
material derived either naturally as an organic by-product of
decomposed organic materials or by refinery process as an
end product from distillation of crude oil or petroleum. It is
a main component for paving roads.
2.2 Clay Minerals
2.2.1 Bentonite - Bentonite is a clay mineral formed
fundamentally from the mineral of smectite group. Ductility
characteristics, ionic expansion and contraction are some of
the important characteristics of the smectite group. The
bonding nature, swelling potential and high surface area of

bentonite clay decrease the voids in the bitumen which make
effective bonding with the aggregates and make the course
durable.
2.2.2 Kaolinite -Kaolinite is a clay mineral which is

abundant in soils that have formed from the chemical
weathering of rocks. It has low shrink-swell capacity and
used to modify rheology in many materials. Hence
rheological modifications are expected on bituminous mix
with it and tests were carried out on it.
2.3 Aggregates -Aggregates of required gradation as
specified by IRC 29-1988 were utilized for preparation of
bituminous mix.
3.Literature review
Yu, Julian(2011) made a study on nanoclay modified
asphalt. The objective of his study is to review existing
literature in the area of Nano-Modification of asphalt and
proceed to apply Nanomaterials to improve asphalt
performance. In the experimental testing montmorillonite
nanoclay of 2% and 4% by weight of asphalt was blended in
asphalt binder at a high temperature. The result of his
research conveys the nanoclay modified clay may have the
potential to reduce rutting and cracking.
M.Mahalakshmi.
maha_manju@yahoo.com
Page 323
Mahalakshmi et. al. / INDECS-15
Ziari Hassan (2012) used bentonite as an additive with

bituminous binder. In his study, the characteristics of
modified bitumen were investigated by asphalt cement tests.
The optimal bitumen content in various compounds were
determined and asphalt samples with different contents of
additives were prepared and tested. In addition, Marshall
Stability and flow improved in bentonite modified mixes in
comparison with normal bituminous mix. Results shows
using this kind of additive not only had caused improvement
in bitumen mechanical properties, but also improvement in
Marshall Parameters.
Research significance
performing Marshall Test, the optimum bitumen content was

determined. In order to prepare the briquettes, the aggregates
were heated up to 170C and modified bitumen containing
various additive content are added to it and maintained at
140C to perform the test.
To determine the optimum percentage of kaolinite, the

specimens with 18, 20, 22 percentage of kaolinite were
prepared. For particle size analysis, the clay of sizes 75,
63, 45 were blended with bitumen for specimen
preparation. The rheological tests such as penetration test,
softening point test, ductility test and Marshall test were
conducted. In addition flash point and fire point tests were
conducted.
Research on influence of particle size of bentonite and

kaolinite mineral as additive for pavement are very few.
Hence this research was made.
4.Results
Methodology:
The following tables and graphs represent the results

obtained during various tests on specimens prepared:
The specimens were prepared for both unmodified and

modified bituminous mixes for each test as per
specifications and requirements for the test.
To determine the optimum bitumen content, eighteen
samples of asphalt mixes with 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 5.5%, 6% and
6.5% of non modified bitumen were prepared and after
Table-1 Comparison of properties of bentonite modified specimens with normal bitumen
Tests conducted
Normal
bitumen
Penetration (deci mm)

Softening point (c)
Ductility(cm)
Flash point(c)
Fire point(c)
62
47
72
180
186
75
61.5
53
71.86
180
187
Sieve Size
63
60.8
54.5
71.55
188
198
45
59
56.5
69
192
220
Sieve Size
63
11.2
2.58
67.89
14.32
45
12.8
2.95
69.9
14.48
Permissible
limits
Min 47
Min 40
Min 47
Upto 220
Upto 300
Table-2 Marshall test values for bentonite modified specimens

Marshall parameters
Stability(kN)
Flow (mm)
VFB (%)
VMA (%)
Normal
bitumen
10
2.4
65.2
12.5
75
10.9
2.13
66.83
14.29
Permissible
limit
Min 9
2 to 4
65 to 75
Min 12.5
Table-3Comparison of properties of kaolinite modified bitumen with normal bitumen

Tests conducted
Normal
bitumen
Penetration( deci mm)

Softening point (C)
62
47
18%
52
44
Percentage of kaolinite addition

20%
49
46
22%
55
43
Permissible
limits
Min 47
Min 40
Page 324
Ductility(cm)
Flash point(c)
Fire point(c)
72
180
186
78
184
187
72
184
189
76
179
183

20%
18.81
2.65
74.65
14.23
22%
17.65
2.99
70.6
13.88
Min 47
Upto 220
Upto 300
Table-4Marshall Stabilityvalues for kaolinite modified bitumen

Marshall
parameters
Stability (kN)
FLOW (mm)
VFB (%)
VMA (%)
Normal bitumen
10
2.4
65.2
12.5
18%
18.1
3.05
73.24
13.57
Permissible limit
Min 9
2 TO 4
65 TO 75
Min 12.5
Graph-1
Graph-2
Graph-4
Graph-5
Graph-3
Page 325
Graph -7
Graph-6
VMA (%)
% KAOLINITE Vs VMA
Discussions:
15
14
13
12
11
NORMAL
BITUMEN
18
20
22
Though various advanced researches on nanoclay

modification of bituminous mix were made, the area of
execution is very small. This is due to requirement of
high end equipments for manufacturing the Nano clays.
So, it is studied to use the abundant material available
readily with simple processing techniques. The kaolinite
with various advantageous properties helps in improving
the stability of the bituminous mix. Reduced size of
bentonite additive mineral has a positive effect on
modified bituminous mix.
Graph-8
Conclusion: The modification of bituminous mix using
various percentage of kaolinite and different sizes of
bentonite was made in this work. The properties of the
bituminous mix were enhanced using these
modifications. The effects and variations at each stage
were studied clearly through various graphical
representations. And finally, it is revealed that
modification of bituminous mix may help in rutting
resistance and stability improvement.
References
[1] IS 73 -2013: Paving bitumen specification. (Fourth
Revision).
[2] IRC 29 -1988: Specification for Bituminous Concrete.
Decrease in the size of the bentonite improves its

properties as shown. The stability of the bituminous mix
was enhanced by decreasing the size of the bentonite as
shown in Table-2 and it is found to be 45. The stability
is maximum when 20% of kaolinite is blended to the
bituminous mix as shown in Table-4. Hence, the
optimum percentage of kaolinite to be blend with
bituminous mix is found to be 20%.The results obtained
shows that the modified bitumen mix have significance
over unmodified bituminous mix. Table-1and Table-3
compares the properties of the normal bitumenand
modified bitumen with bentonite and kaolinite
respectively.
[3] IS 1201 -1978: Methods of testing tar and bituminous

materials Sampling (Fourth revision).
[4] Highway Engineering by Khanna and Justo, Ninth edition,
2011.
[5] Influence of bentonite additive on bitumen Asphalt
mixture properties by Ziari hassan, Divandari Hassan,
Babagoli Rezwan, Akbari Ali publishes at World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology Vol:6
2012-08-24
[6] Clay-modified asphalt materials: Preparation and
characterisation by Zhanping yu, Julian Mills published at
Construction and building materials 25 (2011) 10721078.
Page 326
PERFORMANCE OF MASONRY WALL COMPOSITES

WITH NATURAL FIBERS
S.DEEPAK1, R.ANURADHA2 and G. PRINCE ARULRAJ3
1
SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore-636035,

Tamilnadu, deepakjoghu007@gmail.com
2
Tamilnadu, anuradhastalin@gmail.com
3
Tamilnadu, deancivil@snsct.org
Abstract
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have played a dominant role for a long time in a variety of applications
for their high specific strength and modulus. Although glass and other synthetic fibre-reinforced plastics possess high specific
strength, their fields of applications are very limited because of their inherent higher cost of production. In this connection,
this project aims at developing FRP using local fibres such as coir, which are abundantly available in India. Natural fibres are
not only strong and lightweight but are relatively very cheap. Investigations have to be carried out in the development of
natural fibre composite and a study in their characterization. This developed composite has to be made use in the
strengthening and rehabilitation of structures. Based on the performance, the possibility of using natural fibre composite as
strengthening and rehabilitating material for hazard mitigation will be studied. Clay brick pillars and flyash brick pillars are
constructed with three different types of mortars and are tested. This paper is aimed to compare the Compressive strength of
the Brick and Fly Ash Brick Pillars and rehabilitated using the jute and Glass fibre reinforced polymers fibers.
Key words: Masonry walls, Fibre reinforced polymer, Natural fibre, Fly ash bricks.
1. Introduction
Masonry structures are designed to resist
gravity loads and wind loads, and the effect of seismic
loads are generally neglected. During earthquake,
seismic loads introduce severe in-plane and out of plane
forces and many Unreinforced masonry structures
collapse in out of plane bending due to lack of
reinforcement. Now a days wrapping fibres like Glass
fibre reinforced polymer, Carbon fibre reinforced
polymer and Acrylic fibre reinforced plastic is most
commonly adopted technique to develop the strength of
the masonry. Since wrapping the structures using the
above said fibres is costlier and has limited applications,
here by an attempt is made to use natural fibre (jute)
instead of synthetic fibres. Fibre Reinforced Polymers
(FRP) are been extensively used as external wraps for
the structural strengthening and rehabilitations of
buildings. In particular its application is been in the area
of masonry and concrete structures. Strengthening and
retrofitting activity by using synthetic fibres such as
glass/carbon/aramid is becoming popular all over the
world. But using these synthetic fibres is as costlier as
the conventional methods that are available already.
Hence here an attempt is made to perform these
activities by using natural fibre, jute that are abundantly

available in India. By improving some of the mechanical
and durability properties of these natural fibres, their
performance can be brought equally to the synthetic
fibres. Also natural fibres have the advantage that they
are renewable resources.
Badoux.M [2] suggested that dynamic tests
investigating in plane behavior of URM walls. Masonry
walls are subjected to a series of simulated seismic
motions on a earthquake simulator before and after
upgrading with glass and carbon fibre reinforced
plastics. Their objective is to study the behavior of URM
walls subjected to in-plane seismic loading and
investigate the effectiveness of composite materials. The
one-sided glass fibre wrap improved the wall lateral
resistance by a factor about two.
Gassan Jochen, Andrzej [6] studied in
improving the mechanical properties of natural fibrereinforced thermo sets, as a result of optimization of the
properties of tossa jute fibres by the use of an NaOH
treatment process. The mechanical properties of jute
fibres were optimized bt using an NaOH/ treatment
Page 327
S.Deepak, R.Anuradh,, G. Prince arulraj/ INDECS-15

process with different alkali concentrations and
comprise 60-80% of the concrete and have to be so
shrinkages. The treatment under isometric conditions
graded and that the entire mass of concrete acts as a
(20 mins at 20 C in 25% NaOH solution) lead, to an
relatively solid, homogeneous, dense combination,
increases in jute tensile strength and modulus of above
with the smaller sizes acting as an inert filler of the
120% and 150% respectively.
voids exist between the largest particles. Like fine
aggregate, such as natural or manufactured sand.
Harish.S [7] studied development of coir
composites and their mechanical properties are
2.1.3 Fine Aggregate
evaluated. Coir/epoxy composites exhibits average
values for the tensile strength, flexural strength and
Natural river sand is used as fine aggregate.
impact strength, which are significantly lower than those
The properties of sand are determined by conducting
measured for GFRP laminate specimens. They also
tests as per IS: 2386 (Part-I). The results are shown in
reported that hybrid fibre composites with coir and other
table 2. The results obtained from sieve analysis are
fibres rather than glass may open up new application.
furnished.
Y.Liu [8] studied the suitable tests. Tests were
Table 2: Physical Properties of Aggregate
performed on specimens composed of unidirectional
glass fibre sheets adhered to masonry using an epoxy
adhesive. Tests conducted are shear bond tests and peel
Properties
Fine Aggregate
tests to determine strength and behaviour of bond,
S.No
tension tests for to determine the strength and modulus
of elasticity of GFRP and compression tests to
1
Specific Gravity
2.60
determine the mechanical properties of masonry.
Mohanty [10] studied the influence of different
2
Fineness Modulus
2.83
surface modifications of the jute performance of bio
composites. More than a 40% improvement in the
2.1.4 Brick
tensile strength occurred as a result of reinforcement
with alkali treated jute. Jute fibre content also affected
Locally available bricks are used. The physical
the bio composite performance and about 30% by
properties of brick are determined as per IS code. The
weight of jute solved optimum properties of bio
results are shown in table 3.
composites.
Table 3 Physical Properties of Bricks
2. Experimental Investigation
S.No
2.1Material Properties
1
2.1.1Cement
2
Ordinary Portland cement of 43 grades
conforming to IS 8112-1989 was used. Tests are
carried out on various physical properties of cement
and the results are shown in table 1.
Table 1: Physical Properties of Cement
Physical properties
Values of OPC used
Standard consistency
29.2%
45 Minutes
Final setting time
265 Minutes
Specific gravity
3.15
2.1.2 Aggregates
Aggregates are those parts of the concrete
that constitute the bulk of the finished product. They
Properties
Compressive Strength
(N/mm2)
Water Absorption
(%)
Brick
3.91
9.25
2.1.5 Material for Wrapping Jute
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that

can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is
produced from plants in the genus Corchorus,
family Tiliaceae.
Jute is one of the most affordable natural fibres
and is second only to cotton in amount
produced and variety of uses. Jute fibres are
composed primarily of the plant materials
cellulose (major component of plant fibre) and
lignin (major components of wood fibre).
It is thus a ligno-cellulosic fibre that is partially
a textile fibre and partially wood. It falls into
the bast fibre category (fibre collected from
bast or skin of the plant) along with kenaf,
industrial hemp, flax (linen), ramie, etc.
Page 328

The industrial term for jute fibre is raw jute.
Sample-I
The fibres are off-white to brown, and 14
(Sisal Yarn)
metres (312 feet) long.
Jute fibre is often called hessian; jute fabrics
18.16s
are also called hessian cloth and jute sacks are
Count
called gunny bags in some European countries.
The fabric made from jute is popularly known
Elongation
1.70
as burlap in North America.
(%)
Tenacity
2.1.6 Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer
30.51
(RKM)
Composites (GFRP)
Breaking
900.97gms
Glass fiber reinforced polymer composites are
Force
among oldest and least expensive of all
Diameter
0.2135mm
composites.
E-glass is the most common type of glass
fiber used in resin matrix composite structures
and was used in this investigation.
The principle advantages of E-glass are low
cost, high tensile and impact strength and high
chemical resistance.
The disadvantages of E-glass, compared to
other structural fibers are lower modulus,
lower fatigue resistance and higher fiber selfabrasion characteristics.
In general, fiber composites behave linearly
elastic to failure. The properties of the GFRP
supplied by the manufacturer are summarized
in the table 4, 5 and 6.
Tensile
Strength in
Kgs
Sample-2
(Jute Yarn)
27.42-GRIST
(0.625 Ne)
(Jute Count Direct sy)
12.5
----1.110mm
---
13.00kgs
Table 6 Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced

Polymer
SI. No
Properties of
GFRP
Value
Unit
Density of fiber
2.6
g/cm3
`2
Fiber thickness
0.363
mm
Fiber orientation
Bi directional
Nominal thickness
per layer
Tensile strength
3400
Tensile modulus
73000
Table 4 Chemical Composition of Fibres

Fiber Cellulose
Hemi
Lignin Pectin Moisture
(WT %) celluloses (WT (WT %) content
(WT %)
%)
(WT %)
jute
611-71.5
13.6-20.4
12-13
0.2
12.5-13.7
sisal
66-78
10-14
10-14
10
10-22
coir
32-43
0.15-0.25
40-45
3-4
Table 5 Mechanical Properties of Fibres
mm
N/mm2
N/mm2
2.1.7 Flogrout 60
FLOGROUT 60 is a blend of specially
processed cement and special fillers free from
corrosive substances. Positive expansion during
setting leads to superior bonding to surrounding
material. It has high early and ultimate strength.
FLOGROUT 60 is based on specially
processed cements containing fillers and additives.
This FLOGROUT 60 is used in NFRP composite
wrapping because high bonding nature due to the
presence of cementitious material shown in table 7.
Table 7 Properties of Flogrout 60
Page 329
Properties
Operational temperature
Application temperature
Expansion (% by volume)
(28days)

composite in Brick pillar. Again the epoxy and
hardener mixture is used to stick the glass fibres
value
which are dispersed in jute and wrapped using epoxy
and hardener mixture in Brick pillar after hardening.
30C
10 to 40C
4.1 Uniaxial Loading on Pillars
0.8
75 N/mm2
Clay brick pillars and flyash brick pillars are
(pourable 0.15 w/p)
constructed with three different types of mortars and are
65 N/mm2
tested results are shown in tables 9, 10 and 11. Pillars
(flowable 0.165 w/p)
constructed with 1:5 cement mortar showed good
2.1.8 Resin & Hardener

The epoxy which we used is ARALDITE
AY103 and hardener is HY951 characteristics of
include which is shown in table 8.
Cures at room temperature
Solvent-free
Excellence adhesive strength
Good mechanical properties
Table 8 Properties of Resin & Hardener
Properties
Viscosity
Density
Flash point
Specific gravity
Flexural strength
Viscosity
Density
Flash point
Specific gravity
Flexural strength
Values
Araldite AY103
1300-1800 MPa.s
1.13-1.16 g/cm3
190-210C
1.8
450-550 kg/cm3
Hardener HY 951
10-12 MPa.s
0.97-0.99 g/cm3
110-120C
2.0
300-400 kg/cm3
compressive strength when compared with the other

mortars. The compressive strength of clay brick
increased by about 80% when wrapped with NFRP and
the increase in about 104% when wrapped with GFRP.
Similarly in case of flyash brick pillar, the improvement
is about 176% when wrapped with NFRP, and 207.5%
when wrapped with GFRP. The results indicate that the
ratio of mortar affects the compressive strength of the
pillars. Since the performance of 1:5 C.M is far better
than 1:3 C.M and lime mortar though the initial results
of lime mortar is very low, its strength will be increased
as age grows on. Wrapping of GFRP on flyash bricks
provided better confinement than on clay bricks and
hence the performance is significant comparison shown
in fig 1-6.
Table 9 Compressive Strength of Pillars with CM 1:5
(N/mm2)
S.no
NFRP
GFRP
Brick Type Conventional Wrapped
Wrapped
1
Clay Brick
Fly ash
Brick
1.98
3.55
4.05
1.60
4.42
4.92
Table10 Compressive Strength of Pillar with CM 1:3

3. Brick Pillar under Compression
The masonry brick pillar is of height 500mm, width
and breadth are 220mm. Thickness of mortar is
10mm. The testing is carried on a UTM capacity of
100 tonnes. The upper and lower mortar joints are
directly in contact with steel plates of UTM.
Loading is uniformly applied and the displacements
are measured. Masonry brick pillars are constructed
using clay bricks. These pillars are constructed with
three types of mortars namely strong mortar (1:3),
weak mortar (1:6) and Lime mortar in which lime is
added to a percentage of 0.5 to that of cement. Brick
pillars are also been constructed with fly ash bricks
with all three types of mortar. The weight ratio of
mixing epoxy and hardener was 10:1. This epoxy
and hardener mixture is used to wrap NFRP
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

S.No Brick Type
1
Clay Brick
Fly ash
Brick
Conventional
1.50
NFRP
Wrapped
2.19
GFRP
Wrapped
3.54
1.42
3.05
4.21
Page 330
Fig 4 Compressive Strength of Flyash Brick

Pillars with CM 1:3
Fig 1 Compressive Strength of Clay Brick
Pillars with CM 1:5
Fig 5 Compressive Strength of Clay Brick Pillars

with LM 1:0.5:3
Fig 2 Compressive Strength of Flyash Brick Pillars
with CM 1:5

Pillars with LM 1:0.5:3
with Cm 1:3
5. Conclusion
Clay brick pillars and flyash brick pillars with
1:5 C.M showed significant performance
compared to other mortars.
Even though the conventional flyash brick

pillars compressive strength is low, after
confinement with NFRP and GFRP, it showed
improved performance than clay brick pillars.
The compressive strength of pillars wrapped

with GFRP is higher than the pillars wrapped
with NFRP.
Page 331
1.

Slight Delamination is found in case of NFRP,
the performance of biodegradable jute yarnwhile it is nil in case of GFRP.
Biopol composites. J. Mater. Sci. 35:2589-2595
References
Alagusundaramoorthy.P (2009). Flexural
strengthening of brick masonry walls using
glass fibre fabric IIT, Madras, IE(I) JournalCV, Volume 89.
2.
Badoux.M and Elgwady M.A (2002).

Earthquake simulator tests on unreinforced
masonry walls before and after upgrading with
composites Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland, 12th
European
Conference
on
Earthquake
Engineering
3.
Brouwer W.D.. Natura fibre inn structural

components: Alternative applications for sisal
4.
Chuang S.W. and Zhuge Y. (2001). Seismic

retrofitting of unreinforced masonry walls by
FRP strips University of South Australia,
Adelaide, S.A., Australia, Pacific conference
on Earthquake Engineering.
5.
Desiderio. P and L.Feo (2005), Durability

evaluation of EBR CFRP strengthened
masonry structures Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Naples, Federico,
International Institute for FRP in Construction.
6.
Gassan Jochen, Andrzej K, Bledzki (1999)

Possibilities for improving the mechanical
properties of jute/epoxy composites by alkali
treatment of fibers Composites Science and
Technology 59, 1303-1309
7.
Harish.S, Peter Michael., A. Bensely

(2009).Mechanical property evaluation of
natural fiber coir composite Materials
characterization 60 (1), 44-49
8.
Y. Liu , J. Dawe and J. Mcinerney (2005).

Behaviour of GFRP sheets bonded to masonry
walls. Department of Civil Engineering,
Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
9.
H.Mahmood
and
A.P.Russell
(2007).
Labouratory testing of unreinforced masonry
walls retrofitted with glass FRP sheets
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, The University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand.
10. Mohanty AK, Khan MA, Sahoo S, Hinrichsen

G (2000) Effect of chemical modification on
Page 332
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING COCONUT SHELL

AND FLY ASH
V.Divya
Assistant .Professor, Department of civil Engineering
SRR Engineering college (A Jeppiaar Institution)
Chennai-603 103,Tamilnadu
mailme887@gmail.com
Abstract
Abundant availability of natural resources has become a dream for present day engineering society due to large scale
consumptions. The unaccountable population growth rate makes problem of availability of coarse aggregate for construction
more severe. The rising cost of construction materials in developing countries has necessitated research into the use of
alternative materials civil engineering construction.The properties of concrete using coconut shell (CS) as coarse aggregate were
investigated in this experimental study. The cement was replaced with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of fly ash and optimum
percentage was found. The crushed coconut shells were used as substitute for conventional coarse aggregate in proportions of
50% and 100%. For the selected mix, a comparison has been done for CS concrete with and without fly ash. Compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural test were investigated in the laboratory. The results showed that, density of the
concretes decreases with increase in CS per cent. Workability decreased with increase in CS replacement. Compressive strength
of CS concrete was lower than control concrete. Permeable voids, absorption and sorption were higher for CS replaced
concretes than control concrete. A potential exists for the use of coconut shells as replacement of conventional aggregate in both
conventional reinforced concrete and lightweight reinforced concrete construction. The use of coconut shells as partial
replacement for conventional aggregates should be encouraged as an environmental protection and construction cost reduction
measure.
Keywords construction materials; strength; coconut shells; environment; fly ash.
1.
Introduction
LWC generally has a density of less than 2000 kg/m3 and

compressive strength of more than 20 N/mm2 it is known as
structural LWC. The challenge in making LWC is in decreasing the
density while maintaining strength and without adversely affecting
cost. Introducing different types of lighter aggregates into the matrix
is a common way to lower a concretes density. The crushed stone
and sand are the components that are usually replaced with
lightweight aggregate (LWA) to produce LWC. LWC has been used
as a building material for many decades throughout the world. It has
gained its popularity due to its lower density and superior thermal
insulation properties. Structural LWC offers design flexibility and
substantial cost savings by providing less dead load, improved
seismic structural response, lower foundation costs etc. LWC precast elements offer reduced costs on both transportation and
placement. The applications range from lightweight partitions, walls
and secondary structural components to the primary structural
components. The compressive strength ranges from 7 N/mm2 for
light partition to about 40 N/mm2 for the primary structural
components. Some of the LWC are foamed type concrete, no fines,

and lightweight natural and artificial aggregates concrete
Natural LWA are normally obtained from the volcanic rocks such
as pumice with density ranging from 500 to 900 kg/m3. Recent
developments include the use of artificially manufactured LWA from
various natural materials such as expanded clay, expanded shale,
foamed slag, blast furnace slag, pulverized fuel ash and perlite to
enable LWC and to achieve compressive strength up to 100 N/mm2.
The main characteristic of LWA is its high porosity, which results in
a low specific gravity. Porous LWA of low specific gravity can be
used in LWC production instead of ordinary crushed stone aggregate.
Though the commercially available LWA were used in many
investigations in place of crushed stone aggregates to manufacture
LWC, if waste materials are used as an aggregate in the production of
LWC, more environmental and economic benefits may be derived. In
view of the escalating environmental problems, the use of aggregates
from by-products and/or solid waste materials from different
industries is highly desirable. The high cost of conventional building
materials is a major factor affecting construction delivery in India. In
developing countries where abundant agricultural and industrial
Page 333
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
wastes are discharged, these wastes can be used as potential material
or replacement material in the construction industry. This will have
double the advantages viz., reduction in the cost of construction
material and also as a means of disposal of wastes. Thus the above
approach is logical, worthy and attributable. Therefore an attempt has
been made in this study to utilize the coconut shell (CS) as coarse
aggregate in the development of LWC.
CS has good durability characteristics, high toughness and
abrasion resistant properties; it is suitable for long standing use. CS is
mostly used as an ornament, making fancy items, house hold utensils,
and as a source of activated carbon from its charcoal. The powdered
shell is also used in the industries of plastics, glues, and abrasive
materials and it is widely used for the manufacture of insect repellent
in the form of mosquito coils and in agarbathis. The study of CS as

an alternative for aggregates is another way of using the
contributions a coconut tree will provide. The purpose of this
research work is to develop a concrete with CS as coarse aggregate.
The whole entity could be called coconut shell aggregate concrete
(CSAC). After the coconut is scraped out, the shell is usually
discarded as waste. The vast amount of this discarded CS resource is
as yet unutilized commercially, its use as a building material,
especially in concrete, on the lines of other LWA is an interesting
topic for study. The study of CS will not only provide a new material
for construction but will also help in the preservation of the
environment in addition to improving the economy by providing new
use for the CS. Therefore attempts have been taken to utilize the CS
as coarse aggregate and develop the new structural LWC in table 1.
Table1: Coconut Shell Statistics
2.
Country
Production 2010
% of World Total
% Change from 2009
Indonesia
20,655,400 m/t
33.07%
- 3.691%
Philippines
15,540,000 m/t
24.88%
- 0.814%
India
10,894,000 m/t
17.33%
+ 6.65%
Brazil
2,705,860 m/t
4.33%
- 8.587%
Sri Lanka
2,238,800 m/t
3.58%
+ 6.66%
Material Used
2.1. CS as aggregate
The freshly discarded CS collected from a local oil mill was used in
this study. Since the different species of CS are processed together,
the shells are found to have varying thicknesses of 28 mm in fig 1.
After crushing, the shells are aky and irregularly shaped. For
preparing CS aggregates were crushed by manually. Since CS is a
aky material, the sizes of CS lengthwise are restricted to a

maximum of 12 mm (Fig. 1), to get enough workability with the
concrete. The surface texture of the shell was fairly smooth on
concave and rough on convex faces. The crushed edges were rough
and spiky. Coconut shell aggregates(CSA) have a relatively high
water absorption value nearly, 24%, compared to the conventional
aggregate (0.5%); hence, to prevent water absorption by the concrete
mix, it is necessary to mix at Saturated Surface Dry condition (SSD)
based on 24 h submersion in potable water.
Fig.1 Sizes of coconut shell aggregate and normal aggregate
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V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
2.2. Other concrete mix constituents
3.
Mix Design
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 43 Grade conforming to Indian

Standard IS 12269: 1987 is used as a binder. Well graded crushed
quarry aggregate, with specific gravity 2.71, was used as coarse
aggregate. A maximum aggregate size of 12.5 mm was used. River
sand is used throughout the investigation as ne aggregate
conforming to grading zone III as per IS 383-1970 with specific
gravity 2.6 and maximum size 4.75 mm was used. The class F fly ash
obtained from Mettur thermal power plant is used in this
investigation. The specific gravity of fly ash found as 2.08. The
potable water available in the University premises was used for
mixing and curing.
The mix design for lightweight concrete used for structural purposes
depends on the physical and mechanical properties of lightweight
aggregate. No specic methods are available for the design of
lightweight concrete mixes. Lightweight concrete mix design is
usually established by trial mixes. ACI and Indian Standard methods
could not be applied to the mix design of concrete with agro-waste
materials. For the production of coconut shell aggregate concrete
(CSAC), enough trial mixes through weigh batches were already
made and established for optimization of a mix ratio by considering
cement content, woodcement ratio, and watercement ratio . The
selected and established mix ratio for CSAC is 1:1.47:0.65:0.42 by
weight of cement (Cement: Sand: CS: Water) in which cement
content was set 510 kg/m3 and this mix also satises the criteria of
structural LWC as per ASTM C 330. This established mix ratio was
taken for this study. The physical and mechanical properties of CS
were explained (Table 2).
Table 2: Properties of Coconut Shell
4.
Sl. no
Physical and Mechanical Properties
Coconut Shells
Maximum size (mm)
12.5
Moisture content (%)
4.20
Water absorption
(24 h) (%)
24.00
Specic gravity
1.051.20
Impact value (%)
8.15
Crushing value (%)
2.58
Abrasion value (%)
1.63
Bulk density (kg/m3)
650
Fineness modulus
6.26
10
Shell thickness (mm)
28
Experimental Programme
Two proportions were to be used in this study. For selected mix ratio,
the 60 numbers of Cubes of size 150mm X 150mm X150mm, 30
numbers of Cylinders of 150mm diameter and 300 mm of length and
4 numbers of Beams of 1700 X 100mm X 150mm were tested. The
numbers of specimens were casted with different proportions of fly
ash and coconut shell.
5.
5.1.
Result and Discussion

Moisture content and water absorption capacity
The moisture content of the coconut shell was found to be 5.13%.

These were allowed for in the calculation of batched quantities and of
the total water requirement of the concrete mix. The water absorption
capacity of the CS was found to be 6.17%. The absorption capacity is
a measure of the porosity of an aggregate. Since the values obtained
are low, it is reasonable to conclude that the shells absorb very little
amount of mixing water during concrete production. These values are
also within the range of absorption capacity of lightweight aggregates
which have been put at 520% (Portland Cement Association).
5.2. Unit Weight and Specific Gravity
The unit weight (density) and the specic gravity of the shells are
1738 kg/m3 and 1.74, respectively. These gures fall below the 2.5
3.0 range of specic gravity for normal weight aggregates. The CSs
Page 335
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
can therefore be classied as lightweight aggregates, the CSs having
higher density and specic gravity. The clear differences in specic
gravities of the shells (1.74) and cement (3.10) explained why it was
necessary, as done in this investigation, for the material quantities to
be computed by the method of absolute volume.
5.3. Durability
Durability of an aggregate is a measure of its resistance to
wear, moisture penetration, decay and disintegration. The
hardness of the CSs was measured by the durability test using
the Los Angeles abrasion method. The test results indicated

high values of 98.6% for CS.
5.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete
The results showed that the compressive strength of the concrete
decreased as the percentage of the shells increased in the selected
mix ratios (Fig. 23).
Fig .2 Compressive Strength of CSAC (7 days)
Page 336
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
From the above graph it is clear that the addition of fly ash content in
CSAC did not given any strength to the concrete and also the
compressive strength get reduced here. The strength is high in the
proportion of 10% of fly ash content in CSAC.
5.5. Split Tensile Strength of Concrete
The results showed that the split tensile strength of the concrete
ratios (Fig 4).
Fig.4 Split tensile strength of CSAC (28 days)
5.6. Flexure Test

The result of the flexure carried out on the 4 beam specimen and load
Vs deflection are shown in fig 5&6 at the time of conducting the
flexure test of the specimen, ultimate load and deflection were
measured by LVDT.
Table 3: Flexure Test Result

Load
Beam designation
Deflection
Max crack width

in mm
1st crack load in

KN
Ultimate load in KN
Mid span deflection at 1st

crack in mm
Mid span deflection at

Ultimate load in mm
9.24
27.72
2.85
15.72
8.47
26.95
2.43
18.44
6.93
35.42
1.5
12.98
7.7
33.88
1.02
22.79
CS-100%,FA-0%
CS-100%,FA-10%
CS-50%,FA-0%
CS-50%,FA-10%
5.6.1.
Load-Deflection Behaviour
Page 337
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
The measured load Vs deflection is shown in (Fig 5 & Fig
6). The plot shows that all beam specimens exhibit similar
behaviour but with an increase in ductility due to reduce in

stiffness of the beams.
Fig .5 Comparison Chart for Load Deflection Curve @ L/2
From the above graph it is clear that the maximum deflection can
occur by the addition of fly ash content in beam. Other specimens
were undergone small deflections.
Ductility index is defined as the ratio of ultimate mid span deflection

to deflection at initial crack load of the beam are presented in Table
4.
5.7. Ductility
Table 4: Ductility Index
Beam designation
CS-100%,FA-0%
First crack mid span

deflection (mm)
Ultimate mid span deflection (mm)
Ductility
Index
2.85
15.72
5.51
Page 338
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
CS-100%,A-10%
2.43
18.44
7.5
CS-50%,FA-0%
1.5
12.98
8.6
CS-50%,FA-10%
1.02
22.79
22.34
From the above table it is clear that the specimen CS-50%, FA-10%
beam has higher ductility index than other beams.
Stiffness may be defined as load required causing unit deflection.

The stiffness value of various beams at ultimate load and first load
are presented in Table 5 & 6.
5.8. Stiffness
Table 5: Stiffness Values at Initial Crack Load
Initial Crack mid span deflection (mm)
Beam designation
Initial Crack Load

(KN)
Stiffness
(KN/mm)
CS-100%,FA-0%
9.24
2.85
3.24
CS-100%,A-10%
8.47
2.43
3.10
CS-50%,FA-0%
6.93
1.5
4.62
CS-50%,FA-10%
7.7
1.02
7.55
has higher stiffness values at initial crack than other beams.
Table 6: Stiffness Values at Ultimate Load
Beam designation
Ultimate Load
(KN)
Stiffness
(KN/mm)
CS-100%,FA-0%
27.72
15.72
1.76
CS-100%,A-10%
26.95
18.44
1.46
CS-50%,FA-0%
35.42
12.98
2.73
CS-50%,FA-10%
33.88
22.79
1.49
has higher stiffness values at ultimate load than other beams.
Page 339
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
Fig.7 Tested Specimen
Page 340
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
6.
CONCLUSION
From the investigation carried out, below conclusions were found:
7.
From the graphs shows the compressive strength and split

tensile strength are decreasing with increase in the
proportion of CSA. The addition of fly ash content
increases the strength.
The optimum percentage of fly ash for the replacement of

cement was found to be 10% from compressive strength
and split tensile strength results. When the fly ash content
in CSAC increase it decreases the compressive strength
and split tensile strength.
In the proportion of 10% fly ash content, the strength

increases for both 50% & 100 % of CSA compare to the
other proportions.
The load carrying capacities of coconut shell beam with fly

ash content were higher than the beam without addition of
ash content. Beam with fly ash has undergone more
deflection than other beams.
The specimen CS-50%, FA-10% has higher ductility index

than other beams. The specimen CS-50%, FA-0% has
higher stiffness values at ultimate load than other beams.
The crack patterns of the entire beam were studied.
The density of light aggregate is very much less than

conventional concrete. The reduction of density will play
important factor in the economy of the project because the
total dead loads of the building were reduced and it helps in
economic design of foundation.
[6] Gerritse A. Design consideration for reinforced lightweight

concrete. Cem Comp Lightweight Conc 1981;3(1):5769.
[7] Adeyemi AY. An investigation into the suitability
ofcoconut shells as aggregates in concrete production.
Journal of Environment Design and Management, Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 1998;1(1,2):1726.
[8] William H. Langer, Lawrence J. Drew, Janet S. Sachs.
Aggregate and the environment, American Geological
Institute, 2004.
[9] Transport Research Laboratory. A review of the use of
waste materials and by-products in road construction.
contractor report 358, 1994.
[10] IS 383: 1970, Indian Standard for specication for coarse
and ne aggregates from natural sources for concrete
(second revision), reafrmed February 1997.
REFERENCES
[1] Gunasekaran K, Kumar PS. Lightweight concrete using
coconut shell as aggregate. In: Proceedings of the ICACC2008. International conference on advances in concrete and
construction, Hyderabad, India, 79 February, 2008.p.
4509.
[2] Gunasekaran K, Kumar PS. Lightweight concrete mix
design using coconut shell aggregate. In: Proceedings of
the IBMSDCP-2008. International conference on
Innovations in building materials, structural designs and
construction practices, Sathyamangalam, India, 1517
May, 2008. p. 37582.
[3] Weigler H, Sieghart K. Structural lightweight aggregate
concrete with reduced density lightweight aggregate
foamed concrete. Int J Lightweight Concr 1980;2(2):101
4.
[4] Mannan MA, Ganapathy C. Mix design for oil palm shell
concrete. Cem Concr Res 2001;31:13235.
[5] IS: 516-1959, Indian Standard for methods of tests for
strength of concrete, edition 1.2 (1991-07).Short and
W.Kinniburgh, Lightweight Concrete ,Applied Science
Publishers,London,1978.
Page 341
INVESTIGATION ON CONDUCTIVE CONCRETE COMPOSITIONS

M.Amirthavarshini 1, R.Selvaraj 2 and N.Chella Kavitha 3
Photo of First
Author
in
JPEG Format
of Second
Author (if any)
in
JPEG Format
PG Student, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, 626 005, India.

varshiniamirtha24@gmail.com
2
Principal Scientist, CSIR-CECRI, Karaikudi, 630 006, India.
selvarajcecri@gmail.com
3
Asst. Professor (Sr.Grade), Mepco Schlenk Engg. College, Sivakasi, 626 005, India.
chellakavitha@gmail.com
(if any)
in
Abstract
JPEG Format
Concrete is being used as a major material of construction in the construction industry by of its easiness for
casting to any shape and size from ordinary platforms to many mega structures. Conductive concrete is one of special
concrete composites invented for deicing in locations where snow fall is heavy particularly on bridges, roads and
pathways. The formulations are arrived after many trail mixes, with graphite, carbon powder and steel slag combinations
to give many folds of elevated temperatures than the ambient temperature so as to melt ice formed over the transport
structures with the help of applied Electrical Energy. Various mixture compositions, applied voltage, and the
temperatures experienced are presented and discussed in detail.
Keywords: Resistivity, Conductivity, Graphite, Steel slag and Temperature.
1. Introduction
Traditional cement based structural concrete is used in all civil
engineering infrastructural facilities due to its easiness of
synthesizing and casting to any shape and size without much
difficulties. However, the same structural concrete when it is
serves more than one function either for structural or nonstructural purpose, then such a concrete is called special
concrete and receives increasing importance in the construction
industry. Apart from structural aspects such special concretes
serves for non-structural functions including thermal heat
generation, thermal insulation, corrosion resistance, sensing,
actuation, self-heating, heat retention and electromagnetic
interference shielding etc. [1].
Electrically conductive cement based concrete in one category
of multifunctional structural concrete. Basically, this
conductive concrete is a cementitious and admixed with some
electrically conductive materials to certain volumetric ratio to
attain high and stable electrical conductivity [2]. A thin layer of
conductive concrete can generate heat to prevent formation ice
when energized by AC power. The electrically resistivity is
decreased many fold in conductive concrete. Conductive
concrete is synthesized by several materials for example, new
carbonaceous aggregate is found more useful than carbon or
graphite powders but availability is limited and expensive for
wider applications. Inclusion of small amount of metal powders
like aluminium, zinc or zinc based alloys was used once but
they were attacked by high alkalinity of cement used. Then iron
powders were tried again problems cropped out in concrete due
to formation of passive layer on the surfaces of iron particles.
Thin passive layer is known as iron oxide film and the

resistance of this film is considerable. More than all, these iron
particles are surrounded by cement-aggregate mixture and this
leads to a complex problem of electrical series- parallel
arrangements [3].These concrete will be highly conductive in
the initial periods and as the hydration and setting of cement
progresses, the conductivity is reduced. This can be examined
by standard conductivity test method [4] described. Therefore,
materials of conductive nature and not affected by cement is
chosen for effective use of making conductive concrete. Carbon
is one such good material used for preparing conductive
concrete. In some cases, it was successful to use conductive
aggregates in place of conventional aggregates. The selection of
these aggregates need not be only based on conductivity but
also with adequate mechanical strength, chloride and sulphate
free, chemical inertness and low water absorption etc.
2. Why Conductive Concrete?
Accumulation of ice and snow in cold countries during winter
on roads, pedestrian paths and other traffic ways leads to
several problems including driving hazards and traffic and time
delays. It is generally handled by sprinkling Sodium
Chloride(common salt), although this method of control is
inexpensive and simple, it ruins ground water, spoils
vegetation, causes corrosion of steel in the concrete structure
damages the finished concrete surfaces and leads to formation
of scales. As an alternative to Sodium Chloride, heating cables
and or heating pipes were embedded in concrete and electrical
energy was used to heat the concrete. This method was very
effective for de-icing. However it leads to traffic disturbances,
leakage of embedded pipes (impossible to repair or maintain)
Page 342
M.Amirthavarshini et. al. / INDECS-15
and high energy cost with multiple complexity [5]. Therefore,

as an effective method by considering all merits and demerits.
Conductive concrete is designed and formulated for solving deicing problems by easy and effective method. This reduces
damages greatly by providing heating capacity to the concrete
by applied electrical energy [6].
In the present study twelve mixes were designed by admixing
graphite and steel slag by mass percentages of cement. All the
specimens were tested and their efficiencies are reported and
best combinations were selected.
2.1 Materials Used
A material such as Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of Dalmia
brand conforming to IS 8112:2013 43 grade was used. Graphite
and Steel slag are used as Conductive material and also impart
strength by steel slag. Graphite powder with metallic sheen was
procured from chemicals suppliers from Madurai with specific
gravity of 2.2, electrical resistivity 25 x 10 -6 . m , coefficient
of thermal expansion of 6.3 x 10-6 /C and of from natural
sources. The steel slag was obtained from a foundry located
nearby Madurai city. The blast furnace granulated slag of air
cooled (slow cooling in the open air), the specific gravity was
3.6 and the angle of internal friction was about 45. Fine
aggregate of washed river sand was used with fineness modulus
2.3 and conforming to zone II as per IS 383:1970 by sieve
analysis. The coarse aggregate of 20 mm nominal size was used
after washing thoroughly using tap water. The mix ratio
adopted is based on the design mix proposed as per IS 102621982 for a target mean strength of 30 Mpa, with a water to
cement ratio (w/c) of 0.45.The resulted proportion was
1:1.12:2.12. Steel slag and graphite were added in addition to
this ratio as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1. Mix designation and Conductive additive Materials
Mix
Graphite
Steel Slag
S.No.
Designations
(% by mass)
(% by mass)
1.
N0
2.
G1
1.2
2.4
3.
G2
1.2
4.8
4.
G3
1.2
7.2
5.
G4
1.2
9.6
6.
G5
2.4
2.4
7.
G6
2.4
4.8
8.
G7
2.4
7.2
9.
G8
2.4
9.6
10.
G9
3.6
2.4
11.
G10
3.6
4.8
12.
G11
3.6
7.2
13.
G12
3.6
9.6
get constant weight of cubes i.e. to get ensure complete

expulsion of water and thin dry weight, density was noted.
Based on thin dry weight, density for each mix was calculated
and presented in Table 2.From this saturated and dry weight,
water absorption was computed using the equation shown
below.
Percentage of water absorption =
where,
Ws = saturated weight of the cube (kg)
Wd = dry weight of the cube (kg)
x 100
(1)
The percentage of water absorption for each mix is presented in

Table 2.
Table 2. Physical properties of Conductive Concrete
Slump
Dry Density
Water
Designations
(mm)
(kg/m3)
Absorption (%)
N0
71
2494.81
0.894
G1
85
2456.32
1.239
G2
81
2497.08
1.135
G3
73
2542.17
0.978
G4
67
2567.14
0.864
G5
87
2573.78
1.326
G6
83
2584.16
1.218
G7
75
2596.41
0.992
G8
69
2599.92
0.897
G9
89
2589.11
1.408
G10
86
2594.39
1.245
G11
79
2598.99
1.005
G12
72
2609.74
0.974
Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements were carried out on
each cube specimens according to IS 13311 (part 1)-1992 and
the quality of concrete is presented in Table 3 for each mix
ratios. The quality of concrete was assessed based on the
recommended values given in Table 4. The fig.1 shows the
arrangements for measuring pulse velocity on concrete cube.
Cube compressive strength test was conducted for all the test
cubes using universal testing machine and the values are
presented in Table 5 and the testing is shown in fig. 2.
3. Results
Slump test was conducted for all mixes according to IS 73201974 and the values are presented in Table 2.Cube specimens
were cast of size 150x150x150 mm size and cured in water tank
for 28 days. After complete curing, the cubes were taken out
and wiped with cotton and saturated weight was measured for
each cube and were subjected days kept in oven at 105 C till to
Fig. 1. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
Page 343
Similarly cylinder specimens cast to size 100 mm diameter x

200 mm height splitting were subjected to tensile test in
accordance with IS 5816-1970 using the same universal testing
machine and from the maximum breaking load, splitting tensile
strength was calculated using the relationship.
Fsp =
(2)
where,
Fsp= Splitting tensile strength (N/mm2)
P=Maximum load at breaking (N)
d= diameter of the cylinder (mm)
l=length or height of the cylinder (mm)
Fig. 2. Cube Compression Test
The calculated splitting tensile strength values are presented in

Table 5 and the testing is represented by fig.3.
Table 3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Results

Time
Velocity
Quality of
Designations
(sec x10-6 )
(km/sec)
concrete
N0
38.1
3.9
Good
G1
34.1
4.39
Good
G2
34.7
4.32
Good
G3
36.2
4.14
Good
G4
35.6
4.21
Good
G5
34.5
4.35
Good
G6
35.3
4.25
Good
G7
36.9
4.06
Good
G8
34.9
4.29
Good
G9
44.3
3.39
Medium
G10
43.6
3.44
Medium
G11
35.8
4.19
Good
G12
35.2
4.26
Good
Table 4. Pulse Velocity and Quality of Concrete
Pulse Velocity (km/sec)
Concrete Quality (or) Grading
Above 4.5
Excellent
3.5 to 4.5
Good
3.0 to 3.5
Medium
Below 3.0
Doubtful
Table 5. Mechanical Strength
Cube Compressive
Split Tensile
Designations
Strength
Strength
(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
N0
26.23
2.65
G1
25.71
G2
26.35
G3
27.50
2.81
G4
26.02
G5
25.57
G6
27.32
G7
28.74
2.92
G8
26.23
G9
24.86
G10
25.22
G11
26.14
2.68
G12
25.78
-
Fig. 3. Split Tensile Test

Electrical conductivity test or Heating test has been conducted
and the schematic arrangement is shown in fig.4.
Fig 4. Schematic of Resistivity Measurements

The resistivity is calculated using the relationship,
Resistivity of concrete = = V/I x A/L
(3)
where,
V=voltage (volt)
I=current (A)
A= area of conduction (cm2)
L= distance between the electrodes (cm)
Page 344
The actual measurement of resistivity with the help of Varian

and temperature measuring instrument are shown in fig. 5.The
Table 6 shows the temperature record with respect to the
variable AC voltage applied to specimens and the
corresponding current and applied duration. The fig.6 to 9
shows the increase in rate of temperature with respect to
increased rate of applied voltage.
Table 6. Results of Electrical Conductivity Test
Voltage Current Time Temperature
Designations
(V)
(A)
(min)
(C)
60
2
15
32.8
80
2.3
15
34.6
N0
100
2.6
13
35.3
120
2.8
10
36.1
140
3
9.5
39.4
60
2
10
39.4
80
2.3
8
50.3
G3
100
2.6
6
62.4
120
2.8
5
73.2
140
3
4
87.4
60
2
8
48.5
80
2.3
6
56.4
G7
100
2.6
4.5
66.5
120
2.8
3
77.2
140
3
2
96
60
2
4
59.6
80
2.3
3
64.3
G11
100
2.6
2
75.5
120
2.8
1
90.8
140
3
1
126.8
Fig. 6. Temperature rise at 140 V for specimen NO

(Normal concrete)
Fig.7. Temperature rise at 140 V for specimen G3
Fig.5. Circuit Connection
Fig. 9. Temperature rise at 160 V for specimen G11
The Table 7 shows the test result of heating test conducted with
ice at constant input voltage.
Page 345
Table 7. Test results of Heating at a constant voltage of 140

volts
Time for
Rate of
Temperature
melting
melting
Exposure
( C )
(min)
(cm/min)
1
0.2
2
0.1
Room
34
3
0.1
Temperature
4
0.1
5
0.1
1
0.3
35
2
0.2
35.4
Normal
3
0.2
36.2
Concrete
4
0.1
36.5
5
0.1
37.1
1
0.7
48.5
2
0.5
56.4
Conductive
3
0.4
66.5
Concrete
4
0.2
77.2
5
0.2
96
4. Discussion
The slump value for the control mix was 71 mm and the highest
value of 89 mm was obtained for mix G9.This is due to very
fine spherical particles of graphite present in the mix and thus
the effect of lubrication lead to this increase in slump. This
enhances workability of the concrete mix.
The dry density of G1 was found to be 2456.31 kg/m 3 which
are the lowest and the highest was obtained for G12.This is due
to higher percentage of addition of steel slag and graphite in the
mix. Lowest water absorption percentage was obtained for G4
mix, which is 0.864 % and the highest was for G9 mix, which
is 1.408 %.
G11. At the temperature, the concrete exhibited diagonal crack

on the specimen, and this suggests to go for optimum value of
below 100 C by reducing the current. By comparing strength
and conductive nature the mix G7 was found good and
recommended to use as conductive concrete. Therefore, this G7
was used for ice melting temperature test and the results are in
Table 7.
5. Conclusion
As the conductive materials are increased in the mix, the

slump value also increases as a general phenomenon.
The result of density test confirms that there is no much
change in the density of conductive concrete compared to
normal concrete.
The conductive fillers added improves the water
absorption property by filling the voids due to uniform
particle size distribution thus making the conductive
concrete less porous than normal concrete.
The Ultrasonic pulse velocity test confirms the quality of
conductive concrete is good.
The compressive strength of the conductive concrete
increases for control mix due to the addition of graphite
and steel slag.
The splitting tensile strength also increases for conductive
concrete due to the formation of calcium ferrous silicate
that enhances the split tensile test.
As the conductive materials are increased in concrete the
thermal conductivity also increases proportionally with
variable input voltage.
By this study, G7 is the recommended mix ratio to use as
conductive concrete for melting ice with constant input
voltage supply.
6. References
The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test reveals that the
quality of G9 and G10 are moderate, while all other mixes are
found good. This can be verified from Table 3 and 4.
The Table 5 presents the results of mechanical strengths such as
cube compressive strength (fck) and splitting tensile strength
(fsp).The mixes G3, G6, G7 and G8 are found to give cube
compressive strength equivalent or more than control mix value
of 26.23 N/mm2 .The splitting tensile strength was 2.65 N/mm2
for control mix and for the mixes G3, G7 and G11 provided
higher splitting tensile strength value compared to control mix.
This can be attributed to the fact the steel slag mixed in the mix
reacted with Ca (OH)2 present in the mortar mix and formed
Calcium ferric silicate or Calcium ferrous silicate which has
enhanced the mechanical strengths.
The Table 6 shows the result of electrical conductivity tests in
which it is found that as the conductive material addition is
increased, the temperature of the concrete was also increased.
Also, when the Voltage is increased from 60 volt to 140 volt,
the temperature of the concrete also increased. A highest
temperature of 126.8 C was obtained at 140 volt for the mix
[1] D.D.L. Chung. Electrically Conductive Cement based

Materials. Advances in Cement Research (2004) Vol. 16, No.
4, pp. 167-176.
[2] C.Y.Tuan and S.A.Yehia Airfield pavement De-icing with
Conductive Concrete Overlay. University of NebraskaLincoln, Presented for the 2002 Federal Aviation
Administration Technology Transfer Conference, May 2002.
[3] W. Hymer. Electrically Conductive Concrete. Marconi
Communications Systems Ltd., Publication No. C- 800411.
[4] Chun- Yao Lee and Siang- Ren Wang. Analysis of
Resistance characteristics of Conductive Concrete using
Electrode method. International Journal of Environmental and
Earth Sciences (2010), Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 7-10.
[5] C.Y.Tuan. Conductive Concrete Overlays for Bridge Deck
De-icing: Mixture proportioning optimization and properties.
ACI Materials Journal (2000) March, pp.172-181.
[6] Suneel N. Vanikar. The Advances and Barriers in
Application of New Concrete Technology. Federal Highway
Administration, U.S Department of Transportation,
Washington DC, USA. International workshop on Sustainable
Development and Concrete Technology, pp. 25-33
Page 346
DURABILITY STUDIES ON RAW AND CALCINED CLAY BASED

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
R.Priyanka* and, R.Selvaraj**
* P.G. Student from Chenduran Engineering College, Pudukkottai-622507
**Principal scientist, CSIR-CECRI, Karaikudi-630006
E-mail:selvarajcecri@gmail.com
Abstract
In the emerging technological world, the conventional materials and methods are changing every day and approaching
the goal of achieving highest utility and benefits to the human community. Keeping this in mind, geopolymer concrete
were first produced in the early part of 1970s with metakaolin and later with fly ash. This material undergoes
polymerization with Aluminosilicates materials in the presence of highly alkaline solution and hardens by thermal
curing. In this paper an attempt is made to utilize clay in the form of raw clay and calcined clay as aluminosilicate
materials with alkaline solution (Sodium silicate + Sodium hydroxide).This research work comprising of all important
mechanical strength tests, physical and chemical properties, Diffusion characteristics of chloride and modern corrosion
testing such as impressed voltage tests and Tafel slope extrapolation techniques to understand clearly the behavior of
geopolymer with respect to corrosion of steel when embedded in clay based geopolymer. All the test data are presented
neatly and discussed in details.
Keywords: Clay, Geopolymer, Alumino silicate, Crystallization, Sialate.
1. Introduction
Clays of different kinds potentially and abundantly available
on earth crust. These clays are not properly utilized by the
civil engineering community because of the reason that the
present civil engineers do not have proper understanding of
material. This lack of understanding caused a gap in
developing modern construction materials. By X ray
fluorescence analysis it is understood that there is no much
difference between a raw clay and the fly ash in oxide
composition. However the presence of few organic materials
in raw clay has some harmful effect when used with both in
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and geopolymer. This
effect is more pronounced in OPC concrete rather than in
geopolymer. Therefore the thermal treatment of clay at high
temperature will certainly eliminate the organic material, in
addition to modifying these silicate particles.
In this research work raw and treated clays from various
places were used for preparation of geopolymer concretes, in
addition to geopolymer made with fly ash .From this study it
is found that clays either raw or thermally treated helped
enormously for the formation of geopolymer concrete which
provided very high strength compared to geopolymer made

with fly ash and ordinary cement concrete. Irrespective of
the place of collection and type of clays, the clay based
geopolymers found to perform extra-ordinary better than
OPC concrete as well as geopolymer based on fly ash, in
mechanical strengths, corrosion tests and other durability
test. This indicates improved microstructure and formation
of crystals in the pores, voids and fissures. This helps greatly
to reduce the diffusion characteristics of chlorides and
thereby the durability is increased against corrosion.
Making geo polymer concrete with clay presents may
advantages compared to concrete mate with ordinary
Portland cement (OPC). Geo polymer possess fast setting
and hardening, excellent bond strengths, long term durability
and better fire and acid resistance[2,3]. And therefore it has
many industrial applications also [4]. Apart from these, the
geo polymer concretes are produced by low energy
consumption and low emission of Co2 [5, 6] which certainly
makes the product as a Green Materials [7,8]. Variety of
alumino silicate minerals are examined by many researchers
to establish such alumino silicate materials as potential
material for producing geo polymer [3] .It has been

E-mail: selvarajcecri@gmail.com
Page 347
R.priyanka and R.selvararaj / INDECS-15

established that calcined minerals provide a potential source
for making geopolymer [9] it has ever proved that the
calcined clay provides best results due to change of phase
from crystalline to amorphous [10] proof of record for
Indian clays are missing. The activator alkaline solution is
sodium silicate with sodium hydroxide solution.
Composition variation of this alkaline solution usually
central setting and hardening process of geopolymer. higher
content of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide provide the
higher mechanical strength.[1] it is also found that very high
pH or alkalinity of the solution affect the geo polymer
properties adversely [13,14]. It has been suggested [15] that
the molar ratio of (Na2O / Al2O3) must be unity. Presence of
Na2O, Al2O3 and SiO2 plays a major role for the
transformation of phases from crystalline to amorphous [15].
Increase in Fe2O3 in clay cause darkness of the raw clay.
Higher content of Fe2O3 will be dark grey and low Fe2O3
will present lighter or white clay. Therefore , in this research
work, raw clay as obtained from the natural sources are
treated in muffle furnace to heat it to 900c for one hour
used for making geo polymer concrete. The curing
temperature of the geo polymer concrete also plays a major
role for development of strengths [1,16,17].
o
o
o- Si-o-Al-o
o
o
SiO4 AlO4
Poly (sialate siloxo)
Si : Al =2 (-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O)
o
o
o
o- Si-o-Al-o Si-o
o
o
o
SiO4 AlO4 SiO4
Poly (sialate disloxo)
Si : Al =3(-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-Si-O)
o
o
o
o
o- Si-o-Al-o Si o Si - O
o
o
o
o
SiO4 AlO4 SiO4 SiO4
Alkaline activation of alumino silicate materials is a

complex process. It results, first of all in a breakdown of Si O-Si structure results substantial feature of this reaction, and
forms alumino silicate gels (zeolite precursors). Their
composition can be characterized by the following formula:
Mn [-(Si-O)z Al-O]n.wH2O
The C-S-H and C-A-H phase may also form according to the
composition of the precursor material and the reaction
condition.
Poly (sialate)
Si: Al = 1(Si-O-Al-O)
Therefore geo polymer does not possess any monolithic

structure of poly sialate siloxo type. It is characterized
by random three dimensional arrangements. This structure
represents a porous body with pore size ranging from
nanometers to micrometers and the pores are filled with
water and gel. The process of geo polymerization is
completely different from the process of hydration of
inorganic binders or cements (OPC).
2. MATERIALS USED
Raw clay samples (alumino silicate materials) were
collected from the lakes of Sivaganga and Pudukkottai
districts of Tamil nadu India. All the collected samples are
dried in hot sun atmosphere until all moisture evaporation.
Then the clay samples are powdered and sieved using 300
micron sieve. Clays powder passing through the sieve were
collected and stored separately. River sand was purchased
and after washing and drying the sand thoroughly, it was
stored in a container. Sodium silicate of commercial grade
was procured from Coimbatore. The density of Na 2SO3 was
Page 348

1.53 g/cc , the alkaline modulus was 2.00 (Na 2O =14.7% ,
SiO2 = 29.4%) AM = (SiO2 / Na2O). Crushed granite stone
aggregates are procured locally and washed, dried
thoroughly and then sieved to get it passed from 4.75mm a
size sieves and stored separately. Tap water was used for
preparing activator solution.
The raw clays obtained from sources sieved and
passed through 300 micron sieve were heated in a muffle
furnace to 900c with a soaking period of one hour. The
colours of the clays were changed to red as shown in Fig 1
because of the presence of Fe2O3.
Fig :1 Thermal Treatment of Clay
Cont
Composition 1:2:2.5
Designation
C1
C2
C3
C4
TC
TC2
TC
TC
CONTROL
GPFA
GPRC1
500
GPRC2
500
GPRC3
500
GPRC4
500
GPTC1
500
GPTC2
500
GPTC3
500
GPTC4
500
GPRC1+FA
200
GPRC2+FA
200
GPRC3+FA
200
GPRC4+FA
200
3.1 MICRO STRUCTURE STUDY
Table 1: Geopolymer Mix Proportions
a) XRF ANALYSIS
Composition 1:2:2.5
Designation
CONTROL
OPC
FA
SAND
CA
BINDER
SP
500
1.00
1.28
Water
10
225
GPFA
500
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC1
1.00
1.28
270
10
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC2
GPRC3
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC4
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC1
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC2
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC3
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC4
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC1+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
GPRC2+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
GPRC3+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
GPRC4+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
To find out the Oxide composition of each material X-Ray

fluorescence technique has been adopted using the
instrument HORIRA scientific (XGT 5200), Japan. And all
the composition of metal oxide by weight percentage is
listed out in stable no after XRF analysis.
The OPC used for control specimen has CaO
content 62.914% and SiO2 19.082%and Al2O3 3.268 by
weight. This indicates this is not a alumina silicate material
because CaO is major component in OPC .therefore POC
will be used for preparing concrete or mortar which will
undergo hydration process. The FA has got 65.585% of SiO2
and 21.209% of Al2O3 and 1.500 of CaO so this indicates
Al2O3 and SiO2 are the major component and therefore this
can be called as a alumina silicate material .Similarly for
clays 1 to 3 has got major components of Al2O3 and SiO2
and therefore they also come under the category of alumina
silicate material.
Page 349
Table 2: Oxide Composition of OPC, FA, Raw Clays

Sl.No
OPC
FA
C1
C2
C3
C4
Na2O
0.353
2.958
0.044
0.534
MgO
0.711
0.729
1.151
0.822
0.943
Al2O3
3.268
21.209
15.119
16.117
13.588
1.236
SiO2
19.082
65.585
65.559
58.811
69.357
82.562
SO3
5.505
0.431
0.418
0.406
0.703
0.423
K2O
0.610
1.202
3.201
2.736
2.037
0.546
CaO
62.914
1.500
1.356
2.139
2.152
3.245
TiO2
0.545
2.298
1.330
2.080
1.684
1.547
MnO2
0.172
0.091
0.206
0.161
0.337
0.112
Fe2O3
7.885
6.934
11.703
16.405
9.264
8.674
NiO
0.013
0.011
0.002
0.010
CuO
0.004
0.023
0.016
0.002
0.004
0.007
HgO
0.002
0.006
0.008
0.025
0.008
0.171
Table 3: Oxide Composition Of Treated Clays

Sl.No
T C1
TC2
TC3
TC 4
Na2O
0.662
4.073
18.889
0.674
MgO
0.817
3.043
5.205
1.026
Al2O3
13.111
16.033
10.365
0.965
SiO2
68.804
56.594
55.824
83.941
SO3
0.086
0.459
0.154
0.124
K2O
2.361
1.904
0.996
0.502
CaO
1.822
1.886
1.802
1.473
TiO2
1.141
1.237
0.810
1.876
MnO2
0.270
0.172
0.120
0.223
Fe2O3
10.850
14.503
5.819
9.014
NiO
0.016
0.001
CuO
0.015
0.053
0.002
0.005
HgO
0.061
0.027
0.013
0.165
Whereas clay 4 has a major component SiO2 as 82.562 %

and Al2O3 is 1.236% therefore this cannot be called as
alumina silicate material since this has got very minimum
amount of Al2O3 therefore the clay 4 can be regarded as sand
.the similar trend of alumina silicate material property has
been absorbed for treated clay 1 to 3.The treated clay 4 did
not improve from original property. From this XRF analysis
it can be concluded the clays are good alumina silicate
material which may replace fly ash. The thermal treatment
adopted for raw clays eliminate all organic materials,
volatile materials and unburntcarbons. Further this treat
treatment helps SiO2 to break open the particle and exposes
new surface for reaction .Such new surface s enhances the
reactivity with the binder solution and improve the
geopolymer strengths. Increase of clay 4 the only major
component is SiO2 and very minimum percentage of 1.23%
of Al2O3 is reduced to 0.965% and therefore polymerization
or sialate formation is prevented and therefore the reduced

strength.
b) FT IR ANALYSIS:
FT IR spectrum for OPC, FA and clay samples
were taken using NICOLET -380 FT-IR, from thermo
Electron Corporation Japan. The OH stretching region is the
most important diagnostic part of the spectrum. Inner
hydroxide graphs, lying between the tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets give the absorption near 3620 cm-1, the
other three OH graphs reside at the octahedral surface of
layers and form a weak hydrogen bonds with oxygen of Si
O Si bonds as the layer surface of next layer. A strong
bond at 3693 cm-1 is related to the in phase symmetric
stretching vibration , and weak absorptions at 3672 and 3651
cm-1 assigned to out of plane stretching vibrations( cm-1) the
Si - O stretching illustration of kaolinite give several well
resolved strong bonds in the 1120 1000 cm-1 region. Thus
FT- IR spectrum confirms the percentage of alumina silicate
materials. The peaks countered between 473 and 543 cm-1 is
due to O- Si- Al-O bonding vibration of sialates.
c)
FIELD EMISSION SCANNING ELECTRON

MICROSCOPY:
FESEM study has been carried out and images of
particles of materials used were captured for various
magnifications. The structure and materials are identified.
White and bright particle images represent metallic or
conductive material. The dark positions indicated normally
nonconductive medium. From these images the structure of
the particle can be easily and visually identified.
3.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Table 4: Physical Properties Of Clay Based Geopolymers
Designation
Water
absorption
CONTROL
Dry
Density
(kg/m3)
2198
7.94
Coefficient
Of water
absorption
8.497
GPFA
2354
6.12
6.543
GPRC1
2368
3.62
4.374
GPRC2
GPRC3
2360
2368
3.83
4.11
4.686
4.714
GPRC4
2359
7.13
5.784
GPTC1
2358
3.41
1.236
GPTC2
2358
3.62
1.345
GPTC3
2360
3.73
1.023
GPTC4
2350
3.14
3.145
GPRC1+FA
2322
3.72
2.111
GPRC2+FA
2311
3.81
2.367
GPRC3+FA
2346
3.79
2.472
GPRC4+FA
2329
3.89
2.632
Page 350
a) DRY DENSITY:
The dry density of control mix is 2198 kg / m3 and
for all other geopolymer materials are ranges from 2133 kg /
m3 to 2368 kg / m3. The reason for higher density of
geopolymer concrete can be attributed to the fact that the
mixing solution remains within the mass without any
appreciable evaporation of water, whereas in case of control
mix water goes into hydration reaction immediately and
evaporates leaving the voids inside the concrete. In case of
geopolymer the formation of voids are very less.
concrete the formation of C-S-H gel prevents the

interconnectivity of pores.
Fig 4: Graphical Representation Of Co-Eff. WA

3.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Table 5: Mechanical Properties Of Clay Based Geopolymers
Designation
Fig 2: Graphical Representation Of Dry Density

a) WATER ABSORPTION:
The percentage of water absorption was computed
for every sample from saturated weight and dry weight. As
indicated below the percentage of water absorption of
control specimen is 7.94% and geopolymer using fly ash
exhibited 6.12% and all other clay mixes shows almost 50%
less than the amount of water absorbed by control mix. And
therefore clay based geopolymers are significantly less water
absorbing material.
Fig 3: Graphical Representation Of Water Absorption

b) COEFFICIENT OF WATER ABSORPTION:
The coefficient of water absorption has been found
from sorptivity test as discussed in previous chapter. The
coefficient of water absorption shows a mixed response and
its slightly more for geopolymers made out of treated clays,
and for raw clays slightly less. Compare to control, whose
value is 3.02 x 10-10 mm2/s. This mixed response is due to
the fact that the interconnectivity of pores and voids are
present in clay based geopolymers. But in case of OPC
CONTROL
GPFA
GPRC1
GPRC2
GPRC3
GPRC4
GPTC1
GPTC2
GPTC3
GPTC4
GPRC1+FA
GPRC2+FA
GPRC3+FA
GPRC4+FA
Cylinder
compressive
strength
(N
21.14
26.39
29.11
27.87
22.36
19.010
43.41
49.92
37.14
40.63
32.14
33.86
34.91
34.86
Split
tensile
strength
Flexural
strength
3.02
3.12
3.62
3.44
2.96
1.12
5.96
6.41
5.51
5.86
4.23
4.31
4.47
4.37
4.16
4.71
4.96
4.82
4.52
1.93
6.84
6.83
7.03
7.61
5.88
5.72
5.89
5.63
a) CYLINDER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

TEST (fcy):
Cylinder specimens were cast and subjected to
compressive stress. The cylinder compressive strength
obtained for control mix was 21.14 N/ mm2 (Mpa).and for
fly ash geopolymer concrete is 26.39 which is 24.83%
higher strength than OPC concrete. The raw clay based
geopolymer concrete showed much higher cylinder strength
than the control mix. Particularly in raw clay 1is strength
is29.11 N/ mm2 because of higher SiO2 and Al2O3 content
along with appreciable amount of Fe2O3. This clay, provides
less CaO compare to other raw clays used, and therefore the
increased strength. In general the presence of CaO
drastically reduces the setting time and strength. When the
treated clay was used , the strength of geopolymer concrete
has increased drastically more than double therefore it can
be concluded thermally treated clays are very good for
making geopolymer concrete than the raw clay and fly ash.
In other words the treated clays are much more
Page 351
advantageous for making geopolymer concretes this is due

to the fact that on heating the SiO2 particles present in the
raw clays undergoes substantially the phase changes from
crystalline to amorphous. This amorphous phase is ready to
react and bond with geopolymer binders, and therefore the
increased in strength. When the raw clays mixed with Fly
ash for geopolymer concrete inbetween values of
geopolymer made with fly ash and geopolymer made with
raw clays is obtained. It is obvious that the geopolymer
made out of purely treated clays exhibits very high strength
compare to all other mixes.
Fig 7: Graphical Representation Of Flexural Strength
3.4 ACCELERATED ELECTRO CHEMICAL STUDY
Table 6: Electro Chemical Test Results
Designation
Chloride
Remarks
12 Volt
Ion
As Per
Impressed
Diffusion
ASTMC
Voltage
1202 figure Test
Fig. 1. (coulombs)
Single-column format
(Failed at )
hrs
Fig 5: Graphical Representation Of Cylinder Copm. Strength

b) SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST: ( fsp)
The trend of split tensile strength follows as the

trend absorbed in cylinder strength. The treated clay used
geopolymers provide much higher strength than all other
specimens and the value are given table no 5.
Fig 6: Graphical Representation Of Split Tensile Strength

c) FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST:
Flexural strength has been arrived from the three
point loading test. The result of flexural test is shown in
table no5.2 and graphical representation of the result shown
in graph 5.2.6. It is absorbed that the flexural strength are
much higher than split tensile strengths. This is due to the
presence of micro fibres in clay. The increase in flexural
strength from split tensile strength is around 30%.
Control
GPFA
GPRC1
GPRC2
GPRC3
GPRC4
GPTC1
GPTC2
GPTC3
GPTC4
GPRC1+FA
GPRC2+FA
GPRC3+FA
GPRC4+FA
1983
438
396
356
403
386
270
284
264
281
313
347
384
376
Low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
112
270
314
321
319
346
412
436
489
471
403
361
439
353
a) RAPID CHLORIDE ION DIFFUSION TEST:

Rapid chloride ion diffusion test has been carried
out in accordance with ASTMC 1202 for all specimens.
The control specimen exhibited the change passed value of
1983 coulombs which is ranked as low. For fly ash
geopolymer concrete this value was 438 coulombs. The raw
clay geopolymer concrete shows lesser values of charge
passed than flyash geopolymer concrete. The treated clay
based geopolymer shows still lsesser values of charge
passed compare to raw clay geopolymer concrete. However
geopolymer made out of raw clay and fly ash showed in
between values of fly ash and raw clay geopolymers. And all
the geopolymer concretes showed very low chloride
conductivity. And these values are shown in table no 6 and
graphical representation presented in graph no 8.
Page 352
considerably less. The treated clay used geopolymer found

suitable as best corrosion resistance material and durable.
Table 7: Linear Polarization Values
Linear Polarization Study

Des.
Fig 8:Graphical Representation Of Chloride Ion Diffusion

b) IMPRESSED VOLTAGE TEST: (12 VOLT. DC)
Impressed voltage test has been carried out all the
specimens to accelerate the corrosion of steel embedded in
concrete (lolly pop) specimen. The time taken to break the
specimen by the voluminous rust formed around the
embedded steel is noted down for all specimens and given in
table no 6. The control concrete specimen broken after 112
hrs. Of continues impression of voltage. All geopolymer
concretes particularly clay based showed very much higher
duration for the rupture to happen. In this case also
geopolymer made out of treated clays showed the best
results against.
Con
trol
GP
RC
1
GP
RC
2
GP
RC
3
GP
RC
4
GP
TC
1
GP
TC
2
GP
TC
3
GP
TC
4
GP
RC
1+F
A
GP
RC
2+F
A
GP
RC
3+F
A
GP
RC
4+F
A
1 day
7 day
Corr
rate
(mm/yr.)
15 day
Corr
rate
(mm/yr.)
30 day
Corr
rate
(mm/yr.)
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
Corr
rate
(mm/yr)
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
0.399
0.455
0.414
0.467
0.417
0.479
0.458
0.559
0.238
0.312
0.401
0.313
0.398
0.324
0.389
0.344
0.217
0.211
0.399
0.212
0.398
0.216
0.399
0.224
0.204
0.259
0.381
0.261
0.382
0.273
0.387
0.264
0.211
0.212
0.391
0.219
0.401
0.229
0.403
0.231
0.177
0.210
0.199
0.212
0.201
0.213
0.203
0.213
0.182
0.198
0.200
0.189
0.202
0.179
0.213
0.183
0.193
0.179
0.216
0.193
0.220
0.184
0.211
0.188
0.191
0.183
0.214
0.169
0.220
0.169
0.223
0.166
0.212
0.197
0.274
0.201
0.276
0.202
0.291
0.204
0.234
0.201
0.284
0.211
0.292
0.234
0.297
0.213
0.237
0.217
0.291
0.218
0.391
0.220
0.399
0.237
0.267
0.221
0.277
0.229
0.297
0.233
0.311
0.213
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
Fig 9: Graphical Representation Of 12V Impressed Voltage

3.5 CORROSION STUDY
a) LINEAR POLARISATION STUDY
Linear polarisation study has been carried out by using
auto lab instruments, with lollipop specimens having 12 mm
dia TMT steel at the centre, immersed up to top surface with
3% NaCl solution with stainless steel plate as counter
electrode and calomel electrode as reference electrode. From
the polarisation curve obtained, the corresponding current
density Icorr(A/cm2) and corrosion rate (mm/yr.) are noted for all
samples and presented in table 7 For control OPC concrete,
these values are very high compared to geopolymer
materials .similarly the corrosion rate is high for control
specimen and for geopolymer concrete the corrosion rate is
Fig 10: Tafel Slope
Page 353
4. CONCLUSION
The dry density of OPC cement is less than the
densities of geopolymer concrete. This is due
to non availability of free water to escape
during thermal curing of geopolymer concrete.
Water absorption of geopolymer concrete and
particularly geopolymers made out of clays
showed significantly less water absorption
compared to OPC concrete and the geopolymer
made out of clay. The poor water absorption is
due to the fact that the absorption of water by
the clay structural material particularly in
between the sheets is greatly reduced as the
space in between the layered sheet structure in
already filled by the geopolymer binder
andsubsequently by the formation of gel and
then finally crystallization.Random values
have been found for coefficient of water
absorption and this is due to pore connectivity.
Highest cylinder compressive strength were
obtained for the specimens prepared using
treated clay.it is almost 100% excess of OPC
concrete in double the strength of fresh and
virgin surface opened by SiO2 due to thermal
treatment has provide the geopolymer get to
react enough to form gel and also
crystallization of gel as an thermal curing the
sialate chain formed has raised the
compressive and other mechanical strengths
such as split tensile strength and flexural
strength. A considerable amount of increase in
flexural strength was recorded due to the
formation of strong crystallization of micro
fibers present in clay.
In durability and corrosion studies carried out
(rapid chloride ion diffusion and 12 volt DC
impressed voltage test) again the treated clay
geopolymers found to provide better result due
to well-formed micro structure, reduced pore
connectivity and strong crystallization of
geopolymer.
From the test results of taffel slope
extrapolation method, very poor corrosion
density (A/cm2) and corrosion rates of steel
embedded in geopolymer were recorded for the
thermally treated clays used geopolymer
material.
Therefore it is proved that the thermally treated
clay performed extraordinarily well both
mechanical strengths and in durability tests.
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production of Geopolymer bricks ceramics silikati

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[3] H. Xu, J.S.J Van Deventer: Intl. J. Miner process
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[4] J.Davidovits in: Proceedings of the world congress
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Quentin , france , 2005.
[5] J.Davidovits ,D.C COMRIE , J.H paterson and D.J
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[7] J.Davidovits ,Buzzi, P.Rocher,D.Gimeno, C.Marini
and S.Tocco:In:Proceedings of 2nd Intl conf.on
Geopolymer99 p83-89 , Eds., J.Davidov.its R
.Davidovits , saint Quentin , france , 1999.
[8] P.De
Silva
,
K.Sageo
Crenstil
and
V.sirivivatnanon:cement
and
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References
Q.Mohsen and N. Y Mostafa, Investigating the
possibility of utilising low kaolinitic clays in
Page 354

(INDECS-15)
RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY TEST ONGRANITE

POWDER CONCRETE
A.Arivumangai1and Dr. T. Felixkala2
1
in
Research scholar, St Peters University, Email: arivu_civil@yahoo.co.in

Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. MGR Educational and Research Institute University.
Email:kalastrut@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
This paper presents a detailed experimental study on permeability characteristics of granite powder concrete.
The main parameter investigated in this study was M30 and M60 grades concrete with replacement of sand by
granite powder of 0, 25,50 and 100 and cement as partial replacement with super plasticiser, fly ash, slag and
silica fume. The alkaline solution used for present study is the combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium
silicate solution . The test specimen were 150x150mm cubes heat-cured at 60C in an oven. The variation was
studied on the specimens subjected to ambient air as well as oven heat curing.The rapid chloride permeability
tests were conducted for a period of 28 and 56 days. The test results show that the replacement of granite and
partial replacement of admixtures exhibit better performance.
JPEG Format
Keywords:Granite powder, durability properties,The rapid chloride permeability test,admixtures.
1. Introduction
Concrete is probably the most comprehensively used
construction material in the world. Construction
industry is one of the major users of the natural
resources like cement, sand, rocks, clays and other
soils. The continually increasing unit cost of the usual
requirements of concrete have mandatory the
construction engineer to think of ways and means of
reducing the unit const of its production. At the same
time, increased industrial activity in the core sectors
like steel, energy and transportation has been
responsible for the production of large amounts like
blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fume, granite and Msand with ensuingremoval problemIn the context of
increased awareness regarding the illeffects of the
over utilization of natural resources, ecofriendly
technologies are to be developed for effective
management
of
these
resources[Shankar.H
Sanni,et.al.,2012]. River sand is exclusive due to
extreme cost of transportation from natural
sources.The global consumption of natural river sand
is very high due to the extensive use of concrete. In
particular, the demand of natural river sand is quite
high
in
developed
countries
owingtoinfrastructuralgrowth.
The
inadequate
quantity of ordinary river sand for making cement
concrete is affecting the growth of construction
industry in many parts of the country[Felixkala T,
et.al.,2010]. Tamil Nadu government (India) also has
imposed restrictions on sand removal from the river
beds due to unsafe impacts threatening many parts of
the state. On the other hand, the granite waste
generated by the industry has accumulated over years.
The granite waste that has been dumped
unscrupulously results inenvironment issues.The

present work is aimed at developing a new building
material from the granite scrap, an industrial waste as
a replacement material of fine aggregate in concrete.
By doing so, the objective of cost reduction in
construction can be met and it will help to overcome
the
problem
associated
with
its
disposalincludingtheenvironmental problems of the
region. Substitutions of alternate materials can result
in changes in the performance characteristics that may
be acceptable for high performance concrete.
Chloride permeability of glass fibre reinforced
concrete shows less permeability of chlorides into
concrete when compared with 0% of GFRC; b) The
GFRC reduces the cracks causing interconnecting
voids to be minimum[Chandramouli K, et.al.,2010]
2.
Research Objective
The objectives of the current research work to study

the durability properties of M30 and M60 grades of
concrete with varying percentages concrete with
replacement of sand by granite powder of 0, 25,50 and
100 and cement as partial replacement with super
plasticiser, fly ash, slag and silica fume at 28 and 56
days
3.
Experimental Details
3.1. Materials
Cement
Page 355
Arivumangai et. al. / INDECS-15
The Ordinary Portland cement of 53-grade was used

for the investigation. Cement was bought from the
same source throughout the research work. While
storing cement, all possible contact with moisture was
avoided.
Fine aggregate
In the present work, the concrete mixes were prepared
using locally available river sand. Fineness modulus
and specific gravity of the sand were found to be 2.33
and 2.56 respectively .The sand used was confined to
zone 3.
Coarse aggregate
Broken granite stones were used as a coarse aggregate
in concrete. Size of the coarse aggregate used in the
investigation was 10 -20 mm. Sieve analysis of the
course aggregates was done and passed through the 19
mm size sieve and percentage of passing
was99percent.
Water
Water was an important ingredient of concrete as it
actually participated in the chemical reaction with
cement. In general, water fit for drinking was suitable
for mixing concrete. Impurities in the water might
affect setting time, strength, shrinkage of concrete or
promote corrosion of reinforcement. Locally available
drinking water was used in the present work.
Granite powder
Granite belongs to igneous rock family. Granite
powder obtained from the polishing units and the
properties were found. Since the granite powder was
fine, hydrometer analysis was carried out on the
powder to determine the particle size distribution.
General properties of commonly available granite are
given in Table 1
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Properties
Values
Porosity
Absorption
Specific Gravity
Density
Crushing strength
Frost resistance
Fire resistance
Colour
Very low
0.5 to 1.5%
2.6 to 2.8
2500-2650kg/m3
1000-2500kg/m2
Good
Low
Mostly light coloured
Table 1.Properties of Granite
3.2 Admixture
a)
Superplasticiser
was
used
during
investigation to improve the workability of concrete.
As per Indian standards, the dosage of superplasticiser
should not exceed 2% by weight of the cement. A
higher dosage of superplasticiser may delay the
hardening process. After trials, the optimal dosage of
the superplasticiser was found to be 0.5% to produce
slump of 100 mm.The technical details of
superplasticiseras
per
the
manufacturer'sliteraturearegiveninTable2
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
Properties
Values
1-220-1-225
Nil(As per BS:5075)
2-4% of cement
1% at normal dosage
5
6
Specific gravity
Chloride content
Recommended dosage
Approximate additional
air Entrainment
Solid content
Compatibility
Operating temperature
40%
All types of cement except
high alumina cement
10-40C
Table2. Chemical and Physical Properties of Superplasticiser

(%)
b)
Silica fume Condensed silica fume is
considered as the most efficient micro filler for high
performance concrete. Its two fold effects are
reduction of w/c ratio and increase of strength of
hardened concrete.The silica fume used in this study
was in powder form and contained 95 per cent SiO,
0.39 per cent 0.21 per cent 2CaO, 0.11 per cent
MgO, 0.15 per cenr KO, 0.13 per cent NaO, 40 per
cent AlO and FeO.
The properties of silica fume results inmore efficient
geldevelopment. Silica fume
improves the
performance of binder phaseconsiderably and
increases the bonding action with aggregateand
reinforcement.
The
physical
properties
ofsilicafumeusedinthisstudyaregiveninTable3.
Sl.No
2
3
Properties
Specific Gravity
: 2.25
(Determined Using Le-Chaterlier flask )
Bulk density
: 709 kg/m3
Void content (Vv/V) : 2.25
Porosity (Vv/V)
: 68.49 %
Table 3.Physical Properties of silica fume
c)
Fly ash
Fly ash was considered in the present study as a
replacement ofcement in 10 per cent. It wasa fine,
glass powder recovered from the gases of burning
coal during the production of electricity. The
properties of fly ash may vary considerably according
to several factors such as the geographical origin of
the source coal, conditions during combustion and
sampling position within the power plant. The major
elemental constituents of fly ash are Si, Al, Fe, Ca, C,
Mg, K, Na, S, Ti, P and Mn.
d) Slag
The ground granulated blast furnace slag was usedat
10% along with other admixtures as a replacement of
cement.
Mixing, demoulding and curing
Thorough mixing and adequate curing are most
essential for achieving a good concrete. In the
Page 356
laboratory, the concretewas handmixed. The mixing

time was kept to about 34 min for normal concrete.
Generally, the demoulding was done 24 hours of
casting. Potable water was used for curing all the
concretes and was kept in moist environment
immediately after the initial set and before
thedemoulding.
4.
Experimental Procedure
Rapid chloride permeability test

According to ASTM C1202 test, a watersaturated,
150 mm thick, 150 mm thick diameter concrete
specimen is subjected to a 60 v applied DC voltage
for 6 hours using the apparatus and the cell
arrangement is shown in Figure-1. In one reservoir is
a 3.0% NaC1 solution and in the other reservoir is a
0.3 M NaOH solution. The total charge passed is
determined and this is used to rate the concrete
according to the criteria included as Table 4.
Charge Passed (Coulombs)
Chloride Ion Penetrability
>4000
2000-4000
1000-2000
100-1000
<100

High
Moderate
Low
Very-Low
Negligible
Table 4. RCPT ratings (per ASTM C1202)
specimens subjected to RCPT are presented in Table

5.
During the RCPT the solution temperature was
increasing beyond 80C hence the RCPT charges
passed at 30 minutes has been extrapolated to 6 hrs
RCPT to decide the chloride ion penetrability .Since
Granite powder Concrete make use of alkaline
activator solutions that are highly conductive, the
unreacted residual alkaline activator solutions could
sometimes give a false alarm, leading to conclude that
Granite powder concrete are highly permeable to
chlorides. As the grade of Granite powder Concrete
increases the RCPT charges decreases. Thus we can
say that RCPT of GPC is having low chloride ion
penetrability for higher grade of concrete[Shankar.H
Sanni,et.al.,2012].The minimum and maximum
charges passed for 28 days was 539 and 941Coulombs
and1116 and 2789 Coulombs for M30 and for M60
GPC respectively. The minimum and maximum
charges passed for 56 days was 418 and 738
Coulombs and 819and 2439 Coulombs for M30 and
M60 grade GP respectively
Grade
of
concrete
%
of
Granite
powder
concete
M30
M30
M30
M30
M60
M60
M60
M60
0
25
50
100
0
25
50
100
Charge
passed
(Coulombs)
28
56
days days
812
707
941
735
909
738
539
418
1116 885
1351 819
2789 2439
2479 2139
Chloride permeability as
per ASTM C 1202
28 days
56 days
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Moderate
Moderate
Fig.1. RCPT Setup Apparatus

Rapid Chloride ion Penetration Test (RCPT)
Rapid Chloride ion Penetration Test (RCPT) is
essentially a measure of concretes electrical
conductivity which depends on both pore structure
characteristics and pore solution chemistry (Caijun
Shi, 2004). Chloride diffusion is one of the major
reasons for causing corrosion to steel reinforcement
inside concrete. Therefore it is necessary to study
concrete for its chloride ion permeability. Aluminosilicates is the binder in the GPC, but in the
conventional concretes calcium silicate hydrate (C-SH) gel is the main binding system. The results of GPC
Charge passed (Coulombs)

M30
Table.5 RCPT Values for different Grades
1000
800
600
GP0
400
GP25
200
GP50
GP100
0
28 days
56 days
Number of Days
Fig.2. RCPT value for M30 grade at different ages of concrete
Page 357

M60
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
28 days
56 days
Number of Days
6.
Conclusion
The performance of Granite powder concrete

increased with regard to durability. The following
salient conclusions are drawn from the present
investigations:
a)
Chloride permeability of granite powder

concrete shows less permeability of chlorides
into concrete when compared with 0% of
Granite powder concrete
b) The Granite powder concrete reduces the
cracks causing interconnecting voids to be
minimum
c) Due to the100% replacement of granite
powder concrete there is decrease of
permeability at 56 days
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Adam Neville and Pierre-Claude Aitcin

(1998) High performance concrete an
overview. Materials Structures. 111 117.
Al-Amoudi OSB, Maslehuddin M and
Abiola TO (2004) Effect of type and dosage
of silica fume on plastic shrinkage in
concrete
exposed
to
hot
weather.
Construction Building Material. 18, 737-743.
Bharatkumar BH, Narayan R, Raghuprasad
BK and Ramachandramurthy DS (2001) Mix
proportioning of high performance concrete.
Cement Concrete Composites. 23, 7180.
Felixkala T, Partheeban P, and Granite
powder concrete Indian Journal of Science
and Technology vol.3, No.3 (Mar 2010)
ISSN: 0974-6846.
Francis A Qluokun (1994) Fly ash concrete
mix design and the water-cement ratio law.
ACI Material J. 362- 367.
Geetha A and Perumal P Chemical
permeability studies on concrete using
waterproofing
admixture
journal
of
structural
engineering,
vol.38,
No.5,
(jau2012) pp.495-503.
7. Haque MN and Kayali O (1998) Properties
of high- strength concrete using a fine fly
GP0
ash. Cement Concrete Res. 14451452.
8. Ilangovana R, Mahendran N, Nagamani,
GP25
Strength and durability properties of
GP50 concrete containing quarry dust as fine
GP100aggregate, ARPN Journal of Engg and
applied sciences, vol3, No.5, Oct2008, ISSN
1819-6608.
9. IS: 516 (1959) Methods of tests for strength
of concrete. Bureau Ind. Stds. New Delhi,
India.
10. Job T (2005) Utilization of quarry powder as
a substitute for the river sand in concrete. J.
Structural Engg. 401-407.
11. Kanmalai Williams., Partheeban P, Felixkala
T, Mechanical properties of highperformance concrete incorporating granite
powder as fine aggregate International
Journal on Design and Manufacturing
Technologies, vol.2,No.1, July 2008.
12. Kefeng Tan and Xincheng Pu (1998)
Strengthening effects of finely ground fly
ash, granulated blast furnace slag, and their
combination. Cement Concrete Res. 18191825.
13. Mitchell DRG, Hinczak I and Day RA
(1998) Interaction of silica fume with
calcium hydroxide solutions and hydrated
cement pastes. Cement Concrete Res. 15711584.
14. Shaikh MG, Daimi SA Durability studies of
concrete made by using artificial sand with
dust and natural sand International Journal
of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN
0974 - 5904, Vol. 04, No.06 SPL, Oct 2011,
p 823-825.
15. Swamy (1991) Mineral admixtures for highstrength concrete.Ind.Concrete J 265-271
Page 358

Sustenance (INDECS-15)
MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

USING M-SAND AS FINE AGGREGATE
S. MuraliKrishnan & Dr.T.Felix Kala
Research Scholar, Dept of Civil Engg, St. Peters University, Avadi, TamilNadu,
India.muralikrishnan9888@gmail.com,
Professor&HOD, Dept of Civil Engg, Dr. M.G.R. University, Maduravoyil, TamilNadu, India.
Kalastrut@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT:The paper focuses on the experimental study of using locally available M-Sand as fine aggregate and
partial replacement of cement with admixtures in the production of HPC with28days strength to the maximum of
60Mpa.The percentage of M-sand added by weight was 0, 25, 50, & 75% as a replacement of sand used in concrete
and cement was replaced by adding GGBS with 0, 5, 10, & 15% and the dosage of superplasticizers added0, 1, 1.3%
by the weight of cement.The present paper focuses on investigating characteristics of M60&M30 concrete with
partial replacement of cement with Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag (GGBS) and fine aggregate with the
Manufactured sand .In the Strength characteristics study, the compressive strength, Split tensile strength were
determined experimentally for the conventional and M-Sand concrete. In the durability study, the conventional and
M-Sand concrete is tested by Rapid chloride permeability test & water Absorption test. The durability property of
concrete is enchanced by partial replacement of sand with 50% of M- Sand substantially compared to normal mix
concrete increased the compressive and Split Tensile Strength of High Performance Concrete.
KEYWORDS: Manufactured sand, GGBS, Strength , Durability, Super plasticizers, Workability, HPC.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Fine aggregate is an essential component of concrete. The
global consumption of natural river sand is very high due to
the extensive use of concrete. In particular, the demand for
natural sand is quite high in developed countries owing to
infrastructural growth. In this situation some developing
countries are facing a shortage in the supply of natural
sand. The non-availbility of sufficient quantity of ordinary
river sand for making cement concrete is affecting the
growth of the construction industry in many parts of the
country.
Therefore, the construction industries in
developing countries are under stress to identify alternative
materials to reduce the demand on river sand. In order to
reduce the dependence on natural aggregates as the main
source of aggregates in concrete, artificially manufactured
aggregates and artificial aggregates generated from
industrial wastes provide an alternative for the construction
industry. Some alternative materials have already been
used in place of natural river sand. For example,M-sand,
slag, ggbs, rockdust, silica fume and quarry waste were
used in concrete mixture as a partial replacement of natural
sand. Hence the assumption is manufactured sand could be

an alternative to natural sand in preparation of concrete. Msand, one of the byproducts in crushed stone process, not
being used for any applications other than filling-up low
lying areas is identified as a replacement material for river
sand in concrete.
The cheapest and the easiest way of getting substitute for
natural sand is by crushing natural stone to get artificial
sand of desired size and grade which would be free from all
impurities is known as Manufactured sand. The properties
studied of high performance concrete with partial
replacement of cement by GGBS. Concrete made with
crushed stone dust as replacement of natural sand in
concrete can attain the same compressive strength,
comparable tensile strength, modulus of rupture and lower
degree of shrinkage as the control concrete.
For
producing HPC, Industrial wastes, such as silica fume, blast
furnance slag, fly ash are being used as supplementary
cement replacement materials are also being used as
pozzolanic materials in concrete. The super plasticizer
Varaplast PC 100 was used as chemical admixtures it is a
Page 359
Murali Krishnan et. al. / INDECS-15
liquid instantly dispersible in water. It has been specially

formulated to give high water reductions upto 25% without
loss of workability and produce high quality concrete to
enchance strength and durability with low binder ratio 0.26
to 0.4. Increasing dosage of super plasticizers by weight of
binder improvement of its workability properties as well as
mechanical properties with reduced W/B ratio. This paper
presents the study of compressive strength and of M60
conventional concrete be replacing the sand with M-sand
and 40% to 60% of cement with GGBS. Tests were
conducted on concrete cubes and cylinders to study
compressive& tensile strengths. The durability properties
tests were conducted on Rapid Chloride Penetration Test&
Water Absorption Test. The results are compared with the
normal conventional concrete.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Shanmugapriya et al. 2012 concluded from experimental
researchers that compressive and flexural strength of
concrete can be improved by partial replacement of cement
by silica fume and manufactured sand for natural fine
aggregates. They suggested that optimum replacement of
natural sand by manufactured sand is 50%.
Saeed Ahmaed et al. 2008 have found that compressive
strength of various mix ratios increased from 7% to 33%
whereas workability decreased from 11% to 67% with
increasing proportion of manufactured sand.
Shyam Prakash et la. 2007 says that manufactured sand
satisfies the requirements fine aggregates such as strength,
graduation, shape angularity. It is also possible to produce
manufactured sand falling into the desired grade. They say
that the mechanical properties of manufactured sand
depend upon the source of its raw material, i.e., parent
rock. Hence the selection of the quarry is very important to
quality fine aggregate.
Mahendra R Chitlange et al. 2010 experimentally proved
that due to addition of steel fiber to natural sand concrete
and manufactured sand concrete there is a consistent
increase in flexural and split tensile strength whereas there
is only a marginal rise in compressive strength.
Historically, a large percentage of a sand has been
produced from alluvial deposits. However we are now
experiencing a global shortage of natural sand, and
environmental pressures, costs and a shortage of this type
of deposit has necessitated the manufactured sand from
quarried material. One of the problems often experienced
with natural sand is the presence of contaminants, which
can be very difficult to remove. These contaminants may
be silt, organic matters and sometimes, harmful chemicals,
such as sulphates and chlorides, all of which can have

significant detrimental effects on the performance of
structural concrete. Manufactured sand, on the other hand,
comes directly from good quality virgin rock, and thus very
few, if any contaminants are present.
Crushed rock fines are remnants of the process of crushing
of boulders into coarse aggregates of varying sizes. They
are indeed,rightly called as quarry dust. Since these
crushed stone sand particles are screened as waste during
the crushing process of law crushers and cone crusher, they
tend to be very flaky, dusty and often contain uncontrolled
particle sizes. Crushed rock fines also tend to have higher
water absorption rate due to surface roughness, higher
surface area and presence of higher amount of fines
content. Attempts are made to remove the microfines by
washing but obviously, washing does not change other
properties like flakiness, surface roughness, higher surface
area and poor particle size distribution.
The purpose of this study is to conduct a systematic
comparison of the effects of natural and manufactured sand
exert on strength and durability properties. This paper
presents the mechanical behavior of the selected fine
aggregate, followed by the durability behavior of
conventional and M-sand concrete.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Normal concrete lacks required strength and durability
which are more often required for large concrete structures
such as high rise buildings, bridges and structures under
severe exposure condition. Due to booming construction
activities natural sand is becoming scarce due to excessive
nonscientific methods of mining from the river beds. For
these reasons it it necessary to produce a concrete with
improved strength and performance, with suitable
materials. This research shows the effective utilization of
by product GGBS & M sand in High Performance
Concrete.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Materials:
a) Cement :Ordinary
Portland cement of 53
Grade conforming to IS 8112 1989, and the
specific gravity of cement was found to be
3.15. The physical properties of cement given
in Table 1
Page 360
Table 1 . Physical Properties of cement

Component
Results(%) Requirements
of IS : 8112
Fineness,m/kg 320
Minimum 225
Initial setting 65
Minimum 30
Time,minutes
Final
setting 250
Maximum 600
Time, minutes
Standard
26.4
Consistency
Soundness, Le 1.0
Maximum 10
Chatelier, mm
b)Fine Aggregate:
Natural Sand:Locally available River Sand having
bulk density 1860 kg/m was used and the specific gravity
is 2.56. The fineness modulus of river sand is 2.64.
Manufactured sand:M- Sand was used as partial
replacement of fine aggregate.
The bulk density of
manufactured sand was 1860 kg/m, specific gravity and
fineness modulus was found to be 2.56 and 3.10
respectively.
Table 2 . Sieve analysis of River sand & M Sand
Sieve Size
4.75mm
2.36mm
1.18mm
600m
300m
150m
River
sand %
Passing
98
96
78
51
26
7
M- Sand
Passing
e) Water:Water is an important ingredient of concrete as

it actually participates in the chemical reaction with
cement. In general, water fit for drinking is suitable for
mixing concrete. Impuritiew in the water may affect
setting time, strength, shrinkage of concrete or promote
corrosion of reinforcement. Locally available drinking
water was in the present work.
f) Mix Design:The concrete mix is designed as per IS

10262 1982, Is 456 2000 and SP 23 for the
conventional concrete and finally river sand has been
replaced by M Sand cement replaced with GGBS by
volume. The water cement ratio and The mix proportions
of M60 & M30 concrete.
Test Specimens and Test procedure:

Compressive & Split Tensile Strength Test:The
concrete cubes of 150mm size, cylinders of size 150mm
diameter & 300mm length were used as test specimens to
determine the compressive strength of concrete and split
tensile strength of concrete for the both cases i.e. normal
concrete and modified concrete. The ingredients of
concrete were thoroughly mixed till uniform consistency
was achieved. The cubes and cylinders were compacted on
a vibrating table. The properties of fresh concrete were
measured according to IS 1199 1959.
&
99.78
87.14
63.12
45.75
25.50
7.98
c) Super Plasticizer:In order to improve the workability

to high performance concrete, superplasticizer in the form
of Sulphonated Napthalene Polymers complies with IS 516
1959 and ASTM C 642 type F as a high range water
reducing admixture (VARAPLAST PC 100) was used .
This had 40% active solids in solution. The specific
gravity is 1.22. It is a liquid instantly dispensable in water.
d) GGBS:GGBS is obtained by quenching molten iron

slag from a blast furnance in water or steam, to producea
glassy, granular product that is then dried and ground into a
fine powder. GGBS is used to make durable concrete
structures in combination with ordinary port land cement
and other pozzolanic materials. The fineness modulus of
GGBS using blaine fineness is 320m/kg and other
properties of GGBS.
Rapid chloride penetration Test:The concrete cubes

of 150mmx150mm size, were casted and cured for a period
of 21 days used as test specimens. A sample of dia 100mm
and thickness 50mm are subjected to a direct current of 60
volts across two faces. The concrete for the both cases i.e.
normal concrete and modified concrete. The ingredients of
was achieved. The current passing through the specimen,
the specimen is monitored regularly hours. The total
charge that the passed through the specimen is calculated
and is the value of product of time in seconds and current in
amperes and unit is coulomb.
Water
Absorption Test:Concrete cubes of

150mmx150mm are casted and cured for a period of 21
days. The surfaces of the cubes are wiped dry and they are
placed in the Water Absorption Test apparatus. The
Specimens are later removed and split open. The actual
penetration of water into the specimen were measured at
the different points from the edges of the split cube and the
average was found.
Work ability:
Table 4. Flow Table Test
Page 361
M Sand % age
0%
25%
50%
75%
At One Hour
490mm
510mm
525mm
540mm
4.
M60
100%
15
%
2471
2000
4000
Moder
ate
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
RCPT Value
Table 5. Water Absorption Test of the conventional

concrete are presented in Table for M60 Grade of concrete.
21 Days
3.4%
3.8%
3.7%
3.7%
Water absorption Test

%age of Increasing
3.90%
3.80%
3.70%
3.60%
3.50%
3.40%
3.30%
3.20%
Charges passed coulombs
M Sand %age
0%
25%
50%
75%
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Water
absorption 3.40% 3.80% 3.70% 3.70%
Test
Table 6.
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test of the
conventional concrete are presented in Table for M60
Grade of concrete.
S.
N
o
Grad
e of
Con
crete
Replac
ement
of MSand
%
of
GG
BS
1.
M60
0%
0%
Charges
passed
coulombs
(RCPT
Value)
1060
2.
M60
25%
5%
1832
3.
M60
50%
10
%
2498
Chlo
ride
ion
1000
2000
1000
2000
2000
4000
Perme
ability
Per
ASTM
C1202
Low
1060
1832
2498
2471
Table 7. Compressive &Split Tensile Strength of the

Grade of concrete.
Replacement
of
Fine
Aggregate
Msand
%
0
River
Sand
%
100
25
75
50
50
75
25
Compressi
ve
Strength in
N/mm
7
28
Da
Day
ys
s
55.
67.2
5
59.
71.9
8
62
76.0
7
62.
77.0
6
4
Split
Tensile
Strength in
N/mm
7
28
Da
Day
ys
s
2.5
3.01
2.8
3.09
2.9
2
3.0
3.21
5
3.34
Low
Moder
ate
Page 362
Comp strength
inN/mm 7
55.5
Days
59.8
62
62.6
Comp strength
inN/mm 28 67.2
Days
71.9
76.07 77.04
Split Tensile Strength

Test
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 7 Days
2.5
2.8
2.92
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 28
Days
3.01
3.09
Comp Strength inN/mm
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3.215
Split Tensile Strength inN/mm
Comp strength in N/mm
Test
50
50
25.62
30.73
1.92
2.82
75
25
27.55
32
2.0
3.03
Compressive Strength Test

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Comp strength
inN/mm 7 Days
24.08
24.6
25.62
27.55
Comp strength
inN/mm 28 Days
26
29.33
30.73
32
Split Tensile Strength Test

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 7 Days
1.05
1.41
1.92
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 28 Days
2.01
2.52
2.82
3.03
3.34
The compressive & Split Tensile strength of conventional

concrete and modified concrete i.e with the replacement of
Fine Aggregate with M Sand at the age 7 and 28 days of
Table 8. Compressive & Split Tensile Strength of the
Compressive & Split Tensile Strength with adding the
conventional concrete are presented in Table for M30 grade
Super Plasticizers 0, 1, 1.3 respectively. The compressive
of concrete
& Split Tensile strength is increase as the percentages of M
Sand increases with 1.3% of SP 100 when compares to
Replacement of
Compressive
Split Tensile1% of Super plasticizers.
Fine Aggregate
Strength in
Strength in
N/mm
N/mm The compressive & Split Tensile strength of conventional
MRiver
7
28
7
28 concrete and modified concrete i.e. Fine aggregate replaced
sand%
Sand%
Days
Days
Days
Days
with M Sand and cement replaced with GGBS with 1.3%
0
100
24.08
26
1.05
2.01
of SP. Compressive & Split Tensile strength of concrete is
25
75
24.6
29.33
1.41
2.52increased as the percentages of M Sand and Percentage of
Page 363
GGBS increases. The Maximum compressive strength of

concrete is achieved at the combinations of 50% M Sand
and GGBS.
CONCLUSIONS:
It is observed that the compressive strength&

Split Tensile Strengthof concrete can be
improved by partial replacement of GGBS for
cement and M Sand for Fine Aggregate.
Compressive strength of concrete can be
improved by using Super Plasticizers.
From the above experimental results it is proved
that, M Sand can be used as alternative material
for the fine aggregate i.e.sand. Based on the
results the compressive , Split Tensile Strength&
RCPT Testare increased as the percentages of M
Sand increased.
The present experimental programme indicated
that the durability properties of the concrete
could enchance the effect of utilization of MSand ontained from the place of river sand in
concrete .
Results of the experimental studies show that
resistance to penetration of water as proved by
Rapid Chloride Penetration Test & Water
Absorption Test , is increased with increasing
proportion of M-Sand Concrete.
GGBS can be used as one of the alternative
material for the cement.
From the experimental results 50% of cement can
be replaced with GGBS.
The percentages increases of compressive& split
tensile strength M60 concrete is62N/mmat the
age of 7 days and the 3.215N/mm 28 days by
replacing 10% of cement with GGBS and 50% of
fine aggregate with M Sand.
The percentages increases of compressive & split
tensile strength M30 concrete is 25.62N/mmat
the age of 7 days and the 2.82N/mm 28 days by
When the percentage of replacement of M-sand
goes beyond 50%, the strength is considerably
reduced.
Hence this research concluded with a remarks of
the optimum percentage of M-sand to obtain high
compressive strength, split tensile strength when
replaced with natural sand with 50% of M-sand.
The use of M-Sand in the Construction Industry
helps to prevent unnecessary damages to the
environment and provide optimum exploitation
of the resources.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Misra V.N. 1984, Indian Concrete Journal,

August, Vol58(8), pp 219 213.
SahuA.K., Sunil Kumar and Sachan A.K., 2003,
Indian Concrete Journal, PP . 845 848.
Ilangovana R., Mahendran. N. and Nagamani. K.,
2008, ARPN journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, 3 (5), pp 20 26.
Indian Standards 10262 1982: Recommended
Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design.
Indian Standards 456 2000 : Plain and
reinforced concrete code of practice.
Shanmugavadivu P.M., Malathy R. A
comparative study on mechanical properties of
concrete with Manufactured sand International
Journal of Technology world oct Nov 2009.
Shanmugapriya .T., Uma.R.N., Optimization of
Partial Replacement of M-Sand by Natural Sand
in HPC with Silica fume International Journal of
Engg Sciences & Emerging Technologies, June
2012.
T. Felixkala,P.Partheeban, Granite powder
concrete Indian Journal of science Technology
vol.3,No.3(Mar2010)ISSN; 0974-6846.
Kanmalai Williams.C Partheeban.P, FelixKala.T,
Mechanical properties of high performance
concrete incorporating granite powder as fine
aggregate International Journal of Design &
Manufacturing Technologies, vol.2,No.1, July
2008.
Dr. T.Felix Kala Effect of granite powder on
strength properties of concrete International
Journal of Engg & Sciences, Vol. 2, Issue 12
(May 2013) ISSN(e):2278-4721
H.Donza,O. Cabrera, .F. Irassar, High Strength
Concrete with different fine Aggregate,.
Cement and Concrete Research 32(11) 2002
1755-1761.
P. Quiroga, D. Fowler, The effects of aggregate
characteristics on the performance of Portland
cement concrete International center for
aggregate research 104-1F.
IS:383-1970: Specification for coarse and fine
aggregates from Natural Sources for concrete,
Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi 1970.
IS: 516-1959 Reaffirmed 1999: Methods of tests
for test for strength of concrete, Bureau of Indian
standard, New Delhi 1999.
J. Prabakar, P. Devadas Manoharan and M.
Neelamegam Effect of fly ash on the durability
and performance of concrete The Indian
concrete Journal (Nov 2011).
Page 364
16. Adam Neville and Pierre-Claude Aitcin (!998)

High performance concrete an overview.
Materials Structures. 111 117.
17. Swamy (1991) Mineral admixtures for High
Strength concrete. Ind. Concrete J 265 -271.
18. FrancisA Qluokun (1994) Fly ash concrete mix
design and the water-cement ratio law. ACI
Material J . 362-367
19. P. Nath, P. Sarker Effect of fly ash on the
Durability properties of high strength concrete
Elsevier Procedia Engg 14(2011) 1149-1156.
20. IS : 516 (1959) Methods of tests for strength of
concrete. Bureau Indian stds. New Delhi, India.
Page 365

(INDECS-15)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF HPC USING METAKAOLIN

AND FLYASH WITH PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT
M.Narmatha1 , Dr.T.Felixkala2
1(Research Scholar, Dr.Mgr Educational Research Institute University, Chennai, 600095, India mnarmatha77@gmail.com)
2( Asso.Prof,. HOD., Dr.Mgr Educational Research Institute University , Chennai, 600095, India kalastrut@yahoo.com)
Abstract
Metakaolin looks to be a promising supplementary cementitious material for high performance concrete.
Properties of concrete with metakaolin are at partial with flyash is mostly preferred additives in high performance
concrete. A possible lower cost, due to large availability in our country itself may be advantages to metakaolin usage in
HPC. A combination of flyash and metakaolin will allow higher absorption without compromising much on early age
properties of concrete. The preliminary study for strength properties have already been conducted and it is proved that
the metakaolin with flyash is the best alternative materials for the partial replacement of sand and cement in the high
performance concrete.The substitution proportion of metakaolin is to be used was 10%, 20% , 30% by the weight of
cement. To make this cubes to determine the strength and durability of concrete of it. The result indicate that the
replacing mix upto till last percent has to noted and effect on compressive strength in comparing with mixer without
metakaolin.
Keywords: Metakaolin, flyash, High Performance concrete, compressive strength, water absorption.
flyash.15 samples of cubes are kept for curing for

28
1.
days
and
then
compression
Introduction
test(10%,20%,30%,40%,50%) was carried out.
For the preliminary investigation, metakaolin ,fly
Another six cubes are placed for 7 days curing and
ash and cement was
subjected to physical and
compression test was carried out. Four cubes of 10
chemical analyses to determine whether they are in
and 20% were kept in oven for 1 hour and 2 hours
compliance
alternatively, at 250 C , compressibility test is then
with
the
standard
use.
The
experimental program was designed to investigate

metakaolin and flyash as partial replacement with
performed.
1.1 Metakaolin
cement and sand respectively. The replacement was

done at 10% ,20%,30%,40%,50% for the standard
3
Metakaolin, which is a relatively new material in the
size of cube 150 x 150 x150 mm .The specimen
concrete industry is
was casted with M60 grade of concrete with
reducing sulphate attack and improving air-void network.
different replacement levels of metakaolin and
Pozzolanic reactions change
effective in increasing strength,
and chemistry of hydration products by consuming the
an increased strength
released calcium hydroxide (CH) and production of
therefore improved durability.
the microstructure of concrete
and reduced
porosity and
additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), resulting in

Table 1. Physical Properties
Page 366
M.Narmatha , Dr.T.Felixkala/INDECS-15
Specific Gravity
2.40 to 2.60
Physical Form
Powder
Color
Off white, Gray

to Buff
Brightness
80-82 Hunter L
BET
15 m2/gram
Specific Surface
15 m2/g.
Table 2. Chemical Composition
dosages in certain applications. Fly ash can add

to the concretes final strength and increase its
chemical resistance and durability. Fly ash can
significantly improve the workability of
concrete.
2.
Mix Proportion Designation
The common method of expressing the proportions of

ingredients of a concrete mix is in the terms of parts or
ratios cement , fine and coarse aggregates for e.g:- a
concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement ,
fine and coarse aggregate in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement , two parts fine aggregates ,
four parts of coarse aggregates. The proportion are either
by volume or by mass the water cement ratio is usually
expressed in mass.
SiO2
51-53 %
CaO
<
0.20%
Al2O
3
Fe2O
3
TiO2
42-44-% MgO
<
0.10%
1.
Target Strength
M40
< 2.20% Na2O
<
0.05%
2.
Type of Cement
OPC-53 grade
< 3.0%
K2 O
<
0.40%
3.
Maximum Nominal Aggregate Size -20mm
SO4
< 0.5%
L.O.I.
0.50%
<
4.
Exposure Condition
Normal
5.
Degree of Supervision
Good
6.
Type of Aggregate
Aggregates
2.1 Data and Parameters for Mix Design
The chemical equations describing this process is
Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O = Al2O3. 2SiO2 + 2H2O (g).

1.2 Fly Ash
Fly ash, also known as flue-ash, is one of the residues
generated in combustion, and comprises the fine
particels that rise with the flue gases. Ash which does not
rise is termed bottom ash. In an industrial context, fly ash
usually refers to ash produced during combustion of coal.
1.2.1 Fly Ash Reuse in Portland Cement
- Crushed Angular
2.2 Test Data For Materials

1.
Cement Used - ULTRA TECH OPC 53 grade
2.
Sp. Gravity of Cement
- 3.15
3.
Sp. Gravity of Water
-1
4.
Sp. Gravity of Fine Aggregate - 2.61
5.
Sp. Gravity of Coarse Aggregate - 2.66
6.
Specific gravity of Metakaolin
7. Specific gravity of Flyash
- 2.72
- 2.55
Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a

replacement for some of the Portland cement content
of concrete.
Fly ash often replaces up to 30% by mass of
Portland cement, but can be used in higher
Page 367
2.3 Compressive Strength Test

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand axially directed pushing forces.
When the limit of compressive strength is reached,
materials are crushed. Concrete can be made to have high
The test was carried out conforming to IS: 456 to obtain

compressive strength of M40 grade of concrete. The
compressive strength of high strength concrete with OPC
and Metakaolin and Flyash at the age of 7 and 28 days
are presented in table above.
2.3.1 Preparation Of Specimens

In this study, a total no of 6 cubes each for the control
and cement replacement levels of 10%, 20% and 30%
were produced respectively. For the compressive
strength, 150mm X 150mm X 150mm cubes mould were
used to cast the cubes and 2 specimens were tested for
each age in a particular mix (i.e. the cubes were crushed
at 7 and 28 days respectively). All freshly cast specimens
were left in the moulds for 24 hours before being demolded and then submerged in water for curing until the
time of testing.
For 7 Days
40
30
20
0
0
0%
10%
20%
30%
7 DAYS
20
30
For 28 Days
Testing age(Days)
7 Days
3
3
3
3
28 Days
3
3
3
3
60
40
20
0
0
2.3.2 TESTING OF SPECIMENS

Until failure at which point the load require for failure of
compressive strength test were carried out at each cube
was noted, prior to testing, the specify ages on the cubes.
Table 4. Compressive Strength
Average Concrete Strength
Mpa
% Replacement of
Metakaolin and
Flyash
10
Fig 1. Metakaolin and Fly ash in %
Table 3. Testing Specimen with days

Specimen (%
of Metakaolin
& Flyash
used)
10
7 days
28 days
0%
31.6
41.32
10%
32.4
43.13
20%
29.24
37.16
30%
26.15
35.14
10
20
30

3. Water Absorption Test
The pore structure of concrete is known to be of high
importance for the durability of the material. A
characterization of this pore structure by means of a
simple water absorption test is often investigated, in
order to find a very simple compliance criterion with
respect to concrete durability.
Water absorption is used to determine the amount of
water absorbed under specified condition. Factors
affecting water absorption include: type of plastic,
additive used, temperature and length of exposure.
Percent Water Absorption = [(Wet weight - Dry
weight)/ Dry weight] x 100
Page 368
3.1 Tabulation
Table 7. For 20% Metakaolin & Flyash
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs
%
Absorption
8.75
8.70
0.57
8.35
8.30
%
Average
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs
%
Absorption
8.45
8.35
1.19
8.15
8.10
0.62
8.25
8.17
0.97
%
Average
0.60
0.666
8.45
8.38
0.92
0.83
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs

%
Absorption
8.50
8.45
0.59
8.45
8.41
0.47
8.55
8.52
0.35
%
Average
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs
%
Absorpti
on
7.80
7.75
0.64
8.65
8.55
1.16
8.50
8.43
0.83
%
Average
0.47
0.87
Page 369
1. In mixes blended with high percentage metakaolin
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
and flyash the water demand will be more. Because of

the greater finess of metakaolin to maintain constant
workability, use of plasticizer become necessary.
2. An optimum of 10% metakaolin and fly ash gives
better strength.
3. The gain in strength of metakaolin and fly ash concrete
with age is normal compared to that of ordinary concrete.
4. Metakaolin and flyash helps concrete in having better
sulphate resistance. Metakaolin can be recommended as
0%
10%
20%
30%
useful admixture to enhance the durability of concrete in

aggressive environment consisting of sulphates.
5. Cement replacement upto 10% with metakaolin and

flyash leads to increase in compressive strength, for M40
Table show that water absorption results M40

grade concretes
Its shows 28 days results and We got optimum
water absorption at 10% replacement for M40
grade of concrete.
grade of concrete. From 30% there is a decrease in

compressive strength for 7& 28 days curing period.
6. The maximum replacement level of metakaolin and fly
ash is 10% for M40 grade of concrete.
4. Conclusion
The use of metakaolin and fly ash give
rise to an increase in the strength as well as durability
properties concrete, with less cement and a concrete
having better resistance for freezing and thawing than
ordinary concrete. Durability is improved through
significant improvement to chemical attack. The chief
reasons for this are reduced permeability and reduced
level of calcium hydroxide.
References
[1] Sabir B.B, Wild S, Bai J, Metakaolin and calcined
clay as pozzolans for concrete :a review Cement and
concrete composite 23 ,(2001),pp.441-454.
[2] Jian-Tong Ding and Zongjin Li Effects of
Concrete ACI Materials Journal/July-August
2002,pp.393-398.
Reinforcement corrosion is vastly reduced due to
[3] Badogiannis E, Papadakis V.G., Chaniotakis E,
improved permeability, increased resistivity and improve
Tsivilis S, Exploitation of poor Greek kaolins: Strength
the tensile strength.
development of metakaolin concrete and evaluation by
Based on the investigation
conducted on the strength and durability characteristics
means of k-value Cement and Concrete Research 34
metakaolin and flyash with metakaolin and fly ash as the
(2004),pp.10351041.
replacement materials the following conclusions were
[4] Justice J.M, Kennison L.H, Mohr B.J., Beckwith
drawn.
S.L, McCormick L.E, Wiggins B., Zhang Z.Z, and Kurtis

K.E, Comparison of Two Metakaolins and a Silica
Fume Used as Supplementary Cementitious Materials
Page 370
SP- 228(Volume1&2) Seventh International Symposium

on Utilization of High-Strength/HighPerformance
Concrete, June(2005),SP228.
[6]
Naik
T.R.Singh,
S.S
and
hossian,M.M
(1995),Properties of high performance concrete systems

in corporating large amounts of high lime fly ash;
construction and building materials. Vol.9.no 4.pp.195204.
[7] M.B.Kumthekar, G.S.Vyas, N.T.Suryawanshi and
M.B.More, Techno-Economical Benefit of Metakaolin
Over Microsilica in Developing High Performance
Concrete, CE&CR July 2007, 42-50.
[8] Zongjin Li, Yunsheng Zhang, Handbook of
structural Engineering, 15 (CRC Press, 2005) 1-58
[9] Shreeti S. Mavinkurve, Prabir C. Basu and Vijay R.
Kulkarni, High Performance concrete using high
reactivity metakaolin, The Indian Concrete Journal,
May 2003, 1077-1085.
[10] K.A.Gruber, Terry Ramlochan, Andrea Boddy,
R.D.Hooton, M.D.A.Thomas, Increasing concrete
durability with high reactivity metakaolin, Cement &
Concrete Composites, Vol. 23, 2001, 479-484.
[11] Dinakar P. High reactivity metakaolin for high
strength and high performance concrete, The Indian
Concrete Journal, April 2011, 28-32
Page 371
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF COIR FIBER WITH COIR PITH, AS CONCRETE

REINFORCEMENT MATERIAL
1

3
2
Abstract
Incrementing concern about ecumenical warming and depleting petroleum reserves have made scientists to focus more
on the utilization of natural fibers such as bagasse, coir, sisal, jute etc. This has resulted in engenderment of more
cognizance about the utilization of natural fibers predicated materials mainly composites. In past decade there has been
many efforts to develop composites to supersede the petroleum and other non decaying materials predicated products.
The abundant availability of natural fiber in India gives attention on the development of natural fiber composites
primarily to explore value-integrated application avenues. Reinforcement with natural fiber in composites has recently
gained attention due to low cost, facile availability, low density, acceptable categorical properties, ease of disseverment,
enhanced energy instauration, C02 neutrality, biodegradability and recyclable in nature. Agricultural wastes can be
habituated to prepare fiber reinforced polymer composites for commercial use. Albeit glass and other synthetic fiberreinforced plastics possess high categorical vigor, their fields of application are very constrained because of their innate
higher cost of engenderment. In this connection, an investigation has been carried out to make utilization of coir; a
natural fiber and coir pith abundantly available in India. This review discusses the utilization of coir fiber and
composite(coir fiber with coir pith) and its current status of research.
Keywords: Natural Fiber, Coir Fiber, Coir pith, Epoxy Resin, Polymer Composites.
1. Introduction
The trend goes beyond the practice of design and construction,
since the awareness of the current population is a crucial factor
for the success of this tendency. The commonly used materials
in construction fields are steel, cement, synthetic polymers and
metal alloys. These cause environmental pollution during their
entire life cycle. We have enough natural resources and we
must keep on researching on these natural resources, which can
be used in construction fields. The natural fibers are bamboo
fibers, coir fiber and jute fiber are have high impact strength
,tensile strength , ducitility, fracture roughness, crack inhibiting
properties and flexural properties and it also an environmental
friendly material and low cost too. Moreover the addition of
fiber act as crack arrester in concrete structure and improves its
static and dynamic properties. Investigations are carried out on
the use of coir fiber in cement paste, mortar and concrete.
Incorporation of the fiber improves the ductility, flexural and
tensile strengths, fracture roughness and crack inhibiting
properties of the matrix. In this investigation the different size
of short coir fiber is treated with natural rubber latex. The
effect of fiber content, different fiber length, physical and
mechanical properties of these composite have been analysed.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Coir is an inexpensive fiber among the natural fibers available
in the world. Furthermore, it possesses the advantages of a
lignocelluloses fiber. In the present study brown coir fiber is
utilized. In this experiment M20 grade concrete is utilized.
Concrete was made with 43 Grade cement with river sand and
aggregates are sieved on 22mm sieve and retained on 20mm
sieve. The quantity of materials utilized are as per mix design
as follows. Cement is 350 Kg/m3, fine aggregate is 525
Kg/m3, coarse aggregate is 1050 Kg/m3, and di-hydrogen
monoxide/cement ratio is 0.45.For a casting of cube we utilized
in the commixed proportion of M20 grade concrete 1:1.5:3of
Cement is 1.400 kg, Fine aggregate is 2.100 kg, Coarse
aggregate is 4.200 kg and di-hydrogen monoxide/cement ratio
is 0.45.
2.1 Preparation of Composites
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Page 372
It was conducted on coir fiber similarly on coir pith with coir

fiber as concrete reinforcement. Coir pith and other undesirable
materials are dissevered from the coir fiber. It is then chopped
to about length of 25mm and subjected to chemical treatments.
Coir fibers and coir pith with fiber are soused in sodium
hydroxide solution for 48 hours. Fiber and pith were taken out,
perpetually washed with di-hydrogen monoxide and dried in
the air. Latex compound is yare by commixing 70% of natural
rubber latex and 10% of sodium hydroxide solution and 20% of
di-hydrogen monoxide. Then the coir fiber and coir pith is
dipped in the coalescence about 15 minutes and dried.
.
Fig.3. Test setup
2.3 Increase in compressive strength of concrete
Fig.1. Coir Fiber
Fig. 4 Specimen without any fibers after compression test
Fig.2.Treatment with Latex
2.2 CASTING AND TESTING OF SPECIMEN

Cubes that have a size of 150mm x150mmx150mm are casted
with M20 grade concrete as a control specimen. First 0.75% of
25mm coir fiber is integrated with concrete and specimens are
casted. Then 0.50% and 0.25% of 25mm coir fiber and coir
pith is integrated with concrete for making specimens. After 24
hours the specimens are abstracted from the mould. For
remedying the specimens were kept in the di-hydrogen
monoxide. After remedying Compressive Vigor of Concrete
Specimens is tested in the 7th,14th and 28th days utilizing
compression testing machine.
Fig.5 Specimen with fibers after compression test
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Page 373
Table.1 Comparison of compressive strength of coir

fiber concrete and coir pith with fiber concrete
Compressive
Strength
of
After
7
days
of
curing in
N/mm
After 14
days
of
curing in
N/mm
After 28
days of in
In N/mm
Normal concrete
13.33
15.7
20.9
Coir Fibre added

concrete
14.38
17.44
22.89
specimen
Coir pith with

fibre
added
concrete
13.73
16.13
21.8
The graph 3 shows that the different percentage of coir fiber

and coir pith with different 25mm gives differenent vigor
value. The vigor gradually incremented up to 0.75% of coir
fiber then the vigor is decremented with 0.75% of coir fiber
and 0.25% of coir pith. The maximum compressive vigor is
achieved utilizing 25mm length fiber with 0.75% integration
of coir fiber.
.
Graph 3: Compressive strength of coir pith with fibre added
concrete
4 CONCLUSION
Graph 1: Compressive strength of Normal concrete
3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The result shows that the integration of latex treated coir fiber
increase the compressive vigor. Additament of coir fiber
additionally apprehend the micro cracks present in the
concrete. Vigor properties like compressive vigor are shown in
the graph 2.
Graph 2: Compressive strength of Coir
concrete
fibre added
Thus the coir fibers reduces environmental pollution factors

and brings very good amendment in concrete characteristics. It
additionally averts the micro cracks in the structure. Thus this
research withal contribute to sustainable living through
ameliorating live hood conditions of rural and farming
communities by utilizing agricultural
or cycled waste
products. This is a kind of solid waste management.
.
References
[1] Vaerenbergh SM, Legros CP. Influence of thermal
boundary conditions on the double-diffusive process in a
binary mixture. Int. J. Thermal & Environmental
Engineering, 2010;1:109-129.
[2] Haik, Y: Engineering Design Process. Pacific Grove:
Brooks/Cole, 2003.
[3] Toukourou NM, Gakwaya B, Yazdani JJ. An objectoriented finite element implementation of large
deformation frictional contact problems and applications.
Proceedings of the 1st MIT conference on CFSM.
Cambridge, MA, 2001.
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Page 374
[4] Occeelli V, Tadrict W, Raddev H. Disintegration of

cylindrical liquid columns in liquid-fluid systems: direct
numerical simulation. In: Schmitt A (Ed), Dynamics of
Multiphase Flows. across Interfaces. Springer-Verlag,
2006, pp. 21-60.
[6] Kumar D. Modeling and Representation to Support

Design-Analysis Integration. Master Thesis, Department
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology;
2009.
[5] Peky GK. X-Analysis Integration (XAI) Technology.

Virginia Tech Report EL002-2000A, March 2010.
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Page 375
A STUDY ON REPLACEMENT OF NATURAL SAND BY BLENDS OF FLYASH AND

BOTTOM ASH IN CONCRETE
Sadat Ali Khan 1, S Gobinath2, S Veraragavan3
1
2
3
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India, khanalisadat@gmail.com

Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India,esgobinath@gmail.com
3
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India,vrragavan29@gmail.com
2
Abstract
Concrete is a material with high vigor and durability and emerged as the prevailing construction material for the
infrastructure requirements of the twenty-first century. Energy is the main backbone of modern civilization of the world
over, and the electric power from thermal power stations is a major source of energy, in the form of electricity. Over
70% of electricity engendered in India, is by combustion of fossil fuels, out of which proximately 61% is engendered by
coal-fired plants. This results in the engenderment of roughly 100 million ton of ash and withal the consumption of
waste materials can be incremented manifold, if these are utilized as aggregate into cement mortar and concrete. This
type of utilization of waste materials can solve quandaries of lack of aggregate in assorted construction sites and reduce
environmental quandaries cognate to aggregate mining and waste disposal. With the concept of sustainable development
it is implicated acutely to utilize high performance materials and products manufactured with the lowest possible
environmental impact. Here an endeavor is made to study the effect of replacement of natural sand by of blends of fly
ash and bottom ash on strength properties of concrete and making it acceptable in concrete industry thus engendering a
market for fly ash and bottom ash which are the byproducts of thermal power stations which would otherwise go as
waste and withal requires immense landfills for storage.
Keywords: Concrete, Fly ash, Bottom ash, Natural sand
1. Introduction
Ash is a residue resulting from
combustion of pulverized coal or lignite in thermal
power plants. About 80% of total ash is in finely
divided form which is carried away with flue gases and
is collected by electrostatic precipitator or other
suitable technology. This ash is called fly ash or
chimney ash or hopper ash. The balance 20% of the ash
gets collected at the bottom of the boiler and is referred
as bottom ash. Fly ash consists of inorganic materials
mainly silica and alumina with some amount of organic
material in the form of unburnt carbon. Its fineness is
comparable to cement. However, some particles have
size less than 1 micron. The chemical composition and
physical characteristics of a fly ash from a coal fired
furnace are controlled by the type of coal and
processing conditions of the furnace. These vary not
only from one plant to another but also within the same
plant. Large variation in the chemical composition of
fly ashes is, therefore, natural. Fortunately, however,
the pozzolanic properties of a fly ash are not governed
so much by the chemistry but by the mineralogy and
the particle size of the fly ash. Bottom ash is a

somewhat variable material that may sometimes
contain pyrites or lightweight, porous "popcorn"
particles. Bottom ash has coarse particle size, higher
water absorption and usually no pozzolanic effect. A
survey has indicated that, thermal power plant bottom
ash would be a potential fine aggregate in concrete.
There are about forty major thermal power plants in
India. The beneficial use of fly ash in concrete is the
preferable option for safe and economical utilization of
millions tons of fly ash. There is a critical need to find
new methods for using fly ash for its highest and best
use. The major obstacle in use of bottom ash in a
concrete is that the chemical properties of coal bottom
ash are different from place to place and depends upon
the origin of the raw material. On Indian scenario it is
observed that at very few places good quality of sand
may be available in plenty. All metro and mega cities in
India are facing acute shortages of good quality of sand.
At some places sand available is coarser than Zone-I
sand and hence not suitable for construction work. In
contrast to the sand, bottom ash is available in huge
Sadat Ali Khan. Tel.: +917418979308

E-mail: khanalisadat@gmail.com
Page 376
Sadat Ali Khan et. al. / INDECS-15
quantity due to more and more thermal power plants in

India
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Arumugam K., Ilangovan R., Jamesmanohar D in
their paper entitled A study on characterization and
use of Pond Ash as fine aggregate in Concrete have
dealt with the possibility of using pond ash in varying
percentage as fine aggregate substitute in cement
concrete. During the combustion of pulverized coal at
the thermal power station the product formed are
bottom ash, fly ash and vapours. There bottom ash is
that part of residue which is fused into particles and is
collected at the bottom of the furnace. The distribution
between bottom ash and fly ash fraction is a function of
burner type, type of coal and the type of boiler bottom
(wet or dry). In India most of the thermal power plants
adopt wet method of ash disposal. The fly ash
collected from Electrostatic precipitator and the bottom
ashes are with water and disposed in a slurry form in
large ponds and dykes. Fly ash acts both as a fine
aggregate and as a cement. Pond ash differs from fly
ash collected from Electrostatic precipitators in a dry
form in that it contains significant amount of relatively
coarser particles (greater than 45 m and up to 150
m).The fine aggregate in concrete was replaced by
pond ash in the percentages of 0%,20%,40%,&60%.
The experimental results indicated that at 20% of
replacement of pond ash has attained the maximum
compressive strength, flexure strength and split tensile
strength.
Aggarwal P., Aggarwal Y., Gupta S.M in their paper
entitled Effect of bottom ash as replacement of fine
aggregates in concrete have studied about the use of
bottom ash in concrete .Though a large number of
significant results have been reported on the use of fly
ash in concrete however, there is not much literature
available on the use of fly ash as partial replacement of
fine aggregates with even less literature on the use of
bottom ash as partial replacement of fine aggregate.
Experimental investigations were carried out by
replacing sand by equal weight of fly ash, with sand
replacement levels of 0, 20 and 30 % and w/c ratio of
0.35, 0.40, 0.45 and 0.50, keeping cement content
constant at 350 kg/m3 in all mixes. Compressive
strength gain and corrosion resistance was higher for
sand replaced with fly ash mixtures. Also, the corrosion
rate of reinforcing steel bars in concrete was lowest in
30% replacement level. Mechanical properties like
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural
strength and modulus of elasticity at age of 7, 14, 28,
56, 91 and 365 days were studied. The strength
difference between fly ash concrete specimens and
plain concrete specimens become more distinct after 28
days. The maximum compressive strength, flexural
strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity was observed to be with 50 % fly ash content
at all ages.
Djwantoro Hardjito, and Shaw Shen Fun in their

paper entitled Parametric study on the properties of
geopolymer mortar incorporating bottom ash have
studied about effect of various parameters on
mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymer
mortar with bottom ash as partial or full replacement
for sand. Compressive strength of samples with 10%
bottom ash (BA) was comparable to those with only
sand. Further increase in bottom ash content decreased
the compressive strength.
Kadam M.P., Patil Y.D in their paper entitled Effect
of coal bottom ash as sand replacement on the
properties of concrete with different W/C ratio
have found the effects of coal bottom ash as fine
aggregates in place of sand. Compressive strength, split
tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity,
density and water permeability are studied. The natural
sand was replaced with coal bottom ash by 0%, 10%,
20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and
100% by weight, as water absorption of bottom ash was
more so that quantity of water was increased to achieve
100 mm slump. The results shows that the compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength
decreased as the percentage of replacement coal bottom
ash increased as compared to controlled concrete. In
this work slump was kept constant 100 10 mm. To
achieve the required slump water quantity was
increased as percentage replacement increased. It was
observed that up to 30% replacement the results of
compressive, flexural, split and water permeability test
are approximately same as that of the controlled
concrete.
Rafat Siddique in his paper entitled Effect of fine
aggregate replacement with class F fly ash on the
mechanical properties of concrete has presented the
results of an experimental investigation carried out to
evaluate the mechanical properties of concrete mixtures
in which fine aggregate (sand) was partially replaced
with Class F fly ash. Fine aggregate (sand) was
replaced with five percentages (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%,
and 50%) of Class F fly ash by weight. Tests were
performed for properties of fresh concrete.
Compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural
strength, and modulus of elasticity were determined at
7, 14, 28, 56, 91, and 365 days. Test results indicate
significant improvement in the strength properties of
plain concrete by the inclusion of fly ash as partial
replacement of fine aggregate (sand), and can be
effectively used in structural concrete.
Zhengyueren, and Lijiuwang in their paper entitled
Research of high fly ash content in concrete with
dipy construction formwork have studied about the
application of high fly ash content concrete (HFCC)
with Dipy construction formwork. Concrete
construction using Dipy construction formwork can
skip the processes of form stripping and concrete
vibration. According to the research of the working
Page 377
principle of concrete with Dipy construction formwork,

it can be found that cement paste composed of high fly
ash content exudes out from the inner of the concrete
wall. This process can reduce the air bubbles and then
improve the compatibility of concrete. To improve the
strength, durability, and carbonation resistance of the
high fly ash content concrete, the DG-II fly ash
activating agent has been developed and researched.
3.5 Water
2.1 Need for research
4.0 Mix proportion for M 30 Grade concrete
The use of material to be replaced by natural sand

which will give new dimension in concrete mix design
and if applied on large scale would revolutionize the
construction industry by economizing the construction
cost and enable us to conserve natural resources.
Grade of
2.2 Objectives of study

To find out the effect of replacement of natural sand by
blends of fly ash and bottom ash on the properties of
concrete. For this purpose natural sand is replaced by
both fly ash and bottom ash in different percentages
such as 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%,
80%, 90%, and 100%. In each percentage of
replacement both fly ash and bottom ash are taken in
equal proportions i.e. blended equally. Strength
characteristics such as compressive strength, tensile
strength, flexural strength, impact strength, and shear
strength are found when natural sand is replaced by
blends of fly ash and bottom ash. Also workability and
near surface characteristics like water absorption and
absorptivity are found for different replacements. To
achieve the above objective different experimentations
are planned on M 30 grade of concrete with 28 and 90
days of curing.
3.0 Materials used
3.1 Cement
In this experimental work, Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) 43 grade conforming to IS: 8112 - 1989 was
used.
3.2 Fly ash
Water fit for drinking is generally considered fit for

making concrete.
3.6 Coarse aggregates
Locally available crushed aggregates confirming to IS
383-1970 are used in this experimentation.
Cement
Cement
M30
1.00
Fine
Coarse
aggregate
aggregate
1.59
2.79
W/c
0.45
5.0 Methodology
Experimental investigation is carried out to study the
effect of the strength properties of concrete, due to
replacement natural sand blends of fly ash and bottom
ash. Waste product available from thermal power plant
such as fly ash and bottom ash are used in blends as a
percentage replacement of fine aggregate, thus the
whole study is experimental oriented. Workability tests
are conducted on fresh concrete. Slump cone test,
Compaction factor test, Vee-Bee consisto meter test.
Near surface characteristic tests, Water absorption test
are carried out. Strength tests such as Compressive
strength test using 150mm X 150mm X 150mm cube,
Tensile strength test using 150mm X 300mm cylinder,
Flexural strength test using 100mm X 100mm X
500mm beam, Shear strength test using L shape shear
specimen are investigated.
6.0 Mixing and casting
Sand was replaced by blends of fly ash and bottom ash
as per desired percentages. Blending of fly ash and
bottom ash is done in equal proportions for the
particular percentage of replacement of fine aggregate.
Mixing was done by hand. Cement and fine aggregate
shall be mixed dry to a uniform color and then the
coarse aggregate is added and mixed until the coarse
aggregate is uniformly distributed. Now water and
superplasticizer is added and the whole mix is mixed
until the resulting concrete is uniform in color.
In this experimental work, low calcium, class F dry fly

ash from the silos of Raichur thermal power plant
conforming to IS: 3812 (Part 1) 2003 was used.
3.3 Bottom ash
Bottom ash is obtained from the dumping yard in
Raichur thermal power plant.
3.4 Fine aggregates
Locally available river sand belonging to zone II of IS:
383-1970 was used for the project work.
Page 378
6.0 EXPERIMENTAL TEST RESULTS

6.1 Workability test results
6.1.1 Slump test results.
The slump test results of concrete produced by
replacing the natural sand by blends of fly ash and
bottom ash. The variation of slump is shown in fig 5.1.
Fig.4.8(a) Mixing of ingredients
Fig.5.1 Variation of slump

6.1.2 Compaction factor test results.
The compaction factor test results of concrete produced
by replacing the natural sand by blends of fly ash and
bottom ash. The variation of compaction factor is
shown in fig 5.2.
Fig.4.8(b) Mixing of ingredients
Fig.5.2 Variation of compaction factor

6.1.3 Vee-Bee consistometer test results.
The Vee-Bee consistometer test results of concrete
produced by replacing the natural sand by blends of fly
ash and bottom ash. The variation of test results is
shown in fig 5.3
Fig.4.11 Demoulded specimens
Page 379
Fig.5.5 Soroptivity test results
Fig.5.3 Variation of Vee-Bee time

6.2 Near surface characteristic test results
6.2.1Water absorption test results
The water absorption test results of concrete produced
bottom ash. The variation of test results is shown in fig
5.4
6.4 Strength test results

6.4.1 Compressive strength test results.
The compressive strength test results of concrete
produced by replacing natural sand by blends of fly ash
and bottom ash in different percentages.
6.4.2 Overall results of compressive strength
The overall results of compressive strength of concrete
and bottom ash in different percentages. The variation
of compressive strength is shown in fig 5.6.
Fig.5.6 Variation of compressive strength
Fig.5.4 Variation of water absorption results

6.3 Soroptivity test results
The sorptivity test results of concrete produced by
bottom ash.
6.4.3 Split tensile strength test results.

The split tensile strength test results of concrete
Produced by replacing natural sand by blends of fly ash
6.4.5 Overall results of split tensile strength
The overall results of split tensile strength of concrete
of split tensile strength is shown in fig 5.7.
Page 380
6.6.1 Overall results of shear strength

The overall results of shear strength of concrete
produced by replacing by natural sand by blends of fly
ash and bottom ash in different percentages. The
variation of shear strength is shown in fig 5.9
Fig.5.7 Variation of split tensile strength

6.5 Flexural strength test results
The flexural strength test results of concrete produced
by replacing natural sand by blends of fly ash and
bottom ash in different percentages.
6.5.1 Overall results of flexural strength
The overall results of flexural strength of concrete
of flexural strength is shown in fig 5.8.
Fig.5.8 Variation of flexural strength
Fig.5.9 Variation of shear strength

6.7 Impact strength test results
6.7.1 Overall results of impact strength
The overall results of impact strength of concrete
produced by replacing natural sand by blends fly ash
of compressive strength is shown in fig 5.10
Fig.5.10 Variation of impact strength for final

failure
6.6 Shear strength test results
8.0 OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
The shear strength test results of concrete produced by

replacing natural sand by blends of fly ash and bottom
ash in different percentages.
The following observations can be made based on the

study conducted on effect of replacement of natural
sand by blends of flyash and bottom ash on the
properties of concrete.
Page 381
1. It is observed that the workability as measured from

slump, compaction factor and vee-bee degree for
concrete produced by replacing natural sand by blends
of flyash and bottom ash goes on increasing up to
(10+10)% replacement level. After this the workability
drastically decreases. Thus the higher workability is
achieved when natural sand is replaced by (10+10) %
of blends of flyash and bottom ash.
This is due to the fact that at a replacement level of
(10+10) % the flyash and bottom ashes will induce a
ball bearing effect in the concrete thereby inducing
flow characteristics. Beyond this replacement the
concrete becomes harsher. Thus it can be concluded
that the workability of concrete produced by replacing
natural sand by blends of flyash and bottom ash is high
at (10+10) % replacement level.
2.It is observed that the water absorption and sorptivity
values of concrete produced by replacing natural sand
by blends of flyash and bottom ash show the least
values at replacement level of (10+10)%.There after the
water absorption and sorptivity go on increasing.
(10+10) % the flyash and bottom ashes may fill up all
the voids in the concrete mass thereby arresting the
capillary action of concrete.
Thus it can concluded that the water absorption and
sorptivity values of concrete produced by replacing
natural sand by blends of flyash and bottom ash is
minimum at (10+10)% replacement level.
3.It is observed that the compressive strength of
of flyash and bottom ash go on increasing upto
(25+25)% replacement level. After this the compressive
strength goes on decreasing. Thus the higher
compressive strength is achieved when the natural sand
is replaced by (25+25) % blends of flyash and bottom
ash. This is true for both 28 days and 90 days
compressive strength. The percentage increase in the
compressive strength at a replacement level of (25+25)
% are found to be 12.35% and 13.5% respectively for
28 days and 90 days.This may be due to the fact that at
a replacement level of (25+25) %, the flyash and
bottom ashes may induce a higher pozzalonic reactivity
thereby increasing C-S-H gel. Also it may be due to the
filler action of voids by flyash and bottom ash.Thus it
can be concluded that the compressive strength of
of flyash and bottom ash is higher at (25+25) %
replacement level.
4. It is observed that the split tensile strength of
(25+25)% replacement level. After this the split tensile
strength goes on decreasing. Thus the higher split
tensile strength is achieved when the natural sand is
replaced by (25+25) % blends of flyash and bottom
ash. This is true for both 28 days and 90 days split
tensile strength. The percentage increase in the split

tensile strength at a replacement level of (25+25) % are
found to be 33.93% and 28.61% respectively for 28
days and 90 days.
This may be due to the fact that at a replacement level
of (25+25) %, the flyash and bottom ashes may induce
a higher pozzalonic reactivity thereby increasing C-S-H
gel. Also it may be due to the filler action of voids by
flyash and bottom ash.
Thus it can be concluded that the split tensile strength
of concrete produced by replacing natural sand by
blends of flyash and bottom ash is higher at (25+25) %
replacement level.
5. It is observed that the flexural strength of concrete
produced by replacing natural sand by blends of flyash
and bottom ash go on increasing up to (25+25)%
replacement level. After this the flexural strength goes
on decreasing. Thus the higher flexural strength is
achieved when the natural sand is replaced by (25+25)
% blends of flyash and bottom ash. This is true for both
28 days and 90 days flexural strength. The percentage
increase in the flexural strength at a replacement level
of (25+25) % are found to be 33.12% and 31.17%
respectively for 28 days and 90 days.
Thus it can be concluded that the flexural strength of
replacement level.
6. It is observed that the shear strength of concrete
and bottom ash go on increasing upto (25+25)%
replacement level. After this the shear strength goes on
decreasing. Thus the higher shear strength is achieved
when the natural sand is replaced by (25+25) % blends
of flyash and bottom ash. This is true for both 28 days
and 90 days shear strength. The percentage increase in
the shear strength at a replacement level of (25+25) %
are found to be 35.23% and 30.58% respectively for 28
days and 90 days.
Thus it can be concluded that the shear strength of
replacement level.
7. It is observed that the impact strength of concrete for
final failure produced by replacing natural sand by
blends of flyash and bottom ash go on increasing upto
(25+25)% replacement level. After this the impact
Page 382
strength goes on decreasing. Thus the higher impact

strength is achieved when the natural sand is replaced
by (25+25) % blends of flyash and bottom ash. This is
true for both 28 days and 90 days impact strength. The
percentage increase in the impact strength at a
replacement level of (25+25) % are found to be 20.86%
and 20.89% respectively for 28 days and 90 days.
Thus it can be concluded that the impact strength of
replacement level.
9.0 CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions made on studies conducted on the effect of

replacement of natural sand by blends of flyash and
bottom ash on the properties of concrete.
The workability of concrete produced by

replacing natural sand by blends of flyash and
bottom ash is high at (10+10) % replacement
level.
The water absorption and sorptivity values of
concrete produced by replacing natural sand
by blends of flyash and bottom ash is
The compressive strength of concrete
produced by replacing natural sand by blends
of flyash and bottom ash is higher at (25+25)
% replacement level
The split tensile strength of concrete produced
by replacing natural sand by blends of flyash
and bottom ash is higher at (25+25) %
replacement level.
The flexural strength of concrete produced by
bottom ash is higher at (25+25) % replacement
level.
The shear strength of concrete produced by
level.
The impact strength of concrete produced by
level
10. References
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Effect of bottom ash as replacement of fine
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AnandKumar B.G. Effective utilization of
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Hardjito, D., Cheng, W.C., and Tanijaya.J.,
Controlled low strength materials (CLSM)
utilizing fly ash and bottom ash Indonesia
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Djwantoro Hardjito, and Shaw Shen Fun
Parametric study on the properties of geopolymer
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Research Letters, ISSR Journals Vol.1 (3)
September 2010 pp115-124.
Kadam M.P., Patil.Y.D. Effect of coal bottom
ash as sand replacement on the properties of
concrete with different W/C ratio International
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Mark Whittaker, Rachel Taylor, Qui Li,
Shuangxinli Li, and Dr.Leon Black The effects
of bottom ash as a partial cement replacement
University of Leeds, School of Civil Engineering,
e-Engineering, issue.1(2009).
Mohd Syahrul, Hisyambin, Zulkifli Muda The
properties of special concrete using washed bottom
ash (WBA) as partial sand replacement
International Journal of Sustainable Construction
Engineering and Technology vol.1 Dec (2010) pp
64-76.
Pofale A. D., and Deo S.V. Comparative long
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minimum voids method and maximum density
method KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
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Patil S.L., Kale J.N., Suman S. Fly ash concrete
a technical analysis for compressive strength
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Rafat Siddique. Effect of fine aggregate
replacement with class F fly ash on the mechanical
properties of concrete Journal of Cement and
Concrete Research 33 (ELSEVIER) (2003) pp
539547.
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Tayfun Uygunog, Ilker Bekir, Topcu B., Osman

Gencel, Wit old Bristow. The effect of yash ash
content and types of aggregates on the properties
of pre-fabricated concrete interlocking blocks
Journal of Construction and Building Materials
(ELSEVIER) Vol -30 2012 pp180-187.
Tarun R. Naik, Rudolph N., Kraus, and Bruce
W., Ramme. Development of dry-cast and wet
cast concrete products utilizing fly ash, bottom ash,
and used foundry sand CANMET/ACI Joe
Cabrera Symposium, Bangkok, Thailand (1998).
Michael Hayse Wolfe Bond strength of high
volume fly ash concrete Missouri University of
Science and Technology (2011).
Yun Bai, Ratiyah Ibrahim, and Muhammed
P.A. Properties of lightweight concrete
manufactured with fly ash, furnace bottom ash, and
lytag Queens University, Belfast, U.K vol.1
(2006) pp 77-87.
Yogesh Aggarwal, Paratibha Aggarwal.
Prediction of compressive strength of SCC
containing bottom ash using artificial neural
networks World Academy of Science,
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662-667.
Zhengyue Ren and Lijiu Wang. Research of
high fly ash content in concrete with dipy
construction formwork School of Civil and
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experimental study on strength development of
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Aggregate from natural sources for concrete
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concrete Method of test (First revision), Bureau
Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi, July 1999.
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concrete, edition 1.2, Bureau of Indian Standards,
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Page 384

A STUDY ON GLASS FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP

BEAMS WITH DIRECT LOADING
1- Research Scholar, Anna University -BIT, Tiruchirapalli
2 - Anna University-BIT, Tiruchirapalli,
3- Anna University, Chennai.
vengat74@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
This investigation deals with the behavior and ultimate strength of glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) deep
beams with and without openings in web subjected to two- point loading, eleven concrete deep beams of
dimensions 750mm350mm75mm thickness were tested to fail by applying gradually increased load. Simply
supported conditions were maintained for all the concrete deep beams. The percentage of glass fiber varied from
0 to 1.0.The influence of fiber content in the concrete deeps has been studied by measuring the deflection of the
deep beams and by observing the crack patterns. The investigation also includes the study of glass fiber
reinforced concrete deep beams with web reinforcement with and without openings. The ultimate load obtained
by applying the Ultimate shear strength equation [6] for reinforced concrete deep beams are compared with the
experimental values. The above study indicates that the location of openings and the amount of web
reinforcement, either in the form of discrete fibers or as continuous reinforcement are the principal parameters
that affect the behavior and strength of deep beams.
Keywords: Deep beams, Glass fiber, Beam -Web openings, GFRC deep Beams.
1. Introduction
Deep beam can be defined as a beam in which
either
clear
span
is
equal
to
or
less than four times the overall member depth or
concentrated
loads
are
within
a
distance equal to or less than two times the depth
from
the
face
of
support
(ACI
Committee 318, 2011).Deep beams are often used
as structural members in Civil Engineering works.
In many cases, web openings are required to
provide for services or for access. Because of the
geometric proportions of deep beams, their strength
is usually controlled by shear rather than flexure, if
normal amounts of reinforcements are provided. A
proliferation of new developments in glass fiber
reinforced concrete technology has greatly
extended the range of applications. The application
currently depends on the ingenuity of the designer
and builder taking advantage of the improved static
and dynamic tensile strength, ductility, energy
absorbing characteristics, abrasion resistance, and
fatigue strength of this new material of
construction. The uniform dispersion of glass fiber
throughout the concrete provided isotropic strength
properties which are not exhibited by
conventionally reinforced concrete. Previous
studies have shown that a significant increase in the
shear strength of deep beams with or without

openings can be achieved by providing either
conventional web reinforcement or glass fibers in
the concrete matrix. The inclusion of fibers in a
concrete matrix has been found to increase the
ultimate strength, increase the first crack load,
arrest the crack propagation, and enhance the
fracture toughness, post-cracking ductility, and
fatigue resistance.Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(GFRC) has gained increased popularity in
construction industries in the recent years.
Reinforcing plain concrete with glass fibers
has been used to improve the performance of
structural
members
such
as deep beams and slab, GFRC members can
exhibit
enhanced
shear
strength, more ductile behavior and reduced crack
widths. For the last two decades, a number of
investigations are being carried out on the behavior
of fiber reinforced composites. A number of
experimental and analytical investigations have
been carried out to study the behavior and collapse
loads of deep beams with and without web
opening. The openings are usually provided in such
Page 385
Vengatachalapathy.V et.al/INDECS-15
beams to have an access to utility ducts. As the
usage of those beams with or without openings
increases, it becomes imperative that the design
criteria of such beams are widely tested and
established.
disperse the concentrated forces, thereby avoiding

localized distress of concrete.
In the present investigation, glass fibers were used.

This investigation is a bid to study the behavior of
deep beams reinforced with glass fibers.
Concrete mix of 1 (cement) : 1.5(F.A) : 3 ( C.A.)

with water cement ratio by weight of 0.47 was used
for making the standard concrete specimens and for
deep beams. Cement and sand were first mixed
then coarse aggregate was added and the materials
were mixed thoroughly until uniformity was
achieved. To this concrete mixture, the fiber of
predetermined quantity was added and mixed,
taking care to avoid bundling or balling. Then the
required quantity of water was added slowly and
wet mixing was done. At all stages, hand mixing
was adapted and care was taken to ensure random
distribution of fibers in the composites. A
controlled internal vibration was used for the
compaction of the cylinders and prismatic
specimens. Eleven deep beams of size 750mm x
325mm x 75mm specimens with and without holes
as shown in table.1 were cast flat wise and
compacted on a vibration table in three layers.
2. Review of earlier works

Kong,F.K et al.( 1972) investigated the effect of
inclined web reinforcement on deep beams with
different span depth ratio. Leonharadt,F. H.A.R.de
Paiva et al.(1972) discussed the strength and
behavior of deep beams in shear. Prabhar.K
(1976),studied the collapse load of deep beams by
using a truss model analysis with a shear -span
effective-depth ratios of less than 1.0.Kong,F.K et
a.(1973),investigated shear strength of lightweight
reinforced concrete deep beams with openings.
Smith,K.N (1982),studied the effect of vertical and
horizontal web reinforcement and shear-span toeffective depth ratio of inclined cracking shear and
ultimate shear strength. Shanmugam, N.E
(1984),experiments carried out to study the
ultimate load behavior steel fiber reinforced
concrete deep beams. Parameshwaran, V.S
(1995),introduced to theory, properties and
application of fiber reinforced concrete. Vinu R.
Paterl (2010), used polypropylene fiber reinforced
concrete in moderate deep beams.
4. Casting of Deep beams and its Companions
3. Materials and Mix used

OPC of 53 grade with a specific gravity of 3.15
was used for all the specimens cast. The Fine
Aggregate used for casting was clean river sand.
The specific gravity of fine aggregate was 2.71.
The fineness modulus of the fine aggregate was 2.4.
The coarse aggregate used was broken granite
stone of size 10 mm. The specific gravity of coarse
aggregate was 2.84. The bulk density of coarse
aggregate was found to be 1640 kg/m3. Bore well
water available in the Structural Engineering
laboratory was used for casting all specimens of
this investigation. The quality of water was found
to satisfy the requirements of IS 456 -2000.
Figure 1: Location of the web opening at top and

bottom
Two steel rods of 16mm diameter of 415 N/mm2

yield strength were used as the main tension
reinforcement. The bars were anchored by welding
to 6mm thick steel plates at both ends. Each beam
contained web reinforcement consisting of two
layers of welded wire fabric of 3.3mm diameter
and 50mm on centers having a yield strength of
300 N/mm2.Bearing plates and reinforcement cages
was provided at supports and loading points to
Page 386
Table 1: Deep Beam Designation and
Geometric Dimensions
Bea
m
desi
gnat
ion
Beam
dimensions(mm)
Len
gth
Wi
dth
De
pth
Openin
g
size(m
m)
W
De
idt
h
pt
h
DB
W
WO
750
75
325
DB
WO
T
750
75
325
65
80
DB
WO
B
750
75
325
65
80
Detail
Deep
beam
without
web
openings
Deep
beam with
web
openings
at position
A
Deep
beam with
web
openings
at position
B
Cubes of size 150mm which had been cast along

with the slabs were tested on the same day on
which the respective slabs were tested to ascertain
the compressive strength of the concrete used in the
slabs. The cube tests were carried out in a
Compression Testing machine of 200 T capacity
and these tests were carried out as per the
recommendations of Indian Standard Codes of
Practice.
Prisms of size 100mm x 100mm x 500mm were
used for the determination of the flexural tensile
strength of reinforced concrete. The tests were
conducted in the Universal Testing Machine. Each
prism was supported over a span of 400mm. The
two point loads applied at each of the third span
points, i.e., 133.33 mm from each of the two
supports, were gradually increased until the
specimen failed. The failure load was noted down.
The modulus of elasticity of glassfiber reinforced
concrete deep beam was determined by conducting
compression tests on SFR Cylinders that had been
cast along with the deep beams. The test was
conducted in a UTM and the deformations
corresponding to the various loads were measured
by a dial gauge. These tests were carried out as per
IS-code recommendation.
4. Experimental Setup and Testing of Deep

beams
The deep beams were tested in a 100Tons capacity
Universal Testing Machine. All the beams were
tested to failure under Two point loading system.
The test set up for the beam is shown in below fig.2.
Each of the beam specimens was mounted on roller
supports on the Universal Testing Machine. Three
deflectometers were placed at the bottom face of
the beam at mid span and under the loading points.
Two-point loads were obtained by placing the
loading head on the top surface of the beam centre
and distributing the load through a spreader beam.
A small pre load was applied slowly to ensure that
the beam was properly seated and the
deflectometers were functioning properly. The load
was then removed, again applied and removed
slowly. Successive loads were applied in
increments of 10kN. Deflections at the mid-span
and under the loading points were recorded at each
load increment. During the test, the first crack
load was observed and the crack propagation was
carefully marked. All the beams were loaded till
failure. Based on the test results, standard
specimens for the various of addition of glass fibers.
The optimum fiber content as 0.75% to 1.0%. The
main specimens (deep beams) were cast with 0%,
0.75% and 1.0% and were tested to failure.
Figure 2: Test setup for

deep beams
5.1 Discussion of Test Results
5.1.1 Formation of cracksAll deep beam
specimens were tested and all of them failed in
shear. All beams were loaded to failure. The beams
collapsed due to excessive destruction of concrete
in the shear span. The crack patterns and failure of
test specimens are shown in fig.3. No cracking was
observed in any beam up to about 32% of ultimate
load. The first vertical flexural cracks were formed
in the region of maximum bending moment
between 40 % to 55% of the ultimate load a sudden
major inclined crack
Page 387
was formed almost in the middle of the shear span.
The initial crack was usually a sudden inclined
shear crack originating from the bottom corner of
the opening. With further increase of load, cracks
propagated towards the support while crack
originating at the top inner corner of the opening
propagated upward towards the load bearing plate.
Other flexural and flexural shear cracks were
subsequently formed and propagated upwards. At
higher loads, diagonal cracks were developed and
propagated until the beam failed in diagonal shear
mode. This is verified by the test results.
All existing cracks were observed between 55 to
68% of ultimate load. At about 72 to 78 % of
ultimate load, new inclined cracks were formed
parallel to the line joining the load edge and
support blocks. Also at about the same load level a
tension vertical crack appeared over the supports.
This is the results of the thrusts eccentricity which
essentially acts along the inclined crack. Finally,
beam failure occurred by concrete destroyed in
either the reduced compression zone at the head of
the inclined crack and the region adjacent to the
loading block or by fracture of the concrete along
the inclined cracks.
propagated towards the support and loading joint

from a subsequent increase in applied load. The
crack widths tends to increase with load, especially
at loads higher than inclined cracking loads.
Maximum crack width along the major inclined
crack in the shear span occurred almost at mid
depth of the beam.
5.3 Load Deflections
A load deflection curve for all the beams tested are
shown in fig.4.The variation in the early stage is
linear until the first crack is reached. As more
cracks were formed and propagated, there was a
reduction in the stiffness of the beams resulting in
higher rates of deflection. It is also observed that
the stiffness of the beam depend largely on the
extent to which the openings interrupt the vertical
load path.
Figure 3: Deep beams a) DBBOT

b) DBWOB
5.2 Inclined Cracking and Ultimate Loads
The inclined cracking load is defined as the load at
which the first major inclined crack appears in the
shear span. This was sudden cracks that usually
originated in the middle of the shear span and
Page 388
Pu/2
= C1f1f2 (1-0.36 X / d) ftn b D + C2 A(y
2
/D) sin
C1
= 1.0
C2
= 300N/mm2 for deformed bars
f1
= (1- a1)(1-1.667 a2),the reduction factor
for the size of the opening
f2
= h+2(k2)r X(((k1- k2)2/(( a1x)2 +( a2D)2))1/2
1.0, the reduction factor for interruption
of the opening on the radial load parts
N
=1.1 for fiber
=1.5 for web bar and 1.0 for main bar

h
=0.6-2k 0.2
r
=1.0 for centre opening is in the unloaded
quadrant and 2.0 for loaded quadrant
b is the width of the beam, X is the clear span, D is
over all depth of the beam, y is the depth at which a
steel bar intersects a potential critical diagonal
crack, is the angle of intersection, A is the area of
the steel provided, ft is the split tensile strength and
a1, a2 , k, & k1 are the coefficients defining the size
and position of the openings.
Figure 4: Load vs.

Deflection Curve
5.4 Influence of glass fiber on the first crack
load and ultimate load
The initial cracks in the reinforced concrete beams
without fiber were observed in 40% of the ultimate
load where, for glass fiber reinforced beam the first
crack load was found to be between 40% to 50%
the ultimate load. There is a 5% to 10% increase in
ultimate load for fiber reinforced concrete beams
when compared with beams without fiber
reinforcement. Thus the experimental results show
that there is an increase in the ultimate load and the
first crack load for the fiber reinforced concrete
deep beams.
5.5 Analysis of the test results
The proposed equation(modified Kong and Sharps
formula) is suggested by Swaddiwudhipong et al
[6] for reinforced concrete deep beams with
openings to calculate the ultimate shear capacity
and it is including the effect of fibers that provides
an extra shear capacity, fracture toughness and
crack arrest.
The ultimate capacity (Pu) of fiber reinforced
concrete deep beams with openings.
The calculated theoretical ultimate capacity as

given in the table.3 by using above formula.
Tests have been conducted on standard specimens
with different percentage of fiber addition,
i.e.0%,0.5%,0.75% and
1.0%(by volume).The
results had been compared and optimum fiber
centre which can be added to main specimen was
found to be between the range 0.75% and 1.0% for
the available shell fibers. The main specimens were
cast with 0%, 0.75% and 1.0% and were tested to
failure.The comparison of the experimental failure
load with theoretical results in table.3 shows that
the modified Kong and Sharps formula provides
theoretical predication and it is matching with
experimental values. The observation of the failure
load listed in Table.3 in conjunction with the beam
geometry confirms that the effect of web opening
on the load-carrying capacity of deep beams
depends largely on the percentage of fiber interrupt
the load path. The greater degree of interruption,
the greater is the reduction in ultimate strength.
The observation shows that the first crack load was
found to increase 5% to 10% for the fiber
reinforced beams and the beams did not crumble
and fell down. The observation also shows that for
an optimum percentage of 0.75% by volume, gives
maximum ultimate load for the deep beams.
Hence the results presented here in support the
postulates that the ultimate strength of deep beams
depends greatly on the degree of interruption of the
opening on the natural load path and also the
percentage of fiber content present in the beam and
openings in the tension zone weaken the beam. The
modified Kong and Sharps formula provide the
accurate prediction of the ultimate strength of fiber
reinforced concrete deep beams with and without
web openings.
Page 389
1
2
3
4
0
20
40
60
0.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0
0.5
0.7
1.0
80
1.0
1.2
100
120
140
150
200
220
240
First crack
Load(kN)
Ultimate
Load(kN)
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.3
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.4
6
7
8
9
10
Fiber 0.75%
Fiber1.0%
W
W
D
O
B
W
O
T
D
B
W
O
B
Without fiber
Loads
(kN)
D
B
W
W
O
D
B
W
O
T
D
B
W
O
D
B
B
W
W
O
D
B
W
O
D
T
B
W
O
D
B
B
S.No

0.0
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.5
0.0
0.4
0.6
0.75
0.0
0.6
0.65
0.8
0.0
0.6
0.75
1
0.0
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.0
0.7
0.9
1.1
0.0
0.7
1.0
1.2
0.9
1.0
1.3
1.1
1.4
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.5
2.8
1.3
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
2.7
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.6
3.3
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.1
2.5
2.8
1.6
1.9
2.1
2.4
2.7
1.8
2.3
2.6
2.9
3.1
91.0
81.0
102.0
90.5
89.0
221
174
215.0
209.0
163.2
85.0
80.0
75.0
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.0
2.4
2.8
105.0
201
175
165
230.0
Table 2: Deflection at mid span
Theoretical
load(kN)
Fiber -1.0%
Experimental
load(kN)
Theoretical
load(kN)
Fiber -0.75%
Experimental
load(kN)
Opening Position
Theoretical
load(kN)
Experimental
load(kN)
Fiber -0%
Without web opening

(DBWWO)
201
208
230
221
215
212
Web opening at A
(DBWOT)
175
176
221
188
209
180
Web opening position at B

(DBWOB)
165
168
174
161
163.2
158
Table 3: Experimental Analytical results for deep beams
Page 390
behavior of the structure

conducting the accelerated test.
5. Conclusion
The following conclusions can be drawn from the
experimental results:
by
The effect of an opening on the

ultimate shear strength of a deep
beam depends primarily on the
extent to which it intercepts the load
path joining the load bearing block
at the loading point and the support
reaction point, and on the location at
which this interception occurs.
Size of openings may be varied and

percentage if the saving of material
which will not affect the ultimate
loads carrying capacity of the beams
may be studied.
Experimental investigation may be

conducted with plastic fibers such as
polypropylene,
high
density
polyethylene fibers and corrugated
steel fibers.
The observation shows that the first

crack load was found to increase 5to
10% for the fiber reinforced beams.
The openings may be stiffened with

stirrups and the behavior of beams
may be studied.
Web openings may be provided in

the compression zone of the beams
and
fiber
content of 0.75% by volume may be
added to improve the strength of the
structure.
The opening in the tension zone

weakens the beam.
Fiber content of 0.75%by volume of

the beam improves the ultimate load
and the
first crack load of the
beam.
Additional of glass fibers increases

the tensile strength of concrete
matrix and also increase in the
flexural rigidity of the beam.
Modified Kong and Sharps formula

provides almost accurate prediction
of the ultimate strength of fiberreinforced concrete deep beams
with or without opening.
Acknowledgement
My sincere thanks to Dr. Suresh Babu, Prof &HOD
S.Gobinath,Department of Civil Engineering,
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering,Hosur &
Mr.Sridhar, Faculty,Civil, Adhiyamaan Polytechnic
College Hosur. The author express his gratitude to
Mr. P.Sabrinathan, PS structures, Chennai for his
support.
6. References
1.
Kong,
F.K.,
Robins,P.J.,Singh
&
Sharp,G.P,.Deep beams with inclined web
reinforcement,
American
concrete
Insititute
Journal,Col.69,No.16,March
1972,PP.172-176.
2.
Leonharadt,F. H.A.R.de Paiva and

C.P.Siess 1972,Discussion of :Strength
and behavior of deep beams in shear by.
Proceedings of the American Society of
Civil Engineers.Vol.92, No. 2, pp 68-69.
3.
Prabhat,K.,1976,Collapse load of deep

reinforced concrete beams, Magazine of
concrete Research,Vol.28,No.94, pp 32-34.
4.
Kong,F.K.,Robins,P.J.,Singh
&
Sharp,G.R., 1972, Shear analysis and
design of reinforced concrete deep beams,
The structural engineer,Vol.50,No.10, pp
23-45.
5.
Smith,K.N and Vamtsiotis,A.D., Shear

strength
of
deep
beams ,proceeding ,American concrete
Institute
Journal,Vol.79,No.3,may
1982,PP 201-213.
5.1 Suggestion for further work
The experimental investigation may

be carried out for fiber with different
aspect ratio.
Different location of openings in the

web may be tried with the same fiber
for a bigger size specimen.

carried out to study the long term
Page 391
6.
7.
8.
Shanmugam,N.E
and
Swaddiwudhipong,S., 1984,The ultimate
load behavior of fiber reinforced concrete
deep beams, the Indian concrete Journal
Vol.58,No.8, pp 12-14.
Parameshwaran,V.S., Introduction to
theory, property and application of fiberreinforced concrete, summer school on
advances in reinforced cement composites
and
design
techniques,
may
215,1995,PP.1-3.
Vinu,R.Patel,Pandya.I.,and
Sandeep
c.Patel,. Prediction of shear strength of
PPFRC moderate deep beams using structand tie models, International journal of
engineering research and application,

Vol.1,No.2,PP.149-152.2008.
9.
ACI Committee 318, Building Code

Requirements for structural concrete and
Commentary (ACI 318-11).
10. Euro code 2, Design of Concrete

structures-Part 1-1: General rules for
buildings(2004).
11. IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced
Concrete Code of Practice Bureau of
Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, New
Delhi, India.
Page 392

hor
in
JPEG Format
Jagadeesha Kumar B G 1, Rishi Rai 2 Souvik Chakraborty 3

1
M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-54, India, bgjagadish@msrit.edu

2 M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-54, India,, rairishi2824@gmail.com
3 M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-54, India, souvik.chakraborty24@gmail.com
uthor (if any)

in
JPEG Format
Abstract
The better construction practices will go long way in saving time, money, materials and safety at workplace. This paper
makes an attempt to introduce a Japanese management technique known as Gemba Kaizen in construction industry so
as to achieve the above mentioned goals. Gemba means a location where value is added and Kaizen means
improvement. It works on the principle of five Ss ,the first stands for sort, the second for setting things in order ,the
third for scrub, the fourth for standardization of the process throughout the workplace and the fifth stands for
sustainability in the changes which have been through the process. The paper also analyses the suitability of such
techniques which is recently introduced in manufacturing sector into construction industry.
Keywords: Infrastructure Development, Management Tool, Construction Practices, Five Ss, Lean Manufacturing.
1. Introduction
Infrastructure development is the key for judging a countrys
growth with countries like India and China developing at such a
rapid rate infrastructure becomes the key. Construction industry for
infrastructure development in any country and its resource
consumption affect the GDP of the country to a major extent. In
India the construction industry has contributed an estimated 6708
billion to the national GDP in 2011-12 (a share of around 9%)
registering an annual growth of about 9 %. Around 16 per cent of
the nation's working population depends on construction for its
livelihood. The Indian construction industry employs over 30
million people and creates assets worth over 200 billion. The
cement industry accounts for approximately 1.2% of gross
domestic product (GDP) while construction industry consumes
around 45% of steel produced in the country. The share of India in
global crude steel production has increased from 2.7% in 1994 to
4.1% in 2008.[3] (Source: Planning Commission Working Group
report on Construction for the 11th Five Year Plan), During the
Ninth Five-year Plan period (1997-2002), the annual demand of
170 million bricks per year [6] was estimated to be generating
revenues of over Rs. 288 billion.
The construction industry playing such a significant role in the
development of the country is highly unorganized, better
construction practices are required to make a change. They will
reduce the overall project cost where savings include enhanced
competitive bidding, contract negotiation, value engineering,
reduced change orders, reduction in time, less polluting and
elimination of unnecessary scope and cost. They will also help in
centralized communication system which helps to integrate all the
participants. They will also enhance the product quality. The most
important advantage being that they will optimize and accelerate
the design and construction schedule. Scientific construction
practices will also reduce the time of construction and hence

save money.
The important prevailing construction management practices
are CPM & PERT. CPM stands for Critical Path Method, it
includes a list of all activities required to complete the project, the
time (duration) that each activity will take to complete, the
dependencies between the activities and logical end points such as
milestones or deliverable items and thus determines the shortest
time possible to complete the project. PERT (Project Evaluation
and Review Technique) is a method to analyze the involved tasks
in completing a given project, especially the time needed to
complete each task, and to identify the minimum time needed to
complete the total project. These methods are being used since
1958 and are to be optimized for the present trends thus there is a
need of fine tuning of the existing construction management
practices to bring about more efficiency, eco-friendly, cost and
time reduction, reduction in environmental pollution and safety at
work place.
2. Gemba Kaizen
Gemba Kaizen is a Japanese concept of continuous improvement
designed for enhancing processes and reducing waste. Within a
lean context, Gemba simply refers to the location where value is
created, while Kaizen relates to improvements. An organization
which has embraced the concept is constantly striving to improve
its processes, promotes discipline and standardization, and believes
the processes in place for solving problems are more valuable than
the solutions themselves. Kaizen is a mindset. Although many lean
practitioners have Kaizen in their toolbox, those who strive to live
Page 393
it each day are the people who are making a difference in people's
lives.
Gemba Kaizen embraces the skills of a whole organization,
inviting and rewarding employee contributions and understanding
even the smallest improvements will create greater value over time.
The concept focuses on achieving continuous improvement through
activities on the work floor.[3]
2.1. The 'Five Ss'
One of the key concepts of Kaizen is the pursuit of operation
excellence through a housekeeping technique known as the 'five
Ss'.The five Ss' are a good place for an organization to start when
introducing the concept, as it allows all employees to get
involved.[3]
The first S stands for seiri or sort which deals with the literal
contents of the Gemba that is to remove excess materials and create
a streamline flow. The second S stands for seiton which means
giving every item its correct place. The third S stands for seiso
which means scrub that is to keep the work place clean and taking
pride in it. Seiketsu is the fourth S which means standardization of
process throughout the workplace. Visual management is an
important aspect to facilitate easy understanding of these standards.
The fifth and the most important S stands for shitsuki which means
sustaining the changes which have been made.[3]
3. Gemba Kaizen in Lean Manufacturing
Lean Manufacturing, normally used in manufacturing Industry
is the implementation of the unique concept that anything that does
not create or add value in the product is to be eliminated. Lean
Manufacturing is a concept of more value for less work and its
simplicity is what makes it work. It works on a set of principles
which are Continuous flow, Lean Machines/Simplicity, Workplace
Organization, Parts Presentation, Reconfigurability, Product
Quality, Maintainability, Ease of Access, and Ergonomics.[4]
These lean manufacturing principles give rise to the usage of
the concept of Gemba Kaizen in lean manufacturing when
constant improvement in work place is carried out through these
principles. The use of Gemba Kaizen in lean manufacturing has
shown excellent results in many cases; the scrap content has
decreased down to less than 3%, there has been an increase in
productivity by 30% through better design & 22% by
standardization, saving of working space and decrease in wasted
area, almost 60% reduction in setup time, 59% lead time reduction
and high employee morale and job satisfaction [5].
Even in hospitals usage of Gemba Kaizen has reduced the
queue time by a significant amount. This method has also helped to
increase the count of MRI of a hospital in US from 86 to 112 per
week which added an approximate amount of $1.2 million to its
bottom line [ref. no.]. This shows how flexible the method is in
its implementation in various fields.[3]

4. Gemba Kaizen in Construction Industry
The construction industry of India like many developing countries
and under developed countries is highly unorganized and lacks
better construction practices and management techniques. Acute
material & time wastage, lack of proper planning and reduced
safety at workplace are the major problems. The methodology of

Gemba Kaizen which has worked in an excellent way in
manufacturing industry can be adopted in construction industry.
The structure of Gemba Kaizen which is based on the five Ss
gives an answer to many of the prevailing problems in construction
industry.
Sorting the materials in construction industry will create a
streamlined flow of work which can be done through the usage of
software like Primavera and also through visual examination.
Only the required amount of material needs to be stacked for the
upcoming work. Next if the things are in order, every item has its
correct place it will result in saving a lot of time and will make the
work organized. If the work place is kept clean which is usually not
the case at a construction site it will lead to better working
conditions just as clean living space creates better living conditions
and this culture should be promoted for better efficiency and
people should take pride in it. The standardization of work which
has come lately into picture in construction industry is a very
important aspect of saving material, cost and time.
Practices like modular construction, which involves specifying
standard sizes for every construction materials, items and spaces
inside the building have already come into practice for apartments
and buildings which have similar requirements. Sustainably
carrying out these changes together becomes a challenge which has
to be implemented.
4.1. Implementation of Gemba Kaizen in Construction
Industry
The construction work in India is carried out through different
levels of construction organizations. The big construction
companies divide their work and sub contract them to contractors,
who further give their work to petty contractors. This system of
working is carried since none of them have the capacity of
providing manual labor and required equipment at such a large
scale and also because the construction market is highly random.
This randomness is due to lack of proper management both at the
private and government level. For e.g.; In India a company needs to
have 93 clearances to setup a power plant. These clearances apart
from being stringent take a lot of time to give a final definite result
which makes the efficiency of the work low and highly random.
The big construction industries have already started the
implementation of Gemba Kaizen for better work results & these
techniques have started showing results too. For e.g.; At a
construction site, where rainfall data was critical for the project, the
available data with agencies and internet was not sufficient and
accurate. Therefore the company involved in the project had set up
their own rain gauge, rain gauge helped in measurement of the
sites local rainfall. The benefits were; easy calculation of delay
analysis during rainy season and everyday measurement of actual
rainfall at site. Another example that can be taken is of grade C24,
which was used at a large construction site. The concrete mix
design with 400 kg/cum of cement for all underground structures
which was replaced with 380 kg/cum of cement following the
minimum cement required standards by testing at site lab. The
benefits with 5% reduction in the cement resulted in a saving of
around 22 lakhs for the complete project.
Page 394
At a smaller scale the construction work is still highly unorganized,

the major reasons being highly random nature of the work,
improper inflow of money, material disposal and usage problems,
material storage problems, lack of safety and cleanliness at site and
lack of technical knowledge. The steel and cement have to be
stored for months before being used at site since proper
management is not available which will make it possible to use the
materials as and when required, reason being to avoid risks and
hike in prices which happen when materials are purchased with a
short span of time. The labor expected turnout is also not definite
5. Conclusion
The application of Gemba Kaizen in manufacturing industry
has given excellent results since its use by TOYOTA in the
mid 1980s[6].The manufacturing industry of most of the
countries of the world are highly efficient now compared to
what they used to be before. Gemba Kaizen in construction
industry too has shown promising results so its time to realize
its importance and work on its implementation even at a local
or a regional level with proper coordination and cooperation
between government agencies which are framing the policies
and private agencies who are carrying out the work.
Acknowledgments
We thank Mr. Himanshu Shekhar (Executive Engineer, L&T
POWER), Mr. H.M Ramesh (M.D, Reliance Developers Pvt.
Ltd, Bangalore) and Mr.Hiranya (Bhagirath Constructions Pvt.
Ltd, Bangalore) for their cooperation and support which helped
in completing this paper. The information given them was
valuable which gave us an insight to the existing problems in
construction industry and thus find a solution to these
problems.
which makes it difficult to plan the process. The stringent

government policies and bad transportation make the situation even
worse. Gemba Kaizen management technique and its application
in construction industry can solve many of the existing problems
right from maintaining a streamlined flow of work at site to
maintaining safety standards for workers everything can be
achieved in a sustainable way. In such a challenging field such as
construction industry where saving few minutes could save lots of
money will bring credit to the company. Proper management at
small
scales
can
also
do
wonders.
References
[1]
Report on Human Resource and Skill Requirements in the

Construction Materials and Building Hardware Sector
(2022)
[2]
http://www.ecobrick.in/indian_Brick_Sector.aspx
[3] www.processexcellencenetwork.com,
www.wikipedia.com
[4] Lean Manufacturing: Principles, Tools and MethodsBosch Rexroth Corporation
[5] Darius Dysko- Gemba Kaizen - utilization of human
potential to achieving continuous improvement of
company
[6] Lean Manufacturing, 5S and Six Sigma 2009 The Folk
Group, Doylestown, PA, www.folkgroup.com
.
Page 395
ABSTRACTS
PROBLEMS AND TREATMENT OF EXPANSIVE BLACK COTTON SOILS
Rajesh Prasad Shukla, Earthquake Engg. Deptt, IIT Roorkee,
shuklarajesh4687@gmail.com
Niraj Singh Parihar, Dept. of Civil Engg., JUIT, Solan, (H.P),
singhpariharniraj@gmail.com
Black cotton soil covers more than twenty percentage geographical area of India. It is spread over
Madhyapradesh, Maharashtra, Andhrapradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and some other parts of
India as well. These soils undergo a change in volume with change in water content. Black cotton soil
shrink and swell with decrease and increase in water content respectively. Light weight and small
structures are more susceptible to damages due to relatively small overburden pressure. Uneven
contraction and swelling leads to reduction in the serviceability, emergence of hairline cracks and
sometimes severe cracks even lead to collapse of the structure. Black cotton soil has proved as a source of
damage to the property and economical loss. A lots of alternatives are available to reduce the expansive
characteristic of black cotton soil. Most of the time, addition of additives proves to be a good option to
modify the composition of soil and enhance the performance of soil. Swelling behaviour and effects of
additives have been studied by many researchers but most of outcomes are contradicting and most of
research are useful for academic purpose only. This study presents the result of laboratory testing, where,
sea salt has been used as additive to change the behaviour of expansive soil. Some field cases have been
also presented where black cotton soil has posed problem in new construction and constructed structure.
An attempt has been also made to compare the various solution available in literature to improve the
performance of black cotton soil.
EFFECT OF GEOTEXTILE REINFORCEMENT ON THE SOIL
Parihar, N.S., Dept. of Civil Engg., JUIT, Waknaghat, (H.P),
Rajesh P. Shukla, Dept. of Earthquake Engg., IIT Roorkee,
Gupta, A.K., Dept. of Civil Engg., JUIT, Waknaghat, (H.P),
akgjuit@gmail.com
Geotextiles have been emerged as a well-established materials for ground improvement in geotechnical
engineering and civil engineering within last few years. This article presents the results of series of
triaxial tests conducted in laboratory to determine the effect of different type of geotextile on behaviour of
a c- soil. Woven and nonwoven geotextile have been used in the present study in the form of sheets and
threads. Effect of number of layers and confining pressure on deviatoric stress have been evaluated. The
geotextile sheet layers are placed at equal vertical spacing within the soil sample of dimensions 38 mm x
76 mm and number of geotextiles sheet layers are varied from one to three. Geotextiles threads amount
5%, 10% and 15% are used in study. Deviatoric stress is increased with increase in the number of
geotextile layers and confining pressure. Three layers reinforcement is more efficient as compared to
single and double layer reinforcement. Optimum amount of geotextiles threads are found to be between
5% and 10% by weight of soil. Effect of confining pressure is more or less same for single layer and
double layers geotextiles but in case of three layers geotextiles effect it is very prominent.
Page 396
EFFECTIVE SELECTION OF FORMWORK FOR HIGHRISE BUILDINGS

Gokuldeepan.P
P.G. Student Deptt of civil Engineering,
Construction Engineering and Management,
Erode Builder Educational Trusts group of Institutions,
Tripur, India.
Email-gokul.tna@gmail.com
In a tall building construction with reinforced concrete structures, the selection of an appropriate
formwork system is a crucial factor for the success of the project. Thus, selecting an appropriate
formwork system affects the entire construction duration and cost, as well as subsequent construction
activities. However, in practice, the selection of an appropriate formwork system has depended mainly on
the intuitive and subjective opinion of working level employees with restricted experience. This study is
to focus on identifying the qualitative factors affecting the selection of the formwork at high rise buildings
from the various literatures and the interview with the selected respondents. Questionnaire has been
prepared with keep in mind about residential and commercial projects only and the questionnaire will be
distributed to various Project Managers, Planning Engineers, and contractors in Chennai, Bengaluru,
Coimbatore and Erode areas. Developing a decision support model for formwork, incorporating all the
major constraints, that will help whether the resources is necessary and feasible at site.
ESTIMATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR RAMAGUNDAM WATERSHED USING SCS
CURVE NUMBER METHOD AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
Ms. S.V.S.N.D.L.Prasanna1 and Mr. Anil Kumar2
1. Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering, Osmania
University, Hyderabad- 07
2. M.E scholar, Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad- 07
With the increasing need for water due to industrialization, population growth and agricultural practices,
it has become an essential task for water scientists and planners to simulate and optimize the utilization of
existing water resources. The Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method is widely used
for predicting direct runoff volume for a given rainfall event. Runoff curve number is determined based
on the factors of hydrological soil group, land use, land cover and hydrologic conditions. GIS and remote
sensing is used to provide quantitative measurements of watershed morphology for input into runoff
models so as to estimate runoff response. In the present study, SCS-CN method is used to estimate the
runoff for Ramagundam watershed. Ramagundam is located in Karimnagar district of Telangana state.
Land use from LISS III image is used in the process of determining the spatial distributed runoff curve
numbers and runoff depth are determined for the watershed for different land use classes. The estimated
geographical area for watershed is 16633 ha and the average rainfall is 859 mm. The weighted curve
number for overall Ramagundam watershed is estimated as 85. The rainfall and land use data are used
along with the soil information for the estimation of runoff for the study area. The results of the present
study show that the estimated runoff depth for the study area (Ramagundam watershed) in the monsoon
season is 273.24 mm and the average volume of runoff from the watershed is 45 Mm. The validation
results for estimated runoff depths showed good agreement with observed data for all six years (2006 to
2011) and R2 are 0.936, 0.904, 0.983, 0.962, 0.978, and 0.958 respectively.
Page 397
OPTIMIZATION OF BUS STOP LOCATION USING GIS FOR COIMBATORE DISTRICT

Anitha Selvasofia.S.D1, Prince Arulraj.G2
1
2
Assistant professor, Professor & Dean, Department of Civil Engineering, SNS College of Technology,
Coimbatore.
The Cities in India are growing considerably at a faster rate with the suburbs thriving at a rapid rate.
Coimbatore is also no exception for such development. The problems of congestion and overcrowding are
common predicament in urban life. This situation forces the planners to evolve with new strategies and
ideas for meeting the requirements of the population which is steadily increasing quantitatively and also
having a rapid shift in the cultural pattern which influence much on the living style of the
people. Transportation network can be rightly stated as the lifelines of the people that connect both urban
and rural areas. In Metropolitan cities, public transport especially the corporation buses cater to the needs
of all the sections of the society irrespective of their economic status. On considering all the above
mentioned factors an attempt has been made to ensure optimum utilization of available resources for
development of transport network of Coimbatore city in India using Geographical Information System
(GIS). There are certain parameters which need to be considered for performing the analysis. Weightages
are assigned to each of the parameters based on the existing situation and the requirement of the public.
They are arranged according to their of degree of importance as Maximum & minimum distance between
two successive point locations, Importance of location, Density of population, Time, Availability of
infrastructure and finance, Willingness to walk, Monetary status of the people, Site details such as
junction points etc. The maximum distance between two stops is taken to be not more than 2 kilometers,
this distance is assigned based on the type of settlement, landuse pattern, population density and the
monetary status. The present study is based mostly on ground data with some amount of sampling and
then the data is extended through interpolation technique. The minimum distance is taken as 500 meters.
The problem presented here is about the existing the location of bus stops. Many bus stop
locations are not conducive for everyone. Any facility could not meet the need of each and every
individual, here comes the optimization principle where maximum comfort and convenience could be
given to the public by proper planning, which can be effectively done using GIS by considering the
opposite parameters.
INDEX PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS BINDER MODIFIED WITH POLYETHYLENE
GLYCOL (PEG)
T Srikanth, Assistant Professor, Sree Vidyanikethan Engg. College, Tirupati,
tangudusrikanth513@gmail.com
Disposal of waste materials including waste plastic bags has become a serious problem and waste plastics
are burnt for apparent disposal which cause environmental pollution. Utilization of waste plastic bags in
bituminous mixes has proved that these enhance the properties of mix in addition to solving disposal
problems. This paper develops the techniques to use plastic waste for construction purpose of roads and
flexible pavements have reviewed. In conventional road making process bitumen is used as binder. Such
bitumen can be modified with waste plastic pieces and bitumen mix is made, which can be used as a top
layer coat of flexible pavement.The purpose of this research is to investigate the index properties of
Bitumen using Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) as polymer additives in Bituminous Mix. The properties of
PEG modified binder obtained by fix mixing temperature, was investigated. The binders were prepared by
mixing the PEG of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% (by the weight of Bitumen) with 60/70 penetration
grade bitumen at temperature of 150 C. The study shows the behavior of bitumen in terms of Specific
Gravity of Bitumen, Penetration, Ductility and Softening Point tests with varying percentages of PEG.
The results of unmodified bitumen mix are compared with the modified bitumen mix. The PEG modified
bitumen mix show better binding property.
Page 398
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF KUNIGAL TALUK TUMKUR DIST, KARNATAKA

BY GIS TECHNIQUES
1
Ravindranath. C , Nandeesha , G.Veerappa Devaru3 , SG Swamy4 and T Gangadaraiah5

Research scholar Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur,
Karnataka, India
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur, Karnataka,
India
3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur,
Karnataka, India
4
Fellow KSCST IISC Bangalore.
5
Emeritus Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur,
Karnataka, India
E-mail: ravindranath.civil@gmail.com ndeesh@rediffmail.com gv_devaru@yahoo.com
swamy@kscst.iisc.ernet.in
1
Geomorphological studies the entire Kunigal Taluk by Remote Sensing data and Geographic Information
System were used to analyse the morphological studies of Kunigal Taluk. Groundwater is an important
resource contributing significantly in total annual supply for living beings it contributes geomorphology.
The accurate information to obtain the parameters that can be considered for identifying the
Geomorphological studies such as geology, slope, drainage density; geomorphic units are generated using
the satellite data and survey of India (SOI) toposheets of scale 1:50000. It is then integrated with weighted
overlay in Arc GIS ver 9.2. The alluvial plain in filled valley, flood plain and deeply buried pediplain
were successfully delineated and shown to improve the resources in the study area.
Key words: geology, slope &drainage density
EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL STUDIES ON RC COLUMN WITH FIBRE
REINFORCED CONCRETE CONFINED BY CFRP STRIPS
A.M.Vasumathi1 , K.Rajkumar2 and G.Narasinga moorthy3
1
Professor in Civil Engineering, KLN College of Information Technology, Sivagangai 630612,
Tamilnadu, INDIA
2
3
Associate Professor in Civil Engineering, Assistant Professor in Mechanical Engineering, SBM College
of Engineering and Technology,Dindigul 624 005, Tamilnadu, INDIA,rajstruct.engg@gmail.com
Fibre reinforced polymer composites have found extensive applications in the field of civil engineering.
Due to their advantages properties such as high strength to weight ratio and high corrosion resistance.
This research investigate Experimental and efficient frame finite element (FE) able to accurately estimate
the load carrying capacity and ductility of reinforced concrete of circular columns confined with
externally bonded Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composite strips. Synthetic polypropylene
fiber was used in the rate of 0.50% in the volume of concrete. CFRP strips having a width of 50mm were
used to confine the column. Both experimental and finite element model were effective spacing between
the CFRP strips (20mm and 30mm) and number of layers (one, two and three). Purpose a structure must
be safe against collapse and serviceable in use. Laterally apply load on externally bonded CFRP strips
providing restraining effect and thus effect enhanced the stiffness of column. Finite element simulation
and results are compared based on experimental results. From the test results obtained is suggested that
CFRP strips of three layers with 20mm spacing provides an earth quake resistant structures and 30mm
spacing provides an economical advantage compared to 20mm spacing
Page 399
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND PROBABILITY PLOTTING OF RAINFALL DATA FOR

KUNIGAL TALUK, TUMKUR DISTRICT, KARNATAKA USING GEOINFORMATICS
Ravindranath.C1, Nandeesha2 G Veerappa Devaru3
1
Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Karnataka, India
2
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Karnataka, India
3
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Karnataka,
India
Land, water and soil are limited natural resources and it is same but it will be unevenly distributed, their
wide utilization and conservation with increasing population is a major area of concern, to mitigate the
demand and supply gap between resources and ever increasing demand, it is of prime importance to
conserve the natural resources with proper prioritization for its sustainable development. The present
work mainly frequency distribution of rainfall and determine the frequency of the likely occurrence of
Hydrologic events, plotting of frequency distribution and probability plotting for Kunigal Taluk. The
study area is located in southern part of Tumkur district in Karnataka state. The study area kunigal taluk
covers an area of 981.55 Sq.km, and it consists of 8 rain gauge stations average annual rainfall is 802mm.
The area is bounded by the latitude North 120 4438 to 13081 and the longitude East 760 49 43 to 770
957. The main part of the area is covered under Survey of India (SOI) Toposheet numbers 57 C/16, 57
G/4, 57 D/13, 57 H/1 and 57H/2 (Scale 1:50,000) and having eight rain gauge stations each rain gauge
stations of monthly of pre monsoon, south west monsoon and north east monsoon rainfall data is analyzed
from 1901-2013. The study of uneven distribution of rainfall causes scarcity of water for different
purposes. The rain fall data is analyzed by actual rainfall vs. expected rainfall the hydrological and
meteorological events time series and its normal and log normal components, by conventional methods.
The magnitude of 10% interval, such events estimated that can be expected for a selected probability and
return period of 113 years is 1259.9 mm and 6.30 years the event is 990.2 mm. The first degree equation
is for 113 years equation is Y= 748.45+0.9302x. Here we are mainly discussing about rainfall data and
its frequency distribution throughout the year and for the analysis of the rainfall to know variation of its
value across a vast area in a systematic manner, By evaluating the maximum and the range of the
cumulative deviations from the mean, the homogeneity of the data of a time series is tested. using Arc
GIS Ver. 9.2 software and RAINBOW software.
CARBONATION RESISTANCE OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
G Bhanu Prakash, 2Vidya N, Assistant Professor, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, Tirupati,
bhanubec@gmail.com,, vidyancivil@gmail.com,
This study was conducted to investigate the effects of partial replacement of Portland cement (PC) by fly
ash (FA), silica fume (SF) and metakaoilin (MK), as binary and ternary blends, on the carbonation
resistance of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) and its compressive strength development . Carbonation
properties under consideration were evaluated by Accelerated Carbonation Test as per RILEM CPC-18
respectively. For this, an experimental program was planned in which different concrete mixes were
prepared using PC replacement level of 35% by FA in binary mixes. The ternary mixes were also
prepared by replacing FA by 5% and 10% with MK and SF. In all, five SCC mixes were prepared. The
water/binder (w/b) ratio was kept constant at 0.4 and the super plasticizer was used at 1.55% by weight of
cement. To determine compressive strength, for each SCC mix, 8 cubes of size 100 x 100 x 100 mm were
cast for testing at 7 and 28 days of curing. Also, for each mix, 6 cubes of size 100 x 100 x 100 mm were
cast for testing at 28 and 56 days of curing at 2, 4 and 6 weeks of carbon dioxide (CO 2) exposure for
accelerated carbonation test. The compressive strength tests were conducted on a 2000 KN Universal
Testing Machine.
1
Page 400
GEOCHEMICAL PATTERN VARIATIONS USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

TECHNIQUES IN SALEM TALUK
T.M. Thariq Ali, V. Kesavanadhan and K.Syed Mohammed Abrrar
Department of Civil Engineering, Paavai Engineering College,Namakkal,Tamil Nadu, India.
Spatial variations in ground water quality in the corporation area of Salem City located in the Tamil
Nadu, India, have been studied using geographic information system (GIS) technique. GIS, a tool which
is used for storing, analyzing and displaying spatial data is also used for investigating ground water
quality information. For this study, water samples were collected from 40 of the bore wells and open
wells representing the entire corporation area of Three years 2013 to 2015 The water samples were
analyzed
for
physicochemical
parameters
like
Electrical
conductivity,PH,Ca,Mg,Na,k,HCO3,CO3,SO4,Cl,NO3,Totaldissolvedsolids using standard techniques in
the laboratory and compared with the standards. The ground water quality information maps of the entire
study area have been prepared using GIS spatial interpolation technique for all the above parameters. The
results obtained in this study and the spatial database established in GIS will be helpful for monitoring
and managing ground water pollution in the study area. Mapping was coded for potable zones, in the
absence of better alternate source and non-potable zones in the study area, in terms of water quality.
INORGANIC GREEN COATINGS FOR CORROSION PROTECTION OF STEEL IN
CONCRETE
S.Vanathi*and, R.Selvaraj**
* P.G. Student from Shanmuganathan Engineering College, Pudukkottai-622507
E-mail: vanathi.32@gmail.com
Durability of concrete structure is an important issue global wide among civil engineering community.
The major factor responsible for loss of durability and service life is corrosion embedded steel in
concrete. Although several methods are available to prevent corrosion of steel in concrete, application of
coating to steel reinforcement is an effective method of corrosion control in reinforced concrete
structures. In this study twenty inorganic coatings (Geopolymer based) are formulated and coated on
phosphated mild steel plates and rods to evaluate corrosion performance. All relevant coating tests
according to ASTM standards are carried out and presented and best coatings are formed for effective
prevention of corrosion of steel in concrete.
Page 401
ASSESMENT OF LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SAND WITH SILT CONTENT

USING HORIZANTAL SHAKE TABLE
Gautam Kumar1, Dr. P.G. Rakaraddi2, Prof. Anand. M. Hulagabali3
1
PG Geotechnical Engineering Student, BEC, Bagalkot, Karnataka
2
Associate Professor, BEC, Bagalkot, Karnataka
2
Assistant Professor, BEC, Bagalkot, Karnataka
1
gautamraicivil@gmail.com, 3anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Assessment of liquefaction potential is one of the major parameter in order to minimize the ill-effects of
liquefaction. In the present study, shake table is used to simulate the earthquake ground motions and the
motion of structure excited by an earthquake to investigate the factors that influence the liquefaction
resistance of sand mixed with silt content of 20%, 30% and 40%. The settlement of the concrete model
footing resting on saturated sand is examined. A non-flexible light plastic fibre box of size
360mm310mm260mm and walls of the box are 1cm thick placed firmly over the uniaxial shaking table
and isfilled with soil medium by rainfall technique later it is back saturated. The footing model placed
over the foundation medium is subjected to horizontal uniaxial shaking. The number of cycles required to
liquefy and settlement of the footing, deformation of sand bed and variation of pore water pressure were
measured by varying the relative density of the soil medium and amplitude of oscillation. It is observed
that increase in the relative density leads to decrease in the pore water pressure. It is also noticed that
decrease in the pore water pressure with increase in the amplitude of oscillation. A substantial
improvement in liquefaction resistance of the sand bed is observed with the increase in soil density,
inferring that soil densification is a simple technique that can be applied to increase the liquefaction
resistance.
APPLICATION OF EXTENDED MUSKINGUM METHOD FOR FLOOD ROUTING- CASE
STUDY OF MADDUVALASA RESERVOIR, SRIKAKULAM, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA.
R.Srinivasa Rao1 and Dr. CLVRSV Prasad2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, GMR Institute of Technology
2
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMR Institute of Technology
To keep flood flow at the flood control station within the specified safe limit, routing of floods is very
much essential. In the case of Madduvalasa Reservoir, which is constructed across the Nagavali River
basin, India, the inflows to the flood control station are of two types one is controllable reservoir releases
for the spill and the other is uncontrollable which comprises of inflow from lower tributaries and from the
catchment between the reservoir and the flood control station. In this paper an attempt has been done to
examine the applicability of the extended Muskingum method for routing of floods for Madduvalasa
reservoir, Nagavali River Basin India based on the procedure developed by D.Nagesh Kumar et.al.,.
Muskingum model is improved to incorporate multiple sources of inflows and single outflow to route the
flood in the reach. Suitable coefficients for various types of inflows have been derived using Linear
Programming. Presently, the decisions about the operation of gates of Madduvalasa dam are being taken,
once in 12 h during floods. However, three time intervals of 24, 12 and 6 h were examined to test the
sensitivity of the routing time interval on the computed flood flow at the flood control station using 3
years flood data. From this study it has been concluded that mean relative error decreases with decrease
flood routing interval.
Page 402
EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF SUGAR-CANE BAGASSE ASH IN IMPROVING

PROPERTIES OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
Nikita R C, M.Tech Student M.C.E, Hassan
This experimental and analytical study investigates the strength performance of self-compacting concrete
(SCC) using Ordinary Portland Cement, Sugarcane Bagasse Ash and quarry dust. Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
was obtained by burning of Sugarcane and the Bagasse Ash were then grounded until the particles passing
the 150 micron. The disposal of this material is already causing environmental problems around the sugar
factories. Quarry dust was obtained as a by-product in the processing of granite stones, which is broken
down into coarse aggregates of different sizes. A huge shortage is created in most of the construction
materials especially cement and sand. This experimental study conducted to examine the potential of
Bagasse ash as a cement replacing material which is similar to that of Ordinary Portland Cement and
quarry dust as a sand replacing material. Ten different concrete mixes with the Bagasse Ash replacement
of 0%, 10% and 20% to the Ordinary Portland cement and quarry dust replacement of 0%, 30%, 50%, and
70% to the sand were prepared for M30 grade concrete. The properties of these mixes have then been
assessed both at the fresh and hardened state. Durability assessment of SCC by observing changes in
weight loss and compressive strength values for H2SO4 acid solution within the test period .The results of
the present study depicts that up to 20% replacement of the Ordinary Portland Cement by Bagasse ash
and 30% replacement of the sand by quarry dust has achieved a higher compressive strength, split tensile
strength and flexural strength at all test ages of 7, 14, 28, 56 and 91 days.
ADVANCED HEAVE CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR EXPANSIVE SOIL AN OVERVIEW
Bharamagoud M. Badaradinni1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
PG Geotechnical Eng., Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, Karnataka 587 102
2
Assistant Professor Student, Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, Karnataka 587 102
1
bbharamagoud@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
1
A large part of the central India and part of south India is covered with expansive soil. This soil swells
and shrinks due to seasonal variation, when subjected to changes in the moisture regime causing,
substantial distress to the structure built on them. Heavy damages may occur to buildings, roads, runways,
pipelines and other structures built on such soils if proper preventive measures are not adopted. The
various traditional methods used for treatment of expansive soils are lime treatment, Under ream pile
foundation, Prewetting, Pressure injection and installation of moisture barriers. Recent advanced
techniques like Reinforcement with Geopiles, Cement stabilized fly ash, Micro pile technique, Potassium
chloride treatment, Geofoam micropile system are used to control the heave in expansive soil. The
objectives of these techniques is to reduce the Differential free swell, Swelling potential, Swelling
pressure and Differential settlement. This paper represents the review of advanced techniques used to
control heave in expansive soil.
Page 403
EMERGING TRENDS IN GROUND IMPROVEMENT USING GEOSYNTHETICS - AN

OVERVIEW
Jagadish S.Haranatti1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
jagadish.haranatti@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
The soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for supporting structures such as
buildings, Bridges, Highways and dams. So the soil needs to be improved to increase its bearing capacity
and thus its shear strength. To meet this situation, it involves many operations such as reinforcement,
drainage, protection, barrier, filtration and confinement. Recent developments in the field of geotechnical
engineering shown that applications of Geosynthetics for purpose of ground improvement. Geosynthetic
is a planar product manufactured from polymeric material used with soil, rock, earth, or other
geotechnical engineering related material. Geotextiles, Geogrids, Geo membranes, Geo composites,
Geocells, Geo-nets and PVDs are collectively called as Geosynthetics, which have risen from a relatively
minor and specialty product status to a world-wide. The use of Geosynthetics has progressed at a pace
even faster than envisioned by the most enthusiastic supporters of the use of these materials. This review
paper deals with the functions of Geosynthetics such as reinforcement, drainage, barrier, confinement and
erosion control in various fields of geotechnical engineering.
STRENGTHENING OF POST TENSIONED BEAMS WITH EXTERNALLY BONDED
NATURAL SISAL FRP COMPOSITE
Bharath GR, BIT Banglore , bharath.gr.26@gmail.com
Many existing Pre-stressed concrete (PSC) structures across the world are suspected of being unstable to
carry current loads as a result of over load, poor quality of construction methodologies, construction
materials, substandard design, exposure to adverse environment damage due to natural disasters such as
earthquakes and hurricanes, stress loss due to deterioration of structures. Also, it is important for
structural members to have adequate strength and stiffness so as to assure stable performance of
structures. Pre-stressed concrete (PSC) structures are not exception to this. In fact, the PSC beams
designed without proper codal provisions are often characterized by an unsatisfactory structural behavior
due to loss of prestress in strands and lack of strength hierarchy including global failure mechanisms. The
critical regions in the PSC beams are flexure and shear zones, these zones may be strengthened externally
by using Natural Sisal Fiber Reinforced Polymers (NSFRP) wrapping techniques in order to keep
structures operational. In this paper the materials chosen for structural up gradation must, in addition to
functional efficiency and increasing various properties of the structures, fulfill some criterion, for the cause
of sustainability and a better quality. Among the various natural fibres, Sisal fibre reinforced composite is
of particular interest as these composites have high impact strength. Further an additional advantage of
NSFRPs is in the endless ways in which polymers and fibers can be combined in a material to suit the
specific needs of a structure. Use of NSFRPs provides a high structural efficiency, and their low density
makes physical implementation much easier. NFRPs have capacity to alter the failure mode of structural
members from brittle to ductile apart from increasing the load carrying capacity and hence dominate the
field of retrofitting material. In this investigation, four post-tensioned beams are casted as per IS13431980 in that three beam are strengthened by NSFRP in flexure zone of the beam by using different
wrapping technique and another is taken as control beam. In this study the flexural strength, ductility
characteristics and ultimate load carrying capacity of post-tensioned beams are evaluated under two point
loading. The overall view of the present study is to investigate the flexural behavior of post-tensioned
concrete beams wrapped with natural sisal fiber and to enhance the load carrying capacity and increase
the life span of the structure. To study the flexural behavior, crack patterns and deflection of the posttensioned concrete beams using under 2-point loading case and to compare the experimental results of
tested beams with analytical results.
Page 404
APPLICATION OF EPS GEOFOAM IN VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICES - AN

OVERVIEW
Mahesh S.Chabbi1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
maheshchabbi13@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Geofoam is a block or planar rigid cellular foam polymeric material used in civil engineering
applications. It is formed by the expansion of polystyrene resin beads in a moulding process. The block
moulded EPS is unique among geo foam products for large and diverse variety of functional applications
for which it is technically well suited and relatively economical as well as for its proven long term in
ground durability. EPS blocks have density from 15kg/m3 to 22kg/m3 .It is nearly 100 times lighter than
replaced material. The extremely light weight nature of EPS allows for rapid construction without causing
damaging settlements and also reduces the lateral pressure. This paper presents the review on applications
of EPS geo foam in Retaining walls, Embankments, Bridge foundation and Expansive soils for
controlling swelling pressure.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GEOSYNTHETIC ENCASED STONE COLUMNS IN SOFT SOIL
- AN OVERVIEW
Sangamesh S.Konnur1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
konnursangamesh1991@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Stone column is one of the ground improvement techniques for deep soil strata in view of their proven
performance, durability, constructability and low costs. The technique may not be suitable for soft soils
having undrained shear strength less than 20 kPa, because when stone columns installed in extreme soft
soils, the possible squeezing of the stones in to the surrounding soil and intrusion of the clay into the
stone aggregate will result in poor performance of the stone column. In such situations confining the
individual stone columns within a Geosynthetic (Geotextile and Geogrid) encasement would help in
preserving the functions of the stone column as well as improving its strength and stiffness by many
folds. Another advantage of encasement is having high load carrying capacity and lesser settlement of
composite foundation. This paper presents the review on comparative study of Geotextiles and Geogrids
encased stone columns and their behavior on soft soils.
LUBRICATING OIL SPILL MANAGEMENT USING LOTUS LEAVES; EVALUATION OF
KINETICS
Annapurna.S.M 1 Vignesh.V 2 Vinith.P 3
1,2,3
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, 635109, India, asm2703@gmail.com
vigneshvchemist@gmail.com, vinithchemist@gmail.com
Lubricating oil is one of the more important for any machines to run smoothly. Lubricating oil spillage
may occur in transportation or while using it, which causes serious environmental issues. In this work
lotus leaves were tested for sorption of lubricating oil from synthetic sea water at different parameters like
different adsorbent dosage, time, pH, particle size of lotus leaves and the kinetics of the reaction were
studied. As lotus leaves are oelophilic and super hydrophobic in nature they shown a great ability to
adsorb lubricating oil. The results were shown for a loading of 0.00944 g/l, 0.71mm particle size of lotus
leaves powder at 15 min time and pH of 7 the adsorption level is more than 96%. The adsorption
phenomena follows Langmuir adsorption isotherm which implies the process is chemisorption, the force
of attraction existing between adsorbate and adsorbent are almost same strength of chemical bonds.
Page 405
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE (SCC) WITH

RECYCLED AGGREGATES AND QUARRY DUST: A SOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Dinesh Kumar.R 1& Saravanan.M2
1,2Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, E.S. Engineering College, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu
rdineshkpm@gmail.com
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is a high performance concrete that can flow under its own weight to
completely fill the form work and self-consolidates without any mechanical vibration. Such concrete
reduce the labor requirement needed for consolidation, finishing and environmental pollution. This study
present an experimental investigation of self-compacting concrete with replacement of Quarry Dust (QD)
and Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA) SCC Mix [20% constant (QD) & 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%
(RCA)] & SCC1 Mix [0%, 25%, 50% (QD) & 0%, 25%, 50% (RCA)] and replacing of mineral
admixtures like super plasticizers (SP). After each mix preparation, cubes specimens and cylinders
specimens for SCC Mix and SCC1 Mix are cast and cured. The specimens are cured in water 3, 7, 14 &
28 days. The Slump, V-funnel and L-Box workability test are carried out on the fresh SCC and in harden
concrete compressive strength and split tensile strength values are determined. Attempts have been made
to study the properties of such SCCs and investigate the suitability of Quarry Dust and Recycled Coarse
Aggregate to be used as partial replacement materials for Fine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate in
respectively. The workability characteristics and 3, 7, 14 & 28 day strength of concrete was found to be
gradually decreasing with increase in Quarry Dust and Recycled Coarse Aggregate.
EVALUATION OF ADVANCED TECHNIQUES OF OPTICAL DATA
PROCESSING FOR CROP SIGNATURE STUDIES
1.Gopi P, 2.Lakshmi Sharan S
Anna University, Institute of Remote sensing, Chennai-600 025
gopisri61287@gmail.com, gopisri88@rediffmail.com
The study on Remote Sensing (RS) based Crop signatures Estimation was taken up in Hissar district of
Haryana state. The major objective of this study was to evaluate crop signatures during Kharif season
using Two - date Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) P6 LISS-III digital data of maximum vegetative growth
stage of major crops during Kharif season. The methodology adopted for crop signatures estimation
consisted of: a) Preprocessing of optical RS Data, b) Ground data collection, c) Crop Signature
Generation, d) Supervised Maximum Likelihood (MXL) Classification of the RS data and advanced
classification for Support Vector Machine (SVM), Accuracy Assessment. The interest in crop inventory
through the use of LISS - III is on the rise owing to need for accurate crop discrimination and the
availability of multi temporal data. Till recently, the multi temporal data has been used for crop
discrimination as well as biomass estimation. With the availability of LISS - III data, the differential
response of crop geometry at various crop growth stages is being explored for discrimination and
classification of crops. An attempt has been made in the current study with IRS P6 LISS - III digital data
for crop inventory. The two date data gave comparable results for crops like Moong, Guar, Bhindi,
Fallow, Paddy, Cotton, Water Body and Urban. The satellite data of proper bio-window of the crops was
also not available due to various reasons, therefore, it was observed that, for better crop discrimination
and achieving higher accuracy, satellite data of proper bio-window is very important. This study brings
out the potentials and limitations of RS based crop signatures using Dual-date RS data.
Page 406
UTILIZATION OF POLYMERS FOR IMPROVING THE STRENGTH OF CEMENT

CONCRETE
S.Manikandan
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Shanmuganathan Engineering College,
Pudukkottai (Dt), Tamil Nadu, India, smanikandanme@gmail.com
Polymer as one of the best admixture can improve the property of concrete than the conventional
concrete. In this project High Density Poly-Ethylene (HDPE) and Poly-Propylene (PP) virgin locally
available polymers were used as an admixture with cement concrete composites. These two different
types of polymers are used at different dosages to modify the cement concrete mix. The various
mechanical properties like workability, compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength
of polymer modified concrete (both HDPE and PP) have been studied. Besides, a series of tests without
modification was carried out. In addition, a comparative study has been carried out to highlight the effect
of two different polymers on fresh and hardened properties of polymer modified concrete. The results
obtained from experimental investigations and thus are optimistic for partial addition of polymer with
conventional cement concrete up to 10% which enhances the compressive strength, split tensile strength
and flexural strength values nearly 50 %, 35 % and 45 % respectively over conventional one.
FRESH AND HARDENED PROPERTIES OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE AS

INFLUENCED BY AGRO-WASTE: A REVIEW
Manjula.V Asst. Prof, Civil Department, Dr.M.G.R. Educational and Research Institute
Chennai.
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is an innovative concrete which can flow into every corner of congested
reinforcement purely by its self-weight without any segregation. The hardened SCC is dense,
homogenous and has better surface finish. The mechanical and durable properties are similar or superior
to those of equivalent conventional concrete. To achieve the flow ability and cohesiveness, SCC mix has
to be produced with high cementations and low aggregate content. But the formation of cement depletes
the natural resources and releases a large amount of carbon dioxide gas. Finding a replacement for cement
and mineral additive is inevitable to assure sustainability. The rice husk ash is an agro waste from paddy
mills used for parboiling paddy that can be used as an admixture in concrete if the rice husk is burnt in a
controlled manner. This paper is based on the comprehensive review of available literature on the effect
on the fresh and hardened properties of SCC incorporation of RHA. The rice husk ash is a highly
siliceous material and the silica content must be kept at a non crystalline state in order to produce an ash
with high pozzolanic activity. The pozzolanic properties improve the strength of concrete and its fineness
enhances the workability of SCC. The experimental investigations of different percentages of RHA of
water powder ratios are evaluated. The rheological, strength and durable properties of SCC are studied.
The main aim of this review paper is to obtain the suitable percentage of RHA as cement replacing
material. (CRM). .Based on the available literature documents it can be concluded that RHA could be
used as CRM up to certain limit without compromising the strength of concrete. The addition of RHA
decreases the density by 72-75% and reduces the water absorption of SCC. Proper consumption of rice
husk ash in concrete industry contributes in solving environment pollution and to produce cost effective
and sustainable self-compacting concrete.
Page 407
BEHAVIOUR OF PARTIALLY CLOSED STIFFENED COLD FORMED STEEL COLUMN

N.Arun, PG student, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology, Namakkal.
This project aims to present and discuss the ultimate strength and buckling behaviour of the pin ended
cold-formed steel lipped channel columns with intermediate web stiffeners with and without lateral
stiffeners under axial compression is reported on this project. This paper describes the results obtained
from a finite element investigation into the load capacity and behaviour of column members of stiffened
cold-formed steel complex section subjected to axial compression loading. The finite element analysis is
carried out using ANSYS software package, material and geometric non-linearity is incorporated in the
finite element model. The section properties and length of the sections are predicted by performing finite
strip elastic buckling analysis using CUFSM software. Initially, the results obtained from the developed
finite element model are validated with the experimental tests carried out by Young Bong et al (2009) and
Yap et al (2011). Verifications show that the model can predict the ultimate strength and behaviour of
stiffened cold-formed steel complex section. Therefore, the verified finite element model is then used for
the parametric study to identify the factors affecting the strength and behaviour of stiffened cold-formed
steel complex section such as varying the width and depth of the section, size of intermediate and edge
stiffeners, length and thickness of the section and a variety of yield stresses. Finally, the results obtained
from the finite element analysis compares with design strength calculated by using the direct strength
method as described in North American Iron and Steel Institute Specifications for cold-formed steel
structures and new modifications for dealing with this are made.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON BEHAVIOUR OF DOUBLE SKINNED CIRCULAR CONCRETE

FILLED STEEL TUBE COLUMNS
K.S.Deepan Raj1 & S. Balaji2 1 PG student, 2 Professor, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology,
Namakkal.
Columns are considered as critical members in moment-resisting structural systems. Their failure may
lead to a partial or even a total collapse of the whole structure. Therefore, it is important to improve the
ductile deformation capacity and energy dissipation capacity of columns so that the entire structure can
endure severe ground motions and dissipate a considerable amount of energy. In recent years, composite
concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST) have become increasingly popular as columns in braced and unbraced
frames. Double-skinned CFST columns have some advantages over single-skinned CFST columns. From
a structural point of view, double-skinned CFST columns have higher uni-axial strength, bending
stiffness, moment capacity, better ductility and excellent seismic performance. From a cost-effectiveness
of point of view, the inner and outer steel tubes act as formwork for concrete placing, which reduces the
construction cost and cycle time. From an environmental point of view, steel is more recyclable than
concrete, so less demolition waste would be produced. Column which has two steel tubes, with the
smaller steel tube located concentrically inside the bigger steel tube and with the annulus between these
tubes filled up with concrete, is known as double-skinned CFST columns. Consequently, the central part
of concrete can be effectively replaced by a hollow steel tube of much lighter self-weight, while at the
same time maintaining a similar uni-axial, bending and torsion capacity. DSCFST columns are the higher
strength to weight ratios.
Page 408
STUDY ON UTILIZATION OF ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES

R Jagadeesan a,V Jagadish b, S Senthil Kumar c
a
Assistant Professor, K.S Rangasamy College of Technology ,Namakkal, Tamil Nadu
b
PG Student K.S Rangasamy College of Technology, Namakkal , Tamil Nadu
c
Professor KSR College of Technology, Namakkal , Tamil Nadu
Email: jagadeesan@ksrct.ac.in, jagadishcivilrmk@gmail.com
In the current scenario, the disposal problem of industrial by-products like fly ash, steel slag etc. has
become an environmental issue. In now a days there are so many construction materials are available in
the development of concrete. Of these artificial aggregates are widely used. Artificial aggregate can be
made out of these materials that are considered waste and pollutants of environment. Consequently the
production of artificial aggregates solves two problems generally prevent environment form pollutant and
reduces depletion of the natural material. These aggregates can be used for various applications such as
wall panels, masonry blocks ...etc. This study mainly focuses on manufacturing process of artificial
aggregates using pelletizer method under the ratio of 1:1 for aggregates manufactured The artificial
aggregates are prepared by using steel slag and pond ash.. The strength property of artificial aggregates is
studied. And also the property of the material are tested and compared with natural aggregates .The ratio
proportion of concrete varies 20%, 40%.....100% percentage. The conventional aggregate concrete mix
has been designed for M20 grade concrete using IS method.
GROUND WATER POLLUTION IN VEDASANDUR BLOCK DINDIGUL TALUK, USING
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS.
M.Periyasamy1, Dr. P.Sureshkumar2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Roever Engineering College, Perambalur.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering, Ariyalur.
Urbanization on account of demographic and economic growth leads to the wide variety of environmental
problems. The supply of infrastructure cannot cope with the demand placed by urban development. it
results inadequacy of urban infrastructure, which leads to degradation of the quality of natural resources
such as air, water, land, vegetation . In addition the industrial pollution in large cities causes effects to
human life. The present study is aimed to analyze the ground water pollution in Vedasandur block
Dindigul taluk using remote sensing and GIS. In dindigul district had on more number of leather
industries. The leather industries waste water is introduced in the surface water. So the surface water
polluted in the leather chemicals. Twenty samples were collected in different locations around the leather
industries. This study was analyzed in the following water quality parameters by adopting standing
procedure. (i) PH, (ii) Turbidity, (iii) Calcium, (iv) Magnesium, (v) Iron, (vi) Chlorides, (vii) Sulphates,
(viii) Nitrates (ix) Fluoride, (x) Total hardness. Ground water quality map has been prepared using Arc
GIS 9.1. The quality of ground water parameter is evaluated considering suitability of water for drinking
and agriculture purpose by using IDW (Inverse Distance Weighted) technique. The map reveals that out
of 25 ground water samples, more than 50% of ground water samples from this study area falls under
poor category around leather industries.
Page 409
ANALYSIS FOR DEVELOPMENT ON DEFERMENT CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

Chalapati Sreenath1, R. Vinod Kumar2
1and 2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, A.
Rangampet, Tirupati
Construction delays can be defined as the late completion of work compared to the planned schedule or
contract schedule. Delays are one of the biggest problems construction firms face. Delays can lead to
many negative effects such as lawsuits between owners and contractors, increased costs, loss of
productivity and revenue, and contract termination. Construction delays can be minimized only when
their cause are identified. The objective of this study was to identify the major causes of construction
delays, and analysis of delays, and methods of minimizing construction delays. This study was carried out
based on literature review and a questionnaire survey. A total of seven factors are cause of construction
delays. The questionnaire survey was distributed to the target respondents. The objectives of the study
were successfully achieved. Time and cost overrun were the common effects of delays in construction
projects. To minimize delays in construction projects it has been identified that first to find what are the
main causes of delays and impact of delays. Projects can be delayed for a large number of reasons. The
reasons are related to the various types of uncertainty associated with activities during the construction
process. The level of importance of the delay variables and the groups were computed and identified
critical causes and giving recommendations how to overcome delays.
STABILIZATION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS USING MARBLE TAILINGS
C.Prashanth Kumar,ACE Engineering College prashanthkumar911@gmail.com,
Expansive soils occurring in arid and semi-arid climate regions of the world cause serious problems on
civil engineering structures. Such soils swell when given an access to water and shrink when they dry out.
Several attempts are being made to control the swell-shrink behaviour of these soils. Soil stabilization
using chemical admixtures is the oldest and most widespread method of ground improvement.
In this study, waste material such as marble tailings, by-product of marble industry, were used for
stabilization of expansive soils. The expansive soil is collected from a site at Armoor, Nizamabad District.
Waste marble tailings was added to the expansive soil with predetermined percentage varying from 0 to
30 percent. Grain size distribution, consistency limits, chemical and mineralogical composition, swelling
percentage, and rate of swell were determined for the samples.
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF GRID FLOOR SLABS
Goutham D.R., Dr.K.Manjunath
M.Tech student, M.C.E.,Hassan, Head of the Civil Engineering department, M.C.E.,Hassan.
goutham.dr03@gmail.com
Reliability Analysis in Limit State of Flexure, Shear & Deflection for Square and Rectangular grid slabs
have been evaluated with varying rib width and for different grades of concrete and characteristic strength
of the steel. Monte Carlo simulation technique and Advanced First Order Second Moment (AFOSM) also
known as Fisselers Algorithm method was employed in the evaluation procedure for both square and
rectangular grid slabs. The variables relating to geometry, material properties and loading are considered
as random. The study investigates the reliability index and probability of failure of the grid slabs and
plotting of the Histogram and probability distribution curve. Timoshenko plate theory was used for
deterministic approach. Grid slab was modelled using ETABS software and the values of moment, shear
& deflection at various points of the grid are taken for probabilistic evaluation. The entire reliability
analysis was implemented through developing a program in MATLAB software.
Page 410
UTILIZATION OF STEEL SLAG IN CONCRETE AS A PARTIAL REPLACEMENT FOR FINE

AGGREGATES
Amiya Akram1, K.Narasimhulu2and K. Mehraj Pasha3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam- 517425
2
Professor and Head Department of Civil Engineering, Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam- 517425
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities and Sciences, Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam517425
Utilization of waste materials and industrial by-products is a sustainable solution to environmental

and ecological problems. Use of such materials makes their reutilization in cement, concrete and other
construction materials, and also reduces the cost of cement and concrete manufacturing. Other
indirect benefits include reduction in landfill cost, energy saving and reduction in solid waste. Slag is a
byproduct of metal smelting and hundreds of tons of it are produced every year all over the world in the
process of refining metals and making alloys. Recent studies recommend applications of non-traditional
materials, like industrial by-products and/or non-hazardous waste in construction, especially in road
construction in industrialized and developing countries. In this experimental investigation an attempt is
made to study the effect of partial replacement of fine aggregate by steel slag in the mechanical properties
of M 20 grade concrete. This work relates the use of steel slag; a locally available waste material used as
fine aggregates in M 20 grade of concrete and recommends the approval of the material for use in
concrete as a replacement for fine aggregates.
ADVANCED IMPROVEMENTS IN DYNAMIC COMPACTION TECHNIQUE USED FOR

GROUND IMPROVEMENT AN OVERVIEW
Prashant I.Hiremath1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
prashanthgkk15@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Dynamic compaction is a well known and effective method in ground improvement. Dynamic
compaction technique was invented more than 40 years ago. In the early days of dynamic compaction
heavy duty cranes with efficient lift capacities were limited to about 150kN, However it soon became
possible to lift heavier pounders using specially designed and manufactured rigs or tripod. More recently
an innovative and patented pounder release mechanism called MARS (Menard Accelerated Release
System) has been developed. This system is capable of dropping pounders weighing up to 35 tons in free
fall and automatically reconnecting to the pounder. Some other improvements in the dynamic compaction
techniques are Rapid Impact Compactors and Monitoring of ground vibrations induced by Dynamic
Compaction technique as well as Rapid Impact Compaction technique. Recent improvement in dynamic
compaction is application of CPTU (Piezocone Penetration Test) for control of compaction on hydraulic
fill.
Page 411
PERFORMANCE OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE IN ACIDIC

ENVIRONMENT
Shankar H. Sanni 1, Dr. R. B. Khadiranaikar 2
1
Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587 102, India, shsanni@gmail.com

2 Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587 102, India, rbknaikar@gmail.com
Abstract
The present paper focuses the experimental work done in accessing the durability of geopolymer concrete compared to
conventional concrete in acidic media. The molarity used for the preparation of geopolymer specimens is 12. The grade
chosen for the investigation were M-30 and M-40. The alkaline solution used for present study is the combination of
sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution with the ratio of 2.50. The test specimens were 150x150x150 mm cubes,
cured in ambient room temperature. The performance evaluation of the specimens were assessed by immersing GPC and
OPC specimens in 5% sulphuric acid solution separately, periodically monitoring surface deterioration and depth of
dealkalization, changes in weight and strength over a period of 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 days. The test results indicate that
the geopolymer concrete has an excellent resistance to acid attack when compared to conventional concrete. Thus we
can say that the production of geopolymers have a relative higher strength, excellent volume stability and better
durability.
Keywords: geopolymer concrete, fly ash, molarity, sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide, sulphuric acid
1. Introduction
Construction industry is one of the major users of the natural
resources like cement, sand, rocks, clays and other soils. The
ever increasing unit cost of the usual ingredients of concrete
have forced the construction engineer to think of ways and
means of reducing the unit const of its production. At the same
time, increased industrial activity in the core sectors like
energy, steel and transportation has been responsible for the
production of large amounts like fly ash, blast furnace slag,
silica fume and quarry dust with consequent disposal problem
[1].
The geopolymer technology was first introduced by Davidovits
in 1978. His work considerably shows that the adoption of the
geopolymer technology could reduce the CO2 emission caused
due to cement industries. Davidovits proposed that an alkaline
liquid could be used to react with aluminosilicate in a source
material of geological origin or in by-product materials such as
fly ash to make a binder [2]. Geopolymer is synthesized by
mixing aluminosilicate-reactive material with strong alkaline
solutions, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
hydroxide (KOH), sodium silicate or potassium silicate. The
mixture can be cured at room temperature or temperature cured
[3]. Fly ash is the most common source material for making
geopolymers. Normally, good high-strength geopolymers can
be made from class F fly ash [4]. Alkaline activating solution is
important for dissolving of Si and Al atoms to form
geopolymer precursors and finally alumino-silicate material.
The most commonly used alkaline activators are NaOH and
KOH [5-9].
2. Experimental Investigations
Materials:
The following materials have been used in the experimental
study [12]
a) Fly Ash (Class F) collected form Raichur Thermal
power plant having specific gravity 2.00.
b) Ground granulated blast furnace slag collected from
JSW Steel Ltd., Vidyanagar, Toranagallu, Bellary
having specific gravity 2.90.
c) Fine aggregate: Sand confirming to Zone III of
IS:383-1970 [20] having specific gravity 2.51 and
d) Coarse aggregate: Crushed granite metal confirming
to IS:383-1970 [20] having specific gravity 2.70 and
e) Water : Clean Potable water for mixing
f) Alkaline liquids: Specific gravity of
i) Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) = 1.16
ii) Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) = 1.57
Tests were conducted on specimen of standard size as per IS:
516-1959 [21]. For the present investigation two types of
mixes were designed, they are designated with the specific
identification as given in Table 1.
Table 1: Specimen Identification
Type of mix
Geopolymer
concrete
Identification
GPC
Conventional
concrete
OPC
Source Materials used

Fly ash (60%), GGBS
(40%), CA, FA, Alkaline
solutions
Cement, CA, FA, Water

Fax: +9876543210; E-mail: shsanni@gmail.com
Page 152
Mix design of geopolymer concrete

In the design of geopolymer concrete mix, coarse and fine
aggregates together were taken as 77% of entire mixture by
mass. This value is similar to that used in OPC concrete in
which it will be in the range of 75 to 80% of the entire mixture
by mass. Fine aggregate was taken as 30% of the total
aggregates. The density of geopolymer concrete is taken
similar to that of OPC as 2400 kg/m3 [10]. The details of mix
design and its proportions for different grades of GPC are
given in Table 2.
used for the preparation of alkaline solutions) and dosage of

super plasticizer was added to the mix according to the mix
design details. The fly ash and alkaline activator were mixed
together in the mixer until homogeneous pate was obtained.
This mixing process can be handled within 5 minutes for each
mixture with different ratios of alkaline solution. After casting
the specimens, they were kept in rest period for two days and
then they were demoulded. The demoulded specimens were
kept for ambient air curing.
Alkaline Solution
In geopolymerization, alkaline solution plays an important role.
The most common alkaline solution used in geopolymerization
is a combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium
hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) or potassium
silicate (K2SiO3). In this study, a combination of sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate was choosen as the alkaline
liquid. Sodium based solutions were choosen because they are
cheaper than Potassium based solutions. Generally sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate are readily available in market in
the form of pellets and gel (liquid). The pellets of NaOH are
dissolved in one liter of water for the required concentration.
When sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solutions mixed
together polymerization will take place liberating large amount
of heat, which indicates that the alkaline liquid must be used
after 24 hours as binding agent.
Fig. 1 Alkaline solution
Table 2: GPC mix design details for 12 Molarity with FA and

GGBS
Materials
Coarse
aggregates
20 mm
14 mm
7 mm
Na2SiO3/ NaOH
Fine sand
Fly ash
GGBS
NaOH solution
Na2SiO3 solution
Super Plasticizer
Extra water
Mass (kg/m3)
M-30
M-40
277.20
277.20
369.60
369.60
646.80
646.80
2.50
2.50
554.40
554.40
228.41
152.28
236.52
157.68
48.95
45.06
122.36
112.65
5.70
5.91
38.06
39.42
Mixing, Casting, Compaction

geopolymer concrete
and
Curing
Fig. 2 Slump cone test
Acid attack test on concrete specimens
of
GPC can be manufactured by adopting the conventional

techniques used in the manufacture of Portland cement
concrete. In the laboratory, the fly ash and the aggregates were
first mixed together dry on pan for about three minutes. The
liquid component of the mixture is then added to the dry
materials and the mixing continued usually for another four
minutes (Fig.1).
The addition of sodium silicate is to enhance the process of
geopolymerization [11]. For the present study, concentration of
NaOH solution is taken as 12M with Na2SiO3 / NaOH as 2.5
for all the grades of GPC mixes. The workability of the fresh
concrete was measured by means of conventional slump test
(Fig. 2). In order to improve the workability, superplasticizer
Conplast SP-430 with a dosage of 1.5% by mass of the fly ash
was added to the mixture. Extra water (other than the water
To access the quality of geopolymer concrete mixes they were

subjected to aggressive media like immersing the specimen in
acidic environment. The acidic environment was selected
mainly, as we are aware of the conventional concrete which
will disintegrate badly. Hence a comparison will be studied
with geopolymer concrete mixes with conventional concrete.
Preparation of the solution

For the present study it was aimed to prepare the sulphuric acid
with 5% concentration. The concentrated sulphuric acid with
98% purity and density of 1.84 g/ml was selected for the
preparation. For this following formula was used
S = D1 * [(A1/A2) -1]
Where,
A1= Concentration of commercially available concentrated
sulphuric acid
D1= Density of concentrated sulphuric acid of concentration
C1, gm/ml
A2 = Concentration of desired diluted sulphuric acid for testing
S = Volume of water added per ml of sulphuric acid of
concentration, A1 to get diluted sulphuric acid of concentration
A2. From this calculation, we need about 11 ml of concentrated
sulphuric acid to mix with 989 ml of distilled water to get 1 liter
of 5% acid solution for the investigation.
Page 153
Results and Discussions

Workability
Fresh GPC mixes were found to be highly viscous and
cohesive with medium to high slump. The workability of the
geopolymer concrete decreases with increase in the grade of
the concrete, this is because of the decrease in the ratio of water
to geopolymer solids by mass. For a given geopolymer
concrete, the total mass of water in the mixture is taken as the
sum of the mass of water in the sodium silicate solution, the
mass of water in the sodium hydroxide solution and the mass
of extra water added to the mixture. The mass of geopolymer
solids is the sum of the mass of fly ash, the mass of sodium
hydroxide flake and the mass of sodium silicate solids (the
mass of Na2O and SiO2 in sodium silicate solution). The test
data shown in Figure are somewhat analogous to the wellknown effect of water-to-cement ratio on the compressive
strength of OPC concrete, although the chemical processes
involved in the formation of the binders of both these types of
concretes are entirely different.
The compressive strength lost during the period of exposure in

acidic media for the mixes are presented in Fig. 5 to 6. The
GPC mix retained the characteristic strength with both the
grades of concrete, but there was reduction in characteristic
strength for OPC mixes in range of 12.5% to 30% for both the
grades of concrete. The geopolymer concrete mixes are high
resistant to sulphuric acid attack because they do not have free
lime content in the matrix composition. On contrary, the OPC
specimens do contain the free lime content in the matrix, which
leads to the hydration reactions of Portland cement and this
free lime and also the C-S-H gel of the matrix are easily
attacked by acids. The disintegrated GPC and OPC specimens
after 90 days of exposure are presented in Fig. 3 to 4. The
action of acids on cement paste leads to a conversion of all the
calcium compounds, unreacted residue of C3S and C2S in
cement grains, calcium hydroxide, calcium silicate hydrate and
calcium acuminate hydrate to the calcium salt of the attacking
acid. As a result of the conversion, the binding capacity of the
hardened cement is destroyed. The observations made in the
present investigation match with the findings of the earlier
research [14, 15, 16].
Specimens in the acidic media

The cube specimens of GPC and OPC mixes were submerged
in acid environment of known concentration. To perform the
acid studies, immersion techniques was adopted. After 28 days
of casting, 150 mm cube specimens were immersed in 5%
sulphuric acid solution kept in a plastic tubs such that there was
a minimum of 30 mm depth of acid over the top surface of
specimens. To maintain the uniformity of acidic solution, it
was stirred regularly at least twice in a day. Care was taken to
maintain the concentration of solution, which was replaced at
regular intervals. The pH of the solution was monitored
periodically using pH meter. The results were summarized
after 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 days of curing period..
Visual appearance
There was no noticeable change in the colour of the
geopolymer concrete specimens. Even after the exposure for 90
days these specimens remain structurally intact though surface
turned little softer and at the verge of slippage of aggregates,
but there was no significant change in mass and shape.
Whereas, in case of OPC specimens, a deposition of a white
layered gypsum crystals was observed on the exposed surface.
These specimens were in highly deteriorated condition with
noticeable bulging. The surfaces were rough and yellowish in
colour. (Fig. 3 and 4)
Conclusions
Fig. 3 GPC specimens after

after 90 days of exposure
Fig. 4 OPC specimens

90 days of exposure
Based on the experimental investigations carried out, it can be

concluded that geopolymeric materials perform much better in
acidic environment compared to Portland cement The better
performance of geopolymeric materials than that of Portland
cement in acidic environment might be attributed to the lower
calcium content of the source material as a main possible
factor, since geopolymer concrete does not rely on lime like
Portland cement concrete.
Page 154
References
[1] Narasimhan, M. C. Patil, B. T, and Shankar H. Sanni
Performance of Concrete with Quarry Dust as
fine
aggregate An Experimental Study, Civil Engineering
and Construction Review, September, 1999, pp. 19-24.
[2] Rangan, B. V. Studies on low-calcium fly ash based
Geopolymer concrete, Indian Concrete Institute, 2006, pp.
9-17.
[3] Davidovits, J. Geopolymer chemistry and application,
Institute Geopolymer, France, 2008, pp. 585.
[4] Schmucker, M and MacKenzine, KJD., Microstructure of
sodium
polysialate
siloxogeopolymer,
Ceramic
International, 31, 2004, pp. 433-437.
[5] Fenandez-Jimenez, A and Palomo, A., Characteristics of
fly ashes, Potential reactivity as alkaline cements, Fuel,
2003, pp. 2259-2265.
[6] Davidovits, J., Chemistry of Geopolymeric systems
Terminology, 99 International Conference, Saint-Quentin,
France, 30 June-2 July 1999.
[7] Fernandez-Jimenez, A., Palomo, J. and Puertas, F., Alkali
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Cement and Concrete Research, 29, 1999, pp. 1323-1329.
[8] Hua Xu, van Deventer, J.S.J., The Geopolymerisation of
Alumino-Silicate Minerals, International Journal of
Mineral Processing, 59(3), 2000, pp. 247-266.
[9] Hardjito, D., Wallah, S.E., Sumajouw, DMJ and Rangan,
B.V., On the development of fly ash based geopolymer
concrete, ACI Materials Journal, 101(52), 2004, pp. 467472.
[10] Rangan, B. V., (2008), Mix design and production of fly
ash based geopolymer concrete, The Indian Concrete
Journal, 82(5), pp. 7-14.
[11] R. B. Khadiranaikar and Shankar H. Sanni, Variation of
alkaline solutions on mechanical properties of geopolymer
concrete, ICI Journal, 15(1), 2014, 24-31.
[12] Shankar H. Sanni, Experiemental Investigations on
properties of geopolymer concrete, Ph.D thesis submitted
to Visvesvarya Technological University, Belagavi, 2015.
[13] M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology, (S. Chand and
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002).
[14] Suresh Thokchom, Partha Ghosh and Somnath Ghosh,
Resistance of fly ash based geopolymer mortars in
sulphuric acid, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied
sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2009, pp. 65-70.
[15] Rajamane, N.P, Nataraja, M.C, Lakshmanan, N and
Dattatreya, J. K., Sulphuric acid resistance of geopolymer
concrete, Proceedings of Asian Conference on concrete

ACECON 2010, IIT Madras, Dec. 2010, pp. 789-794.
[16] Dinakar, P., Babu, K. G. and Manu Santhanam, Durability
properties of high volume fly ash self concretes, Cement
and Concrete Composites, Vol. 30, No. 10, 2008, pp. 880886.
[17] M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology, S. Chand and
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002
[18] IS: 2386 (Part-IV)-1963, Methods of test for aggregates
for concrete-mechanical properties, Bureau of Indian
[19] IS: 456-2000, Code of practice for plain and reinforced
concrete, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[20] IS: 383-1970, Specification for coarse and fine aggregates
from natural sources for concrete, Bureau of Indian
[21] IS: 516-1959, Methods of test for strength of concrete,
Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[22] IS:3812-2003, Specifications for fly ash for use as
pozzolana and admixture, Bureau of Indian standards,
New Delhi.
Page 155
LIGHT WEIGHT FLYASH AGGREGATE CONCRETE AN ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY APPROACH
GEENA GEORGE 1, Dr. ASHA.K 2
Department of Civil Engineering , East Point College of Engg & Technology, Bangalore .India.
geenasajith@gmail.com
2
Department of Civil Engineering , MVJ College of Engineering, Bangalore. India,

ashasavi@gmail.com
Abstract
The environmental impacts of crushed stone aggregates become a source of increasing concern in most parts of the
Country. Pollution hazards, noise, dust, blasting vibrations, loss of forests and spoiling of natural environment are the
bad impacts caused due to extraction of aggregates. Landslides of weak and steep hill slopes are induced due to
unplanned exploitation of rocks. In a developing country like India, coal is a major source of fuel for production of
electricity which in turn produces large quantity of fly ash which is an environmental hazard. Disposal of such a huge
quantity poses challenging problems, in the form of land usage, health hazards and environmental dangers. Both in
disposal as well as in utilization, utmost care has to be taken to safeguard the interest of human life, wild life and
environment .Under such circumstances both the environmental issues can be brought together to produce a ecofriendly
solution by developing fly ash aggregates which can replace natural aggregates to some extent.The purpose of this paper
is to provide an overview of utilization of Fly ash as an alternative for natural aggregates in the production of light
weight concrete .
Keywords: Fly Ash, Fly ash Aggregates, Pelletization
1. Introduction
Any country's economic & industrial growth depends on the
availability of power. In a developing country like India where the
coal is a major source of fuel for power generation. About 60%
power is produced using coal as fuel. Indian coal is having low
calorific value (3000-3500 K cal.) & very high ash content (3045%) resulting in huge quantity of ash is generated in the coal
based thermal power stations.. With the commissioning of super
thermal power plants and with the increasing use of low grade coal
of high ash content, presently the annual production of Fly Ash in
India is about 220 million tonnes in the year 2011-2012 with 65000
acre of land being occupied by ash ponds and is expected to cross
1000 million tonnes by the year 2030 and pose serious ecological
problems.
In India, only a small quantity of the total ash produced is currently

utilized in use of ash in concrete, brick making, soil-stabilization
treatment and other applications. In growing need for electricity in
India, 70% of power is generated through thermal power plants.
The environmental dreads from these plants include air pollution
due to particulate emission, water pollution and shortage of land
for dumping the fly ash. Further, the poor quality of Indian coal
has high ash content, which worsens the disposal problem. Most
of the ash generated from the power plants is disposed off in the
vicinity of the plant as a waste material covering several hectares of
valuable land. Instead of dumping the fly ash as landfills, fly ash is
widely used as cement replacement material, pavement base,
blocks etc., in these days.
Geena George. Tel.: +919449820116

E-mail: geenasajith@gmail.com
Page 156
With increasing concern over the excessive exploitation of natural

aggregates, synthetic lightweight aggregate produced from
environmental waste is a viable new source of structural aggregate
material. Though the artificial aggregate production attained
attention in research field, in India it is not implemented widely.
This may be due to the availability of natural resources, relatively
higher initial cost for manufacturing and the energy required for
curing. There are also methods like cold bonding which does
not require energy for curing of artificial aggregates. This paper
discuss about the use of fly ash in the flyash aggregates in the light
weight concrete.
Impact of Modern Concrete Use

The usage of concrete worldwide is twice as much as steel, wood,
plastics, and aluminum combined. Concretes use in the modern
world is only exceeded by the usage of naturally occurring
water.Concrete is also the bases of a large commercial industry,
with all the positives and negatives that entails. In the United states
alone, concrete production is a $30 billion per year industry,
considering only the value of ready-mixed concrete sold each year.
Given the size of the concrete industry, and fundamental way
concrete is used to shave the infrastructure of the modern world, it
is difficult to overstate the role this materials plays today.
2.1. Literature Review
1.A. Sivakumar and P. Gomathi carried out the research work on
Pelletized fly ash lightweight aggregate concrete. They concluded
that conversion of fly ash with aggregate is technically feasible and
are found to be light weight in nature.
2.Dr.J.B.Behera, Dr.B.D.Nayak, Dr.H.S.Ray and Dr.B.Sarangi
examined the use of sintered fly ash aggregate in concrete as a
partial replacement of granite aggregate. They concluded that in
addition to light weight characteristics, the sintered fly ash concrete
possesses strength and deformation characteristics similar to
concrete with natural granite aggregate.
3.Gao Li-Xiong, Yaoyan and Wang Ling, China building materials
Academy, Beijing found light weight aggregate concrete made with
sintered fly ash aggregate showed good workability, high
compressive strength and low absorption of water.
4. Mehnet Gesoglu, TuranOzturan and ErhanGunegisi found the
compressive strength of concrete ranging from 20 to 50Mpa was
practically produced by using light weight fly ash aggregates. They
also found the increase in splitting tensile strength of concrete due
to increase in aggregate crushing strength of fly ash aggregates.
5.HaydarArsian and Gokhan Baykal investigated the fly ash
aggregates produced from fly ash and cement mixing by
pelletization method and evaluated Engineering properties such as
crushing strength, specific gravity, water absorption, particle size
distribution, surface characteristics and shear strength properties of
the manufactured aggregates experimentally. The experimental
investigation showed that these aggregates are a good alternative

for wide range of civil Engineering applications.
6.Gokhan Baykal and ATA Gurhan Doven studied the properties of
fly ash aggregates made by pelletization process such as unit
weight, specific gravity, water absorption, crushing value test,
California bearing ratio (CBR), Direct shear tests, soundness tests,
compressive and flexural strength and obtained good results when
compared to conventional aggregates in concrete
2.2.Lightweight Aggregates
In conventional concrete, weight of concrete is one of the
parameters to compare with weight of fly ash aggregate concrete.
Normally density of concrete is in the order of 2200 to 2600 kg/m3.
This heavy self weight makes an uneconomical structural material
compared to low self weight of fly ash aggregate concrete. In order
to produce concrete of desired density to suit the required
application, the self weight of structural and non structural
members are to be reduced. Hence economy is achieved in the
design of supporting structural elements which lead to the
development of light weight concrete.
Lightweight aggregate concrete is the concrete made by replacing
the usual material aggregate by lightweight aggregates. Though
lightweight concrete cant always substitute normal concrete for its
strength potential, it has its own advantages like reduced dead load,
and thus economic structures and enhanced seismic resistance, high
sound absorption and good fire resistance. Because of the above
reasons the study on fly ash aggregate concrete is taken in this
research work.
Heat treatment usually results in relatively thick pore walls that
give the aggregates suitable compressive strengths. The porosity of
all these aggregates results from heat treatment, either naturally or
artificially induced. A porous but relatively impermeable texture
not only makes these materials lightweight but also makes them
both thermal and acoustic insulators, desirable for bulk use in floor
and roof fill and with an added advantage of saving weight in
concrete.In this broad range, lightweight aggregate concretes can
be used for bridge decks; concrete walls and floors; concrete
frames using precast, prestressed, or post-tensioned girders; precast
tilt-up panels; poured barge and ship hulls; and lightweight
concrete masonry units. In bulk form, the aggregates are also
sometimes used as railroad ballast, as highway and embankment
fill, and in the surface course of bituminous paving mixtures.
Reducing the dead load of structures can be a major advantage in
construction.
2.2.1. Properties Of Light Weight Aggregtes

The principal properties desired in materials used as lightweight
aggregates
Light weightreduces dead load (weight in place) and facilitates

the physical handling of the materials
Page 157
Strengthmaintains the structural integrity of the end

product,such as in concrete products
Thermal and acoustical propertiesnormally the result of air

spaces, voids, or pores in the lightweight aggregate materials
High fire resistancelow probability of physical breakdown at

temperatures below the melting point of the aggregate
Toughnessminimum tendency to crack or break if nailed or

stressed in construction use.
material like cement, lime, bentonite, metakaolin, kaolinite, glass

powder and ceramic powders are added. Characteristics of class-C
and class-F are given in the table:2
2.2.3.1.FLYASH AGGREGATE PRODUCTION

There are two basic methods to produce an aggregate from fly ash:
agglomeration of the fine fly ash particles to form aggregate-size
pellets, and bonding of the material in the pellets. This gives the
pellets strength and other properties necessary to meet the criteria
for a lightweight aggregate.
Pelletizing Process
Other properties that are sometimes considered ,depending on the
application, include the following are low water absorption,
resistance to freezing and thawing , low shrinkage characteristics
and minimum thermal expansion, good bonding with cement ,
chemical inertness, good elastic properties , abrasion resistance.
2.2.2. FLY ASH
Fly ash is a pozzolan. Pozzolan as a siliceous or siliceous and
aluminous material that itself possesses little or no cementitious
value, but that will, in finely divided form and in presence of
moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide (CH) at
ordinary temperatures to form compounds having cementitious
properties; there are both natural and artificial pozzolans.
All fly ash exhibit pozzolanic properties to some extent For this
simple reason it is rapidly becoming a common ingredient in
concrete all over the world. Most of the reasons for using fly ash in
any proportion are practical, such as increasing strength and
durability, decreasing heat of hydration, and decreasing
permeability. The use of fly ash as a performance-enhancing
ingredient in concrete is one of the most outstanding examples of
industrial ecology-i.e., making effective use of waste resources,
and ultimately eliminating the concept of waste altogether.
2.2.3. FLY ASH AGGREGATES
The chemical composition and physical characteristics of the fly
ash from a coal-fired furnace are controlled by the type of coal and
the processing conditions of the furnace . However, the pozzolanic
properties of the fly ash mainly depend upon the mineralogy and
particle size of the ash. Fly ash consists mostly of SiO2. The SiO2
can be amorphous (glassy and rounded) and crystalline (sharp and
pointed)1. The largest fraction of fly ash consists of glassy spheres
of two types: solid and hollow (cenospheres). The amorphous
glassy particles are the primary contributor to the pozzolanic
reaction.
The two types of fly ash are specified in ASTM C 618, namely
class-C and class-F classified based on the chemical composition
resulting from the different types of coal burning. Class-C fly ash is
normally produced from the burning of sub-bituminous coal and
lignite and class- C fly ash. The flyash aggregates are porous
material and to improve the strength of the pellet the binder
The desired grain size distribution of an artificial lightweight

aggregate is either crushed or by means of agglomeration process.
Agglomeration (also called "pelletizing') can be performed by two
distinct methods.One is by agitation, where fly ash particles are
introduced onto an inclined rotating disk along with a wetting agent
and an appropriate binder. Balling of the material occurs by the
formation of 'seeds' which ultimately grow into pellets of a certain
maximum size, usually about 3/8 in. to 5/8 in. in diameter.
The other method is the pressure or extrusion method where
agglomeration is accomplished by using a continuous piston-type
press where more or less rectangular or cylindrical pellets are
formed, that are 3/8 in. to 1/2 in. in size. The extrusion process
generally results in a product having a higher density than the
spherical pellets produced by agitation .
The pelletization process is used to manufacture artificial
lightweight coarse aggregate using fly ash. Pelletization depends on
(i) speed of revolution of pelletizer disc, (ii) angle of pelletizer disc,
(iii) moisture content, and (iv) duration of pelletization.The
different types of pelletizer machine were used to make the pellet
such as disc or pan type, drum type, cone type and mixer type.
With disc type pelletizer the pellet size distribution is easier to
control than drum type pelletizer. With mixer type pelletizer, the
small grains are formed initially and are subsequently increased in
particle size by disc type pelletization .The dosage of binding agent
is more important for making flyash balls .
Bonding
The bonding of the green pellets can be accomplished in three
ways: firing, hydrothermal processing, and cold bonding. There are
different methods of firing method. One method is the continuous
rotary kiln whereby the material is heated in a rotating, almost
horizontal kiln to produce the lightweight aggregate product. In
another method utilizes a traveling sintering grate that transports
the material through a sintering oven. The combustible portion is
provided by the organic portion of component materials such as the
carbon fraction of the fly ash as measured by a loss on ignition test.
In the hydrothermal process ,also called cold bonding is
accomplished by adding lime and/or cement to fly ash in order to
achieve a chemical reaction that will bond the materials together.
After the fly ash and lime have reacted, the mixture is pelletized in
Page 158
an inclined rotating drum. The pellets are then placed in an

autoclave to harden under pressurized saturated steam conditions.
The product from the cold bonding process is thought to possess
inferior properties to those of the other two processes due to the
lack of firing .
Curing and drying of flyash aggregate
After the formation of flyash aggregate, the fly ash aggregate
which are formed are out from the cement mixer and then it is dried
for about 24 hours. Then the dried fly ash aggregate is then cured
in the water tank for 30 days. Curing of 30 days is done to attain
the strength of the flyash aggregate.
Workability of Concrete
Flyash aggregates usually also have high water absorption, which
can reduce the workability. Therefore, aggregates are usually presoaked to compensate for the reduction in workability; however,
there is probably a tendency to increase the water dosage, which
leads to further reductions in strength.
Drying And Curing Of Fly Ash Aggregates

The fly ash aggregates were taken out from the mixer and allowed
to dry for a day. The dried aggregates were cured in the water tank
for 28 days . The fly ash aggregates are shown in figure:2
Properties of Fly ash Aggregates

The shape and texture of aggregate affects the fresh property of the
concrete. Fly ash aggregate is rounded in shape while natural
gravel is angular in shape . Rounded aggregates promotes
workability of concrete while the angular nature of natural gravel
gives a better bonding property but requires more cement mortar
for better workability .The Physical Properties of Natural granite
Aggregate and Fly ash Coarse Aggregate are given in the table:3
2.2.3.2.Hardening Process of Flyash Aggregates

The hardening of pellets is done by different process such as cold
bonding, sintering and autoclaving. Cold-bonded fly ash aggregates
are hardened by different curing process namely normal water
curing, steam curing and autoclaving. Autoclave and steam curing
method is less effective to improve the properties of aggregate as
compare to normal water curing method. Among accelerated cured
class C fly ash aggregate, autoclaved aggregates has properties
closer to the normal water cured aggregate due to the dense
microstructure formation. The way of curing is important in
enhancing the aggregate strength. Hence, for high-early strength .
autoclaving may be adopted whereas normal curing gives better
results. In sintering method the cold bonded pellets are burned in a
muffle furnace at temperature range of 800 to 1200C. The mineral
particles in the binder fuse together to form the crystalline structure
(CSH) and results in higher strength of the aggregate.
Mix Design
The mix design of lightweight aggregate concrete is different from
the conventional concrete mix design. It is more complex due to
the porous nature of aggregates. Since the flyash aggregates are
porous in nature it requires extra water for good workability. The
mix design concepts are usually based on the production of higher
strength matrix to low water cement ratio for the weaker aggregate.
The gradation of aggregate is important to improve the engineering
properties in the concrete mix for that different aggregate grading
size distributions are required The design of flyash aggregate are
followed in two methods; loose volume calculation and absolute
solid volume calculation. The lightweight aggregate is pre-wetting
before addition of concrete mix.
Fig:1 Flyash aggregates
Microstructural Characteristics Of Flyash Aggregate

Concrete
The durability and strength aspects of concrete affected by its
aggregate and cement paste as well as the interfacial zone between
them.In normal concrete the aggregate-cement paste interface is the
weakest part of the micro-structural system where cracks begins,
strongest component is normal aggregate. But, in Flyash aggregate
concrete is the interaction between the cement paste-aggregate is
complex . This type of aggregate are porous in nature, absorbs
more water which yielded to the surrounding matrix. The porosity
of flyash aggregate can vary between 25 to 75% depending on the
manufacturing process used. For applied micromechanical method
considered the perfect bonding between the aggregate and mortar
.Normally sintered fly ash lightweight aggregate were produced by
heat and polymer treatment so that to improve their strength,
absorption and pozzolanic activity according to their properties of
aggregate by change to the microstructure. SEM analysis to
observe the higher magnification to see more uniform distribution
of small pore size in the sintered fly ash aggregate at the
temperature treated aggregate as 1200 to 1300C .Mechanical
interlocking plays an important role for strengthening the interface
Page 159
2.4. Tables
Table 1.Physical Properties of Natural granite Aggregate and Fly ash Coarse Aggregate
Material
Cement
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Fly ash aggregate
Specific gravity
3.155
2.71
2.77
1.32
Water absorption
(%)
0.2
0.1
7.6
Table 2.Physical and chemical characterization of flyash

Low calcium fly ash
C618
Fly ash from
Pozzolanic
Definition by ASTM C 618
Class F
Class C
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 70 %

LOI, max: 6,0 %
SO3, max: 5,0 %
CaO, max: No limit
Amount retained when wet sieved
on 45 m: Max. 34 %
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 50 %

LOI, max: 6,0 %
SO3, max: 5,0 %
CaO, max: No limit (Note: CaO > 10
%) Amount retained when wet sieved
on 45 m: Max. 34 %

C618
Low calcium fly ash
Fly ash from
Pozzolanic
Table 3. Physical Properties of Natural granite Aggregate and Fly ash Coarse Aggregate
Properties
Natural granite Aggregate
Fly ash Coarse Aggregate
Shape
Angular
Spherical
Specific gravity
2.66
1.41
Bulk density (Kg/m3)
1715
912
4.75mm to 20mm
4.75mm to 20mm
Water absorption (%)
1.16
21
Crushing value (%)
24.94
30.70
Impact value (%)
23.86
22.52
Size (mm)
Page 160
References
3. Conclusion
Fly ash aggregates shows results comparable with natural

gravel and the natural resource is in the side of depletion, fly
ash aggregates can be considered as a replacement material for
coarse aggregate.It also improves the property of concrete as
fly ash is a pozzolanic material. The obtained aggregates can be
considered for various applications like wall panels, masonry
blocks, roof insulation material, structural load bearing
elements etc. Use of sintered fly ash as coarse aggregate can
reduce the cost of construction and it is useful in environmental
point of view.
Concrete with density 2150 kg/m3 can be achieved using fly
ash aggregates while density of normal concrete mix goes up to
2600 kg/m3 .The rounded shape of fly ash aggregate gives
better workability compared to the angular natural gravel. Low
specific gravity compared to natural gravel proves it to be a
light weight aggregate material and fly ash has been consumed
in large volume when it is used as a coarse aggregate
replacement material due to its occupation of large volume in
concrete. This in turn reduces the problem of dumping as
landfills to greater extent.
The water absorption of fly ash aggregate is much higher than
that of natural gravel which is the major disadvantage which
can be eliminated by various treatment methods .
[1] A. Sivakumar and P. Gomathi Pelletized fly ash

lightweight aggregate concrete Journal of Civil Engineering
and Construction Technology Vol. 3(2), pp. 42-48, February
2012
[2] . Manikandan, R., Ramamurthy, K., 2008, Effect of curing
method on characteristics of cold bonded fly ash aggregates,
Cement & Concrete Composites, 30, pp 848853
[3] Mehmet Gesoglu, Turan O zturan, Erhan Gu neyisi,
2007, Effects of fly ash properties on characteristics of
coldbonded fly ash lightweight aggregates, Construction and
Building Materials, 21, pp 18691878.
[4] Geetha, S., Ramamurthy, K., 2010, Reuse potential of low
calcium bottom ash as aggregate through pelletization, Waste
Management, 30, pp 15281535.
[5]
Rajamani N.P, Annie peter J. ,Sabitha D. and
Gopalakrishanan S. (2004). Studies on development on
bonded fly ash aggregates for use as coarse aggregate in
structural grade concretes New building materials
andconstruction world Vol 10,issue 4, Oct (pp 60 to 70).
[6] Dr. J.P. Behera, Dr. H.S. Ray, Dr. B.D. Nayak and Dr. B.
Sarangi. (2004). Light weight concrete with sintered fly ash
aggregates. A study on partial replacement to normal granite
aggregate. Institution of Engineers, India (IE(I)) Journal CV
Vol 85 August2004, PP 84 to 87.
Page 161
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL CONCRETE

COMPOSITE COLUMNS
1
R.THIRUMALAI
Asst. Professor, Dept of Civil Engineering,

Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur,Tamil Nadu India -635 109
thirumalai063@gmail.com
Abstract
Composite columns of the steel and concrete have been used and studied worldwide, but filled tubular columns
need more attention. Extensive research work has been done in Japan in the last 15 years. This project presents an
experimental and analysis study on the behavior of steel concrete composite columns under axial and lateral load.
Totally 22 number of specimens (9 number kept hallow without concrete filled, 9 with concrete filled and 4 under
lateral load).Columns specimens where made with different cross section, various shapes and various thickness of
steel tube. The concrete filled in the steel tubes is M20 grade. And the strength comparison of different cross-section,
shape and thickness columns, comparison of experimental failure loads with the predicated failure loads in accordance
with method described in eurocode-4 ,part 1.1and specimens where analyzed by ANSYS SOFTWARE.
Keywords:Composite, ANSYS,EUROCODE-4.1.
1. Introduction
Concrete filled steel tubular columns have many
excellent structural properties, such as high compressive
strength, large ductility and large energy absorption
capacity. Then, composite tubular columns have been
gradually used widely in the world.The strength of steel and
concrete for building structures is getting higher with the
development of new materials. The cross section with high
strength materials becomes smaller, and consequently a
column becomes more slender.The greatest advantage of
this concept is that the two materials are put to their ultimate
use. The steel jacket confines the concrete and provides the
flexural strength for the system.The presence of the concrete
delays steel problems in compression zones such as local
and overall buckling and also provides stiffness for the
column.The main advantage of CSC columns is the no usage
of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
2. Strength by Design Code(EUROCODE-4.1)
EC4 is the most recently completed international standard in
composite construction. EC4 covers concrete - encased and
partially encased steel sections and concrete-filled sections
with or without reinforcement.EC4 considers confinement
effects for circular sections when relative slenderness has
value less than 0.5. EC4 uses limit state concepts to achieve
the aims of serviceability and safety by applying partial
safety factors to load and material properties. It is the only
code that treats the effects of long-term loading separately.
The ultimate axial force of a circular column is,
PP = Aa* 2a + Ac* Ck * 1 + 1* { t / d } * { fy / fck}

Where,
1= 10[
1 {10e /d}.
=
+
{
1
2
20
20 } * {10e / d}.
a = { fy / a }.Ck = { fck / c }.
PP plastic resistance of columns.Aa&Ac- Area of the steel
and concrete.t thickness of steel.d outer diameter of the
columns.fy&fck yield strength of steel and concrete.a& c
- partial safety factor for steel and concrete.
Pcr = 2*{ (EI)e/l2}, (EI)e = Ea Ia + 0.8 EcdIc.

Ecd = { Ecm / c },Ecm = 5000 ( fck)1/2
(EI)e - Effective elastic flexural stiffness of the composite
column,Ia&Ic second moments of area of steel and
concrete.Ea& Ec - modules of elasticity of steel and
concrete.c - partial safety factor concrete is reduced to 1.35
as per eurocode 4.
Non Dimensional Slenderness
= (PP/PCR)(1/2)
Reduction Factor
Xx = 1/ { x + (x2 - 2) (1/2)}
Where ,
x = 0.5 [ 1 + ( - 0.2 ) + ]
Page 162
3.Casting and Testing of Circular Steel Concrete
Composite Columns
Casting of circular steel concrete composite column
of various thickness where casted
S.No
Inner Diameter
Thickness
2mm
1
60mm
85mm
110mm
4mm
6mm
2mm
4mm
6mm
2mm
4mm
6mm
Table 1. circular steel concrete composite column of various thickness
3.1. Testing Procedure
Each specimen was tested under axial compression

loading in a loading frame at structural laboratory. The
column of the test assembly was placed in a loading frame
the column was centered accurately using plumb bob to
avoid eccentricity at the both ends of the column mild steel
plate support condition was provided. The axial load is
achieved by using spherical steel ball having 55mm in
diameter and 0.6 kg of mass was used in between the two
mild steel plates to ensure proper verticality of support mild
steel plates are welded and are aligned using 6mm diameter
mild steel smooth bar which are used in on the fur sides of
the plate.
The column is lifted by 2000 KN capacity
hydraulic jack which is kept at the bottom of the testing
platform above which the steel plate bottom support was
placed. Then the test specimen is placed bottom support and
the top support is placed over the top column head and
finally it touches the load cell which is pivoted in the
horizontal element of the loading frame. The column vertical
alignment was checked before start testing. The column was
loaded under axial compressive load (10KN) by hydraulic
jack which is kept at the bottom of the column. The column
is loaded after the failure and buckling of column. For
Lateral load the hydraulic jack is placed in horizontal
direction and connected to the specimen.
levels, temperature distributions, pressure, etc. It permits an

evaluation of a design without having to build and destroy
multiple prototypes in testing. The ANSYS program has a
variety of design analysis applications, ranging from such
everyday items as dishwashers, cookware, automobiles,
running shoes and beverage cans to such highly
sophisticated systems as aircraft, nuclear reactor
containment buildings, bridges, farm machinery, X-ray
equipment
and
orbiting
satellites
ANSYS/LS-Dy is a tightly integrated program that
combines industry-leading finite element technology with
explicit nonlinear dynamic solution capabilities.
4.1.Results and Discussion
For axial loading a set of detailed experiments have

been conducted on hollow and filled steel tubular columns
under axial loading. The hollow section is failed due to
buckling around the circumference of the specimen.
For lateral loading, Support conditions of the
composite column is one end fixed at bottom and other is
free at top. Lateral load is applied at free end with intensity
of 50 KN. For C1 maximum displacement occurs at free end
with 0.0625 mm. Minimum displacement occurs at 100 mm
at 0.0069 mm.
For C2 maximum displacement occurs at free end
with 0.1234 mm and minimum displacement occurs at 100
mm at 0.0137 mm. For S1Maximum displacement occurs at
free end with 0.1234 mm and Minimum displacement occurs
at 100 mm at 0.0137 mm. For S2 maximum displacement
occurs at free end with 0.039 mm and Minimum
displacement occurs at 100 mm at 0.0043 mm.
3.2. Software analysis (ANSYS)
ANSYS, Inc. has developed product lines that allow you to

make the most of your investment and choose which product
works best in your environment. ANSYS is a finite element
analysis (FEA) code widely used in the computer-aided
engineering (CAE) field. ANSYS software allows engineers
to construct computer models of structures, machine
components or systems; apply operating loads and other
design criteria; and study physical responses, such as stress
Fig 1. Cross section and plan of

circular composite column
Fig 2. cross section and plan

of square composite column
Page 163
COMPRESSSIVE STRENGTH (kN)

O.D
mm
S.NO
L/D
T
mm
(AC)
mm2
(Aa)
mm2
Concrete filled column

EUROCODE-4
TEST
VALUE
HOLLOW
COLUMN
37
62
17
2327.4
191.6
64.68
90
64
16.5
2327.4
389.5
107.8
127.8
66
16
2327.4
593.7
176.2
190
66
87
12.1
5674.50
270.17
108.1
120
67.2
89
12
5674.50
546.6
143.7
170
81.3
91
11.6
5674.50
829.3
363.30
400
90.3
112
9.4
9503.31
348.7
348.53
390
87.1
114
9.2
9503.31
703.7
437.71
470
175.1
116
9.1
9503.31
1064.9
527.51
630
266.2
Table 2. Compressive Strength For Columns

Load
Sno
Shape
Circle
Square
Size
As per software analysis
Thickness
intensity
of steel wall
at free
Minimum
Maximum
end (kN)
displacement(mm)
displacement(mm)
100mm
50
0.0069
0.0624
(dia)
50
0.0069
0.0624
100*100
50
0.0137
0.1234
mm
50
0.0043
0.039
Table 3. Lateral load as per software results
4.2. Strength comparison between the thickness of steel
200
150
100
50
0
190
127.8
90.1
49
37
65.5
hollow
filled
THICKNESS (mm)
LOAD (KN)
LOAD(KN)
250
210
200
150
100
170
120
67.2
81.1
91
50
Hollow
Filled
0
2
THICKNESS (mm)
Page 164
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
116
THICKNESS (mm)
112
eurocode
-4
102
Filled
89
Hollow
66
630
700
600
470
500
390
400
266.2
300
175.1
200
87.1
100
0
2
4
6
LOAD(KN)
LOAD(KN)
DIAMETER ( mm)
Fig .5 : For 110 mm Diameter
Fig .6 : Comparison of EUROCODE 4 VALUE Vs

TEST VALUE
0.07
DISPLACEMENT
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
C1
0.01
C2
0
0 to 10
10 to
20
20 to
30
30 to
40
40 to
50
50 to
60
60 to
70
70 to
80
80 to
90
90 to
100
C1
0.0069 0.0138 0.0208 0.0277 0.0346 0.0416 0.0485 0.0555 0.0624
C2
0.0069 0.0139 0.0208 0.0278 0.0347 0.0417 0.0486 0.0556 0.0625
10 CM INTERVALS
Fig. 7 : Displacement Of Circular Column 50 kN Load Intensity
DISPLACEMENT
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 60 to 70 70 to 80 80 to 90
90 to
100
S1
0.0137
0.0274
0.0411
0.0548
0.0685
0.0822
0.096
0.1097
0.1234
S2
0.0043
0.0086
0.013
0.0173
0.0216
0.026
0.0303
0.0347
0.039
10 CM INTERVAL
S1
S2
Fig.8. Displacement of Square Column 50 Kn Load Intensity
Page 165
5. Conclusion
A set of detailed experiments have been

conducted on hollow and filled steel tubular
columns. The hollow section is failed due to
buckling around the circumference of the
specimen.
But the filled column gives the strength,

2to4 times greater than hollow columns.
As the thickness of the steel wall increases,

strength of the columns increases.
The experimental test value satisfies the

eruocode-4 theoretical value of steel
concrete composite columns
Displacement of 4 mm thick circular

column is less than 0.16% of 3 mm thick
circular column.Displacement of 4mm thick
square column is less than 68.39% of 3 mm
thick square column.
Displacement of square column is greater

than 49.35% of circular column under
lateral load. Performance of circular column
under lateral load is good compared with
square column.
References :
1.Workshop
on
steel-concrete
composite
structures in ANNA UNIVERSITY.
2. Indian code IS: 11384: 1985 CODE OF
PRACTICE FOR COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
IN STRUCTURAL STEEL AND CONCRETE
3. EUROCODE-4 : DESIGN OF COMPOSITE
STEEL AND CONCRETE STRUCTURE:PART
1.1.
4. Johansson M, Gylltoft K. Behaviour OF
CIRCULAR STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE
STUB
COLUMNS.
JOURNAL
OF
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, 2002, 128(8):
1073-1081.
5.Behavioural Studies On Hollow Double Skinned
Steel Concrete Composite Columns
,By
N.Balasubramanian,
R.B.Karthika
And
Dr.R.Thenmozhi, GCT Cbe.
6. Concrete-filled double-skin tubular columns with
external steel rings,C.X. Dong and J.C.M. HO.
7. Behaviour Of Hollow Concrete-filled Steel
Tubular Composite Elements, Artiomas Kuranovas,
Audronis Kazimieras Kvedaras .
8. Plastic mechanism analysis of CHS stub columns
strengthened using CFRP,
M. Elchalakani,M.R. Bambach.
9. New concrete-filled hollow FRP composite
column, Amir Mirmiran.
Page 166
EFFECT OF FIBRE REINFORCEMENT ON STRENGTH AND

STIFFNESS IMPROVEMENT OF COHESIVE SOIL
Suchit Kumar Patel1, Baleshwar Singh2
1
Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, India, p.suchit@iitg.ernet.in
Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, India, baleshwar@iitg.ernet.in
Abstract
A study has been conducted to investigate and quantify the strength and stiffness improvement behaviour of a cohesive
soil (MI) by reinforcing with glass fibres. The influence of fibre length (10, 20 and 30 mm) and fibre content (0.25, 0.5,
0.75 and 1% by dry weight of soil) on compressive and shear strength was examined by conducting unconfined
compression, triaxial compression and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests. The test results show that the compressive
strength, shear strength parameters, stiffness modulus and energy absorption capacity of the fibre-reinforced soil have
significantly improved. Compressive strength of the reinforced soil is found to enhance by two fold along with
accumulation of ductile behaviour during deformation. The maximum improvement in CBR value is found nearly 2.5
times that of the original soil. The maximum improvement in cohesion, friction angle and energy absorption capacity
have occurred for 20 mm long fibre of 0.75% fibre content. The strength improvement ratio of the reinforced soil is
observed to be higher at lower confining pressure irrespective of fibre content and length. The stiffness modulus
improvement is found to be larger at initial strain than at larger axial strain.
Keywords: Fibre reinforcement, unconfined compression strength, shear strength, stiffness modulus, CBR
1. Introduction
The basic idea of fibre-reinforced soil has been developed from the
protection principle of soils in nature by plant roots [1]. In past
decades, several research works has been carried out to improve the
engineering performance of soils by using fibre-reinforcement
technique. Majority of work started with initial research on fibrereinforced cohesionless soil to understand the mechanisms. Fibrereinforced fine-grained soils have also been studied through
unconfined compression tests [2-4], tensile strength tests [5-6]
California Bearing Ratio tests [4, 7] and triaxial tests [8-11].
Locally available soils are used as foundation material and in
several earth structures such as road pavement, dam and retaining
wall backfill. These applications need strength characterization of
the soil which may not satisfy the required criteria. With this in
view, the soil can be improved by reinforcing it with randomly
distributed discrete fibres as tensile element. Glass fibres have
some advantage over other synthetic and natural fibres as it is more
resistant to ageing, heat and aggressive chemical environment and
has very good tensile strength. It is important to specify the
optimum combination of reinforcement for field applications.
This study investigates the influence of glass fibre inclusion on the
strength and stiffness behaviour of a locally available cohesive soil
under different loading condition. The results of a series of
unconfined compression (UC) tests, triaxial tests (CD) and CBR
tests (soaked and unsoaked) on soil-fibre composite specimens are
presented.
2.1. Materials and Methods

A locally available fine-grained soil classified as MI was used. The
plastic and liquid limits of the soil were 25% and 46%. Glass fibres
of 0.15 mm diameter were used as reinforcing material. Three
different fibre lengths (L = 10, 20, 30 mm) and different
percentages of fibre content (fc = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1% by dry
weight of the soil) were chosen to prepare soil-fibre specimens at
the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of the
soil. Unconfined compressive test on the specimens was conducted
at an axial strain rate of 1.2 mm/min. Triaxial testing of specimens
was carried out at four different confining pressures ranging from
100 to 400 kPa with a shearing strain rate of 0.12 mm/min. The
deviatoric stress was applied up to 20% axial strain level or up to
failure of specimen whichever occurred earlier. CBR test of the
specimens was done under both unsoaked and soaked conditions.

3.1. Unconfined Compression Tests
3.1.1. Axial Stress-Strain Response
Axial stress-strain response showing the effect of fibre content and
fibre length is presented in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. It is clear
from these figures that fibre has very significant effect on stressstrain response. The peak strength of the soil mix increases with
both fibre content and fibre length up to certain limit. It is also seen
Suchit Kumar Patel. Tel.: +9508996424

E-mail: p.suchit@iitg.ernet.in
Page 167
that the fibre-reinforced soil exhibits smaller loss of post-peak

strength, and the loss still becomes less pronounced for higher fibre
content. Even after peak, the reinforcement supports the soil and
reduces the post-peak loss in strength. The results indicate that the
optimum fibre content depends on the fibre length. For L = 20 mm,
the strength improves up to 0.75% fibre content (Fig. 1). For
various fibre contents, the strength is found to improve up to 20
mm fibre length (Fig. 2).
300
the addition of fibres improved the deformation behaviour along

with the strength. The fibres have imparted ductility to the natural
soil which can sustain more deformation.
Table 1. Peak UC strength and axial strain of fibre-reinforced soil
L (mm)
fc (%)
Peak stress
(kPa)
10
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
137
157
185
205
201
182
241
279
249
187
237
261
247
Axial stress (kPa)
250
200
20
150
fc = 1%
fc = 0.75%
100
fc = 0.5%
fc = 0.25%
50
30
Stress
improvement
(%)
19.5
47.5
67.5
63.5
44.5
103.5
141.5
119.5
49.5
99.5
123.5
109.5
Peak axial
strain (%)
2.7
4.5
5.4
7.5
8.6
5.3
6.1
8.9
10.8
5.9
7.0
10.3
9.7
No fibre
0
0
10
15
20
Axial strain (%)

Fig. 1. Effect of fibre content on stress-strain response (L = 20 mm)
300
Axial stress (kPa)
250
200
150
100
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
50
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
Fig. 2. Effect of fibre length on stress-strain response (fc = 0.75%)
Table 1 shows the peak stress, percentage improvement in peak

stress and the failure axial strain of the reinforced soil. For 10 mm
long fibre, the highest strength improvement is from 137 kPa for
the parent soil to 205 kPa i.e. almost 67.5% for 0.75% fibre
content. In case of 20 mm long fibre, the strength has modified to
279 kPa (141.5%) for 0.75% fibre content, while for 30 mm long
fibre the maximum enhancement in strength is 261 kPa (almost
123.5%) for 0.75% fibre.
The strength of soil has improved significantly for all fibre
inclusions, and the improvement is higher for 20 mm fibre for
almost all fibre contents. The failure axial strain of fibre-reinforced
soil increases with both fibre content and fibre length, showing that
Fig. 3. Failure pattern of fibre-reinforced soil (a) unreinforced (b) L =

10 mm, fc = 0.25% (c) L = 10 mm, fc = 0.5% (d) L = 20 mm, fc = 0.25%
(e) L = 20 mm, fc = 0.5% and (f) L= 30 mm, fc = 1%
Fig. 3 indicates typical failure patterns of tested specimens with

different fibre length and content combinations. In unreinforced
specimen, a single major crack can be seen running from top to
bottom (Fig. 3a) indicating sudden failure i.e. brittle behaviour of
soil after its peak strength. With addition of fibres, the specimen
failure pattern has changed. Instead of the single major crack,
multiple small cracks appear up to the half portion of specimen. At
Page 168
Stiffness modulus at any particular strain can be obtained by

dividing the axial stress at that strain with the corresponding strain.
Table 2 shows the stiffness modulus value at strain corresponding
to peak, half-peak and a particular axial strain of 2.7%, which is the
failure strain of plain soil. The initial stiffness or pre-failure
stiffness of soil at smaller strain seems to be improved significantly
as can be noted from the stiffness value at 2.7% strain. Only at
higher fibre dose (fc = 1%) stiffness is found to decrease in more
visible way. The soil reinforced with 20 mm fibre is showing
higher stiffness response for all cases.
Table 2. Stiffness modulus of fibre-reinforced soil
L
(mm)
fc (%)
10
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
20
30
At Peak
(MPa)
At half-peak
(MPa)
5.18
3.62
3.05
2.75
2.34
4.2
4.03
3.25
2.2
3.17
3.48
2.62
2.55
7.29
5.96
5.93
4.83
3.63
7.29
7.22
5.92
4.17
5.82
5.89
4.81
4.8
At 2.7%
strain
(MPa)
5.18
5.21
5.96
6.15
3.61
6.27
8.41
8.67
6.87
5.81
7.41
7.85
7.24
fc = 1%
fc = 0.25%
No fibre
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
600
(b)
500
400
300
200
fc = 1%
100
fc = 0.5%
fc = 0.75%
fc = 0.25%
No fibre
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
Fig. 4. Effect of fibre content (a) 3 = 100 kPa, L = 20 mm (b) 3 = 400

kPa, L = 20 mm
Table 3. Peak deviatoric stress and strength ratio
fc (%)
3
(kPa)
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
3.2. Triaxial Tests

3.2.1. Deviatoric Stress-Strain Response
Figs. 4 and 5 present the effect of fibre content and fibre length on
deviatoric stress-strain response under low (3 = 100 kPa) and high
(3 = 400 kPa) confining pressure respectively. The stress-strain
response at initial smaller deformation is similar for all soil-fibre
specimens. The deviatoric stress is found to increase with confining
pressure and fibre content. The strength is found to improve up to
0.75% fibre content and 20 mm length. Table 3 lists the peak
deviatoric stress and strength ratio (reinforced peak
stress/unreinforced peak stress) under any particular confinement.
The strength ratio of soil is noted to be the maximum at low
confining pressure (100 kPa) for all fibre combinations which
further decreases with increase in confinement. The maximum
strength ratio is found to be 1.87 for 20 mm fibres of 0.75% content
under 100 kPa confining pressure and the least value is 1.19 for 10
mm fibres under 400 kPa confining pressure.
(a)
fc = 0.75%
fc = 0.5%
500
600
larger strain, the smaller multiple cracks appear all around the
specimen and it further increases with fibre content and length. At
high fibre content of 1%, no obvious single dominated failure plane
is found (Fig. 3f). The gradual increase in axial strain during
compression leads to network of tiny cracks that form progressive
failure zones with a barrelled failure shape of the specimen. Overall
in specimens with fibre reinforcement, the fibres confine the soil
particles and increase the global stability of the soil by arresting the
deformation behaviour.
0.25
0.5
0.75
10 mm
Peak
Stress
stress
ratio
(kPa)
200
1
230
1
276
1
312
1
243
1.21
279
1.21
333
1.2
372
1.19
285
1.42
324
1.41
382
1.38
414
1.32
319
1.59
354
1.54
395
1.43
435
1.39
282
1.41
318
1.38
371
1.34
396
1.27
20 mm
Peak
Stress
stress
ratio
(kPa)
200
1
230
1
276
1
312
1
272
1.36
310
1.34
370
1.34
396
1.27
318
1.59
357
1.55
411
1.49
428
1.37
374
1.87
420
1.83
467
1.69
497
1.59
338
1.69
386
1.68
432
1.56
468
1.5
30 mm
Peak
Stress
stress
ratio
(kPa)
200
1
230
1
276
1
312
1
261
1.3
297
1.29
346
1.25
380
1.21
298
1.49
338
1.47
389
1.41
417
1.34
339
1.69
367
1.59
404
1.46
436
1.4
286
1.43
330
1.43
346
1.25
380
1.21
Page 169
350
600
500
fc = 1%
300
400
300
fc = 0.75%
fc = 0.5%
fc = 0.25%
No fibre
250
q (kPa)
(a)
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
200
150
100
200
50
100
0
0
0
0
10
15
Axial strain (%)
L
(mm)
10
400
300
20
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
30
0
5
10
400
500
600
700
Table 4. Shear strength parameters of fibre-reinforced soil
500
300
p (kPa)
(b)
100
200
Fig. 6. Failure envelope of fibre-reinforced soil (L = 20 mm)
600
200
100
20
15
20
fc
(%)
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
c (kPa)
67.6
82
100
118
103
95
120
141
124
90
109
132
114
Improvement
in cohesion
1.21
1.48
1.74
1.52
1.41
1.77
2.1
1.83
1.33
1.61
1.95
1.69
()
9
10
10.6
9.8
9.4
9.8
10
10.4
10.3
9.7
9.8
9.3
8.7
Improvement
in friction
1.11
1.17
1.09
1.04
1.09
1.11
1.15
1.14
1.07
1.09
1.03
0.97
Axial strain (%)

Fig. 5. Effect of fibre length (a) 3 = 100 kPa, fc = 0.75% (b) 3 = 400
kPa, fc = 0.75%
3.2.2. Shear Strength Parameters

The shear strength parameters (c and ) of the fibre-reinforced soil
have been calculated by plotting p-q plots, where {p = (1 + 3)/2
and q = (1 - 3)/2}. Fig. 6 depicts the failure envelope for 20 mm
long fibre at different fibre content. It can be noticed that the
envelopes are more or less parallel to each other. With addition of
fibres, the intercept of the failure envelope is shifting upwards. The
shear strength parameters determined from the failure envelopes
are summarized in Table 4. It can be noted that the cohesion
induced by fibres improves significantly up to 0.75% fibre content
for all fibre lengths and up to 20 mm fibre length at any particular
fibre content. The friction angle of soil increases slightly for all soil
fibre mix except for 30 mm fibre at 1% content, where it becomes
less than that of plain soil. Maximum improvement in cohesion (c)
parameter is 1.83 times (for 20 mm fibre at 0.75% content) and
friction angle () is 1.17 times (for 10 mm fibre at 0.5% content)
that of plain soil.

Typical stiffness modulus variation of fibre-reinforced soil showing
the effect of fibre content and fibre length is presented in Fig.7a
and Fig. 7b. Stiffness modulus is found to increase with fibre
content, fibre length and confining pressure. Initial stiffness
modulus at smaller strain is found to be higher and it further
decreases nonlinearly with strain indicating stiffness reduction with
strain increment. At higher strain stiffness variation almost become
parallel to each other and effect of fibre length and fibre content
become least significant. Nevertheless the stiffness of reinforced
soil is higher than that of plain soil for all strain levels studied.
Stiffness modulus increases with fibre dose and fibre length and
maximum improvement in stiffness is found for 0.75% fibre
content and 20 mm long fibre for all confining pressures.
Page 170
35
10
(a)
fc = 1%
fc = 0.75%
25
fc = 0.5%
20
fc = 0.25%
EAC (MJ/m3)
30
No fibre
15
10
7
6
5
4
5
0
0
10
15
3
0.00
20
0.25
Axial strain (%)
35
0.50
0.75
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
No fibre
9
8
EAC (MJ/m3)
25
1.00
Fibre content (%)
10
(b)
30
(a)
L = 30 mm
L = 20 mm
L = 10 mm
20
15
10
5
(b)
400 kPa
300 kPa
200 kPa
100 kPa
7
6
5
4
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
Fig. 7. Stiffness modulus response (3 = 100 kPa): effect of (a) fibre

content and (b) fibre length
3
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
Fibre content (%)

Fig. 8. Energy absorption capacity (EAC) response (a) effect of fibre
content, 3 =400 kPa (b) effect of confining pressure, L = 20 mm
3.3. CBR Tests

3.2.4. Energy Absorption Capacity
3.3.1. CBR Response
The improvement in toughness due to fibre inclusion can be
quantified by comparing the energy absorption capacity (EAC) for
the fibre-reinforced soil with that for the plain soil. The energy
absorption capacity is calculated by taking into consideration the
area under the deviatoric stress-strain curve up to axial strain of 20
%. Figs. 8a and Fig. 8b show the effect of fibre reinforcement
(fibre content and length) and confining pressure. It is observed
that more energy is needed to start deformation of soil and fibre at
higher confining pressure. The maximum increase in EAC is from
5.54 MJ/m3 for plain soil to 8.8 MJ/m3 for 20 mm long and 0.75%
fibre content reinforced specimen.
Fig. 9 presents the effect of fibre content on CBR values for 10 mm

and 20 mm long fibres calculated from load-penetration curves at
2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration depth. The CBR value
corresponding to 5 mm penetration is found to be maximum for all
soil-fibre combinations. After repetition of tests, the same response
was observed. Therefore the CBR value at 5 mm penetration is
considered for further study of strength behaviour. CBR values
calculated at 5 mm penetration are summarized in Table 6 for both
unsoaked and soaked conditions. The CBR values of plain soil are
8.05% and 2.74% for unsoaked and soaked conditions. With fibrereinforcement, the values have improved maximum up to 1.77 and
1.54 times for 20 mm and 0.75% fibre in unsoaked and soaked
conditions.
Page 171
Table 6. Secant modulus of fibre-reinforced soil
24
L
(mm)
20
fc
(%)
CBR (%)
16
10
12
8
L = 20 mm_5 mm
L = 20 mm_2.5 mm
L = 10 mm_5 mm
L = 10 mm_2.5mm
4
0
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
20
1.00
Fibre content (%)
30
Fig.9 Effect of fibre content on CBR at different penetration depth
Table 6. CBR values of fibre-reinforced soil

L
(mm)
10
20
30
fc
(%)
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
Unsoaked
CBR
(%)
8.05
12.95
16.03
18.42
14.15
17.07
19.84
22.31
16.87
13.68
16.61
19.35
14.46
Improvement
(%)
60.86
99.13
128.82
75.77
112.30
146.46
177.14
109.56
69.93
106.33
140.37
79.62
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
Unsoaked
Secant
modulus
(MPa)
19.63
31.54
40.93
46.63
36.9
41.01
44.2
53.51
41.09
28.18
39.92
46.47
30.36
Improvement
(%)
60.67
108.51
137.54
87.98
108.91
125.16
172.59
109.32
43.55
103.36
136.73
54.66
Soaked
Secant
modulus
(MPa)
6.68
6.69
7.2
9.43
8.4
12.43
15.51
16.61
12.77
8.48
10.11
11.83
11.14
Improvement
(%)
0.15
7.78
41.17
25.75
86.01
132.18
148.65
91.17
26.95
51.35
77.09
66.76
Soaked
CBR
(%)
2.74
3.01
3.32
3.87
3.45
5.11
6.81
6.97
5.24
3.48
4.15
4.85
4.57
Improvement
(%)
9.85
21.17
41.24
25.91
86.49
148.54
154.38
91.24
27
51.46
77
66.79
4. Conclusion
Based on the results obtained from the present study, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1.
2.
3.
3.3.2. Secant Modulus Response
4.
Secant modulus calculated at 5 mm penetration depth is shown in
Table 7. The modulus of soil has improved significantly with fibre
inclusion. Improvement of modulus is more pronounced with fibre
length and content under both unsoaked and soaked conditions up
to a limit of 20 mm length and 0.75% content. Improvement lies in
range of 43 to 172% for unsoaked soil and 0.15 to 148% for soaked
soil. Maximum improvement of 172% and 148% is for 20 mm long
fibre of 0.75% content for unsoaked and soaked conditions.
Improvement in unsoaked condition is almost 2.7 times (19.63
MPa to 53.51 MPa) and 2.5 times for soaked specimen (6.68 MPa
to 16.61 MPa). Improvement for 10 mm fibre under both condition
is smaller compare to other fibre length with very small
improvement under soaked condition for lower percentage (0.25 to
0.5%) it is below 10% indicating almost no improvement.
5.
Glass fibre reinforcement improves the deformation behaviour

of the cohesive soil by increasing failure strain and changes
the brittle behaviour of parent soil to more ductile behaviour
by arresting the failure pattern. The maximum improvement in
unconfined compressive strength is 141.5% for 20 mm long
fibre of 0.75% content.
Stiffness modulus of reinforced soil at failure strain level of
plain soil improves from 5.18 MPa for unreinforced soil to
8.16 MPa for soil reinforced with 20 mm fibre of 0.75%
content.
Cohesion is induced by the fibres and maximum improvement
is for 0.75% fibre for all fibre length used. Friction angle of
soil improves marginally up to 0.5% fibre content.
CBR value of soaked soil is reduced by almost by one third
than that of unsoaked soil.
Fibre-reinforced soil shows greater CBR values with
maximum improvement of 177% and 154% for 20 mm fibre
of 0.75% content in unsoaked and soaked cases.
References
[1] Waldron LJ. The shear resistance of root-permeated
homogeneous and stratified soil. Soil Science Society of
America Proceedings, 1977; 41: 843-849.
[2]
Freitag DR. Soil randomly reinforced with fibres. Journal of

Geotechnical Engineering, 1986; 112, 8: 823-826.
Page 172
[3] Al Wahab RM, El-Kedrah MM. Using fibres to reduce tension

cracks and shrink/swell in compacted clays. Geoenvironment
2000, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 46, Y. B. Acar and
D. E. Daniel (eds.), ASCE, Vol. 1, 791805.
[4] Nataraj MS, McManis KL. Strength and deformation properties
of soils reinforced with fibrillated fibres. Geosynthetic
International Journal, 1997; 4, 1: 65-79.
[10] Estabragh AR, Bordbar AT, Javadi AA. Mechanical behaviour

of a clay soil reinforced with nylon fibres. Journal of Geotech
and Geological Engineering, 2011; 29: 899-908.
[11] Ozkul ZH, Baykal G. Shear strength of clay with rubber fibre
inclusions, Geosynthetics International, 2006; 13, 5: 173-180.
[5] Maher MH, Ho YC, Mechanical properties of kaolinite/fibre

soil composite. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1994;
120, 8: 1381-1393.
[6] Zeigler S, Leshchinsky D, Ling HI, Perry EB. Effect of short
polymeric fibres on crack development in clays. Soils and
Foundations, 1998; 38,1: 247253.
[7] Hazirbaba K, Gullu H. California Bearing Ratio improvement
and freezethaw performance of fine-grained soils treated with
geofibre and synthetic fluid. Cold Regions Science and
Technology, 2010; 63: 5060.
[8]. Prabakar J, Sridhar RS. Effect of random inclusion of sisal fibre
on strength behaviour of soil. Construction and Building
Materials, 2010; 16, 123-131.
[9] Sivakumar Babu GL, Vasudevan AK. Strength and stiffness
response of coir fibre-reinforced tropical soil. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 2008; 20, 9: 571-577.
Page 173
BEHAVIOR OF CIRCULAR FOOTING RESTING ON REINFORCED SAND

Sangameshwar Patil1, P.G Rakaraddi2
1 Post -Graduate student, Department of Geotechnical engineering, Basaveshwar Engineering College,
Bagalkot 587102 Karnataka, India, sangameshwarpatil87@gmail.com
2 Professor in civil dept, Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot 587102 Karnataka, India,
pgraddi@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
In this investigation series of laboratory model test has been carried out to evaluate the response of circular footing
resting on plastic bottle reinforcement. These days disposal of plastic waste is a major issue and which leads to harmful
effect on environment. To avoid disposal problem and to improve the geotechnical properties of the soil these waste
products can be utilized. In this project plastic bottles are used as reinforcing materials to improve the load carrying
capacity of soil. Series of model test is carried out on circular footing with waste bottles as reinforcement. Bottle
reinforcement is used with different L/D ratio, number of layers and change in spacing of reinforcement layers. Test is
carried out for three different densities of sand (=16.48kN/m3, 17.07kN/m3 and 17.26kN/m3). The test result has shown
that providing reinforcement below the footing increase in the bearing capacity of soil. The effective utilization of bottle
reinforcement, the optimum depth should be (U/B=0.35) which is found to be good from the results and the foundation
soil should be in higher density.
Keywords: Sand, Ultimate load, Reinforcement, U/B ratio, L/D ratio
1. Introduction
Super Structure which is built on soil should resist the load
coming on the soil. In India some of the areas have low
bearing capacity which cannot carry load coming from the
super structure. Nowadays availability of land is less and
which leads to increase in the cost of the land as well as cost
of the structure. To overcome this problem either soil should
be replaced or foundation should be well designed. It is
difficult to replace the existing soil, so engineers should
design the foundation in such a way that it should resist the
load coming on it. Different types foundation are used
square footing, circular footing, strip footing. These
foundations undergo large unequal settlement in low bearing
areas, for this raft foundation is preferred which will avoid
the unequal settlement of the structure. In raft foundation
disadvantages are there as huge area has to excavate and
should provide bracing all over the area which will avoid the
caving of the soil. This method leads to increase in the cost
of construction. So to reduce the cost of the construction
reinforcement is provided below the footing within the
influencing depth which will reduce the settlement of the
structure as well as reduce the cost the construction.
Reinforcement which can be provided below the footing is,
geogrid, geocell, confinement etc., which are available in
market which are used as reinforcing materials. These
materials are costly which are available in market. So in this

investigation to avoid that waste plastic bottles are used as
reinforcing materials. These days plastic bags and plastic
materials causing environmental problem. Use of these
materials as a reinforcing material environmental problems
can be avoided and as well as cost also reduces.
In this investigation behavior of circular footing resting on
reinforced sand is evaluated through model plate load test.
More than 40 series of tests are carried out on varying the
parameters. The parameters varied in these tests are density
of soil, U/B ratio of first layer reinforcement, L/D ratio of
reinforcement, number of layers and spacing between the
layers. From the test results shown that the use of plastic
bottle as reinforcement increases in the load carrying
capacity of soil.
Research work is carried out on using reinforcement below
the footing. Some of the researchers carried out are reviewed
in this investigation they are as follows, Sujit Kumar et.al
(2001) carried out test on strip footing geocell as
reinforcement. In this some of the parameters varied are
pocket size, height and width of geocell mattress. From the
results concluded that increase in the bearing capacity of soil
by 8 times than the unreinforced case, Al- Aghbari (2007)
carried out test on circular footing with structural skirts
below the footing. The parameter varied in the test is
Page 174
structural depth ratio which results shown that increases in

the bearing capacity, Gupta et al. (2014), Chandrawanshi et
al. (2014), Gupta et al. (2014) they carried the series of tests
on confinement below the footing which leads to increase in
the bearing capacity of soil.
3. Methodology
For the present study the sand is used from the Malaprabha
river, Bagalkot district, Karnataka, is used as soil medium.
Properties of sand is determined as per IS 2720 and same is
presented in table 1. As per IS 2720 part 4 soil classified as
poorly graded sand which lies in the range of Cu<6 and
Cc1 hence soil is classified as poorly graded sand. The
model footing used in this investigation is circular of having
diameter of 11.30 cm and thickness 10 mm. Footing is
placed on the above sand bed for different densities which
is filled in the wooden box of size 600mm x 600mm x
600mm by raining technique method. Densities are
predetermined by varying height of fall in the laboratory and
which is presented in table 2. Table 2 shows the value for
different densities corresponding to angle of internal
friction. Reinforcement is used in this investigation is waste
plastic bottles which were collected from local areas and
which were cut for different L/D ratios which is presented in
table 3. These cut plastic bottles were joined together using
the tie wire and placed below the footing at different depth.
First reinforcement layer is determined and which is placed
at 0.35 U/B ratios which is given in table 4, while placing
the second layer and third layer the spacing between the
layers is varied are (i) zero (ii) 4cm (iii) 6cm and (iv) 8cm.
The test is carried out on the experimental setup as shown in
fig.2. Vertical loading on the footing is applied with the help
of screw jack of 5 tonne capacity is load is measured using
proving ring of capacity 1000 kg and displacement is
measured by LVDT which is placed diagonally on the
footing. LVDT capable of measuring 0.01mm.
Fig 2.Line diagram of experimental setup

Table 1.Properties of sand used in the study
Characteristics
Value
IS classification
SP
D10
0.39
D30
0.64
D60
1.05
Uniformity of coefficient (Cu)
2.69
Coefficient of curvature (Cc)
Minimum Void ratio
0.46
Maximum void ratio
0.73
Specific gravity
2.59
Minimum dry density
14.61 kN/m3
Maximum dry density
17.36 kN/m3
Table 2. Density and the associated heights of fall in the raining

technique with angle of internal friction for the sand used in the
present study.
Height of
Density (kN/m3)
Angle of internal
friction()
fall(cm)
15
16.48
330
30
17.07
360
45
17.26
370
Fig 1. Particle size distribution characteristics of sand used in the study
Page 175
4.2 Reinforced
Static tests are carried for circular footing on reinforced
case. Initially tests were carried to determine the optimum
depth of first reinforcement layer (U) which is as follows,
Fig 3. Layout and configuration three dimensional reinforcement

layers in the test.
For circular footing reinforced with waste plastic bottles the

load settlement curve is plotted for the density 16.48kN/m 3
is shown in fig 4 for different U/B ratio 0.30, 0.35, 0.40 and
0.45 respectively. As per IS (1888/1982 [15]) ultimate load
carrying capacity is determined by double tangent method
and also for densities 17.07kN/m3 and 17.26kN/m3 is
exclusively shown in table 4.
Table 3. Different L/D ratio of reinforcement

Diameter of
Length of
L/D
bottles
bottles
ratio
(D)
(L)
75mm
15mm
0.20
75mm
20mm
0.26
75mm
25mm
0.33
75mm
30mm
0.40
Sl.no
The U/B ratio corresponding to depth first reinforcement

was given in table 4.
Table 4. U/B ratio corresponding first reinforcement depth
U/B ratio
First reinforcement Depth

(U)
0.30
0.35
30 mm
35 mm
0.40
40 mm
0.45
45 mm
Fig.4. Load - Settlement curves for L/D ratio 0.2 for different U/B ratio
Table 4. Ultimate bearing capacity of reinforced sand for different
densities and U/B ratio.
Ultimate Load (kN) for the density of
U/B
ratio
0.30
0.35
0.40
16.48
kN/m3
0.42
0.68
0.50
17.07
kN/m3
0.57
0.80
0.55
17.26
kN/m3
0.84
1.00
0.80
0.45
0.47
0.50
0.77
Tests were carried out on reinforced and unreinforced soil.

Tests results are discussed as follows,
4.1 Unreinforced
Tests are carried out on circular footing without
reinforcement and the results obtained for the densities
16.48kN/m3, 17.07kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 are 0.20 kN,
0.38 kN and 0.70 kN.
Increase in the density of soil increase in the ultimate load

carrying capacity of soil with the provision of reinforcement
below the footing. From the fig 4 and table 4 the ultimate
load carrying capacity values for U/B 0.35 for the densities
16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 are 0.68 kN,
0.80 and 1.00 kN respectively. The values obtained are
higher than the U/B ratio 0.30, 0.40 and 0.45, hence U/B
ratio 0.35 is optimum in this investigation.
Page 176
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Fig 5. Load - Settlement curves for the density of 16.48 kN/m3 and L/D ratio (a) 0.20 (b) 0.26 (c) 0.33 and (d) 0.40
Figure 5 shows load-settlement curve for the density 16.48 kN/m3 for different reinforcement layers and for L/D ratios
0.20, 0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 shown in figure (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.
Page 177
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Fig 6.Load - Settlement curves for density of 17.07 kN/m3 and L/D ratio (a) 0.20 (b) 0.26 (c) 0.33 and (d) 0.40
Figure 6 shows load-settlement curve for the density 17.07 kN/m3 for different reinforcement layers and for L/D ratios 0.20,
0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 shown in figure (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.
Page 178
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
3
Fig-7: Load - Settlement curves for the density of 17.26kN/m and L/D ratio (a) 0.20 (b) 0.26 (c) 0.33 and (d) 0.40
Figure 7 shows load-settlement curve for the density 17.26

kN/m3 for different reinforcement layers and for L/D ratios
0.20, 0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 shown in figure (a), (b), (c) and (d)
respectively.
From the figure 5, 6 and 7 the ultimate load carrying
capacity values are given in the table 5. Fig 5, 6 and 7
represents for the densities 16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and
17.26 kN/m3 for L/D ratios 0.20, 0.26, 0.33 and 0.40 for one,
two and three layers respectively. From the figures 5, 6 and
7 and table 5 the values obtained for the density 16.48 for
L/D ratios 0.20,0.26,0.33 and 0.40 with one, two and three
layer are (i) 0.68,0.90, and 1.00 kN (ii) 0.80, 1.03 and 1.12
kN (iii)1.04, 1.32 and 1.59 kN and (iv) 0.72, 0.84 and 0.98
kN, for the density 17.07 kN/m3 (i) 0.80, 1.03 and 1.26 kN
(ii) 1.09, 1.24 and 1.42 kN (iii) 1.38, 1.51 and 1.80 kN and
(iv) 0.90, 1.12 and 1.27 kN, for the density 17.26 kN/m3 (i)
1.00, 1.19 and 1.48 kN (ii) 1.30, 1.60 and 1.80 kN (iii) 1.58,
1.79 and 2.21 kN and (iv) 1.00, 1.38 and 1.54 kN
respectively. From the values obtained it can be observed
that increase in the load carrying capacity for the L/D ratio
0.33 and which is for three layers and for L/D ratios 0.20,
0.26 and 0.40 decrease in the load carrying capacity. The
optimum value obtained for the density 17.26 kN/m3 for L/D
ratio 0.33 and for three layers is maximum i.e 2.21 kN and
the remaining values are given in table 5. For this series of
test second layer is placed at a depth of 5.5 cm from the
topmost layer and similarly third layer is placed at a depth of
5 cm from the second layers respectively.
Page 179
Table 5. Load carrying capacity values for various cases

Density (kN/m3)
L/D ratio
Unreinforced
Number of layers
1
Ultimate load (kN)

0.20
0.68
0.20
0.90
1.00
0.80
2
3
1
2
3
1.03
1.12
1.04
1.32
1.59
1
2
3
0.72
0.84
0.98
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
0.38
0.80
1.03
1.26
1.09
1.24
1.42
1.38
1.51
1.80
1
2
3
1
0.90
1.12
1.27
0.70
1.00
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1.19
1.48
1.30
1.60
1.80
1.58
1.79
2.21
1.00
1.38
1.54
0.26
16.48
0.33
0.40
Unreinforced
0.20
17.07
0.26
0.33
0.40
Unreinforced
0.20
17.26
0.26
0.33
0.40
4.3 Variation in Spacing of Reinforcement

From the fig 5, 6 and 7 and table 5 the values obtained for
the reinforcement layer placed at the constant depth
throughout the test which is at 5.5 cm, hence the placing of
reinforcement layer which will effect on the load carrying
capacity, so for this case some tests are carried out by
varying the depth of reinforcement layers for the densities
16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 for the

optimum L/D ratio 0.33 respectively. Topmost layer kept
constant depth at 3.5cm from the surface, the depth of
second and third layer varied with (i) Zero (ii) 4cm (iii) 6 cm
and (iv) 8cm respectively.
Page 180
(a)
(b)
Fig 8. Load - Settlement curves for the density 16.48 kN/m for (a) Two and (b) Three layers with different spacings (i) Zero (ii) 4 cm (iii) 6 cm and
(iv) 8 cm
3
Fig 9. Load - Settlement curves for the density 17.07 kN/m3 for (a) Two and (b) Three layers with different spacings (i) Zero (ii) 4 cm (iii) 6 cm and
(iv) 8 cm
Page 181
(b)
(a)
Fig 10. Load - Settlement curves for the density 17.07 kN/m3 for (a) Two and (b) Three layers with different spacings (i) Zero (ii) 4
cm (iii) 6 cm and (iv) 8 cm
Table 6. Load carrying capacity values for different spacing, L/D ratio 0.33 and for two and three layers
Density (kN/m3)
L/D ratio
Number of layers (N)
2
16.48
0.33
17.07
0.33
3
17.26
0.33
3
Spacing (S)
Ultimate Load
(kN)
0
4
6
8
1.10
1.20
1.40
1.08
1.28
1.40
1.62
1.10
0
4
6
1.28
1.46
1.60
1.18
0
4
6
1.39
1.54
1.88
8
0
1.20
1.41
1.60
6
8
0
1.90
1.30
1.51
1.80
6
8
2.24
1.38
Page 182

Fig 8, 9 and 10 shows the load settlement curves for the densities 16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 for two
and three layers with varying the spacing of the reinforcement i.e. (i) Zero, (ii) 4 cm, (iii) 6cm and (iv) 8 cm and the
ultimate values obtained from the fig 8, 9 and 10 is represented in Table 6 respectively. The load carrying capacity of
soil increases with increase in the spacing of reinforcement from zero, 4cm, 6cm and 8cm. the optimum values obtained
for the spacing 6 cm for the densities 16.48 kN/m3, 17.07 kN/m3 and 17.26 kN/m3 for two and three layers are 1.40 and
1.62 kN, 1.60 and 1.88 kN and 1.90 and 2.24 kN respectively.
5. Conclusion
The behavior of circular footing resting on reinforced
sand has been investigated by using model circular
footing. The results shown that the load carrying
capacity of circular footing increases with provision of
reinforcement below the footing. increase in the load
carrying capacity of footing is also depend on placing of
reinforcement. The optimum results obtained for the
density 17.26 kN/m3 for L/D ratio 0.33 for three layers
and depth of reinforcement is constant. for optimum L/D
ratio the varying the spacing of reinforcement given
better results for the depth 6 cm. the optimum usage of
reinforcement depth is 6cm and the density 17.26 kN/m3
respectively.
[6] Moghaddas Tafreshi, S.N and Dawson, A.R. (2010)

Comparison of bearing capacity of a strip footing on
sand with geocell and with planar forms of geotextile
reinforcement", Geotextile and Geomembranes, Vol.28,
pp.72-84.
[7] Kumar.K.V.S.P, Venkata Koteswara Rao Pasupuleti
and Satish Kumar Kolluru. (2012). Bearing Capacity Of
Square Footing on Geocell Sand Mattress Overlying
Clay Bed. International Journal of Emerging trends in
Engineering and Development, Issue 2, Vol.5, pp, 563-
References

(2001).Bearing capacity of strip footings supported on
geocell
reinforced
sand,
Geotextiles
and

(2003). Model studies on circular footing supported on
geocell reinforced sand underlain by soft clay,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol.21, pp.197-219.
[3] Al-Aghbari, M.Y. (2007). Settlement of Shallow
Circular Foundations with Structural Skirts Resting on
Sand, The Journal of Engineering Research Vol. 4,
No.1 (2007) 11-16.
[4] Sireesh, S, Sitharam, T.G and Dash,S.K., (2009).
Bearing capacity of circular footing on geocell sand
mattress overlying clay bed with void, Geotextiles and
[5] Gupta, R and Trivedi, A. (2009). Bearing capacity
and settlement of Footing Resting on Confined Loose
Silty Sands. Electronic Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol.14, pp.1-14.
573.
[8] Krishna. A, Viswanath B and Keshav Nikita (2014).
Performance of Square Footing Resting On Laterally
Confined Sand International Journal of Research in
Engineering and Technology, Vol.03, pp, 110-114.
Behavior of Circular Footing Resting On Two
Dimensionally
And
Three
Dimensionally
Skirted
Foundations In Medium Dense Sand International

Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies,
Vol.3 pp, 45-47.
Behavior of Circular Footing Resting On Three
Dimensional Confined Sand, International Journal of
Advanced Engineering Technology, Vol.5, Issue 2, pp,
11-13.
[11] Sareesh Chandrawanshi, Rakesh Kumar, Dr. Suneet
Kaur and Dr. P.K. Jain, (2014), Effect Of Skirt on
Pressure Settlement Behavior of Model Circular Footing
In Medium Dense Sand,
International Journal of
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Advanced
Engineering
Technology,
Vol.
5,Issue
2,pp,01-05.
[14] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 13) 1986,

Method of test for soils, direct shear test, New Delhi,
India.
[12] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 3/See Indian

Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 3/See 2) 1980, Methods of
[15] Indian Standard - IS: 1888 1982, Method of load
test on soils, New Delhi, India
medium and coarse grained soils, New Delhi, India.

[13] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 4) 1985, Method
of test for soils, grain size analysis-mechanical method,
New Delhi, India.
Page 184

(INDECS-15)
SEISMIC EVALUATION AND RETROFITTING OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE BUILDINGS
Dr.A.Vijayakumar1* Dr.D.L.Venkatesh Babu2 Dr.A.R.Santhakumar3
1
Professor and HOD of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Engineering and

Technology, Coimbatore,641109, Tamilnadu, India,vijayakumarciet@gmail.com
2
Professor and HOD of Civil Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education,
JSS Campus, Uttarahalli, Bangalore, 560060, India, drdlvbabu@gmail.com
3
Former, Dean of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai and Former Emeritus
Professor, I.I.T.Madras,Tamilnadu,600025, santhaar@gmail.com,India.
Abstract
It is known a fact, that the globe is facing a serious threat of natural disasters from time to time. With particular
record to earthquake reoccurrence, the consequences are loss of human lives and destruction of properties, which
ultimately affects the natural economy. As the occurrence of an earthquake cannot be predicted and prevented,
preparedness of the structures to resist earthquake forces becomes more important. Keeping the view of constant
revision of the seismic zones in India, lack of proper design and detailing of structures against earthquake, this paper
aims to evaluate the performance of a typical selected R.C. building with respect to seismic vulnerability. For this
seismic evaluation, a pushover analysis has been performed by software SAP 2000. The analysis results showed the
performance levels, behaviour of the components and failure mechanism of the building. It also showed the sequence of
hinge formation. Based on the analysis the elements which needed retrofitting were identified. The deficiency of the
member was strengthened with varying configuration and layers of externally wrapped E- Glass Fiber Reinforced
Polymer sheets. More particularly, the effect of the number of GFRP layers and its orientation were investigated in
detail.
Keywords: RC building, Seismic Evaluation, Pushover Analysis, Performance level, GFRP.
1. Introduction
Coimbatore is a fast growing city in India
which is located in seismic Zone-III. Many reinforced
concrete frame buildings in Coimbatore were designed
and built prior to 2002. The seismic code IS 1893 was
revised in 2002. Hence, buildings built prior to 2002 do
not comply with the codal requirement. Further, some of
the Coimbatore buildings built OVER the past few years
even after 2002 are seismically deficient because of lack
of awareness of the seismic behavior of structures. Most
of the existing buildings in this city are designed for
gravity loads only. Most of the buildings which have
infilled walls have not considered infills in their design.
In Coimbatore many of the existing buildings
are with masonry infills as non-structural element. The
analyses as well as design of the frames are carried out
by considering the mass but neglecting the strength and
stiffness contribution of infill. Therefore, the entire
lateral load is assumed to be resisted by the frame only.
A large number of existing buildings in Coimbatore need
seismic evaluation due to various reasons such as
noncompliance with the codal requirements, updating of

code, poor design practice and change the use of the
building. However, the existing deficient structures in
Coimbatore, which is in Zone III, can be provided with
some rehabilitation to sustain the expected performance
level.
The reports ATC 40 [1] and FEMA 273 [2]
highlight the non-linear static pushover analysis. It is an
efficient method for the performance evaluation of a
structure subjected to seismic loads. The step by step
procedure of the pushover analysis was to determine the
capacity curve, demand curve and performance point.
These reports deal with modeling aspects of the hinge
behavior, acceptance criteria and procedures to locate the
performance point. Mehmet Inel and Hayri Baytan
Ozmen [3] point out that the effect of plastic hinges in
nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete buildings.
Analysis was done for four and seven storey reinforced
concrete buildings to represent low and medium rise
buildings. The frames were modeled with default and
user defined hinge properties to study possible
differences in the results of pushover analysis.
Comparison of response was also made in terms of base
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shear capacity, displacement capacity and deformation of

hinges. User defined plastic model was found to be
effective than the default hinge model. From the above
discussion it was concluded that comparison studies are
made between pushover analysis and inelastic time
history analysis in evaluating the performance of
existing building.
FEMA 172 [4] this handbook described
techniques that engineers can use to solve a variety of
seismic rehabilitation problems in existing buildings, a
broad spectrum of building types and building
components (both structural and nonstructural).
Techniques are illustrated with sketches, and the relative
merits of the techniques are also discussed.
Fig. 1. Plan of the Existing Hostel Building
Shailesh Agrawal and Ajay Chourasia [5] the

nonlinear static analysis of RC building was performed
using pushover approach before and after retrofitting.
The comparison of strength parameters and pushover
curve indicates that there was increase in ductility. As
regards to stiffness of the building, it is seen that it
remains more or less same up to linear stage, while in
nonlinear stage every point increase after retrofitting.
The strength of the building was correlated with base
shear, the net enhancement in strength after retrofitting.
Amar Prakash and Thakkar [6] the present
paper deals with the seismic retrofitting of an existing
fourteen storied RC building frame located in seismic
zone IV. The study included seismic evaluation and
retrofitting of RC framed building, by using steel bracing
and infill masonry walls. The seismic performance of
two retrofitting techniques such as steel bracing (V,
diamond and cross pattern) and infill walls were
relatively compared. Among three patterns of steel
bracing, cross pattern shows better performance than V
and diamond bracing patterns.
2. Description of the Frame Structures
The present study was to evaluate the behavior of
G+2 reinforced concrete frame building subjected to
zone III level earthquake forces. The three dimensional
reinforced concrete structures were analyzed by
nonlinear static analysis (Pushover Analysis) using
SAP2000 software. The analysis results showed the
performance levels, behavior of the components and
failure mechanism of the building. It also showed the
sequence of hinge formation. Based on the analysis, the
elements which need retrofitting were identified.
Figure 1 shows the plan of the building representing
the X and Y direction used for analysis. The building
exists in Coimbatore and is a typical example of many
such buildings in this region. It was built with M15
concrete and Fe415 steel.
IS 456:2000 demands M20 to be the concrete

grade for structural applications. However, many
buildings in Coimbatore region were built with only
M15 grade concrete. In order to check the vulnerability
of such buildings, the strength of concrete and grade of
steel based on test results was used in the pushover
analysis.
For the selected building the strength of
concrete was assessed as 16.5 N/mm2 using rebound
hammer test and strength of steel was assessed as Fe420
N/mm2 based on tensile strength test .These values were
used in the pushover analysis. The chosen G+ 2 existing
hostel building and total height of the building is 8.79 m.
The building is 25.41 m in length and 11.95 m in width.
Typical floor to floor height is 2.93 m and slab thickness
is 140 mm.
With reference to, Mohamed Nour El-Din AbdAlla [7] beam and column members had been defined as
frame elements with the appropriate dimensions and
reinforcements. Slabs were defined as an area element
having the properties of shell elements with required
thickness. Slabs had been modeled as rigid diaphragms
based on Sundar and Elangovan [8]. Soil structure
interaction was not considered and columns have been
restrained in all six degrees of freedom at the base. The
building was constructed in the medium soil site
conditions.
3. Pushover Analysis
The non-linear static procedure or simply push
over analysis is a simple option for estimating the
strength capacity in the post-elastic range. This
procedure involves applying a predefined lateral load
pattern which is distributed along the building height.
The lateral forces are then monotonically increased in
constant proportion with a displacement control node of
the building until a certain level of deformation is
reached. The applied base shear and the associated
lateral displacement at each load increment are plotted.
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Based on the capacity curve, a target displacement which

is an estimate of the displacement that the design
earthquake will produce on the building is determined.
The extent of damage experienced by the building at this
target displacement is considered as representative of the
damage experienced by the building when subjected to
design level ground shaking.
analysis was 2924 kN at a displacement of 0.030 m in Y

direction. In Y direction the base shear was more
compared to X direction because of configuration of the
columns in the frames.
4. Nonlinear Plastic Hinges Properties

This requires the development of the force deformation curve for the critical sections of beams and
columns by using the guidelines FEMA 356 [9]. The
force deformation curves in flexure were obtained from
the reinforcement details and were assigned for all the
beams and columns. The Nonlinear properties of beams
and columns have been evaluated using the section
designer and have been assigned to the computer model
in SAP2000. The flexural default hinges (M3) and shear
hinges (V2) were assigned to the beams at two ends. The
interacting (P-M2-M3) hinges assigned for all the
columns at upper and lower ends.
It is the plot of the lateral force (V) on a
structure, against the lateral deflection (d), of the roof of
the structure. This is often referred to as the push over
curve. Performance point and location of hinges in
various stages can be obtained from pushover curves as
shown in the Figure 2. Five points labeled A, B, C, D
and E are used to define the force deflection behavior of
the hinge. The points labeled A to B Elastic state, B to
IO- below immediate occupancy, IO to LS between
immediate occupancy and life safety, LS to CP- between
life safety to collapse prevention, CP to C between
collapse prevention and ultimate capacity, C to Dbetween ultimate capacity and residual strength, D to Ebetween residual strength and collapse and greater than
E collapse.
Fig. 3. Pushover Curve in X- Direction
Fig. 4. Pushover Curve in Y- Direction
5.2 Capacity Spectrum and Building Performance

Level
The bare frame performance point was obtained
at a base shear level of 1016.436 kN and displacement of
0.015 m in the X direction as shown in Figure 5. In this
performance point the structure reached immediate
occupancy level as shown in Figure 6. The performance
point was obtained at a base shear level of 1,330.743 kN
and displacement of 0.0044 m in the Y- direction as
shown in Figure 7. In this performance point the
structure reached collapse prevention level as shown in
Figure 8. Therefore, it was seen that the structure has
more critical in the Y direction compared to the X
direction as expected.
Fig. 2. Different Stages of Plastic Hinge
5. Analysis Results and Discussions

5.1 Pushover Curve
Pushover curves for the building in X and Y
direction are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. These
curves depict the global behavior of the frame in terms
of its stiffness and ductility. For bare frame base shear
from pushover analysis was 1288 kN at a displacement
of 0.180 m in X direction. The base shear from pushover
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Fig. 5. Capacity Spectrum in X-Direction
Fig. 8. Hinges Formation in Y- Direction at

Performance Level
5.3 Plastic Hinge formation

observed in X and Y direction obtained at different
as below.
Fig. 6. Hinges Formation in X- Direction at
Performance Level
Fig. 7. Capacity Spectrum in Y-Direction
In X direction the first hinge formation occurs

at a load of 664.45 kN and at a displacement of 0.007 m.
The moment and rotation value for point B (Yielding)
observed in Y direction obtained at different
Page 188

as below.
be strengthened by using locally practiced strengthening

The first hinge formation occurs at a load of

664.45 kN and at a displacement of 0.007 m. The
moment and rotation value for point B (Yielding) were
1.5767 kNm and 0.0017 radians respectively. The
The member-level retrofit approach can be used

for the seismic strengthening of the existing RC
structure. The member level retrofit approaches include
the Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) wrapping
techniques which are used for strengthening of the
existing building.
Based on the analysis result, it is concluded

that, earthquake occurs in Coimbatore region which is
located in Zone-III. This existing hostel building will
first yield in the Y direction because of weak beams. The
base shear capacity was low in the Y direction as
compared to the X direction for first hinge formation
levels and also at the performance point level this
building reached immediate occupancy level in the X
direction and collapse prevention level in the Y
direction. It is seen that this building is more critical in
the Y direction compared to the X direction as expected.
Therefore weak beams in the Y-direction must be
strengthened by using any one of the strengthening
6. Seismic Retrofitting on Existing Rcc
Building
Many existing structures located in Coimbatore
are inadequate based on current seismic design codes. In
addition, a number of major earthquakes during recent
years underlined the importance of mitigation to reduce
seismic risk. Seismic retrofitting of existing structures is
one of the most effective methods of reducing this risk.
In recent years, a significant amount of research has been
devoted to the study of various strengthening techniques
to enhance the seismic performance of RC structures.
However, the seismic performance of the structure may
not be improved by retrofitting or rehabilitation unless
the engineer selects an appropriate intervention
technique based on seismic evaluation of the structure.
Therefore, the basic requirements of rehabilitation and
investigations of various retrofit techniques should be
considered before selecting an appropriate seismic
retrofit scheme up gradation of structures.
If an earthquake occurs in Zone - III
Coimbatore region, this building will first yield in Y
direction because of weak beams. The base shear
capacity is low in Y direction when compared to X
direction for first hinge formation levels and also at the
performance point level, this building has reached
immediate occupancy level in X direction and Collapse
prevention level in Y direction. It is found that this
building is more critical in the Y direction compared to
X direction. Therefore weak beams in Y-direction must
This experimental study was made to discuss

about the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beams
which were strengthened using various configurations
and layers of GFRP composites, which were bonded to
the surface of the beams. The test observations and
results provided information about the effectiveness of
strengthening configuration, percentage increase in load
carrying capacity, moment rotation and ductility of
composite beams
Based on the scale factor 1:2, the RCC beams
of cross section 220 mm x 250 mm and length 2000 mm
was chosen for experimental studies. The following
strengthening configurations were adopted using GFRP
mats for flexure beams. Externally they were wrapped by
a (i) Single layer at two vertical sides and at the tension
bottom face (GB1) and (ii) Double layers at two vertical
sides and at the tension bottom face (GB2).
6.1 Experimental Programme
A two point loading system was adopted for
testing beams for flexure. During testing of beams,
deflection corresponding to each increment of load, yield
load, ultimate load and mode of failure were observed
and recorded. After the curing period of 28 days was
over, the beam was washed and its surface was cleaned
for clear visibility of cracks. The support points were
provided with a hinge support at both ends by steel rod
welded to the base plate. The load was applied by means
of 500kN capacity hydraulic jack powered by hand
operated hydraulic pump.
6.2 Experimental Results
The RCC beams were tested on the flexural test
as per specifications. The behavior throughout the static
test up to failure was recorded using acquisition of data
on deflection behavior and the ultimate load carrying
capacity. The crack pattern and the mode of failure of
each beam were also discussed. All beams were tested
up to their ultimate strengths. The beam (B1a) was taken
as a control beam; beams (GB1 and GB2) were
strengthened with single layer and double layer GFRP
wrapping.
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6.2.1. Load versus Deflection and Failure Modes
dial gauges.
The load deflection histories of all the beams

were recorded. The mid-span deflection of each beam
was compared with that of their respective control beams
B1a. Also the load deflection behavior was compared
between wrapping beams having the same
reinforcement. It was noted that the behavior of the
flexure deficient beams when bonded with GFRP sheets
were better than their corresponding control beams. The
graphs comparing the mid-span deflection of wrapping
beams and their corresponding control beams are
discussed. The use of GFRP sheet had effect in delaying
the growth of crack formation.
In beam GB1, the strengthening was done by

wrapping of single layer of GFRP sheet for two vertical
carrying capacity of the beam was 67 kN and the
corresponding deflection was 29 mm. The yield load was
57 kN and at a deflection of 9.5mm as shown in Figure
11.
The control beam B1a was designed to fail by

flexure. The beam B1a was tested up to 42 kN and
corresponding deflection was 20 mm. The yielding of
steel was found at 37 kN and corresponding deflection
was 8 mm. Using this load and deflection of data, load
versus deflection curve was plotted as shown in Figure 9.
GB1

B1a
Fig.10. Failure Pattern of Beam B1a
During progress of the experiment, it was

observed that flexural cracks initiated near mid span and
further increase of loading caused widening of flexural
cracks in the portion between the loading points. In the
later stages of loading, shear cracks were also propagated
from the supports and further propagated diagonally as a
diagonal crack up to the top of the beam as shown in
Figure 10. Ultimately the beam was failed by flexure.
From the Figure 9 it may be noticed that the centre dial
gauge deflection was more compared to right and left
Initial cracks were not visible on the beams.

Further with increase of loading, propagation of the
cracks took place but it had poor visibility of cracks due
to the covering of the GFRP sheet. The failure was
initiated by the stretching of fiber wrap at the bottom in
the flexure zone followed by the crushing of concrete in
From Figure 11, it was observed that GB1 had a
linear load of 54% higher when compared to B1a. By the
use of GFRP wrapping in the beam GB1, the initial
cracks were formed at higher loads than in their
respective control beam B1a. This showed that the use of
GFRP wrapping was more efficient in the case of
strengthening of flexure. Maximum percentage of
increase in ultimate strength was 60% for GB1 when
compared to B1a.
Page 190
in the amount of strengthening materials. The deflection

at yield level increases as the stiffness of the beam
increases. This is due to the delay in the steel yielding
that occurs when the quantum of strengthening material
is increased.
For the beams strengthened with GFRP
laminates they experienced deflections of 9.5 mm and
11mm for beams GB1 and GB2 at yield level
respectively. These values indicated the higher deflection
when compared to control beam B1a of 8mm. Similarly
deflections of 29 mm and 38 mm for beams GB1 and
GB2 respectively at ultimate level were also observed.
These values indicated higher deflection when compared
to control beam of B1a 20 mm.
GB2
Therefore, the increase in the strength of the

beam depends upon the increase in the number of
laminates provided to the beam. The presence of GFRP
laminate beam inhibits the development of the diagonal
cracks. There was a significant difference in the load
which causes this initial crack. The load versus
deflection behavior was better for beams retrofitted with
GFRP wrapped beams.
6.2.2
Moment versus Rotation Curves
In beam GB2, strengthening was done by

wrapping of double layer of GFRP sheet at two vertical
carrying capacity of the beam was 92 kN and
corresponding deflection was 38mm. The yield load was
78 kN and deflection of 11mm as shown in Figure 13.
The control beam B1a had a linear moment

rotation curve in the initial stage. The moment found was
3.50 kNm and rotation 0.04 radians at the ultimate level.
The moment found was 3.08 kNm and rotation 0.016
radians at yield level. When the steel starts yielding, the
beam gradually loses its stiffness. Finally, it fails when it
reaches the maximum strain in concrete.
Initial cracks are not visible on the beams.

Further with the increase in loading propagation, the
cracks took place but it had poor visibility due to the
covering of the GFRP sheet. The failure was initiated by
the stretching of fiber wrap at the bottom in the flexure
zone followed by the crushing of concrete in

rotation value of
4.75 kNm and 0.019 radians
respectively. It showed 54% higher moment at the linear
level when compared to B1a. As a result, concrete
undergoes higher strains before failure. Due to improved
ductility of concrete, steel reaches its strain limit only at
the time of failure.
From the Figure 13, it was observed that GB2

had a linear load of 111% higher when compared to B1a
and 36% higher when compared to GB1. By the use of
GFRP wrapping in the beam GB2, the initial cracks were
formed at higher loads than in their respective beams
B1a and GB1. This showed that the use of GFRP
wrapping was more efficient in the case of strengthening
of flexure. Maximum percentage of increase in ultimate
strength was 119% and 37% when compared to B1a and
GB1.
The ultimate moment and rotation value of GB1

value of moment carrying capacity of GB1 was 60%
higher when compared to B1a.
All the strengthened beams and that

experienced mid span deflections were higher than those
of the control beam at their failure loads as shown in
Figure 11 and Figure 13. The values of mid span
deflection were increased, because ductility of the beams
increases
due
to
the
increase

rotation value of 6.5 kNm and 0.022 radians
respectively. It showed 111% higher moment at the
linear level when compared to B1a and 36% higher when
compared to GB1. As a result, concrete undergoes higher
strains before failure. Due to improved ductility of
concrete, steel reaches its strain limit only at the time of
failure. The ultimate moment and rotation value of GB2
were 7.66 kNm and 0.075 radians. The value of moment
carrying capacity was 119% higher when compared to
B1a and 37% higher when compared to GB1.
Page 191
All the strengthened beams that experienced

mid span rotations were higher than those of the control
beams at their yield moments and ultimate moments.
Since high ductility of the strengthened beams the mid
span rotations were increased.
experienced rotation of 0.019 radians and 0.022 radians
for beams GB1 and GB2 at yield moment respectively.
These values indicated that higher rotation when
compared to control beams B1a of 0.016 radians.
Similarly, rotation of 0.058 radians and 0.075 radians for
beams GB1 and GB2 respectively at ultimate levels were
observed. These values indicated higher rotations when
compared to control beam B1a of 0.04 radians.
Therefore, the rotation capacity is also
increased dramatically when used with GFRP
strengthening techniques. This is advantageous in
seismic retrofitting of structures according to the study
of Shailesh Kr Agrawal and Ajay Chourasia (2003).
4.50% respectively. These beams exhibited higher values

as compared with the control beam B1a.
The
energy ductility index for GB2 was 27% higher when
compared to GB1.
The increase in ductility in strengthened beams
exhibited higher values in both the cases when compared
to control beams. Therefore all strengthened beams
showed adequate ductility, due to GFRP strengthening.
They can survive the Zone III earthquake forces.
Hence, it is concluded that GFRP wrapping improves
seismic resistance of the building.
7. Conclusions
Conclusion Based on Analytical Results:
6.2.3. Ductility of the Composite Beams

Ultimate
Yield
Types of deflection deflection
Beam
(u)
(y)
(mm)
(mm)
B1a
20
8
()
(Increase of
() over the
control
beam (%)
2.5
GB1
29
9.5
3.05
22
GB2
38
11
3.45
38
Conclusion based on Strengthening Results:
Maximum percentage of increased in ultimate

strength was 60% and 119% for single layer of
GFRP (GB1) and double layer of GFRP (GB2)
when compared to unstrengthen beam (B1a).
By using double layer of GFRP (GB2) ultimate
strength was increased 37% when compared to
single layer of GFRP (GB1). Therefore, the
increase in the strength of the beam depends
upon the increasing number of laminates
provided to the beam.
By using single layer of GFRP (GB1) observed

compared to unstrengthen beam (B1a). By
using double layer of GFRP (GB2) observed
compared to unstrengthen beam (B1a) and 36%
higher when compared to single layer of GFRP
(GB1).

experienced deflections of 9.5mm and 11mm
for beams GB1 and GB2 at yield level
respectively. These values indicated that higher
deflection when compared to control beam B1a
of 8mm. Similarly deflections of 29mm and
38mm for beams GB1 and GB2 at ultimate
level respectively were observed.
Table 1. Comparison of Displacement Ductility of Tested Beams
Increase of
(E) over the
( control
beam
(%)
Types of
Beam
Ultimate
load
(Eu)
(kN)
Yield load
(Ey)
(kN)
E)
B1
42
37
1.13
GB1
67
57
1.17
3.54
GB2
92
78
1.18
4.50
Table 2. Comparison of Energy Ductility of Tested Beams
As per table 1, the percentage of displacement

ductility index for strengthened beams GB1 and GB2
were 22% and 38% respectively. These beams exhibited
higher values as compared with the control beam B1a for
displacement ductility index. The displacement ductility
index for GB2 was 13% higher when compared to GB1.
Similar to the displacement ductility index, the
percentage of energy ductility index values for
strengthened beams GB1 and GB2 were 3.54% and
Based on analysis, the beam first reaches its

capacity at performance point level.
The base shear capacity was low in Y direction
as compared to X direction at first hinge
formation level.
If an earthquake occurs in Coimbatore region
which is in Zone-III, this building will first
yield in Y direction because of weak beams.
Therefore weak beams in Y-direction must be
strengthened by using any one of strengthening
Page 192
8.
The moment rotation relation has discussed.
Maximum percentage of increased in moment
carrying capacity was 60% and 119% for single
layer of GFRP (GB1) and double layer of
GFRP (GB2) when compared to unstrengthen
beam (B1a). By using double layer of GFRP
(GB2) moment carrying capacity was increased
37% when compared to single layer of GFRP
(GB1). Therefore, the increase in the strength of
the beam depends upon the increasing number
of laminates provided to the beam.
The percentage of displacement ductility index
22% and 38% respectively. These beams
control beam B1a for displacement ductility
index. The displacement ductility index for
GB2 was 13% higher when compared to GB1.
The percentage of energy ductility index values
3.54% and 4.50% respectively. These beams
control beam B1a. The energy ductility index
for GB2 was 27% higher when compared to
GB1.
The increased in ductility for strengthened
beams exhibited higher values in both cases
when compared to control beams. Therefore all
strengthened beams were showed adequate
ductility, due to GFRP strengthening. They are
particularly important for strengthening of
existing concrete structures using composite
elements, to resist the seismic effects. This was
very helpful in seismic retrofitting of structures
to survive the Zone III earthquake forces.
References
1.
ATC 40. Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of

Concrete Buildings. Applied Technology
Council, 1996.
2.
FEMA 273. NEHRP Guidelines for the

Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings. Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Washington
D.C., 1997.
3.
Mehmet Inel, Hayri Baytan Ozmen. Effect of

Plastic Hinge Properties in Nonlinear Analysis
of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Engineering
Structures, 2006, pp.1494-1502.
4.
FEMA 172. NEHRP Handbook of Techniques

for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing
Buildings. Building Seismic Safety Council,
Washington D.C., 1992.
5.
Shailesh KR, Agrawal, Ajay Chourasia.

Nonlinear Static Analysis For Seismic
Evaluation and Retrofit of RC Buildings.
pp.116-124.
6.
Amar Prakash, Thakkar SK. A Comparative

Study of Retrofitting of RC Building.
pp. 159-173.
7.
Mohamed Nour El-Din Abd-Alla. Application

of Recent Techniques of Pushover for
Evaluating Seismic Performance of Multistory
Buildings. Faculty of Engineering, Cairo
University Giza, Egypt, September 2007.
8.
Sundar N, Elangovan G. Evaluation of Inelastic

Response of Reinforced Concrete Frames using
Pushover Analysis. Thesis, Sastra University,
Kumbakonam, 2000.
9.
FEMA 356. Prestandard and Commentary for

the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings.
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston
V.A., 2000.
Page 193

CONSTRUCTION ACCIDENTS INDIAN SCENARIO

D. Kamalnataraj 1, Dr. V. Ramasamy 2
1
Research Scholar, Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India,kamalnatarajsgi@gmail.com

Adhiparasakthi engineering college, Melmaruvathur, 603319, India, rams_apec@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Construction industry is one of the most hazardous with an average of one fatal accident every ten minutes. Such huge
number of accidents and fatalities causes social and economic loss including the loss of productivity. The root causes
for such accidents were analyzed universally and majority of the cases indicates the constant negligence towards safety
by the project personnel, in recent years partly due to the structural collapse accidents. Both the human and the economic
costs of accidents worldwide are enormous, This paper identify the effect and their expensive defeat of investment and
human loss in construction accidents expected the knowledge shared Construction professional involved in construction
projects to plan an accident prevention strategy properly
Keywords: Construction Accidents, Construction Safety, Structural collapse, PPE, Construction Projects
1. Introduction
1.2 Structural Collapses in India:
The construction industry is significantly more hazardous

than most others economic sectors [3]. Trying to reduce the
incidence of construction failures is a continuous process and
organization such as Occupational Safety and Health
Administration [2] and others are dedicated to this goal [7].
The European Foundation found that 60% of the accidents it
surveyed could have been eliminated, reduced, or avoided
with more thought during the design stage (John A.
Gambatese [8]. A study on U.K. construction industry
revealed that there is a certain relationship between safety of
construction and decisions made in design process regarding
the accident causation.
Every year, India loses an average of 2,658 people to

different kinds of structural collapses; that is around 7 deaths
a day [3]. India has witnessed a significant number of
building collapses in the past 18 months. There have been
seven major building collapses in three Indian cities
(Mumbai, Chennai, and Vadodara) alone, resulting in a total
of 234 deaths, along with innumerable injuries and economic
losses [1]
.
The Indian professionals say, Safety standards always have
been an issue in India, whose building boom is helping the
country maintain an economic growth of almost 9% a year.
But as the number and scale of the airport, toll roads,
skyscraper and mall projects increase, so the risk of tragedy
rises. The number of accidents is also climbing in mining,
manufacturing and brick-making as those industries expand.
Big construction companies tend to train workers and
provide for safety. But the industry remains dominated by
small contractors who pay little attention.
A study of building failures in the US covering 11 years
from 1989 to 2000 recorded 225 failures (including both
partial and total collapses) with a total loss of lives of 97
persons. This implies about 9 lives lost per year on average
in the US, as compared to our record of 234 deaths in 18
months from just 7 selected collapses [3]. India has seen
1.1 Structural Collapses Worldwide:

There are annually at least 60,000 fatal accidents on
construction sites around the world, according to ILO
estimates. This means that one fatal accident occurs every
ten minutes in this sector, and that around 17% of all fatal
accidents at work (1 in every 6) happen on construction sites.
Young workers aged 15-24 are much more likely to suffer
non-fatal but serious accidents at work compared to their
older colleagues [3].
Page 194
frequent building collapses, many blamed on lax safety and

substandard materials [5].
The objective of this study is to find out factors leading to
accidents in construction projects using two approaches
which are event area breakdown structure and the nature of
fall accident analysis. In this paper, current profile of
accident records of India is presented. This paper also
presents the nature of accidents. The event area and their
potential active failures leading accidents are described. It is
expected the knowledge shared in this paper assist all people
involved in construction projects to plan an accident
prevention strategy properly.
2. BACKROUND PAPERS FOR CASE STUDIES
Apart from design failures which results in disasters, more
case studies prove that design criteria and limits adopted
does have strong impact over the accidents occurring at
construction sites. A 1996 paper showed that 50% of general
contractors interviewed identified poor design features are
affecting safety (Smallwood 1996).A European study
published that 60% of the accidents could have been
eliminated or reduced with more thought during the design
(European Foundation 1991).Researchers in the U.K. found
that, the design changes would have reduced the likelihood
of 47% of the 100 construction accidents (Gibb et al
2004).An American researcher found that construction
design was linked to accidents in approximately 22% of 226
injury incidents in Oregon, Washington, and California and
to 42% of 224 fatality incidents between 1990 and 2003
(Behm 2004).
3. Construction output in 2015 (billions in USD)
Construction industry spend investment worldwide ,the India
is the one of most leading investment for 620 billion USD in
the year (2015) This indicate the Indian construction
companies getting rapid development to improve the
infrastructure in this meanwhile the construction accidents
also it is crowning (India and china) in graph showing
worldwide In [3]
FIGURE 1 Construction output in 2015 (billions in USD)
Table 1 - Estimated numbers of fatal and non fatal

accidents world wide
Region
Estimated
fatal accidents
(ILO)
All accidents
report
to
(ILO)
15879
17416
40133
90295
76886
53292
39372
17977
Fatal
accidents
reported to
( ILO)
14316
7853
222
12736
3051
145
2009
1416
EME
FSE
IND
CHN
OAI
SSA
LAC
MEC
WORLD
351250
41748
9031431
7527083
343004
928
61329
141349
27015
776938
153785
4. Construction accidents an Indian scenario
In India, the construction industry is the second largest

employer next to agriculture. The annual turnover of the
construction industry is about Rs 4,000 billion, which is
more than 6 per cent of the National GDP even as it employs
a large work force. The average Fatal Accident Frequency
Rate (FAFR) in the Indian construction industries is 15.8 for
1000 employees as against 0.23 in the USA, avoid such
fatalities a culture of safety, including conduct of induction
training at the commencement at work place, mock drills
from time to time and periodic refreshing courses besides
appointment of safety officer, one each for every 1,000
construction workers is required .The number of fatality
caused by structural collapses in India in 10 years from 2003
to 2015 is given below graphically.
Page 195
Construction accidents like collapse structure make major

cost defeat from other industry ,in Tamilnadu various type of
structure collapse occurred in past three years ,In above fig
showing
Major defeat occurred in moulivakkam (Chennai) is
nearly 11 storied building is cost of construction is
approximately 250 cores and no of fatality is also very high
200
0
Collapse of
Structure (Bridge)
Collapse of
Structure (Others)
Fig 3 Accidental death and injured rate caused by collapse of structure

in the year 2013
Engineers generally concentrate only on productivity but it

became difficult when the execution is carried by way of
accidents in construction industry. This results losses in
investment; changes in schedule, affect in productivity, The
general attempts by the client, contractor and the designers
are always towards the attitude of cost savings where the
attempt to the prevention of accidents is negligible. This type
of attitude of construction professionals lack to concentrate
in safety aspects to protect this type major building accident.
2013
Collapse
400
2012
Suffocations
600
Collapse of
Structure
(Building)
Collapse of
Structure (Dam)
2011
Fall into
800
Collapse of
Structure (House)
Electrocutions
1000
Fire
1200
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Explosion
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) statistics show that

Tamil Nadu accounts for a significantly larger number of
deaths in building collapses than neighbors Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka and Kerala. NCRB data also reveals that more
people are likely to die in a single collapse in Tamil Nadu
than in other states (The Times of India, 2013).
Fall from height
Fig 2 Number of fatality caused by structural collapses in

India
As a predominant factor in controlling the accidents the

expected hazards at site can be controlled during the design
stage of the project itself. This study is an attempt to analyze
the role of the designers in controlling the hazards at site and
their attitude towards safety, the root causes for such
accidents were analyzed universally and majority of the
cases indicates the constant negligence towards safety by the
project personnel.
2014
Fig 4 various types of accidents in past four years

There are many accidents leading to fatal and serious injuries
in construction. Fig 5 shows the natures and expense of
accidents in under construction .This results make afraid to
Investment the capital was complete defeat to the
construction companies this make vanish the company
India faced major destructions within last two decades in
both under and post construction sites. Studies reveal that
major structural collapses are due to deficient structural
design, poor detailing, substandard materials, worst
workmanship, poor maintenance, combination of any of
these factors. It is expected that even if a building does fail,
it would give adequate warning so as to ensure safe egress
and prevent loss of life.
Nevertheless, recent building
collapses in India were instant without much warnings /
indications or there was not much inspections on the
structure. Lack of such regular inspections in both under and
post construction structures are also a reason for these type
of major loss. The subject study attempted to assess the
Page 196
potential damages of the structure using a detector and

communicate the same to the occupants / employees for safe
evacuation.
India has had a national law in place since 1996 that
aims to ensure the welfare of construction workers. But
Indian states have been slow to adopt the law and implement
it, which is required for its provisions to take effect. India
also faces a shortage of safety inspectors for construction

sites
Fig 6 show the rate of fatal occurred past three years this
graph show to excite construction industry is most hazards
industry to the construction labour this type of accidents
make demand to labour
Collapse of old
Collapse of school
building(Thenampet,
building(Mahabalipuram,
building(Madurai)
complex(Trichy)
Collapse of hotel
building(Puzhuthivakkam,
Collapse of godown
compound wall(Thiruvallur)
university

building(Madurai)

building(Madurai)
Scaffolding
falls(Puducherry)

site(Chennai)
Collapse of collage building

(Kancheepuram)
Collapse of

DEFEAT IN COST(APPROXIMATE) IN LAKHS
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
15
Fig 5 OCCRANCE OF CONSTRUCTION ACCIDENTS IN 2010-2015 IN TAMIL NADU
Page 197
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Collapse of
Collapse of collage
building (Kancheepuram)
site(Chennai)
Scaffolding
falls(Puducherry)
building(Madurai)
building(Madurai)
Collapse of old
Collapse of school
building(Thenampet,
building(Mahabalipuram
building(Madurai)
complex(Trichy)
Collapse of hotel
building(Puzhuthivakka
Collapse of godown
compound
university
NUMBER OF FATALITY
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
15
Fig 6 Numbers of fatal in past three years in Tamilnadu constructions
3. Conclusion
Recent building crashes are instant collapse of heavy
weighed structures over the occupants due to the soil
settlement that is down ward movement of building. The
occupants are unaware about the dames and hesitant in
reacting towards such emergency situations resulting in
loss to life, property etc. Engineers generally concentrate
only on productivity but it becomes difficult when the
execution is carried by way of accidents in construction
industry. This approach further emphasize to loss in
investment; changes in schedule, affect productivity. The
engineers should concentrate on safety aspects through
design in initial stage, in order to eliminate the
construction accidents. Safety of human life is a serious
threat in these structural collapses. Both the human and
the economic costs of accidents worldwide are
drastically increasing frequently worldwide. Even
though there are enormous economic losses, the loss of
human lives can be avoided if the structural collapse is
predicted .this paper recognizes the responsiveness to
construction accidents challenge to civil Engineering
professional.
Reference
[1] Complete collapse of building standards, The
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6473308.
[2] Eric MARKS and Jochen TEIZER (2012),

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International Labour Office , Geneva, 2005.ISBN 92-9117107-8
[4] In South India, TamilNadu records most building
collapse deaths, The Times of India, July 4, 2012,
article no. 14661723.
[5] India building collapse: Scores Trapped in
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Page 199

ECOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF WASHBOWL FROM DISCARDED PRINTED

CIRCUIT BOARD
A.G.GANESHKUMAR1, Dr.G.RANGANATH2, Dr CHANNANKAIAH3,
1 Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, 635109, India, aggkdesign@gmail.com
2 Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, 635109, India, principal@adhiyamaan.ac.in
3 Adhiyamaan College of Engineering Hosur, 635109, India, hod_mech@adhiyamaan.ac.in
Abstract
The environmental costs of e-waste disposal, from toxic incinerator emissions to groundwater landfill poisons, have been reported
with increasing frequency and alarm. The Printed circuit board PCB is one of the major e-waste, which causes toxic to our
environment. In India people started using sanitary wares is increasing from last 5 years only. The foreign countries are starting to
establish their companies in India. The cost of the product is also increasing because of demand in the market. Therefore PCB boards
are powdered and sieved it to 80 micron size. The sieved powder is mixed with the epoxy resin, epoxy hardener and White color
pigment for fabricating the specimen. The specimens are tested under different mechanical and ecological conditions. Finally, the
composition 50% of PCB powder is mixed with 50% of bonding material is suitable for fabricating the washbowl by compression
molding technique. The washbowl which is fabricated is used to achieve lower cost and weight when compared to ceramic washbowl.
Keywords: E-Waste PCB, Epoxy resin, Colour Pigment, Fabrication and Ecological.
1. Introduction
An e-waste consists of a highly toxic material like Arsenic,
Barium, Beryllium, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, etc., which
cannot be decomposed easily and occupies more land area. The
dumping of e-wastes spoils the fertility of the soil and causes a
lot of hazards to the ecosystem. These wastes can be reduced by
properly recycling it and converting them into some useful
products. The recycling process involves the collection of
various types of E-waste like Printed circuit board (PCB). Then
soldering parts and waste materials are segregated from the
exceeding E-waste materials and shredded into small size
particles. The small sizes of Printed circuit board are then made
into powder. The technique that we use here to make the
washbowl is compression molding. The normal washbowl
production involves the raw materials which are of more cost
and requirement is high. But here we use the E-wastes that are
less economical and performance is far better than the normal
washbowl.
These procedures outline the requirements for the management

of PCB-contaminated waste materials generated in laboratories,
other academic areas and facilities and services operations. The
identification of possible sources of PCB-contaminated
materials, analysis and administrative requirements are outlined.
Decontamination procedures as they apply to emergencies are
also addressed.
Fig.1. Waste PCBs

2.1. PCB Recycling Processes
2. Experimental
Page 200
The waste PCBs recycling is the process of recovering land or

waste PCBs and reprocessing the material into useful products,
sometimes completely different in form from their original state.
For instance, this could mean convert from PCBs to powder by
routing machine.
material, giving it an advantage when working with expensive

compounds.
2.2. Materials: Waste PCBs Powder

The obtained powder contains some broken parts which cannot
be grinded and some abrasive particles which are very fine. So
the powder obtained is separated to some standard mesh sizes by
using sieves. The sieves used by us in the process of segregation
are 80 micron size and 150 micron size. These sizes are selected
because of the smaller particle size of the powder obtained.
Fig.2. Waste PCB Powder
Fig.5. Compression molding

Fig.6. Molding Process
2.3.1. Parameters of Compression Molding

As two different types of powders are obtained after mashing, in
order to select a better powder with good physical properties
such as Density, impact strength, tensile strength, compressive
strength and hardness, some standard tests are made of the
powder obtained by making sample specimens.
The quantity of charge (molding material) pouring into the mold.

Pressure of the molding process Range of pressure 13.8 - 20.7
MPa, Mold temperature ranges from 149C - 191C. Cure time
variables. The period required to harden thermosetting material
to partial and complete polymerization is called cure time.
2.4. Mold Preparation for Specimen
For preparation of specimens, initially mold is prepared by using
sheets. For making specimen for tensile test, and hallow
cylindrical mold is prepared with 20mm diameter and 100 mm
length.
2.3. Compression Molding

Compression molding is a method of molding in which the
molding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open,
heated mold cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug
member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact
with all mold areas while heat and pressure are maintained until
the molding material has cured. The process employs
thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form
of granules, putty-like masses, or performs. Compression
molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for
molding complex, high strength fiberglass reinforcements.
Advanced composite thermoplastics can also be compression
molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly
oriented fiber mat or chopped strand. The advantage of
compression molding is its ability to mold large, fairly intricate
parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods
compared with other methods such as transfer molding
and injection molding; moreover, it wastes relatively little
Fig.7. Mold for specimen

2.5. Specimen Preparation
The 80 micron size powder is chosen because it has more
density. The strength is also more when compared to the other
micron sizes. The powder is mixed with the epoxy resin in 50:50
ratios along with Gardner and white color pigment is added.
These are mixed by using hand stirring process. The mold is
coated with the wax for non-sticky purpose. Then the mixture is
Page 201
poured into the both cylindrical and square shape molds.

Afterwards is tightened with bolts and nuts. Finally, it is placed
in the oven for the time period of 1 hour at 60 O C.
Fig.8. Hand stirring
Fig.10. Mixture is pasted into mold
Fig.9. Wax coated molds
Fig.11. Mold is tightened
replaces transmission of load through levers and knife edges,

which are prone to wear and damage due to shock on rupture of
test pieces. Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram.
Fig.14. Before Tensile Test
Fig.15. After Tensile Test

(sample-I)
Fig.16. After Tensile Test (sample-II)

3.1.1. Calculations
Breaking load
= 850 N
Area
= 28.286 mm2
= 850 / 28.286
= 30. 050 N/mm2
Elongation
= 6. 000%
Fig.12. Cylindrical specimen Fig.13. Square shape specimen
3. Mechanical Tests
The fabrication of PCB (Printed Circuit Board) is tested by
Universal Testing machine, Hardness testing machine. It helps to
identify the strength and hardness of the washbowl.
1. Tensile test
2. Compression test
3. Rockwell Hardness test
3.1. Tensile Test
Tension test is conducted by gripping the test specimen between
the upper and lower cross-head, Compression, transverse,
bending, shear and hardness tests are conducted between the
lower crosshead and the table. The lower cross-head can be
raised or lowered rapidly by operating the screwed columns thus
facilitating ease of fixing of the test specimen.
Universal Testing Machine is designed for testing metals and
other materials under tension, compression bending, transverse
and shear loads. Operation of the machines is by hydraulic
transmission of load from the test specimen to a separately
housed load indicator. The hydraulic system is ideal since it

Breaking load
= 770 N
Area
= 28.286 mm2
= 770 / 28.286
= 27. 221 N/mm2
Page 202
Elongation
= 4. 000%
Breaking load
= 29,095 N
Area
= 316.490 mm2

= 29,095 / 316.490
= 91. 930 N/mm2

3.2. Compression Test
Compression tests are used to determine how a product or
material reacts when it is compressed, squashed, crushed or
flattened by measure fundamental parameters that determine the
specimen behavior under a compressive load. These include the
elastic limit, which for "Hookean" materials is approximately
equal to the proportional limit, and also known as yield point or
yield strength, Young's Modulus (these, although mostly
associated with tensile testing, may have compressive analogs)
and compressive strength. Compression tests can be undertaken
as part of the design process, in the production environment or in
the quality control laboratory, and can be used to: Assess the
strength of components, e.g. automotive and aeronautical control
switches, compression springs, bellows, keypads, package seals,
PET containers, PVC / ABS pipes, solenoids etc.
Breaking load
= 31,195 N
Area
= 341.568 mm2

= 31,195 / 341.568
= 91. 328 N/mm2
Fig.19. Before Compression Test Fig.20. After Compression

Test (sample-I)
3.3. Rockwell Hardness Test

Fig.21. After Compression Test (sample-II)
3.2.1. Calculations
The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on

the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied.
Hardness covers several properties: resistance to deformation,
resistance to friction and abrasion. The term refers to stiffness or
temper or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. The
greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to
deformation. By measuring the depth of the indentation,
Page 203
progressive levels of forcing are measurable on the same piece.

The indenter may either be a steel ball of some specified
diameter or
a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120 angle
and 0.2 mm tip radius, called Brale. The hardness number is
expressed by the symbol HR and the scale designation.
3.3.1. Tabulation
Rockwell Hardness L scale, Major Load: 60kg, Minor Load:
10kg, Ball Indenter
Table 1. Rockwell hardness
Hardness Value
(hr L scale)
78.5
80.7
87.3
3.Hot water test 4.Cold water test

4.3.1.
Test Using Acid as the Medium,

machine.3% HCL acid is prepared by using 200 ml of water and
6ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is diluted by using the
distilled water. The pH value of the acid has been noted before
dipping the slab. The slab is submerged in the acid for the
duration of 120 hours. After that the slab is removed and heated
in the oven for 1 hour at 600C. The slab is removed and weighed
again to check whether any changes in weight. The pH of the
acid solution is also checked.
88.0
4. Ecological Tests
Fig.24. while dipping in acid
The fabrication of PCB (Printed Circuit Board) is tested by using

HCL acid and Water (hot and cold). It helps to identify the
corrosion and decolourisation of the washbowl.
1. Corrosion test 2.Decolourisation test 3.Odour test.
4.1. Corrosion Test
Corrosion testing refers to the processes conducted by
laboratories in order to solve, prevent or mitigate problems
related to corrosion. These processes can be applied in industrial
materials and infrastructure products, and are often used in
failure analysis.
All corrosion laboratories are composed of expert failure
analysts, chemists and engineers that are all certified in
corrosion testing. Such tests can provide useful information in
order to make sound decisions regarding selection of materials,
processing and treatment.
4.2. Decolourisation Test
After the corrosion test there may be removal of material will
take place. That will lead to change in color is known as
decolourisation. Decolourisation is inspected by visual method.
4.3. Odour Test
An odor is caused by one or more volatilized chemical
compound, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or
other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction. Odours are also
commonly called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and
unpleasant. The terms fragrance and aroma are used primarily by
the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and
are sometimes used to refer to perfumes. In contrast, malodor,
stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe
unpleasant odor.
Above three tests are carried under by
1.Acid test
2. Water test,
Fig.25. After dipped in acid
Table 2. Test Using Acid as the Medium

Sl
No
Weight in gms
Before
After
1.
14.964
2.
3.
pH Value
Before(28C)
After( 29C)
14.964
2.28
2.38
14.811
14.811
2.28
2.30
14.833
14.831
2.28
2.40
4.3.1.1 Conclusion for Acid as the Medium

No appreciable change in weight and pH value. Because
negligible amount of ions only moved from the surface of the
material with acid.
4.3.2. Test Using Demineralized (DM) Water at 23oc 32oc
The testing procedure for DM water, The weight of the slab is
weighed by using the digital weighing machine. Water is poured
in a beaker up to 200ml. The pH value of the water has been
noted before dipping the slab. The slab is submerged in the
water for the duration of 120 hours. After that the slab is
removed and heated in the oven for 1 hour at 60 0C.The slab is
Page 204
Fig.31. After dipped in soft water

Fig.26. DM water
Fig.27. While dipping in DM

Water
Table 4. Test using soft water at 23oC 32oC

Weight in gms
Sl.
No
Fig.28. After dipped in DM water
Before
After
9.
14.540
10.
11.
pH Value
Before(30C)
After(28C)
14.538
7.76
9.37
14.477
14.478
7.76
8.94
14.391
14.398
7.76
8.78
4.3.3.1. Conclusion for Soft Water

Table 3. Test using DM water at 23oC 32oC
from the surface of the sample.

Weight in gms
pH Value
4.3.4. Test Using Hard Water At 23oc 32oc
Sl.
No
Before
After
Before (30C)
After (28C)
6.
14.713
14.712
7.12
9.01
7.
14.792
14.794
7.12
9.11
8.
14.637
14.636
7.12
9.03
4.3.2.1. Conclusion for DM Water
Fig.32. Hard water
Fig.33. While dipping in hard water
Demineralized water means no ions, Oxides from the surface of

sample will be free to dissolve into the bulk of the medium
therefore pH increases drastically.
4.3.3. Test Using Soft Water At 23oc 32oc
Fig.34. After dipped in Hard Water

Table 5. Test using hard water At 23oC 32oC
Fig.29. Soft water
Fig.30. While dipping in soft water
Weight in gms
Sl.
No
Before
After
pH Value
Before(30C)
After(28C)
Page 205
12.
15.440
15.454
9.33
9.62
13.
15.220
15.230
9.33
9.66
14.
15.427
15.441
9.33
9.66

increases drastically. Oxide is facilitated by an increase in
temperature. Increase in temperature leads to decrease in
solubility products, which in turn results in increased
4.3.4.1.Conclusion for Hard Water

coating formed by the ions present in the medium, Increase in
films formed on the surface of the sample.
Sl.
No
Weight in gms
pH Value
Before
After
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
18.
15.749
15.804
7.18
7.43
19.
15.427
15.468
7.18
7.50
20.
14.966
15.013
7.18
7.58
4.4 Test Using Water at 50oc

machine. Water is poured into a beaker up to 200 ml. The pH
value of the water has been noted before dipping the slab. The
slab is submerged in the water. The beaker is placed in the oven
at 50OC for the duration of 168 hours. After that the slab is
removed and heated in the oven for 1 hour at 60 0C. The slab is
4.4.2.Conclusion for Soft Water

from the surface of the sample. Oxide is facilitated by an
increase in temperature. Increase in temperature leads to
decrease in solubility products, which in turn results in increased
Fig.35. Beaker placed in oven

water (hot)

Sl
No
Weight in gms
Before
Fig.37. After dipped in soft

water (hot)

hard water (hot)
Table 6. Test using DM water at 50oC

Sl.
No
Weight in gms
Before
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
21.
14.800
14.846
8.96
8.77
22.
15.772
14.822
8.96
9.03
23.
14.842
14.884
8.96
9.10
pH Value
After
Before(30C)
After( 31C)
15.
15.060
5.107
7.15
8.06
16
15.097
5.142
7.15
8.07
17.
14.993
5.042
7.15
7.99
4.4.1.Conclusion for DM Water
After
pH Value

films formed on the surface of the sample. Oxide is facilitated by
an increase in temperature. Increase in temperature leads to
decrease in solubility products,, which in turn results in increased
4.5. TEST USING WATER AT 10OC
machine. Three different types of water are selected.
Page 206
Demineralized water, Soft water and Hard water. Water is

poured into a beaker up to 200ml. The pH value of the water has
been noted before dipping the slab. The slab is submerged in the
water. It is placed in the refrigerator at 10 oC for the duration of
168 hours. After that the slab is removed and heated in the oven
for 1 hour at 600C. The slab is removed and weighed again to
check whether any changes in weight. The pH of the cold water
is also checked.
25.
15.079
15.086
6.28
7.25
26.
15.780
14.795
6.28
7.48
27.
15.806
15.816
6.28
7.23
4.5.2. Conclusion for Soft Water

from the surface of the sample. Inappreciable difference in
weight. Decrease in solubility products, value of salts not
appreciably affected low ion deposition.
Fig.39. Beaker placed in the

refrigerator

water (cold)

Sl
No

soft water (cold)
Fig.42. After dipped in hard

water (cold)
Table 9. Test using demineralized water at 10oC

Sl
No
Before
pH Value
4.5.1.
After
Before
(30C)
After
( 31 C)
5.
14.990
15.090
6.90
8.65
17.
15.244
15.251
6.90
8.83
24.
15.132
15.137
6.90
8.82
pH Value
Before
After
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
28.
14.747
14.758
8.09
8.26
29.
14.963
14.978
8.09
8.37
30.
14.815
14.826
8.09
8.35
Weight in gms
Weight in gms

films formed on the surface of the sample. Inappreciable
difference in weight. Decrease in solubility products, value of
5.
3D Model of the Washbowl
Conclusion for Demineralized Water

increases drastically. Decrease in solubility products, value of
Fig.43. 3D model of the washbowl

Sl
No
Weight in gms
Before
After
pH Value
Before
(30C)
After
(31C)
5.1 Area Calculation of Washbowl

Area at top
= length breadth
= 22.522.5
Page 207
Area at bottom
= 506.25 mm2
= length breadth
= 14.514.5
= 210.25 mm2
6. Recycling the Specimen

The prepared specimen is also can be recycled by grinding
process. The powder which we got is also mixed with the
bonding material to fabricate the any product. The recycled
powder has some bonding materials it will increase the strength.
When every time of recycling the strength value increases.
suitable to attain the increase in property of strength (tensile and

compression) and hardness. The washbowl is fabricated by using
compression molding technique. Because of better surface finish
and increase in strength.
The fabrication of washbowl which is made from PCB powder is
used to reduce the increasing number of electronic waste. The
product made from E-waste is also again can be converted into
powder by grinding process.
Acknowledgement
We wish to thank all the faculties in Mechanical Department,
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, helped us giving
suggestions and motivations for this work. Also thanking all that
indirectly involved in this work.
REFERENCES
[1]
Fig.44. After powdering the specimen
7.
Results and Discussion
The E-waste cannot be decomposed easily and occupies more

land area. The dumping of e-wastes spoils the fertility of the soil
and causes a lot of hazards to the ecosystem. These wastes can
be reduced by properly recycling it and converting them into
some useful products. The PCB is powdered and added to the
bonding materials like epoxy resin, epoxy hardener and white
colour pigment to prepare the cylindrical and square shape
specimens and is used to analyze the mechanical and ecological
behavior of washbowl. The specimens are prepared by using
50% of PCB powder and 50% of bonding material
The mechanical property of the specimen is
Tensile strength
: (25 30) N/mm2
: (91 92) N/mm2
Hardness
: (80 88) HR L
SCALE
7.1. The Ecological Property of the Specimen
Cheng-Hsien Wua, Yu-Rey Panb June 2008 The study

of injection/compression liquid composite molding.
[2]
K. Moria, M. Umedab, M. Murakamia April 2005

determination of material constants and prediction of
fracture in sintering of ceramic products.
[3]
. Aksoy, Z. Ertrk, K. ztrk, H. Celtic, J.S. Ward,

March 2007 A study of ergonomic factors in
washbasin design.
[4]
Peeranart Kiddee, Ravi Naidu, Ming H. Wong 2013

Electronic waste management approaches: An
overview, Waste Management 33 12371250.
No appreciable change in weight and pH value, There are only

negligible amount ions transformation only takes between the
specimen and the medium. Corrosion takes in the hard water
medium only that too negligible amount, There is no change in
the odour while before and after testing.
8.
Conclusion
The Washbowl is fabricated from the results of the test

specimens which is made from the Printed Circuit Board
powder, Epoxy Resin, Epoxy Hardner and white color pigment
it helps us to achieve low cost and weight when compared to the
ceramic washbowl. The washbowl is fabricated by using 50% of
PCB powder and 50% of bonding material. The selected ratio is
Page 208
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORATION PLANNING IS KEY TO EMISSIONS AND ENERGY

CONSERVATION
P.Ponnurangam*
Assistant Professor, S.A. Engineering College, Chennai 600 077, India, yabas123@gmail.com
Abstract
The Transport Sector of India is largely dependent on the Energy resources accounting to nearly 11% of its total primary
energy use which is predicted to reach 20% by 2030. Fuel usage in transportation sector is bound to increase by 87% in
20 years with a decrease in the available diesel stock and an alarming increase in the demand. Also the growing vehicle
population has increased the contribution of Vehicular Pollution to the Urban Air Pollution from 60% in the year 1990 to
90% in 2010. In order to eliminate these risks the interaction between these sectors should be studied in detail. Since
there was a lack of interdisciplinary works involving the sectors of Transport Energy and Emissions interaction based
on a Systems Approach this study is focused on carrying out an in depth study of the same based on Systems Dynamics
principles. The major objective of the work is to study and appreciate the existing energy and emissions scenarios in
Chennai city, to procure data through inventory on energy requirement and emission standards from transportation
sector and to build a System Dynamics (SD) model using STELLA simulation software to determine the Energy
requirement and Emissions levels from the transport sector in the year 2026.
Keywords: Transportation Energy; Transportation Emission; Demand and supply of Energy consumption, Emission
standards; Sustainable Planning; Simulation Modeling.
1. Introduction
India is the sixth largest energy consumer in the world. The
transport sector of the country accounts to nearly 19% of global
energy use which is projected to reach 50% by 2030. Studies
disclose the fact that at the present rate of economic growth, energy
needs may increase by 16% and more with respect to the present
scenario. This increase in energy use leads to an increase in Carbon
di-oxide emissions also. It has been projected that the greenhouse
gases emission will increase at a rate of 7% per annum. Hence
proper planning measures should be adopted to reduce the
increasing energy demand and concomitant reductions in
emissions.
1280Mtoe in 2030, which is about 3.5%. This demand is higher

than the World average of 1.6%. As a result, India will become
more dependent on imports and hence will be exposed to global
supply risks and external price shocks casting a shadow on the long
term sustainability, economy and security of its energy
requirements. Hence a collective effort and unified policy direction
is the need of the hour to face the challenges.
1.2. Objectives of the Study
1.1. Need for the Study

In 2005, Indias transport sector consumed 11% of its total primary
energy demand (16.9 % of commercial energy supply). 78 % of
this demand was consumed by Road Transport, 11% by Aviation,
10% by rail transport and 1 % by Inland water. The transport sector
is set to grow at over 6% per annum on the back of rising economic
activity and a rapid surge in the vehicle stock. By 2030, the share
of transport sector is likely to double to about 20% of the primary
energy demand. Globally, the share of the Indian transport sector is
likely to triple from its low of 2% in 2005 to about 6% in 2030.
The growth of transport sector, primarily driven by road transport
will remain heavily dependent on the availability and affordability
of oil. For the energy requirement of the country as a whole, coal
will however remain a dominant fuel with its share of 48% of total
energy needs in 2030, followed by oil at 25%. The total demand of
primary energy is likely to go up from 566Mtoe in 2006 to
To study and appreciate the existing energy scenarios in

Chennai city.
To collect secondary data on energy requirement in
transportation sector and level of emissions in
transportation sector.
To build a System Dynamics model using STELLA
software that would address transport, energy and
emissions interactions.
To determine the Energy demand levels from the
transport sector in the year 2026.
To suggest appropriate measures that would ensure
developments towards achieving sustainability in
transportation planning.
2. Review of Literature
Several researches have been conducted to study the trend of
energy scenarios in Chennai city with regards to Transportation and
energy sector. It is time to look back at the past to know what has
been achieved and what new techniques have been developed so
far. Thus related works in this field of study have been reviewed
and are presented below.
Corresponding author. Tel.: 09952608829

E-mail: yabas123@mail.com
Page 209
2.1.1. Transportation and Energy Interaction

Beimborn (2005) in his paper studied about the Transportation
energy: its supply, demand and the future. An energy model was
built to determine the energy demand for the year 2000 to 2050.
Population, energy intensity and GDP were taken as input, the
values were projected for the 50 years and the results were found.
Population was predicted to increase by 50%. This leads to an
increase in GDP of about 300%. Demand for petroleum was found
to increase by 91%. A decline of 1.11 % in energy intensity led to a
total energy demand increase by 172% and 42% decline in
hydrocarbon production. Stock of petroleum is declining at a faster
rate and a marketed imbalance between supply and demand was
observed. The author has concluded that there is no easy long term
solution, but only a combination of thousands of actions like Price
increase, Conservation, use of alternative Fuels like Natural gas,
LPG, CNG, Methanol, Ethanol etc., Electricity, Hydrogen and Biodiesel can lead towards a sustainable transportation.
Kibira et al (2011) in their study System Dynamics Modeling of
Corn Ethanol as a Bio Transportation fuel in the United States
modelled using system dynamics the use of Corn Ethanol as a bio
transportation fuel in the United States. The authors say that
continued strong growth of the corn ethanol industry will depend
on profitability by both suppliers and producers. This in turn will
be influenced by several factors such as demand, government
incentives, feedstock availability and prices, processing plant
capacity, and efficient farm and ethanol processing technologies.
Therefore they use system dynamics modeling to construct the
causal-loop structure of the corn ethanol industry and a stock and
flow diagrams to explore how changes in projected factors will
affect the industry. This paper explores different possible growth
scenarios of the industry for the next twenty one years. The paper
has described a system dynamics model that can be used to study
the state of corn ethanol fuel industry in the U.S., and the effect of
changes to the forecast future trend on the operating parameters.
Kwon and Hyeong (2009) did A System Dynamics Model of
Alternative Fuel Vehicles Market under the Network Effect.
According to the system dynamics model of this study, if there is a
significant network effect on vehicle operating costs, it is difficult
to achieve the shift to AFV even in the long term without a policy
intervention because the car market is locked in to the current
structure. Network effect was caused by an increasing return to
scale in fuel supply sector as well as in maintenance service sector.
It was also related to the fact that the reliability and awareness of
consumers on new products increases with the growth of the
market share of the new products. The authors say that if there was
a significant network effect for vehicle operating costs, it would
have been difficult to achieve the shift to AFVs even in the long
term without a strong policy intervention because the car market is
locked in to its current structure. Network effects can be caused by
increasing returns to scale in the fuel supply sector as well as in the
maintenance service sector. They are also related to the fact that the
reliability and awareness of consumers of new products increases
with the growth of the market share of the new products. AFVs
which rely on the fuel supply infrastructure of conventional cars
such as hybrid cars should have less of a network effect for
operating costs. These vehicles would have less difficulty in
increasing their market share than AFVs which require a
fundamentally different fuel supply infrastructure from
conventional cars (e.g. hydrogen fuel cell cars). Therefore the

authors concluded that, it could be effective to put a policy focus
on the former type of AFVs (with less of a network effect: same
fuel supply infrastructure as conventional cars) even if the latter
type of AFVs (with a significant network effect: different fuel
supply infrastructure from conventional cars) have more
environmental benefit in the long term, by the time the cost gap
between conventional cars and AFVs decreases substantially.
Mi and Zhou (2009) in their paper studied Transportation, energy
consumption and carbon emission in china. The authors says that
road transport plays a dominant role while railway transport has
been in short supply in Chinese inter-city \transportation system.
Rail transportation is the most energy-efficient as for the unit
energy consumption of t transportation. Fossil fuels such as coal,
oil, and gas are the major source of world energy, accounting for
more than 80 % of the total energy produced. The distribution of
population is uneven in China because 94% of the population is
beneath the southeast of the Heihe-Tengchong line. Rail
transportation becomes the first choice of the citizens for its large
capacity, low energy consumption, safety and economic under such
situation. Because of the inadequacy of the railways transport
capacity, the new transportation demand mainly depends on the
roads, which leads to high energy consumption, carbon emission
and severe environment pollution. Provided the cargo turnovers
research to 40% of the total turnover, 210 million tons of coal will
be saved and 400 million tons of CO2 will be reduced. China has
invested huge amount of money in the construction of high speed
railways. However, both the operating mileage and the
passenger/freight turnovers are lag behind the roads. The low
efficiency of the sector monopoly is an important cause. The
government should learn from the development mode of the
highway and the aviation to achieve the diversification of
construction-operation and permits the local and private capital
to enter into the railway market to enhance the line coverage and
transport capacity.
2.1.2. Ttransport and Energy Sector in India
Kumar et al (2000) in his study National Energy Map for India:
Technology Vision 2030 examined the role that various
technological options could play under alternative scenarios of
economic growth and development, resource availabilities, and
technological progress. For this purpose, they have chosen an
integrated energy-modelling framework that would facilitate the
creation and analysis of various scenarios of energy demand and
supply at the national level, as well as provide a detailed
representation and analysis at the technological level for each
category of resource as well as sectoral endues demand. After an
extensive survey of existing models, the MARKAL (MARKet
ALlocation) model was selected to examine the pathways for
optimal energy supply to meet the endues services in the five
energy-consuming sectors (agriculture, commercial, residential,
industrial, and transport) under various scenarios. MARKAL is a
dynamic linear programming representation of a generalized
energy system. Exogenously estimated useful energy demands
were provided to the model over a modelling time frame of 2001
31 using population and GDP as the key drivers to growth. Seven
alternative scenarios were set up against the business-as-usual
(BAU) scenario to examine variations with regards to economic
growth and technological development.
Page 210
The total energy consumption in the transport sector was found to

increase by about 14 times from 43 Mtoe in 2001 to 461 Mtoe in
2031. By targeting action on the demand as well as supply sides in
the transport sector by enhancing the use of public transportation a
reduction of about 190 Mtoe of energy can be achieved in 20201.
Introduction of cleaner fuels such a low sulphur diesel, ethanol
blending, and bio-diesel are recommended by the author to reduce
the consumption of petroleum products and thereby their import
dependency.
Ramachandra and Shwetmala (2009) in their paper synthesised
about The emissions from Indias transport sector: State-wise. In
this study, a decentralized emission inventories were prepared for
road transport sector of India in order to design and implement
suitable technologies and policies for appropriate mitigation
measures. The author have stated that Globalization and
liberalization policies of the government in 90s have increased the
number of road vehicles nearly 92.6% from 19801981 to 2003
2004. These vehicles mainly consume non-renewable fossil fuels,
and are a major contributor of green house gases, particularly CO2
emission. In this paper they have focussed on the state wise road
transport emissions (CO2, CH4, CO, NOx, N2O, SO2, PM and
HC), using region specific mass emission factors for each type of
vehicles. The country level emissions (CO2, CH4, CO, NOx, N2O,
SO2 and NMVOC) are calculated for railways, shipping and
airway, based on fuel types. In India, transport sector emits an
estimated 258.10 Tg of CO2, of which 94.5% was contributed by
road transport (20032004). Among all the states and Union
Territories, Maharashtras contribution is the largest, 28.85 Tg
(11.8%) of CO2, followed by Tamil Nadu 26.41 Tg (10.8%),
Gujarat 23.31 Tg (9.6%), UttarPradesh 17.42 Tg (7.1%), Rajasthan
15.17 Tg (6.22%) and, Karnataka 15.09 Tg (6.19%). These six
states account for 51.8% of the CO2 emissions from road transport.
The total CO2 emission for Indian transport was 258.10 Tg
in20032004. Among all type of transport, road and aviation were
first and second major contributor of air pollution. The road
transport sector has contributed 94.5% and 53.3% of total transport
emission of CO2 and CO. Among all the states and UT,
Maharashtras contribution is the largest, 28.85 Tg (11.8%) of
CO2, followed by Tamil Nadu 26.41 Tg (10.8%), Gujarat 23.31 Tg
(9.6%), Uttar Pradesh 17.42 Tg (7.1%), Rajasthan 15.17 Tg
(6.22%) and, Karnataka 15.09 Tg (6.19%). The total of these six
states accounts for 51.8% of the CO2emissions from road transport.
3. Study Area
Chennai is the fourth largest metropolitan city of India which
covers an area of 426 sq.km and recorded a population of 46.81
lakhs in 2011. The Chennai Metropolitan Area which extends over
an area of 1189 sq.km recorded the population of 86.96 lakhs in
2011 and the density is 11,000 per sq.km. The population of
Chennai in 1639 was 40,000 and today the city is estimated to have
a population of 7.5 million, which gives a population density of
about 6482 per sq.km. This rapid increase in population leads to
traffic congestion and imbalanced supply and demand of transport
facilities. Thus it is imperative to study a transportation and energy
interaction in Chennai city and to provide an early warning on the
robustness of both present and future situation. Fig.1 depicts the
index map of the study area.
Chennai City
CBD
Fig.1 Index Map of Study Area
3.1. Software Used

The model of transport and energy interaction using the System
Dynamics (SD) has been implemented in the STELLA
environment (STELLA 9.1 package). The modeling tool which is
an object-oriented simulation environment allows the development
of Transport Energy interaction models with significantly less
effort than using traditional programming languages. It has a userfriendly graphical interface and supports modular program
development. Using this tool, the modeler defines objects
representing physical or conceptual system components and
indicates the functional relationships among these objects. Building
on these strengths, the general architecture of a Transport and
Energy Interaction model will be described.
4. Methodology
The methodology for the model development and analysis of the
same has been provided in the form of a flow chart in Figure 2.
Carrying out a review of various literatures in the study area is the
initial work required. Based on the review, a methodology to
analyse the work to be carried out has been figured. The need for
study and the primary objectives to be fulfilled have been
established as given in the earlier chapters. The analysis starts with
the data collection required for the study. As far as this study is
concerned, the data required is only secondary data which has been
collected from various journals and reports pertaining to the data.
After the model conceptualisation has been carried out, model
building, analysis and testing the model for various scenario
options has been carried out. Based on the results obtained suitable
recommendations for policy options have been given.
Page 211
Need for the Study
Formulation of Objectives
Selection of Study area
Collection of Data
Secondary data
CCTS, Wilbur Smith Associates, Aug 2010
Energy and Emission data from various

literatures
Projected/Expected Modal split form Second

master plan
Primary data
Relevant Information on Transport and

Energy and Emission Sector and Service
volume levels on urban roads
Existing Transportation Modal mix
Existing Levels of Service
SD Model Development using STELLA

Model Calibration
Model Behavior
Model Evaluation & Scenario Analysis
Results, Inferences & Recommendations
Fig.2. Study Methodology Chart
5. Data Collection
5.1. Population Sector
Total birth and death rates are increasing from decade to decade but
their rates decreasing. The registered birth rate in Chennai City
segment was 24.06 in 1991 and reduced to 22.62 in the year 2003.
The death rate also declined from 9.20 in 1981 to 8.01 in 2003.
However, net natural increase in population had been decreasing
from year to year from 22.00 in 1981 to 14.61 in 2003. According
to 2001 census, migrants to Chennai city from other parts of Tamil
Nadu State constitute 74.5 percent. The growth of in-migrant
population shows a declining trend from 36.80 percent in 1961 to
21.57 percent in 2001. Migrants from other parts of India constitute
23.8 percent and the remaining 1.71 percent of the migrants is from
other countries. Table.1depicts the migration details of the Chennai
city.
5.2 Transportation Sector
With respect to the transport sector, the data which are of
prime concern are vehicle population and the existing Modal Split
in the city which have been obtained from the Second Master Plan
for Chennai, CMDA report. Statistics of Transport Department,

Chennai which gives the data regarding the total number of
commercial and non-commercial vehicles in the city and the data
considered for this study have been given in Table.2. The MTC
buses with a fleet size of around 3500 buses cater to 36 lakhs
trips/day.
5.3 Energy Sector
The Energy sector the fuels which were of prime concern were
Petrol and Diesel. Hence data pertaining to the fuel consumption
per day by Petrol and Diesel driven vehicles have been collected
from earlier studies and presented in the Table.3 and the respective
Fuel Efficiency values have been used in the model analysis.
5.4 Emission Sector
The Emission sector the emission factors for trace gas emissions
from vehicles have been collected from earlier studies and
presented in the Table.4 and the respective emissions values have
been used in the model analysis.
Page 212
Table 1. Migration to Chennai City (in Lakhs)
Total Migration in the City
1961
17.49
4.47
69.45
1.71
26.6
0.25
3.90
6.44
Percent of
Total
Migrants in
the Total
Population
36.80
1971
26.42
5.51
70.61
2.00
25.63
0.29
3.76
7.80
29.52
1981
32.84
7.19
71.28
2.55
25.31
0.34
3.41
10.08
30.70
1991
38.43
6.44
70.51
2.42
26.47
0.28
3.01
9.18
23.90
2001
43.43
6.98
74.49
2.23
23.80
0.16
1.71
9.37
21.57
Total
Population
Year
Other Parts of
Tamil Nadu
No.
Percent
Other Parts of
India
No.
Percent
Other Countries
No.
Percent
Total
Source: www.cmdachennai.gov.in
Table 2. Vehicle Population in Chennai City in the 2006 to 2011
Vehicles / Year
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Buses
2803
3084
3260
3280
3421
3464
0.11
Auto Rickshaw
41316
39330
51113
44973
49062
63640
Taxi
283
284
1165
1252
1259
1268
Private Bus
883
926
2376
874
2702
2906
Mini Bus
902
961
1709
1129
2095
2217
Motor cycles
6.72
7.86
8.96
10.41
13.71
15.63
Scooters
2.86
2.98
3.12
3.20
3.33
4.03
Mopeds
4.69
4.76
4.82
4.90
4.97
6.15
Two Wheelers
14.27
15.60
16.90
18.51
22.01
25.81
Cars
3.35
3.66
4.00
4.41
4.82
5.80
Total (in lakhs)
18.08
19.71
21.5
23.43
27.41
32.34
2.00
0.16
97.73
100
Source: www.tn.gov.in
Table 3. Average Fuel Consumption by Different Classes of Vehicle
Average Distance Covered
Fuel Efficiency
Fuel Consumed
Two Wheelers
(km/day)
18
(km/l)
53
(Litres/veh/year)
124
Three Wheelers
96
Cars
22
Type of Vehicle
Mini Bus (Diesel)
22
Bus
151
21 (Petrol)
13.5(Petrol),
1669
593
14.0(Diesel),
571
13.0(LPG),
618
15.0(CNG)
535
8.7
4.1(Diesel)
897
13415
Source: Report of the Expert Group, Government of India Report, February, 2010
Page 213
Table 4. Trace Gas Emissions Factors for Vehicles
Pollutant
Two
Auto
Wheeler
Rickshaw
515.20
26.6
3.60
3.60
NOX
12.00
CH4
Bus
Omni / Bus
Cars
Taxi
CO2
515.20
60.30
223.60
208.30
CO
2.20
5.10
1.98
0.90
12.00
0.19
1.28
0.20
0.50
0.09
0.09
0.18
0.18
0.17
0.01
SO2
1.42
1.42
0.013
0.029
0.053
10.30
PM
0.56
0.56
0.05
0.20
0.03
0.07
HC
0.87
0.87
1.42
0.14
0.25
0.13
(g/km)
Source: Ramachandra, T.V., Shwetmala, Emissions from Indias transport

Sector: Statewise synthesis, Atmospheric Environment (2009)
6. System Dynamics Model Development

The system Dynamics model development process is summarized
in the schematic diagram of a model life cycle in Figure 3. The
modeling process starts with defining the purpose/goal of the
system. Then boundaries of the system to be modeled are specified.
This is followed by identification of key variables in the system
that affects the system, the most. Then behavior of the key variable
is described, the stocks and flows are indentified, and their
structure is mapped in the modeling tool using basic building
blocks. Quantitative information, i.e., equations and data, is
included in the model structure. The model is run to test the
behavior. The model is then evaluated and adjustments are made.
Once the model is replicating system behavior, it is ready for
simulation modeling. Figure 4. Depicts the overall casual loop
diagram of Transport, Energy and Emission interaction.
Define purpose of
system
Specify System
boundaries
Identify key variables of system
Describe behavior of key variables
Identify stocks and flows in the system
Map system structure in modeling
Run model to test system
Apply model for simulation

Fig.3 System Dynamics Model development Life Cycle
6.1 Population Sector

After the identification of key variables, the model for the
population sector has been developed based on the causal loop
diagram. The System Dynamics model for Chennai City segment
population sector is shown in Figure 5. The various parameters
considered for building the population sector model are as follows:
Fig. 4 Overall Casual Loop Diagram
POP
BR
DR
Total Population
Birth rate
Death Rate
Page 214
IMR
OMR
BN
DN
IMN
OMN
In Migration rate
Out Migration rate
Birth Normal
Death Normal
In Migration Normal
Out Migration Normal
In this sector, Population of the Base Year, Birth Rate, Death Rate,
In Migration and Outmigration are considered. The size of the
population is influenced by both the net birth rate and net migration
rate. The net birth rate equals the total number of births per year
minus the total number of deaths. Similarly, the net migration rate
equals the number of in-migrants minus the number of out
migrants. However, the number of births and deaths as well as net
in-migrants can be defined as a yearly percentage of the population.
Hence, the population model contains one level and four rates as
stated below:
ADT
FE
FC
-Average distance travelled by the vehicle per day

-Fuel efficiency of the vehicle
-Total fuel consumed by the vehicle
The following vehicles were considered under various sectors for

the study. The major sectors taken into account were Public
transport vehicles (Bus), IPT vehicles (Auto Rickshaw and Taxi),
Personalised vehicles (Two Wheelers and Cars) and Other Vehicles
Sector (Private Bus and Mini Bus). The vehicle growth is assumed
from the past trend. Using the values of Average Distance travelled
per day and Fuel Efficiency in km/litre and the projected values of
vehicle population, the final value of Fuel consumption has been
determined. In this study, the total trips made by Rail contributing
to Public Transport sector have been analysed. Sub-Urban rail
system within the city operates on electricity and hence is devoid of
emissions. The demand of electricity by rail sector has not been
accounted in this research.
Population (t) = Population (t-dt) + (Birth_Rate + migration_Rate

Death_Rate - Out_Migration_Rate) * dt
IPT VEHICLES
TOT Auto
Chennai City segment population is the level variable. The level is

influenced by the Birth Rate, Death Rate, In-Migration and OutPOPULATION MODEL
Migration rate.
Total FC Auto
Auto Inc
ADT per day Auto

FE per Auto
~
GR Auto
DN
~
Auto TripsAuto TR
IMN
IMR
CAR VEHICLES
POP
DR
BR
Tot FC PC
Tot PC
ADT per day PC
Table 1
BN
OMR
Tot Cars
OMN
FE per PC
Graph 1
Car Inc
Tot FC DC
Fig. 5 Population Sector Model for Chennai City
6.2 Transport, Energy and Emission Sector

Based on the causal loop diagram the System Dynamics model
addressing the interactions between transport energy, emission
sector has been developed which is given in Figure 6. The various
parameters considered for building of transport sector model are as
follows:
TOT
GR
Tot DC
~
GR Cars
~
Car Trips
ADT per day DC

FE per DC
Car TR
-Total Vehicle Population

-Vehicle growth rate
Page 215
SHARE OF TRANSPORT TRIPS
Two Wheeler Vehicles
Table 4
Auto Trips
Tot TW
Tot FC TW
Tot Trips
Bus Trips
Tot Public Trips

Car Trips
TW Inc
Tot Priv ate Trips
ADT per day TW

FE per TW
GR TW
TW Trips
TW TR
TW Trips
PUBLIC VEHICLES
FUEL CONSUMPTION
Tot bus
Total FC Auto
Tot FC bus
Tot FC bus
Bus Inc
Tot Public FC
ADT per day Bus

Tot FC
FE per bus
~
~
GR bus
Tot FC PC
Tot Priv ate FC
Bus TR
Tot FC TW
Bus Trips
Tot FC DC
Fig.6 Transport, Energy and Emission Sector Model for Chennai City
Page 216
8. Recommendations
7. Results
This system dynamics models are tested with various scenarios
analysis and policy options. They are following:
Scenario I - Do Minimum (Allowing the existing trend to

continue)
Scenario II Partial Condition Scenario (Augmentation

of Public Transport and Restricting growth of
personalized modes)
Scenario III - Desirable Scenario (Augmentation of

Public Transport and Restricting growth of personalized
modes)
7.1 Scenario I Do Minimum
At the present growth rate of vehicles in Chennai, Public transport
would share 51% of the total trips whereas personalized transport
would share 49% of the total trips in the year 2026. Fuel Consumed
by the personal modes of travel viz. Petrol Driven cars, Diesel
driven cars and Two Wheelers are 12, 13.3 and 20.8 lakhs liters per
day respectively in the year 2026. This shows an alarming increase
of about 300% to 400% in the fuel consumption by personalized
modes of travel which would correspondingly increase the demand
for Petrol and diesel. Personalised modes of transport contribute to
the major share of pollution in the city amounting to 40% roughly.
7.2 Scenario II Partial Condition Scenario
In the Partial Efforts scenario (Scenario II), simulation has been
carried out such that minimal efforts are undertaken by the
government to achieve a Modal Split of 64:36 between Public and
Private Mode. In order to facilitate the above condition, the Public
transport has been augmented in a phase wise manner to reach a
growth rate of 7% by 2026 and simultaneously the growth rate of
Two Wheelers and Cars have been restricted to almost half of the
existing value i.e. 4% and 5.5% respectively in 2026. On
comparison with Scenario I, a remarkable decrease to 13% and
23% could be observed in Scenario II with regard to the trips made
by cars and two wheelers. This decrease leads to a modal split
value of 64:36 between public and private modes of travel.
Decrease of about 60% is noted in the emissions from the
personalised vehicles and emissions per capita in public transport
are much lesser than that observed in personalised vehicle sector.
7.3 Scenario III Desirable Scenario
Based on this scenario, the Modal Split between Public and private
modes of travel have been achieved as 70:30. This increase in
Public transport trips can be attributed to the introduction of Metro
Rail, Mono Rail, BRTS and increasing the ridership in MRTS.
When compared with Do Minimum condition, Fuel consumption in
personalized mode of travel is found to reduce by about 65% in the
case of Petrol driven cars, 65% in diesel driven cars and by 50% in
Two Wheelers. Totally 40% reduction in Energy has been achieved
by incorporating CNG by 50% and 2 lakhs Fuel cell vehicles. This
reduces the load on Petrol and Diesel demand. Adoption of EURO
IV emission norms in addition to achieving a modal split of 70:30
reduces the emissions from vehicles to a sustainable 50 90%.
From the study carried out, the following recommendations are

given.
There is an immediate need to restrict the growth of

personalised vehicles and augment the public transport.
This augmentation can be attributed to increasing the
MTC fleet size, introduction of Metro Rail and Mono rail
in the city.
In order to achieve the Modal Split of 70:30, the MTC

fleet size increases to 9000 efficient services. Also the
Metro rail and Mono Rail services should be
implemented on time and operated with maximum
efficiency.
The growth rate of Two Wheelers and Cars should be

restricted to 2% and 1.5% respectively in the year 2026
to achieve the above mentioned policy of the
government.
EURO IV emission norms should be made mandatory by

2018 if not at least by 2026. This reduces the emission
load from the vehicles.
Since there is no specification for CO2 emissions from

vehicles it is found to be on the rising trend. Hence the
government should take needful steps to provide
emission standards for CO2 as well and hence reduce the
contribution of CO2 emissions in the Greenhouse gases.
This policy leads to a considerable reduction in pollution

load of the city making it a place with reduced
environmental hazards.
Since the results of Partial scenario prove to be much

better than Do Minimum condition, it is recommended
that even if the desired condition of achieving a Modal
Split value of 70:30 cannot be done at least the
government should strive towards achieving a modal split
of 64:36.
Reference
[1]
Armenia S. A System Dynamic Energy Model for a

Sustainable Transportation System Anna University,
Chennai, 1995.
[2]
Azhaginiyal. A Transport, Energy, Emissions and Economy

Interaction - A Systems Approach Anna University,
Chennai, 2012.
[3]
Beimborn. E Transportation Energy: Supply, Demand and

the Future, UWM-CUTS Energy, ITE District 4 Meeting,
2005.
[4]
Banks. J Discrete- Event system simulation, second

Edition, Eastern Economy Edition, Prentice Hall of India,
New Delhi, 1996.
[5]
Ghosh. A Service Sector in India & Role of Foreign Direct

Investment, the Management Accountant, Vol. 46 No. 11,
2011; pp. 984-987.
[6]
Armenia S., Fabrizio B., Diego F. and Emanuel T.A System

Dynamic Energy Model for a Sustainable Transportation
System,1995.
Page 217
[7]
Beimborn E., Transportation Energy: Supply, Demand and

the Future, UWM-CUTS Energy, ITE District 4 meeting,
2005.
[8]
Banks J. and Carson J. Discrete- Event system simulation,

second edition, Eastern Economy Edition, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi, 1996.
[9]
Ghosh A. (2011) Service Sector in India & Role of Foreign

Direct Investment,
[10]
The Management Accountant, Vol. 46 No. 11, pp. 984-987
[11]
Kadiyali.L.R. Traffic and Transportation

Khanna publishers, New Delhi, 1985.
[12]
Karandikar V. and Rana A.Future of energy options for

India for an interdependent world, 2006.
[13]
Kavin. J, Naveen Kumar. S and Raja. P.K., Macro Level

Simulation Model Building for Sustainable Transportation
Planning, Research project, Anna University, Chennai,
2009.
[14]
Kumar A., Shirish S. G. and Mahesh V. National Energy

Map for India: Technology Vision 2030, TERI press, 2000.
[15]
Poudenxa P. and Merida W., Energy demand and

greenhouse gas emissions from urban passenger
transportation in Canada, 2005.
[16]
Paul. H. A System Dynamics Model of Transportation

Energy Demand, the 1987 International Conference of the
System Dynamic Society, China, 1987, pp. 383-397.
[17]
Ramachandra, T.V., Shwetmala, (2009) Emissions from

Indias transport sector: State wise syntheses, Atmospheric
Environment doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.07.015
Planning,
[18] Report of the Expert Group on a Viable and Sustainable

System of Pricing of Petroleum Products, Government of
India Report, New Delhi, February 2010.
Page 218
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS BY FINITE ELEMENT

APPROACH
1,
Photo of First
Author
JPEG Format
Barnali Ghosh S. K. Prasad,

E. P.C.E.T, Bangalore,560049, India, barnalighosh08@gmail.com
2
S. J. College of Engineering, Mysore, 570006, India, prasad_s_k@hotmail.com
1
econd Author (if

any)
Abstractin
Earthen
JPEGslopes
Format are beautiful and most important geotechnical structures. It is very important to maintain their stability.
Stability of earth slopes by Limit equilibrium approach is a familiar analysis. Presently, a number of geotechnical
software are being used for this purpose. This paper describes numerical analysis of slope stability problems by using
the software Slope/w (Geo-slope 2007) based on limit equilibrium principles. The software also uses finite element
analysis for the estimation of stress distribution in the sloping mass. The minimum factor of safety (FOS) and the
critical slip surface are determined using the MorgensternPrice method and the results are compared with those from
Bishops modified method, Janbus Simplified method and Mohr-Coulombs expression. A parametric study is made on
the influence of pore water pressure, cohesion, angle of internal friction, and unit weight on the factor of safety for slope
stability problems.
Keywords: Limit equilibrium, Factor of safety, Geo-slope, slope stability problems
2.
1.
Methodology
Introduction
The slope stability analyses are performed to find the

safe and economic design of slopes. In the analysis of
slopes, factor of safety is primarily used to determine
how near or far slopes are from failure. When this ratio
is more than one, resistive shear strength is greater than
driving shear stress and the slope is considered as stable.
When this ratio is nearer to one, shear strength is nearly
equal to shear stress and the slope is close to failure. If
Factor of Safety is less than one, the slope has already
suffered failure. Limit equilibrium types of analysis for
assessing the stability of earth slopes have been in use in
geotechnical engineering for many decades. The
software SLOPE/W (GEOSLOPE 2007) provides
solution to many methods such as: Bishops Modified
method, Janbus Simplified method, Spencer method,
Morgenstern-Price method (M-PM) and others.
SLOPE/W is a component of a complete suite of
geotechnical products called GeoStudio. SLOPE/W has
been designed and developed to be a general software
tool for the stability analysis of earth structures.
GEOSLOPE
is
developed
by
GEO SLOPE
International, Canada, based on limit equilibrium
principles. A finite element analysis is also introduced to
estimate the distribution of stresses in the sloping mass.
In this study, SLOPE/W has been used to compare the

accuracy and efficiency of most common Limit
Equilibrium based methods for the analysis of stability
of slopes..
General Limit Equilibrium Method
A general limit equilibrium (GLE) method encompasses
the key elements of all the methods available in
Slope/W. The GLE formulation is based on two factors
of safety equations. One equation gives the factor of
safety with respect to moment equilibrium, F m (equation
1) while the other equation gives the factor of safety with
respect to horizontal force equilibrium, Fl (equation 2).
The terms in the equations are c' for effective cohesion,

' for effective angle of friction, u for pore water
pressure, N for slice base normal force, W for slice
weight, D for Concentrated point load, for inclination
of slice base and , R, x, f, d are the geometric
parameters. F is Fm when N is substituted into the
Barnali Ghosh Tel.: 9845108358

E-mail: barnalighosh08@gmail.com
Page 219

moment factor of safety equation and F is Fl when N is
substituted into the force factor of safety equation.
Ordinary method
The simplest form of factor of safety by Ordinary
Method in the absence of any pore-pressures for a
circular slip surface is given in the equation
MorgensternPrice method and the results are compared

with those of Bishops modified method and Janbus
Simplified method. The situations studied included,
(i) Stability analysis changing the slopes (H: V).
(ii) Stability analysis with changed values of cohesion
(C) and angle of internal friction ().
(iii) Stability analysis of dry slope.
(iv) Stability analysis with different piezometric level.
2.1 Stability Analysis with changing slopes
Here, c is the cohesion, is the slice base length, N is the

base normal (W cos ()), is the friction angle, W is the
slice weight, and is the slice base inclination
Bishop's simplified method
In 1950's Bishops simplified method was developed
which included inter-slice normal forces, but ignored the
inter-slice shear forces. A simple form of equation for
factor of safety in the absence of any pore water pressure
is by this approach is given by:
FS is on both sides of the equation as noted above. The

equation is not unlike the Ordinary factor of safety
equation except for the ma term, which is defined as
Janbus Method
Janbus simplified method is identical to Bishops
method, except that it satisfies only horizontal force
equilibrium. Like Bishops method, Janbus method
includes the interslice normal forces but not shear forces.
Morgenstern-Price Method
This method considers not only the normal and
tangential equilibrium but also the moment equilibrium
for each slice in circular and non-circular slip surfaces. It
is solved for the factor of safety using the summation of
forces tangential and normal to the base of a slice and the
summation of moments about the center of the base of
each slice. The equations were written for a slice of
infinitesimal thickness. The force and moment
equilibrium equations were combined and a modified
Newton-Raphson numerical technique was used to solve
for the factor of safety satisfying force and moment
equilibrium. The solution required an arbitrary
assumption regarding the direction of the resultant of the
interslice shear and normal forces.
In this paper, the minimum factor of safety (FS) and the

critical slip surface have been determined using the
The objective of the analysis was to compute the

minimum factor of safety and locate the critical slip
surface. Fig.1 presents the schematic diagram of the
slope with piezometric line considered 1m below the toe
level for the present study. The slope (2-horizontal: 1vertical) is having total height of 14 m over rock at 4m
below the base of the cut.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a slope
The problem was first modeled in SLOPE/W using a

MohrCoulomb soil model without tension cracks and
solved using M-PM with half-sine inter-slice force
function. The problem was solved with same cohesion,
angle of internal friction and unit weight but with
different slopes. The corresponding Factors of Safety
(FS) were computed (Table 1). The Critical Slip Surface
corresponding to lowest FS obtained is shown in Fig.2.
Table 1: Factor of Safety with changing slopes
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Slope stability
method used
M-PM
H:V
1.5:1.0
1.672
1.7:1.0
2.0:1.0
FS
1.232
1.806
1.320
1.484

with a slope of 1.5H: 1V
Page 220

Table 3 : Factor of Safety with changing unit weight
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
3
Slope stability
method used
Unit weight (kN/m )
FS
Upper layer
M-PM
Lower layer
15.0
1.672
18 1.734
.0
20 .0
1.806
18.0
1.983
20.0
22.0
1.484
1.425
1.401
Fig. 3 Free body diagram and force polygon of a slice
2.2 Stability Analysis with varying cohesion (C) and

angle of internal friction ()
Analysis is carried out with a slope of 2:1(H:V), keeping
the unit weight same and piezometric line constant. The
values of cohesion and angle of internal friction are
varied. Unit weight for the upper layer is taken as 15
kN/m3 and that for the lower layer is taken as 18 kN/m3.
The entry and exit values of the slope are kept the same.
with varying unit weight
Table 2: Factor of Safety with changing C and
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Slope stability
method used
M-PM
C (in kN/m2) and (in

degrees)
Upper
Lower
layer
layer
5 & 10
1.672
5 & 10
1.734
5 & 20
5&
1.806
20
10 1.983
& 20
10 & 25
2.4 Stability Analysis with a dry slope

FS
1.023
1.228
1.484

slope, unit weight as same and piezometric line constant
we have changed the values of cohesion and angle of
internal friction. Unit weight for the upper layer is taken
as 15kN/m3 and for the lower layer is taken as 18kN/m3.
The entry and exit values of the slope were kept as same.
obtained is shown in Fig.6.
Table 4: Factor of Safety with changing C and for a dry slope
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Slope stability
method used
M-PM
with a varying C and
C and
Upper
layer
Lower
layer
5 & 10
1.672 5 &1.806
20
5 & 10
1.734 10 &1.983
20
5 & 20
10 & 25
FS
1.139
1.395
1.685
2.3 Stability Analysis with varying unit weight ()

slope, cohesion and angle of internal friction as same and
piezometric line constant we have changed the values of
unit weight. Entry and exit values of the slope were kept
as same. The corresponding FS was computed (Table 3).
The Critical Slip Surface corresponding to lowest FS
with changing C and for a dry slope
Page 221
2.4 Stability Analysis with different piezometric level

slope, unit weight cohesion and angle of internal friction
as constant every time we have changed the water level.
Unit weight for the upper layer is taken as 15KN/m3 and
for the lower layer is taken as 18 kN/m3. Cohesion for
the upper layer and lower layer is taken as 5 and 10 and
angle of internal friction for upper and lower layer was
taken 20 and 25 respectively. The corresponding FOSs
were computed (Table 5). The Critical Slip Surface
corresponding to highest FS obtained is shown in Fig.7.
Table 5: Factor of Safety with changing piezometric level
GEOSLOPE (SLOPE/W)
Water level
Slope stability
above the toe of
method used
the slope
M-PM
1.672
1m
1.806
1.734
2m
1.983
3m
4m
FS
1.450
1.462
1.485
1.524

with Water level 4m above toe
3. Comparison with other methods and M-PM

Comparison is made with Ordinary method, Bishops
method and M-PM for a slope 2:1(H:V), Unit weight for
the upper layer is taken as 15 kN/m3 and that for the
lower layer is taken as 18 kN/m3. Cohesion for the upper
layer and lower layer are taken as 5 and 10 kN/m2 and
angle of internal friction for upper and lower layer ares
taken 20 and 25 degrees respectively The entry and exit
values of the slope were kept as same. The
corresponding FS was computed (Table 6). The Critical
Slip Surface corresponding to lowest FS (Janbus
method) obtained is shown in Fig. 8.
Table 6 : Factor of Safety with different methods
Slope stability method

used
FS
Janbu
Ordinary
Bishops
M-PM
1.297
1.386
1.483
1.484
Fig. 8 Critical Slip Surface for SLOPE/W Analysis using Janbus

method
4. Concluding Remarks
The scope of this study was to compare various stability
evaluation methods using GEOSLOPE. Firstly, the factor
of safety with different slopes was calculated and found
that the maximum stability was achieved with higher H:
V ratio (flatter slope), increased cohesion and angle of
internal friction. Further, it was observed that the slope
was stable under dry condition than that piezometric
line. Besides, it was inferred that stability of slope
gradually decreased when the water level increased. The
Factor of safety obtained by different methods was
compared and it was found that Janbus method gave the
least factor of safety, whereas M-PM produced the
highest factor of safety.
The analysis of slope stability problems by using the
geotechnical engineering software SLOPE/W provides
global understanding of the problem with a possibility to
view the detailed forces on each slice and to understand
failure mechanisms. From the present analysis, it is
found that the four parameters studied, namely shear
parameters, height of slope, inclination of slope and unit
weight of sliding mass have significant influence on the
slope stability.
References
[1] Bishop, A. W. (1955). The use of slip circles in stability
analysis of slopes. Geotechnique, 5(1), 7 17.
[2]
GeoStudio (2004). Tutorial Manual,

International Ltd, www.geo-slope.com.
GEO-SLOPE
[3]
Janbu, N. (1968). Slope Stability Computations.

(Geoteknikk, NTH). Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Technical University of Norway.
[4] Krahn, J. (2004). Stability Modeling with SLOPE/W. An

Engineering Methodology, Published by GeoSlope
International.
[5] Morgenstern, N. R. and Price, V. E. (1965). The Analysis of
the Stability of General Slip Surfaces. Geotechnique,
15(1), 77 93.
6] D.G Fredlund, and J. Krahn, Comparison of slope stability
methods of analysis, Canadian Geotechnical Journal. Vol.
14, No. 3, pp. 429-439. 1977
Page 222

[7] D.G. Fredlund, J. Krahn, and D.E. Pufahl, The
Relationship between Limit Equilibrium Slope Stability

Methods, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1981 .
[8] J.M. Duncan, State of the art: Limit equilibrium and finite
element analysis of slopes, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol. 122, pp. 577-596, 1996.
[10] SLOPE/W., An Engineering Methodology", Geo-Slope

International, Calgary, Canada, 2007.
[11] K.E. Petterson, The early history of circular sliding
surfaces". Gotechnique, 5: 275296, 1955.
[12] W. Fellenius , Calculation of the stability of earth dams,
In Transactions, 2nd Congress on Large Dams,
Washington, Vol. 4, pp. 445, 1936.
[9] E. Spencer, A method of analysis of embankments

assuming parallel inter-slice forces, Geotechnique, Vol.
17, No. 1, pp. 11-26, 1967.
Page 223
SIMULATION MODELING OF SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURES

DEVELOPMENT IN PERI URBAN AREAS
- A CASE STUDY OF CHENNAI
Abirami Krishna. A1 , Devi Priyadarisini. K2, Dr.Umadevi. G3
JPEG Format
M.E Student,Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India, abiramikrishna92@gmail.com

Research Scholar, Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India, devpriya910@gmail.com
3
Professor, Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India, gudevi11@gmail.com
Third Author (if

any)
in
Abstract
JPEG Format
Peri urban areas refer to the settlements beyond or about cities. The population growth rate of peri urban areas of Chennai is
3.5 compared to the city growth rate of 1.25. The current population of Chennai Metropolitan Area is about 8.7 million and
estimated to reach about 12.5 million by 2026. Majority of this increase is expected to settle in suburban and peri urban areas
as the city is already reaching saturation. Fundamental root cause for traffic congestion is improper neighbourhood planning
which does not account the holding capacity of basic infrastructures and its impact on transportation infrastructure. So
planning should be done to estimate holding capacity based on all basic infrastructures.
The main objective is to develop a system dynamics simulation model for peri urban areas. The developed model will be used
for assessing its possible and preferable growth directions through various scenario analyses based on economic considerations
and suggest the best scenario to ensure a growth towards sustainable development in the long run. The outcome of the study is
evolving optimum density norms by considering basic infrastructures such as transportation, water supply, sanitation,
electricity and telecommunication. Analysis would be done towards achieving dynamic balancing between holding capacity of
land use development and carrying capacity of transportation network of study zones. In do minimum condition, the existing
trend of growth rates has been allowed to continue till 2026. For basic infrastructures sector, projects under construction are
accounted. In desirable scenario simulation has been carried out such that supply augmentation and demand management is
incorporated. For basic infrastructures sector, all new proposals are introduced to make Demand/Supply ratio less than 1 with
quality of life as criteria. In land use sector a density of 259 persons/hectare is achieved by accelerating the land use
intensification trend on par with the population increase.
Keywords: Peri Urban, Sustainable Infrastructure , System Dynamics
growth in the worlds urban population is taking place in the
1. INTRODUCTION
cities of the developing countries and most of this urban

growth is occurring on the metropolitan fringe. Nearly
Over the last 20 years, the urbanization rates in the

advanced industrialized countries have stabilized, and in
many countries declined but contrary to that the urban
population growth in the low-income and developing
countries has risen dramatically. Nearly, all of the future
percentage of the worlds total urban population lives in

informal settlements, many located on the urban fringe.
While the overall increase in urbanization have been
striking, considerable variations exist between the different
regions of the world. Chennai city is literally bursting and
there is inadequacy of proper housing and other basic
Page 224
infrastructures for thousands of people. The urban area
3.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
problems of traffic congestion, pollution, lack of basic

infrastructure facilities and environmental degradation also
haunts the life of city people. Life of people in Chennai is
infrastructures of peri urban areas to build appropriate
filled with unpleasant experiences on a daily basis. High
simulation model
living costs, extended travel time of daily trips, overloaded
public transportation
and
systems, lack of proper basic
To study the transportation network and other basic
To test and validate the model for various scenario

policy
infrastructure, water scarcity, pollution, health problems,
development.
cramped spaces, absence of open spaces are some common
problems faced by the people of Chennai city.
sustainable
options
for
ensuring
sustainable
To recommend the best scenario for achieving

transportation
and
infrastructure
development to enhance quality of life in the study area

Unplanned and unrealistic growth of built up areas
inclusive of roads, water supply, electricity, drainage,
4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
telecommunication, population density limits, insufficient

mass transport facility are the major causes for the problems
In this study, a System Dynamics model relating

Transport, land use and infrastructure sectors have been
faced by the urban dwellers.
built. Data relating to vehicular growth and population

in the present scenario has been collected and simulated
2. NEED FOR STUDY
to find the future demand and supply. The holding

The growth in peri urban areas is very rapid, land use
changes occur in a large scale from agricultural to
residential and commercial. The population growth rate of
peri urban areas of Chennai is around 3.5 compared to the
city growth rate of around 1.25. Unregulated growth,
haphazard
developments,
low
quality
housing
and
inadequate infrastructure facilities are synonymous with peri

urban areas of Chennai. The current population of Chennai
Metropolitan Area (CMA) is about 8.7 million and is
estimated to reach about 12.5 million by 2026. Majority of
this increase is expected to settle in suburban and peri urban
areas as the city is already reaching saturation. Lack of
proper transportation and other various infrastructure
facilities in the peri urban areas leads to people migrating to
places with proper transportation facilities and other
infrastructure facilities. This can be prevented by providing
the proper needs of the people but at the same time proper
and planned growth have to be carried out with a check on
population density norms for the peri urban areas for a
sustainable growth.
capacity of the land use for present and future demand

is simulated. The level of infrastructure facility such as
water and electricity from the present and future
simulated levels of population has also been identified.
The model has been subjected to various scenario
analysis aimed at studying the interaction between
Transport, landuse and infrastructure of the study area
under various conditions. The impacts of the policies
framed by the government to achieve sustainability in
transport and infrastructure with respect to economic
development have been analyzed at a macro level. A
comparison of the results under various scenario
options has been carried out to determine the
advantages of the policy measures to be adopted. Based
on the results, suitable recommendations of policies
have been provided. The impact of Transport, landuse
and infrastructure on the Economy of the nation can
also be studied. The impact of these scenarios quantify
the quality of life has been analyzed in this study
5
SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT
DYNAMICS
MODEL
Page 225
algebraic relationships, graphs and Tables. For ease of

Generally the model building process can be
divided into two phases namely the Conceptual phase
presentation, the symbols used for flow diagramming of

System Dynamics are presented in the Figure 2.
and the Technical phase. The various phases in model

building process are as shown in Figure 1 and each phase
with its characteristics is presented here. The first phase
of problem definition involves recognizing and defining
a problem. System Conceptualization is to commit to
paper the important influences believed to be operating
within the system mostly in the form of causal-loop
diagram. In the next phase, models are represented in the
form of computer code that can be fed into the computer
in the form of computer programming languages. In the
Model Behaviour phase, computer simulation is used to
determine how all the variables within the system behave
over a period of time. Numerous tests must be performed
Figure 2. Flow Diagramming Symbols
on the model in the Model Evaluation phase to evaluate
The concept of the stocks and flows in System
its quality and validity. In the final phase, the model is
Dynamics is very appropriate to deal with a transport energy
used to test alternative policies that
economy interaction modeling. The System Dynamics
might be
implemented in the system under study.
approach is based on theory of feedback processes. A

feedback system is influenced by its own past behaviour.
This system has a closed loop structure that brings result
from past interactions of the system. The System Dynamics
model development process is summarised in the schematic
diagram of a model life cycle in Figure 3. The modeling
process starts with defining the purpose/goal of the system.
Then boundaries of the system to be modelled are specified.
This is followed by identification of key variables in the
system that affects the system, the most. Then behaviour of
the key variable is described, the stocks and flows are
Figure 1. Phases in Model Building Process
identified, and their structure is mapped in the modeling tool

using basic building blocks. The model is run to test the
The System Dynamics tool used in this study has four

basic building blocks namely Stock, Flow, Connector and
Converter. Stocks or levels are used to represent anything
that accumulates. Flows or rates represent activities that
behaviour. The model is then evaluated and adjustments are

made. Once the model is replicating system behaviour, it is
ready for simulation modeling.
5.1 Model Verification
increase and decrease stocks. Connectors are used to

establish the relationship among variables in the model
The purpose of model verification is to assure that the
represented graphically as arrows. Converters transform
conceptual model is reflected accurately in the computerized
input to output which can accept input in the form of
representation. The conceptual model quite often involves

some degree of abstraction about system operations, or some
Page 226
amount of simplifications of actual operations. It provides
5.3 Model Validation
answers to the questions like Is the conceptual model

(assumptions on system components and system structure
Validation is the overall process of comparing the
parameter values, abstractions and simplification) accurately
model and its behaviour to the real system and its behaviour.
represented by the operational model (i.e., by the
After the model has been calibrated using the original
computerized representation).
system data set, a final validation is conducted using the

second system of data set. If unacceptable discrepancies
between the model and the real system are discovered in the
final validation effort, the modeler must return to the
calibration phase and modify the model until it becomes
acceptable.
6. METHODOLOGY
The methodology of this work is depicted in the figure

5. Essentially the steps involved are data collection,
analysis, model building and to suggest appropriate
mitigation measures.
Figure 3. System Dynamics Model Development Life Cycle
5.2 Model Calibration
Calibration is the iterative process of comparing the
model to the real system, making adjustments (or)
manipulations (or even major) changes to the model,
comparing the revised model to reality, making additional
adjustments comparing again and so on. The model
calibration process can be pictorially represented as in
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Iterative Process of Calibration of a Mode
Page 227
7.
STUD
Y
ARE
A
Peri
Urban
settle
ments along OMR are selected as study area. It includes
Perungudi,
okkiyam
Thoraipakkam,
karapakam
and
sholinganallur. Perungudi and Sholinganallur are Town

Panchayats and Okkiyam Thoraipakkam and karapakkam
comes under Village Panchayats of St.Thomas Mount
Panchayat union as of old Chennai City limit concerned as
depicted in Fig.1. The reason behind the selection of study
area is that the southern group consisting of developments
from Perungudi to Sholinganallur exhibits a very high
growth rate.
Page 228
Fig 8. Peak hour volume
Fig 7.Study Area

Fig 9. Vehicle Composition
8.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Figure 9 illustrates the vehicle composition of
8.1
General
Chennai IT corridor. Two wheeler and car proportion in the
Holding capacity can be determined by considering
total volumes are observed around 53 and 35 percent and
Traffic volume as primary data and demography, land use
Buses (governments and private & institutional) is around 4
and norms on basic infrastructures as secondary data. The
percent only. This seems to be an unhealthy proportion with
collected data are briefly discussed.
regard to environment consideration and Level of Service
8.2 Primary data collection

Primary data collection involves Local trips bounded in
(LOS).
8.3
the study area. It is achieved through traffic volume surveys

at 3 different locations of Old Mahabalipuram Road
between 3.30 p.m and 8.30 p.m. The locations include
Perungudi, Thoraipakkam, Sholinganallur.
Secondary data collection

Collection of secondary data includes Demographic
data, Land use data and norms on basic infrastructures such

as Water supply, and Electricity.
8.3.1
Demographic data
Fig 8 shows the peak traffic volume observed at 3

survey locations and it depicts that the peak traffic volume is
the highest at Perungudi location.
Fig 10 shows the demographic profile of study area.

From the figure it is observed that Thoraipakkam census
town has highest population of 56642 with 14524
households.
Page 229

of the study area is around 500 units/month out of which
TNEB is able to meet only 80% of the demand. Details of
existing substations in study area is obtained from Tamil
Nadu Transmission Corporation Limited (TANTRANSCO)
and tabulated below.
Table 2 Details of Substations in Study area
Fig 10. Demographic profile
Source: Compiled from census
2011
8.3.2 WATER SUPPLY DATA

Water supply requirement and supply data have been
collected from CMDA Second master plan as listed in Table
Name of the Sub
Voltage ratio in
Capacity in
Station
KV
MVA
Perungudi
110/33/11
132
Sholinganallur
110/11
32
Source: TANTRANSCO
2 and 3.
Table 1 Estimated water requirement 2026
8.3.4 Land Use data
Category in
CMA
Population
in lakhs
Rate of water
supply in lpcd
Total
requirement
in MLD
Chennai City
58.56
150
1230
Municipalities
and Town
panchayats in
CMA
47.90
125 for
Municipalities
100 for Town
panchayats
796
Rest of CMA
19.88
80
223
Total
126.34
Land area corresponding to each and every land use is

extracted from Geo referencing Land use map obtained from
CMDA by using AutoCAD 2015. The extracted results are
given in table 3.
2249
Table .3 states the Total domestic supply and industrial supply

by CMWSS board.
8.3.3 ELECTRICITY DATA

Electricity demand and rate of supply is obtained by Tamil
Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). Average electricity demand
Table 3.Extent of Land use
Land Use
Perungudi
Thoraipakkam
Karapakkam
Sholinganallur
Ha
Ha
Ha
Ha
Primary Residential
152.6
39
289
48
22.4
611.4
40
Mixed Residential
51.8
13
79.7
13
34
14
116.4
Institutional
84.2
21
17.5
18.1
32.36
Industrial
49.2
12
135.9
23
93.5
39
423.9
28
Water body
17.7
48.6
140.29
Agricultural
8.6
Commercial
21
8.7
33.24
Page 230
Non Urban
1.3
14.11
CRZ
140.74
Road Network
30.9
30.9
8.5
23.36
Total
395
100
601.6
100
242
100
1535.8
100
Source: Compiled from CMDA Land use map
9. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
9.1 General
Simulation model has been developed for population sector
and infrastructures sector using the STELLA simulation
software
With
the
System dynamics (SD)
model,
relationship between the population growth and its level of

population and its supply of all basic infrastructures are
established and density norm for all basic infrastructures are
determined. Optimum density norm is said to be the
Fig 10. SD Model for Population Sector
minimum among all. Holding capacity is calculated based

on the optimum density norm.
The existing land use data is used to know the existing area
9.2 Model Development Land Use Sector
for allocating the projected population and the future land

use proportion can be formulated for corresponding
Stella model for land use sector is built by considering
population growth. Intuitive scenarios can be analysed for
existing residential land area and future developable floor
the developed model. The different patterns of possible
area. By accounting residential growth rate extent of land
present and future growth are generated and holding
area in projected year is calculated.
capacity is determined towards achieving sustainable
Existing residential floor area for every year can be
development for the study area.
developed with respect to the growth rate of residential

intensity and available residential area of each zone.
9.2
Model Development Population Sector
FDFA1= Existing residential area (Remaining % from

already developed) * Plot coverage for constructing house*
Population model has been built to estimate the

projected population as given in Fig 7 by accounting birth
rate, death rate, immigration and out migration rate.
Population (t) = Population (t-dt) + (Birth_Rate +
Inmigration_Rate Death_Rate Out_Migration_Rate) *
dt
Undeveloped remaining FSI

FDFA2= Existing residential area (% yet to be developed) *
Plot coverage for constructing house* Undeveloped FSI
FDFA = FDFA1 + FDFA2
Residential area= Existing residential area (% from already
developed)
Plot
coverage
for
constructing
house*Developed FSI
Page 231
If existing growth trend continues, V/C of horizon year

is 2.53 which is 2 times higher than base year V/C.
SD model for density estimates an average density of

233,176,186 persons/hectare in do minimum scenario
for Transportation, Water supply, and Electricity sector
respectively.
It infers that the density corresponds to water supply

sector is very minimum when compared to other
infrastructures which explicit the stress on water
infrastructure and emergent need of funds for its
Fig 11. SD Model for Land Use Sector
improvement.
9.3 Model Development Transport Sector
Scenario II Partial (partial implementation of new

proposals)
Model for transportation sector is built by accounting

present vehicular volume and growth rate of vehicles in
In partial scenario few new proposals are introduced in
order to determine the volume/ Capacity ratio and given in
all basic infrastructures and corresponding density is
Fig 12.
estimated based on available land area in Partial

scenario.
In this scenario D/S comes around 0.97 which is 22%

reduction when compared to do minimum scenario.
Introducing an elevated corridor reduces the V/C ratio

to 1.52 which is 40% reduction than do minimum
scenario.
Scenario III Desirable (Effective implementation
of all new proposals)
In desirable scenario implementation of desalination

plant, Power plants in phase wise manner to enhance
Quality of Life is considered.
In this scenario average D/S ratio of 0.8 is achieved

through effective implementation of various proposals
Fig 12. SD Model for Transport Sector
which is 36% reduction than do minimum.
10.1 FINDINGS
Scenario I Do Minimum (Allowing the existing trend
to continue)
Results of Demand/ Supply (D/S) ratio model shows

that in do minimum scenario the D/S is found to be
1.245.
In desirable scenario, combination of growth restriction

and introduction of elevated corridor results in a V/C
ratio of 0.96.
In desirable scenario by incorporating elevated

corridor, desalination plants, Power plants in phase
wise manner the dynamic balancing of holding
Page 232
capacity of land use sector with carrying capacity of
For electricity sector, a power plant has to come up
basic infrastructures is achieved.
which may be implemented in 4 phases to augment
The resultant maximum density is in a range of 94 to
the
259 persons/hectare for Sholinganallur and Perungudi
units/capita/month to 111.11 units/capita/month.
respectively which is actually the minimum density of
all infrastructures put together.
supply
rate
of
electricity
from
88.88
An approximate cost of 70.45 billion will be

needed to implement all the proposals of desirable
scenario whereas 35.22 billion will be needed for
10.2
INFERENCES
Desirable scenario is achieved by incorporating growth

restriction eliminating certain percentage of car and two
wheelers and introducing an elevated corridor of
capacity 3600 PCUs/hour and bypassing HCV and
allowing only 30% of LCV.
For Water supply sector, the D/S ratio of horizon year
comes around 1.32, 1.20 and 1 in do minimum, partial
and desirable scenario respectively
REFERENCES
For Transportation Sector, a reasonable reduction in V/C

ratio of 2.53 in Do minimum scenario to 0.96 in
the partial implementation of proposals.
For Electricity sector Since there is no power plant

proposal in the study area, present D/S ratio of 1.25 gets
carried over up-to horizon year in do minimum scenario
whereas in Partial scenario, if 2 phases of a power plant
proposal gets completed D/S ratio comes around 1.10 in
horizon year and in desirable scenario, if all 4 phases of a
power plant proposal gets completed, a D/S ratio of 1.00
is achieved in horizon year.
10.3
RECOMMENDATIONS
[1] Douglas Webster (May 2002),On the Edge:

Shaping the Future of Peri urban East Asia, a
discussion paper, pp 5-8, Asia/Pacific Research Center
(A/PARC).
[2] Haroldo Torres, HumbertoAlves and Maria
Aparecida De Oliveira (2007), Sao Paulo peri urban
dynamics:
Some
social
environmentalconsequences,
causes
Environment
and
and
Urbanization, Vol. 19, No.1 , pp 207-223.

[3] Agricultural and ResourceEconomics Review,
Vol.32/1. pp. 83-102.
[4] John O. Browder, James R. Bohland and Joseph L.
Scarpaci (Sep 1995),Patterns of development on the
metropolitan
fringe:
Urban
fringe
expansionin
Bangkok, Santiago and Jakarta, Journal of American

Planning Association, Vol. 61, Issue 3, pp 310-327.
[5]
Karthik.N
and
et
al.
(2011),Infrastructure
Development of Medavakkam, B.E thesis, Division of

Transportation Engineering, Anna university, Chennai.
[6] Second Master Plan for Chennai Metropolitan Area
For land use sector, a desirable density is achieved
2026, Vol.1 pp 68-80, and Vol.3 pp 157-181, Chennai
by restricting the population growth trend as well as
Metropolitan Development Authority.
augmenting the land use intensification rate on par
[7] Sekar S P and kanchanamala S (2011), Analysis of
with population increase.
growth dynamics of Chennai metropolitan Area, ITPI
For Transportation sector, the growth trend of
journal December 2011.
personalized mode has to be decreased by

augmenting the public transportation facilities such
as BRT.
For water supply sector a total of 4 desalination

plants are to be implemented before 2026 in order
to achieve a D/S ratio of 1.
Page 233
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF POST TENSIONED PSC GIRDERS DESIGNED

AS PER IS 1343:2012
Bharath B.M. 1, Dr. K. Manjunath 2 Puja M. Singh 3
1
M.Tech Student, M.C.E., Hassan, 573201, India, bharath0491@gmail.com

Professor and H.O.D., M.C.E., Hassan, 573201, India, kmnrpur@gmail.com
3
Scientist, ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore, 560017, India, pujam@isac.gov.in
2
Abstract
An attempt is made to evaluate the safety of a post tensioned girder in different limit states. The explicit level of safety
can be assessed only by employing probabilistic methods. Reliability Analysis of post tensioned PSC girders is carried
out in limit states of flexure, shear and deflection. Fifteen typical girders are designed as per IS 1343:2012 for different
spans by developing a program in MATLAB software. Monte Carlo simulation technique and Advanced First Order
Second Moment (AFOSM) methods using Fisselers algorithm are employed in the reliability analysis. The geometric
properties, material properties and loading are considered as random variables.
The study investigates reliability index and probability of failure of post tensioned PSC girders. Programs are developed
in MATLAB for each of limit states and the histograms and probability density functions are plotted which would assist
in assessment of probability of failure. The deterministic design of post tensioned PSC girder is carried out at ISRO
satellite centre Bangalore, where actual construction of a roofing system with PSC girders for Satellite Integration Hall
is going on at the time of present work. STAAD Pro V8i software is used for modeling and analysis of the structural
system. The reliability analysis is carried out by developing programs in MATLAB software.
Keywords: PSC girders, IS 1343:2012, STAAD Pro V8i, MATLAB
1. Introduction
2.1. Available Data
The prestressed concrete is considered entirely as a concrete

structure with tendons supplying the pre-compression which
transforms brittle material like concrete into an elastic one. It can
be visualized as a beam subjected to two types of forces- initial
prestress and external load.
In recent years, PSC girder design is moving towards a more
rational method commonly known as limit states design. This type
of design procedure takes into account more information than the
elastic methods of design of structural components. This semiprobabilistic design includes uncertainties in the strength of various
materials, in loads and load combinations, and modeling errors in
analysis procedures. Further the limit state design is being replaced
by reliability based design which considers the probability,
however low it may be, of the resistance becoming lower than the
action. The resistance and action being random due to inherent
randomness of material strength, geometry of members and loads
acting upon, the reliability based design attempts to ensure explicit
level of safety in the presence of randomness.
The effective span of the simply supported PSC girder is 34.3m.

The slab thickness is of 100mm and the girder is designed for live
load and dead load.
Live load = 1.5 x 5 = 7.5 KN/m
Super imposed dead load = 4.013 x 5 = 20.07 KN/m
Dead Load is works out to be = 28.98 KN/m
2.1.1. STAAD Pro Model
The roofing system is modeled and analyzed in STAAD Pro Vi8
software. The results of bending and shear at different sections are
obtained and the section is designed based on this results.
2. Deterministic Design
The deterministic design of the PSC girder is carried out at ISRO
satellite center, Bangalore. The roofing system consists of 12 Post
tensioned PSC girders with 5m centre to centre spacing. One of the
PSC girders is selected for the present study.
Fig. 1. STAAD Pro model of Roofing System
*
Bharath B.M. Tel.: +91 8970099510

E-mail: bharath0491@gmail.com
Page 234
The section obtained from preliminary design is checked for

requirements of minimum section modulus, eccentricity,
prestressing force and permissible tendon zone.
3.1. Design of PSC Girders using MATLAB.

A computer program is developed in MATLAB software and hence
many number of typical PSC girders for different span range shall
be designed for the reliability analysis.
Fifteen typical girders are designed from span 20m to 34m, the
thickness of the top flange is fixed as 100mm. Lins method is
adopted in the computer program and the sections are checked for
its safety in limit states of Flexure, Shear and Deflection.
It should be noted that the cross sections of these fifteen girders are
uniform along the length of the span, but the section which
designed and constructed in the field (at ISRO Satellite centre) is as
shown in the fig 2 and fig 3.
3.2. Reliability Index and Probability of Failure
Fig. 2. Cross section at centre span
The adequacy of a design can be measured by means of a non

dimensional number called reliability index. It is a traditional
notation of the safety limit associated with the ultimate limit states.
A limit state function is given by,
g=R-S
(1)
Where, R is the resistance and S is the action.
If g > 0, the structure is safe and the probability of failure is given
by, Pf = Prob (g < 0)
3.3 Methods of Assessment of Reliability
Fig. 3. Cross section at support
2.2. Prestress Losses and Check for Stresses

The stresses in PSC girder are checked at 14th day, 28th day before
and after the application of super imposed dead load and at infinity
days (at service) after accounting for live load.
2.2.1. Prestress Losses
14th day Loss due to friction and Loss due to elastic shortening of
the girder
28th day Loss due to creep and shrinkage from 14th to 28thday and
Relaxation loss of prestressing steel from 14th to 28th day
Infinity Loss due to creep and shrinkage from 28th to infinity day
Relaxation loss of prestressing steel from 28th to infinity
days
Monte carlo simulation technique and Advanced first order second

moment methods using Fisselers algorithm are used for reliability
evaluation of PSC girders in the present study.
The statistics of basic variables are extracted from the available
literature and tabulated in table 1.
Variable
Bias
Geometric Properties
Dimensions (H,b,d,e)
1.03
Area (Tendon, Concrete, Steel)
1.03
Material Properties
Characteristic strength of tendon
1.04
Characteristic strength of concrete
1.1
Characteristic strength of steel
1.04
Loading
Dead load
1.05
Live load
1.2
COV
(%)
Distribution
Type
3
1.5
Normal
Normal
2
18
2
Normal
Normal
Normal
15
30
Normal
Normal
Table 1. Statistics of basic variables
3.4 Generation of Resistance Statistics

2.3. Check for Limit States of Flexure, Shear and Deflection.
The designed section is checked for its moment carrying capacity,
shear carrying capacity and its resistance against deflection.
Suitable amount of anchorage reinforcement is provided to take
care of the bursting tension.
The results are discussed in section 4.
3. Reliability Analysis
Reliability is the probability of an item performing its intended
function over a given period of time under the operating
conditions encountered.
Reliability analysis is carried out with the help of MATLAB
software.
Resistance models corresponding to each limit states are developed.

During the reliability analysis of the current design, resistance
model is calculated by performing Monte-Carlo simulations and
AFOSM methods using Fisselers Algorithm. 30000 data sets were
randomly generated for each cross section, and each data set
randomly as a function of statistical models for the variables
involved bias [mean/nominal], coefficient of variation [ COV =
standard deviation/mean], distribution type etc.
3.4.1. Resistance Model for Limit State of Flexure
Two resistance models are used depending upon the position of
neutral axis. If the neutral axis lies in the flange, the resistance
model is given by,
Mu = fpu Aps (d 0.42 Xu)
(2)
Page 235
If the neutral axis lies in the web, the resistance model is given
by,
Mu = fpu Apw (d 0.42Xu) + 0.675 fck (b-bw) Df (d 0.5 Df)
(3)
Where,
fpu
= Ultimate stress of prestressing strands
Aps
= Area ofc total prestressing steel
Apw
= Area of prestressing steel for web
Nominal longitudinal reinforcement of 2050 mm2 (0.2% of the cross

section) is provided in addition to tensioned reinforcement. Two
legged 10mm and 12mm diameter stirrups are provided at 200mm
c/c near center span and support respectively.
The deflection of the girder is works out to be 69.81mm and the
permissible deflection being higher i.e., 137.2mm, the section is safe
against deflection. 16mm diameter Fe 500 spiral eight turns at
50mm pitch is provided as anchorage reinforcement for bursting
tension of 284.93 KN.
3.4.2. Resistance Model for Limit State of Shear

The ultimate shear resistance of the section is estimated by
considering flexure shear and web shear cracking modes.
For web shear cracking mode, equation 3 is used as resistance
model and equation 4 is used for flexure shear cracking mode in
addition to shear carried by the stirrups and it is given by equation
5.
Vc = 0.67bwD(ft2 + 0.8fcpft)
(3)
Vc = [1-0.55(fpe /fpu)]cbwd + M0 (V/M)
(4)
Vcs = (0.87fydtAsv / Sv)
(5)
Where, ft = 0.24fck
M0 = 0.8 ft(I / Y)
Resistance statistics of the fifteen typical girders in terms of

reliability index and probability of failure in three limit states is
tabulated in table 4 and table 5.
Limit States
Flexure
Uncracked in
flexure
Shear
Cracked in
flexure
Deflection
Table 4.
3.4.3. Resistance Model for Limit State of Deflection

The resistance model for deflection of flanged section is obtained
by combining equation 6 with maximum permissible limit of
deflection l/250.
a = - (5(g + q)L4 / (384EI))
(6)
Equation 6 is the deflection of a beam with parabolic tendons
having an eccentricity e at the centre and zero at the support.
Limit States
Flexure
Uncracked in
Shear
The loss of prestress and check for prestress losses are tabulated in
table 2 and table 3.
Time
Period
(Days)
Frictio
n Loss
(KN)
ES
Loss
(KN)
Creep
Loss
(KN)
14
400.99
135.07
14 - 28
55.124
57.74
147.66
28 infinity
223.506
182.842
268.316
Table 2.
Time
Period
2.312
(compression)
28th
day
6.257
(compression)
At
infinity
days
7.917
(compression)
Table 3.
Relaxati
on Loss
(KN)
-
Prestress Losses
Actual Stress
Top
Bottom
( N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
14th
day
Shrinkage
Loss (KN)
Permissible Stress
Top
Bottom
(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
17.39
15.744
0
(compressi
(compression)
(tension)
on)
15.6
5.762
(compress
0 (tension)
(compression)
ion)
15.6
0.4
(compress
0 (tension)
(compression)
ion)
Check for Stresses
Cracked in
flexure
Fifty strands are provided in the design with three cables having
twelve strands and two cables having seven strands. The strands
are of 12.7mm diameter with an effective area of 98.7 mm2. The
prestressing force provided is 6983.62 KN.
4.71 to 5.73
10-5 to 10-8
8.35 to 6.18
10-16 to 10-9
10.95 to 8.07
10-21 to 10-15
6.27 to 6.21
10-9
Resistance Statistics ( Mote Carlo Simulation

Technique)
flexure
4. Results
Monte Carlo simulation technique
Pf
Deflection
Table 5.
FOSM method using Fisselers algorithm
Pf
3.57 to 3.94
10-4
5.30 to 4.68
10-7 to 10-5
8.82 to 5.56
10-18 to 10-7
7.12 to 6.80
10-12 to 10-11
Resistance Statistics ( FOSM Method)
Histograms and probability distribution curves are plotted for all the
girders in limit states of flexure, shear and deflection. A typical
histogram and probability curve of moment of resistance for girder
of 20m span are shown in figure 4 and figure 5. Similarly
histograms and probability distribution curves are plotted for all
fifteen typical girders in other two limit states also.
F
R
E
Q
U
E
N
C
Y
MOMENT OF RESISTANCE (Nmm)

Fig. 4. Histogram of Moment of Resistance
Page 236
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Fig. 5. Probability Distribution Curve
[8]
5. Conclusion
An attempt is made to evaluate the safety of a post tensioned
girder in different limit states. The explicit level of safety can be
assessed only by employing probabilistic methods.
Scientific Engineering and Research (IJSER), ISSN: 23473878, Volume 2, Issue 8, August 2014.
Ayman M. Okeil, Abdeldjelil and Daniel A. kuchma.
Reliability assessment of FRP strengthened concrete bridge
girders in shear. Journal of composites for construction @
ASCE / January/February 2013.
Ayman M. Okeil, Sherif El-Tawil, Mohsen Shahawy. Flexural
reliability of RC bridge girders strengthened with CFRP
laminates. M.S. thesis Work,
Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Central Florida,
Orlando, FL 32816-2450.
Gunjan Agrawal, Baidurya Bhattacharya. Partial safety factor
design of rectangular partially prestressed concrete beams in
ultimate flexural limit state. Journal of Structural Engineering,
No. 37-31, Vol. 37, No. 4, October-November 2010 pp. 257
267.
Khaliq Mohamed Burhan. Generation of resistance statistics
of PSC bridge girder in limit state of flexure. M.Tech thesis
work, Dept of Civil Engineering, M.C.E. Hassan
Hayder A. Rasheed; Kyle H. Larson; and Robert J. Peterman.
Analysis and design procedure for FRP-strengthened
prestressed concrete T-girders considering strength and
fatigue. Journal of composites for construction asce /
september/october 2006.
Reliability index denotes the probability of failure in a given limit

state. The reliability index can be evaluated by digital simulation
like Monte Carlo simulation method or by closed form solutions
like first order second moment method using Fizzlers algorithm.
The deterministic design is obtained by limit state method as per
IS 1343:2012. A program is prepared for the deterministic design
using MATLAB software. Digital simulation is done by using
MATLAB platform.
Probabilistic variations of moment of resistance and that of
external bending moment are obtained by digital simulation.
Normal probability distribution is used to characterize randomness
in resistance and applied action. The goodness of fit of normal
distribution is established by K.S. test.
Similar studies are made in limit states of shear and deflection.
The reliability index is evaluated in these limit states.
It is concluded that the reliability index is not uniform in different
limit states. Hence the explicit safety factor varies for different
limit states.
Reliability based design can be used to achieve a target level of
reliability. The target reliability index can be specified depending
upon the importance of the structure.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
Amit Saxena, Dr. Savita Maru. Comparative study of the

analysis and design of T-beam girder and box girder
superstructure. International Journal of Research in
Engineering & Advanced Technology (IJREAT), ISSN:
2320-8791, Volume 1, Issue 2, April-May, 2013.
Vishal U., N. G. Gore, P. J. Salunke. Analysis and design of
prestressed concrete girder. International Journal of
Inventive Engineering and sciences (IJIES), ISSN: 23199598, Volume-2, Issue-2, January 2014.
Rajamoori Arun Kumar, B. Vamsi Krishna. Design of
prestressed concrete T-beams. International Journal of
Page 237
EFFECT OF NUMBER OF LOADING CYCLES ON DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF

SOLANI RIVER SAND
J. Chavda1, B. K. Maheshwari2, G. R. Dodagoudar3
1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India,
jiteshchavda03@yahoo.in
2
Professor, Department of Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India,
bkmahfeq@iitr.ac.in
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India, goudar@iitm.ac.in
Abstract
During earthquakes, soil plays a great role for the safety of supported structures. Dynamic soil properties are very useful
in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering problems like ground response analysis, seismic soil-structure interaction,
problems due to liquefaction, etc. The two important parameters required for analysing the above problems are the shear
modulus and damping ratio of the soil. The recent developments in numerical analysis for the nonlinear dynamic
response of ground due to strong ground motions have increased the demand for proper evaluation of dynamic soil
properties corresponding to medium and large strains. In the present work, the dynamic soil properties of Solani river
sand from Uttarakhand, India were evaluated using cyclic triaxial and bender element tests. The number of loading
cycles were varied and their effects on the degradation of modulus values and increase in damping have been studied.
The modulus reduction curves at different strains were obtained. From the test results, for the low to high strains range,
the shear modulus of the sand is changing with change in number of cycles of loading. At low shear strain, the shear
modulus increases with increase in number of cycles. At high strain of 1%, the shear modulus is reducing with increase
in number of cycles. This understanding will be helpful in better design of foundations subjected to earthquake loads.
Keywords: Shear modulus, Damping ratio, Cyclic triaxial test, Bender element test, Modulus reduction curve.
1. Introduction
The recent developments in numerical analysis of nonlinear
dynamic response of ground due to strong ground motions
have increased the demand for realistic evaluation of dynamic
soil properties corresponding to large strains. The parameters
affecting the dynamic properties of soils have to be considered
and evaluated properly. In numerical analysis, the modulus
reduction and damping curves are needed for wide range of
strains so that the proper nonlinear analysis can be attempted.
The present study provides the results of modulus values at
four different strains levels, i.e., 0.06%, 0.1%, 0.3% and 1%.
As part of the studies, the sample preparation, saturation and
consolidation have also been explained in the paper.
Sr.
No.
1
Particular
Notation
Value
Soil type
SP
2
3
Specific gravity
Coefficient
uniformity
Coefficient
curvature
of
Gs
Cu
Poorly graded
sand
2.68
1.96
of
Cc
1.15
0.120 mm
0.180 mm
0.210 mm
0.235 mm
0.86
0.54
Grain size
Maximum void ratio
D10
D30
D50
D60
emax
Minimum void ratio
emin
2. Properties of Sand
A grain size distribution curve obtained for the Solani river
sand is depicted in Fig. 1. and the grain size parameters are
given in Table 1 along with the other index properties.
Table 1: Index properties of Solani river sand
3. Sample Preparation
The modulus reduction and damping curves are less sensitive
to the specimen preparation method, degree of saturation and
drainage conditions [21] [10]. The remolded specimens are
prepared using moist tamping compaction method putting the
sand in three layers. Membrane correction is not considered,
since the membrane penetration per unit area is negligible.
Area correction is also not considered to the cyclic triaxial
loading data.
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution curve
The void ratio (e) corresponding to the relative density of sand

(Dr) is expressed as
J. Chavda Tel.: +919773134790

E-mail: jiteshchavda03@yahoo.in
Page 238
e emax Dr (emax emin )
(1 )
where Dr is the relative density, emax is maximum void ratio,

emin is the minimum void ratio, and e is the desired void ratio at
a particular relative density of sand.
d
max
E
2(1 )
After evaluating the value of void ratio e, dry unit weight of

sand () was determined by the following equation
G
d s w
1 e
where d is dry unit weight of sand, Gs is specific gravity of

sand, and w is unit weight of water.
4. Saturation and Consolidation

All the specimens are saturated by passing deaired water so as
to achieve higher saturation at lower back pressure and in less
time. The incremental back pressure saturation is adopted for
saturation and all the specimens are saturated using a back
pressure of 313 5 kPa to achieve Skempton's pore pressure
parameter B in excess of 0.98. The back pressure is kept
constant for all the tests to eliminate the eect of back pressure
on modulus and damping. The specimens have been tested at a
relative density of 50% with void ratio (e) of 0.7 and are
isotropically consolidated to an eective conning pressure of
100 kPa.
For the estimation of G, one of the most reliable methods to
characterize small strain shear modulus (Gmax) is the
measurement of shear wave velocity (V s) through sample by
the bender element test:
Gmax vs2
max
where G is the shear modulus, is the shear strain and is the

Poisson's ratio that may be taken as 0.5 for saturated undrained
specimen [20]. A damping ratio D, is a measure of the
dissipated energy versus the elastic strain energy and is
computed by
1 AL
4 AT
where AL = Area enclosed by the hysteresis loop and AT =

Area of the shaded triangle as shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 3 depicts variation of axial strain with number of cycles
of loading. As a consequence of loading, a decrease in
deviatoric stress is noted and is shown in Fig. 4. The variation
of pore pressure build up with number of cycles of loading is
shown in Fig. 5. The effective stress path is drawn for the
above strain loading at a axial strain of 0.67% with confining
pressure of 100 kPa for the sand sample having void ratio of
0.7 (Fig. 7).
where Gmax is maximum shear modulus of sand at low strain,

Vs is shear wave velocity obtained from the bender element
test, and is density of the soil sample.
5. Formulation Used
The shear modulus is evaluated as the slope of a secant line
that connects the extreme points on a hysteresis loop at a given
shear strain, as shown in Fig. 2. As the cyclic strain amplitude
increases, the shear modulus decreases.
Fig. 3. Applied axial strain
Fig. 2. Hysteretic stress strain relationship

From the cyclic triaxial test results, a hysteresis loop similar to
Fig. 2 is obtained by plotting the axial strain () versus deviator
stress (d). The slope of the secant line connecting the extreme
points on the hysteresis loop is the young modulus (E) [20]:
Fig. 4. Induced deviator stress
Page 239
Fig. 5. Pore pressure variation with no. of cycles

Fig. 6. Effective stress path for e = 0.7, f = 1 Hz, effective

confining pressure = 100 kPa, = 0.67%
With increase in shear strain, the effect of number of cycles
should be considered for the evaluation of dynamic shear
modulus.

Figures 7-10 depict the hysterisis loops at the axial strains of
0.06%, 0.1%, 0.3% and 1% respectively. It is noted from Fig. 7
that at low shear strain the effect of number of cycles of
loading on the dynamic shear modulus is less as compared to
the higher shear strain.
Fig. 10. Hysteretic loop at axial strain of 1%
Page 240
Fbb ( )
Gmax
G
1 ( max )
max
Loop 10
Loop 1
where Gmax is the maximum shear modulus at low strain, is

the shear strain amplitude and max is the maximum shear
stress.
The modulus reduction curve obtained for Loops 1 and 10 with
considering all the strain levels is shown in Fig. 13. At low
strain, the modulus related to Loop 10 is higher and at higher
strain the modulus is lower as compared to the results
corresponding to Loop 1. Figure 14 shows the backbone curves
along with the hyperbolic soil model. The hyperbolic soil
model captures the backbone curve well in the compression
quadrant. The modulus reduction curve developed using the
hyperbolic soil model is shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 11. Hysteretic loop for e = 0.7, f = 1 Hz, Effective

confining pressure = 100 kPa, = 1%
The sand was compacted to achieve relative density of 50%.
The test has been performed with sample height of 88 mm and
diameter of 50 mm. The test was conducted at an effective cell
pressure of 100 kPa. From Fig. 11, it can be observed that at
high strain of 1%, the shear modulus reduces with increasing
number of cycles. It is noted that around 10th loop modulus
gets stabilized, however a slight variation is observed around
30th loop. Figure 12 depicts the backbone curve developed as
part of the testing at different strain levels for Loops 1 and 10.
Fig. 13. Modulus reduction curve considering Loops 1 and 10
Fig. 12. Backbone curve for Loops 1 and 10

The maximum value of shear modulus, Gmax, (i.e., small strain
shear modullus) is obtained from the bender element tests. The
value of Gmax = 90.123 MPa.
The hyperbolic soil model has been used to check the data
obtained from the cyclic tri tests. The performance of cyclic
nonlinear models can be illustrated by a very simple example
in which the shape of the backbone curve is described by =
Fbb(). The shape of any backbone curve is tied to two
parameters the initial (low strain) stiffness and the high strain
stiffness of the soil. For the simple example, the backbone
function, Fbb(), can be described by a hyperbola [9]:
Fig. 14. Backbone curve with hyperbolic soil model
Page 241
Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute

of Technology, Roorkee, December, 2010; 17-19, 2010.
[9] Kramer SL. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.
[10] Kokusho T. Cyclic triaxial test of dynamic soil properties
for wide strain range. Soils and Foundations, 1980; 20(2),
45-60.
[11] Kirar B, Maheshwari BK, Jakka RS. Dynamic properties
of Solani sand reinforced with coir fibers. Proc. of 15th
September, Lisbon, Portugal, 2012.
Fig. 15. Modulus reduction curve with hyperbolic soil model
6. Conclusions
Based on the test results, it is concluded that at low to high
strain, the shear modulus of sand is changing with change in
the number of cycles of loading. With specific to low shear
strain, the shear modulus increases with increase in number of
loading cycles. At high strain of 1%, the shear modulus
decreases with increase in number of loading cycles. The
hyperbolic soil model has been used to check the data obtained
from the tests. It is noted that the basic hyperbolic soil model
can predict the behavior of sand realistically under cyclic and
dynamic loading.
7. References
[1] ASTM D3999-91 (2003). Test method for the
determination of the modulus and damping properties of
soils using the cyclic triaxial apparatus, Annual book of
ASTM
standards,
ASTM
International,
West
Conshohocken, PA.
[2] Govindaraju L. Liquefaction and dynamic properties of
sandy soils, Ph. D. Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 2005.
[3] Hardin BO, Drnevich VP. Shear modulus and damping in
soils: measurement and parameters effects. J. of Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 1972;
98(SM6), 603-624.

properties of Solani sand under cyclic loads. Proc. of the
14th Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee,
Roorkee, December 2010.
[13] Maheshwari B.K, Kale SS, Kaynia AM. Dynamic
properties of Solani sand at large strains: A parametric
study. International J. of Geotechnical Engineering,
2012;6 (3): 353-358.
[14] Prakash S. Soil Dynamics. Singapore: McGraw Hill Book
Co., 1981; 274 -336.
[15] Ravishankar BV, Sitharam TG, Govindaraju L. Dynamic
properties of Ahmedabad sands at large strains. IGC2005, Ahmedabad, 369-372.
[16] Seed HB, Idriss IM. Soil moduli and damping factors for
dynamic response analyses. Rep. No. EERC-70-10,
Earthquake Engg. Research Center, Univ. of California at
Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 1970.
[17] Seed HB, Wong RB, Idriss IM, Tokimatsu K. Moduli and
damping factors for dynamic response analyses of
cohesionless soils. J. of Geotechnical Eng., ASCE, 1986;
112(11), 1016-1032.
[18] Sitharam TG, Govindaraju L, Shridharan A. Dynamic
properties and liquefaction potential of soils. Current
Science, 2004; 87(10), 1354-1362.
[19] Towhata I, Haga K, Nakamura S. Effects of cyclic
drained shear or rigidity of sand. Proc. 20th Nat. Conf.
Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 1985; 1, 591592.
[4] Hanumanthrao C, Ramana GV. Dynamic soil properties

of Yamuna sand. Proc. 13th Symposium on Earthquake
Eng., IIT Roorkee, India, 2006; 430-438.
[20] Towhata I. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Berlin:

Springer-Verlag, 2008.
[5] Ishibashi I. Discussion to Effect of soil plasticity on

cyclic response. by M Vucetic, R Dobry, J. of
Geotechnical Eng., ASCE, 1992; 118 (5), 830-832.
[21] Tatsuoka F, Iwasaki T, Fukushima SH. Stress conditions

and stress histories aecting shear modulus and damping
of sand under cyclic loading. Soils and Foundations,
1979; 19, 2943.
[6] Ishihara K. Liquefaction and flow failure during

earthquakes. Geotechnique, 1993; 43(3), 351-415.
[7] Kale SS. Dynamic properties of soils under cyclic loads,
M. Tech. Dissertation, Department of Earthquake
Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India, 2010.
[22] Wykeham Farrance Engg. Manual of Automatic Dynamic

Triaxial System,
Controls Testing Equipment,
Wykeham Farrance Engineering Ltd., Slough, England,
2008.

properties of Solani sand under cyclic loads. Proc. 14th
Page 242
CONCRETE PERFORMANCE WITH ADMIXTURES OF FLY ASH AND

COPPER SLAG CONCERNING MECHANICAL AND
DURABILITY ASPECTS FOR NORMAL STRENGTH
VELUMANI.M 1, NIRMALKUMAR.K2 SATHISH.S 3
1
Assistant Professor, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu, India,

mvelumani84@gmail.com
2
Professor, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Erode,
nirmalkumar@kongu.ac.in
3
UG Student, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu, India,
sathish.ce00@gmail.com
Abstract
Fine Aggregate is one the most important material in the concrete. River sand is extensively used for fine
aggregate. On overuse of the aggregate, the source is declined and also the cost of aggregate is increased. On the other
side, the copper slag and fly ash is disposed in massive amount and these waste is ensue many environmental
complications. Copper slag is an industrial by-product produced in large quantities by the process of manufacturing
copper in Sterlite industries. Fly ash is produced from the thermal power plant for the period of burning the coal. The
objective of this work is to study the strength and corrosion resistive properties of concrete containing copper slag as
fine aggregate (0% to 100%) along with fly ash (0% to 30%) by weight of cement. The property of resistance to
corrosion is evaluated based on the performance of the concrete for the penetration of chloride ions by means of Rapid
Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) and Gravimetric weight loss method. From the results obtained through the above
experiments, it is found that replacement of sand by fly ash along increases the strength of concrete; increases corrosion
resistance in addition to overall properties of concrete. Assessment of slump aspects of concrete including copper slag as
a fine aggregate and fly ash as a cement replacement is as important as the mechanical properties. In this study of
compressive strength and durability aspects of concrete such as ultrasonic pulse velocity, rapid chloride penetration, acid
resistance test and sulphate resistance tests these test results indicate that copper slag and fly ash in concrete give the
good results. When compared to normal concrete this conventional concrete gives good resistances. After 28, 60, 90
days of immersion in 5% magnesium Chloride solution, Copper slag concrete showed better resistance to chloride ion
penetration. The conventional concrete gives the good resistance for water absorption with compare than the normal
concrete. After done the all the primary experiments of concrete, optimum percentage addition of the fly ash by weight
of cement in concrete containing copper slag as fine aggregate was also determined.
Keywords: copper slag, fly ash ultrasonic pulse velocity, rapid chloride penetration, acid resistance test, sulphate
resistance tests.
1. Introduction
In the separation of copper, slag is a by-product

obtained during the matte smelting and refining of
copper has been reported by Biswas and Davenport
(2002). The major constituent of a smelting charge are
sulphides and oxides of iron and copper. The charge also
contains oxides such as SiO2, Al2O3 CaO and MgO,
which are either present in original concentrate or added
as flux. It is Iron, Copper, Sulphur, Oxygen and their
oxides which largely control the chemistry and physical
constitution of smelting system. The main reason for the
premature failure of reinforced concrete structures is

corrosion of the reinforcements. The use of new mortars
based on ternary mixtures, an alternative to ordinary
Portland cement (OPC), requires extensive research in
order to check its passivizing properties for
reinforcements and the instability or permanence of the
passive state achieved. Pozzolonas and slag extends the
market for concrete by improving specific properties of
concrete products, allowing them to be constructed with
other materials or placed in environments that would
have precluded the use of Portland cement alone. In
properly formulated concrete mixtures, Pozzolonas and
slag have been shown to enhance long-term strength,
decreased permeability, increased durability, and
reduction in thermal cracking of bulk concrete. The
Page 243
workability of concrete reduces due to the free flow of

water left in the concrete due to less absorption of water
by copper slag. On 50% replacement of copper slag, it
also gives more strength than conventional concrete
Arivalagan.s, (2013). An experimental investigation was
conducted on the properties of concrete to study the
effect of using copper slag as a fine aggregate. There
was more than 70% improvement in the compressive
strength of mortar with 50% copper slag substitution in
comparison with the control mixture. The volume of
permeable voids decreased with the replacement of up to
50% copper slag Khalifa S. Al-Jabri (2011). This work
reports an experimental procedure to investigate the
effect of using copper slag as partial replacement of
sand. The result indicated that workability increases with
increase in copper slag percentage. The highest
compressive strength obtained was 46Mpa (for 100%
replacement) and the corresponding strength for control
mix was 30Mpa Meenakshi Sundarvizhi. S (2011). High
performance concrete should be designed to have the
advanced workability and better durability than those of
conventional concretes. Thus this research was
performed to evaluate the potential use of copper slag as
sand replacement in the production of high performance
concrete D. Brindha, S. Nagan, (2010). This research
study was conducted to investigate the performance of
high strength concrete (HSC) made with copper slag as a
fine aggregate. The result shows that the water demand
was reduced by almost 22% at 100% copper slag
replacement compared to the control mixture .Khalifa
S.Al-Jabri et al (2009). Investigated the effect of using
copper slag as a replacement of sand on the properties of
high performance concrete (HPC). Concrete mixtures
were prepared with different proportions of copper slag
ranging from 0% (for the control mix) to 100%.
Addition of up to 50% of copper slag as sand
replacement yielded comparable strength with that of the
control mix. However, further additions of copper slag
caused reduction in the strength due to an increase of the
free water content in the mix Al-Jabri (2009). Copper
slag is also used as fine aggregate in the design of
bituminous concrete and semi dense bituminous
concrete, which increases the property of the bituminous
mixes Gorai, B., Jana, R.K. and Premchand, M (2003).
Thus this study focused on the effect of copper slag by
surrogating fine aggregate in M35 grade Portland
Pozzolona cement concrete and they were cured for 7
days, 28 days, 60 days and 90 days. Then the obtained
results were compared with the conventional concrete
made using Portland Pozzolona cement. Reinforced
concrete structures are exposed to harsh environments
yet is often expected to last with little or no repair or
maintenance for long periods of time (often 100 years or
more). To do this, a durable structure needs to be
produced. For reinforced concrete bridges, one of the
major forms of environmental attack is chloride ingress,
which leads to corrosion of the reinforcing steel and a
subsequent reduction in the strength, serviceability, and
aesthetics of the structure. The different mechanisms of
chloride penetration are presented, followed by a further
elaboration of the chloride diffusion theory. The
influence of basic properties of concrete on its chloride

penetrability is also discussed. Chloride penetration of
concrete pavement structures is determined through the
Rapid Chloride Permeability test (RCPT), which
typically measures the number of coulombs passing
through a concrete sample over a period of six hours at a
concrete age of 7, 28, and 56 days. In a composite
material, such as concrete, the parameters of the mixture
design and interaction between them determine the
behaviour of the material.
The rate of ingress of chlorides into concrete depends
on the pore structure of the concrete, which is affected
by factors including materials, construction practices,
and age. The penetrability of concrete is obviously
related to the pore structure of the cement paste matrix.
This will be influenced by the water-cement ratio of the
concrete, the inclusion of supplementary cementing
materials which serve to subdivide the pore structure
McGrath, 1996, and the degree of hydration of the
concrete. The older the concrete, the greater amount of
hydration that has occurred and thus the more highly
developed will be the pore structure. This is especially
true for concrete containing slower reacting
supplementary cementing materials such as fly ash that
require a longer time to hydrate Tang and Nilsson, 1992;
Bam forth, 1995. Because these conductors influence the
results so that a higher coulomb value than would
otherwise be recorded is determined, the method still
could serve as a quality control test. It can qualify a mix,
but not necessarily disqualify it Ozyildirim, 1994.
Chloride permeability is an inherent property of concrete
and needs to be assessed independently for long term
durability, especially in the design and construction of
structures to be built in a salt-laden environment.
Wherever there is a potential risk of chloride-induced
corrosion, the concrete should be evaluated for chloride
permeability Joshi and Chan, (2002).
2. MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES
2.1 CEMENT
The cement used in this project is Ordinary Portland
Cement of 43 Grade from Ultratech Cement Company.
This cement is most widely used in the construction
industry in India.
2.2 COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATE
Coarse aggregate of 20mm size and fine aggregate
of zone III from Karur area of TamilNadu
2.3 COPPER SLAG
The slag is a black glassy granular material, by
product of Sterlite Industries Limited (SIL), Tuticorin,
Tamil Nadu, India
2.4 FLY ASH
Page 244
Fly ash of class C is obtained from thermal

power plant, Mettur, TamilNadu, India was used.
3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
3.1 Physical properties of OPC and Fly ash
Ordinary Portland cement from Ultratech Cement
Company is used for super grade. The cement is
produced as per the IS (Indian standard) specification
given in IS: 1489 Part-I-1991.Fly ash of class C is
obtained from thermal power plant. IS: 3812 Part-I 2003 The Physical properties of Ordinary Portland
Table 3.1 Physical properties of OPC and Fly ash
S.No
4.
Physical
properties
Fineness
modulus
Initial setting
time
Final setting
time
Soundness
5.
Specific gravity
1.
2.
3.
OPC
Fly ash
335.7
m2/kg
28 min
397
m2/kg
130 min
595 min
290 min
0.8%
0.20%
3.15
2.14
Component
Silica (sio2)
Alumina ( Al2so3)
Iron oxide ( Fe2o3)
Calcium oxide (Cao)
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Sulfuric trioxide
( so3)
3.4 VARIOUS REPLACEMENTS OF COPPER

SLAG AND FLY ASH IN CONCRETE
The various replacements of Copper slag and
Fly ash are given in Table 3.4
Table 3.4 Replacement of Copper slag and Fly ash
S.NO
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Cement
(%)
100
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
Fly ash
(%)
0
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
3.2 Chemical properties of OPC and Fly ash
4. TESTING OF MATERIALS
The Chemical properties of Ordinary Portland

4.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS
Table 3.2 Chemical properties of OPC and Fly ash

Component
OPC (%)
Fly ash (%)
Silica (sio2)
Alumina
(Al2SO3)
Iron oxide
(Fe2O3)
Calcium oxide
(CaO)
Magnesium oxide
(MgO)
Sulfuric trioxide
(SO3)
20.85
58.65
4.78
15.65
3.51
6.08
63.06
3.50
2.32
0.28
2.48
0.16
CS (%)
33.05
2.79
53.45
6.06
1.56
1.89
FA
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
0
CS
(%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
The sample of aggregate was split into various

fractions, each consisting of particles of the same size.
The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle
size distribution in a sample of aggregate. The aggregate
used for making concrete are 4.75mm, 2.36mm,
1.18mm, 600 micron, 300 micron, and 150 micron. The
aggregate passes through 40mm and retained at 4.75mm
as coarse aggregate and the aggregate passes through
4.75mm and retained at 150 micron as fine aggregate.
Sieve can be done manually or mechanically. From the
below Fig.4.1, it is unstated that the fineness modulus of
copper slag (3.76) is more than the fineness modulus of
fine aggregate (2.73).Thus, the copper slag can be used
as fine aggregate in concrete.
3.3 CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF COPPER

SLAG
The Chemical components of Copper Slag are given
in Table 3.3
Table 3.3 Chemical components of Copper Slag
Page 245
Fig.4.1 Sieve Analysis

4.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The Specific gravity of aggregate is made use of in
design calculation of concrete mixes. The specific
gravity is calculated as the ratio between the weight of a
given volume of the material and weight of an equal
volume of standard material. Specific gravity of
aggregate is required in calculating the factor in
connection with the workability measurements. The
Specific gravity of materials are given in Table 4.1
Table 4.1 Specific gravity of materials
Specific
S.No
Material
gravity
1.
Cement
3.15
2.
Fly ash
2.14
3.
Fine aggregate
2.65
4.
Copper Slag
3.91
5.
Coarse aggregate
2.64
Fig.5.1 Workability of concrete

6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE
6.1 COMPRESSION TEST
In order to determine the compressive strength cube
mould of size 150150150 mm were casted. The cubes
were casted for different percentage of copper slag from
0% to 100%. The mould is cleaned and oiled properly
along its faces. Then the concrete is compacted properly
using tamping rod. Then the cubes are kept curing for
7day,28 day,60 day and 90 day. The compression test is
done according to the specification IS 516:1959. The
compressive strength is calculated using the formula
Compressive strength =P/A
5. TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE
Slump test is the most commonly used method of

measuring the consistency of concrete. A concrete is
said to be workable if it can be easily mixed and easily
placed, compacted and finished. This result in large
voids, less durability and less strength the increase in
water cement ratio increases the slump and workability
but decreases the strength of concrete. From the below
Fig.5.1 shows the workability of concrete as Slump
value
(N/mm2)
5.1 Slump test
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
7th day
28th day
60th day
90th day
Fig.6.1 Replacement % Vs Compressive Strength

From the above fig 6.1 it is known that in the 7 th day
testing the compressive strength is maximum at 40% on
surrogating fine aggregate by copper slag which is
about 46.98 N/mm2 where the conventional concrete
having compressive strength of 21.62N/mm2 . On 28th
day testing the compressive strength 63.54N/mm2 by
surrogating 40% of fine aggregate were the conventional
concrete contain compressive of about 41.33N/mm2 .
On 60th day compressive testing it is also found that the
Page 246

maximum strength is 40% (81.68 N/mm2) surrogating
fine aggregate. Whereas on 90th day compressive testing
the maximum strength is at 40% (119.65 N/mm2)
surrogating fine aggregate.
6.2 SPLIT TENSILE TEST
For testing split tensile strength concrete cylinder of
size 150 mm diameter and 300mm height were casted
with different percentage of copper slag. The mould
where properly cleaned and oiled then the concrete is
filled in three layer then each layer is compacted using
tamping rod. It is cured for 7, 28, 60 and 90 days. The
load is applied until the failure occurs and failure lode is
noted. The split tensile strength is calculated using the
formula
Split tensile strength=2P/LD

(N/mm2)
surfaces of the beam were painted in white colour with

the objective of observing the crack development during
testing. The load was kept constant while cracks were
marked and photographed. The inclined crack width at
load points or supports and corners of the opening was
monitored. The deflections were measured using dial
gauge in mid span and under the load point. Dial gauge
having sensitivity of 0.01mm was used to trace the
deflection profile of the beam by placing along the
center line of the beam. The average modulus of rupture
(flexural strength) was determined using the following
expression.
Fcr =
Where,
Fcr= Modulus of rupture
P= Ultimate load in KN
L= Length of beam in mm
B= Width of specimen in mm
D= Depth of specimen in mm
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
7th day
28th day
60th day
90th day
Fig 6.2.1 Replacement % Vs Split Tensile Strength

From the fig 6.2 the split tensile strength of concrete
with 40% surrogating fine aggregate by copper slag has
the maximum split tensile strength. In that 7 th day, 28th
day, 60th day and 90th day. On surrogate concrete the 7th
day split tensile strength is 6.24 N/mm2 where the
conventional concrete is about 4.23 N/mm2. In 28th day
it is about 7.25 N/mm2 where conventional concrete is
about 4.89 N/mm2. In 60th and 90th day it is about 7.89
N/mm2 and 8.06 N/mm2 where the conventional concrete
is 5.29 N/mm2 6.02 N/mm2. 3.6. Flexural strength on
reinforced concrete beam Reinforced concrete beams are
typically used in framed structures. Flexural strength,
also known as modulus of rupture, bend strength, or
fracture strength a mechanical parameter for brittle
material, is defined as a materials ability to resist
deformation under load. The transverse bending test is
most frequently employed, in which a rod specimen
having either a circular or rectangular cross-section is
bent until fracture using a three point flexural test
technique. Tests were carried out on reinforced concrete
beam specimens of size 1100mm x 100mm x 150mm
shown in fig 3.3. Testing was carried out in the UTM
(Universal Testing Machine). The tested beams were
instrumented to measure the applied load, deflection
along the beam span, strains at the mid span. Both side
Fig 6.2.2 Reinforcement details
Fig.6.2.3.Experimental setup
Page 247

The flexural strength tests were carried out for 28
days. For each concrete mixture, 1100 x 100 x
150mm beams were casted for conventional and for
optimum replacement percentage, improved
mechanical properties compared to nominal
concrete mixture. The graph plotted against load
versus deflection is shown. The load deflection
curve indicates that the concrete specimens
replaced with copper slag are withstanding with
higher loads.
u = Deflection corresponding to 0.8 Pu

y
= Deflection corresponding to
Py
Fig.6.3.1 Trilinear moment-curvature relationship
Fig.6.2.4 load vs. deflection

6.3. Ductility
Ductility of reinforced structures is a desirable
property where resistance to brittle failure during
flexure is required to ensure structural integrity.
Ductile behavior in a structure can be achieved
through the use of plastic hinges positioned at
appropriate locations throughout the structural
frame. These are designed to provide sufficient
ductility to resist structural collapse after the yield
strength of the material has been achieved. The
available ductility of plastic hinges in reinforced
concrete is determined based on the shape of the
moment-curvature relations. Theoretical momentcurvature analysis for reinforced concrete structural
elements indicating the available flexural strength
and ductility can be constructed providing that the
stress-strain relations for both concrete and steel are
known. Moment-curvature relationship can be
obtained from curvature and the bending moment
of the section for a given load increased to failure.
The ductility factor for various beams are shown in
T and Fig.6.3.2
Where,
= Ductility factor
Fig.6.3.2. Ductility factor

6.4. ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST
A reference bar is provided to check whether the
instrument is zero initially. The pulse time for the bar is
marked on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transduced
faces before placing it on the opposite ends of the bar.
Adjust the SET REF control until the reference bar
transit time is obtained on the instrument read out. For
maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1
micro second range be selected for path length up to
400mm. Having determined the most suitable test points
on the material to be tested make careful measurement
of the path length L. Apply car plant to the surface of
the transducers and press it hard on to the surface of the
material. Do not move the transducers while reading is
taken as this can generate noise signals and error in
measurements. Continuous holding of the transducers
onto the surface of the material, until a constant reading
appears on the display .It is the time in microsecond for
the ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance L. The mean
value of the display readings should be taken when the
unit digit hunts between the two values.
Pulse velocity =
The ultrasonic pulse velocity of the hardened concrete
values are given in the below Table 6.4.
Page 248

6.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of the hardened
concrete values
S.N
o
Replaceme
nt % of
copper slag
in concrete
CC S (0%)
CS10
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
CS 20
CS30
CS40
CS50
CS60
CS80
CS100
Replace
ment %
of fly
ash in
concret
e
Cc (0%)
Fly ash
30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
Dist
ance
in
(mm
)
Tran
smit
time
(sec
)
Pulse
velocit
y in
(KN/s
Concrete
quality
150
32.2
4.615
Excellent
150
30.8
4.870
Excellent
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
30.5
31.6
34.1
33.4
32.2
30.7
29.8
4.747
4.870
5.208
4.491
4.615
4.886
5.208
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
produced in decomposing silage) are about the most

aggressive agents to concrete. Depending on the type of
acid, the attack can be mainly an acid attack, or a
combination of acid followed by a salt attack. It cannot
cause deterioration in the interior of the specimen
without the cement paste on the outer portion being
completely destroyed.
6.5. WATER ABSORBTION TEST

The full size blocks shall be completely immersed in
clean water at room temperature for 24 hours. Then the
blocks are removed from the water and allowed to drain
for one minute by placing them on a 10mm or coarse
wire visible surface mesh and dried blocks weighed
immediately.
After weighing, all blocks shall be dried in a ventilated
oven at 100 to 11500c for not less than 24 hours and then
two successive weighing are taken at an intervals of 2
hours shows an increment of loss of not greater than 0.2
percent of the last previously determined mass of the
specimen.
The absorption percent =
x 100
Fig6.6 Acid resistance test

From the above fig 6.6 it is known that 28days curing
concrete compressive strength is maximum at 30% on
surrogating fine aggregate by copper slag which is about
50 N/mm2 after acid resistance test. From the test results
up to 30% surrogate concrete gives the good results.
6.7. SULPHATE RESISINTING TEST:
Many soils are rich in sulphate, which can have
deleterious effects on the concrete. Field experience has
demonstrated that sulphate attack usually shows itself in
the form of loss of adhesion and strength.
Table 6.5 Results for Water Absorption Test
S.N
o
Mix id
CC
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
S10
S20
S30
S40
S50
S60
S80
S100
Fly ash
(0%)
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
FA 30%
Weight
of
saturated
specimens
(Kg)
Weight of
oven dried
specimens
(Kg)
Saturate
d water
absorpti
on @ 56
days
(%)
8.6
8.74
8.87
8.92
9.04
9.26
9.48
9.53
9.76
8.4
8.6
8.7
8.79
8.88
8.90
8.95
8.76
8.69
2.3
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
3.2
3.0
2.7
3.1
6.6. ACID RESISTING TEST:

Acid attack generally occurs where the calcium
hydroxide is attacked enthusiastically, although all the
Portland cement compounds are disposed to degradation.
Acidic solutions both mineral (such as sulphuric,
hydrochloric, nitric, and phosphoric acids) and organic
(such as lactic, acetic, formic, tannic, and other acids
Fig6.7 sulphate resistance test

The above fig shows the results, after the concrete cube
immersing in the sulphate liquid. In 28days engrossed in
sulphate, the concrete compressive strength value is
maximum at 30% surrogate concrete. After that
surrogated concrete compressive strength value has been
decreasing moderately with respect to copper slag
percentage. From the results 30% of copper slag gives
the good sulphate resistance.
Page 249

6.7. Rapid Chloride Penetration Test:
Chlorides penetrate through crack-free concrete by
a variety of mechanisms: capillary absorption,
hydrostatic pressure, diffusion and evaporative transport.
Of these, diffusion is predominant. Diffusion occurs
when the concentration of chloride on the outside of the
concrete member is greater than inside. This results in
chloride ions moving through the concrete to the level of
the rebar. When this occurs in combination with wetting
and drying cycles and in the presence of oxygen,
conditions are right for reinforcement corrosion.
Concrete disc specimens of size 100mm diameter and
50mm thick were cast for various replacement
percentages of sand and cement with copper slag and fly
ash in concrete. After 24 hours, the disc specimens were
removed from the mould and subjected to curing for 90
days in chloride free distilled water. After curing, the
specimens were tested for chloride permeability. All the
specimens were dried free of moisture before testing.
The test involves obtaining 100 mm (4 in.) diameter
core of cylinder sample from the concrete being tested.
A 50 mm (2 in.) specimen is cut from the sample. The
side of the cylindrical specimen is coated with epoxy.
When the epoxy is dried, it is put in a vacuum chamber
for 3 hours. The specimen is saturated with vacuum for 1
hour and allowed to soak for 18 hours. It is then placed
in the test device (see test method for schematic of
device). The left-hand side () of the test cell is filled
with a 3% NaCl solution. The right-hand side (+) of the
test cell is filled with 0.3N NaOH solution. The system
is then connected and a 60-volt potential is applied for 6
hours. Readings are taken for every 30 minutes. At the
end of 6 hours, the sample is removed from the cell and
the amount of coulombs passed through the specimen is
calculated.
Table 6.7. Rapid Chloride Penetration Test
Mix (%)
Charge passed
in Coulombs
CC
CS10+FA30
CS20+FA30
CS30+FA30
CS40+FA30
CS50+FA30
CS60+FA30
CS70+FA30
CS80+FA30
CS100+ FA30
623.89
913.62
1033.01
1210.35
1487.47
1700.31
1901.42
2053.33
2144.76
2389.95
As per ASTM
C1202 Chloride
penetrating rate
Very low
Very low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
7. CONCLUSION
1.
From the test results, it has been founded that

the average pulse velocity is above 5 km/sec for
40% copper slag replacement with fine
aggregate and 30% replacement with cement.
2.
The sieve analysis test proves that the copper

slag can be surrogated for fine aggregate in
concrete.
3. Water absorption in replaced concrete is lower
than the conventional concrete.
4. Rapid Chloride Penetration in replaced concrete
is lower than the conventional concrete.
5. As the subrogation of copper slag increases, the
workability of concrete decreases because of
free water left in the concrete.
6. The compressive strength on concrete is found
to be increased by surrogating fine aggregate
with 40% of copper slag.
7. By surrogating 40% of fine aggregate by
copper slag, the split tensile strength is
increased.
8. It has been understood that for a 40%
replacement, the density of the mix becomes
high and free from pores.
9. Up to 40% replacement of copper slag with fine
aggregate showed very less water absorption
than conventional concrete.
10. Beyond 40%, the segregation and bleeding
effect of copper slag and fly ash mixed concrete
increases, thereby increasing value of water
absorption.
11. Finally this overall review concluded that the
effect of different kinds of industrial waste in
concrete properties like slump value,
workability, mechanical properties of hardened
specimen and durability were studied. This
paper will also encourage the utilization of
copper slag and fly ash derived from various
industries.
Acknowledgements:
I
am
extremely
thankful
to
my
guide
Dr. K.NIRMALKUMAR, Professor, Department of
Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Perundurai-638052 for his invaluable guidance,
constant support and motivation during my paper
work.
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Page 251
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF

MASONRY PRISM WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICK AND MORTAR
Dr. K.Vidhya1 , Dr. S. Kandasamy2
1
Mahendra Engineering College, Namakkal, Pincode - 637 503, India, vidhya22047@gmail.com

Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Pincode - 641 013, India, swamykandhan@gmail.com
in
JPEG Format
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental study on the stress-strain behavior of masonry prisms constructed with
three types of brick like pond ash brick, fly ash brick, and clay brick. The three types of mortar were used in this study,
weak mortar (1:6), intermediate (1:4.5) and strong mortar (1:3), as per codal provision of IS: 1905. From the
experimental results an analytical expression for youngs modulus has been derived and presented in this paper. The
variation of compressive strength development also discussed with respect to bricks and mortar in the masonry prism.
The mathematical expression was validated with experimental test data by regression analysis.
Keywords: Compressive strength, Youngs modulus, stress-strain behaviour, masonry prism.
1. Introduction
Construction of masonry walls using brick and mortar is a
standard practice in almost all types of building. This
versatility is due to low cost material, good acoustic and
thermal insulation properties and easy availability of raw
materials and skilled labour. Masonry walls are constructed as
infill walls in reinforced concrete structures. Masonry can be
constructed with fly ash bricks, conventional clay bricks,
hollow blocks, concrete blocks, etc. Mechanical properties
such as compressive strength, elastic modulus and stress-strain
of bricks and mortar influence the properties of brick masonry.
Masonry involves essentially brick and mortar. Promoting
environmental protection measures such as minimizing the
usage of natural clay soil for brick making and maximizing the
usage of pond ash, coal ash bricks have been developed.
Among them pond ash bricks stand as noteworthy. In this
investigation, compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
have been determined for three types of brick, mortar and
masonry prism. An attempt has been made to study the stressstrain behaviour of three types of masonry prism consisting of
pond ash bricks, fly ash bricks and conventional clay bricks.
Mathematical expression for masonry compressive strength has
been developed by regression analysis of experimental data.
Hemant B. Kaushik et al (2007) studied the uniaxial monotonic
compressive stress-strain behaviour and other characteristics of
local handmoulded burnt clay solid bricks, mortar and
unreinforced masonry prisms. A simple analytical model was
presented for obtaining the non-linear stress-strain curves for
masonry. The non-linear stress-strain behaviour is a function of
only the compressive strength of bricks and mortar cubes. The
model was based on six control points on the stress-strain
curves, which can be effectively used to define the
performance limit states of the masonry material or member.
K.S. Gumaste et al (2007) studied the strength and elasticity of

brick masonry prisms and wallettes under the application of
uniaxial compressive load. The brick masonry prism and
wallette were constructed as stack bonded and English bonded
using table moulded bricks and wire cut bricks. The strength
and elastic modulus of brick under compression for strong
brick-soft mortar and soft brick-strong mortar combinations
were evaluated. Empirical relationship for compressive
strength of masonry as a function of brick and mortar strength
was developed. Elastic modulus of masonry prism irrespective
of bonding type is lesser for table moulded brick masonry
prism than for wirecut brick masonry prism. Ali A. Jaber
(2010) conducted experiments on three types of masonry unit
(clay bricks, concrete blocks and grouted concrete blocks) to
determine the compressive strength and stress-strain behaviour.
A simple empirical equation by linear regression analysis to
find out the compressive strength of masonry was developed.
The compressive strength of concrete-grouted concrete blocks
is greater than that of clay bricks and concrete blocks. Higher
the number of layers in a prism, its compressive strength gets
reduced. The stress-strain curves for masonry prism made up of
concrete blocks and grouted concrete blocks exhibit the same
behaviour. T.C. Nwofor (2012) studied the mechanical
properties of unreinforced clay brick masonry. The longitudinal
and lateral strains developed in the masonry prisms due to
loading applied parallel and perpendicular to the bedding plane
were determined and the modulus of elasticity in two
orthogonal directions was obtained. An equation to determine
the modulus of elasticity of prism from the compressive
strength of prism was derived. The modulus of elasticity of
brick prism is lesser when loading is applied parallel to the
bedding plane and greater when loading is applied
perpendicular to the bedding plane.
Three different types of brick such as conventional clay brick,
fly ash brick and pond ash brick were used in these
Dr.K.Vidhya Tel.: +91 9842022047

E-mail: vidhya22047@gmail.com
Page 252
experiments. The stress-strain curves for three types of brick

were obtained by averaging the stress-strain data from 6
samples of each type of brick. Totally 18 brick specimens were
used for this study. Modulus of elasticity of the various bricks
was found by using compressive stress-strain curves of brick.
Three different grades of mortar viz 1:3, 1:4.5, 1:6 were used
for this study. The compressive strength and Youngs modulus
of three grades of mortar was found out. For this study, totally
18 mortar cube specimens were used.
3.1 Casting of brick prism

Masonry prisms were constructed using combinations of three
types of brick and three types of mortar grade. The casting of
masonry brick prism is shown in Figure 1. Brick specimen of
size 230 mm x 110 mm x 75 mm was used for this
experimental study. The height of five-layer brick masonry
prism with 10-mm thick mortar joints was about 400 mm for
conventional clay brick, pond ash and fly ash prism. Table 1
shows the details of the masonry prisms. Totally 54 specimens
were used for the stress-strain behaviour of unreinforced brick
masonry prism under uniaxial compressive loading.
3.3 Experimental
set up for brick masonry prism
The masonry prism was tested by the Universal Testing

Machine (UTM) of capacity 100 tonnes for stress-strain
characteristics of brick masonry prism. A five-layer height of
masonry prism was used to find the secant modulus of the
masonry prism. A compressometer with least count of 0.01 mm
was used to find the deformation of the prism. The prism was
placed with the frame setup in which a compressometer was
fixed at lateral directions to the frame. The adjustment screw
with pivot rod was used to place the specimen at the centre and
tighten the frame with masonry prism. The compressometer
was centrally pivoted with the masonry prism so as to note the
lateral movement of the prism under the load. The whole
assembly of prism with the compressometer was placed at the
centre of the loading platform of UTM under uniaxial
compression without any eccentricity. The load was applied
gradually at uniform rate and at equal intervals of loading and
the corresponding deflections was noted from the
compressometer till the failure occurred. The ultimate load or
failure load of masonry prism was noted. The test setup for
masonry prism is shown in Figure 2.
Table 1. Test specimen detail for brick prism

Type of the
masonry
Grade of
mortar
1:3
No. of
specimens
6
1:4.5
1:6
1:3
6
6
6
1:4.5
1:6
1:3
Pond ash brick
1:4.5
masonry (PABM)
1:6
Total number of specimens
6
6
6
6
6
54
Conventional clay
brick masonry
(CCBM)
Fly ash brick
masonry
(FABM)
3.2 Experimental setup for brick and mortar:

The Youngs modulus test for conventional clay brick, fly ash
brick and pond ash brick was conducted by using universal
testing machine (UTM) of capacity 100 tonnes. A dial gauge
with least count of 0.01 mm was used to measure the
deflection. Figure 1 shows the experimental setup of brick and
mortar specimen. Uniaxial compressive load was applied
gradually at uniform rate and the corresponding deflections
were measured with the help of dial gauges at equal intervals
of loading. The dial gauges were removed before the failure
occurred in specimen. The ultimate load was noted for three
types of brick and three grades of mortar.
Fig. 1 (a). Experimental setup

for brick
Fig. 1(b). Experimental setup

for mortar
(a) Brick masonry prism placed in

(b) Behaviour of brick masonry
the UTM
prism during testing
Fig. 2. Experimental setup for brick masonry prism
4 Results and Discussion

The test results of Youngs modulus of the clay bricks, pond
ash bricks and fly ash bricks and mortar of grades such as
strong, intermediate and weak have been analysed. The secant
modulus of the conventional clay brick masonry prism, pond
ash brick masonry prism and fly ash brick masonry prism was
determined.
4.1 Stressstrain behaviour of brick

Table 2 shows the summary of test results for bricks under
application of uniaxial loading. For clay bricks, the mean
varies from 0.0023 to 0.0062 and the Youngs modulus ranges
from 1198 N/mm2 to 2536 N/mm2. For pond ash bricks,
ranges from 0.0045 to 0.0069 and the Youngs modulus varies
from 1575 to 3012 N/mm2. For fly ash brick, compressive
strength value is 8.5 N/mm2, the failure strain varies from
0.0056 to 0.0092 and the Youngs modulus ranges from 2015
to 3247 N/mm2. The Youngs modulus of brick gets increased
with increase in the compressive strength of brick. The
Youngs modulus of pond ash brick is 17 % higher than that of
clay brick and 10 % lesser than that of fly ash brick.
Page 253
Table 2. Test results for bricks under uniaxial loading

Identification
Conventional
Clay Brick
(CCB)
Pond Ash Brick
(PAB)
Fly Ash Brick
(FAB)
Ultimate
load
(kN)
Ultimate
stress
(N/mm2)
Failure
strain
Youngs
modulus
(N/mm2)
125.48
5.20
0.0042
1926
192.23
7.60
0.0056
2254
215.15
8.50
0.0075
2526
Table 4 Test results for masonry prism under uniaxial loading

Mortar
grade
1:3
1:4.5
1:6
4.2 Stressstrain behaviour of mortar
Masonry
type
CCBM
PABM
FABM
CCBM
PABM
FABM
CCBM
PABM
FABM
Ultimate
load
(kN)
65.74
87.50
105.12
59.76
78.43
100.13
46.76
63.80
78.43
Ultimate
stress
(N/mm2)
2.60
3.46
4.26
2.35
3.10
3.85
1.85
2.52
3.10
Failure
strain
0.0033
0.0042
0.0058
0.0048
0.0060
0.0063
0.0057
0.0065
0.0067
Secant
modulus
(N/mm2)
1700
2224
2657
1512
1810
2349
1120
1496
1922
Table 3 shows the compressive strength, failure strain and

Youngs modulus values of strong, intermediate and weak
mortar. For 1:3 mortar, the average compressive strength value
is 21.4 N/mm2, failure strain varies from 0.0069 to 0.0105 and
the Youngs modulus values range from 2618 N/mm2 to 4321
N/mm2. For weak mortar, the compressive strength value is
11.34 N/mm2, failure strain ranges from 0.0055 to 0.0108 and
the Youngs modulus ranges from 485 N/mm2 to 762 N/mm2.
The Youngs modulus of 1:4.5 is 34 % lower than that of 1:3
mortar. The mortar compressive strength is high since the
Youngs modulus of mortar is also higher. With increase in the
grade of mortar, the Youngs modulus of mortar also gets
increased. The 1:3 mortar grade has high Youngs modulus
value compared to mortars of other grades.
Fig. 3. Stress vs strain for masonry prism
Table 3: Test results for mortar under uniaxial loading
Identification
1:3/mortar
1:4.5/mortar
1:6/mortar
Ultimate
load
(kN)
516.91
286.85
113.75
Ultimate
stress
(N/mm2)
21.40
11.34
4.50
Failure
strain
0.0085
0.0082
0.0078
Secant
modulus
(N/mm2)
3543
2345
628
4.3 Stressstrain behaviour for masonry prism

The stressstrain behaviour for three brick types namely clay,
pond ash and fly ash brick with three mortar grades (strong,
intermediate and weak mortar) is determined under application
of uniaxial loading as given in Table 4. The Youngs modulus
of pond ash brick with strong mortar prism is 31% higher than
clay brick prism and 16.2% lesser than fly ash brick prism. The
Youngs modulus value of fly ash bricks is high compared to
other bricks such as pond ash brick and clay brick, fly ash
bricks have high compressive strength. The Youngs modulus
of pond ash brick prism with intermediate mortar is 20% higher
than clay brick prism and 23% lesser than fly ash brick prism.
The Youngs modulus of pond ash brick prism is 34% higher
than that of clay brick prism and 22% lesser than that of fly ash
brick prism with weak mortar.
5 Analytical Expression for Youngs Modulus

Figures 4, 5 and 6 show the plots of compressive strength vs
Youngs modulus of brick, mortar and masonry prism
specimens. The Youngs modulus is 179 to 500 times of
compressive strength of brick. The mean value of Youngs
modulus is 313 times of compressive strength of brick. The
Youngs modulus of mortar varies from 84 to 334 times of
compressive strength of mortar. The mean Youngs modulus
value of mortar is 179 times of compressive strength of mortar.
The Youngs modulus of mortar ranges from 485 N/mm2 to
4321 N/mm2. The Youngs modulus of masonry varies from
330 to 870 times fm. The average value of Em is found to be
531 times of compressive strength of prism.
For brick specimen,
For mortar specimen,
For masonry prism,
Eb = 312 fb
Ej = 179 fj
Em = 595 fm
where,
Eb, Ej and Em are Youngs modulus of brick, mortar and
fb,fj and fm are Compressive strength of brick, mortar and
Figure 3 shows the stress-strain curves for masonry prisms

with strong mortar. The stress-strain curves show linear trend
up to one third of compressive strength for all types of brick
prism. After the development of cracks in the brick, the stressstrain curves display nonlinearity.
Page 254
tests. As presented in Eurocode6 (CEN 1996), the three

compressive strengths can be related as
fm = k fb fj
--------- (1)
where k, and are constants. In Eurocode6 (CEN 1996), the

values of and have been specified as 0.65 and 0.25
respectively and k varies from 0.4 to 0.6 depending upon the
brick properties and brick-mortar joint configuration.
Dayaratnam (1987) studied the data obtained from experiments
by employing regression analysis of data and proposed
different values for the constants k, and . The resultant
equation is presented below.
fm = 0.275 fb0.5 fj0.5
Fig. 5. Compressive strength vs Youngs modulus of brick
----------(2)
Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC 2002) have

proposed the following equation for estimating the masonry
compressive strength:
fm = A (400+Bfb) (psi)
---------(3)
where A = 1.0 for inspected masonry, B varies from 0.20 to
0.25 for different mortar grades. The unit of fb in the above
equation is psi.
Bennett et al (1997) conducted experiments on hollow
structured clay tiles and suggested a conservative estimation of
masonry prism strength. The masonry prism strength equals
three-tenths of the brick compressive strength.
Hemant B. Kaushik et al (2007) have determined the prism
strength by regression analysis of experimental results and
deduced by making use of the Eurocode6 (CEN 1996)
presented the following equation:
Fig. 6. Compressive Strength Vs Youngs Modulus of Mortar
fm = 0.63 fb0.49 fj0.32
----------(4)
In the present study, through comprehensive experimental

studies and by unconstrained regression analysis of Eurocode6
(CEN 1996) equation fm = k fb fj , values for k, and have
been obtained as 0.34, 0.92 and 0.16 respectively using leastsquare fit method. The equation is presented below
fm = 0.46 fb0.69 fj0.2
----------(5)
Equation (5) is used to determine the masonry compressive

strength from the compressive strength of brick and mortar
obtained experimentally.
Fig.7. Compressive strength vs Youngs modulus of prism
The prism strengths derived from equation (present study) are

four different analytical relations proposed by Eurocode6
(CEN 1996), Dayaratnam (1987), Bennett et al (1997), MSJC
(2002) and Hemant et al (2007) are compared and presented in
Table 6.
6 Determination of Compressive Strength of Masonry

The intrinsic property of masonry is denoted by the symbol fm.
It can be used in the design of many masonry elements,
particularly the walls. It is also used to estimate E m and for
plotting the masonry stress-strain curves. Thus fm stands out as
one of the most basic and essential properties for designing a
masonry. At times, it is not feasible to conduct compressive
testing of masonry prisms. Albeit, values of compressive
strength of brick (fb) and compressive strength of mortar (fj)
can be taken from design codes or determined by conducting
Page 255
Table 6. Comparison of compressive strength vales of brick masonry prisms

Experimental Value (N/mm2)
Mortar
grade
1:3
1:4.5
1:6
Analytical Value (N/mm2)
Brick
type
fb
fj
fm
Present
study
(eq. )
Dayaratnam
(1987)
Eurocode
(CEN
1996)
Benette
(1997)
MSJC
(2002)
Hemant
CCBM
5.20
21.40
2.60
2.65
2.90
3.14
1.56
3.93
3.77
PABM
7.60
21.40
3.46
3.44
3.51
4.02
2.28
4.47
4.54
FABM
8.50
21.40
4.26
3.72
3.71
4.32
2.55
4.67
4.79
CCBM
5.20
11.34
2.35
2.33
2.11
2.68
1.56
3.93
3.07
PABM
7.60
11.34
3.10
3.03
2.55
3.43
2.28
4.47
3.70
FABM
8.50
11.34
3.85
3.27
2.70
3.69
2.55
4.67
3.91
CCBM
5.20
4.50
1.85
1.94
1.33
2.13
1.56
3.93
2.29
PABM
7.60
4.50
2.52
2.52
1.61
2.72
2.28
4.47
2.75
FABM
8.50
4.50
3.10
2.72
1.70
2.93
2.55
4.67
2.91
References
6. Conclusion
The following conclusions are derived from the present study:
The compressive strength of masonry prism gets

of brick and mortar.
The ultimate compressive strength of coal ash brick
masonry prism with all mortar proportions is 1.3
times higher than conventional clay brick masonry
prism.
Modulus of elasticity of the masonry prism varies
from 330 to 870 times of the prism compressive
strength.
The modulus of elasticity of masonry prism gets
of masonry prism.
The Youngs modulus of pond ash brick is 31 %, 20
% and 34 % higher than clay brick prism with strong
mortar, intermediate mortar and weak mortar
respectively.
Mathematical expression is established to find out
the masonry strength and compared with the
experimental results and Eurocode.
[1]
Bennett, R.M, Boyd, K.A. & Flanagan, R.D.:

Compressive properties of structural clay tile prisms,
Journal of Structural Engineering, 123, (7), 920926,
1997.
[2]
Milad M. Alshebani & Sinha, S.N. : Stress-strain

characteristics of Brick Masonry under Uniaxial
cyclic loading, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
125, No. 6 , 600-604, 1999.
[3]
Sarangapani, G., Venkatarama Reddy, B & Jagadish,

K. S.: Structural characteristics of bricks, mortar and
masonry, Journal of Structural Engineering (India),
29(2), 101107,2002.
[4]
Ewing, B.D. & Kowalsky, M.J.,:Compressive

behaviour of unconfined and confined clay brick
masonry, Journal of Structural Engineering, 130, 650661, 2004.
[5]
Sarangapani, G., Venkatarama Reddy, B. & Jagadish,

K.S.: Brick-mortar bond and masonry compressive
strength, Journal of Materials and Civil Engineering,
17(2), 229237, 2005.
[6]
Gumaste, K.S., Nanjunda Rao, K.S, Venkatarama

Reddy, R.V & Jagadish, K.S.: Strength and elasticity
of brick masonry prisms and wallettes under
compression, International Journal of Materials and
[7]

Jain : Stress- strain characteristics of clay brick
masonry under uniaxial compression, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering @ ASCE, 2007, Vol.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Rank Building Product Industry,
Salem, Tamil Nadu for casting the brick specimens.
Special thanks to Dr.T.Palanisamy, Professor and
Controller of Examination, K.S.R. College of
Technology, Tiruchengode and Prof. Ganapathy,
Professor, Sona College of Technology Salem for their
special guidance.
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[16]

Jai : Uniaxial compressive stress-strain model for clay
brick masonry, Journal of Current Science, Vol. 92,
No. 4, 25, 497-501, 2007.
Indian Standards (IS), (1987), Indian standard code of

practice for structural use of unreinforced masonry,
IS1905, 3rd Rev., Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi, India.
[17]
Indian Standards (IS), (1992a), Indian standard

Determination of compressive strength, IS 3495, 3rd
[18]
Indian Standards (IS), (1992b). Indian standard

Determination of water absorption, IS 3495, 3rd
[19]
Indian Standards (IS), (1995), Indian standard code

of practice for preparation and use of masonry
mortars, IS2250, 5th Rev., Bureau of Indian
[20]
European Committee of Standardization (CEN),

(1996), Design of masonry structures. Part 1-1:
General rules for buildingsReinforced and
unreinforced masonry. ENV 1996-1-1, Eurocode 6,
Brussels, Belgium.
[21]
Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC), (2002),

Building code requirements for masonry structures,
ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02, American
Concrete Institute, Structural Engineering Institute of
the American Society of Civil Engineers, The
Masonry Society, Detroit.
Venkatarama Reddy, B.V & Uday Vyas, V.:

Influence of shear bond strength on compressive
strength and stress-strain characteristics of masonry,
International Journal of Materials and Structural
Integrity, Vol. 41, 1697-1712,2008.
Ali A. Jaber, Effect of masonry units type and
concrete grouting on compressive strength of prisms,
Engineering and Technology Journal, Vol. 28, No.
13, 2638-2653,2010.
Mohammed, A & Hughes, T.G.: Prototype and
model masonry behaviour under different loading
conditions, International Journal of Materials and
Chitra Ganapathi, S, Rama Chandra, A, Murthy,
Nagesh R. Iyer , Lakshmanan, N, Bhagavan, N.G. :
Experimental and Numerical study on in-plane
behaviour of brick masonry wall panels, International
Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics, Vol 11,
Issue 03, 431,2011.
[13]
Nwofor, T.C.: Experimental determination of the

mechanical properties of clay brick masonry,
Canadian Journal on Experimental, Construction and
Civil Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 3 : 127-144, 2012.
[14]
Feng. Wu, Gang Li, Hong, Li, & Jin-Quin Jia. :

Stress-strain characteristics of traditional adobe block
and masonry, International Journal of Materials and
Structural Integrity, No. 46, 1449-1457, 2012.
[15]
Dayaratnam, P. Brick and reinforced brick

structures (1987), Oxford and IBH, New Delhi,
India.
Page 257

(INDECS-15)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE COMBINED LOAD RESPONSE OF

MODEL PILES DRIVEN IN SAND
Prasad Pujar 1, P.G Rakaraddi 2
1
Post -Graduate student ,Department of Geotechnical engineering, Basaveshwar Engineering

college,Bagalkot,587102,India, prasad.puar54@gmail.com
2
Professor in civil department, Basaveshwar Engineering college, Bagalkot, 587102, India,
pgraddi@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Most of the pile foundations in high rise structures are subjected to combination of both axial and lateral loads. Only a
few experimental studies have been performed on the response of piles subjected to combined loading, although the load
applied on a pile is usually a combination of both a vertical and lateral load in practice. In addition, with post
experimental results available in the literature are inconsistent with respect to the effects of axial loads on the lateral
capacity of piles. The objective of this investigation is to assess the influence of axial loads on the lateral response of
circular model group of piles of different spacing configurations driven in sand through model pile combined load tests.
A series of lateral load tests were performed on the model piles driven in rectangular tank filled with sand of densities of
17.1 kN/m3, 17.5 kN/m3 and 17.8 kN/m3 subjected to different axial loads. Different combinations of pile spacing 3D,
5D and 7D and axial loads V=0, 0.25Vult, 0.5Vult are considered in the present study. The results from the combined load
test are used to study the effect of combined loading on p-y curves and also the lateral response of pile groups of
different configurations under combined loading in sand. The combined load test results showed that the presence of an
axial load on the model pile group driven in sand increases the lateral load carrying capacity, for the lateral deflection of
the model pile group decreases. The effect of combined loading is more in pile group of 5D pile spacing than in 7D pile
pacing, and least in case of pile group of 3D pile spacing.
Keywords: Pile group, Pile head deflection, combined loading, ultimate load, p-y curve
1. Introduction
Where the shallow foundations undergo excessive settlement
and shear failure pile foundations are going to be used. They
are generally used to support the foundation of structures such
as bridges, tall buildings, retaining walls, sea front structures.
Piles are dissected separately as a rule despite the fact that
Piles connected on Piles are generally a mix of both vertical
and horizontal loads. In present practice, Piles outline is
completed independently for pivotal and sidelong loads in
light of the supposition that the impacts of these Piles are
autonomous of one another [13, 16]. Initial an extreme
vertical load limit is computed, and after that, the Pile is
examined for horizontal burdens with the geometry coming
about because of pivotal burden computations. The
fundamental purpose behind this methodology in outline is
that Pile reaction under joined stacking is more mind
boggling and hard to dissect than Pile reaction under either
vertical or horizontal stacking. Broad exploration has been
performed on Pile establishments subjected to either pivotal
loads or horizontal loads, even though pile response under
combined loads can be significantly different due to the
interaction of axial and lateral loads. Piles are utilized to
bolster mixes of vertical and sidelong loads also individual
vertical loads and lateral loads. Piles subjected to combined
loading is very complex, the present practice is to piles freely

for horizontal burden to determine their flexural behaviour
and vertical loads to determine their bearing capacity and
settlement. The literature available in this field is very scanty.
The limited information on this aspect based on the analytical
investigations (Ramasamy 1974; Davisson and Robinson
1965; Goryunov 1975) reveals that for a given lateral load,
the lateral deflection increases with the combination of
vertical loads.
However, field investigations (McNulty 1956;
Bartolomey 1977; Zhukov and Balov 1978) and experimental
(Pise 1975; Sorochan and Bykov 1976; Jain et al. 1987)
suggest a decrease in lateral deflection with the combination
of vertical loads [4, 5, 6, 8, and 12]. Anagnostopoulos and
Georgiadis (1993) attempted to explain this through an
experimental model with 2 dimensional finite element
analyses and concluded that the modified status of soil
stresses and local plastic volume changes in the soil
continuum under combined vertical and lateral loads cannot
be accounted for in general by the conventional subgrade
reaction [14].
2. Methodology
Page 258
Krishna river sand, Krishna mandal, Andhra Pradesh sand is

used as soil medium. The properties of the sand are given in
table 1. From the laboratory test results, according to IS 2720
part 4 if Cu<6 and Cc<1 then the soil is classified as poorly
graded sand. The group of piles (2X2) is driven with different
pile spacing (3D, 5D, 7D) in the sand different densities filled
in the testing tank of size 600mm x 600mm x 600mm by
raining technique method. To attain the densities of
17.1kN/m3, 17.5kN/m3 and 17.8kN/m3, the sand is made to
fall from different heights. The pile group driven in sand and
the combined loading is analyzed separately with the vertical
load equal to zero (pure lateral load case), 0.25Vult, and
0.5Vult, the vertical load is applied prior to the lateral load
(the VPL case). Vertical load is applied using jack of 5 tone
capacity is measured using proving ring and the lateral pile
head deflection is measured by two LVDT. The loading was
continued till the settlement of the pile is just more than 20%
of pile diameter. The load-displacement curves are plotted.
The testing tank was emptied and the same procedure is
followed to carry out all other tests. The experimental setup is
shown in fig.2.
Fig -3: Photographic view of Experimental setup
Fig. 4. Photographical view of model steel piles
Fig-1: Particle size distribution characteristics of sand used in the

study
Fig. 3.2 Photographical view of model pile caps

Fig 2-: Line diagram of experimental setup
Table -1: Properties of sand used in the study
Property
Value
Specific gravity (G)
2.59
Page 259
Grain size analysis

D10,mm
D30,mm
D50,mm
D60,mm
Coefficient of uniformity, (Cu)
Coefficient of curvature, (Cc)
I.S. Classification
0.36
0.52
0.84
2.33
0.9
Poorly graded sand,
SP
Angle of internal friction

(degrees) for different densities
= 17.1 (kN/m3)
= 17.5 (kN/m3)
= 17.8 (kN/m3)
32.50
350
37.50
loading. The vertical load increments are 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 0.75
of Vult.
3.2.1 Load-deflection curves

densities and pile spacing
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The experiments were carried out as explained
in chapter III by varying different parameters like
density, pile spacing, percentage variation of vertical
load etc. and their results were plotted, tabulated and
presented in this chapter. Based on the test results
discussions were made and also presented in this
chapter.
3.2 Loads-deflection curves
The load verses lateral deflection of the pile is
plotted to study the behaviour of the group of piles from the
Pile
Spacin
g
Relative
Density
3D
17.1 KN/m3
0.082
17.5 KN/m3
0.083
Vult=0
0.25Vul
t
0.101
the
different
The fig 3.1 to fig 3.9 shows the load-deflection curve for
3D spacing and varying density of 17.1 kN/m3, 17.5
kN/m3 and 17.8 kN/m3 respectively for different varying
vertical loads. The ultimate lateral loads for different
densities and pile spacing is shown in Table. 3.1.
Table 3.1 Ultimate lateral loads for different densities and
spacing
pile
0.20
0.18
0.16
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
for
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V=0.5Vult
0.02
0.5Vult
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.147

spacing
0.126
0.166
0.22
0.20
5D
0.096
0.129
0.172
17.1 KN/m3
0.088
0.124
0.188
17.5 KN/m3
0.10
0.128
0.254
17.8 KN/m3
0.106
0.134
0.284
17.1 KN/m3
0.086
0.120
0.144
17.5 KN/m3
0.087
0.126
0.24
17.8 KN/m3
0.102
0.127
0.252
0.18
17.8 KN/m3
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5 Vult
0.04
0.02
0.00
7D
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

results obtained by the experiments carried out for low density

(17.1 KN/m3), medium density (17.5 KN/m3) and high density
(17.8 KN/m3) sand with varying pile spacing of 3D, 5D and 7D
to examine behaviour of the group of piles under combined
Page 260
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.16
0.14
0.20
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.02
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

spacing embedded in the sand having17.8 KN/m3 density

0.30
0.24
0.28
0.22
0.26
0.24
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.75Vult
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
0.00
0

with 7D spacing embedded in the sand having 17.5 KN/m3
density

0.28
0.26
0.28
0.24
0.26
0.22
0.30
0.24
0.30
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.02
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.00
0.0
0.18
0.04
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.04
0.20
4.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Pile Head deflection (mm)


From fig 3.1-3.9 and from table 3.1 it is observed

that
0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
1) For the increase in the density, the lateral load

carrying capacity of the group of piles also
increases in the absence of vertical load (i.e
V=0) and also in the presence of vertical load.
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
V=0
V= 0.25Vult
V= 0.5Vult
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0

2) In the presence of vertical load, the lateral load

carrying capacity also increases as the vertical
load increases up to 0.5 Vult and decreases at
0.75 Vult at all the density levels.
3) The case of zero case carries the minimum
lateral load and the case with vertical load
Page 261
0.5Vult carries more lateral load at all the

density levels. This effect is same in all the
three pile spacing (i.e 3D, 5D, 7D).
0.08
4) The least lateral load is carried by the pile

group with 3D pile spacing with V=0 (0.082
kN) at low density level (17.1 kN/m^3) and the
maximum lateral load is carried by the pile
group with 5D pile spacing with V=0.5Vult at
higher density level (17.8 kN/m^3).
0.10

spacing
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
0.16
0.14
The load-deformation curves for the group of piles

embedded in low density (17.1 KN/m3), medium density
(17.5 KN/m3) and high density (17.8
KN/m3) homogeneous sand are plotted with varying pile
spacing of 3D, 5D, 7D with varying the vertical load as
shown in fig 3.10 to fig 3.21.
In the fig. 3.10 to fig. 3.21 the
comparison made by comparing the different pile
spacing. The graphs are plotted for the applied lateral
load vs pile head deformation for the same vertical load
and same density, but for different pile spacing. The
ultimate lateral loads for different pile spacing is shown
in Table 3.2.
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
Table 3.2 Ultimate lateral loads for the different pile spacing
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Relative
Density
Pile
Spacing

Vult=0
0.25Vult
0.5Vult
3D
0.082
0.101
0.147
5D
0.088
0.124
0.188

0.24
17.5
KN/m3
0.22
0.20
7D
0.086
0.120
0.144
3D
0.083
0.126
0.166
5D
0.10
0.128
0.254
17.1
KN/m3
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.04
0.02
7D
0.087
0.126
0.24
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
17.8
KN/m3
3D
0.096
0.129
0.172
5D
0.106
0.134
0.284
7D
0.102
0.127
0.252
Page 262
0.12
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
5.0
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

V=0.25Vult embedded in the sand having17.8 KN/m3 density
0.16
0.14
0.32
0.30
0.12
0.28
0.10
0.26
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

0.12
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.32
0.30
0.28

V=0.5 Vult embedded in the sand having17.8 KN/m3 density
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20

that
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.18
0.16
As the density increases the lateral load carrying

capacity increases in all the pile spacing.
1). The lateral load carrying capacity increases as
the pile spacing increases from 3D spacing to
5D spacing but decreases at 7D spacing.
2). The effect of vertical load on the lateral load
carrying capacity of group of piles is more in the case of
0.5Vult than in case of 0.25 Vult and least in case with
zero axial load.
0.14

spacing and varying vertical load
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
3D Spacing
5D Spacing
7D Spacing
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
The load-deformation curves for the group of piles embedded

in low density (17.1 KN/m3), medium density (17.5 KN/m3)
and high density (17.8 KN/m3) homogeneous sand are plotted
with varying pile spacing of 3D, 5D, 7D with varying the
vertical load as shown in fig 4.22 to fig 4.33.
In the fig 3.22 to fig 3.33 the comparison made by
comparing the different densities. The graphs are plotted for
the applied lateral load vs pile head deformation for the same
vertical load and same pile spacing, but for different densities.
The ultimate lateral loads for different pile spacing and varying
vertical loads is shown in Table 3.3
Page 263
.
Table 3.3 Ultimate lateral loads for the different pile spacing and
varying axial loads
Pile
Spacing
0.12
Ultimate
Lateral Load
(kN)
Density
(kN/m^3)
0.10
17.1
17.5
17.8
V=0
0.082
0.083
0.096
V=0.25Vult
0.101
0.126
0.129
V=0.5Vult
0.147
0.166
0.172
0.088
0.10
0.106
V=0.25Vult
0.124
0.128
0.134
V=0.5Vult
0.188
0.254
0.284
0.08
0.06
3D
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
V=0
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5D

spacing and V=0
0.16
0.14
7D
0.12
0.086
0.087
0.102
V=0
V=0.25Vult
0.120
0.126
0.127
V=0.5Vult
0.144
0.24
0.252
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Fig 3.20
Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles

0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
Fig. 3.22 Load-Deformation curve for the group of piles with 5D

spacing and V=0
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.16
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
0.14
0.00
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Pile Head Deformation (mm)

0.0
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5

Page 264
0.32
0.30

that
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
1)
0.18
In all the pile spicing and all the vertical load levels
the higher density carries the more lateral load.
0.16
0.14
0.12
2)
0.10
0.08
Lateral load carrying capacity of group of pile is

more in case of V = 0.5Vult carries the more load
and V = 0 case carries the less load.
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
3)
The effect of vertical load is more in case of the

pile group of spacing 5D than 7D and 3D. And the
effect is minimum in case of pile group with 3D
spacing.

0.14
0.12
0.10
4. CONCLUSION
0.08
0.06
Based on the observations made in the results and
0.04
discussions, the accompanying conclusions are

17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
drawn.
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
1)
Fig 3.25 Load-Deformation curve for the group

piles with 7D spacing and V=0
of
As the density increases, the lateral load carrying

capacity of the group of piles also increases in the
absence (i.e V=0) and also in the presence of
vertical load.
0.16
Applied Lateral Laod (kN)
0.14
0.12
2)
The effect of vertical load is more in case of the pile
0.10
group of spacing 5D than 7D and the effect is
0.08
minimum in case of pile group with 3D spacing
0.06
irrespective of vertical loads.
0.04
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.02
3)
The effect of vertical load on the lateral load
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
carrying capacity of group of piles is more in the
5.0
case of 0.5Vult than in case of 0.25Vult and least in

0.30
case with zero axial load.

4)
0.28
0.26
3D spacing to 5D spacing in all the vertical loading
0.24
cases and pile spacing.
0.22
0.20
5)
0.18
0.16

the case of zero vertical load to the case of 0.5V ult
0.14
0.12
for all pile spacing and density cases.
0.10
0.08
0.06
17.1 kN/m^3
17.5 kN/m^3
17.8 kN/m^3
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5

Page 265
REFERENCES
[1]
Evans, L.T. (1954). Bearing Piles Subjected to Horizontal Loads,

Symposium on Lateral
Load Tests in Piles, ASTM Special
Technical Publication, No.154, pp. 30-35.
[2] Indian Standard - IS: 1498 1970 Classification and
Identification of Soils for General
Engineering Purposes,
New Delhi, India.
[3] Poulos, H.G. (1971a). Behavior of Laterally Loaded Piles: ISingle Piles. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., ASCE, 97(5), 711-731.
[4] Pise, P.J. (1975). Investigations on Laterally Loaded Pile Groups,
Symposium on Recent Developments in the Analysis of Soil
Behavior and their Application to Geotechnical
Structures,
Sydney, Australia, pp. 129-144.
[5] Sorochan, E.A. and Bykov, V.I. (1976). Performance of Groups of
Cast-In Place Piles
Subjected to Horizontal Loading,
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 13(3), pp.
157-161.
[6] Bartolomey, A.A. (1977). Experimental Analysis of Pile Groups
under Lateral Loads, 9th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 187188.
[7] Karasev, O.V., Talanov, G.P., and Benda, S.F. (1977).
Investigation of the Work of Single Situ-Cast Piles under
Different Load Combinations, Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, 14(3), pp. 173-177.
[8] Zhukov, N.V. and Balov, I.L. (1978). Investigation of the Effect
of a Vertical Surcharge
on Horizontal Displacements and
Resistance of Pile Columns to Horizontal Loads, Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, 15(1), pp. 16-21.
[9] Indian Standard-IS: 2720(Part 3)1980 Methods of test for soils,
determination of
specific gravity, fine, medium and
coarse grained soils", New Delhi.
[10] Indian Standard-IS: 2720 (Part 4)-1985 Methods of test for
soils, grain size analysis- mechanical method, New Delhi.
[11] Indian Standard - IS: 2720 (Part 13)1986 Method of test for
soils, direct shear test.
New Delhi, India.
[12] Jain, N.K., Ranjan,G., and Ramasamy, G. (1987). Effect of
Vertical Load on Flexural Behavior of Piles, Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol.18, pp. 185-204.
[13] Brown DA, Shie CF. Some numerical experiments with a three
dimensional finite element model of a laterally loaded pile. J
Comput Geotech 1991;12:14962.
[14] Anagnostopoulos C., Georgiadis M. 1993. Interaction of axial
and lateral pile responses. J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE, 119(4),
793-798.
[15] Bowles J.E. 1988. Foundation Analysis and Design, 4th Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y.
[16] S.Karthigeyan, Ramakrishna, VVGST. and Rajagopal, K. (2007).
Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Vertical Load on the
Lateral Response of Piles, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 133( 5): 512-521.
[17] S.Karthigeyan,. and Rajagopal, K. (2009). Lateral response of
22 pile group under combined axial and lateral loading. Proc.
Of Indian Geotechnical Conference 2009 (IGC-2009), Dec. 1619, 2009, Guntur, 665-668.
[18] S. Karthigeyan "Lateral Response pile group under combined
loading in sandy soil, Indian Geotechnical Conference 2010.
[19] Byung Tak Kim and Gil Lim Yoon Laboratory Modeling of
Laterally Loaded Pile Groups in Sand, KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering (2011) 15(1):65-75 DOI 10.1007/s12205-0110924-3
[20] Murugan M, Natarajan C, Muthukkumaran K "Behaviour
Laterally Loaded Piles in Cohesionless Soils" International
Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904,
Volume 04, No 06 SPL, October 2011, pp. 104-106.
[21] Jintae Lee, Monica Prezzi, and Rodrigo Salgado Experimental
Investigation of the combined load Response of Model Piles
Driven in Sand, Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 34, No.6.
2011.
[22] Jintae Lee, Monica Prezzi, and Rodrigo Salgado Influence of
Axial Loads on the Lateral Capacity of Instrumented Steel Model
Piles, International Journal of Pavement Research and
Technology Vol.6 No.2 Mar. 2013.
Page 266
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF THIN ELEMENTS USING IMPACT

ECHO METHOD
S.Christi 1, K.Sivasubramanian 2, V.Venkatesan 3, K.N.Lakshmikandhan 4,
P.Sivakumar 5
1
Post Graduate Student , AMS Engg College,Namakkal-637031, Email: christi.au1993@gmail.com

2
Scientist, Structural Engineering Research centre, Chennai-600113, Email: ksiva@serc.res.in
3
Assistant Professor, University College of Engineering, Ariyalur-621704, Email: vvn6030@gmail.com
4
Scientist, Structural Engineering Research centre, Chennai-600113, Email: kandhan@serc.res.in
5
Scientist, Structural Engineering Research centre, Chennai-600113, Email: pskumar@serc.res.in
Abstract
Impact-echo method is an advanced non-destructive testing method being popularly used for the evaluation of thicker
sections above 100mm. However, with the aim of widening the range of the Impact-echo method, it has been proposed
to investigate thinner sections. The impact-echo method conventionally relies on the lamb wave resonance to identify the
location of the defects or to evaluate the thickness of the sections. The present work aims to use the shift in frequency
caused by flexural modes to identify defects in thinner sections. A one inch grid has been adopted to carry out the
investigation. Large amount of data has been collected and processed to arrive at the 2D representation from which the
defect locations can be interpreted easily. Two funicular shells have been investigated in the present work with one of
them having cracks. The results provided a different insight into the non-destructive analysis of structural elements like
shells. The observations made from the shell results are found to be different to those of the plane walls. Here, the
frequency shift has been found to occur at locations other than defect locations. This is believed to be due to the shape of
the structural element. Because of this reason, when the second shell with cracks was tested, the location of the cracks
could not be explicitly identified. However, on superimposing the results from the two shells, the location of the cracks
have been identified. The study indicates that more focused research in this area needs to be carried out to improve the
understanding on identifying defects in curved structural elements. The results of the IE method have been compared
with the IRT results and the effectiveness of the IE method has been established.
Keywords: Impact-echo, funicular shell, non-destructive testing, defect, wave resonance
1. Introduction
change and its ability to perform for the newer demands needs
to be estimated. So, that the evaluation of structure is very
important.
For the last few decades, construction of civil engineering

structures has been taking place at a brisk rate all around the
world. After keen consideration in using high quality materials,
care in proportioning of materials, and skilled workmanship, it
is almost impossible to prevent the formation of defects like
honeycomb, and voids due to some environmental and
manmade effects. Precautions are being taken during the
construction stage to ensure better quality of construction. Inspite of this, sometimes the structures behave differently
because of the flaws that creep in during execution. Many-atimes in existing structures, the demands of the structure
For this non-destructive evaluation partially destructive

methods are used to complement the results obtained from
NDT, in the field. Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods have
evolved from the methods like Rebound hammer method and
ultrasonic pulse velocity method to the present day advanced
methods like Impact-Echo method, Ultrasonic Pulse Echo and
Ground penetrating Radar. The present day NDT methods use
elastic wave propagation to identify the depth of the concrete
specimen / component and to identify the location of the flaws
and their severity. The present work focuses on the impactecho method for non-destructive evaluation.
Page 267
2. Impact-Echo Method
The impact-echo (IE) method has three basic components
(ASTM C1383-98, 2010), namely,
Different sized mechanical impactors to produce shortduration impacts, the duration of which needs to be
proportional to size of the structural element (Sansalone
and Carino, 1986),
A sensitive transducer to measure the surface response of
the reflected P-waves,
Data acquisition system to receive, process, and transmit
the waveforms to the computer as IE signal.
Fig. 1. Single-column format figure
Steel spheres are used as impactors as they are convenient

impact sources for producing repeatable impacts with the
sources impact duration proportional to the diameter of the
ball. The importance of impact duration is discussed in the
following section. Further development in the method led to
the use of steel balls attached to steel rods for ease of use and
carrying purposes. Besides, the use of steel rods enables one to
apply the test method in any orientation, whether it is a vertical
wall or a ceiling. The transducer contains small piezoelectric
crystals, protected by an outer metal casing. Piezoelectric
crystals produce a voltage difference when they are displaced
and vice-versa. These voltage differences are then recorded by
the data acquisition unit as the signal, for further processing.
The transducers utilized in impact-echo testing are wideband
transducers.
2.1. Experimental Setup
The impact-echo equipment used during the experiments is
shown in Fig. 1 (Sansalone, 1986). The impact-echo equipment
included the following items:
A sensor with frequency ranges from 1 kHz to 70

kHz (Proctor, 1982).
There are nearly ten sphere steel balls of different

diameters which are connected to each other by thin
metal rods. Their diameters are 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm,
6.5 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm, 11.5mm, 13 mm, 16.5 mm,
20 mm. Among them the 8mm sphere ball impactor
is used here in case of thin element.
A data acquisition system which enables the logging

of data from the transducers to the computer by
converting and storing the analog signals as digital
outputs.
A BNC cable that connects transducers to the data acquisition
system. The BNC cables are used for both analog and digital
signals and are preferred by many electronic test equipment
manufactured in recent years. It was designed as a cable to
minimize wave reflection or loss. It was named after its
bayonet mount locking mechanism and its two inventors - Paul
Neill and Carl Concelman.
2.2. Test Procedure

Impact-echo method is conventionally a point based data
collection technique. Hence, grid points need to be marked on
the test structures in order to streamline the data collection
process. A 1 inch (2.5cm) grid has been adopted for the NDE
of all the test structures considered in this study. Before
conducting any test on a structure, it is preferred to analyse the
different impactors for their functionality. This is especially
important in this study as the conventional practice used for
thick structural components would not be very useful in the
evaluation of thin structural components. This is because the
recommendations on the selection of different impactors in the
literature (Sansalone, 1997, 1986; Sansalone and Streett, 1997)
are recommended for the development of the P-wave resonance
for a corresponding depth. However, the present work relies on
flexural modal frequencies to identify the defects. Hence, these
recommendations from the literature would not be appropriate.
Therefore, all the impactors are tested for their effectiveness.
Impactor size was found to be a major factor affecting impactecho test results. The right type of impactor size selection was
a key factor for the success of the tests. Based on the
preliminary investigation and prior experience, it has been
observed that the 8mm steel ball impactor is effective for the
evaluation of thin structural elements.
Another important parameter to be considered is the distance
between the impact point and the position of the transducer. An
impactor-receiver spacing of 50mm (2 in.) and an impact
duration of approximately 40s has been found to be effective.
The following test procedure has been used at each girder point
during investigation:
The approximate expected frequencies for the reflections
from the concrete or from any inner cracks or voids were
assessed through trial and error.
Five trails have been carried out on each grid point over the
each point of the specimen.
The results of the test were processed and analyzed.
The whole data are plotted and the difference in the solid
surface and cracked surface were identified by calculating
the variations in the frequency.
An analog signal changes over time and can be represented
as a mathematical function with time as the free variable
and the signal itself as the dependent variable. A discretetime signal is a sampled version of the analog signal: the
values are collected at fixed intervals such as
microseconds, rather than continuous recording.
Digital signals are digital representations of discrete-time
signals. Precise measurement of an analog signal would
Page 268
require an infinite number of digits and therefore is not

possible. The resultant data stream after the approximation
of this signal by a certain predefined precision is collected
as a digital signal as shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4.
by three factors: (1) subsurface configuration, (2) surface

condition; and (3) environment.
3.1. Equipment for IRT method
In IRT technique, even for a small test area, thousands of
readings would have to be made simultaneously in order to
outline the anomaly precisely. Since this is not practically
feasible, high resolution infrared thermographic cameras are
used to inspect large areas of concrete collecting data from
thousands of points at every instant efficiently and quickly.
There are two types of infrared cameras available:
(1) Focal Plane Array (FPA) cameras, and

(2) Single active element scanner cameras.
Fig. 2. Schematic of stress wave propagation
4. Specimen Details
The specimens used in this study are shells of size 1m1m with
depth or thickness 20mm and rib of the shell 50x50mm. Here,
two spherical shells are used one with cracks and the other
without cracks. The shell is funicular and is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 3. Wave propagation in Impact-echo concept
Fig. 5. Top view of the funicular shell
4.1. Grid marking
.
Fig. 4. Impact-echo system (Freedom Data PC)
3. Infrared Thermography (IRT)

In the present work, the infrared thermography technique is
employed as the second NDT technique to validate the results
of the IE method. According to the fundamental Law of
Planck, all objects above absolute zero emit Infrared radiation.
This radiation only becomes visible to the human eye when the
temperature is above about 500C. Infrared monitoring
equipments have been developed which are capable of
detecting infrared emission and visualizing them as a visible
image. The sensitive range of the detector lies between 2 and
14 microns. The 2 to 5.6 micron range is generally used to
visualize temperature between 40C and 2000C and the 8 to 14
micron range is used for temperature between -20c and
ambient temperatures.
Generally, anything deeper than 10 cm will only show after a
long period of time (>1 hr) as a temperature change on the
surface. Since, the infrared system measures surface
temperatures only, the temperatures measured are influenced
In the shell, grid lines are marked every 2.5 cm along X- and
Y-directions. Nearly, 40 rows are marked in a shell. Fig. 6
shows marking of gridlines for the shell 1.The data is collected
at all grid points on the curved shell structure. The curved
shape of the structure posed difficulty in positioning of the
transducer. The sensor needs to be positioned normal to the
evaluation surface to ensure effective capturing of the signal.
However, the tri-point support at the base of the sensor helps in
positioning the sensor over the varying slope of the shell.
Fig. 6. Grid Point Marking on funicullar shell
Page 269
In total 40 rows are marked with an interval of one inch. Each

rows carry 40 points. At every grid point five data are
collected. Totally 8000 data are collected in one shell. After
collecting all the data, processing is done. Then, the data are
plotted in a 2D view for interpretation of the results.
elements from undamaged ones. While the first represents a

good shell without cracks, the second shows a different pattern
thus indicating presence of cracks.

The shell specimens are tested by using impact echo method to
identify defects, especially cracks. Cracks are many-a-times
superficial and are hence visible to the naked eye. However,
their influence on the frequency is studied in the present work.
Under these circumstances the NDT methods play a vital role
in detecting the presence of defects. The data collected on the
shells are analyzed by using Olson impact-echo instrument.
Collecting and processing of data are could be carried out with
the tailor-made user-friendly WinTFS software. The Olson
instrument uses an industrial PC with appropriate data
acquisition boards to capture the data and hence process it. The
initial settings adopted for data acquisition is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8. Impact Echo test results for Shell 1
Fig. 7. Initial settings of Olson instrument
Based on the data collected using the IE instrument, the 2D

plot is developed for the shell 1 and is shown in Fig. 8. The
results indicate two regions. The pink regions represent the
stiffer regions of the shell. Owing to its shape, the shell offers
certain regions of flexibility as represented by the blue regions.
These regions allow the flexural modal vibrations. Hence, low
frequencies dominate the data. They differentiate themselves
from the other stiffer regions. The apex of the shell can be
observed to be stiffer. Also, the presence of the edge beams
makes the regions stiffer, thus producing differential
frequencies. The pattern obtained in Fig. 8 is particularly
representative of the shape of the spherical shell. The portion
below the frequency range 1200 Hz are indicated in blue
colour. However, it needs to be noted here that the shell is in
good shape without any damage.
The shell 2 is a replica of the shell 1 except that it had
developed cracks on its surface due to stresses developed
during demoulding. The impact-echo data has been collected
on shell 2 similar to that for shell 1. The size and number of
grid points are maintained the same for these two specimens.
The IE result obtained for the shell 2 is shown in Fig. 9. The IE
results do not show an understandable pattern matching the
crack pattern observed on the shell. This is because of the
shape of the test structure. When compared to the results of
shell 1, the results of the shell 2 are different. Thus, from a first
look it can be observed that the Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 have different
pattern. Thus adopting techniques like digital image
correlation, it would be possible to identify damaged structural
Fig. 9. Impact Echo test results for the shell 2
As, the crack pattern is not explicitly evident from the Fig. 8
and Fig. 9, the two results are superimposed to obtain the better
results of cracked pattern and it is shown in Fig. 10. The ability
to vibrate has been observed to change in shell 2 when
compared to shell 1. This is represented as pink / rose colour
regions in Fig. 10. The red line indicates the actual crack
pattern observed on the shell 2. In addition to the regions
beside the crack locations, some regions between two cracks
are observed to provide possibilities for varied frequency
vibrations as is highlighted by the text in Fig. 10.
The results of the IE method in Fig. 10 can be compared with
the infrared thermography method shown in Fig. 11. For better
clarity the black and white colour pallet is used in Fig 11. Here,
black colour denotes defective concrete regions and white
colour represents sound material.
Page 270
sound condition showed a different pattern to that was

expected. This variation in the frequency content on a shell
with uniform thickness has been concluded to be due to the
shape of the structure. This is because such patterns have never
been reported in the literature when slabs or walls are
investigated. In the shell 2, differences in frequencies have
been observed which should be due to the shape of the
structure.
Fig. 10. Superimposed result of shell 1 and 2
The interpretation of the results from the second shell alone

was not possible. The identification of the crack pattern has
been difficult because of the differential frequencies produced
because of the shape of the structure. However, using the
superimposed results of the shell 1 and shell 2, the portions in
the pink color have been found to closely follow the crack
locations. The present work has indicated the difficulty in
assessing structural elements like shells and also emphasises
the need for more focused research in this area for improved
applicability of the impact-echo method.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank SERC, for providing the
platform to perform this work. The paper is published with the
approval of the Director, CSIR-Structural Engineering
Research Centre, Chennai.
References
Fig. 11. Thermography result of shell 2
The NDE of the shells indicate that the evaluation of such

structural elements is not as straight forward as plain structural
elements. The impact-echo results have been found to vary
owing to the shape of the shell and this has made interpretation
more complicated. Thus, more studies on such structures need
to be carried out, to improve the understanding of the impactecho method. Also, if impact-echo method has to be applied to
heritage structures, the investigation on shells cannot be
disregarded.
From this study, it has been clear that impact-echo method can
be effectively used for non-destructive evaluation of thin
structural elements also. However, when it comes to curved
structural elements like the shells, complications seem to arise
and more research needs to be carried out to improve the
understanding in this area.
6. Conclusions
The present work focused on investigating two shells with one
carrying cracks. The IE results of the shell 1 which was in
[1] ASTM Standard C1383-98a, (2010), Standard Test

Method for Measuring the P-Wave Speed and the
Thickness of Concrete Plates Using the Impact-Echo
Method, American Society of Testing Materials
International, USA.
[2] Proctor, T, (1982), Some details of the NBS Conical
transducer, Journal of Acoustic emission, 1(3), 173,
178.
[3] Sansalone, M, (1986), Flaw detection in concrete using
transient stress waves, PhD thesis, Cornell university,
220.
[4] Sansalone, M, (1997), Impact echo The complete
story, ACI structural journal, 94(6), 777-786.
[5] Sansalone, M, and Carino, N.J, (1986), Impact echo: A
method for flaw detection in concrete usng transient
stress waves, NBSIR 86-3452, National bureau of
standards, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 222
[6] Sansalone, M, and Streett, W.B, (1997), Impactecho: Nondestructive testing of concrete and masonry,
Bullbrier Press.
Page 271
A REVIEW ON CHARACTERIZATION AND APPLICATION OF

FLY ASH ZEOLITES
Channabasavaraj.W1
1
Assistant Professor, Don Bosco College of Engineering, Bangalore, Karnataka.

India-560074; Email-builderraju@yahoo.com
Abstract
zeolites are aluminosiliceous minerals which are well-known for their porous crystal structures and chemical
characteristics. Due to these capabilities, researchers have synthesized zeolites from substances containing alumina and
silica, viz. kaolin, sediments, etc. In this context, fly ash has been perceived to be a prospective raw material for
zeolitization since it can undergo geopolymerisation in an alkaline medium at specific conditions of temperature and
pressure.
Since several decades, naturally occurring zeolites have been used for animal husbandry and agri- and aquaculture. Furthermore, due to their hollow cage-like structure, they are also being used as molecular sieves, ionexchangers and catalysts. Moreover, their remarkable cation-exchange capacity, CEC, enables them to be used as an
additive to fertilizers so as to increase the nutrient retention capacity of the soil thereby increasing the fertility of the land
and boosting the crop yield. Being an agrarian nation, the Indian economy would be greatly affected by enhanced
fertility of the land following a cost-effective manner of nutrient addition and retention, wherein fly ash based zeolites
would play a very significant and crucial role. This is also due to the inherent nature of the zeolites, which makes them
an excellent sorbent which helps cleaning up of the polluted soils and water bodies. Also, the sorption characteristics
of zeolites can also be employed for removal of ammonia from the waste water.
This calls for development of appropriate process for large-scale industrial production of the ash based zeolites,
exhibiting high CEC value, for their utilization in various walks of the society (viz., environmental clean-up activities) It
is believed that opportunely synthesized zeolites could become a panacea for sustainable development.
Keywords: Zeolite, sythesis, Fly ash, environmental clean-up.
1.
Introduction
Generation of electricity by combustion of coal in thermal

power plants releases a colossal amount of fly ash as the
major by-product which is usually dumped into the lagoons,
thereby consuming valuable land area. Consequently, there
has been a wide interest in using it for various purposes such
as land reclamation, soft soil stabilisation, manufacture of
bricks, cement, acidic waste scrubber, carbon nanotubes, etc.
Apart from these conventional applications, fly ash
has also been employed to synthesize zeolites, which owing
to their high silica and alumina contents. Primarily, zeolites
are aluminosiliceous minerals which are well-known for
their porous crystal structures and chemical characteristics.
Due to these capabilities, researchers have synthesized
zeolites from substances containing alumina and silica, viz.
kaolin, sediments, etc. In this context, fly ash has been
perceived to be a prospective raw material for zeolitization
since it can undergo geopolymerisation in an alkaline
medium at specific conditions of temperature and pressure.
Consequently, several synthesis methods have been
proposed by varying the reaction conditions (viz., pH, Si/Al
ratio, type of reaction and interaction time) and reactants
(viz., NaOH, KOH, Na2CO3, Ca(OH)2, NH4F, etc).
*
Since several decades, naturally occurring zeolites

have been used for animal husbandry and agri- and aquaculture. Furthermore, due to their hollow cage-like structure,
they are also being used as molecular sieves, ion-exchangers
and catalysts. Moreover, their remarkable cation-exchange
capacity, CEC, enables them to be used as an additive to
fertilizers so as to increase the nutrient retention capacity of
the soil thereby increasing the fertility of the land and
boosting the crop yield. Being an agrarian nation, the Indian
economy would be greatly affected by enhanced fertility of
the land following a cost-effective manner of nutrient
addition and retention, wherein fly ash based zeolites would
play a very significant and crucial role. This is also due to
the inherent nature of the zeolites, which makes them an
excellent sorbent (i.e., a material with good sorption
characteristics), which helps cleaning up of the polluted soils
and water bodies. Also, the sorption characteristics of
zeolites can also be employed for removal of ammonia from
the waste water.
Moreover, the physical, chemical, mineralogical,
bacteriological and thermal characterization of the
synthesized zeolites has been carried out for determining
their suitability in various industrial and environmental
applications.

E-mail: builderraju@yahoo.com
Page 1
Incidentally, studies conducted by previous researchers for

synthesizing fly ash zeolites, for their usage in agri- and
aqua-culture, and other environmental clean-up projects,
have been generally restricted to laboratory, which often
turn out to be uneconomical and tedious. This calls for
development of appropriate process(es) apt for large-scale
industrial production of the ash based zeolites, exhibiting
high CEC value, for their utilization in various walks of the
society (viz., environmental clean-up activities such as
contaminated soil remediation, sludge sediment treatment,
heavy metal removal from water and clean-up of large water
bodies). It is believed that opportunely synthesized zeolites
could become a panacea for sustainable development.
1.1. Structure of zeolites
Zeolites are crystalline, hydrated aluminosilicates
of tectosilicate type [42] i.e., a three-dimensional framework
of SiO4 tetrahedral having their four oxygen atoms shared by
the adjacent tetrahedra. Some of these quadrivalent Si atoms
are replaced by the trivalent Al atoms thus creating a
deficiency of a positive charge which is responsible for its
cation exchange capacity (CEC). This charge is balanced by
monovalent ions such as Na+ and K+ or divalent ions such as
Mg2+ and Ca2+ elsewhere in the structure. The deficient
oxygen atoms in zeolites have more affinity for divalent
cations than for monovalent cations. These charge balancing
cations are exchangeable with other ions (viz., NH4+, Cs+,
Sr2+) depending on the sizes of the pores and ions [54].
The general formula for a zeolite is
M2/nO.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O where M is any alkali or alkaline
earth element, n is the valence charge on that element, x
varies from 2 to 10 and y varies from 2 to 7. The Al2O3 and
SiO2 are the structural cations because they form the
tetrahedral framework with oxygen [42].
1.2. Types of zeolites
Based on their genesis, zeolites are of two types,
viz. natural and synthetic.
1.2.1. Natural zeolites
Natural zeolites are formed due to geological and
environmental effects. The ash from volcanoes settles in
closed environments, such as lakes, and undergoes chemical
changes in the presence of an alkaline medium resulting in
the formation of zeolites. Some common natural zeolites.
Clinoptilolite is the most common natural zeolite having a
Si/Al ratio of 5.7 [62] and is widely used in fertilizers
because of its strong affinity for ammonia. It has also been
used for removing caesium and strontium from radioactive
wastes. Clinoptilolite also acts as a substrate for the growth
of microorganisms, especially the nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
azotobacter [4]
1.3. Synthetic zeolites
Synthetic zeolites are created artificially from
materials capable of contributing a silica-alumina gel such
as fly ash, kaolin, river sediments, etc [60] [56] [30] [24].
Apparently, such zeolites will contain impurities which were

originally present in the parent raw material.
1.4. Methods of synthesis of zeolites
Different methods of synthesizing zeolites from fly
ash have been devised depending on the reactants and their
reaction conditions.
1.4.1. Hydrothermal method
In hydrothermal method, the fly ash is treated with
an alkali solution and further cooled down for
crystallization. The reaction may be carried out in open or
closed environment. This is the simplest and most popular
method for obtaining zeolites [1] [18] [22] [34] [35] [16].
1.4.2. Fusion and hydrothermal method
The alkali is fused with fly ash at temperatures
ranging from 30C to 750C. This enables the crystalline
phases in the raw material to dissolute to an amorphous state
and, subsequently, hydrothermal treatment is carried out,
resulting in higher yield of zeolites compared to the
conventional hydrothermal method [48] [59] [60] [34].
1.4.3. Molten salt method
In molten salt method, a mixture of fly ash, a base
(viz., NaOH, KOH or NH4F) and a salt (viz., KNO3, NaNO3
or NH4NO3) is heated to molten temperatures. The absence
of water is the main advantage of this method [52] [15].
1.4.4. Ultrasonic method
The fly ash or other aluminosilicates, such as
kaolinite, along with a mineralizer (viz. alkali) is subjected
to ultrasonication. This allows a larger amount of fly ash
particles to dissociate into the suspension resulting in a
higher yield of zeolites. Moreover, this process results in the
evolution of heat, even up to 75C, within a short time (viz.,
10 minutes) thus avoiding an additional hydrothermal
treatment of the mixture [3] [37] [29] [6].
1.4.5. Microwave assisted hydrothermal method
Microwave assisted hydrothermal method is a
technique to accelerate the ordinary hydrothermal process by
initially microwave heating the raw materials and further
subjecting the mixture to hydrothermal treatment
1.5. Factors affecting the synthesis
The factors affecting the synthesis of zeolites are
Si/Al molar ratio of reactants and products, initial material
composition, pH, reaction time, temperature and pressure
[7]. The zeolitization process can be augmented by lowering
the silica content in fly ash using a suitable silica reduction
technology thereby increasing the concentration of alumina.
Also, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of
the synthesized products decide their applications in
Page 2
agriculture and industry.

1.6. Applications of zeolites
Zeolites possess excellent properties such as ion
exchange capacity, dehydration and rehydration abilities and
adsorption. They are molecular sieves which can selectively
absorb ions that fit into the niches in their structures [2] Fig.
1.1 shows a brief outline of the various agricultural and
industrial applications of zeolites.
1.6.1. Agricultural applications
The high cation exchange capacity (CEC) and
water retention of zeolites make them useful for agricultural
purposes [42]. Traditionally, zeolites have been used in
agriculture in Eastern Europe, Japan and Cuba [32].
1.8.3. Industrial applications

Gas separation and removal: Researchers [55] [44]
have used zeolites for the separation and removal of gases
such as CO2, SO2 and H2O from low grade natural gas
streams. Zeolites have been employed on On-Board
Oxygen Generating Systems (OBOGS) for removing
nitrogen from the compressed air for supplying oxygen to
cabin crews in aircrafts at high altitudes [31].
1.8.4.
Petrochemical industry
Zeolites have been used for multifunctional

purification of mineral oils [58] and for adsorptive
purification in reconditioning and regeneration of used
lubricating oils [9]. They also act as catalysts in petroleum
refining [8] [46].
1.6.2. Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs)

1.8.5. Molecular sieves
Fresh swine or chicken manure can be used to
saturate zeolite with ammonia. This ammonia-saturated
zeolite, when applied to the soil, acts as a slow release
nitrogen fertilizer [51] [19] Sodium, in high concentration, is
toxic to plant life [10] [40] and hence sodium based zeolites
are not recommended for agriculture [19].
1.6.3. Soil conditioning
Zeolites can help to increase the porosity of the
soil. They also favor the growth of microorganisms such as
azotobacter [4].
1.7. Aquaculture
In fish hatcheries, ammonia is formed by the
decomposition of excrement and unused food due to the
closed environmental conditions preventing proper
recirculation or purification which is the main cause of
disease and mortality in fish. Zeolites can be added to the
fish tanks and shrimp ponds as a sorbent for removal of
ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide [41] [42]
[47]
1.8. Animal husbandry
1.8.1. Livestock feed additives
Many researches have been conducted on the
effects in addition of zeolites to feeds of swine [39] [25],
[18] [27] and [47] has reported an improvement in the
calorific efficiency of the poultry due to the zeolite intake
[42]. Zeolites have even been found to be effective in
preventing certain metabolic diseases in cows [50].
1.8.2. Water treatment
Zeolites have been used for sludge and water
purification by the removal of heavy elements such as SOx
and COx [17] and heavy metals such as Ni [26] They have
also been used for the removal of ammonia from wastewater
[47] [54] [21] [56].
Zeolites have been used to separate molecules

based on their sizes and shapes. They have also been utilized
for trapping molecules for analysis [14] [63].
1.8.6. Oil spill clean-up
Zeolites synthesized from fly ash have been
successfully employed to clean-up oil spills in water.
Zeolite-X acts as an excellent hydrophobic sorbent of the oil
present in water [57].
1.8.7. Building materials and construction
Natural zeolites have been used as admixture to
prevent bleeding, segregation and delamination of concrete
for stabilization of cement volume [23].
2.
MATERIALS USED FOR SYNTHESIS OF

ZEOLITES
2.1. Fly ash

Being an industrial by product, fly ash is
inexpensive and found in abundance. It contains a large
amount of silica and alumina along with other impurities.
2.2. Sediments
River sediments have been successfully employed
to synthesize zeolites using fusion and hydrothermal method
[60].
2.3. Kaolinite
Kaolinite when heated to high temperatures, such
as 550C, forms metakaolinite which is heated along with a
base (such as NaOH) to form zeolites [37].
Page 3
Fig. 1.1 Different agricultural and industrial applications of zeolites

Table 3.1 Synthesis proportion and zeolites obtained [18]
3.
Material
Fly
Ash (g)
NaOH
NaCl
Temp
(C)
Reaction
time (hr)
24
Zeolites
synthesized
NaX
Si
Al
1.10
Na+K+Ca+Mg
Si
0.59
10
200ml-3M
NIL
75
10
200ml-1M
100ml-3M
105
24
NaP1
1.43
0.45
10
400ml-5M
200ml-3M
105
24
Sodalite
1.21
1.06
METHODOLOGIES USED FOR SYNTHESIS OF

ZEOLITES: A REVIEW
3.1.
Hydrothermal method
[18] Used the rudimentary hydrothermal method to

synthesize zeolites from Class F fly ash at atmospheric
pressure (refer Error! Reference source not found.). The
thermostability of zeolite structures obtained (viz. NaX,
NaP1 and sodalite) was analysed at 300C, 500C and
700C. The water absorption efficiency of Materials X and P
were measured to be equally good as silica gel. High ion
selectivity for heavy metals have also been observed for all
the zeolites based on their atomic weights (viz. Cd2+ > Cu2+
Zn2+ > Co2+). Material X has been seen to contain a high
amount of Na-X which has a possibility to replace the
commercial 13X. It can also be used as a gas absorbent due
to the wide microspores and high thermostability. The
authors have claimed the method to be economical and
energy efficient although non-zeolitic impurities were also
produced.
3.2. Fusion
[48] Have synthesized X-type zeolite by alkali
fusion followed by hydrothermal treatment at 90C. The raw
fly ash was initially sieved, calcined (to remove unburnt
carbon) and treated with HCl (to remove iron and hence
increase the activity for zeolitization). They have reported
maximum values SiO2/Al2O3 ratio and degree of
crystallinity at a fusion temperature of 550C. Also, the

maximum SiO2/Al2O3 ratio = 1.72 has been achieved at an
aging time (stirring time at room temperature) of 18 hours.
The authors have found that 6 hours of hydrothermal
treatment was the optimum time duration for maximum
surface area of zeolites.
[60] Have used river sediments collected from
Suzhou Creek, Shangai, China to synthesize zeolites since
they contain silica (69.0%) and alumina (11.8%). The
sediment was initially heated at 800C for 30 minutes
resulting in the transformation of illite and kaolinite into
amorphous state. Further, the sample was fused with NaOH
at different Si/Al ratios by adding aluminium hydroxide
hydrate followed by heating at 350-750C for 15min 4hours. Liquid/solid ratio was kept at 2.5-20ml/g by adding
distilled water and the solution was stirred at 95C for 2-24
hours. Na-P1, Na-X, hydroxysodalite, F Linde A and
Faujasite were obtained at different proportions depending
upon the synthesis parameters as shown in Tables 3.2 and
3.3. The authors have also verified previous findings [33]
that reactants having low Si/Al ratio results in the synthesis
of zeolites having low Si/Al ratio while a high Si/Al ratio of
reactants produces zeolites with high Si/Al ratio. A
crystallization time of 2 hours is sufficient for zeolitization
since no effect has been noticed beyond this temperature.
Page 4
Table 3.2. Details of zeolites synthesized from river

sediments [60]
Si/Al
Si/Al
NaOH/se CEC SSA
Zeolite
of
of
2
diment
(cmo (m /
obtained sedi
zeolit
(g/g)
l/kg)
g)
ment
e
Na-P1
5
1.6
295
40
1.67
Hydroxy
1
2
115.6 16.5
0.84
sodalite
Table 3.3. Influence of Si/Al ratio of sediment on zeolites
synthesized [60]
Si/Al of
sediment
NaOH/sediment
(g/g)
Zeolite(s)
synthesized
1.2
Na-P1
Na-P1, Na-X,
2
Hydroxysodalite
Faujasite,
1-3
1.2
Hydroxysodalite,
and F Linde A
Researches have been conducted for the application
of natural and synthetic zeolites in agriculture. High plant
growth and better yield are the common observations of
many such studies.
5
Agriculture: [11] have carried out tests on zeolites

synthesized from Lipari pumice by adding them to the soil
both directly and as fertilizer mixtures for spinach
cultivation. The authors have recommended the
application of less than 50g/m2 of Faujasite, due to its high
water adsorption capacity, to the soil before sowing and
the addition of fertilizers after the germination phase.
[12] Have synthesized zeolites (viz. faujasite and
hydroxy-sodalite) from Lipari pumice by hydrothermal
treatment with aqueous NaCl having 12% weight of NaOH
for 7h at 95C. They have reported a significant increase in
yield and fruit sizes on application of these zeolites on Vitis
vinifera and Prunus persica in Italy with their yield having
doubled on application of NPK fertilizer with 90% zeolites
and 25% respectively.
[36] Has used fly ash for the synthesis of zeolites and
potassium silicate fertilizer and for flue gas desulfurization.
[53] Have studied the use of clinoptilolite in
agriculture for fertilizer efficiency, gas and water absorption,
ion exchange and soil amendment. Zeolites retain the
fertilizers without breaking down and release them when
required by the plants thus preventing the leaching of these
fertilizers from the root zone. The application of zeolites has
been observed to have enhanced the yield of apple,
vegetables, grapes and other fruits. They absorb gases in
animal husbandry sheds which reduces the undesirable
odours due to ammonia and H2S content. In fish tanks, they
have been used to remove the high concentration of
ammonia in the water. They also remove Pb, Cd and Cu
present in contaminated soils. Clinoptilolite absorbs toxins
in animals thus performing the role of a mycotoxin binder.
[20] Have investigated the properties of zeolite as
controlled release fertilizers. They have demonstrated that

by adjusting the reaction time, different types of zeolites can
be synthesized. They have also listed the existing diversified
zeolite markets which include agricultural, industrial,
commercial and household uses.
[59] Have synthesized zeolites in agricultural soil
under alkaline condition by addition of either fused fly ash
or NaOH powder at 30C and 60C for six months. They
have reported the almost complete conversion of the fly ash
into zeolite X and zeolite P. Their results have validated
existing studies showing that low Si/Al ratio at high
temperatures (i.e. 60C) favors formation of zeolite P while
high Si/Al ratio at low temperatures (i.e. 30C) results in the
synthesis of zeolite X. The authors have stated that the
addition of fly ash stimulated the Si and Al in soil to take
part in the zeolitization by partial dissolution due to the
alkaline medium which was inferred from the fact that the
amount of zeolites synthesized was higher than the quantity
of fly ash added. The pre-treated fly ash also biased the
reaction towards the synthesis of a certain zeolite, viz.
zeolite X which is preferred because of its higher cation
exchange capacity due to lower Si/Al and higher specific
surface area compared to zeolite P [13] the organic matter
and minerals present in the soil did not hamper the synthesis.
[22] Have synthesized Na and K zeolites from fly ash
at 140C and 150C for 24 hours with and without agitation
by varying H2O/Al ratios from 25 to 420. Analcime was the
main zeolite synthesized at the optimum H2O/Al ratio of
57.4. These zeolites were applied up to 5% to yellow
gravelly loamy sand and Bassendan sand for pot plant trials
of canola, spinach and wheat. The authors have observed the
amounts of Cd and Hg in plant shoots to decrease with
increase in zeolite.
[5] Have investigated the effects of natural zeolites
viz. analcime and phillipsite on grape cultivation by
conducting five trials, the first being the control soil without
any mineral fertilizer. The zeolites were added individually
and also by mixing with equal amount (by weight) of
manure. They reported that the use of analcime increased the
yield, after two years, by 115% when added alone and 160%
when mixed with manure while the same methodology using
phillipsite, after one year, were 83% and 146% respectively.
The zeolites increased the cation exchange capacity of the
soil and also created a favorable site for growth of nitrogenfixing microorganisms. The authors have also reported an
increase in the sugar content by 5-27% and a decrease in
acidity from pH =3.75 to 4.52.
Waste treatment: [49] have analyzed the efficacy of
fly ash zeolites and commercial zeolites for purification of
MSW landfill leachates and liquid cattle farm waste by
stirred tank test and column test. In the stirred tank, the
increase in the sedimentation time and agitation time have
not shown any increase in the purification of the sample.
The results of the column test have shown better reduction
of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total kjeldahl nitrogen
(TKN) and P-PO4 at a lower flow rate (viz., 50ml/min).
Heavy metal removal : [45] have studied the
adsorption of heavy metals (viz. Zn, Cu, Mn and Pb) using
Page 5
zeolites synthesized from fly ash by hydrothermal method.

The concentrations of metals varied from 100 to 3000 mg/l.
The authors have concluded that the adsorption capacity of
the fly ash increased 2 to 25 times due to zeolitization.
Adsorbent : [38] have synthesized zeolite from fly
ash by fusion and hydrothermal method. They have checked
its ability to remove water in ethanol solution and have
reported a water adsorption of 95% from the ethanol.
Ammonia removal : [62] have used clinoptilolite,
a natural zeolite, to remove ammonia from water. In water,
ammoniacal nitrogen (N-NH4+) is present in two forms, viz.
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion (NH4+). They have
studied the effects of zeolite concentration and exposure
time on the N-NH4+ removal and have calculated the degree
of ammonia removal and the sorption capacity. The effect in
the exposure time has been observed to be insignificant in
the amount of ammonia uptake.
4.
CONCLUSION
Following are the main conclusion drawn from the present

study.
1. Fly ash is a by-product generated in an thermal power
plant, which is considered as a waste material and
which can be utilized to manufacture useful product
called as Zeolite
2.
Zeolite is a porous material which has high CEC and

which help to trap required material in its porous
structure.
3.
Zeolites can be effectively used for cleaning up of

water bodies, by spreading the zeolites on water
surface and allowed to sorb the unwanted constituents
present in that particular water body.
4.
Fly ash synthesised zeolites can be used for removal of

heavy metals by hydrothermal method.
5.
Fly ash zeolites and commercial zeolites are used for

purification of MSW landfill leachates and liquid cattle
farm waste by stirred tank test and column test. In the
stirred tank, the increase in the sedimentation time and
agitation time have not shown any increase in the
purification of the sample.
6.
Zeolites synthesized from Lipari pumice by adding

them to the soil both directly and as fertilizer mixtures
for spinach cultivation, which increases water holding
capacity of the soils.
5.
1.
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Page 8
DE-FLUORIDATION USING TEA RESIDUE


2
Abstract
Fluoride is one of the most potent groundwater pollutants. Excess intake (>1.5 mg/l) may cause fluorosis (dental,
skeletal and non-skeletal) along with sundry neurological complication. Technologies already have been developed to
abstract fluoride from imbibing dihydrogen monoxide by coagulation, membranefiltration, ion exchange,etc.Removal of
fluoride from the ground dihydrogen monoxide is a tedious process and uneconomic. This paper deals with the
desideratum for environmental cordial and low cost technology for the abstraction of fluoride. One such technology
includes adsorption and which is efficacious for abstraction of fluoride. Tea residue which is a household waste was
efficaciously utilized in the abstraction of fluoride abstraction from aqueous medium. The results inferred that the defluoridation capacity of the adsorbent increases with increase in initial concentration.
Keywords:Fluoride, adsorbent, de-fluoridation.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Dihydrogen monoxide supply engineering, it is essential to
provide toxic free dihydrogen monoxide. Fluoride being a
deleterious content in imbibing dihydrogen monoxide should be
kept in allowable limit .Because Low concentration causes dental
caries. High concentrations - Cause skeletal fluoridise, a crippling
bone disease. Some ground waters, including those in Hawaii, Sri
Lanka, Malawi and Tanzania are kenned to have high
concentrations of fluoride ion.Genrally Groundwater contains high
concentrations of fluorides. In Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu
and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab and
Uttar Pradesh at some locations, the concentration may reach as
high as 10mg/L. In Tamilnadu, It is estimated that about 121
blocks in 19 districts are found to have high fluoride concentration
in ground dihydrogen monoxide. High fluoride levels are found in
districts
like
Dharmapuri,
Krishnagiri,
Tuticorin,
Dindigul,Thirunelveli.
The abstraction of fluoride from dihydrogen monoxide is one
of the most consequential issues due to its ill effects on human
health and environment. According to World Health Organization
the maximum permissible limit of fluoride concentration in
imbibing dihydrogen monoxide is 1.5 mg /L. There are lot of
methods developed for abstracting excess of fluoride in imbibing
dihydrogen monoxide, such as the ion exchanger, coagulation,
membrane techniques and electrochemical methods. However the

high cost of the above technologies makes them unpractical for
developing countries. Among these techniques, adsorption seems to
be an efficacious and economical one. This work investigates the
potential of tea waste from most proximate shop for abstraction of
fluoride ions from aqueous solutions. Tea residue can be
efficaciously utilized as an adsorbent for which it has to be initially
treated for colour and odour abstraction. The tea residue amassed
from most proximate teashop was utilized in upcoming process.
Soluble and coloured components were abstracted from tea residue
by washing it with boiling dihydrogen monoxide. This was
reiterated until the dihydrogen monoxidewas virtually achromic.
After exhaustively washing, the adsorbent was sun dried and it is
kept in oven for 24 hours. The fluoride dosage is given a contact
time of 1 hour and is kept in magnetic stirrer for 30 minutes. The
dihydrogen monoxide is then filtered and subjected to all imbibing
dihydrogen monoxide parameters test. Determinately, the fluoride
was efficaciously abstracted by this process.
2.NEEDTO GO FOR FLUORIDE REMOVAL IN WATER
HUMAN BODY PARTS
1. Fluoride in Brain
EFFECTS
The high levels of
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Page 280
fluoride
(3ppm+)
affect the nervous
system
directly
without first causing
skeletal fluorosis.
2. Fluoride in pineal gland:
Fluoride is known to
affect
mineralizing
tissues but effects
upon the developing
brain have not been
considered
previously.
The pineal gland

located between the
two hemispheres of
the
brain
is
responsible for the
synthesis
and
secretion of harmone
melatonin.
The
Harmone
Melatonin
is
responsible for bodys
sleep-wake
cycle,
helps to protect the
body
from
cell
damage.
The pineal gland is a

major
target
for
fluoride accumulation
in humans where it
likely
to
cause
decreased melatonin
production and to
have other effects on
normal
pineal
function.
3.On teeth
Ingestion of excess
fluoride,
most
commonly in drinking
water
can
cause
fluorosis
which
affects
the
teeth
andbones.
Clinical
dental
fluorosis
is
characterized
by
staining and pitting of
the teeth, In more
severe cases all the
enamel
may
bedamaged.
In skeletal fluorosis,
fluorides accumulates
in
the
bone
progressively
over
many years.
The symptoms are

Stiffness andpain in
joints, In severe cases
the bone structure
may change.
4.On bone:
Table.1 Effect of Flouride on human

2.1.FLOURIDE ALSO CAUSES
a.
Arthritis
b.
Hip fracture
c.
Early puberty
d. IQ deficiency
2.2COMMONLY ADOPTED
METHODS
Activated Alumina
Ion exchange
Reverse osmosis
Electrodialysis
Nalgonda process
Contact precipitation
Bone charcoal
Calcined clay
Water Pyramid/ Solar Dew
FLUORIDE
REMOVAL
Due to high cost for processing, the above technologies are unfit
for developing countries. Therefore, there is a great need for
environmental friendly and low cost technology. One such low
cost technology is adsorption and is effective for removal of
fluoride.Thus, we suggest tea residue as an effective adsorbent in
fluoride removal
2.3ADSORPTION PROCESS:
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules
from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface. This process
engenders a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent.
This process differs from absorption, in which a fluid (the
absorbate) permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid (the
absorbent). Adsorption is a surface-predicated process while
absorption involves the whole volume of the material. The term
sorption encompasses both processes, while desorption is the
inversion of it. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon..
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Page 281
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
3.1. PROCEDURES TO CONVERT TEA RESIDUE AS AN
EFFECTIVE ADSORBENT
The tea residue was collected from teashop.
Soluble
and coloured components were removed from tea by washing with
boiling water. This was repeated until the water was virtually
colourlessAfter thoroughly washing, the adsorbent was sundried
and it was burned in Muffle Furnace at 100 C for 90 minutes.
Fig..4
Jar
test
apparatus
for
optimum
dosage
Fig1. Tea residue from tea shop

gm/l of Tea Residue
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Turbidity (NTU)
5
3
2
4
Table.2 Determination of Optimum Dosage
6
Fig. 2Activated tea residue
4
2
0
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
gm/l of activated tea residue

fig.3 Activated tea residue used for de fluoridation
The dried tea residue was sieved and stored in sealed polythene
bag.
3.2.INITIAL FLUORIDE TEST:

Fluoride concentration in the taken sample is measured using the
spectrophotometer and is found to be 1.63mg/l.
Graph 1 Optimum dosage of Tea resedue

3.3.2. INITIAL TREATMENT
First the Activated Tea Residue of 0.2 gm/l is added to
the raw water of 1Lis added and the solution is left undisturbed for
an hour. Then the treated water is placed over the magnetic stirrer
for half an hour for complete stirring of the sample water. After the
completion of stirring process the water is left untouched for 15
minutes and then the water is filter-ed.
3.3. FLUORIDE TREATMENT

3.3.1. OPTIMUM DOSAGE OF TEA RESIDUE
The optimum dosage of tea residue was determined using
jar test apparatus and the resulting graph was plotted. It was
observed that the optimum dosage was about 0.2 g/l.
priya,+91 9003930950
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Page 282
Parameters
Fluoride
TDS
Turbidity
Hardness
Sulphate
Fig .5 Magnetic Stirrer

3.3.3. FILTRATION PROCESS:
Filtration of our sample was done using filter paper.
For mass filtrations, sand bath is preferred.
Sand filters are used for water purification. There are three main
types;
1.
2.
3.
Rapid (gravity) sand filters

Up flow sand filters
Slow sand filters
All three methods are used extensively in the water industry

throughout the world. The first two require the use of flocculant
chemicals to work effectively while slow sand filters can produce
very high quality water free from pathogens, taste and odour
without the need for chemical aids.
Ordinary
water
Treated
water
1.63 mg/l
452 mg/l
1NTU
79 mg/l
172 mg/l
1.25 mg/l
476 mg/l
2 NTU
83 mg/l
176 mg/l
Iron
0.5 mg/l
Ph
6.6
BOD
24 mg/l
COD
70 mg/l
DO
7.3 mg/l
fig.6 Sand bed filtration
0.54 mg/l
6.8
42 mg/l
100 mg/l
6.7 mg/l
Limits
1-1.5 mg/l
<500 mg/l
5-10NTU
75-150 mg/l
150-250
mg/l
0.3-1 mg/l
6-8.5
-
4TESTS CONDUCTED:
Ph is tenacious by Ph meter.
Fluoride,iron is resolute bySpectrophotometer.
Sulphate is resolute bySpectrophotometer.
Turbidity is tenacious by Turbidity Meter.
TSS,TDS and Hardness is tenacious by laboratory tests.
DO,BOD is resolute by DO meter
COD is tenacious by COD apparatus.
5RESULTS:
5.1
EFFECT
ON
VARIATION
IN
INITIAL
CONCENTRATION:
The initial concentration of fluoride in dihydrogen monoxide was
incremented by integration of NaF (Sodium Fluoride). It was
incremented to about 5.2 mg/l, and the optimum dosage for that
was found to be 0.25gm/l. Homogeneous treatment procedures
were followed and it was observed that the de fluoridation capacity
increases with increase in adsorbent dose. The fluoride level
decremented to 1.18 mg/l which denotes de fluoridation was
proximately about 77.1% Thus, as the initial concentration
increases, the de fluoridation rate withal increases.
gm/l of Tea Residue Added

0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Turbidity(NTU)
6
4
2
3
Table3 Optimumdosage of Tea Residue
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7
6
5
4
T urbidity
3
2
1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
gm/l of tea residue

Fig 7. Optimum dosage of Tes residue
5.2
EFFECT
ON
VARIATION
OF
DOSAGE
OF
ADSORBENT:
The dosage of the adsorbent (TEA RESIDUE) was incremented
and the degree of de fluoridation was observed. Since the
incrementation in the quantity of the adsorbent results in the
incrementation in the surface area of the adsorbent; more de
fluoridation is achieved. Thus, the de fluoridation utilizing tea
residue was initiated at a dosage of 0.2gm/l and was directly
proportional to the dosage.
6 CONCLUSION:
An incipient medium, waste tea residue has been developed for
fluoride abstraction in this study. Numerous advantages of the
waste tea residue make the waste an excellent adsorbent for
abstraction of fluoride .The defluoridation capacity increases with
incrementing adsorbent dose and initial concentration of fluoride.
The efficiency varies depending on the amount of activated tea
residue integrated and the concentration of fluoride ions in
dihydrogen monoxide. The de fluoridation commences at a dosage
of 0.2 mg/l and as the initial concentration of fluoride increases;
efficacious de fluoridation is achieved by incrementing the dosage
of adsorbent. The household waste tea residue seems to be an
efficacious as well as economical in fluoride abstraction, and it is
best suited for developing countries. Therefore, the activated tea
residue is promising material for fluoride abstraction from aqueous
solution as well as contaminated groundwater.
REFFRENCES:
fluoride in drinking water organized by Govt. of

Madhyapradesh at Bhopal, 22-24 Jan 2001.
Bhakumi T.S. and sharma N.N.(1970)Studies on
defluoridationBulletin, 07:77-80
Bulusu K.R. and Nawalakhe W.G. (1979)Fluoride in
water, defluoridation methods and their applications Jour.
Of Institution of engineers (1), 60:125-133.
Choudhary N. and laur R.(1996),Fluoride emission
during primary aluminum smeltingJour. Of India
Association of environmental Management, 23:86-93.
Christoffersen, J, Christoffersen, M.R. and Larsen R.
(1991)Regeneration of surface coating of bone char used
for defluoridation of waterWater resources journal,
25:223-229.
Dahiya S. and Kaur A. (1999)Studies on removal of
fluoride by coconut coir pit carbonIndian journal of
Environmental Protection, 19:11:68-71.
Eckenfemder W.W.Jr.(2000),Industrial water pollution
controlMc Graw Hill International Publications, 3rd
edition, Environmental Engg.Series.
Environmental Protection Agency (1976),National Interim
Primary Drinking Water Regulations. EPA- 570/9-76003,U.S. EPA, office of the water supply, Washigton DC.
Fox K.R. (1981),Removal of inorganic contaminants
from driking water by reverse osmosisEPA- 600/2-81115, Municipal environmental research laboratory, U.S.
EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
Gopalkrishnan S. Narsimha S.and Seenipandian
C.(1991),Incidence of fluorosis in ten village near
Tuticorian-suggestions for prevention and controlIndian
kournal of Environmental Protection, 11:02:118-123.
Huxstep M.R. (1981)Inorganic contaminants removal
from driking water by reverse osmosisEPA-600/2-81
Office of research and development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
Hocin G, Francoise P, Jacqueline S. Gerald P. and
Mohd.M.(2002),Defluoridation of ground water by a
hybrid process combining adsorption and donnan
dialysisJournal of desalination, 145:287-291
Jin Cao, Yanzho, Jianwei Liu, Ruoden Xirao, Sangbu
Danzeng,Dawei Daji and Yu Yan (2003),Brick tea
consumption as the case of dental fluorosis among children
from monzol, Kazak and Yugu population in chinaLour of
food and Chemical Toxicology, 35:827- 833.
J. Cao, Zhao Yan and Liu Jianwei (2000)Fluoride
ignition through water edibles and cosmetics A case study
of Jhabua (MP)Int. Seminar on Environmental Planning
and Management, VRCE, Nagpur, 71-73.
Arulanantham A, Ramcrishna T.V. and Balsubramaian

N.(1992)Studies on fluoride removal by coconut shell
carbonJour of Environmental Protection, 12:07:531- 535.
Azizian F.(2001)Removal of fluoride from potable water
using activated aluminaProcd of Int. workshop on
priya,+91 9003930950
bksbsg@yahoo.com
Page 284

Sustenance (INDECS-15) ACE, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635 109, INDIA, 28-30 October 2015
SOLUBILISATION OF METALS FROM e-WASTE USING Penicillium chrysogenum

UNDER OPTIMUM CONDITIONS
J. Senophiyah Mary 1, Dr. T. Meenambal2
1
Research Scholar, Department of Environmental Engineering, Government College of Technology,

Coimbatore, India,senophiyah.may8@gmail.com
2 Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore,
tmeenambal_gct@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
World today is run by the electronic gadgets which have become in dispensable, but they are a bane to
the environment once they turn into electronic waste or e-waste. The purity of metals in PCBs is higher than
that of rich-content minerals. Therefore, recycling of PCBs is an important subject not only in the treatment of
waste but also for the recovery of valuable materials. Bioleaching is the recent method in which the microbe
dissolves the metals present in the solid matrix of waste into soluble form for further extraction of metals. The
paper describes the mechanisms of the novel technology and the factors influencing the chemical reaction with
the participation of Penicillium chrysogenum fungi. It presents the results of laboratory tests of leaching of metals
from the scrap mobile phone printed circuit board. The maximum solubilization of 60 % Copper and 82 % Lead
present is scrap mobile phone PCBs, was obtained by optimizing the growing conditions of fungi Penicillium
chrysogenum he optimized bioleaching parameters are pH 3 with rotation speed of 160 rpm at temperature of
25C with inoculum concentration of 100 %.
Key Words: Bioleaching, solubilisation, e-Waste, Heavy metal extraction)
1. Introduction
Electronic waste or Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE) is the Electrical and Electronic
Equipment which is no longer fit for its originally
intended use and are desired for recovery, recycling or
disposal. It comprises a whole range of electrical and
electronic items such as refrigerators, washing machines,
computers and printers, televisions, mobiles, i-pods, etc.,
many of which contain toxic materials. Many of the trends
in consumption and production processes are
unsustainable and pose serious challenge to environment
and human health. Typically PCBs contain 40% of metals,
30% of organics and 30% ceramics. The metal content
varies from 20% to 40% by weight and averages 30%.
Practically all electronic devices contain printed circuit
boards (PCBs), which are composed of three types of
materials:
- a non-conducting substrate or laminate;
- printed conducting tracks; and
- components mounted on the substrate.
In developing countries, most of the e-waste is mixed
along with municipal solid waste and ends up in landfills
and is generally not recycled. Alternatively, several types
of unsafe recycling processes are carried out to recover a
small fraction of materials from e-waste, which can be
detrimental to the health of people working and living

around the recycling sites and to the environment.
Methods to recover materials from discarded products
include manual disassembly, open burning to remove
plastics and obtain the encased metals and acid digestion
to recover precious metals. The recycle and recovery
includes the unit operations like dismantling, segregation
of ferrous metal, non-ferrous metal and plastic by
shredder process, refurbishment and reuse, recycling /
recovery of valuable materials and treatment/disposal of
dangerous materials and waste. Bioleaching is a process
of dissolution of metals from their mineral source by
certain naturally occurring microorganisms, so that the
elements can be recovered by solvent extraction method.
Bioleaching represents the clean technology process with
the low cost and low energy level compared with the
conventional thermal solid waste treatment techniques.
Mineralytic effects of bacteria and fungi on minerals are
based mainly on three principles, namely acidolysis,
complexolysis, and redoxolysis. Microorganisms are able
to mobilize metals by (1) the formation of organic or
inorganic acids (protons); (2) oxidation and reduction
reactions; and (3) the excretion of complexing agents.
Sulfuric acid is the main inorganic acid found in leaching
environments. It is formed by sulfur-oxidizing
microorganisms such as thiobacilli. A series of organic
acids are formed by bacterial (as well as fungal)
Page 285
metabolism resulting in organic acidolysis, complex and

chelate formation. A kinetic model of the coordination
chemistry of mineral solubilization has been developed
which describes the dissolution of oxides by the
protonation of the mineral surface as well as the surface
concentration of suitable complex forming ligands such as
oxalate, malonate, citrate, and succinate. Proton-induced
and ligand-induced mineral solubilization occurs
simultaneously in the presence of ligands under acidic
conditions.
2. Exprimental
II
20.310
III
18.956
IV
19.894
The mounted components of the PCBs were

removed with the help of screw drivers. Then their
individual weights are noted down as in table 2.2.
2.1. Strains
Bioleaching has been considered as key technology for fly
ash treatment, electronic scraps, spent batteries, spent
petroleum catalysts during last several years. Different
researchers have applied bacterial species like
Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans as well as Acidithiobacillus
ferrooxidans and fungal species like Apsergillus niger to
recover metals such as Al, Ni, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr from ewaste.
Table 2.2 Mass of samples after the removal of

mounted parts
Sample No.
Weight (g)
13.214
II
14.019
III
13.604
IV
14.132
2.2. Collection of sample

Scrap mobile phone PCBs used were procured
from the local market. The PCBs are marked as sample I,
ii, iii and iv. the individual weights of the pcbs are noted
by weighing each piece of PCB.
2.3. Removal of coating over PCB:

PCB is coated with epoxy resin polymer and brominated
flame retarder. This coating prevents the PCB from any
fire accidents. That green coating is removed by the usage
of Sodium Hydroxide solution. The trial and error method
is carried out in order to remove the coating. The trial was
started with 1 M sodium hydroxide solution and ended up
with 10 M sodium hydroxide solution.
Fig. 1. Scrap mobile phone printed circuit board
Table 2.1 Mass of the collected sample

Sample No.
Weight (g)
19.064
2.3.1. Treatment with sodium hydroxide solution

In the first trial, the coating removal is carried out with
1M Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The 1M Sodium
Hydroxide solution is prepared by accurately weighing 4
gm NaOH pellets and dissolving it in 100 ml of distilled
water. Then a part of PCB is kept dipped overnight in 1 M
NaOH and then washed under running tap water. The
washed water was replaced by fresh distilled water until
the adhered NaOH was removed (approximately 4-5
times). This was monitored by determining pH of washed
water. Neutral pH of washed water confirms the complete
removal of NaOH. The washed PCBs were then used
Page 286
further. It is seen after washing, that the coating was not

removed.
Then trials were carried out with 2 M, 4 M, 6 M, 8 M and
10 M NaOH solution.
Peptone Dextrose -
40.0 g/L
20.0 g/L
The growth medium containing following composition of

nutrients was selected as a control media for bioleaching
of metals.
Sucrose
Sodium Nitrate
KH2PO4
MgSO4. 7H2O
KCl
Yeast extract
The microorganism was grown under
at 25C in a rotary shaker at 160 rpm.
100 g/L
1.5 g/L
0.5 g/L
0.025 g/L
0.025 g/L
1.6 g/L
aerobic conditions
2.5. Bioleaching: Inoculation with e- waste
Figure 2. PCB in sodium
In my study, two step bioleaching is carried out. In the

first step, organism was inoculated in the 100 ml
bioleaching medium and kept in rotary shaker for two
days in the absence of electronic scrap.
In the second step, 1 gram of powdered sample was added
to the previously inoculated media and kept in shaker. The
formed metabolite in the initial stage was used for metal
solubilization.
Growth of microorganism was observed on the
basis of optical density for SDB, control medium and in ewaste at 315 nm. The absorbance was noted for every 24
hour and calibration curve is drawn in which the
maximum absorbance denotes the highest growth of the
organism.
The variation of pH was observed for every 24 hour using
pH meter.
Fig. 3. PCB- after the hydroxide solution

2.4. Fungal stain
The freeze-dried culture of Penicillium chrysogenum

obtained from MTCC was suspended by pouring the full
content into a tube containing 1-2 ml of sterile water and
gently shaken and the tube was left at room temperature
for 4-12 hrs. As indicated on ampoule, culturing of
Penicillium Chrysogenum was done in the Sabouraud
Dextrose Broth medium containing,
Fig. 4. Optimization of wavelength for growth curve

analysis
Page 287
the inoculum concentration at constant pH of 5,

temperature of 25C and rotation speed of 160 rpm. The
variation of pH during the bioleaching process was
observed for every 24 hour.
VARIATION OF INOCULAM
CONCENTRATION
8
7
6
5
10%
pH
Fig. 5. Growth curve after the addition of PCB
30%
50%
70%
100%
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
TIME IN
Fig. 7. Variation of inoculam concentration
3.
Fig. 6. Variation of pH during bioleaching
2.7. Optimization of growth of P. chrysogenum in ewaste

2.7.1.
Effect of incubation period
The growth of the microbe in the e- waste was observed
for every 24 hour at the constant pH of 5, rotation speed
of 160 rpm, temperature of 25C and the optimum growth
was found out.
2.7.2.
Result and discussion
3.1. Pretreatment
The pre chemical treatment carried out with
Sodium Hydroxide solution shows that the immersion of a
PCB sample in 1M and 2M NaOH solution does not have
any impact on coating. Immersion of a PCB sample in 4M
and 6M NaOH solution shows a slight removal of coating.
While the treatment with 8M NaOH solution did not
brought about complete removal of coating, 10 M NaOH
solutions resulted in the complete removal of coating.
Table 3.1 shows the weight of PCBs after pretreatment.
Effect of pH
Table 3.1 Treatment with sodium hydroxide solution
The growth of the species in the e- waste was observed by

varying the pH at constant rotation speed of 160 rpm,
temperature of 25C and the optimum pH for the growth
of microbe were found out.
2.7.3.
Effect of rotation speed
The growth of the microbe in the e- waste was optimized

by varying the rotation speed at constant pH of 5,
temperature of 25C, incubation period of 92 hour and the
optimum rotation speed was found out.
2.7.4.
Trial
No.
1
2
3
4
Molarity of
sodium
hydroxide M
1
2
4
6
10
Effect of inoculum concentration
The optimum inoculum concentration for the better

solubilization of copper and lead was found by varying
Result
No change in coating
No change
Light removal of coating
Most of the coating still
remain in PCB itself
Few chemical coating
remain attached to the
metal. Not a complete
removal of coating
Complete removal of
green coating.
Page 288
3.2. Crushing
The filing of PCB yielded a powdered sample whose
diameter ranges between 0.5 mm to 1mm particle size.
Fig. 10. Calibration curve for iron
Fig. 8. Powdered sample

3.3. Analysis
Analysis of metal concentration in acid igested PCB
sample was carried out in UV VIS spectrophotometer.
Calibration curve for Copper, Aluminium, Iron, Lead and
Nickel are drawn by observing the absorbance of stock
solution and unknown concentration of corresponding
metals are obtained from the calibration.
Fig. 11. Calibration curve for lead
Fig. 9. Calibration curve for copper
Fig. 12.Calibration curve for nickel
Page 289
Table 3.2 Concentrations of metals in the sample after

dilution
Metals
Copper
Aluminium
Nickel
Lead
Iron
2.45
0.13
0.11
0.3
0.165
The metal content that was analysed with

spectrophotometer showed that metals like aluminium,
nickel, iron are found in trace amount, while high

percentage of copper is identified. The metal
concentration of sample is in the table 3.2.
The sample was initially diluted to the dilution
factor of 100000. Also from previous study it was found
out that 10000 ppm equals 1%. Using this relationship the
obtained concentration was converted to percentage of
metal. Then the metals present in 1 gm of the sample were
found out.
Thus the 1 gm of sample contains 245 mg of
copper, 30 mg of lead, 16.5 mg of iron, 6 mg of
aluminium
and
11
mg
of
Nickel.
GROWTH CURVE IN
BIOLEACHING MEDIUM
OD AT 315 nm
2.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
Fig. 13. Concentration of metals in PCB

The growth of P. chrysogenum in SDB and Bioleaching
medium (sucrose) in the absence of e- waste showed the
maximum growth at 315 nm. The highest absorbance
was found on 6th day after which the death phase starts.
When e- waste was added intitially the microbe lagged in
its growth for two days. The optimum growth was
observed on 9th day of inoculation.
6
8
TIME IN DAYS
10
12
Fig. 15. Growth curve in bioleaching medium
Fig. 16. Growth curve when sample added (Variation

in incubation period)
3.5. Optimization
Fig. 14. Growth curve in SBB
The parameters like incubation period, pH, rotational

speed of shaker, temperature for the maximum
solubilization of copper and lead are optimized. The
leached sample was diluted and analysed for the
determination of concentration of metals in UV VIS
spectrophotometer. The absorbance spectra for copper
Page 290
and lead are noted and their unknown concentration in

leachate was obtained from the calibration curve.
3.5.1. Variation in incubation period
The maximum solubilization of lead and copper are
observed on 21st day of inoculation.
3.5.2. Variation in pH
The optimum leaching efficiency of copper and lead was
observed at pH 3. Initially, the inoculation with e- waste
resulted in increase of pH due to the alkaline nature of ewaste. Inoculation in the media with pH 4 and pH 5
resulted in their own reduction in pH ranging between 2
to 3, three days after the addition of e- waste due to the
production of some organic acid by the fungi.
3.5.3. Variation in rotation speed

Maximum solubilization of copper and lead was
observed at the rotation speed of 160 rpm.
3.5.4. Variation in inoculum concentration
The inoculum concentration of 100 % showed the
maximum solubilization of copper and lead by 60 % and
82 % respectively with incubation period of 21 days.
Fig. 17. Growth curve AT pH 2

Page 291
Fig. 21. Variation in rotation speed
Fig. 22. Percentage metal solubilization: pH

optimization
Fig. 23. Percentage metal solubilization rotation speed optimization

Variation in inoculum concentration
Fig. 24. Percentage metal solubilization on inoculum optimization
Page 292
4.
Conclusion
Penicillium chrysogenum was obtained as

freeze dried culture from Microbial type culture
collection and Gene bank (MTCC), Chandigarh. It was
revived in distilled water. It was then grown in
Sabouraud dextrose broth and bioleaching medium
(sucrose).
Penicillium chrysogenum was cultured for in
control (bioleaching medium). After every 24 hours,
samples were collected and absorbance was noted in UV
VIS Spectrophotometer. Then the growth curve was
plotted.
Bioleaching parameters like pH, Rotation
speed, incubation period, inoculum concentration were
optimized for the extraction of copper and lead. Analysis
of metals in the leachate was analyzed using UV VIS
spectrophotometer. The concentration of copper and lead
in final leachate are 180000 ppm and 56000 ppm
respectively. The optimum pH of 3 and rotation speed of
160 rpm, incubation period 21 days, inoculum
concentration of 100 % gave the maximum solubilization
of copper and lead by 60 % and 82 % respectively.
5.
1)
2)
3)
REFERENCES
N.N. Adhapure, P.K. Dhakephalkar, A.P.
Dhakephalkar, V.R. Tembhurkar, A.V. Rajgure,
A.M. Deshmukh, 2014, Use of large pieces of
printed circuit boards for bioleaching to avoid
precipitate contamination problem and to simplify
overall metal recovery, MethodsX,
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/mex.
Jain Amit, Sareen Rajneeth, 2006, E-waste
assessment methodology and validation in India.
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Management, 8, pp 40-45.
Kurian joseph, 2007, Electronic waste
management in IndiaIssues and Strategies,
CISA, environmental Sanitary Engineering
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4) M.A. Rivero Hudec, M. Sodhi, and D. Goglia
Arora, June, 2009, Biorecovery of metals from
electronic waste, Latin American and Caribean
Conference for Engineering and Technology, Vol
46, pp 55.
5) William J. Hall, Paul T. Williams, 2007,
Separation and recovery of materials from scrap
printed circuit boards, Vol 51, Elseiver,
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6) Waldir A. Bizzo, Valdelis F. Andrade, 2014,
Characterization of printed circuit boards for
metal and energy recovery after milling and
mechanical separation, Materials,Vol 7.
7) Micheal P. Fuller, Peter R. Griffiths, Diffuse
reflectance measured by Fourier transform
infrared
spectroscopy,//pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/
8) Dietmar Rienecke, Friedrich Fister, 2010,
Quantitative determination of organic
compounds by diffuse reflectance in FTIR,
Renewable sciences, //pubs.acs.org//
9) K.S. Mohd Taha, A. Salminton, 2011,
Concentration profile behavioral from digestate
television printed circuit board for metal recovery
via electrolysis, http://scialert.net/abstract/
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Page 293

BEHAVIOR OF SINGLE PILE IN HORIZONTAL AND SLOPING GROUND UNDER

COMBINED LOADING
Jyoti S Patil 1, P G Rakaraddi 2
1
2
Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587103, India, jyoti.patil91@gmail.com

Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, 587103, India, pgraddi@yahoo.com
Photo of First
Author
in
JPEG Format
Abstract
Slopes sometimes are either man made or natural on which either structure are placed or construction activities
are carried out. Some examples of earth slopes are rail embankments, river training bunds, and excavation for mines
results in slope over which certain structures are required to be built. These structures are often tall and subjected to
large lateral loads, such as storms, winds, water, earth pressure and earthquakes. The main objective of the project is
experimental, where a testing apparatus has to be fabricated to conduct laboratory model test in sand. In each test,
number of parameters is varied such as: density (16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3) of sand, ground condition i.e.
sloping ground (150 and 200) and horizontal ground, relative position of the pile and loading conditions. The
comparisons of ultimate lateral load capacity for different densities at different positions in different ground conditions
were studied. The experimental results showed that the load carrying capacity decreases in the sloping ground when
compared to that of pile in the horizontal ground. It defines that the lateral capacity of pile on slope depends upon
relative position of the pile with respect to slope. The increase in the ground slope has very significant effect on ultimate
lateral load and pile head deflection of the pile. Since the lateral resistance offer in front of the pile is less compared to
horizontal ground which leads to the arching effect in soil reducing the lateral load capacity.
Keywords: Pile foundation, Sloping ground, Load-deflection curves, combined loading.
1. Introduction
The fast growing metropolitan areas and industrialization
has resulted from economic globalization, which has led to
build heavier and taller structures on marginal sites, where
surface soils are weak and preferring shallow foundations
are usually not the best design solution. Pile foundations are
slender structural elements used to transfer loads from
structures into lower level below the ground level. Many
transmission towers, high rise buildings, and bridges are
constructed near steep slopes and are supported by piles
[21]. Sometimes Earth slopes are either man made or natural
on which either structure are placed or construction activities
are carried out. Typical examples of earth slopes are rail
embankments, river training bunds, dredging for berthing
structures, excavation for mines results in slope over which
certain facilities are required to be built. These facilities are
often tall and subjected to large lateral loads, such as violent
winds, water, earth pressure and earthquakes [19] [21].
Many studies have been undertaken on piles subjected
to axial (tension or compression) load and lateral load or
combination of these loads [19].The response of piles under
combined loading is more complex and difficult to analyze
[7]. However little information is available for studying the
behavior of single pile in sloping ground condition under
different loading conditions [10][19][21][17]. In this project
the studies are carried out to investigate the effect of slope

on the lateral capacity of single pile with respect to pile head
deflection and its comparison with the horizontal ground.
Generally, there are many readily available solutions
(empirical, semi-empirical, numerical and analytical) for the
analysis and design of piles [11]. However, the current
design assumptions treat the behavior of single pile in
sloping ground and horizontal ground at different positions
with varying densities. In order to address the lateral load
carrying capacity and pile head deflection acting on the pile,
an analysis can be achieved through experiments.
The main focus of the project is experimental,
where a testing apparatus has to be fabricated to perform
laboratory model test in sand. In each test of the pile,
number of parameters is varied such as: density (16.9kN/m3,
17.3 kN/m3 and 17.6 kN/m3) of sand, ground condition i.e.
sloping (150 and 200) and horizontal ground, relative
position of the pile. The model setup box is prepared of
wood with the dimensions supporting the stress zone of
influence of model pile made up of mild steel in sand. A
several number of tests on single pile made up of mild steel
embedded in different density of sand attained by sand
raining technique will be conducted. The pile is embedded at
different positions (+9D, +5D, +3D, 0, -3D,-5D,-9D) on
horizontal (+) and sloping (-) ground which is subjected to
combined loading (vertical + Lateral) with different
combinations of constant vertical load (0Vult, 0.25Vult,
0.50Vult and 0.75Vult) and incremental lateral loads [17] [20].
Page 294
2. Materials and Experimental Study

Pile testing plays an important role in the field of deep
foundation design. A comprehensive laboratory tests are
carried out on sand in order to determine its deformation
pattern under combined loading when modeled steel piles
were driven through horizontal and sloping ground. The
method of testing the pile has been explained here.
The properties of materials used in present work are
i. Soil medium
The medium of soil used in the present study is
collected from Krishna river sand, Krishna Mandal, Andhra
Pradesh. The grain size analysis test was carried out
according to IS 2720 (Part 4)-1985 [1][4]. The basic and
index properties of the sand are determined from laboratory
experiments according to IS code of practices. The sand is
filled in the test tank at different densities that is 16.9kN/m3,
17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3. The angle of friction () is to be
obtained from the laboratory direct shear test and the results
are summarized in Table No 1 and 2 .The soil is graded as
poorly graded soil and symbolic representation as
SP[2][5][6]
Table 1. Basic and index properties of Krishna river
sand used in the study
Sl.No
1.
Parameters
Results
Seive analysis
Effective Size, D10(mm)
D30(mm)
D60(mm)
Uniformity coefficient(Cu)
Coefficient of curvature(Cc)
0.36
0.52
0.84
2.33
0.9
Specific Gravity(G)
2.7
Maximum dry unit weight

(kN/m3)
Minimum dry unit weight
(kN/m3)
18
16.1
Table 2. Density determined for different height of fall

by raining technique and Angle of internal friction ()
determined from direct shear test.
Height of fall mm)
100
200
300
Density (kN/m3)
16.9
17.3
17.6
Angle of internal
31.5
34.5
36.5
friction()
ii.Model pile
The model pile is made up of mild steel. They are
of 15mm diameter and 300mm length (L/D=20, where D=
diameter of pile). One end of the pile is tapered at an angle
of 40o which is to be embedded into the sand and other end
of the pile is threaded to fix it to the pile cap.
iii.Box
The sand tank is made up of size 600mm x 600mm
x 600mm. The tank is stiffened at all the sides with wooden
battens of 50mmx25mm in section to avoid the bulging of
the tank during preparation of sand bed and also during
loading process.
iv.Screw jack
A hand operated jack will be used in the present
study having a capacity of 2T.
v.Loading Plates
Loading Plates are used for the application of the
lateral load. The loading plates of 0.14 kg, 0.5 kg, 1 kg and
1.5kg are used.
vi.Loading Frame
The loading frame consists of two vertical iron L
section channels of size 4cm width, 6mm thickness and
height 2 meter from the ground level, which is 1.5 m apart,
and the horizontal C section steel channel used size of 4cm
width, 6mm thickness. The handed operated screw jack is
fixed in the inverted direction at the centre of horizontal
section.
vii. LVDT with display unit
The deflection is measured using LVDT which is
connected to display unit.
viii. Proving ring
The proving ring are of 25mm run with 5 tons with
least count of (1div = 0.063KN).
2.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The schematic line diagram of the experimental setup is
shown in Fig. 1. The present investigation was carried out in
the Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory of the civil
engineering department, Basaveshwara Engineering College,
Bagalkot India. All the tests were conducted using the setup
shown in Fig. 1, which consists of
i) Inverted Screw jack
ii) Pile
iii) Loading Frame
iv) Proving Ring
v) Load Cells
vi) LVDT with display unit.
Page 295
In present, the study is focused on single pile. The

position of piles and slope angles are varied for three
different soil densities.
Table 3. Parameters to be varied
Sl.No
Parameter
1
Soil density
Ground
Condition
Position of pile
Fig. 1. Photographical view of experimental setup.
Load
Combinations
Variations
16.9 KN/m3, 17.3 KN/m3 and

17.6 KN/m3
Horizontal ground, 150 slope
and 200 slope.
+9D,+5D,+3D,0,-3D,-5D&-9D
(+ Horizontal,- Slope, Ddiameter of pile)
Lateral load only.
2.2.3 Loading Procedure

The model pile is driven directly into the sand bed
at relative positions. The lateral load is applied towards the
slope. For the application of the load high tension wire is
used. The schematic representation of the set up is shown in
Fig.1. The model test pile is embedded in both horizontal
and sloping ground at relative positions ((+9D, +5D, +3D, 0
Crest, -3D,-5D,-9D) on horizontal (+) and sloping (-)
ground. The Vertical load is applied through a jack
connected to proving ring and sometimes also with load cells
and lateral load is applied by using load plates. LVDT
connected to display unit is used to measure the horizontal
displacement of the pile head under different combined
loading conditions. The embedment length of the pile in the
present study is kept 290mm constant and the eccentricity of
60 mm is also maintained constant vertically for application
of lateral load. The vertical load (0Vult, 0.25Vult, 0.50Vult and
0.75Vult) is kept constant and lateral deformations are
recorded for each increment of lateral loading. The test is
repeated for three different densities and two different
slopes.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of relative position of pile.
3. Results and Conclusion

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.2.1 Sand bed preparation
For conducting model tests, the sand bed is to be
prepared in the test tank using a raining technique. The
height of fall to achieve the desired density is to be
determined prior by conducting a series of trials with
different heights of fall. The density achieved was confirmed
by collecting samples in small containers of known volume
placed at different depths in the test tank at the time of
filling and determining the density of sand. After preparing
the sand bed in the test tank, the top surface of the sand bed
is leveled and sloping ground is made by marking the depth
to get respective slope on either side of the box. This pattern
is followed for all the test series.
2.2.2 Parameters to be varied
This chapter includes observations and discussions of the

results obtained from the experiments carried out to
examine.
i) Deflection of Pile head for combined load( Vertical +
Lateral)
ii) Behavior of pile in sloping and horizontal ground.
There are several interpretation methods to evaluate the
ultimate loads [22] [23]. For the present study, the ultimate
load was determined by the line drawing corresponding to
3mm (20% of pile diameter) pile head displacement to the
respective graph corresponding to ultimate load carrying
capacity in kN. The results obtained are discussed and
shown in below figures.
Page 296
3.1 LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVES OF SINGLE PILE

FOR 150 SLOPING GROUND
0.030
0 Vult
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
0.030
0.50 Vult
0.025
Lateral load in kN

corresponding to 3mm (20% of pile diameter) on X axes
which cuts the graphs of different position and extend the
intersecting points on Y axes, the corresponding values will
be the ultimate lateral load (Qu) [9].
The load deflection curves of single pile for
different density of 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.9kN/m3
for 150 sloping ground with different combined loading
conditions are shown in Fig 3, 4 and 5 respectively. The Fig
3 (a), (b), (c) and (d) represents the load deflection curves
for 16.9kN/m3 density with the loading condition of 0Vult,
0.25Vult, 0.5Vult and 0.75Vult respectively. The same is
represented in Fig 4 and Fig 5 for 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3
respectively. From the Fig 3 - 5 and table 4it is observed
that;
density 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3 is
tabulated in table 4. From which it is clear that
lateral load carrying capacity of the pile depends on
density, loading combinations, ground condition
and also relative position of pile.
The ultimate lateral load carrying capacity of the
pile increases, with increase in the application of
vertical load that is from 0Vult, 0.25Vult, 0.50Vult
and 0.75Vult.The value of Qu increases with the
increase in the density of soil medium.
capacity of the pile also increases irrespective of
presence or absence of vertical load.
crest0 i.e., away from the slope (+3D, +5D and
+9D).
crest 0 i.e., towards the slope (-3D, -5D and -9D).
carrying capacity is less compared to horizontal and
sloping ground.
sloping ground when compared to that of pile in the
horizontal ground.
0.020
0.015
0.010
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
(b)
0.005
0.000
0
(c)
Page 297
0.030
0.25 Vult
0.75 Vult
0.030
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
0.000
Pile head deflection in mm

(d)
(b)

0.50 Vult
0.035
0 Vult
0.030
0.030
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
0.000
0

(c)
Page 298
0.030
0 Vult
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
0.035
0.25 Vult
0.75 Vult
0.030
0.030
0.025
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
+0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.020
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(d)
(b)

Page 299
0.055
0.50 Vult
0.035
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.050
0.045
0.030
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.040
0.025
0.020
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.035
0.75 Vult
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.000
(c)
(d)

Table 4.Ultimate lateral loads of Single Pile for horizontal ground and 150 slopes obtained from the graphs.
Error
Density of
sand
(kN/m3)
1.7e+
16.9
17.3
17.6
Vertical
loading
Conditions
+9D
+5D

+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0 Vult
0.0240
0.0235
0.0230
0.0180
0.0190
0.0210
0.0220
0.25 Vult
0.0260
0.0223
0.0210
0.0160
0.0178
0.0180
0.0195
0.50Vult
0.0265
0.025
0.0240
0.0125
0.0215
0.0225
0.0240
0.75 Vult
0.0280
0.0265
0.0245
0.0130
0.0205
0.0215
0.0240
0 Vult
0.0265
0.0248
0.0223
0.0145
0.0205
0.0210
0.0215
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0215
0.0225
0.0230
0.0240
0.50Vult
0.0325
0.0310
0.0270
0.0125
0.0220
0.0230
0.0270
0.75 Vult
0.0335
0.0310
0.0240
0.0120
0.0215
0.0220
0.0240
0 Vult
0.0270
0.0265
0.0255
0.0165
0.0215
0.0220
0.0240
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0175
0.020
0.0210
0.0220
0.50Vult
0.0320
0.0275
0.0260
0.0180
0.0210
0.0230
0.0240
0.75 Vult
0.0480
0.0410
0.0270
0.0160
0.020
0.0210
0.0230
Page 300
3.2 LOADS-DEFLECTION CURVES OF SINGLE

PILE FOR 200 SLOPING GROUND
0 Vult
0.025
Lateral load in kN
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(a)
0.25 Vult
0.035
0.030
0.025
Lateral load in kN

corresponding to 3mm (20% of pile diameter) [9]. The
Load Deflection curves for 200 slope, different
densities, different loading conditions and different
relative positions are shown in the following figures.
The load deflection curves of single pile for different
density of 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3 for 200
sloping ground with different combined loading
conditions are shown in Fig 6, 7 and 8 respectively. The
Fig 6 (a), (b), (c) and (d) represents the load deflection
curves for 16.9kN/m3 density with the loading condition
of 0Vult, 0.25Vult, 0.5Vult and 0.75Vult respectively. The
same is represented in Fig 7 and Fig 8 for 17.3kN/m3 and
17.6kN/m3 respectively. From the Fig 6 - 8 and table 5, it
is observed that;
density 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3
is tabulated in table 4.2. From which it is clear
that lateral load carrying capacity of the pile
depends on density, loading combinations,
ground condition and also relative position of
pile.
The ultimate lateral load carrying capacity of
the pile increases, with increase in the
application of vertical load that is from 0Vult,
0.25Vult, 0.50Vult and 0.75Vult.The value of Qu
increases with the increase in the density of soil
medium.
capacity of the pile also increases irrespective
of presence or absence of vertical load.
+5D and +9D).
and -9D).
and sloping ground.
0.030
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
(b)
Page 301
0.50 Vult
0.030
0.030
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0 Vult
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
(c)
0.75 Vult
(a)
0.030
0.035
0.25 Vult
0.030
0.025
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0

(d)
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
(b)

Page 302
0.50 Vult
0.035
0 Vult
0.030
0.030
0.025
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.020
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
0.020
(c)
(a)
0.75 Vult
0.035
0.25 Vult
0.035
0.030
0.030
0.025
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
(d)
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
0
0.020
-0.005
0
(b)

Page 303
0.50 Vult
0.035
0.030
0.05
0.020
Lateral load in kN
Lateral load in kN
0.025
0.015
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.75 Vult
+9D
+5D
+3D
0
-3D
-5D
-9D
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
-0.005
0
(c)
0.00

0
(d)

Table 5 Ultimate lateral loads of Single Pile for horizontal ground and 200 slopes obtained from the
graphs.
Error
Density of
sand
(kN/m3)
1.7e+
Vertical
loading
Conditions
+9D
+5D
+3D
0 Vult
0.0240
0.0235
0.0230
0.0160
0.0180
0.0190
0.0215
0.0250
0.0222
0.0210
0.0125
0.0160
0.0175
0.0185
0.25 Vult
17.6
-9D
16.9
17.3

0
-3D
-5D
0.50Vult
0.0260
0.025
0.0240
0.0110
0.0180
0.0215
0.0235
0.75 Vult
0.0275
0.0265
0.0245
0.0110
0.0180
0.0200
0.0230
0 Vult
0.0260
0.0248
0.0220
0.0125
0.0175
0.0185
0.0210
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0170
0.0190
0.0210
0.0240
0.50Vult
0.0325
0.0310
0.0270
0.0090
0.0175
0.0180
0.0270
0.75 Vult
0.0335
0.0310
0.0240
0.0110
0.0180
0.0195
0.0230
0 Vult
0.0270
0.0265
0.0255
0.0130
0.0180
0.0205
0.0225
0.25 Vult
0.0280
0.0260
0.0240
0.0140
0.0170
0.0180
0.0200
0.50Vult
0.0320
0.0275
0.0260
0.0140
0.0180
0.0220
0.0240
0.75 Vult
0.0480
0.0410
0.0270
0.0145
0.0180
0.0205
0.0225
Page 304

Comparing the results from Fig 3 8 and tables
4 and 5, it is observed that;
load capacity.
the ultimate lateral load decreases upto 16 %.
4. Conclusion
Laboratory model test results of single pile for different
density 16.9kN/m3, 17.3kN/m3 and 17.6kN/m3 at
different positions with different loading and ground
conditions have been presented in the chapter 4. Based
on the results, following conclusions were drawn.
The increase in the density of soil leads to the
increase in the load carrying capacity of single
pile irrespective of slopes.
The load carrying capacity decreases in the
It defines that the lateral capacity of pile on
slope depends upon relative position of the pile
with respect to slope.
+5D and +9D).
and -9D).
and sloping ground.
load capacity.

the ultimate lateral load decreases up to 16 %.
Acknowledgments
The successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mentioning the people who made it
possible. So it is with the gratitude that I acknowledge
the help, which crowned my efforts with success. I am
extremely thankful and indebted to my guide Dr. P. G.
Rakaraddi for his able guidance, valuable time spent,
relentless effort and constant encouragement in the entire
tenure of the Project work. It will not be an over
statement that the entire journey of the research work is
enlightened with his vision and mission. My special
thanks go to our department staffs, attainders and friends
for their cheerful support during execution of project.
Last but not the least I extend my thanks to my entire
family members and all others who helped me directly or
indirectly in completion of this task.
Page 305
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Methods of Test for Soils: Direct Shear Test
(Second Revision), Bureau of standards, New
Delhi, India.
[15] Kasinathan
Muthukkumaran,
Ranganathan
Sundaravadivelu, Sailesh Rajinikanth Gandhi.
Effect of sloping ground on single pile load
deflection behavior under lateral soil movement.
Proceedings of 13th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C, Canada,
August 1-6, 2004.
[16] K. Rajagopal, S. Karthigeyan. Influence of
Combined Vertical and Lateral Loading on the
Lateral Response Of Piles. The 12th International
Conference of International Association for
Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG), 1-6 October, 2008, Goa,
India.
[17] Leland.M.K .Performance of axially loaded pipe
piles in sand. Journal of geotechnical engineering,
ASCE, Vol.117.No.2,1991.
[18] Mohammed Younus Ahmed, Satyam D. Neelima
Numerical Analysis of a pile subjected to lateral
loads. Geotide, IGC 2009, Guntur, India.
[19] Murugan M, Natarajan C, Muthukkumaran K
Behaviour Laterally Loaded Piles in Cohesionless

Soils. International Journal of Earth Sciences and
Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 04, No 06
SPL, October 2011, pp. 104-106.
[20] Poulos.H.G & Davis.E.H. Pile foundation analysis
and design. Newyork, Wiley, 1980.
[21] Pise, P.J. Investigations on Laterally Loaded Pile
Groups. Symposium on Recent Developments in
the Analysis of Soil Behavior and their Application
to Geotechnical Structures, Sydney, Australia,
pp.129-144, 1975.
[22] S Karthigeyan, Ramakrishna, VVGST and
Rajagopal, K Numerical Investigation of the
Effect of Vertical Load on the Lateral Response of
Piles Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,133(5): 512521, 2007.
[23] Salini U, Girish M. S Lateral load Capacity of
Model Piles on Cohesionless Soil EJGE, volume
14, 2009.
[24] S. Karthigeyan, Rajagopal K. Lateral response of
2x2 pile groups under combined axial and lateral

loading. Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical
Conference -2009, December 16- 19, 2009,
Guntur, 665 -668.
[25] S. Karthigeyan. Lateral Response Pile Group under
combined Loading in Sandy soil, Indian
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pile in sloping ground under static lateral load
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[28] Werasak Raongjant, Meng Jing Experimental
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September 2011.
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Page 307
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON STRENGTH AND FIRE

RESISTANCE OF HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
K.ATHI GAJENDRAN1, Dr.R.ANURADHA2, Dr.G.S.VENKATASUBRAMANI3
1
Ph.D Scholar, Karpagam University, Coimbatore, 641 021, India, k.adhigajendran@gmail.com

2
SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, PIN Code, India, anuradhastalin@gmail.com
3
Paavai Engineering College, Namakkal, 637018, India, E-mail
Abstract
The aim of this Study is to evaluate the performance of High performance concrete (HPC) containing supplementary
cementations materials such as Fly ash and silica fume and Metakaolin.. This study is mainly concentrated on the Compressive
strength and split tensile strength and flexural strength at age of 28 and 56 days. M60 grade HPC mixes incorporating
different percentages of high reactivity metakaolin and silica fume by weight of cement along with suitable super plasticizer.
The results of the study indicate that the strength properties of HPC mixes improved by incorporating metakoalin and silica
fume up to a desirable content of 15% and 5% respectively by weight of cement.
Fire represents one of the most severe environmental conditions to which structures may be subjected and hence the
provision of appropriate fire safety measures for structural members is an important aspect of design. This may be achieved
only by understanding the physical and mechanical properties of the selected construction materials at elevated temperatures
and their influence on the overall performance of the structure. The damage to concrete caused by fire can range from minor
aesthetic blemishes to more serious damages such as external cracking, delamination, spalling, internal micro cracking and
chemical changes. An attempt has been made in this paper to study the effect of elevated temperature ranging from 300 to
900oC on High performance concrete cubes and prisms exposed to durations of 30 minutes, 60 minutes and 90 minutes. High
performance concrete of grade M60 was developed by a suitable mix design procedure.
Keywords: Metakoalin, Silica fume, High performance concrete, Fire technology
1. Introduction
Concrete provides better fire resistance than many
building materials. This excellent fire performance is mainly
due to concretes constituent materials (i.e. cement and
aggregates) which, when chemically combined, form a
material that is essentially inert and has poor thermal
conductivity. The only potential risk to the concrete during
fire occurs in the form of spalling, which principally affects
High Performance Concrete (HPC). High performance
concrete (HPC) having excellent deformability and
segregation resistance. Temperature is one of the important
factors which affect the durability of concrete. High
temperature associated with other factors like high humidity
has significant effect on the durability of concrete. High
temperature causes dramatic physical and chemical changes,
resulting in the deterioration of the concrete. An assessment
of the degree of deterioration of the concrete structure after
exposure to high temperatures can help Engineers to decide
whether a structure can be repaired rather than required to be
demolished. Civil and Structural Engineers are often not
familiar with fire safety issues, and fire protection design is
currently being overlooked by structural consultants in their
projects. The fire resistance depends on many parameters

such as grade of concrete, grade of steel, fire load, duration
of fire, cover to concrete, type of aggregate, size of members
etc. Only very few literature is available on fire resistance of
HPC. An attempt has been made to carry out an
experimental investigation to understand the behaviour of
HPC under fire load.
1.1 High Performance Concrete
American Concrete Institute defines High
Performance Concrete as A concrete which meets special
performance and uniformity requirements that cannot
always be achieved routinely by using only conventional
materials and normal mixing, placing and curing practices.
In general HPC mixes possess high durability and high
strength when compared to that of the normal conventional
concrete.
For producing HPC, it is well recognised that the use of
supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume
(SF), fly ash (FA) are necessary. When these materials are
used as mineral admixtures, they improve the strength and
durability properties of the concrete.
Page 308
High performance concrete works out to be economical,

even though its initial cost is higher than that of
conventional concrete because the use of High Performance
Concrete in construction enhances the service life of the
structure and the structure suffers less damage which would
reduce overall costs.
Yaragal et al. [13] determined the strengths of cube
specimens subjected to elevated temperatures ranging from
100_C to 800_C, in steps of 100_C with a retention period
of 2 h. After exposure, weight losses and the residual
compressive strength retention characteristics were studied.
Test results indicated that weight and strength significantly
reduced with an increase in temperature. As the exposed
temperature increases, loss in weight of specimen increased,
above 200_C. With increase in grade of concrete, there was
a decrease in loss of weight of specimen after subjecting to
elevated temperatures. In general there was a substantial loss
(74%) in strength of M20, M25 and M30 grades of concretes
when exposed to higher temperatures. However for M35,
M40 and M45 grades, strength loss was around 80%. The
observed minimum residual strength was found to be 18%
for M45 at 800_C. Equations to predict the residual
compressive strength for two ranges of temperature were
derived for NSC.
Li et al. [10] investigated the effect of temperature exposure
on compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and
flexural strength of normal and high-strength concrete
(HSC). Oil furnace was used in this study for heating the
specimens. The temperature time curve was close to the
standard curve, which conformed to Chinese standard GB/T
9978 to 1999. After being heated to temperatures of 200_C,
400_C, 600_C, 800_C and 1,000_C respectively, the
mechanical properties of HSC were found. The influence of
temperature, water content, size of specimen, strength and
temperature profiles on mechanical properties of HSC was
discussed. They concluded that the strength losses in larger
specimens were found to be less.
Noumowe et al. [11] carried out an investigation to
understand the behavior of conventional vibrated high
strength concrete and self-compacting high strength concrete
at high temperature. Based on the results they concluded
that, the residual mechanical properties of self-compacting
high strength concretes were similar to that of conventional
HSC. The risk of spalling for self-compacting high
strength concrete was greater than that of conventional HSC.
The test results showed that severe spalling could occur with
self-compacting HSC even at a heating rate as low as
0.5_C/min.
Tao et al. [12] reported the results of a laboratory

investigation carried out to study the effects of high
temperatures ranging from room temperature to 800_C on
the compressive strength of SCC and HSC. It was reported
that the hot compressive strength of SCC decreased with
increase in temperature. It was found that grade of concrete
had an effect on the strength loss of concrete, especially in
the temperature range below 400_C. Higher grades of SCC
resulted in higher loss 1270 Fire Technology 2014 of
strength. But this difference was found to be less in the
permanent strength loss stage. Compared with normal
strength SCC, high strength SCC was found to possess a
larger compressive strength when exposed to high
temperature. It was also reported that addition of
polypropylene fibers decreased the strength. However the
addition reduced the probability of explosive spalling.
Anand.N et al [1] studied an experimental investigation has
been carried out to find the
behaviour of SCC beams
exposed to higher temperatures. The reduction in the
ultimate load and flexural strength of the specimens that are
cooled by spraying water was found to be more than that of
the specimens cooled by air. The specimens that are kept at
900oc for 90 minutes collapsed completely when cooled by
spraying water. The specimens that are cured for 56 days
exhibited similar behaviour even though the 56 day strength
of the specimens were higher than the 28 day strength. The
56 day strength of the reference specimens were nearly
15.38% higher than the 28 day strength. The loss of strength
of the specimens exposed to 900 o c for 30 minutes, 60
minutes and 90 minutes were found to be much higher than
the other exposure conditions.
Chan.L et al [14] carried out an experimental program to
study the mechanical properties and pore structure of high
performance concrete (HPC) and normal strength concrete
after exposure to high temperature. After the concrete
specimens were subjected to temperature of 800 C, their
residual compressive strength was measured. The porosity
and porosimetry. The test results showed that (HPC) had
higher residual strength, although the strength of (HPC)
degenerated more sharply than the normal strength
concrete after exposure to high temperature. They found that
the changes in pore structure could be used to indicate the
degradation of mechanical property of (HPC) subjected to
high temperature.
2.Material And Properties
2.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is manufactured in the
form of different grades, the most common in India being
Page 309
Grade-53, Grade-43, & Grade-33. OPC is manufactured by

burning siliceous material like limestone at 1400 degree
Celsius and thereafter grinding it with gypsum. Properties of
Coarse Aggregate are shown in table 1.
aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the

fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and
to act as a workability agent.
2.4 Fly Ash
Table 1 Properties of Cement

Particulars
Test Value
Fineness modulus
5%
Specific gravity
3.15
Consistency
30%
35 min
Final setting time
590 min
2.2 Coarse Aggregates

Coarse aggregate contributes to impermeability of concrete,
provided that it is properly graded and the mix is suitably
designed. Coarse aggregate in cement concrete contributes
to the heterogeneity of the cement concrete and there is a
weak interface between cement matrix and aggregate surface
in cement concrete. These two factors result in lower
strength of concrete. But in HPC, by restricting the
maximum size of aggregate and also by making the
transition zone stronger by usage of mineral admixtures, the
cement concrete becomes more homogenous and there is a
marked enhancement in the strength properties as well as
durability characteristics of concrete. Properties of Coarse
Aggregate are shown in table 2.
Table 2 Properties of Coarse Aggregate
Particulars
Test Value
Fineness modulus
2.66
Specific gravity
2.64
Water absorption
0.25%
Bulk density
1638 kg/m3
2.3 Fine Aggregate

The sand was first sieved through 4.75mm sieve to remove
any particles greater than 4.75mm. For increased workability
and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the fine
Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverized coal,

usually from coal-fired power plants1. Fly ash solidifies in
the exhaust gases and is collected by electrostatic
precipitators or filter bags. The chemical composition and
physical characteristics of the fly ash from a coal-fired
furnace are controlled by the type of coal and the processing
conditions of the furnace3. These vary not only from one
plant to another but also within the same plant. Variations in
the chemical composition of fly ashes are, therefore natural.
Fly ash increases the workability of concrete. Workability
refers to the ease with which the concrete is mixed, placed
and cured without losing its homogeneity. At equivalent
slump fly ash concrete is more workable than that of a plain
cement concrete. Less water is needed for the same slump
and the concrete gets more cohesive and the occurrence of
segregation decreases. Fly ashes generally have a negative
effect on the early compressive strength of concrete. But, it
increases the later strength gain.
2.5 Metakaolin
It has been well recognised that the use of pozzolanic
materials like silica fume (SF) and fly ash (FA) is necessary
for producing high performance concrete.Metakaolin is a
thermally activated alumina-silicate material obtained by
calcining kaolin clay within the temperature range 650800C.
It is fired (Calcined) under carefully controlled conditions to
create an amorphous alumina silicate that is reactive in
concrete. Like other pozzolans (fly ash and silica fume are
two common pozzolans), metakaolin reacts with the calcium
hydroxide (lime) byproducts produced during cement
hydration.
Calcium hydroxide accounts for upto 25% of the hydrated
Portland cement, and calcium hydroxide does not contribute
to the concretes strength or durability. Metakaolin
combines with the calcium hydroxide to produce additional
cementing compounds, the material responsible for holding
the concrete together. Less calcium hydroxide and more
cementing compounds means stronger concrete. It is very
fine and highly reactive, gives fresh concrete a creamy,
nonsticky texture that makes finishing easier.
Caldarone MA (1994), Metakaolin is compatible with most
concrete admixtures, such as superplasticizers, retarders,
accelerators, etc. Based on previous experience, replacing
Page 310
10-15% of the cement with Metakaolin gives us an optimal

performance.BB Sabir (2001), It has been reported that the
concrete incorporating 10% MK had a higher compressive
strength at all ages upto 180 days. MHZhang et al., When
compared with SF concrete at the same level of replacement,
MK concrete showed a faster strength development at early
ages, but had similar strength after 28 days. Physical and
Chemical Properties of Metakaolin is shown in table 3 and
table 4.
Table 3 Physical Properties of Metakaolin (ASTRAA
chemicals)
Appearance
Off-white
Ph
4.5-5.5
Bulk density
0.4-0.5
Specific surface area
19-20
Specific gravity
2.6
Table 4 Chemical Properties of Metakaolin

(ASTRAA chemicals)
concrete is required. Chemical Properties of Silica Fume

(ASTRAA chemicals) shown in table 5.
Table 5 Chemical Properties of Silica Fume (ASTRAA
chemicals)
SiO2
99.5%
Al2O3
0.08%
TiO2
0.04%
CaO
0.01%
MgO
0.01%
L.O.I
0.28%
Alkalies
0.29%
2.7 Super Plasticizer

The super plasticizer used in this study is CONPLAST
SP430 ConplastSP430 confirms to IS:9103 :1999 as a water
reducing admixture and carries license from Bureau of
Indian Standards. It also complies with IS 2645:1975 and
BS 5075 Part 3 and ASTM C494 Type F. ConplastSP430 is
based on a blend of specifically selected organic polymers.
It is supplied as a dark brown liquid, instantly dispersible in
water. Conplast430 disperses the cement particles
effectively in the concrete mix and hence exposes a larger
surface area to the hydration process. This effect is used
either to increase the strength or to produce high workability
concrete or reduce cement content of concrete or to retard
the setting time of concrete.
Si
52.0 %
Al2O3
46.0%
Fe2O3
0.60 (max)%
TiO2
0.65(max)%
CaO
0.09(max)%
3.1 Fresh Concrete Property
MgO
0.03(max)%
Na2O
0.10(max)%
K2O
0.03 (max)%
Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material

which can be moulded into any shape. The relative
quantities of cement, aggregate and water mixed together
control the properties of concrete in the wet state as well as
in the hardened state.
3. Test On Hardened Concrete (HPC)
2.6 Silica Fume
3.2 Workability Studies
It is a very reactive and effective pozzolanic material due to

its fine particle size and high purity of SiO2 (99.5%)
content. It enhances the mechanical properties, durability
and constructability in concrete. It is used in the production
of High strength & High performance concrete. The
recommended dosage is 7-10% of the cement weight added
to the concrete. Silica fume is the most commonly used
mineral admixture in high strength concrete. It is used in the
construction of high performance concrete structures like
bridges where the strength and durability properties of the
3.2.1 Slump Cone Test

The slump value plays a major role in HPC. By the value of
slump it is possible to know the effectiveness in HPC . Due
to low water/binder ratio the slump value should be
minimum. The slump values also determine the robustness
of the mix, segreation,bleeding in the mix. The minimum
value of slump is to be 40mm and a maximum of 80mm for
a fresh HPC. The slump values for different mixes are
shown in table 8 Slump flow is obtained as shown in Fig 1.
Page 311
5. Mechanical Properites
5.1 Compressive Strength Test Result
Compression Test Compression test is the most common test
conducted on hardened concrete, because it is an easy test to
perform and most desirable characteristic properties of
concrete are qualitatively related to its compressive strength.
The compression test is carried out on specimen in cubical
or in cylindrical shape. Table 9 shows the compressive
strength for various mixes (8).
Fig 1 Slump flow value

Table 8 Slump flow
Table 9: Cube compressive strength of concrete at

Slump (mm)
Mix
different ages
proportions (%)
Case 1
55
Case 2
52
Case 3
50
Case 4
46
Case 5
58
Case 6
52
CASES
4. Mix Proportion
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
(N/mm )
(N/mm )
(N/mm )
(N/mm2)
Case 1
44.29
53.82
63.33
65.86
Case 2
25.480
33.39
38.66
45.69
Case 3
18.45
25.92
42.34
48.93
Case 4
23.26
29.37
47.15
55.80
Case 5
21.79
27.03
50.22
61.75
Case 6
20.41
27.53
44.32
56.49
5.2 Split Tensile Strength Test
Mix proportion is shown in table 6 and 7.

Table 6 Mix ratio
Mix no
7 Days
Case
Case
Case3
Case4
Case5
Case6
1 (in
(in
(in
(in
(in
%)
(in
%)
%)
%)
%)
%)
The split tensile results show that the concrete containing

admixtures 15 %SF, 5%MK, 50%FA, 30% C, has better
split tensile strength compared to the normal conventional
concrete and also other concrete mixes containing
admixtures. It is noticed that the strength gain happens only
in later stages in case of admixture concrete unlike normal
concrete. The other mixes too have achieved a considerable
strength, but it is less when compared to Case 5 which is
shown in table 10.
Cement
100
30
30
30
30
30
Fly ash
50
50
50
50
50
Table 10 Split tensile strength of cylinder at different age
Silica fume
10
15
20
of loading
Metakaolin
20
15
10
Table 7 Mix Proportion

Water
Cement
Fine aggregate
Coarse
aggregate
141.61
lit/m3
504.21
kg/m3
683.24 kg/m3
1108.13 kg/m3
0.280
1.35
2.19
MIXES
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
Case 1
2.91
3.04
3.61
3.70
Case 4
2.28
2.43
3.01
3.41
Case 5
2.24
2.34
3.24
3.72
Case 6
2.037
2.24
3.04
3.37
Page 312
5.3 Flexural Strength Test
Case 4
3.31
3.57
4.66
5.12
Concrete as we know is relatively strong in compression and

weak in tension. Tensile stresses are likely to develop in
concrete due to drying shrinkage, rusting of steel
reinforcement, temperature gradients and many other results.
Direct measurement of tensile strength of concrete is
carried out on 100 x 100 x 500 mm size prism. The test
results were tabulated in table I1 using the stress values the
flexural strength of binder (9).
Table 11 Flexural strength of prism at different age of
Case 5
3.4
3.71
4.91
5.57
Case 6
3.11
3.51
4.61
4.93
loading
Mixes
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
Case 1
4.45
4.79
5.49
5.65
6. Fire Resistance
Concrete as we know is relatively strong in
compression and weak in tension. Tensile stresses are likely
to develop in concrete due to drying shrinkage, rusting of
steel reinforcement, temperature gradients and many other
results. Direct measurement of tensile strength of concrete is
carried out on 100 x 100 x 500 mm size prism were cast.
Half of the prism was cured for 28 days. After curing, all the
prism specimens were dried to exposure high temperatures.
The details of the tests carried out the shown in the table 12.
Table 12 Details of the test carried out

Tempertures (oC)
Reference Prism with
RCC
Room Temperature
300
Duration of heating
(min)
-
Nature of Cooling
-
No of specimens tested
3
3
Air
300
Room Temperature to
300
30, 60, 90
9
3
Water spraying
300
Room Temperature to
600
30, 60, 90
9
3
Air
600
Room Temperature to
600
30, 60, 90
9
3
Water spraying
600
Room Temperature to
900
30, 60, 90
9
3
Air
900
Room Temperature to
900
30, 60, 90
9
3
Water spraying
900
30, 60, 90
Page 313
Table 13 Compressive strength and Flexural strength of HPC cubes and prisms at 28 days
6.1 Testing of HPC Prism Subjected to Elevated

Temperature
An electric furnace was used to heat the specimens.
The
inner
dimensions
of
the
furnace
are
500mmx500mmx500mm. The sides and top are lined with

electrical heating coils embedded in refractory bricks. The
control panel has a temperature controller to prevent damage
to the furnace by tripping out, if the temperature inside the
Page 314
7. Result and Discussions

As per above results, the normal conventional concrete for
M60 mix is achieved according to standards. But, the
concrete containing admixtures explicit slower strength gain
at 7 days, when compared to M60 concrete with 100%
cement mixes shown in fig 2.
At 28 days, the mix containing 15%SF, 5% MK, 50%FA, 30
% C showed a better strength gain compared to the other
mixes containing admixtures. At 56 days, the mix containing
15 % SF, 5% MK, 50% FA, 30%C has attained the desired
grade proving that there is an increase in the later strength
gain in the concrete containing admixtures [9]. Case 2 and
case 3 shows very less strength gain at 56 days due to the
inherent properties of the concrete mix itself. Due to that, we
have omitted case 2 and case 3 for split tensile strength tests.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
7 Days
14 Dyas
case 6
case 5
case 4
case 3
case 2
28 Dyas
case 1
Compressive strength in
N/mm2
more for the specimens cooled by spraying water than the

specimens cooled by air. The compressive strength and
flexural strength decrease when duration of exposure
increases. When the specimens are heated from room
temperature to 300oC, 600oC and 900oC, The reduction in
the compressive and flexural strength of specimens were
found to be 8%, 30%, 50% and 7%,34.28%,72% for air
cooled specimens and 24%,40%,68% and 14%,52%,84% for
the specimens that are cooled by water as shown in figures
5,6,7 and 8. The specimens that are kept at 900 oC for 30
minutes, 60 minutes, and 90 minutes were found to be
critical than the other specimens.
56 Days
Cases
Fig 2 Variation in compressive strength of different cases
SPLIT TENSILE
Split tensile strength in
N/mm2
furnace exceeds the specified temperature. The maximum

operating temperature of the furnace is 1200 oC. The HPC
prisms exposed to fire in two ways. In the first case HPC
prism were kept inside the furnace and the furnace is heated
from room temperature to 300oC, 600oC and 900oC. In the
second case the furnace was heated to the required
temperature (300oC, 600oC and 900 oC) and the specimens
were kept inside the furnace for the required durations of
30minutes, 60minutes and 90minutes. After exposing the
specimen to desired temperature and duration as shown in
the table 20, the furnace was switched off and the specimens
were taken out of the furnace. The specimens were naturally
allowed to reach the room temperature in case of air cooling
and in case of water cooling; water is sprayed over the
heated specimens till the specimens are cooled completely.
Flexural strength of the specimens was found at 28 th day on
the reference specimens and other specimens subjected to
elevated temperatures.
Based on test result case 5 is achieved optimized value
The compressive strength of the above mixes was done and
the case 5 shows good compressive results. Hence the
further fire resistance will be based on the case 5.
Based on compressive value case 5 fly ash 50% and cement
30% and SF 15% and MT5% gives higher compression
value, so it is consider as an optimized value, Fire
Resistance are based on only optimized value. The following
tests are carried out for Fire studies shown in table 13.
4
3
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
Case 1 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6

Cases
56 Days
Fig 3 Variation in split tensile strength for different cases
The flexural strength test results show that that at 56 days,

the normal concrete and the concrete containing admixtures
show a similar strength. This again proves that at later ages,
Case 5 test results are similar to Case 1 test result as shown
in fig 4.
From Table 13 it can be seen that compressive strength and
flexural strength decreases when the exposure temperature
increases. Also the reduction in the load carrying capacity is
Page 315
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
56 Days
case 1
case 4 case 5
Cases
case 6
Fig 4 Variation in Flexural strength for different cases
100
80
60
40
300
20
600
900
30
60
90
TIME
Fire resistance
w.r.to reference cubes
(Air cooled)
w.r.to reference prism (air
cooled)
Fire resistance
prism (Air cooled)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Fire resistance
300
600
900
30
60
90
TIME
% Reduction in
strength w.r.to
reference prism
Flexural strength in N/mm 2
100
80
60
40
20
0
300
600
30
60
90
900
TIME

cubes (Air cooled)
% Reduction in
strength w.r.to
reference cubes
Fire resistance
100
80
60
40
20
0

(water cooled)
References
300
600
900
TIME

(Water cooled)
[1] Anand N, Prince Arulraj G., Effect of Grade of

Concrete on the Performance of Self Compacting
Concrete
Beams
Subjected
to
Elevated
Temperatures, Fire Technology (Springer Sciences),
DOI 10.1007/s10694-013-0345-6, ISSN 0015-2684,
Vol. 50, Issue 5 (Sep 2014), pp. 1269-1284.
[2] Chan YN, Lox. Sun W., 2000, " Compressive
Strength and Pore Structure of High
Performance
Concrete After Exposure to High Temperature Up to
800 C ", Cement and Concrete Research , Vol .30,
No .2 , Feb, pp .247 251.
[3] Jian-Tong Ding, Zongjin Li (2002), Effects of
Concrete, ACI materials journal,, vol. 99, No.4,
pp.393-398.
Page 316
[4] Kumar.P.S, Mannan.M.A, Kurian.V.J, Achuytha.H

(2004), Investigation on the flexural behaviour of
high-performance reinforced concrete beams using
sandstone aggregates, Building and Environment,
pp.2622-2629.
[5] Langley.W.S and Carette.G.G Malhotra.V.M (1989),
Structural concrete incorporating high volumes of
ASTM class F fly ash, ACI Material journal 86,
pp.507-514.
[6] Poon,C.S, Lam.L, Wong.Y.L , A study on high
strength concrete with large volumes of low calcium
fly ash cement and concrete, Cement and Concrete
Research 30,2000, pp. 447-455.
[7] Saeed Ahmed Al.Sheikh, (2011), Mechanical
Properties for High Performance Concrete Exposed to
High Temperature, International Journal Of Civil And
Structural Engineering Volume 2,2011
[8] K.Athi
Gajendran,
R.Anuradha
and
Dr.G.S.Venkatasubramani, Mechanical Properties
On High Performance Concrete By Replacing The
Cement By Flyash, Silica Fume And Metakaolin,
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research
ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 10, Number 3 (2015) pp.
5881-5886.
[9] K.Athi
Gajendran,
R.Anuradha
and
Dr.G.S.Venkatasubramani, Reduction Of Global
Warming Using High Performance Concrete An
Experimental Investigation On Flexural Behaviour,
International Journal of Applied Environmental
Sciences ISSN 0973-6077 Volume 10, Number 1
(2015), pp. 57-62.
[10] Li M, Qian CX, Sun W (2004) Mechanical properties
of high-strength concrete after fire. Cem Concr Res
34:10011005
[11] Noumowe A, Carre H, Daoud A, Toutanji H (2006)
High-strength self-compacting concrete exposed to
fire test. J Mater Civ Eng 18:754758
[12] Tao J, Yuan Y, Taerwe L (2010) Compressive
strength of self-compacting concrete during high
temperature exposure. J Mater Civ Eng 22:1005
1011.
[13] Yaragal SC, Narayan KSB, Venkataramana K,
Kulkarni KS, Gowda HCC, Reddy GR, Sharma A
(2010) Studies on normal strength concrete cubes
subjected to elevated temperatures. J Struct Fire Eng
1:24926.
[14] Chan YN, Peng GF, Anson M (1999) Residual
strength and pore structure of high strength concrete
and normal strength concrete after exposure to high
temperatures. Cem Concr Compos 21:2327.
Page 317
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON CONCRETE USING SELECTED

WASTE MATERIALS AS PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF FINE
AGGREGATE
Mr. A.Arunraj
Assistant Professor
Easwari Engineering College,
Ramapuram, Chennai - 89, Tamil Nadu.
E-Mail: ias.arun001@gmail.com
Abstract
A modern lifestyle, alongside the advancement of technology has led to an increase in the amount and type of waste
being generated, leading to a waste disposal crisis. This study takes the waste that is generated form plastic and rubber
materials. In order to dispose or to reduce the accumulation of certain kinds of waste, it has been suggested to reuse
some of these waste materials to substitute a percentage of the primary material used in ordinary Portland cement
(OPC). Recycling process not only helps conserve natural resources, but also helps to solve a growing waste disposal
crisis. Many properties of the concrete can be changed by adding industrial waste in it. One such method by
introducing rubber and plastic in concrete mix. It is perfect way to modify the properties of concrete effectively. To
evaluate these replacements on the properties of the OPC mixes, a number of laboratory tests were carried out. These
tests included workability, Density, compressive strength. The mechanical properties are satisfied the requirements of
reinforced concrete. The main finding of this investigation revealed that the two type of waste material could be used
in concrete mixtures.
Keywords - Waste plastic, Tyer rubber,
1.
INTRODUCTION
A substantial growth in the consumption of Plastic
and Rubber is observed all over the World in recent
Years, Which has led to hug quantities of unwanted
Plastic & Rubber related product waste. These wastes
are Not Biodegradable and will remain in a landfill
without any degradation for a very long time and their
accumulation may provoke fire or health hazards and
cause troublesome environmental problem. So we are
decided to reuse in this waste. Plastic are durable and
degrade very slowly; the chemical bond that make
Plastic so durable make it equally resistant to natural
processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one billion
tons of plastic waste have been discarded and may
persist for hundreds or even thousands of years.
Concrete is by far the most widely- used man made
construction material and studies indicate that it will
continue to be so in the years and decades to come.
The advances in concrete have paved way for the
reutilization of waste materials in concrete which help
to prevent environmental pollution whilst contribution
to the design of more economical building. The use of
rubber and plastic in concrete has become increasingly
popular generating significant research interest over the
past twenty years. Owing to the increase in number of
cars worldwide, the accumulation of huge volume of

scrap tyer has become a major waste problem.
Big amount of use Rubber and Plastic
cumulate in the world.
One of most popular method is to fill used
tyers in landfills, as due to low density and
poor degradation in land fill.
1.1 Plastic waste
Plastic have become now integral part of the
day today life. These non-biodegradable products are
used and thrown out which lead to the environmental
pollution. The plastic waste is low weight, flexible, heat
resistance, shatterproof and corrosion resistance. In
recent time significant research is underway to study
the possibility of disposal of this waste in mass concrete
where strength of concrete may not major criteria under
consideration, such as heavy mass of concreting in The
properties of plastics are defined chiefly by the organic
chemistry of the polymer such as Toxicity, Hardness,
Density, Resistance to heat Organic solvents, Oxidation,
and Ionizing radiation.
1.2 Tyer Rubber
Crumb rubber is a term usually applied to
recycled rubber from automotive and truck scrap tires.
Page 318
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
2.1.3 Tyer Rubber
Continued processing with a granulator and cracker
mill, possibly with the aid of mechanized means,
The tyer rubber size is typically between 4.75 to
reduces the size of the particles further. The particles
0.425mm in returned tyer rubber factory.
are sized and classified based on various criteria.
The granulated is sized by passing through a
2.1.4 Waste Plastic
screen, the size based on a dimension (1/4). Mesh
The waste plastic in crashed with factorys in below
refers to material that has been sized by passing through
2.36mm size.
a screen with a given number of holes per inch.
For example, 10 mesh crumb rubber has passed through
a screen with 10 holes per inch resulting in rubber
2.1.5 Coarse aggregate
granulate that slightly less 1/10 of an inch. The exact
size will depend on the size of wire used in the screen.
Coarse aggregate form a local commercial quarry with
Literature Review
a maximum nominal size of 20mm was used.
Z.Li, F.Li & J.S.L.Li, 1998, Properties of Concrete
concrete Research.
Rubberized concrete has lower
compressive & flexural strength than normal concrete.
A cylindrical compressive strength of 29 Mpa con be
achieved by coating rubber particles with cement paste.
This investigation suggests that replacing some of
fine aggregate in concrete by rubber tyer particles may
be suitable in application such as driveways, sidewalks,
or in road construction where strength is not high
priority but higher toughness is preferred. Rubberized
concrete is also a very good candidate for application
where structure vibration control is required, such as in
structural base isolation and machine foundations.
Malek Nataynesh, Iqbal Marie and Ibrahim Asi,
1876, Use of Selected Waste Materials in Concrete
Mixes, Waste Management. The increase of the surface
area of the recycled crushed concrete, due to its
irregular shape, necessitates an increase of cement and
water. A comparison between the cost of crushing glass,
plastic and concrete with that of supplying prime
aggregate should be considered in the project
management plans, taking into consideration the
availability of prime material and location. The strength
of concrete mixes was improved by the partial
replacement of fine aggregate with crushed glass
aggregate. Using glass of different percentage showed
no significant effect on the slump, which showed that
higher the percentage used the lesser, was the slump.
2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Cement
The cement used in the present study is the locally
available Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of 53
grades.
2.1.2 Fine aggregate
The fine aggregate used was natural river sand having a
2.36 mm nominal maximum size.
2.1.6 Water
Water used conforms IS 3025 (Part 22,23), water to be
used for mixing and curing should be free from
injurious or deleterious material. Potable water is
generally considered satisfaction.
Table 1 Physical Properties of Aggregate
Property
Fine
aggregate
Rubber Plastic Coarse

waste waste aggregate
Specific
gravity
2.67
3.02
2.73
2.81
Fineness
modulus
3.88
4.32
4.078
Water
absorption
25
35
23
1.86
3. MIX PROPORTION
The concrete mix design as recommended by
IS: 10262-2001was used to prepare test samples and its
details are shown Table2. The mix proportion is M30
grade of concrete. There are three different mix prepare.
(1) Replacing of fine aggregate in waste Plastic. (2)
Replacing of fine aggregate in waste Tyer rubber. (3)
Partially replacing for fine aggregate in waste Plastic
and Tyer rubber. The replacing for fine aggregate 5%,
10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50% and
55% .the fine aggregate volume base mix in concrete.
A compressive strength study of concrete mix
is carried out to find the effect of replacing fine
aggregates Plastic, Tyer Rubber and both Waste,
without superplasticizer. Properties of waste Plastic and
Tyer Rubber mix concrete, slump, compressive strength
and Flexural strength, have been studied and the result
are as follows.
4.1 Compressive Strength
Page 319
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%

rubber
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20%
0%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
15%
10%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0%
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
The compressive strength is mainly related to
the water cement ratio. As the w/c ratio decrease, the
compressive strength increases. The effect of replacing
7 Days Compressive Strength
of waste plastics and rubber with fine aggregate on the
50
concrete compressive strength on 7Days, 14Days and
45
28Days is shown below Figure. It could be seen from
40
the figure that the compressive strength was reduced
35
30
significantly by 40% when replacing of waste plastic
25
and tyer rubber, 45% reduced in compressive strength
20
in replacing of both waste
15
10
5
0
50
45
40
35
30
25
rubber
20
15
10
5
0

rubber
Page 320
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
5. CONCLUSION
The following results are based on the
libratory study reported in this paper.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
55%
Any other investigation tyer rubber and plastic

waste replacement for fine aggregate in cement
concrete may different with changes in mix proportion.

Tyer rubber
The compressive strength on 28 days of age is

summarized.
Compressive strength of concrete
depended on three factors by replacement of fine
aggregate with waste material such as Grain size of the
replacing of tyer rubber, plastic waste and both wastes.
In general compressive strength was reduced
with increased percentage of wastes replacing in cement
concrete.
The rubber waste 30% replacement in concrete

The plastic waste 35% replacement in concrete

Plastic and Tyer rubber waste 40%

replacement in concrete increased in

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
REFERENCES
1.
Is 456-2000 Plan and Reinforced Concrete Code

of Plan
2.
IS 10262-2009 Concrete Mix Proportioning

Guideline
3.
Azmi.N.J, Mohammed.B.S, Al-Mattarnch.H.M.A,

2008, Engineering Properties of Concrete
Containing Recycled Tyer Rubber. International
Conference on Construction and Building
Technology.
4.
BabooRaj, S.Tabin Rushad, Bhavesh Kr, and

S.K.Duggal, 2012, Study of Waste Plastic Mix
Concrete with Plasticizer.
5.
Bandodkar.L.R, Gaonkar.A.A, Gonkar.n.D and

Gauns.Y.P, 2011, PET Bottles as Partial
Replacement for Sand, International Journal of
Earth Sciences and Engineering.
6.
Benazzouk.A, Iqbal Marie, Ibrahim Asi, 2003,

Effect of Rubber Aggregate on the Physic
Mechanical Behavior of Concrete Composites,
Journal of Physical Science.
7.
Eshmaiel Ganjian, 2009, Scrap-Tyer-Rubber

Replacement for Aggregate and fill in Concrete,
Construction and Building Material.

Tyer rubber
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
55%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Tyer rubber
Page 321
8.
9.
A.Arunraj/INDECS-15
El-gammal.A, Abdel-Gawgd.A.K, El-Sherbini.Y,
and Shalaby.A, 2010, Compressive Strength of
Concrete Utilizing Waste Tyer Rubber. Journal of
Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied
Sciences.
Gavela.S, Karakosta.C, Nydriotis.C, kaselouriRigopoulou.V, Kolias.S and Andre Opoulos.A,
2004, A Study of Concrete Containing
Thermoplastic Waste as Aggregates, Concrete
International.
10. Gintautas Skripkiunas, Audrius Grinys, Benjaminas

Cernius, 2007, Deformation Properties of
Concrete with Rubber Waste Additives.
11. Malek Batayneh, Iqbal Marie, Ibrahim Asi, 2007,
Use Selected Waste Material in Concrete Mixes,
Waste Management.
12. Mostafizur Rahman.MD, MD.Akhtarul Islam and
Mainuddin Ahmed, 2012, Recycling of Waste
Polymeric Material as a Partial Replacement for
Aggregate in Concrete, International Conference
on Chemical, Environmental and Biological
Sciences.
13. Li.Z, Li.F, Li.J.S, 1998, Properties of Concrete
Concrete Research.
14. Ramadevi.K, Manju.R, 2012, Experimental
Investigation on the Properties of Concrete with
Plastic PET (Bottle) Fibre as Fine Aggregate ,
International Journal of Emerging Technology and
Advanced Engineering Website.
15. Sallam.H.E.M., Sherbini.A.S, Seleem.M.H, 2008,
Impact Resistance of Rubberized Concrete,
Engineering Research Journal.
16. Yunping xi, Yue Li, Jae s.Lee, utilization of solid
waste (Rubber Particles) as aggregates in
concrete, International Workshop on Sustainable
Development and Concrete Technology.
Page 322
INFLUENCE OF CLAY MINERALS ON BITUMINOUS MIX

M.Mahalakshmi1, Dr.S.Suresh babu 2, Dr.K.E.Prakash3, S.Vimal4
1
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India, maha_manju@yahoo.com

2
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India, sunisurp@gmail.com
3
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Karnataka 590018, prakashke@gmail.com
4
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India,vimalcric@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper focuses on the influence of clay minerals such as Bentonite and Kaolinite on bituminous mix. The
optimum percentage of clay mineral (Kaolinite) and influence of various particle sizes of clay mineral (Bentonite) on
blending with bitumen were experimentally studied by conducting various rheological and mechanical tests on
bituminous mix. The comparison is made between the properties of conventional and clay modified bitumen. The
optimum percentage of Kaolinite to be blend with bitumen is found to be 20% and their effects were discussed, also it is
observed that by reducing the size of the Bentonite clay, the properties of bituminous mix gets enhanced and thus the
stability were improved using clay minerals in this research.
Keywords:Kaolinite, Bentonite, clay modified bitumen.
1. Introduction
Flexible pavements are essential for conveyance in
India. The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the
pavement surface which instigates directly under the wheel
load. Bituminous surfacing is utilized as a wearing course
due to its properties. Thick bituminous layer on exposure
leads to failure through rutting and bleeding. This failure is
due to high temperature susceptibility which causes decrease
in stability of the bituminous layer. So, to amend the
temperature susceptibility and stability of the bituminous
concrete, clay minerals such as kaolinite and bentonite were
integrated to the bituminous mix.
The material utilized for the composite and the reason abaft
the cull is expounded below:
2. Materials
2.1 Bitumen -Bitumen is a black, viscous non crystalline
material derived either naturally as an organic by-product of
decomposed organic materials or by refinery process as an
end product from distillation of crude oil or petroleum. It is
a main component for paving roads.
2.2 Clay Minerals
2.2.1 Bentonite - Bentonite is a clay mineral formed
fundamentally from the mineral of smectite group. Ductility
characteristics, ionic expansion and contraction are some of
the important characteristics of the smectite group. The
bonding nature, swelling potential and high surface area of

bentonite clay decrease the voids in the bitumen which make
effective bonding with the aggregates and make the course
durable.
2.2.2 Kaolinite -Kaolinite is a clay mineral which is

abundant in soils that have formed from the chemical
weathering of rocks. It has low shrink-swell capacity and
used to modify rheology in many materials. Hence
rheological modifications are expected on bituminous mix
with it and tests were carried out on it.
2.3 Aggregates -Aggregates of required gradation as
specified by IRC 29-1988 were utilized for preparation of
bituminous mix.
3.Literature review
Yu, Julian(2011) made a study on nanoclay modified
asphalt. The objective of his study is to review existing
literature in the area of Nano-Modification of asphalt and
proceed to apply Nanomaterials to improve asphalt
performance. In the experimental testing montmorillonite
nanoclay of 2% and 4% by weight of asphalt was blended in
asphalt binder at a high temperature. The result of his
research conveys the nanoclay modified clay may have the
potential to reduce rutting and cracking.
M.Mahalakshmi.
maha_manju@yahoo.com
Page 323
Ziari Hassan (2012) used bentonite as an additive with

bituminous binder. In his study, the characteristics of
modified bitumen were investigated by asphalt cement tests.
The optimal bitumen content in various compounds were
determined and asphalt samples with different contents of
additives were prepared and tested. In addition, Marshall
Stability and flow improved in bentonite modified mixes in
comparison with normal bituminous mix. Results shows
using this kind of additive not only had caused improvement
in bitumen mechanical properties, but also improvement in
Marshall Parameters.
Research significance
performing Marshall Test, the optimum bitumen content was

determined. In order to prepare the briquettes, the aggregates
were heated up to 170C and modified bitumen containing
various additive content are added to it and maintained at
140C to perform the test.
To determine the optimum percentage of kaolinite, the

specimens with 18, 20, 22 percentage of kaolinite were
prepared. For particle size analysis, the clay of sizes 75,
63, 45 were blended with bitumen for specimen
preparation. The rheological tests such as penetration test,
softening point test, ductility test and Marshall test were
conducted. In addition flash point and fire point tests were
conducted.
Research on influence of particle size of bentonite and

kaolinite mineral as additive for pavement are very few.
Hence this research was made.
4.Results
Methodology:
The following tables and graphs represent the results

obtained during various tests on specimens prepared:
The specimens were prepared for both unmodified and

modified bituminous mixes for each test as per
specifications and requirements for the test.
To determine the optimum bitumen content, eighteen
samples of asphalt mixes with 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 5.5%, 6% and
6.5% of non modified bitumen were prepared and after
Table-1 Comparison of properties of bentonite modified specimens with normal bitumen
Tests conducted
Normal
bitumen
Penetration (deci mm)

Softening point (c)
Ductility(cm)
Flash point(c)
Fire point(c)
62
47
72
180
186
75
61.5
53
71.86
180
187
Sieve Size
63
60.8
54.5
71.55
188
198
45
59
56.5
69
192
220
Sieve Size
63
11.2
2.58
67.89
14.32
45
12.8
2.95
69.9
14.48
Permissible
limits
Min 47
Min 40
Min 47
Upto 220
Upto 300
Table-2 Marshall test values for bentonite modified specimens

Marshall parameters
Stability(kN)
Flow (mm)
VFB (%)
VMA (%)
Normal
bitumen
10
2.4
65.2
12.5
75
10.9
2.13
66.83
14.29
Permissible
limit
Min 9
2 to 4
65 to 75
Min 12.5
Table-3Comparison of properties of kaolinite modified bitumen with normal bitumen

Tests conducted
Normal
bitumen
Penetration( deci mm)

Softening point (C)
62
47
18%
52
44

20%
49
46
22%
55
43
Permissible
limits
Min 47
Min 40
Page 324
Ductility(cm)
Flash point(c)
Fire point(c)
72
180
186
78
184
187
72
184
189
76
179
183

20%
18.81
2.65
74.65
14.23
22%
17.65
2.99
70.6
13.88
Min 47
Upto 220
Upto 300
Table-4Marshall Stabilityvalues for kaolinite modified bitumen

Marshall
parameters
Stability (kN)
FLOW (mm)
VFB (%)
VMA (%)
Normal bitumen
10
2.4
65.2
12.5
18%
18.1
3.05
73.24
13.57
Permissible limit
Min 9
2 TO 4
65 TO 75
Min 12.5
Graph-1
Graph-2
Graph-4
Graph-5
Graph-3
Page 325
Graph -7
Graph-6
VMA (%)
% KAOLINITE Vs VMA
Discussions:
15
14
13
12
11
NORMAL
BITUMEN
18
20
22
Though various advanced researches on nanoclay

modification of bituminous mix were made, the area of
execution is very small. This is due to requirement of
high end equipments for manufacturing the Nano clays.
So, it is studied to use the abundant material available
readily with simple processing techniques. The kaolinite
with various advantageous properties helps in improving
the stability of the bituminous mix. Reduced size of
bentonite additive mineral has a positive effect on
modified bituminous mix.
Graph-8
Conclusion: The modification of bituminous mix using
various percentage of kaolinite and different sizes of
bentonite was made in this work. The properties of the
bituminous mix were enhanced using these
modifications. The effects and variations at each stage
were studied clearly through various graphical
representations. And finally, it is revealed that
modification of bituminous mix may help in rutting
resistance and stability improvement.
References
[1] IS 73 -2013: Paving bitumen specification. (Fourth
Revision).
[2] IRC 29 -1988: Specification for Bituminous Concrete.
Decrease in the size of the bentonite improves its

properties as shown. The stability of the bituminous mix
was enhanced by decreasing the size of the bentonite as
shown in Table-2 and it is found to be 45. The stability
is maximum when 20% of kaolinite is blended to the
bituminous mix as shown in Table-4. Hence, the
optimum percentage of kaolinite to be blend with
bituminous mix is found to be 20%.The results obtained
shows that the modified bitumen mix have significance
over unmodified bituminous mix. Table-1and Table-3
compares the properties of the normal bitumenand
modified bitumen with bentonite and kaolinite
respectively.
[3] IS 1201 -1978: Methods of testing tar and bituminous

materials Sampling (Fourth revision).
[4] Highway Engineering by Khanna and Justo, Ninth edition,
2011.
[5] Influence of bentonite additive on bitumen Asphalt
mixture properties by Ziari hassan, Divandari Hassan,
Babagoli Rezwan, Akbari Ali publishes at World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology Vol:6
2012-08-24
[6] Clay-modified asphalt materials: Preparation and
characterisation by Zhanping yu, Julian Mills published at
Construction and building materials 25 (2011) 10721078.
Page 326
PERFORMANCE OF MASONRY WALL COMPOSITES

WITH NATURAL FIBERS
S.DEEPAK1, R.ANURADHA2 and G. PRINCE ARULRAJ3
1

Tamilnadu, deepakjoghu007@gmail.com
2
Tamilnadu, anuradhastalin@gmail.com
3
Tamilnadu, deancivil@snsct.org
Abstract
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have played a dominant role for a long time in a variety of applications
for their high specific strength and modulus. Although glass and other synthetic fibre-reinforced plastics possess high specific
strength, their fields of applications are very limited because of their inherent higher cost of production. In this connection,
this project aims at developing FRP using local fibres such as coir, which are abundantly available in India. Natural fibres are
not only strong and lightweight but are relatively very cheap. Investigations have to be carried out in the development of
natural fibre composite and a study in their characterization. This developed composite has to be made use in the
strengthening and rehabilitation of structures. Based on the performance, the possibility of using natural fibre composite as
strengthening and rehabilitating material for hazard mitigation will be studied. Clay brick pillars and flyash brick pillars are
constructed with three different types of mortars and are tested. This paper is aimed to compare the Compressive strength of
the Brick and Fly Ash Brick Pillars and rehabilitated using the jute and Glass fibre reinforced polymers fibers.
Key words: Masonry walls, Fibre reinforced polymer, Natural fibre, Fly ash bricks.
1. Introduction
Masonry structures are designed to resist
gravity loads and wind loads, and the effect of seismic
loads are generally neglected. During earthquake,
seismic loads introduce severe in-plane and out of plane
forces and many Unreinforced masonry structures
collapse in out of plane bending due to lack of
reinforcement. Now a days wrapping fibres like Glass
fibre reinforced polymer, Carbon fibre reinforced
polymer and Acrylic fibre reinforced plastic is most
commonly adopted technique to develop the strength of
the masonry. Since wrapping the structures using the
above said fibres is costlier and has limited applications,
here by an attempt is made to use natural fibre (jute)
instead of synthetic fibres. Fibre Reinforced Polymers
(FRP) are been extensively used as external wraps for
the structural strengthening and rehabilitations of
buildings. In particular its application is been in the area
of masonry and concrete structures. Strengthening and
retrofitting activity by using synthetic fibres such as
glass/carbon/aramid is becoming popular all over the
world. But using these synthetic fibres is as costlier as
the conventional methods that are available already.
Hence here an attempt is made to perform these
activities by using natural fibre, jute that are abundantly

available in India. By improving some of the mechanical
and durability properties of these natural fibres, their
performance can be brought equally to the synthetic
fibres. Also natural fibres have the advantage that they
are renewable resources.
Badoux.M [2] suggested that dynamic tests
investigating in plane behavior of URM walls. Masonry
walls are subjected to a series of simulated seismic
motions on a earthquake simulator before and after
upgrading with glass and carbon fibre reinforced
plastics. Their objective is to study the behavior of URM
walls subjected to in-plane seismic loading and
investigate the effectiveness of composite materials. The
one-sided glass fibre wrap improved the wall lateral
resistance by a factor about two.
Gassan Jochen, Andrzej [6] studied in
improving the mechanical properties of natural fibrereinforced thermo sets, as a result of optimization of the
properties of tossa jute fibres by the use of an NaOH
treatment process. The mechanical properties of jute
fibres were optimized bt using an NaOH/ treatment
Page 327

process with different alkali concentrations and
comprise 60-80% of the concrete and have to be so
shrinkages. The treatment under isometric conditions
graded and that the entire mass of concrete acts as a
(20 mins at 20 C in 25% NaOH solution) lead, to an
relatively solid, homogeneous, dense combination,
increases in jute tensile strength and modulus of above
with the smaller sizes acting as an inert filler of the
120% and 150% respectively.
voids exist between the largest particles. Like fine
aggregate, such as natural or manufactured sand.
Harish.S [7] studied development of coir
composites and their mechanical properties are
2.1.3 Fine Aggregate
evaluated. Coir/epoxy composites exhibits average
values for the tensile strength, flexural strength and
Natural river sand is used as fine aggregate.
impact strength, which are significantly lower than those
The properties of sand are determined by conducting
measured for GFRP laminate specimens. They also
tests as per IS: 2386 (Part-I). The results are shown in
reported that hybrid fibre composites with coir and other
table 2. The results obtained from sieve analysis are
fibres rather than glass may open up new application.
furnished.
Y.Liu [8] studied the suitable tests. Tests were
Table 2: Physical Properties of Aggregate
performed on specimens composed of unidirectional
glass fibre sheets adhered to masonry using an epoxy
adhesive. Tests conducted are shear bond tests and peel
Properties
Fine Aggregate
tests to determine strength and behaviour of bond,
S.No
tension tests for to determine the strength and modulus
of elasticity of GFRP and compression tests to
1
Specific Gravity
2.60
determine the mechanical properties of masonry.
Mohanty [10] studied the influence of different
2
Fineness Modulus
2.83
surface modifications of the jute performance of bio
composites. More than a 40% improvement in the
2.1.4 Brick
tensile strength occurred as a result of reinforcement
with alkali treated jute. Jute fibre content also affected
Locally available bricks are used. The physical
the bio composite performance and about 30% by
properties of brick are determined as per IS code. The
weight of jute solved optimum properties of bio
results are shown in table 3.
composites.
Table 3 Physical Properties of Bricks
2. Experimental Investigation
S.No
2.1Material Properties
1
2.1.1Cement
2
Ordinary Portland cement of 43 grades
conforming to IS 8112-1989 was used. Tests are
carried out on various physical properties of cement
and the results are shown in table 1.
Table 1: Physical Properties of Cement
Physical properties
Values of OPC used
Standard consistency
29.2%
45 Minutes
Final setting time
265 Minutes
Specific gravity
3.15
2.1.2 Aggregates
Aggregates are those parts of the concrete
that constitute the bulk of the finished product. They
Properties
(N/mm2)
Water Absorption
(%)
Brick
3.91
9.25
2.1.5 Material for Wrapping Jute
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that

can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is
produced from plants in the genus Corchorus,
family Tiliaceae.
Jute is one of the most affordable natural fibres
and is second only to cotton in amount
produced and variety of uses. Jute fibres are
composed primarily of the plant materials
cellulose (major component of plant fibre) and
lignin (major components of wood fibre).
It is thus a ligno-cellulosic fibre that is partially
a textile fibre and partially wood. It falls into
the bast fibre category (fibre collected from
bast or skin of the plant) along with kenaf,
industrial hemp, flax (linen), ramie, etc.
Page 328

The industrial term for jute fibre is raw jute.
Sample-I
The fibres are off-white to brown, and 14
(Sisal Yarn)
metres (312 feet) long.
Jute fibre is often called hessian; jute fabrics
18.16s
are also called hessian cloth and jute sacks are
Count
called gunny bags in some European countries.
The fabric made from jute is popularly known
Elongation
1.70
as burlap in North America.
(%)
Tenacity
2.1.6 Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer
30.51
(RKM)
Composites (GFRP)
Breaking
900.97gms
Glass fiber reinforced polymer composites are
Force
among oldest and least expensive of all
Diameter
0.2135mm
composites.
E-glass is the most common type of glass
fiber used in resin matrix composite structures
and was used in this investigation.
The principle advantages of E-glass are low
cost, high tensile and impact strength and high
chemical resistance.
The disadvantages of E-glass, compared to
other structural fibers are lower modulus,
lower fatigue resistance and higher fiber selfabrasion characteristics.
In general, fiber composites behave linearly
elastic to failure. The properties of the GFRP
supplied by the manufacturer are summarized
in the table 4, 5 and 6.
Tensile
Strength in
Kgs
Sample-2
(Jute Yarn)
27.42-GRIST
(0.625 Ne)
(Jute Count Direct sy)
12.5
----1.110mm
---
13.00kgs
Table 6 Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced

Polymer
SI. No
Properties of
GFRP
Value
Unit
Density of fiber
2.6
g/cm3
`2
Fiber thickness
0.363
mm
Fiber orientation
Bi directional
Nominal thickness
per layer
Tensile strength
3400
Tensile modulus
73000
Table 4 Chemical Composition of Fibres

Fiber Cellulose
Hemi
Lignin Pectin Moisture
(WT %) celluloses (WT (WT %) content
(WT %)
%)
(WT %)
jute
611-71.5
13.6-20.4
12-13
0.2
12.5-13.7
sisal
66-78
10-14
10-14
10
10-22
coir
32-43
0.15-0.25
40-45
3-4
Table 5 Mechanical Properties of Fibres
mm
N/mm2
N/mm2
2.1.7 Flogrout 60
FLOGROUT 60 is a blend of specially
processed cement and special fillers free from
corrosive substances. Positive expansion during
setting leads to superior bonding to surrounding
material. It has high early and ultimate strength.
FLOGROUT 60 is based on specially
processed cements containing fillers and additives.
This FLOGROUT 60 is used in NFRP composite
wrapping because high bonding nature due to the
presence of cementitious material shown in table 7.
Table 7 Properties of Flogrout 60
Page 329
Properties
Operational temperature
Application temperature
Expansion (% by volume)
(28days)

composite in Brick pillar. Again the epoxy and
hardener mixture is used to stick the glass fibres
value
which are dispersed in jute and wrapped using epoxy
and hardener mixture in Brick pillar after hardening.
30C
10 to 40C
4.1 Uniaxial Loading on Pillars
0.8
75 N/mm2
Clay brick pillars and flyash brick pillars are
(pourable 0.15 w/p)
constructed with three different types of mortars and are
65 N/mm2
tested results are shown in tables 9, 10 and 11. Pillars
(flowable 0.165 w/p)
constructed with 1:5 cement mortar showed good
2.1.8 Resin & Hardener

The epoxy which we used is ARALDITE
AY103 and hardener is HY951 characteristics of
include which is shown in table 8.
Cures at room temperature
Solvent-free
Excellence adhesive strength
Good mechanical properties
Table 8 Properties of Resin & Hardener
Properties
Viscosity
Density
Flash point
Specific gravity
Flexural strength
Viscosity
Density
Flash point
Specific gravity
Flexural strength
Values
Araldite AY103
1300-1800 MPa.s
1.13-1.16 g/cm3
190-210C
1.8
450-550 kg/cm3
Hardener HY 951
10-12 MPa.s
0.97-0.99 g/cm3
110-120C
2.0
300-400 kg/cm3
compressive strength when compared with the other

mortars. The compressive strength of clay brick
increased by about 80% when wrapped with NFRP and
the increase in about 104% when wrapped with GFRP.
Similarly in case of flyash brick pillar, the improvement
is about 176% when wrapped with NFRP, and 207.5%
when wrapped with GFRP. The results indicate that the
ratio of mortar affects the compressive strength of the
pillars. Since the performance of 1:5 C.M is far better
than 1:3 C.M and lime mortar though the initial results
of lime mortar is very low, its strength will be increased
as age grows on. Wrapping of GFRP on flyash bricks
provided better confinement than on clay bricks and
hence the performance is significant comparison shown
in fig 1-6.
Table 9 Compressive Strength of Pillars with CM 1:5
(N/mm2)
S.no
NFRP
GFRP
Brick Type Conventional Wrapped
Wrapped
1
Clay Brick
Fly ash
Brick
1.98
3.55
4.05
1.60
4.42
4.92
Table10 Compressive Strength of Pillar with CM 1:3

3. Brick Pillar under Compression
The masonry brick pillar is of height 500mm, width
and breadth are 220mm. Thickness of mortar is
10mm. The testing is carried on a UTM capacity of
100 tonnes. The upper and lower mortar joints are
directly in contact with steel plates of UTM.
Loading is uniformly applied and the displacements
are measured. Masonry brick pillars are constructed
using clay bricks. These pillars are constructed with
three types of mortars namely strong mortar (1:3),
weak mortar (1:6) and Lime mortar in which lime is
added to a percentage of 0.5 to that of cement. Brick
pillars are also been constructed with fly ash bricks
with all three types of mortar. The weight ratio of
mixing epoxy and hardener was 10:1. This epoxy
and hardener mixture is used to wrap NFRP
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

S.No Brick Type
1
Clay Brick
Fly ash
Brick
Conventional
1.50
NFRP
Wrapped
2.19
GFRP
Wrapped
3.54
1.42
3.05
4.21
Page 330

Pillars with CM 1:3
Fig 1 Compressive Strength of Clay Brick
Pillars with CM 1:5

with LM 1:0.5:3
Fig 2 Compressive Strength of Flyash Brick Pillars
with CM 1:5

Pillars with LM 1:0.5:3
with Cm 1:3
5. Conclusion
Clay brick pillars and flyash brick pillars with
1:5 C.M showed significant performance
compared to other mortars.
Even though the conventional flyash brick

pillars compressive strength is low, after
confinement with NFRP and GFRP, it showed
improved performance than clay brick pillars.
The compressive strength of pillars wrapped

with GFRP is higher than the pillars wrapped
with NFRP.
Page 331
1.

Slight Delamination is found in case of NFRP,
the performance of biodegradable jute yarnwhile it is nil in case of GFRP.
Biopol composites. J. Mater. Sci. 35:2589-2595
References
Alagusundaramoorthy.P (2009). Flexural
strengthening of brick masonry walls using
glass fibre fabric IIT, Madras, IE(I) JournalCV, Volume 89.
2.
Badoux.M and Elgwady M.A (2002).

Earthquake simulator tests on unreinforced
masonry walls before and after upgrading with
composites Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland, 12th
European
Conference
on
Earthquake
Engineering
3.
Brouwer W.D.. Natura fibre inn structural

components: Alternative applications for sisal
4.
Chuang S.W. and Zhuge Y. (2001). Seismic

retrofitting of unreinforced masonry walls by
FRP strips University of South Australia,
Adelaide, S.A., Australia, Pacific conference
on Earthquake Engineering.
5.
Desiderio. P and L.Feo (2005), Durability

evaluation of EBR CFRP strengthened
masonry structures Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Naples, Federico,
International Institute for FRP in Construction.
6.
Gassan Jochen, Andrzej K, Bledzki (1999)

Possibilities for improving the mechanical
properties of jute/epoxy composites by alkali
treatment of fibers Composites Science and
Technology 59, 1303-1309
7.
Harish.S, Peter Michael., A. Bensely

(2009).Mechanical property evaluation of
natural fiber coir composite Materials
characterization 60 (1), 44-49
8.
Y. Liu , J. Dawe and J. Mcinerney (2005).

Behaviour of GFRP sheets bonded to masonry
walls. Department of Civil Engineering,
Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
9.
H.Mahmood
and
A.P.Russell
(2007).
Labouratory testing of unreinforced masonry
walls retrofitted with glass FRP sheets
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, The University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand.
10. Mohanty AK, Khan MA, Sahoo S, Hinrichsen

G (2000) Effect of chemical modification on
Page 332
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING COCONUT SHELL

AND FLY ASH
V.Divya
Assistant .Professor, Department of civil Engineering
SRR Engineering college (A Jeppiaar Institution)
Chennai-603 103,Tamilnadu
mailme887@gmail.com
Abstract
Abundant availability of natural resources has become a dream for present day engineering society due to large scale
consumptions. The unaccountable population growth rate makes problem of availability of coarse aggregate for construction
more severe. The rising cost of construction materials in developing countries has necessitated research into the use of
alternative materials civil engineering construction.The properties of concrete using coconut shell (CS) as coarse aggregate were
investigated in this experimental study. The cement was replaced with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of fly ash and optimum
percentage was found. The crushed coconut shells were used as substitute for conventional coarse aggregate in proportions of
50% and 100%. For the selected mix, a comparison has been done for CS concrete with and without fly ash. Compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural test were investigated in the laboratory. The results showed that, density of the
concretes decreases with increase in CS per cent. Workability decreased with increase in CS replacement. Compressive strength
of CS concrete was lower than control concrete. Permeable voids, absorption and sorption were higher for CS replaced
concretes than control concrete. A potential exists for the use of coconut shells as replacement of conventional aggregate in both
conventional reinforced concrete and lightweight reinforced concrete construction. The use of coconut shells as partial
replacement for conventional aggregates should be encouraged as an environmental protection and construction cost reduction
measure.
Keywords construction materials; strength; coconut shells; environment; fly ash.
1.
Introduction
LWC generally has a density of less than 2000 kg/m3 and

compressive strength of more than 20 N/mm2 it is known as
structural LWC. The challenge in making LWC is in decreasing the
density while maintaining strength and without adversely affecting
cost. Introducing different types of lighter aggregates into the matrix
is a common way to lower a concretes density. The crushed stone
and sand are the components that are usually replaced with
lightweight aggregate (LWA) to produce LWC. LWC has been used
as a building material for many decades throughout the world. It has
gained its popularity due to its lower density and superior thermal
insulation properties. Structural LWC offers design flexibility and
substantial cost savings by providing less dead load, improved
seismic structural response, lower foundation costs etc. LWC precast elements offer reduced costs on both transportation and
placement. The applications range from lightweight partitions, walls
and secondary structural components to the primary structural
components. The compressive strength ranges from 7 N/mm2 for
light partition to about 40 N/mm2 for the primary structural
components. Some of the LWC are foamed type concrete, no fines,

and lightweight natural and artificial aggregates concrete
Natural LWA are normally obtained from the volcanic rocks such
as pumice with density ranging from 500 to 900 kg/m3. Recent
developments include the use of artificially manufactured LWA from
various natural materials such as expanded clay, expanded shale,
foamed slag, blast furnace slag, pulverized fuel ash and perlite to
enable LWC and to achieve compressive strength up to 100 N/mm2.
The main characteristic of LWA is its high porosity, which results in
a low specific gravity. Porous LWA of low specific gravity can be
used in LWC production instead of ordinary crushed stone aggregate.
Though the commercially available LWA were used in many
investigations in place of crushed stone aggregates to manufacture
LWC, if waste materials are used as an aggregate in the production of
LWC, more environmental and economic benefits may be derived. In
view of the escalating environmental problems, the use of aggregates
from by-products and/or solid waste materials from different
industries is highly desirable. The high cost of conventional building
materials is a major factor affecting construction delivery in India. In
developing countries where abundant agricultural and industrial
Page 333
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
wastes are discharged, these wastes can be used as potential material
or replacement material in the construction industry. This will have
double the advantages viz., reduction in the cost of construction
material and also as a means of disposal of wastes. Thus the above
approach is logical, worthy and attributable. Therefore an attempt has
been made in this study to utilize the coconut shell (CS) as coarse
aggregate in the development of LWC.
CS has good durability characteristics, high toughness and
abrasion resistant properties; it is suitable for long standing use. CS is
mostly used as an ornament, making fancy items, house hold utensils,
and as a source of activated carbon from its charcoal. The powdered
shell is also used in the industries of plastics, glues, and abrasive
materials and it is widely used for the manufacture of insect repellent
in the form of mosquito coils and in agarbathis. The study of CS as

an alternative for aggregates is another way of using the
contributions a coconut tree will provide. The purpose of this
research work is to develop a concrete with CS as coarse aggregate.
The whole entity could be called coconut shell aggregate concrete
(CSAC). After the coconut is scraped out, the shell is usually
discarded as waste. The vast amount of this discarded CS resource is
as yet unutilized commercially, its use as a building material,
especially in concrete, on the lines of other LWA is an interesting
topic for study. The study of CS will not only provide a new material
for construction but will also help in the preservation of the
environment in addition to improving the economy by providing new
use for the CS. Therefore attempts have been taken to utilize the CS
as coarse aggregate and develop the new structural LWC in table 1.
Table1: Coconut Shell Statistics
2.
Country
Production 2010
% of World Total
% Change from 2009
Indonesia
20,655,400 m/t
33.07%
- 3.691%
Philippines
15,540,000 m/t
24.88%
- 0.814%
India
10,894,000 m/t
17.33%
+ 6.65%
Brazil
2,705,860 m/t
4.33%
- 8.587%
Sri Lanka
2,238,800 m/t
3.58%
+ 6.66%
Material Used
2.1. CS as aggregate
The freshly discarded CS collected from a local oil mill was used in
this study. Since the different species of CS are processed together,
the shells are found to have varying thicknesses of 28 mm in fig 1.
After crushing, the shells are aky and irregularly shaped. For
preparing CS aggregates were crushed by manually. Since CS is a
aky material, the sizes of CS lengthwise are restricted to a

maximum of 12 mm (Fig. 1), to get enough workability with the
concrete. The surface texture of the shell was fairly smooth on
concave and rough on convex faces. The crushed edges were rough
and spiky. Coconut shell aggregates(CSA) have a relatively high
water absorption value nearly, 24%, compared to the conventional
aggregate (0.5%); hence, to prevent water absorption by the concrete
mix, it is necessary to mix at Saturated Surface Dry condition (SSD)
based on 24 h submersion in potable water.
Fig.1 Sizes of coconut shell aggregate and normal aggregate
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V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
2.2. Other concrete mix constituents
3.
Mix Design
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 43 Grade conforming to Indian

Standard IS 12269: 1987 is used as a binder. Well graded crushed
quarry aggregate, with specific gravity 2.71, was used as coarse
aggregate. A maximum aggregate size of 12.5 mm was used. River
sand is used throughout the investigation as ne aggregate
conforming to grading zone III as per IS 383-1970 with specific
gravity 2.6 and maximum size 4.75 mm was used. The class F fly ash
obtained from Mettur thermal power plant is used in this
investigation. The specific gravity of fly ash found as 2.08. The
potable water available in the University premises was used for
mixing and curing.
The mix design for lightweight concrete used for structural purposes
depends on the physical and mechanical properties of lightweight
aggregate. No specic methods are available for the design of
lightweight concrete mixes. Lightweight concrete mix design is
usually established by trial mixes. ACI and Indian Standard methods
could not be applied to the mix design of concrete with agro-waste
materials. For the production of coconut shell aggregate concrete
(CSAC), enough trial mixes through weigh batches were already
made and established for optimization of a mix ratio by considering
cement content, woodcement ratio, and watercement ratio . The
selected and established mix ratio for CSAC is 1:1.47:0.65:0.42 by
weight of cement (Cement: Sand: CS: Water) in which cement
content was set 510 kg/m3 and this mix also satises the criteria of
structural LWC as per ASTM C 330. This established mix ratio was
taken for this study. The physical and mechanical properties of CS
were explained (Table 2).
Table 2: Properties of Coconut Shell
4.
Sl. no
Physical and Mechanical Properties
Coconut Shells
Maximum size (mm)
12.5
Moisture content (%)
4.20
Water absorption
(24 h) (%)
24.00
Specic gravity
1.051.20
Impact value (%)
8.15
Crushing value (%)
2.58
Abrasion value (%)
1.63
Bulk density (kg/m3)
650
Fineness modulus
6.26
10
Shell thickness (mm)
28
Experimental Programme
Two proportions were to be used in this study. For selected mix ratio,
the 60 numbers of Cubes of size 150mm X 150mm X150mm, 30
numbers of Cylinders of 150mm diameter and 300 mm of length and
4 numbers of Beams of 1700 X 100mm X 150mm were tested. The
numbers of specimens were casted with different proportions of fly
ash and coconut shell.
5.
5.1.
Result and Discussion

Moisture content and water absorption capacity
The moisture content of the coconut shell was found to be 5.13%.

These were allowed for in the calculation of batched quantities and of
the total water requirement of the concrete mix. The water absorption
capacity of the CS was found to be 6.17%. The absorption capacity is
a measure of the porosity of an aggregate. Since the values obtained
are low, it is reasonable to conclude that the shells absorb very little
amount of mixing water during concrete production. These values are
also within the range of absorption capacity of lightweight aggregates
which have been put at 520% (Portland Cement Association).
5.2. Unit Weight and Specific Gravity
The unit weight (density) and the specic gravity of the shells are
1738 kg/m3 and 1.74, respectively. These gures fall below the 2.5
3.0 range of specic gravity for normal weight aggregates. The CSs
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V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
can therefore be classied as lightweight aggregates, the CSs having
higher density and specic gravity. The clear differences in specic
gravities of the shells (1.74) and cement (3.10) explained why it was
necessary, as done in this investigation, for the material quantities to
be computed by the method of absolute volume.
5.3. Durability
Durability of an aggregate is a measure of its resistance to
wear, moisture penetration, decay and disintegration. The
hardness of the CSs was measured by the durability test using
the Los Angeles abrasion method. The test results indicated

high values of 98.6% for CS.
5.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete
The results showed that the compressive strength of the concrete
mix ratios (Fig. 23).
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V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
From the above graph it is clear that the addition of fly ash content in
CSAC did not given any strength to the concrete and also the
compressive strength get reduced here. The strength is high in the
proportion of 10% of fly ash content in CSAC.
5.5. Split Tensile Strength of Concrete
The results showed that the split tensile strength of the concrete
ratios (Fig 4).
Fig.4 Split tensile strength of CSAC (28 days)
5.6. Flexure Test

The result of the flexure carried out on the 4 beam specimen and load
Vs deflection are shown in fig 5&6 at the time of conducting the
flexure test of the specimen, ultimate load and deflection were
measured by LVDT.
Table 3: Flexure Test Result

Load
Beam designation
Deflection
Max crack width

in mm
1st crack load in

KN
Ultimate load in KN
Mid span deflection at 1st

crack in mm
Mid span deflection at

Ultimate load in mm
9.24
27.72
2.85
15.72
8.47
26.95
2.43
18.44
6.93
35.42
1.5
12.98
7.7
33.88
1.02
22.79
CS-100%,FA-0%
CS-100%,FA-10%
CS-50%,FA-0%
CS-50%,FA-10%
5.6.1.
Load-Deflection Behaviour
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V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
The measured load Vs deflection is shown in (Fig 5 & Fig
6). The plot shows that all beam specimens exhibit similar
behaviour but with an increase in ductility due to reduce in

stiffness of the beams.
From the above graph it is clear that the maximum deflection can
occur by the addition of fly ash content in beam. Other specimens
were undergone small deflections.
Ductility index is defined as the ratio of ultimate mid span deflection

to deflection at initial crack load of the beam are presented in Table
4.
5.7. Ductility
Table 4: Ductility Index
Beam designation
CS-100%,FA-0%
First crack mid span

deflection (mm)
Ductility
Index
2.85
15.72
5.51
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V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
CS-100%,A-10%
2.43
18.44
7.5
CS-50%,FA-0%
1.5
12.98
8.6
CS-50%,FA-10%
1.02
22.79
22.34
beam has higher ductility index than other beams.
Stiffness may be defined as load required causing unit deflection.

The stiffness value of various beams at ultimate load and first load
are presented in Table 5 & 6.
5.8. Stiffness
Table 5: Stiffness Values at Initial Crack Load
Initial Crack mid span deflection (mm)
Beam designation
Initial Crack Load

(KN)
Stiffness
(KN/mm)
CS-100%,FA-0%
9.24
2.85
3.24
CS-100%,A-10%
8.47
2.43
3.10
CS-50%,FA-0%
6.93
1.5
4.62
CS-50%,FA-10%
7.7
1.02
7.55
has higher stiffness values at initial crack than other beams.
Table 6: Stiffness Values at Ultimate Load
Beam designation
Ultimate Load
(KN)
Stiffness
(KN/mm)
CS-100%,FA-0%
27.72
15.72
1.76
CS-100%,A-10%
26.95
18.44
1.46
CS-50%,FA-0%
35.42
12.98
2.73
CS-50%,FA-10%
33.88
22.79
1.49
has higher stiffness values at ultimate load than other beams.
Page 339
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
Fig.7 Tested Specimen
Page 340
V.Dhivya/INDECS-15
6.
CONCLUSION
From the investigation carried out, below conclusions were found:
7.
From the graphs shows the compressive strength and split

tensile strength are decreasing with increase in the
proportion of CSA. The addition of fly ash content
increases the strength.
The optimum percentage of fly ash for the replacement of

cement was found to be 10% from compressive strength
and split tensile strength results. When the fly ash content
in CSAC increase it decreases the compressive strength
and split tensile strength.
In the proportion of 10% fly ash content, the strength

increases for both 50% & 100 % of CSA compare to the
other proportions.
The load carrying capacities of coconut shell beam with fly

ash content were higher than the beam without addition of
ash content. Beam with fly ash has undergone more
deflection than other beams.
The specimen CS-50%, FA-10% has higher ductility index

than other beams. The specimen CS-50%, FA-0% has
higher stiffness values at ultimate load than other beams.
The crack patterns of the entire beam were studied.
The density of light aggregate is very much less than

conventional concrete. The reduction of density will play
important factor in the economy of the project because the
total dead loads of the building were reduced and it helps in
economic design of foundation.
[6] Gerritse A. Design consideration for reinforced lightweight

concrete. Cem Comp Lightweight Conc 1981;3(1):5769.
[7] Adeyemi AY. An investigation into the suitability
ofcoconut shells as aggregates in concrete production.
Journal of Environment Design and Management, Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 1998;1(1,2):1726.
[8] William H. Langer, Lawrence J. Drew, Janet S. Sachs.
Aggregate and the environment, American Geological
Institute, 2004.
[9] Transport Research Laboratory. A review of the use of
waste materials and by-products in road construction.
contractor report 358, 1994.
[10] IS 383: 1970, Indian Standard for specication for coarse
and ne aggregates from natural sources for concrete
(second revision), reafrmed February 1997.
REFERENCES
[1] Gunasekaran K, Kumar PS. Lightweight concrete using
coconut shell as aggregate. In: Proceedings of the ICACC2008. International conference on advances in concrete and
construction, Hyderabad, India, 79 February, 2008.p.
4509.
[2] Gunasekaran K, Kumar PS. Lightweight concrete mix
design using coconut shell aggregate. In: Proceedings of
the IBMSDCP-2008. International conference on
Innovations in building materials, structural designs and
construction practices, Sathyamangalam, India, 1517
May, 2008. p. 37582.
[3] Weigler H, Sieghart K. Structural lightweight aggregate
concrete with reduced density lightweight aggregate
foamed concrete. Int J Lightweight Concr 1980;2(2):101
4.
[4] Mannan MA, Ganapathy C. Mix design for oil palm shell
concrete. Cem Concr Res 2001;31:13235.
[5] IS: 516-1959, Indian Standard for methods of tests for
strength of concrete, edition 1.2 (1991-07).Short and
W.Kinniburgh, Lightweight Concrete ,Applied Science
Publishers,London,1978.
Page 341
INVESTIGATION ON CONDUCTIVE CONCRETE COMPOSITIONS

M.Amirthavarshini 1, R.Selvaraj 2 and N.Chella Kavitha 3
Photo of First
Author
in
JPEG Format
of Second
Author (if any)
in
JPEG Format
PG Student, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, 626 005, India.

varshiniamirtha24@gmail.com
2
Principal Scientist, CSIR-CECRI, Karaikudi, 630 006, India.
selvarajcecri@gmail.com
3
Asst. Professor (Sr.Grade), Mepco Schlenk Engg. College, Sivakasi, 626 005, India.
chellakavitha@gmail.com
(if any)
in
Abstract
JPEG Format
Concrete is being used as a major material of construction in the construction industry by of its easiness for
casting to any shape and size from ordinary platforms to many mega structures. Conductive concrete is one of special
concrete composites invented for deicing in locations where snow fall is heavy particularly on bridges, roads and
pathways. The formulations are arrived after many trail mixes, with graphite, carbon powder and steel slag combinations
to give many folds of elevated temperatures than the ambient temperature so as to melt ice formed over the transport
structures with the help of applied Electrical Energy. Various mixture compositions, applied voltage, and the
temperatures experienced are presented and discussed in detail.
Keywords: Resistivity, Conductivity, Graphite, Steel slag and Temperature.
1. Introduction
Traditional cement based structural concrete is used in all civil
engineering infrastructural facilities due to its easiness of
synthesizing and casting to any shape and size without much
difficulties. However, the same structural concrete when it is
serves more than one function either for structural or nonstructural purpose, then such a concrete is called special
concrete and receives increasing importance in the construction
industry. Apart from structural aspects such special concretes
serves for non-structural functions including thermal heat
generation, thermal insulation, corrosion resistance, sensing,
actuation, self-heating, heat retention and electromagnetic
interference shielding etc. [1].
Electrically conductive cement based concrete in one category
of multifunctional structural concrete. Basically, this
conductive concrete is a cementitious and admixed with some
electrically conductive materials to certain volumetric ratio to
attain high and stable electrical conductivity [2]. A thin layer of
conductive concrete can generate heat to prevent formation ice
when energized by AC power. The electrically resistivity is
decreased many fold in conductive concrete. Conductive
concrete is synthesized by several materials for example, new
carbonaceous aggregate is found more useful than carbon or
graphite powders but availability is limited and expensive for
wider applications. Inclusion of small amount of metal powders
like aluminium, zinc or zinc based alloys was used once but
they were attacked by high alkalinity of cement used. Then iron
powders were tried again problems cropped out in concrete due
to formation of passive layer on the surfaces of iron particles.
Thin passive layer is known as iron oxide film and the

resistance of this film is considerable. More than all, these iron
particles are surrounded by cement-aggregate mixture and this
leads to a complex problem of electrical series- parallel
arrangements [3].These concrete will be highly conductive in
the initial periods and as the hydration and setting of cement
progresses, the conductivity is reduced. This can be examined
by standard conductivity test method [4] described. Therefore,
materials of conductive nature and not affected by cement is
chosen for effective use of making conductive concrete. Carbon
is one such good material used for preparing conductive
concrete. In some cases, it was successful to use conductive
aggregates in place of conventional aggregates. The selection of
these aggregates need not be only based on conductivity but
also with adequate mechanical strength, chloride and sulphate
free, chemical inertness and low water absorption etc.
2. Why Conductive Concrete?
Accumulation of ice and snow in cold countries during winter
on roads, pedestrian paths and other traffic ways leads to
several problems including driving hazards and traffic and time
delays. It is generally handled by sprinkling Sodium
Chloride(common salt), although this method of control is
inexpensive and simple, it ruins ground water, spoils
vegetation, causes corrosion of steel in the concrete structure
damages the finished concrete surfaces and leads to formation
of scales. As an alternative to Sodium Chloride, heating cables
and or heating pipes were embedded in concrete and electrical
energy was used to heat the concrete. This method was very
effective for de-icing. However it leads to traffic disturbances,
leakage of embedded pipes (impossible to repair or maintain)
Page 342
and high energy cost with multiple complexity [5]. Therefore,

as an effective method by considering all merits and demerits.
Conductive concrete is designed and formulated for solving deicing problems by easy and effective method. This reduces
damages greatly by providing heating capacity to the concrete
by applied electrical energy [6].
In the present study twelve mixes were designed by admixing
graphite and steel slag by mass percentages of cement. All the
specimens were tested and their efficiencies are reported and
best combinations were selected.
2.1 Materials Used
A material such as Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of Dalmia
brand conforming to IS 8112:2013 43 grade was used. Graphite
and Steel slag are used as Conductive material and also impart
strength by steel slag. Graphite powder with metallic sheen was
procured from chemicals suppliers from Madurai with specific
gravity of 2.2, electrical resistivity 25 x 10 -6 . m , coefficient
of thermal expansion of 6.3 x 10-6 /C and of from natural
sources. The steel slag was obtained from a foundry located
nearby Madurai city. The blast furnace granulated slag of air
cooled (slow cooling in the open air), the specific gravity was
3.6 and the angle of internal friction was about 45. Fine
aggregate of washed river sand was used with fineness modulus
2.3 and conforming to zone II as per IS 383:1970 by sieve
analysis. The coarse aggregate of 20 mm nominal size was used
after washing thoroughly using tap water. The mix ratio
adopted is based on the design mix proposed as per IS 102621982 for a target mean strength of 30 Mpa, with a water to
cement ratio (w/c) of 0.45.The resulted proportion was
1:1.12:2.12. Steel slag and graphite were added in addition to
this ratio as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1. Mix designation and Conductive additive Materials
Mix
Graphite
Steel Slag
S.No.
Designations
(% by mass)
(% by mass)
1.
N0
2.
G1
1.2
2.4
3.
G2
1.2
4.8
4.
G3
1.2
7.2
5.
G4
1.2
9.6
6.
G5
2.4
2.4
7.
G6
2.4
4.8
8.
G7
2.4
7.2
9.
G8
2.4
9.6
10.
G9
3.6
2.4
11.
G10
3.6
4.8
12.
G11
3.6
7.2
13.
G12
3.6
9.6
get constant weight of cubes i.e. to get ensure complete

expulsion of water and thin dry weight, density was noted.
Based on thin dry weight, density for each mix was calculated
and presented in Table 2.From this saturated and dry weight,
water absorption was computed using the equation shown
below.
Percentage of water absorption =
where,
Ws = saturated weight of the cube (kg)
Wd = dry weight of the cube (kg)
x 100
(1)
The percentage of water absorption for each mix is presented in

Table 2.
Table 2. Physical properties of Conductive Concrete
Slump
Dry Density
Water
Designations
(mm)
(kg/m3)
Absorption (%)
N0
71
2494.81
0.894
G1
85
2456.32
1.239
G2
81
2497.08
1.135
G3
73
2542.17
0.978
G4
67
2567.14
0.864
G5
87
2573.78
1.326
G6
83
2584.16
1.218
G7
75
2596.41
0.992
G8
69
2599.92
0.897
G9
89
2589.11
1.408
G10
86
2594.39
1.245
G11
79
2598.99
1.005
G12
72
2609.74
0.974
Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements were carried out on
each cube specimens according to IS 13311 (part 1)-1992 and
the quality of concrete is presented in Table 3 for each mix
ratios. The quality of concrete was assessed based on the
recommended values given in Table 4. The fig.1 shows the
arrangements for measuring pulse velocity on concrete cube.
Cube compressive strength test was conducted for all the test
cubes using universal testing machine and the values are
presented in Table 5 and the testing is shown in fig. 2.
3. Results
Slump test was conducted for all mixes according to IS 73201974 and the values are presented in Table 2.Cube specimens
were cast of size 150x150x150 mm size and cured in water tank
for 28 days. After complete curing, the cubes were taken out
and wiped with cotton and saturated weight was measured for
each cube and were subjected days kept in oven at 105 C till to
Fig. 1. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
Page 343
Similarly cylinder specimens cast to size 100 mm diameter x

200 mm height splitting were subjected to tensile test in
accordance with IS 5816-1970 using the same universal testing
machine and from the maximum breaking load, splitting tensile
strength was calculated using the relationship.
Fsp =
(2)
where,
Fsp= Splitting tensile strength (N/mm2)
P=Maximum load at breaking (N)
d= diameter of the cylinder (mm)
l=length or height of the cylinder (mm)
Fig. 2. Cube Compression Test
The calculated splitting tensile strength values are presented in

Table 5 and the testing is represented by fig.3.
Table 3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Results

Time
Velocity
Quality of
Designations
(sec x10-6 )
(km/sec)
concrete
N0
38.1
3.9
Good
G1
34.1
4.39
Good
G2
34.7
4.32
Good
G3
36.2
4.14
Good
G4
35.6
4.21
Good
G5
34.5
4.35
Good
G6
35.3
4.25
Good
G7
36.9
4.06
Good
G8
34.9
4.29
Good
G9
44.3
3.39
Medium
G10
43.6
3.44
Medium
G11
35.8
4.19
Good
G12
35.2
4.26
Good
Table 4. Pulse Velocity and Quality of Concrete
Pulse Velocity (km/sec)
Concrete Quality (or) Grading
Above 4.5
Excellent
3.5 to 4.5
Good
3.0 to 3.5
Medium
Below 3.0
Doubtful
Table 5. Mechanical Strength
Cube Compressive
Split Tensile
Designations
Strength
Strength
(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
N0
26.23
2.65
G1
25.71
G2
26.35
G3
27.50
2.81
G4
26.02
G5
25.57
G6
27.32
G7
28.74
2.92
G8
26.23
G9
24.86
G10
25.22
G11
26.14
2.68
G12
25.78
-
Fig. 3. Split Tensile Test

Electrical conductivity test or Heating test has been conducted
and the schematic arrangement is shown in fig.4.
Fig 4. Schematic of Resistivity Measurements

The resistivity is calculated using the relationship,
Resistivity of concrete = = V/I x A/L
(3)
where,
V=voltage (volt)
I=current (A)
A= area of conduction (cm2)
L= distance between the electrodes (cm)
Page 344
The actual measurement of resistivity with the help of Varian

and temperature measuring instrument are shown in fig. 5.The
Table 6 shows the temperature record with respect to the
variable AC voltage applied to specimens and the
corresponding current and applied duration. The fig.6 to 9
shows the increase in rate of temperature with respect to
increased rate of applied voltage.
Table 6. Results of Electrical Conductivity Test
Voltage Current Time Temperature
Designations
(V)
(A)
(min)
(C)
60
2
15
32.8
80
2.3
15
34.6
N0
100
2.6
13
35.3
120
2.8
10
36.1
140
3
9.5
39.4
60
2
10
39.4
80
2.3
8
50.3
G3
100
2.6
6
62.4
120
2.8
5
73.2
140
3
4
87.4
60
2
8
48.5
80
2.3
6
56.4
G7
100
2.6
4.5
66.5
120
2.8
3
77.2
140
3
2
96
60
2
4
59.6
80
2.3
3
64.3
G11
100
2.6
2
75.5
120
2.8
1
90.8
140
3
1
126.8
Fig. 6. Temperature rise at 140 V for specimen NO

(Normal concrete)
Fig.5. Circuit Connection
Fig. 9. Temperature rise at 160 V for specimen G11
The Table 7 shows the test result of heating test conducted with
ice at constant input voltage.
Page 345
Table 7. Test results of Heating at a constant voltage of 140

volts
Time for
Rate of
Temperature
melting
melting
Exposure
( C )
(min)
(cm/min)
1
0.2
2
0.1
Room
34
3
0.1
Temperature
4
0.1
5
0.1
1
0.3
35
2
0.2
35.4
Normal
3
0.2
36.2
Concrete
4
0.1
36.5
5
0.1
37.1
1
0.7
48.5
2
0.5
56.4
Conductive
3
0.4
66.5
Concrete
4
0.2
77.2
5
0.2
96
4. Discussion
The slump value for the control mix was 71 mm and the highest
value of 89 mm was obtained for mix G9.This is due to very
fine spherical particles of graphite present in the mix and thus
the effect of lubrication lead to this increase in slump. This
enhances workability of the concrete mix.
The dry density of G1 was found to be 2456.31 kg/m 3 which
are the lowest and the highest was obtained for G12.This is due
to higher percentage of addition of steel slag and graphite in the
mix. Lowest water absorption percentage was obtained for G4
mix, which is 0.864 % and the highest was for G9 mix, which
is 1.408 %.
G11. At the temperature, the concrete exhibited diagonal crack

on the specimen, and this suggests to go for optimum value of
below 100 C by reducing the current. By comparing strength
and conductive nature the mix G7 was found good and
recommended to use as conductive concrete. Therefore, this G7
was used for ice melting temperature test and the results are in
Table 7.
5. Conclusion
As the conductive materials are increased in the mix, the

slump value also increases as a general phenomenon.
The result of density test confirms that there is no much
change in the density of conductive concrete compared to
normal concrete.
The conductive fillers added improves the water
absorption property by filling the voids due to uniform
particle size distribution thus making the conductive
concrete less porous than normal concrete.
The Ultrasonic pulse velocity test confirms the quality of
conductive concrete is good.
The compressive strength of the conductive concrete
increases for control mix due to the addition of graphite
and steel slag.
The splitting tensile strength also increases for conductive
concrete due to the formation of calcium ferrous silicate
that enhances the split tensile test.
As the conductive materials are increased in concrete the
thermal conductivity also increases proportionally with
variable input voltage.
By this study, G7 is the recommended mix ratio to use as
conductive concrete for melting ice with constant input
voltage supply.
6. References
The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test reveals that the
quality of G9 and G10 are moderate, while all other mixes are
found good. This can be verified from Table 3 and 4.
The Table 5 presents the results of mechanical strengths such as
cube compressive strength (fck) and splitting tensile strength
(fsp).The mixes G3, G6, G7 and G8 are found to give cube
compressive strength equivalent or more than control mix value
of 26.23 N/mm2 .The splitting tensile strength was 2.65 N/mm2
for control mix and for the mixes G3, G7 and G11 provided
higher splitting tensile strength value compared to control mix.
This can be attributed to the fact the steel slag mixed in the mix
reacted with Ca (OH)2 present in the mortar mix and formed
Calcium ferric silicate or Calcium ferrous silicate which has
enhanced the mechanical strengths.
The Table 6 shows the result of electrical conductivity tests in
which it is found that as the conductive material addition is
increased, the temperature of the concrete was also increased.
Also, when the Voltage is increased from 60 volt to 140 volt,
the temperature of the concrete also increased. A highest
temperature of 126.8 C was obtained at 140 volt for the mix
[1] D.D.L. Chung. Electrically Conductive Cement based

Materials. Advances in Cement Research (2004) Vol. 16, No.
4, pp. 167-176.
[2] C.Y.Tuan and S.A.Yehia Airfield pavement De-icing with
Conductive Concrete Overlay. University of NebraskaLincoln, Presented for the 2002 Federal Aviation
Administration Technology Transfer Conference, May 2002.
[3] W. Hymer. Electrically Conductive Concrete. Marconi
Communications Systems Ltd., Publication No. C- 800411.
[4] Chun- Yao Lee and Siang- Ren Wang. Analysis of
Resistance characteristics of Conductive Concrete using
Electrode method. International Journal of Environmental and
Earth Sciences (2010), Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 7-10.
[5] C.Y.Tuan. Conductive Concrete Overlays for Bridge Deck
De-icing: Mixture proportioning optimization and properties.
ACI Materials Journal (2000) March, pp.172-181.
[6] Suneel N. Vanikar. The Advances and Barriers in
Application of New Concrete Technology. Federal Highway
Administration, U.S Department of Transportation,
Washington DC, USA. International workshop on Sustainable
Development and Concrete Technology, pp. 25-33
Page 346
DURABILITY STUDIES ON RAW AND CALCINED CLAY BASED

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
R.Priyanka* and, R.Selvaraj**
* P.G. Student from Chenduran Engineering College, Pudukkottai-622507
Abstract
In the emerging technological world, the conventional materials and methods are changing every day and approaching
the goal of achieving highest utility and benefits to the human community. Keeping this in mind, geopolymer concrete
were first produced in the early part of 1970s with metakaolin and later with fly ash. This material undergoes
polymerization with Aluminosilicates materials in the presence of highly alkaline solution and hardens by thermal
curing. In this paper an attempt is made to utilize clay in the form of raw clay and calcined clay as aluminosilicate
materials with alkaline solution (Sodium silicate + Sodium hydroxide).This research work comprising of all important
mechanical strength tests, physical and chemical properties, Diffusion characteristics of chloride and modern corrosion
testing such as impressed voltage tests and Tafel slope extrapolation techniques to understand clearly the behavior of
geopolymer with respect to corrosion of steel when embedded in clay based geopolymer. All the test data are presented
neatly and discussed in details.
Keywords: Clay, Geopolymer, Alumino silicate, Crystallization, Sialate.
1. Introduction
Clays of different kinds potentially and abundantly available
on earth crust. These clays are not properly utilized by the
civil engineering community because of the reason that the
present civil engineers do not have proper understanding of
material. This lack of understanding caused a gap in
developing modern construction materials. By X ray
fluorescence analysis it is understood that there is no much
difference between a raw clay and the fly ash in oxide
composition. However the presence of few organic materials
in raw clay has some harmful effect when used with both in
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and geopolymer. This
effect is more pronounced in OPC concrete rather than in
geopolymer. Therefore the thermal treatment of clay at high
temperature will certainly eliminate the organic material, in
addition to modifying these silicate particles.
In this research work raw and treated clays from various
places were used for preparation of geopolymer concretes, in
addition to geopolymer made with fly ash .From this study it
is found that clays either raw or thermally treated helped
enormously for the formation of geopolymer concrete which
provided very high strength compared to geopolymer made

with fly ash and ordinary cement concrete. Irrespective of
the place of collection and type of clays, the clay based
geopolymers found to perform extra-ordinary better than
OPC concrete as well as geopolymer based on fly ash, in
mechanical strengths, corrosion tests and other durability
test. This indicates improved microstructure and formation
of crystals in the pores, voids and fissures. This helps greatly
to reduce the diffusion characteristics of chlorides and
thereby the durability is increased against corrosion.
Making geo polymer concrete with clay presents may
advantages compared to concrete mate with ordinary
Portland cement (OPC). Geo polymer possess fast setting
and hardening, excellent bond strengths, long term durability
and better fire and acid resistance[2,3]. And therefore it has
many industrial applications also [4]. Apart from these, the
geo polymer concretes are produced by low energy
consumption and low emission of Co2 [5, 6] which certainly
makes the product as a Green Materials [7,8]. Variety of
alumino silicate minerals are examined by many researchers
to establish such alumino silicate materials as potential
material for producing geo polymer [3] .It has been

E-mail: selvarajcecri@gmail.com
Page 347

established that calcined minerals provide a potential source
for making geopolymer [9] it has ever proved that the
calcined clay provides best results due to change of phase
from crystalline to amorphous [10] proof of record for
Indian clays are missing. The activator alkaline solution is
sodium silicate with sodium hydroxide solution.
Composition variation of this alkaline solution usually
central setting and hardening process of geopolymer. higher
content of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide provide the
higher mechanical strength.[1] it is also found that very high
pH or alkalinity of the solution affect the geo polymer
properties adversely [13,14]. It has been suggested [15] that
the molar ratio of (Na2O / Al2O3) must be unity. Presence of
Na2O, Al2O3 and SiO2 plays a major role for the
transformation of phases from crystalline to amorphous [15].
Increase in Fe2O3 in clay cause darkness of the raw clay.
Higher content of Fe2O3 will be dark grey and low Fe2O3
will present lighter or white clay. Therefore , in this research
work, raw clay as obtained from the natural sources are
treated in muffle furnace to heat it to 900c for one hour
used for making geo polymer concrete. The curing
temperature of the geo polymer concrete also plays a major
role for development of strengths [1,16,17].
o
o
o- Si-o-Al-o
o
o
SiO4 AlO4
Poly (sialate siloxo)
Si : Al =2 (-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O)
o
o
o
o- Si-o-Al-o Si-o
o
o
o
SiO4 AlO4 SiO4
Poly (sialate disloxo)
Si : Al =3(-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-Si-O)
o
o
o
o
o- Si-o-Al-o Si o Si - O
o
o
o
o
SiO4 AlO4 SiO4 SiO4
Alkaline activation of alumino silicate materials is a

complex process. It results, first of all in a breakdown of Si O-Si structure results substantial feature of this reaction, and
forms alumino silicate gels (zeolite precursors). Their
composition can be characterized by the following formula:
Mn [-(Si-O)z Al-O]n.wH2O
The C-S-H and C-A-H phase may also form according to the
composition of the precursor material and the reaction
condition.
Poly (sialate)
Si: Al = 1(Si-O-Al-O)
Therefore geo polymer does not possess any monolithic

structure of poly sialate siloxo type. It is characterized
by random three dimensional arrangements. This structure
represents a porous body with pore size ranging from
nanometers to micrometers and the pores are filled with
water and gel. The process of geo polymerization is
completely different from the process of hydration of
inorganic binders or cements (OPC).
2. MATERIALS USED
Raw clay samples (alumino silicate materials) were
collected from the lakes of Sivaganga and Pudukkottai
districts of Tamil nadu India. All the collected samples are
dried in hot sun atmosphere until all moisture evaporation.
Then the clay samples are powdered and sieved using 300
micron sieve. Clays powder passing through the sieve were
collected and stored separately. River sand was purchased
and after washing and drying the sand thoroughly, it was
stored in a container. Sodium silicate of commercial grade
was procured from Coimbatore. The density of Na 2SO3 was
Page 348

1.53 g/cc , the alkaline modulus was 2.00 (Na 2O =14.7% ,
SiO2 = 29.4%) AM = (SiO2 / Na2O). Crushed granite stone
aggregates are procured locally and washed, dried
thoroughly and then sieved to get it passed from 4.75mm a
size sieves and stored separately. Tap water was used for
preparing activator solution.
The raw clays obtained from sources sieved and
passed through 300 micron sieve were heated in a muffle
furnace to 900c with a soaking period of one hour. The
colours of the clays were changed to red as shown in Fig 1
because of the presence of Fe2O3.
Fig :1 Thermal Treatment of Clay
Cont
Composition 1:2:2.5
Designation
C1
C2
C3
C4
TC
TC2
TC
TC
CONTROL
GPFA
GPRC1
500
GPRC2
500
GPRC3
500
GPRC4
500
GPTC1
500
GPTC2
500
GPTC3
500
GPTC4
500
GPRC1+FA
200
GPRC2+FA
200
GPRC3+FA
200
GPRC4+FA
200
3.1 MICRO STRUCTURE STUDY
Table 1: Geopolymer Mix Proportions
a) XRF ANALYSIS
Composition 1:2:2.5
Designation
CONTROL
OPC
FA
SAND
CA
BINDER
SP
500
1.00
1.28
Water
10
225
GPFA
500
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC1
1.00
1.28
270
10
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC2
GPRC3
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC4
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC1
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC2
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC3
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPTC4
1.00
1.28
225
10
GPRC1+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
GPRC2+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
GPRC3+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
GPRC4+FA
300
1.00
1.28
375
10
To find out the Oxide composition of each material X-Ray

fluorescence technique has been adopted using the
instrument HORIRA scientific (XGT 5200), Japan. And all
the composition of metal oxide by weight percentage is
listed out in stable no after XRF analysis.
The OPC used for control specimen has CaO
content 62.914% and SiO2 19.082%and Al2O3 3.268 by
weight. This indicates this is not a alumina silicate material
because CaO is major component in OPC .therefore POC
will be used for preparing concrete or mortar which will
undergo hydration process. The FA has got 65.585% of SiO2
and 21.209% of Al2O3 and 1.500 of CaO so this indicates
Al2O3 and SiO2 are the major component and therefore this
can be called as a alumina silicate material .Similarly for
clays 1 to 3 has got major components of Al2O3 and SiO2
and therefore they also come under the category of alumina
silicate material.
Page 349
Table 2: Oxide Composition of OPC, FA, Raw Clays

Sl.No
OPC
FA
C1
C2
C3
C4
Na2O
0.353
2.958
0.044
0.534
MgO
0.711
0.729
1.151
0.822
0.943
Al2O3
3.268
21.209
15.119
16.117
13.588
1.236
SiO2
19.082
65.585
65.559
58.811
69.357
82.562
SO3
5.505
0.431
0.418
0.406
0.703
0.423
K2O
0.610
1.202
3.201
2.736
2.037
0.546
CaO
62.914
1.500
1.356
2.139
2.152
3.245
TiO2
0.545
2.298
1.330
2.080
1.684
1.547
MnO2
0.172
0.091
0.206
0.161
0.337
0.112
Fe2O3
7.885
6.934
11.703
16.405
9.264
8.674
NiO
0.013
0.011
0.002
0.010
CuO
0.004
0.023
0.016
0.002
0.004
0.007
HgO
0.002
0.006
0.008
0.025
0.008
0.171
Table 3: Oxide Composition Of Treated Clays

Sl.No
T C1
TC2
TC3
TC 4
Na2O
0.662
4.073
18.889
0.674
MgO
0.817
3.043
5.205
1.026
Al2O3
13.111
16.033
10.365
0.965
SiO2
68.804
56.594
55.824
83.941
SO3
0.086
0.459
0.154
0.124
K2O
2.361
1.904
0.996
0.502
CaO
1.822
1.886
1.802
1.473
TiO2
1.141
1.237
0.810
1.876
MnO2
0.270
0.172
0.120
0.223
Fe2O3
10.850
14.503
5.819
9.014
NiO
0.016
0.001
CuO
0.015
0.053
0.002
0.005
HgO
0.061
0.027
0.013
0.165
Whereas clay 4 has a major component SiO2 as 82.562 %

and Al2O3 is 1.236% therefore this cannot be called as
alumina silicate material since this has got very minimum
amount of Al2O3 therefore the clay 4 can be regarded as sand
.the similar trend of alumina silicate material property has
been absorbed for treated clay 1 to 3.The treated clay 4 did
not improve from original property. From this XRF analysis
it can be concluded the clays are good alumina silicate
material which may replace fly ash. The thermal treatment
adopted for raw clays eliminate all organic materials,
volatile materials and unburntcarbons. Further this treat
treatment helps SiO2 to break open the particle and exposes
new surface for reaction .Such new surface s enhances the
reactivity with the binder solution and improve the
geopolymer strengths. Increase of clay 4 the only major
component is SiO2 and very minimum percentage of 1.23%
of Al2O3 is reduced to 0.965% and therefore polymerization
or sialate formation is prevented and therefore the reduced

strength.
b) FT IR ANALYSIS:
FT IR spectrum for OPC, FA and clay samples
were taken using NICOLET -380 FT-IR, from thermo
Electron Corporation Japan. The OH stretching region is the
most important diagnostic part of the spectrum. Inner
hydroxide graphs, lying between the tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets give the absorption near 3620 cm-1, the
other three OH graphs reside at the octahedral surface of
layers and form a weak hydrogen bonds with oxygen of Si
O Si bonds as the layer surface of next layer. A strong
bond at 3693 cm-1 is related to the in phase symmetric
stretching vibration , and weak absorptions at 3672 and 3651
cm-1 assigned to out of plane stretching vibrations( cm-1) the
Si - O stretching illustration of kaolinite give several well
resolved strong bonds in the 1120 1000 cm-1 region. Thus
FT- IR spectrum confirms the percentage of alumina silicate
materials. The peaks countered between 473 and 543 cm-1 is
due to O- Si- Al-O bonding vibration of sialates.
c)
FIELD EMISSION SCANNING ELECTRON

MICROSCOPY:
FESEM study has been carried out and images of
particles of materials used were captured for various
magnifications. The structure and materials are identified.
White and bright particle images represent metallic or
conductive material. The dark positions indicated normally
nonconductive medium. From these images the structure of
the particle can be easily and visually identified.
3.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Table 4: Physical Properties Of Clay Based Geopolymers
Designation
Water
absorption
CONTROL
Dry
Density
(kg/m3)
2198
7.94
Coefficient
Of water
absorption
8.497
GPFA
2354
6.12
6.543
GPRC1
2368
3.62
4.374
GPRC2
GPRC3
2360
2368
3.83
4.11
4.686
4.714
GPRC4
2359
7.13
5.784
GPTC1
2358
3.41
1.236
GPTC2
2358
3.62
1.345
GPTC3
2360
3.73
1.023
GPTC4
2350
3.14
3.145
GPRC1+FA
2322
3.72
2.111
GPRC2+FA
2311
3.81
2.367
GPRC3+FA
2346
3.79
2.472
GPRC4+FA
2329
3.89
2.632
Page 350
a) DRY DENSITY:
The dry density of control mix is 2198 kg / m3 and
for all other geopolymer materials are ranges from 2133 kg /
m3 to 2368 kg / m3. The reason for higher density of
geopolymer concrete can be attributed to the fact that the
mixing solution remains within the mass without any
appreciable evaporation of water, whereas in case of control
mix water goes into hydration reaction immediately and
evaporates leaving the voids inside the concrete. In case of
geopolymer the formation of voids are very less.
concrete the formation of C-S-H gel prevents the

interconnectivity of pores.
Fig 4: Graphical Representation Of Co-Eff. WA

3.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Table 5: Mechanical Properties Of Clay Based Geopolymers
Designation
Fig 2: Graphical Representation Of Dry Density

a) WATER ABSORPTION:
The percentage of water absorption was computed
for every sample from saturated weight and dry weight. As
indicated below the percentage of water absorption of
control specimen is 7.94% and geopolymer using fly ash
exhibited 6.12% and all other clay mixes shows almost 50%
less than the amount of water absorbed by control mix. And
therefore clay based geopolymers are significantly less water
absorbing material.
Fig 3: Graphical Representation Of Water Absorption

b) COEFFICIENT OF WATER ABSORPTION:
The coefficient of water absorption has been found
from sorptivity test as discussed in previous chapter. The
coefficient of water absorption shows a mixed response and
its slightly more for geopolymers made out of treated clays,
and for raw clays slightly less. Compare to control, whose
value is 3.02 x 10-10 mm2/s. This mixed response is due to
the fact that the interconnectivity of pores and voids are
present in clay based geopolymers. But in case of OPC
CONTROL
GPFA
GPRC1
GPRC2
GPRC3
GPRC4
GPTC1
GPTC2
GPTC3
GPTC4
GPRC1+FA
GPRC2+FA
GPRC3+FA
GPRC4+FA
Cylinder
compressive
strength
(N
21.14
26.39
29.11
27.87
22.36
19.010
43.41
49.92
37.14
40.63
32.14
33.86
34.91
34.86
Split
tensile
strength
Flexural
strength
3.02
3.12
3.62
3.44
2.96
1.12
5.96
6.41
5.51
5.86
4.23
4.31
4.47
4.37
4.16
4.71
4.96
4.82
4.52
1.93
6.84
6.83
7.03
7.61
5.88
5.72
5.89
5.63
a) CYLINDER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

TEST (fcy):
Cylinder specimens were cast and subjected to
compressive stress. The cylinder compressive strength
obtained for control mix was 21.14 N/ mm2 (Mpa).and for
fly ash geopolymer concrete is 26.39 which is 24.83%
higher strength than OPC concrete. The raw clay based
geopolymer concrete showed much higher cylinder strength
than the control mix. Particularly in raw clay 1is strength
is29.11 N/ mm2 because of higher SiO2 and Al2O3 content
along with appreciable amount of Fe2O3. This clay, provides
less CaO compare to other raw clays used, and therefore the
increased strength. In general the presence of CaO
drastically reduces the setting time and strength. When the
treated clay was used , the strength of geopolymer concrete
has increased drastically more than double therefore it can
be concluded thermally treated clays are very good for
making geopolymer concrete than the raw clay and fly ash.
In other words the treated clays are much more
Page 351
advantageous for making geopolymer concretes this is due

to the fact that on heating the SiO2 particles present in the
raw clays undergoes substantially the phase changes from
crystalline to amorphous. This amorphous phase is ready to
react and bond with geopolymer binders, and therefore the
increased in strength. When the raw clays mixed with Fly
ash for geopolymer concrete inbetween values of
geopolymer made with fly ash and geopolymer made with
raw clays is obtained. It is obvious that the geopolymer
made out of purely treated clays exhibits very high strength
compare to all other mixes.
Fig 7: Graphical Representation Of Flexural Strength
3.4 ACCELERATED ELECTRO CHEMICAL STUDY
Table 6: Electro Chemical Test Results
Designation
Chloride
Remarks
12 Volt
Ion
As Per
Impressed
Diffusion
ASTMC
Voltage
1202 figure Test
Fig. 1. (coulombs)
Single-column format
(Failed at )
hrs
Fig 5: Graphical Representation Of Cylinder Copm. Strength

b) SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST: ( fsp)
The trend of split tensile strength follows as the

trend absorbed in cylinder strength. The treated clay used
geopolymers provide much higher strength than all other
specimens and the value are given table no 5.
Fig 6: Graphical Representation Of Split Tensile Strength

c) FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST:
Flexural strength has been arrived from the three
point loading test. The result of flexural test is shown in
table no5.2 and graphical representation of the result shown
in graph 5.2.6. It is absorbed that the flexural strength are
much higher than split tensile strengths. This is due to the
presence of micro fibres in clay. The increase in flexural
strength from split tensile strength is around 30%.
Control
GPFA
GPRC1
GPRC2
GPRC3
GPRC4
GPTC1
GPTC2
GPTC3
GPTC4
GPRC1+FA
GPRC2+FA
GPRC3+FA
GPRC4+FA
1983
438
396
356
403
386
270
284
264
281
313
347
384
376
Low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
Very low
112
270
314
321
319
346
412
436
489
471
403
361
439
353
a) RAPID CHLORIDE ION DIFFUSION TEST:

Rapid chloride ion diffusion test has been carried
out in accordance with ASTMC 1202 for all specimens.
The control specimen exhibited the change passed value of
1983 coulombs which is ranked as low. For fly ash
geopolymer concrete this value was 438 coulombs. The raw
clay geopolymer concrete shows lesser values of charge
passed than flyash geopolymer concrete. The treated clay
based geopolymer shows still lsesser values of charge
passed compare to raw clay geopolymer concrete. However
geopolymer made out of raw clay and fly ash showed in
between values of fly ash and raw clay geopolymers. And all
the geopolymer concretes showed very low chloride
conductivity. And these values are shown in table no 6 and
graphical representation presented in graph no 8.
Page 352
considerably less. The treated clay used geopolymer found

suitable as best corrosion resistance material and durable.
Table 7: Linear Polarization Values
Linear Polarization Study

Des.
Fig 8:Graphical Representation Of Chloride Ion Diffusion

b) IMPRESSED VOLTAGE TEST: (12 VOLT. DC)
Impressed voltage test has been carried out all the
specimens to accelerate the corrosion of steel embedded in
concrete (lolly pop) specimen. The time taken to break the
specimen by the voluminous rust formed around the
embedded steel is noted down for all specimens and given in
table no 6. The control concrete specimen broken after 112
hrs. Of continues impression of voltage. All geopolymer
concretes particularly clay based showed very much higher
duration for the rupture to happen. In this case also
geopolymer made out of treated clays showed the best
results against.
Con
trol
GP
RC
1
GP
RC
2
GP
RC
3
GP
RC
4
GP
TC
1
GP
TC
2
GP
TC
3
GP
TC
4
GP
RC
1+F
A
GP
RC
2+F
A
GP
RC
3+F
A
GP
RC
4+F
A
1 day
7 day
Corr
rate
(mm/yr.)
15 day
Corr
rate
(mm/yr.)
30 day
Corr
rate
(mm/yr.)
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
Corr
rate
(mm/yr)
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
0.399
0.455
0.414
0.467
0.417
0.479
0.458
0.559
0.238
0.312
0.401
0.313
0.398
0.324
0.389
0.344
0.217
0.211
0.399
0.212
0.398
0.216
0.399
0.224
0.204
0.259
0.381
0.261
0.382
0.273
0.387
0.264
0.211
0.212
0.391
0.219
0.401
0.229
0.403
0.231
0.177
0.210
0.199
0.212
0.201
0.213
0.203
0.213
0.182
0.198
0.200
0.189
0.202
0.179
0.213
0.183
0.193
0.179
0.216
0.193
0.220
0.184
0.211
0.188
0.191
0.183
0.214
0.169
0.220
0.169
0.223
0.166
0.212
0.197
0.274
0.201
0.276
0.202
0.291
0.204
0.234
0.201
0.284
0.211
0.292
0.234
0.297
0.213
0.237
0.217
0.291
0.218
0.391
0.220
0.399
0.237
0.267
0.221
0.277
0.229
0.297
0.233
0.311
0.213
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
Icorr(A
2
/cm )
Fig 9: Graphical Representation Of 12V Impressed Voltage

3.5 CORROSION STUDY
a) LINEAR POLARISATION STUDY
Linear polarisation study has been carried out by using
auto lab instruments, with lollipop specimens having 12 mm
dia TMT steel at the centre, immersed up to top surface with
3% NaCl solution with stainless steel plate as counter
electrode and calomel electrode as reference electrode. From
the polarisation curve obtained, the corresponding current
density Icorr(A/cm2) and corrosion rate (mm/yr.) are noted for all
samples and presented in table 7 For control OPC concrete,
these values are very high compared to geopolymer
materials .similarly the corrosion rate is high for control
specimen and for geopolymer concrete the corrosion rate is
Fig 10: Tafel Slope
Page 353
4. CONCLUSION
The dry density of OPC cement is less than the
densities of geopolymer concrete. This is due
to non availability of free water to escape
during thermal curing of geopolymer concrete.
Water absorption of geopolymer concrete and
particularly geopolymers made out of clays
showed significantly less water absorption
compared to OPC concrete and the geopolymer
made out of clay. The poor water absorption is
due to the fact that the absorption of water by
the clay structural material particularly in
between the sheets is greatly reduced as the
space in between the layered sheet structure in
already filled by the geopolymer binder
andsubsequently by the formation of gel and
then finally crystallization.Random values
have been found for coefficient of water
absorption and this is due to pore connectivity.
Highest cylinder compressive strength were
obtained for the specimens prepared using
treated clay.it is almost 100% excess of OPC
concrete in double the strength of fresh and
virgin surface opened by SiO2 due to thermal
treatment has provide the geopolymer get to
react enough to form gel and also
crystallization of gel as an thermal curing the
sialate chain formed has raised the
compressive and other mechanical strengths
such as split tensile strength and flexural
strength. A considerable amount of increase in
flexural strength was recorded due to the
formation of strong crystallization of micro
fibers present in clay.
In durability and corrosion studies carried out
(rapid chloride ion diffusion and 12 volt DC
impressed voltage test) again the treated clay
geopolymers found to provide better result due
to well-formed micro structure, reduced pore
connectivity and strong crystallization of
geopolymer.
From the test results of taffel slope
extrapolation method, very poor corrosion
density (A/cm2) and corrosion rates of steel
embedded in geopolymer were recorded for the
thermally treated clays used geopolymer
material.
Therefore it is proved that the thermally treated
clay performed extraordinarily well both
mechanical strengths and in durability tests.
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Q.Mohsen and N. Y Mostafa, Investigating the
possibility of utilising low kaolinitic clays in
Page 354

(INDECS-15)
RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY TEST ONGRANITE

POWDER CONCRETE
A.Arivumangai1and Dr. T. Felixkala2
1
in
Research scholar, St Peters University, Email: arivu_civil@yahoo.co.in

Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. MGR Educational and Research Institute University.
Email:kalastrut@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
This paper presents a detailed experimental study on permeability characteristics of granite powder concrete.
The main parameter investigated in this study was M30 and M60 grades concrete with replacement of sand by
granite powder of 0, 25,50 and 100 and cement as partial replacement with super plasticiser, fly ash, slag and
silica fume. The alkaline solution used for present study is the combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium
silicate solution . The test specimen were 150x150mm cubes heat-cured at 60C in an oven. The variation was
studied on the specimens subjected to ambient air as well as oven heat curing.The rapid chloride permeability
tests were conducted for a period of 28 and 56 days. The test results show that the replacement of granite and
partial replacement of admixtures exhibit better performance.
JPEG Format
Keywords:Granite powder, durability properties,The rapid chloride permeability test,admixtures.
1. Introduction
Concrete is probably the most comprehensively used
construction material in the world. Construction
industry is one of the major users of the natural
resources like cement, sand, rocks, clays and other
soils. The continually increasing unit cost of the usual
requirements of concrete have mandatory the
construction engineer to think of ways and means of
reducing the unit const of its production. At the same
time, increased industrial activity in the core sectors
like steel, energy and transportation has been
responsible for the production of large amounts like
blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fume, granite and Msand with ensuingremoval problemIn the context of
increased awareness regarding the illeffects of the
over utilization of natural resources, ecofriendly
technologies are to be developed for effective
management
of
these
resources[Shankar.H
Sanni,et.al.,2012]. River sand is exclusive due to
extreme cost of transportation from natural
sources.The global consumption of natural river sand
is very high due to the extensive use of concrete. In
particular, the demand of natural river sand is quite
high
in
developed
countries
owingtoinfrastructuralgrowth.
The
inadequate
quantity of ordinary river sand for making cement
concrete is affecting the growth of construction
industry in many parts of the country[Felixkala T,
et.al.,2010]. Tamil Nadu government (India) also has
imposed restrictions on sand removal from the river
beds due to unsafe impacts threatening many parts of
the state. On the other hand, the granite waste
generated by the industry has accumulated over years.
The granite waste that has been dumped
unscrupulously results inenvironment issues.The

present work is aimed at developing a new building
material from the granite scrap, an industrial waste as
a replacement material of fine aggregate in concrete.
By doing so, the objective of cost reduction in
construction can be met and it will help to overcome
the
problem
associated
with
its
disposalincludingtheenvironmental problems of the
region. Substitutions of alternate materials can result
in changes in the performance characteristics that may
be acceptable for high performance concrete.
Chloride permeability of glass fibre reinforced
concrete shows less permeability of chlorides into
concrete when compared with 0% of GFRC; b) The
GFRC reduces the cracks causing interconnecting
voids to be minimum[Chandramouli K, et.al.,2010]
2.
Research Objective
The objectives of the current research work to study

the durability properties of M30 and M60 grades of
concrete with varying percentages concrete with
replacement of sand by granite powder of 0, 25,50 and
100 and cement as partial replacement with super
plasticiser, fly ash, slag and silica fume at 28 and 56
days
3.
Experimental Details
3.1. Materials
Cement
Page 355
The Ordinary Portland cement of 53-grade was used

for the investigation. Cement was bought from the
same source throughout the research work. While
storing cement, all possible contact with moisture was
avoided.
Fine aggregate
In the present work, the concrete mixes were prepared
using locally available river sand. Fineness modulus
and specific gravity of the sand were found to be 2.33
and 2.56 respectively .The sand used was confined to
zone 3.
Coarse aggregate
Broken granite stones were used as a coarse aggregate
in concrete. Size of the coarse aggregate used in the
investigation was 10 -20 mm. Sieve analysis of the
course aggregates was done and passed through the 19
mm size sieve and percentage of passing
was99percent.
Water
Water was an important ingredient of concrete as it
actually participated in the chemical reaction with
cement. In general, water fit for drinking was suitable
for mixing concrete. Impurities in the water might
affect setting time, strength, shrinkage of concrete or
promote corrosion of reinforcement. Locally available
drinking water was used in the present work.
Granite powder
Granite belongs to igneous rock family. Granite
powder obtained from the polishing units and the
properties were found. Since the granite powder was
fine, hydrometer analysis was carried out on the
powder to determine the particle size distribution.
General properties of commonly available granite are
given in Table 1
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Properties
Values
Porosity
Absorption
Specific Gravity
Density
Crushing strength
Frost resistance
Fire resistance
Colour
Very low
0.5 to 1.5%
2.6 to 2.8
2500-2650kg/m3
1000-2500kg/m2
Good
Low
Mostly light coloured
Table 1.Properties of Granite
3.2 Admixture
a)
Superplasticiser
was
used
during
investigation to improve the workability of concrete.
As per Indian standards, the dosage of superplasticiser
should not exceed 2% by weight of the cement. A
higher dosage of superplasticiser may delay the
hardening process. After trials, the optimal dosage of
the superplasticiser was found to be 0.5% to produce
slump of 100 mm.The technical details of
superplasticiseras
per
the
manufacturer'sliteraturearegiveninTable2
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
Properties
Values
1-220-1-225
Nil(As per BS:5075)
2-4% of cement
1% at normal dosage
5
6
Specific gravity
Chloride content
Recommended dosage
Approximate additional
air Entrainment
Solid content
Compatibility
Operating temperature
40%
All types of cement except
high alumina cement
10-40C
Table2. Chemical and Physical Properties of Superplasticiser

(%)
b)
Silica fume Condensed silica fume is
considered as the most efficient micro filler for high
performance concrete. Its two fold effects are
reduction of w/c ratio and increase of strength of
hardened concrete.The silica fume used in this study
was in powder form and contained 95 per cent SiO,
0.39 per cent 0.21 per cent 2CaO, 0.11 per cent
MgO, 0.15 per cenr KO, 0.13 per cent NaO, 40 per
cent AlO and FeO.
The properties of silica fume results inmore efficient
geldevelopment. Silica fume
improves the
performance of binder phaseconsiderably and
increases the bonding action with aggregateand
reinforcement.
The
physical
properties
ofsilicafumeusedinthisstudyaregiveninTable3.
Sl.No
2
3
Properties
Specific Gravity
: 2.25
(Determined Using Le-Chaterlier flask )
Bulk density
: 709 kg/m3
Void content (Vv/V) : 2.25
Porosity (Vv/V)
: 68.49 %
Table 3.Physical Properties of silica fume
c)
Fly ash
Fly ash was considered in the present study as a
replacement ofcement in 10 per cent. It wasa fine,
glass powder recovered from the gases of burning
coal during the production of electricity. The
properties of fly ash may vary considerably according
to several factors such as the geographical origin of
the source coal, conditions during combustion and
sampling position within the power plant. The major
elemental constituents of fly ash are Si, Al, Fe, Ca, C,
Mg, K, Na, S, Ti, P and Mn.
d) Slag
The ground granulated blast furnace slag was usedat
10% along with other admixtures as a replacement of
cement.
Mixing, demoulding and curing
Thorough mixing and adequate curing are most
essential for achieving a good concrete. In the
Page 356
laboratory, the concretewas handmixed. The mixing

time was kept to about 34 min for normal concrete.
Generally, the demoulding was done 24 hours of
casting. Potable water was used for curing all the
concretes and was kept in moist environment
immediately after the initial set and before
thedemoulding.
4.
Experimental Procedure
Rapid chloride permeability test

According to ASTM C1202 test, a watersaturated,
150 mm thick, 150 mm thick diameter concrete
specimen is subjected to a 60 v applied DC voltage
for 6 hours using the apparatus and the cell
arrangement is shown in Figure-1. In one reservoir is
a 3.0% NaC1 solution and in the other reservoir is a
0.3 M NaOH solution. The total charge passed is
determined and this is used to rate the concrete
according to the criteria included as Table 4.
>4000
2000-4000
1000-2000
100-1000
<100

High
Moderate
Low
Very-Low
Negligible
Table 4. RCPT ratings (per ASTM C1202)
specimens subjected to RCPT are presented in Table

5.
During the RCPT the solution temperature was
increasing beyond 80C hence the RCPT charges
passed at 30 minutes has been extrapolated to 6 hrs
RCPT to decide the chloride ion penetrability .Since
Granite powder Concrete make use of alkaline
activator solutions that are highly conductive, the
unreacted residual alkaline activator solutions could
sometimes give a false alarm, leading to conclude that
Granite powder concrete are highly permeable to
chlorides. As the grade of Granite powder Concrete
increases the RCPT charges decreases. Thus we can
say that RCPT of GPC is having low chloride ion
penetrability for higher grade of concrete[Shankar.H
Sanni,et.al.,2012].The minimum and maximum
charges passed for 28 days was 539 and 941Coulombs
and1116 and 2789 Coulombs for M30 and for M60
GPC respectively. The minimum and maximum
charges passed for 56 days was 418 and 738
Coulombs and 819and 2439 Coulombs for M30 and
M60 grade GP respectively
Grade
of
concrete
%
of
Granite
powder
concete
M30
M30
M30
M30
M60
M60
M60
M60
0
25
50
100
0
25
50
100
Charge
passed
(Coulombs)
28
56
days days
812
707
941
735
909
738
539
418
1116 885
1351 819
2789 2439
2479 2139
Chloride permeability as
per ASTM C 1202
28 days
56 days
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Moderate
Moderate
Fig.1. RCPT Setup Apparatus

Rapid Chloride ion Penetration Test (RCPT)
Rapid Chloride ion Penetration Test (RCPT) is
essentially a measure of concretes electrical
conductivity which depends on both pore structure
characteristics and pore solution chemistry (Caijun
Shi, 2004). Chloride diffusion is one of the major
reasons for causing corrosion to steel reinforcement
inside concrete. Therefore it is necessary to study
concrete for its chloride ion permeability. Aluminosilicates is the binder in the GPC, but in the
conventional concretes calcium silicate hydrate (C-SH) gel is the main binding system. The results of GPC

M30
Table.5 RCPT Values for different Grades
1000
800
600
GP0
400
GP25
200
GP50
GP100
0
28 days
56 days
Number of Days
Page 357

M60
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
28 days
56 days
Number of Days
6.
Conclusion
The performance of Granite powder concrete

increased with regard to durability. The following
salient conclusions are drawn from the present
investigations:
a)
Chloride permeability of granite powder

concrete shows less permeability of chlorides
into concrete when compared with 0% of
Granite powder concrete
b) The Granite powder concrete reduces the
cracks causing interconnecting voids to be
minimum
c) Due to the100% replacement of granite
powder concrete there is decrease of
permeability at 56 days
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Adam Neville and Pierre-Claude Aitcin

(1998) High performance concrete an
overview. Materials Structures. 111 117.
Al-Amoudi OSB, Maslehuddin M and
Abiola TO (2004) Effect of type and dosage
of silica fume on plastic shrinkage in
concrete
exposed
to
hot
weather.
Construction Building Material. 18, 737-743.
Bharatkumar BH, Narayan R, Raghuprasad
BK and Ramachandramurthy DS (2001) Mix
proportioning of high performance concrete.
Cement Concrete Composites. 23, 7180.
Felixkala T, Partheeban P, and Granite
powder concrete Indian Journal of Science
and Technology vol.3, No.3 (Mar 2010)
ISSN: 0974-6846.
Francis A Qluokun (1994) Fly ash concrete
mix design and the water-cement ratio law.
ACI Material J. 362- 367.
Geetha A and Perumal P Chemical
permeability studies on concrete using
waterproofing
admixture
journal
of
structural
engineering,
vol.38,
No.5,
(jau2012) pp.495-503.
7. Haque MN and Kayali O (1998) Properties
of high- strength concrete using a fine fly
GP0
ash. Cement Concrete Res. 14451452.
8. Ilangovana R, Mahendran N, Nagamani,
GP25
Strength and durability properties of
GP50 concrete containing quarry dust as fine
GP100aggregate, ARPN Journal of Engg and
applied sciences, vol3, No.5, Oct2008, ISSN
1819-6608.
9. IS: 516 (1959) Methods of tests for strength
of concrete. Bureau Ind. Stds. New Delhi,
India.
10. Job T (2005) Utilization of quarry powder as
a substitute for the river sand in concrete. J.
Structural Engg. 401-407.
11. Kanmalai Williams., Partheeban P, Felixkala
T, Mechanical properties of highperformance concrete incorporating granite
powder as fine aggregate International
Journal on Design and Manufacturing
Technologies, vol.2,No.1, July 2008.
12. Kefeng Tan and Xincheng Pu (1998)
Strengthening effects of finely ground fly
ash, granulated blast furnace slag, and their
combination. Cement Concrete Res. 18191825.
13. Mitchell DRG, Hinczak I and Day RA
(1998) Interaction of silica fume with
calcium hydroxide solutions and hydrated
cement pastes. Cement Concrete Res. 15711584.
14. Shaikh MG, Daimi SA Durability studies of
concrete made by using artificial sand with
dust and natural sand International Journal
of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN
0974 - 5904, Vol. 04, No.06 SPL, Oct 2011,
p 823-825.
15. Swamy (1991) Mineral admixtures for highstrength concrete.Ind.Concrete J 265-271
Page 358

MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

USING M-SAND AS FINE AGGREGATE
S. MuraliKrishnan & Dr.T.Felix Kala
Research Scholar, Dept of Civil Engg, St. Peters University, Avadi, TamilNadu,
India.muralikrishnan9888@gmail.com,
Professor&HOD, Dept of Civil Engg, Dr. M.G.R. University, Maduravoyil, TamilNadu, India.
Kalastrut@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT:The paper focuses on the experimental study of using locally available M-Sand as fine aggregate and
partial replacement of cement with admixtures in the production of HPC with28days strength to the maximum of
60Mpa.The percentage of M-sand added by weight was 0, 25, 50, & 75% as a replacement of sand used in concrete
and cement was replaced by adding GGBS with 0, 5, 10, & 15% and the dosage of superplasticizers added0, 1, 1.3%
by the weight of cement.The present paper focuses on investigating characteristics of M60&M30 concrete with
partial replacement of cement with Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag (GGBS) and fine aggregate with the
Manufactured sand .In the Strength characteristics study, the compressive strength, Split tensile strength were
determined experimentally for the conventional and M-Sand concrete. In the durability study, the conventional and
M-Sand concrete is tested by Rapid chloride permeability test & water Absorption test. The durability property of
concrete is enchanced by partial replacement of sand with 50% of M- Sand substantially compared to normal mix
concrete increased the compressive and Split Tensile Strength of High Performance Concrete.
KEYWORDS: Manufactured sand, GGBS, Strength , Durability, Super plasticizers, Workability, HPC.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Fine aggregate is an essential component of concrete. The
global consumption of natural river sand is very high due to
the extensive use of concrete. In particular, the demand for
natural sand is quite high in developed countries owing to
infrastructural growth. In this situation some developing
countries are facing a shortage in the supply of natural
sand. The non-availbility of sufficient quantity of ordinary
river sand for making cement concrete is affecting the
growth of the construction industry in many parts of the
country.
Therefore, the construction industries in
developing countries are under stress to identify alternative
materials to reduce the demand on river sand. In order to
reduce the dependence on natural aggregates as the main
source of aggregates in concrete, artificially manufactured
aggregates and artificial aggregates generated from
industrial wastes provide an alternative for the construction
industry. Some alternative materials have already been
used in place of natural river sand. For example,M-sand,
slag, ggbs, rockdust, silica fume and quarry waste were
used in concrete mixture as a partial replacement of natural
sand. Hence the assumption is manufactured sand could be

an alternative to natural sand in preparation of concrete. Msand, one of the byproducts in crushed stone process, not
being used for any applications other than filling-up low
lying areas is identified as a replacement material for river
sand in concrete.
The cheapest and the easiest way of getting substitute for
natural sand is by crushing natural stone to get artificial
sand of desired size and grade which would be free from all
impurities is known as Manufactured sand. The properties
studied of high performance concrete with partial
replacement of cement by GGBS. Concrete made with
crushed stone dust as replacement of natural sand in
concrete can attain the same compressive strength,
comparable tensile strength, modulus of rupture and lower
degree of shrinkage as the control concrete.
For
producing HPC, Industrial wastes, such as silica fume, blast
furnance slag, fly ash are being used as supplementary
cement replacement materials are also being used as
pozzolanic materials in concrete. The super plasticizer
Varaplast PC 100 was used as chemical admixtures it is a
Page 359
liquid instantly dispersible in water. It has been specially

formulated to give high water reductions upto 25% without
loss of workability and produce high quality concrete to
enchance strength and durability with low binder ratio 0.26
to 0.4. Increasing dosage of super plasticizers by weight of
binder improvement of its workability properties as well as
mechanical properties with reduced W/B ratio. This paper
presents the study of compressive strength and of M60
conventional concrete be replacing the sand with M-sand
and 40% to 60% of cement with GGBS. Tests were
conducted on concrete cubes and cylinders to study
compressive& tensile strengths. The durability properties
tests were conducted on Rapid Chloride Penetration Test&
Water Absorption Test. The results are compared with the
normal conventional concrete.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Shanmugapriya et al. 2012 concluded from experimental
researchers that compressive and flexural strength of
concrete can be improved by partial replacement of cement
by silica fume and manufactured sand for natural fine
aggregates. They suggested that optimum replacement of
natural sand by manufactured sand is 50%.
Saeed Ahmaed et al. 2008 have found that compressive
strength of various mix ratios increased from 7% to 33%
whereas workability decreased from 11% to 67% with
increasing proportion of manufactured sand.
Shyam Prakash et la. 2007 says that manufactured sand
satisfies the requirements fine aggregates such as strength,
graduation, shape angularity. It is also possible to produce
manufactured sand falling into the desired grade. They say
that the mechanical properties of manufactured sand
depend upon the source of its raw material, i.e., parent
rock. Hence the selection of the quarry is very important to
quality fine aggregate.
Mahendra R Chitlange et al. 2010 experimentally proved
that due to addition of steel fiber to natural sand concrete
and manufactured sand concrete there is a consistent
increase in flexural and split tensile strength whereas there
is only a marginal rise in compressive strength.
Historically, a large percentage of a sand has been
produced from alluvial deposits. However we are now
experiencing a global shortage of natural sand, and
environmental pressures, costs and a shortage of this type
of deposit has necessitated the manufactured sand from
quarried material. One of the problems often experienced
with natural sand is the presence of contaminants, which
can be very difficult to remove. These contaminants may
be silt, organic matters and sometimes, harmful chemicals,
such as sulphates and chlorides, all of which can have

significant detrimental effects on the performance of
structural concrete. Manufactured sand, on the other hand,
comes directly from good quality virgin rock, and thus very
few, if any contaminants are present.
Crushed rock fines are remnants of the process of crushing
of boulders into coarse aggregates of varying sizes. They
are indeed,rightly called as quarry dust. Since these
crushed stone sand particles are screened as waste during
the crushing process of law crushers and cone crusher, they
tend to be very flaky, dusty and often contain uncontrolled
particle sizes. Crushed rock fines also tend to have higher
water absorption rate due to surface roughness, higher
surface area and presence of higher amount of fines
content. Attempts are made to remove the microfines by
washing but obviously, washing does not change other
properties like flakiness, surface roughness, higher surface
area and poor particle size distribution.
The purpose of this study is to conduct a systematic
comparison of the effects of natural and manufactured sand
exert on strength and durability properties. This paper
presents the mechanical behavior of the selected fine
aggregate, followed by the durability behavior of
conventional and M-sand concrete.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Normal concrete lacks required strength and durability
which are more often required for large concrete structures
such as high rise buildings, bridges and structures under
severe exposure condition. Due to booming construction
activities natural sand is becoming scarce due to excessive
nonscientific methods of mining from the river beds. For
these reasons it it necessary to produce a concrete with
improved strength and performance, with suitable
materials. This research shows the effective utilization of
by product GGBS & M sand in High Performance
Concrete.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Materials:
a) Cement :Ordinary
Portland cement of 53
Grade conforming to IS 8112 1989, and the
specific gravity of cement was found to be
3.15. The physical properties of cement given
in Table 1
Page 360
Table 1 . Physical Properties of cement

Component
Results(%) Requirements
of IS : 8112
Fineness,m/kg 320
Minimum 225
Initial setting 65
Minimum 30
Time,minutes
Final
setting 250
Maximum 600
Time, minutes
Standard
26.4
Consistency
Soundness, Le 1.0
Maximum 10
Chatelier, mm
b)Fine Aggregate:
Natural Sand:Locally available River Sand having
bulk density 1860 kg/m was used and the specific gravity
is 2.56. The fineness modulus of river sand is 2.64.
Manufactured sand:M- Sand was used as partial
replacement of fine aggregate.
The bulk density of
manufactured sand was 1860 kg/m, specific gravity and
fineness modulus was found to be 2.56 and 3.10
respectively.
Table 2 . Sieve analysis of River sand & M Sand
Sieve Size
4.75mm
2.36mm
1.18mm
600m
300m
150m
River
sand %
Passing
98
96
78
51
26
7
M- Sand
Passing
e) Water:Water is an important ingredient of concrete as

it actually participates in the chemical reaction with
cement. In general, water fit for drinking is suitable for
mixing concrete. Impuritiew in the water may affect
setting time, strength, shrinkage of concrete or promote
corrosion of reinforcement. Locally available drinking
water was in the present work.
f) Mix Design:The concrete mix is designed as per IS

10262 1982, Is 456 2000 and SP 23 for the
conventional concrete and finally river sand has been
replaced by M Sand cement replaced with GGBS by
volume. The water cement ratio and The mix proportions
of M60 & M30 concrete.
Test Specimens and Test procedure:

Compressive & Split Tensile Strength Test:The
concrete cubes of 150mm size, cylinders of size 150mm
diameter & 300mm length were used as test specimens to
determine the compressive strength of concrete and split
tensile strength of concrete for the both cases i.e. normal
concrete and modified concrete. The ingredients of
was achieved. The cubes and cylinders were compacted on
a vibrating table. The properties of fresh concrete were
measured according to IS 1199 1959.
&
99.78
87.14
63.12
45.75
25.50
7.98
c) Super Plasticizer:In order to improve the workability

to high performance concrete, superplasticizer in the form
of Sulphonated Napthalene Polymers complies with IS 516
1959 and ASTM C 642 type F as a high range water
reducing admixture (VARAPLAST PC 100) was used .
This had 40% active solids in solution. The specific
gravity is 1.22. It is a liquid instantly dispensable in water.
d) GGBS:GGBS is obtained by quenching molten iron

slag from a blast furnance in water or steam, to producea
glassy, granular product that is then dried and ground into a
fine powder. GGBS is used to make durable concrete
structures in combination with ordinary port land cement
and other pozzolanic materials. The fineness modulus of
GGBS using blaine fineness is 320m/kg and other
properties of GGBS.
Rapid chloride penetration Test:The concrete cubes

of 150mmx150mm size, were casted and cured for a period
of 21 days used as test specimens. A sample of dia 100mm
and thickness 50mm are subjected to a direct current of 60
volts across two faces. The concrete for the both cases i.e.
normal concrete and modified concrete. The ingredients of
was achieved. The current passing through the specimen,
the specimen is monitored regularly hours. The total
charge that the passed through the specimen is calculated
and is the value of product of time in seconds and current in
amperes and unit is coulomb.
Water
Absorption Test:Concrete cubes of

150mmx150mm are casted and cured for a period of 21
days. The surfaces of the cubes are wiped dry and they are
placed in the Water Absorption Test apparatus. The
Specimens are later removed and split open. The actual
penetration of water into the specimen were measured at
the different points from the edges of the split cube and the
average was found.
Work ability:
Table 4. Flow Table Test
Page 361
M Sand % age
0%
25%
50%
75%
At One Hour
490mm
510mm
525mm
540mm
4.
M60
100%
15
%
2471
2000
4000
Moder
ate
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
RCPT Value
Table 5. Water Absorption Test of the conventional

concrete are presented in Table for M60 Grade of concrete.
21 Days
3.4%
3.8%
3.7%
3.7%
Water absorption Test

%age of Increasing
3.90%
3.80%
3.70%
3.60%
3.50%
3.40%
3.30%
3.20%
Charges passed coulombs
M Sand %age
0%
25%
50%
75%
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Water
absorption 3.40% 3.80% 3.70% 3.70%
Test
Table 6.
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test of the
Grade of concrete.
S.
N
o
Grad
e of
Con
crete
Replac
ement
of MSand
%
of
GG
BS
1.
M60
0%
0%
Charges
passed
coulombs
(RCPT
Value)
1060
2.
M60
25%
5%
1832
3.
M60
50%
10
%
2498
Chlo
ride
ion
1000
2000
1000
2000
2000
4000
Perme
ability
Per
ASTM
C1202
Low
1060
1832
2498
2471
Table 7. Compressive &Split Tensile Strength of the

Grade of concrete.
Replacement
of
Fine
Aggregate
Msand
%
0
River
Sand
%
100
25
75
50
50
75
25
Compressi
ve
Strength in
N/mm
7
28
Da
Day
ys
s
55.
67.2
5
59.
71.9
8
62
76.0
7
62.
77.0
6
4
Split
Tensile
Strength in
N/mm
7
28
Da
Day
ys
s
2.5
3.01
2.8
3.09
2.9
2
3.0
3.21
5
3.34
Low
Moder
ate
Page 362
Comp strength
inN/mm 7
55.5
Days
59.8
62
62.6
Comp strength
inN/mm 28 67.2
Days
71.9
76.07 77.04
Split Tensile Strength

Test
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 7 Days
2.5
2.8
2.92
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 28
Days
3.01
3.09
Comp Strength inN/mm
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3.215
Comp strength in N/mm
Test
50
50
25.62
30.73
1.92
2.82
75
25
27.55
32
2.0
3.03
Compressive Strength Test

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Comp strength
inN/mm 7 Days
24.08
24.6
25.62
27.55
Comp strength
inN/mm 28 Days
26
29.33
30.73
32
Split Tensile Strength Test

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 7 Days
1.05
1.41
1.92
Split Tensile
Strength in
N/mm 28 Days
2.01
2.52
2.82
3.03
3.34
The compressive & Split Tensile strength of conventional

concrete and modified concrete i.e with the replacement of
Fine Aggregate with M Sand at the age 7 and 28 days of
Table 8. Compressive & Split Tensile Strength of the
Compressive & Split Tensile Strength with adding the
conventional concrete are presented in Table for M30 grade
Super Plasticizers 0, 1, 1.3 respectively. The compressive
of concrete
& Split Tensile strength is increase as the percentages of M
Sand increases with 1.3% of SP 100 when compares to
Replacement of
Compressive
Split Tensile1% of Super plasticizers.
Fine Aggregate
Strength in
Strength in
N/mm
N/mm The compressive & Split Tensile strength of conventional
MRiver
7
28
7
28 concrete and modified concrete i.e. Fine aggregate replaced
sand%
Sand%
Days
Days
Days
Days
with M Sand and cement replaced with GGBS with 1.3%
0
100
24.08
26
1.05
2.01
of SP. Compressive & Split Tensile strength of concrete is
25
75
24.6
29.33
1.41
2.52increased as the percentages of M Sand and Percentage of
Page 363
GGBS increases. The Maximum compressive strength of

concrete is achieved at the combinations of 50% M Sand
and GGBS.
CONCLUSIONS:
It is observed that the compressive strength&

Split Tensile Strengthof concrete can be
improved by partial replacement of GGBS for
cement and M Sand for Fine Aggregate.
Compressive strength of concrete can be
improved by using Super Plasticizers.
From the above experimental results it is proved
that, M Sand can be used as alternative material
for the fine aggregate i.e.sand. Based on the
results the compressive , Split Tensile Strength&
RCPT Testare increased as the percentages of M
Sand increased.
The present experimental programme indicated
that the durability properties of the concrete
could enchance the effect of utilization of MSand ontained from the place of river sand in
concrete .
Results of the experimental studies show that
resistance to penetration of water as proved by
Rapid Chloride Penetration Test & Water
Absorption Test , is increased with increasing
proportion of M-Sand Concrete.
GGBS can be used as one of the alternative
material for the cement.
From the experimental results 50% of cement can
be replaced with GGBS.
The percentages increases of compressive& split
tensile strength M60 concrete is62N/mmat the
age of 7 days and the 3.215N/mm 28 days by
The percentages increases of compressive & split
tensile strength M30 concrete is 25.62N/mmat
the age of 7 days and the 2.82N/mm 28 days by
When the percentage of replacement of M-sand
goes beyond 50%, the strength is considerably
reduced.
Hence this research concluded with a remarks of
the optimum percentage of M-sand to obtain high
compressive strength, split tensile strength when
replaced with natural sand with 50% of M-sand.
The use of M-Sand in the Construction Industry
helps to prevent unnecessary damages to the
environment and provide optimum exploitation
of the resources.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Misra V.N. 1984, Indian Concrete Journal,

August, Vol58(8), pp 219 213.
SahuA.K., Sunil Kumar and Sachan A.K., 2003,
Indian Concrete Journal, PP . 845 848.
Ilangovana R., Mahendran. N. and Nagamani. K.,
2008, ARPN journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, 3 (5), pp 20 26.
Indian Standards 10262 1982: Recommended
Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design.
Indian Standards 456 2000 : Plain and
reinforced concrete code of practice.
Shanmugavadivu P.M., Malathy R. A
comparative study on mechanical properties of
concrete with Manufactured sand International
Journal of Technology world oct Nov 2009.
Shanmugapriya .T., Uma.R.N., Optimization of
Partial Replacement of M-Sand by Natural Sand
in HPC with Silica fume International Journal of
Engg Sciences & Emerging Technologies, June
2012.
T. Felixkala,P.Partheeban, Granite powder
concrete Indian Journal of science Technology
vol.3,No.3(Mar2010)ISSN; 0974-6846.
Kanmalai Williams.C Partheeban.P, FelixKala.T,
Mechanical properties of high performance
concrete incorporating granite powder as fine
aggregate International Journal of Design &
Manufacturing Technologies, vol.2,No.1, July
2008.
Dr. T.Felix Kala Effect of granite powder on
strength properties of concrete International
Journal of Engg & Sciences, Vol. 2, Issue 12
(May 2013) ISSN(e):2278-4721
H.Donza,O. Cabrera, .F. Irassar, High Strength
Concrete with different fine Aggregate,.
Cement and Concrete Research 32(11) 2002
1755-1761.
P. Quiroga, D. Fowler, The effects of aggregate
characteristics on the performance of Portland
cement concrete International center for
aggregate research 104-1F.
IS:383-1970: Specification for coarse and fine
aggregates from Natural Sources for concrete,
Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi 1970.
IS: 516-1959 Reaffirmed 1999: Methods of tests
for test for strength of concrete, Bureau of Indian
standard, New Delhi 1999.
J. Prabakar, P. Devadas Manoharan and M.
Neelamegam Effect of fly ash on the durability
and performance of concrete The Indian
concrete Journal (Nov 2011).
Page 364
16. Adam Neville and Pierre-Claude Aitcin (!998)

High performance concrete an overview.
Materials Structures. 111 117.
17. Swamy (1991) Mineral admixtures for High
Strength concrete. Ind. Concrete J 265 -271.
18. FrancisA Qluokun (1994) Fly ash concrete mix
design and the water-cement ratio law. ACI
Material J . 362-367
19. P. Nath, P. Sarker Effect of fly ash on the
Durability properties of high strength concrete
Elsevier Procedia Engg 14(2011) 1149-1156.
20. IS : 516 (1959) Methods of tests for strength of
concrete. Bureau Indian stds. New Delhi, India.
Page 365

(INDECS-15)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF HPC USING METAKAOLIN

AND FLYASH WITH PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT
M.Narmatha1 , Dr.T.Felixkala2
1(Research Scholar, Dr.Mgr Educational Research Institute University, Chennai, 600095, India mnarmatha77@gmail.com)
2( Asso.Prof,. HOD., Dr.Mgr Educational Research Institute University , Chennai, 600095, India kalastrut@yahoo.com)
Abstract
Metakaolin looks to be a promising supplementary cementitious material for high performance concrete.
Properties of concrete with metakaolin are at partial with flyash is mostly preferred additives in high performance
concrete. A possible lower cost, due to large availability in our country itself may be advantages to metakaolin usage in
HPC. A combination of flyash and metakaolin will allow higher absorption without compromising much on early age
properties of concrete. The preliminary study for strength properties have already been conducted and it is proved that
the metakaolin with flyash is the best alternative materials for the partial replacement of sand and cement in the high
performance concrete.The substitution proportion of metakaolin is to be used was 10%, 20% , 30% by the weight of
cement. To make this cubes to determine the strength and durability of concrete of it. The result indicate that the
replacing mix upto till last percent has to noted and effect on compressive strength in comparing with mixer without
metakaolin.
Keywords: Metakaolin, flyash, High Performance concrete, compressive strength, water absorption.
flyash.15 samples of cubes are kept for curing for

28
1.
days
and
then
compression
Introduction
test(10%,20%,30%,40%,50%) was carried out.
For the preliminary investigation, metakaolin ,fly
Another six cubes are placed for 7 days curing and
ash and cement was
subjected to physical and
compression test was carried out. Four cubes of 10
chemical analyses to determine whether they are in
and 20% were kept in oven for 1 hour and 2 hours
compliance
alternatively, at 250 C , compressibility test is then
with
the
standard
use.
The
experimental program was designed to investigate

metakaolin and flyash as partial replacement with
performed.
1.1 Metakaolin
cement and sand respectively. The replacement was

done at 10% ,20%,30%,40%,50% for the standard
3
Metakaolin, which is a relatively new material in the
size of cube 150 x 150 x150 mm .The specimen
concrete industry is
was casted with M60 grade of concrete with
reducing sulphate attack and improving air-void network.
different replacement levels of metakaolin and
Pozzolanic reactions change
effective in increasing strength,
and chemistry of hydration products by consuming the
an increased strength
released calcium hydroxide (CH) and production of
therefore improved durability.
the microstructure of concrete
and reduced
porosity and
additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), resulting in

Table 1. Physical Properties
Page 366
Specific Gravity
2.40 to 2.60
Physical Form
Powder
Color
Off white, Gray

to Buff
Brightness
80-82 Hunter L
BET
15 m2/gram
Specific Surface
15 m2/g.
Table 2. Chemical Composition
dosages in certain applications. Fly ash can add

to the concretes final strength and increase its
chemical resistance and durability. Fly ash can
significantly improve the workability of
concrete.
2.
Mix Proportion Designation
The common method of expressing the proportions of

ingredients of a concrete mix is in the terms of parts or
ratios cement , fine and coarse aggregates for e.g:- a
concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement ,
fine and coarse aggregate in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement , two parts fine aggregates ,
four parts of coarse aggregates. The proportion are either
by volume or by mass the water cement ratio is usually
expressed in mass.
SiO2
51-53 %
CaO
<
0.20%
Al2O
3
Fe2O
3
TiO2
42-44-% MgO
<
0.10%
1.
Target Strength
M40
< 2.20% Na2O
<
0.05%
2.
Type of Cement
OPC-53 grade
< 3.0%
K2 O
<
0.40%
3.
Maximum Nominal Aggregate Size -20mm
SO4
< 0.5%
L.O.I.
0.50%
<
4.
Exposure Condition
Normal
5.
Degree of Supervision
Good
6.
Type of Aggregate
Aggregates
2.1 Data and Parameters for Mix Design
The chemical equations describing this process is
Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O = Al2O3. 2SiO2 + 2H2O (g).

1.2 Fly Ash
Fly ash, also known as flue-ash, is one of the residues
generated in combustion, and comprises the fine
particels that rise with the flue gases. Ash which does not
rise is termed bottom ash. In an industrial context, fly ash
usually refers to ash produced during combustion of coal.
1.2.1 Fly Ash Reuse in Portland Cement
- Crushed Angular
2.2 Test Data For Materials

1.
Cement Used - ULTRA TECH OPC 53 grade
2.
Sp. Gravity of Cement
- 3.15
3.
Sp. Gravity of Water
-1
4.
Sp. Gravity of Fine Aggregate - 2.61
5.
Sp. Gravity of Coarse Aggregate - 2.66
6.
Specific gravity of Metakaolin
7. Specific gravity of Flyash
- 2.72
- 2.55
Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a

replacement for some of the Portland cement content
of concrete.
Fly ash often replaces up to 30% by mass of
Portland cement, but can be used in higher
Page 367
2.3 Compressive Strength Test

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand axially directed pushing forces.
When the limit of compressive strength is reached,
materials are crushed. Concrete can be made to have high
The test was carried out conforming to IS: 456 to obtain

compressive strength of M40 grade of concrete. The
compressive strength of high strength concrete with OPC
and Metakaolin and Flyash at the age of 7 and 28 days
are presented in table above.
2.3.1 Preparation Of Specimens

In this study, a total no of 6 cubes each for the control
and cement replacement levels of 10%, 20% and 30%
were produced respectively. For the compressive
strength, 150mm X 150mm X 150mm cubes mould were
used to cast the cubes and 2 specimens were tested for
each age in a particular mix (i.e. the cubes were crushed
at 7 and 28 days respectively). All freshly cast specimens
were left in the moulds for 24 hours before being demolded and then submerged in water for curing until the
time of testing.
For 7 Days
40
30
20
0
0
0%
10%
20%
30%
7 DAYS
20
30
For 28 Days
Testing age(Days)
7 Days
3
3
3
3
28 Days
3
3
3
3
60
40
20
0
0
2.3.2 TESTING OF SPECIMENS

Until failure at which point the load require for failure of
compressive strength test were carried out at each cube
was noted, prior to testing, the specify ages on the cubes.
Table 4. Compressive Strength
Average Concrete Strength
Mpa
% Replacement of
Metakaolin and
Flyash
10
Table 3. Testing Specimen with days

Specimen (%
of Metakaolin
& Flyash
used)
10
7 days
28 days
0%
31.6
41.32
10%
32.4
43.13
20%
29.24
37.16
30%
26.15
35.14
10
20
30

3. Water Absorption Test
The pore structure of concrete is known to be of high
importance for the durability of the material. A
characterization of this pore structure by means of a
simple water absorption test is often investigated, in
order to find a very simple compliance criterion with
respect to concrete durability.
Water absorption is used to determine the amount of
water absorbed under specified condition. Factors
affecting water absorption include: type of plastic,
additive used, temperature and length of exposure.
Percent Water Absorption = [(Wet weight - Dry
weight)/ Dry weight] x 100
Page 368
3.1 Tabulation
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs
%
Absorption
8.75
8.70
0.57
8.35
8.30
%
Average
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs
%
Absorption
8.45
8.35
1.19
8.15
8.10
0.62
8.25
8.17
0.97
%
Average
0.60
0.666
8.45
8.38
0.92
0.83
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs

%
Absorption
8.50
8.45
0.59
8.45
8.41
0.47
8.55
8.52
0.35
%
Average
No of
sample
Wet
Weight
W1 in
Kgs
Dry
Weight
W2 in
Kgs
%
Absorpti
on
7.80
7.75
0.64
8.65
8.55
1.16
8.50
8.43
0.83
%
Average
0.47
0.87
Page 369
1. In mixes blended with high percentage metakaolin
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
and flyash the water demand will be more. Because of

the greater finess of metakaolin to maintain constant
workability, use of plasticizer become necessary.
2. An optimum of 10% metakaolin and fly ash gives
better strength.
3. The gain in strength of metakaolin and fly ash concrete
with age is normal compared to that of ordinary concrete.
4. Metakaolin and flyash helps concrete in having better
sulphate resistance. Metakaolin can be recommended as
0%
10%
20%
30%
useful admixture to enhance the durability of concrete in

aggressive environment consisting of sulphates.
5. Cement replacement upto 10% with metakaolin and

flyash leads to increase in compressive strength, for M40
Table show that water absorption results M40

grade concretes
Its shows 28 days results and We got optimum
water absorption at 10% replacement for M40
grade of concrete.
grade of concrete. From 30% there is a decrease in

compressive strength for 7& 28 days curing period.
6. The maximum replacement level of metakaolin and fly
ash is 10% for M40 grade of concrete.
4. Conclusion
The use of metakaolin and fly ash give
rise to an increase in the strength as well as durability
properties concrete, with less cement and a concrete
having better resistance for freezing and thawing than
ordinary concrete. Durability is improved through
significant improvement to chemical attack. The chief
reasons for this are reduced permeability and reduced
level of calcium hydroxide.
References
[1] Sabir B.B, Wild S, Bai J, Metakaolin and calcined
clay as pozzolans for concrete :a review Cement and
concrete composite 23 ,(2001),pp.441-454.
[2] Jian-Tong Ding and Zongjin Li Effects of
Concrete ACI Materials Journal/July-August
2002,pp.393-398.
Reinforcement corrosion is vastly reduced due to
[3] Badogiannis E, Papadakis V.G., Chaniotakis E,
improved permeability, increased resistivity and improve
Tsivilis S, Exploitation of poor Greek kaolins: Strength
the tensile strength.
development of metakaolin concrete and evaluation by
Based on the investigation
conducted on the strength and durability characteristics
means of k-value Cement and Concrete Research 34
metakaolin and flyash with metakaolin and fly ash as the
(2004),pp.10351041.
replacement materials the following conclusions were
[4] Justice J.M, Kennison L.H, Mohr B.J., Beckwith
drawn.
S.L, McCormick L.E, Wiggins B., Zhang Z.Z, and Kurtis

K.E, Comparison of Two Metakaolins and a Silica
Fume Used as Supplementary Cementitious Materials
Page 370
SP- 228(Volume1&2) Seventh International Symposium

on Utilization of High-Strength/HighPerformance
Concrete, June(2005),SP228.
[6]
Naik
T.R.Singh,
S.S
and
hossian,M.M
(1995),Properties of high performance concrete systems

in corporating large amounts of high lime fly ash;
construction and building materials. Vol.9.no 4.pp.195204.
[7] M.B.Kumthekar, G.S.Vyas, N.T.Suryawanshi and
M.B.More, Techno-Economical Benefit of Metakaolin
Over Microsilica in Developing High Performance
Concrete, CE&CR July 2007, 42-50.
[8] Zongjin Li, Yunsheng Zhang, Handbook of
structural Engineering, 15 (CRC Press, 2005) 1-58
[9] Shreeti S. Mavinkurve, Prabir C. Basu and Vijay R.
Kulkarni, High Performance concrete using high
reactivity metakaolin, The Indian Concrete Journal,
May 2003, 1077-1085.
[10] K.A.Gruber, Terry Ramlochan, Andrea Boddy,
R.D.Hooton, M.D.A.Thomas, Increasing concrete
durability with high reactivity metakaolin, Cement &
Concrete Composites, Vol. 23, 2001, 479-484.
[11] Dinakar P. High reactivity metakaolin for high
strength and high performance concrete, The Indian
Concrete Journal, April 2011, 28-32
Page 371
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF COIR FIBER WITH COIR PITH, AS CONCRETE

REINFORCEMENT MATERIAL
1

3
2
Abstract
Incrementing concern about ecumenical warming and depleting petroleum reserves have made scientists to focus more
on the utilization of natural fibers such as bagasse, coir, sisal, jute etc. This has resulted in engenderment of more
cognizance about the utilization of natural fibers predicated materials mainly composites. In past decade there has been
many efforts to develop composites to supersede the petroleum and other non decaying materials predicated products.
The abundant availability of natural fiber in India gives attention on the development of natural fiber composites
primarily to explore value-integrated application avenues. Reinforcement with natural fiber in composites has recently
gained attention due to low cost, facile availability, low density, acceptable categorical properties, ease of disseverment,
enhanced energy instauration, C02 neutrality, biodegradability and recyclable in nature. Agricultural wastes can be
habituated to prepare fiber reinforced polymer composites for commercial use. Albeit glass and other synthetic fiberreinforced plastics possess high categorical vigor, their fields of application are very constrained because of their innate
higher cost of engenderment. In this connection, an investigation has been carried out to make utilization of coir; a
natural fiber and coir pith abundantly available in India. This review discusses the utilization of coir fiber and
composite(coir fiber with coir pith) and its current status of research.
Keywords: Natural Fiber, Coir Fiber, Coir pith, Epoxy Resin, Polymer Composites.
1. Introduction
The trend goes beyond the practice of design and construction,
since the awareness of the current population is a crucial factor
for the success of this tendency. The commonly used materials
in construction fields are steel, cement, synthetic polymers and
metal alloys. These cause environmental pollution during their
entire life cycle. We have enough natural resources and we
must keep on researching on these natural resources, which can
be used in construction fields. The natural fibers are bamboo
fibers, coir fiber and jute fiber are have high impact strength
,tensile strength , ducitility, fracture roughness, crack inhibiting
properties and flexural properties and it also an environmental
friendly material and low cost too. Moreover the addition of
fiber act as crack arrester in concrete structure and improves its
static and dynamic properties. Investigations are carried out on
the use of coir fiber in cement paste, mortar and concrete.
Incorporation of the fiber improves the ductility, flexural and
tensile strengths, fracture roughness and crack inhibiting
properties of the matrix. In this investigation the different size
of short coir fiber is treated with natural rubber latex. The
effect of fiber content, different fiber length, physical and
mechanical properties of these composite have been analysed.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Coir is an inexpensive fiber among the natural fibers available
in the world. Furthermore, it possesses the advantages of a
lignocelluloses fiber. In the present study brown coir fiber is
utilized. In this experiment M20 grade concrete is utilized.
Concrete was made with 43 Grade cement with river sand and
aggregates are sieved on 22mm sieve and retained on 20mm
sieve. The quantity of materials utilized are as per mix design
as follows. Cement is 350 Kg/m3, fine aggregate is 525
Kg/m3, coarse aggregate is 1050 Kg/m3, and di-hydrogen
monoxide/cement ratio is 0.45.For a casting of cube we utilized
in the commixed proportion of M20 grade concrete 1:1.5:3of
Cement is 1.400 kg, Fine aggregate is 2.100 kg, Coarse
aggregate is 4.200 kg and di-hydrogen monoxide/cement ratio
is 0.45.
2.1 Preparation of Composites
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Page 372
It was conducted on coir fiber similarly on coir pith with coir

fiber as concrete reinforcement. Coir pith and other undesirable
materials are dissevered from the coir fiber. It is then chopped
to about length of 25mm and subjected to chemical treatments.
Coir fibers and coir pith with fiber are soused in sodium
hydroxide solution for 48 hours. Fiber and pith were taken out,
perpetually washed with di-hydrogen monoxide and dried in
the air. Latex compound is yare by commixing 70% of natural
rubber latex and 10% of sodium hydroxide solution and 20% of
di-hydrogen monoxide. Then the coir fiber and coir pith is
dipped in the coalescence about 15 minutes and dried.
.
Fig.3. Test setup
2.3 Increase in compressive strength of concrete
Fig.1. Coir Fiber
Fig. 4 Specimen without any fibers after compression test
Fig.2.Treatment with Latex
2.2 CASTING AND TESTING OF SPECIMEN

Cubes that have a size of 150mm x150mmx150mm are casted
with M20 grade concrete as a control specimen. First 0.75% of
25mm coir fiber is integrated with concrete and specimens are
casted. Then 0.50% and 0.25% of 25mm coir fiber and coir
pith is integrated with concrete for making specimens. After 24
hours the specimens are abstracted from the mould. For
remedying the specimens were kept in the di-hydrogen
monoxide. After remedying Compressive Vigor of Concrete
Specimens is tested in the 7th,14th and 28th days utilizing
compression testing machine.
Fig.5 Specimen with fibers after compression test
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Page 373
Table.1 Comparison of compressive strength of coir

fiber concrete and coir pith with fiber concrete
Compressive
Strength
of
After
7
days
of
curing in
N/mm
After 14
days
of
curing in
N/mm
After 28
days of in
In N/mm
Normal concrete
13.33
15.7
20.9
Coir Fibre added

concrete
14.38
17.44
22.89
specimen
Coir pith with

fibre
added
concrete
13.73
16.13
21.8
The graph 3 shows that the different percentage of coir fiber

and coir pith with different 25mm gives differenent vigor
value. The vigor gradually incremented up to 0.75% of coir
fiber then the vigor is decremented with 0.75% of coir fiber
and 0.25% of coir pith. The maximum compressive vigor is
achieved utilizing 25mm length fiber with 0.75% integration
of coir fiber.
.
Graph 3: Compressive strength of coir pith with fibre added
concrete
4 CONCLUSION
Graph 1: Compressive strength of Normal concrete
3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The result shows that the integration of latex treated coir fiber
increase the compressive vigor. Additament of coir fiber
additionally apprehend the micro cracks present in the
concrete. Vigor properties like compressive vigor are shown in
the graph 2.
Graph 2: Compressive strength of Coir
concrete
fibre added
Thus the coir fibers reduces environmental pollution factors

and brings very good amendment in concrete characteristics. It
additionally averts the micro cracks in the structure. Thus this
research withal contribute to sustainable living through
ameliorating live hood conditions of rural and farming
communities by utilizing agricultural
or cycled waste
products. This is a kind of solid waste management.
.
References
[1] Vaerenbergh SM, Legros CP. Influence of thermal
boundary conditions on the double-diffusive process in a
binary mixture. Int. J. Thermal & Environmental
Engineering, 2010;1:109-129.
[2] Haik, Y: Engineering Design Process. Pacific Grove:
Brooks/Cole, 2003.
[3] Toukourou NM, Gakwaya B, Yazdani JJ. An objectoriented finite element implementation of large
deformation frictional contact problems and applications.
Proceedings of the 1st MIT conference on CFSM.
Cambridge, MA, 2001.
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Page 374
[4] Occeelli V, Tadrict W, Raddev H. Disintegration of

cylindrical liquid columns in liquid-fluid systems: direct
numerical simulation. In: Schmitt A (Ed), Dynamics of
Multiphase Flows. across Interfaces. Springer-Verlag,
2006, pp. 21-60.
[6] Kumar D. Modeling and Representation to Support

Design-Analysis Integration. Master Thesis, Department
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology;
2009.
[5] Peky GK. X-Analysis Integration (XAI) Technology.

Virginia Tech Report EL002-2000A, March 2010.
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Page 375
A STUDY ON REPLACEMENT OF NATURAL SAND BY BLENDS OF FLYASH AND

BOTTOM ASH IN CONCRETE
Sadat Ali Khan 1, S Gobinath2, S Veraragavan3
1
2
3
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India, khanalisadat@gmail.com

Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India,esgobinath@gmail.com
3
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, Tamilnadu-635109, India,vrragavan29@gmail.com
2
Abstract
Concrete is a material with high vigor and durability and emerged as the prevailing construction material for the
infrastructure requirements of the twenty-first century. Energy is the main backbone of modern civilization of the world
over, and the electric power from thermal power stations is a major source of energy, in the form of electricity. Over
70% of electricity engendered in India, is by combustion of fossil fuels, out of which proximately 61% is engendered by
coal-fired plants. This results in the engenderment of roughly 100 million ton of ash and withal the consumption of
waste materials can be incremented manifold, if these are utilized as aggregate into cement mortar and concrete. This
type of utilization of waste materials can solve quandaries of lack of aggregate in assorted construction sites and reduce
environmental quandaries cognate to aggregate mining and waste disposal. With the concept of sustainable development
it is implicated acutely to utilize high performance materials and products manufactured with the lowest possible
environmental impact. Here an endeavor is made to study the effect of replacement of natural sand by of blends of fly
ash and bottom ash on strength properties of concrete and making it acceptable in concrete industry thus engendering a
market for fly ash and bottom ash which are the byproducts of thermal power stations which would otherwise go as
waste and withal requires immense landfills for storage.
Keywords: Concrete, Fly ash, Bottom ash, Natural sand
1. Introduction
Ash is a residue resulting from
combustion of pulverized coal or lignite in thermal
power plants. About 80% of total ash is in finely
divided form which is carried away with flue gases and
is collected by electrostatic precipitator or other
suitable technology. This ash is called fly ash or
chimney ash or hopper ash. The balance 20% of the ash
gets collected at the bottom of the boiler and is referred
as bottom ash. Fly ash consists of inorganic materials
mainly silica and alumina with some amount of organic
material in the form of unburnt carbon. Its fineness is
comparable to cement. However, some particles have
size less than 1 micron. The chemical composition and
physical characteristics of a fly ash from a coal fired
furnace are controlled by the type of coal and
processing conditions of the furnace. These vary not
only from one plant to another but also within the same
plant. Large variation in the chemical composition of
fly ashes is, therefore, natural. Fortunately, however,
the pozzolanic properties of a fly ash are not governed
so much by the chemistry but by the mineralogy and
the particle size of the fly ash. Bottom ash is a

somewhat variable material that may sometimes
contain pyrites or lightweight, porous "popcorn"
particles. Bottom ash has coarse particle size, higher
water absorption and usually no pozzolanic effect. A
survey has indicated that, thermal power plant bottom
ash would be a potential fine aggregate in concrete.
There are about forty major thermal power plants in
India. The beneficial use of fly ash in concrete is the
preferable option for safe and economical utilization of
millions tons of fly ash. There is a critical need to find
new methods for using fly ash for its highest and best
use. The major obstacle in use of bottom ash in a
concrete is that the chemical properties of coal bottom
ash are different from place to place and depends upon
the origin of the raw material. On Indian scenario it is
observed that at very few places good quality of sand
may be available in plenty. All metro and mega cities in
India are facing acute shortages of good quality of sand.
At some places sand available is coarser than Zone-I
sand and hence not suitable for construction work. In
contrast to the sand, bottom ash is available in huge
Sadat Ali Khan. Tel.: +917418979308

E-mail: khanalisadat@gmail.com
Page 376
quantity due to more and more thermal power plants in

India
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Arumugam K., Ilangovan R., Jamesmanohar D in
their paper entitled A study on characterization and
use of Pond Ash as fine aggregate in Concrete have
dealt with the possibility of using pond ash in varying
percentage as fine aggregate substitute in cement
concrete. During the combustion of pulverized coal at
the thermal power station the product formed are
bottom ash, fly ash and vapours. There bottom ash is
that part of residue which is fused into particles and is
collected at the bottom of the furnace. The distribution
between bottom ash and fly ash fraction is a function of
burner type, type of coal and the type of boiler bottom
(wet or dry). In India most of the thermal power plants
adopt wet method of ash disposal. The fly ash
collected from Electrostatic precipitator and the bottom
ashes are with water and disposed in a slurry form in
large ponds and dykes. Fly ash acts both as a fine
aggregate and as a cement. Pond ash differs from fly
ash collected from Electrostatic precipitators in a dry
form in that it contains significant amount of relatively
coarser particles (greater than 45 m and up to 150
m).The fine aggregate in concrete was replaced by
pond ash in the percentages of 0%,20%,40%,&60%.
The experimental results indicated that at 20% of
replacement of pond ash has attained the maximum
compressive strength, flexure strength and split tensile
strength.
Aggarwal P., Aggarwal Y., Gupta S.M in their paper
entitled Effect of bottom ash as replacement of fine
aggregates in concrete have studied about the use of
bottom ash in concrete .Though a large number of
significant results have been reported on the use of fly
ash in concrete however, there is not much literature
available on the use of fly ash as partial replacement of
fine aggregates with even less literature on the use of
bottom ash as partial replacement of fine aggregate.
Experimental investigations were carried out by
replacing sand by equal weight of fly ash, with sand
replacement levels of 0, 20 and 30 % and w/c ratio of
0.35, 0.40, 0.45 and 0.50, keeping cement content
constant at 350 kg/m3 in all mixes. Compressive
strength gain and corrosion resistance was higher for
sand replaced with fly ash mixtures. Also, the corrosion
rate of reinforcing steel bars in concrete was lowest in
30% replacement level. Mechanical properties like
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural
strength and modulus of elasticity at age of 7, 14, 28,
56, 91 and 365 days were studied. The strength
difference between fly ash concrete specimens and
plain concrete specimens become more distinct after 28
days. The maximum compressive strength, flexural
strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity was observed to be with 50 % fly ash content
at all ages.
Djwantoro Hardjito, and Shaw Shen Fun in their

paper entitled Parametric study on the properties of
geopolymer mortar incorporating bottom ash have
studied about effect of various parameters on
mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymer
mortar with bottom ash as partial or full replacement
for sand. Compressive strength of samples with 10%
bottom ash (BA) was comparable to those with only
sand. Further increase in bottom ash content decreased
the compressive strength.
Kadam M.P., Patil Y.D in their paper entitled Effect
of coal bottom ash as sand replacement on the
properties of concrete with different W/C ratio
have found the effects of coal bottom ash as fine
aggregates in place of sand. Compressive strength, split
tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity,
density and water permeability are studied. The natural
sand was replaced with coal bottom ash by 0%, 10%,
20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and
100% by weight, as water absorption of bottom ash was
more so that quantity of water was increased to achieve
100 mm slump. The results shows that the compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength
decreased as the percentage of replacement coal bottom
ash increased as compared to controlled concrete. In
this work slump was kept constant 100 10 mm. To
achieve the required slump water quantity was
increased as percentage replacement increased. It was
observed that up to 30% replacement the results of
compressive, flexural, split and water permeability test
are approximately same as that of the controlled
concrete.
Rafat Siddique in his paper entitled Effect of fine
aggregate replacement with class F fly ash on the
mechanical properties of concrete has presented the
results of an experimental investigation carried out to
evaluate the mechanical properties of concrete mixtures
in which fine aggregate (sand) was partially replaced
with Class F fly ash. Fine aggregate (sand) was
replaced with five percentages (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%,
and 50%) of Class F fly ash by weight. Tests were
performed for properties of fresh concrete.
Compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural
strength, and modulus of elasticity were determined at
7, 14, 28, 56, 91, and 365 days. Test results indicate
significant improvement in the strength properties of
plain concrete by the inclusion of fly ash as partial
replacement of fine aggregate (sand), and can be
effectively used in structural concrete.
Zhengyueren, and Lijiuwang in their paper entitled
Research of high fly ash content in concrete with
dipy construction formwork have studied about the
application of high fly ash content concrete (HFCC)
with Dipy construction formwork. Concrete
construction using Dipy construction formwork can
skip the processes of form stripping and concrete
vibration. According to the research of the working
Page 377
principle of concrete with Dipy construction formwork,

it can be found that cement paste composed of high fly
ash content exudes out from the inner of the concrete
wall. This process can reduce the air bubbles and then
improve the compatibility of concrete. To improve the
strength, durability, and carbonation resistance of the
high fly ash content concrete, the DG-II fly ash
activating agent has been developed and researched.
3.5 Water
2.1 Need for research
4.0 Mix proportion for M 30 Grade concrete
The use of material to be replaced by natural sand

which will give new dimension in concrete mix design
and if applied on large scale would revolutionize the
construction industry by economizing the construction
cost and enable us to conserve natural resources.
Grade of
2.2 Objectives of study

To find out the effect of replacement of natural sand by
blends of fly ash and bottom ash on the properties of
concrete. For this purpose natural sand is replaced by
both fly ash and bottom ash in different percentages
such as 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%,
80%, 90%, and 100%. In each percentage of
replacement both fly ash and bottom ash are taken in
equal proportions i.e. blended equally. Strength
characteristics such as compressive strength, tensile
strength, flexural strength, impact strength, and shear
strength are found when natural sand is replaced by
blends of fly ash and bottom ash. Also workability and
near surface characteristics like water absorption and
absorptivity are found for different replacements. To
achieve the above objective different experimentations
are planned on M 30 grade of concrete with 28 and 90
days of curing.
3.0 Materials used
3.1 Cement
In this experimental work, Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) 43 grade conforming to IS: 8112 - 1989 was
used.
3.2 Fly ash
Water fit for drinking is generally considered fit for

making concrete.
3.6 Coarse aggregates
Locally available crushed aggregates confirming to IS
383-1970 are used in this experimentation.
Cement
Cement
M30
1.00
Fine
Coarse
aggregate
aggregate
1.59
2.79
W/c
0.45
5.0 Methodology
Experimental investigation is carried out to study the
effect of the strength properties of concrete, due to
replacement natural sand blends of fly ash and bottom
ash. Waste product available from thermal power plant
such as fly ash and bottom ash are used in blends as a
percentage replacement of fine aggregate, thus the
whole study is experimental oriented. Workability tests
are conducted on fresh concrete. Slump cone test,
Compaction factor test, Vee-Bee consisto meter test.
Near surface characteristic tests, Water absorption test
are carried out. Strength tests such as Compressive
strength test using 150mm X 150mm X 150mm cube,
Tensile strength test using 150mm X 300mm cylinder,
Flexural strength test using 100mm X 100mm X
500mm beam, Shear strength test using L shape shear
specimen are investigated.
6.0 Mixing and casting
Sand was replaced by blends of fly ash and bottom ash
as per desired percentages. Blending of fly ash and
bottom ash is done in equal proportions for the
particular percentage of replacement of fine aggregate.
Mixing was done by hand. Cement and fine aggregate
shall be mixed dry to a uniform color and then the
coarse aggregate is added and mixed until the coarse
aggregate is uniformly distributed. Now water and
superplasticizer is added and the whole mix is mixed
until the resulting concrete is uniform in color.
In this experimental work, low calcium, class F dry fly

ash from the silos of Raichur thermal power plant
conforming to IS: 3812 (Part 1) 2003 was used.
3.3 Bottom ash
Bottom ash is obtained from the dumping yard in
Raichur thermal power plant.
3.4 Fine aggregates
Locally available river sand belonging to zone II of IS:
383-1970 was used for the project work.
Page 378
6.0 EXPERIMENTAL TEST RESULTS

6.1 Workability test results
6.1.1 Slump test results.
The slump test results of concrete produced by
bottom ash. The variation of slump is shown in fig 5.1.
Fig.4.8(a) Mixing of ingredients
Fig.5.1 Variation of slump

6.1.2 Compaction factor test results.
The compaction factor test results of concrete produced
bottom ash. The variation of compaction factor is
shown in fig 5.2.
Fig.4.8(b) Mixing of ingredients
Fig.5.2 Variation of compaction factor

6.1.3 Vee-Bee consistometer test results.
The Vee-Bee consistometer test results of concrete
produced by replacing the natural sand by blends of fly
ash and bottom ash. The variation of test results is
shown in fig 5.3
Fig.4.11 Demoulded specimens
Page 379
Fig.5.5 Soroptivity test results
Fig.5.3 Variation of Vee-Bee time

6.2 Near surface characteristic test results
6.2.1Water absorption test results
The water absorption test results of concrete produced
bottom ash. The variation of test results is shown in fig
5.4
6.4 Strength test results

6.4.1 Compressive strength test results.
The compressive strength test results of concrete
6.4.2 Overall results of compressive strength
The overall results of compressive strength of concrete
of compressive strength is shown in fig 5.6.
Fig.5.6 Variation of compressive strength
Fig.5.4 Variation of water absorption results

6.3 Soroptivity test results
The sorptivity test results of concrete produced by
bottom ash.
6.4.3 Split tensile strength test results.

The split tensile strength test results of concrete
Produced by replacing natural sand by blends of fly ash
6.4.5 Overall results of split tensile strength
The overall results of split tensile strength of concrete
of split tensile strength is shown in fig 5.7.
Page 380
6.6.1 Overall results of shear strength

The overall results of shear strength of concrete
produced by replacing by natural sand by blends of fly
ash and bottom ash in different percentages. The
variation of shear strength is shown in fig 5.9
Fig.5.7 Variation of split tensile strength

6.5 Flexural strength test results
The flexural strength test results of concrete produced
by replacing natural sand by blends of fly ash and
bottom ash in different percentages.
6.5.1 Overall results of flexural strength
The overall results of flexural strength of concrete
of flexural strength is shown in fig 5.8.
Fig.5.8 Variation of flexural strength
Fig.5.9 Variation of shear strength

6.7 Impact strength test results
6.7.1 Overall results of impact strength
The overall results of impact strength of concrete
produced by replacing natural sand by blends fly ash
of compressive strength is shown in fig 5.10
Fig.5.10 Variation of impact strength for final

failure
6.6 Shear strength test results
8.0 OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
The shear strength test results of concrete produced by

replacing natural sand by blends of fly ash and bottom
ash in different percentages.
The following observations can be made based on the

study conducted on effect of replacement of natural
sand by blends of flyash and bottom ash on the
properties of concrete.
Page 381
1. It is observed that the workability as measured from

slump, compaction factor and vee-bee degree for
of flyash and bottom ash goes on increasing up to
(10+10)% replacement level. After this the workability
drastically decreases. Thus the higher workability is
achieved when natural sand is replaced by (10+10) %
of blends of flyash and bottom ash.
(10+10) % the flyash and bottom ashes will induce a
ball bearing effect in the concrete thereby inducing
flow characteristics. Beyond this replacement the
concrete becomes harsher. Thus it can be concluded
that the workability of concrete produced by replacing
natural sand by blends of flyash and bottom ash is high
at (10+10) % replacement level.
2.It is observed that the water absorption and sorptivity
values of concrete produced by replacing natural sand
by blends of flyash and bottom ash show the least
values at replacement level of (10+10)%.There after the
water absorption and sorptivity go on increasing.
(10+10) % the flyash and bottom ashes may fill up all
the voids in the concrete mass thereby arresting the
capillary action of concrete.
Thus it can concluded that the water absorption and
sorptivity values of concrete produced by replacing
natural sand by blends of flyash and bottom ash is
3.It is observed that the compressive strength of
(25+25)% replacement level. After this the compressive
strength goes on decreasing. Thus the higher
compressive strength is achieved when the natural sand
is replaced by (25+25) % blends of flyash and bottom
ash. This is true for both 28 days and 90 days
compressive strength. The percentage increase in the
compressive strength at a replacement level of (25+25)
% are found to be 12.35% and 13.5% respectively for
28 days and 90 days.This may be due to the fact that at
a replacement level of (25+25) %, the flyash and
bottom ashes may induce a higher pozzalonic reactivity
thereby increasing C-S-H gel. Also it may be due to the
filler action of voids by flyash and bottom ash.Thus it
can be concluded that the compressive strength of
replacement level.
4. It is observed that the split tensile strength of
(25+25)% replacement level. After this the split tensile
strength goes on decreasing. Thus the higher split
tensile strength is achieved when the natural sand is
replaced by (25+25) % blends of flyash and bottom
ash. This is true for both 28 days and 90 days split
tensile strength. The percentage increase in the split

tensile strength at a replacement level of (25+25) % are
found to be 33.93% and 28.61% respectively for 28
days and 90 days.
Thus it can be concluded that the split tensile strength
of concrete produced by replacing natural sand by
blends of flyash and bottom ash is higher at (25+25) %
replacement level.
5. It is observed that the flexural strength of concrete
and bottom ash go on increasing up to (25+25)%
replacement level. After this the flexural strength goes
on decreasing. Thus the higher flexural strength is
achieved when the natural sand is replaced by (25+25)
% blends of flyash and bottom ash. This is true for both
28 days and 90 days flexural strength. The percentage
increase in the flexural strength at a replacement level
of (25+25) % are found to be 33.12% and 31.17%
respectively for 28 days and 90 days.
Thus it can be concluded that the flexural strength of
replacement level.
6. It is observed that the shear strength of concrete
and bottom ash go on increasing upto (25+25)%
replacement level. After this the shear strength goes on
decreasing. Thus the higher shear strength is achieved
when the natural sand is replaced by (25+25) % blends
of flyash and bottom ash. This is true for both 28 days
and 90 days shear strength. The percentage increase in
the shear strength at a replacement level of (25+25) %
are found to be 35.23% and 30.58% respectively for 28
days and 90 days.
Thus it can be concluded that the shear strength of
replacement level.
7. It is observed that the impact strength of concrete for
final failure produced by replacing natural sand by
blends of flyash and bottom ash go on increasing upto
(25+25)% replacement level. After this the impact
Page 382
strength goes on decreasing. Thus the higher impact

strength is achieved when the natural sand is replaced
by (25+25) % blends of flyash and bottom ash. This is
true for both 28 days and 90 days impact strength. The
percentage increase in the impact strength at a
replacement level of (25+25) % are found to be 20.86%
and 20.89% respectively for 28 days and 90 days.
Thus it can be concluded that the impact strength of
replacement level.
9.0 CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions made on studies conducted on the effect of

replacement of natural sand by blends of flyash and
bottom ash on the properties of concrete.
The workability of concrete produced by

bottom ash is high at (10+10) % replacement
level.
The water absorption and sorptivity values of
concrete produced by replacing natural sand
by blends of flyash and bottom ash is
The compressive strength of concrete
produced by replacing natural sand by blends
of flyash and bottom ash is higher at (25+25)
% replacement level
The split tensile strength of concrete produced
by replacing natural sand by blends of flyash
and bottom ash is higher at (25+25) %
replacement level.
The flexural strength of concrete produced by
level.
The shear strength of concrete produced by
level.
The impact strength of concrete produced by
level
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Page 384

A STUDY ON GLASS FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP

BEAMS WITH DIRECT LOADING
1- Research Scholar, Anna University -BIT, Tiruchirapalli
2 - Anna University-BIT, Tiruchirapalli,
3- Anna University, Chennai.
vengat74@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
This investigation deals with the behavior and ultimate strength of glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) deep
beams with and without openings in web subjected to two- point loading, eleven concrete deep beams of
dimensions 750mm350mm75mm thickness were tested to fail by applying gradually increased load. Simply
supported conditions were maintained for all the concrete deep beams. The percentage of glass fiber varied from
0 to 1.0.The influence of fiber content in the concrete deeps has been studied by measuring the deflection of the
deep beams and by observing the crack patterns. The investigation also includes the study of glass fiber
reinforced concrete deep beams with web reinforcement with and without openings. The ultimate load obtained
by applying the Ultimate shear strength equation [6] for reinforced concrete deep beams are compared with the
experimental values. The above study indicates that the location of openings and the amount of web
reinforcement, either in the form of discrete fibers or as continuous reinforcement are the principal parameters
that affect the behavior and strength of deep beams.
Keywords: Deep beams, Glass fiber, Beam -Web openings, GFRC deep Beams.
1. Introduction
Deep beam can be defined as a beam in which
either
clear
span
is
equal
to
or
less than four times the overall member depth or
concentrated
loads
are
within
a
distance equal to or less than two times the depth
from
the
face
of
support
(ACI
Committee 318, 2011).Deep beams are often used
as structural members in Civil Engineering works.
In many cases, web openings are required to
provide for services or for access. Because of the
geometric proportions of deep beams, their strength
is usually controlled by shear rather than flexure, if
normal amounts of reinforcements are provided. A
proliferation of new developments in glass fiber
reinforced concrete technology has greatly
extended the range of applications. The application
currently depends on the ingenuity of the designer
and builder taking advantage of the improved static
and dynamic tensile strength, ductility, energy
absorbing characteristics, abrasion resistance, and
fatigue strength of this new material of
construction. The uniform dispersion of glass fiber
throughout the concrete provided isotropic strength
properties which are not exhibited by
conventionally reinforced concrete. Previous
studies have shown that a significant increase in the
shear strength of deep beams with or without

openings can be achieved by providing either
conventional web reinforcement or glass fibers in
the concrete matrix. The inclusion of fibers in a
concrete matrix has been found to increase the
ultimate strength, increase the first crack load,
arrest the crack propagation, and enhance the
fracture toughness, post-cracking ductility, and
fatigue resistance.Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(GFRC) has gained increased popularity in
construction industries in the recent years.
Reinforcing plain concrete with glass fibers
has been used to improve the performance of
structural
members
such
as deep beams and slab, GFRC members can
exhibit
enhanced
shear
strength, more ductile behavior and reduced crack
widths. For the last two decades, a number of
investigations are being carried out on the behavior
of fiber reinforced composites. A number of
experimental and analytical investigations have
been carried out to study the behavior and collapse
loads of deep beams with and without web
opening. The openings are usually provided in such
Page 385
beams to have an access to utility ducts. As the
usage of those beams with or without openings
increases, it becomes imperative that the design
criteria of such beams are widely tested and
established.
disperse the concentrated forces, thereby avoiding

localized distress of concrete.
In the present investigation, glass fibers were used.

This investigation is a bid to study the behavior of
deep beams reinforced with glass fibers.
Concrete mix of 1 (cement) : 1.5(F.A) : 3 ( C.A.)

with water cement ratio by weight of 0.47 was used
for making the standard concrete specimens and for
deep beams. Cement and sand were first mixed
then coarse aggregate was added and the materials
were mixed thoroughly until uniformity was
achieved. To this concrete mixture, the fiber of
predetermined quantity was added and mixed,
taking care to avoid bundling or balling. Then the
required quantity of water was added slowly and
wet mixing was done. At all stages, hand mixing
was adapted and care was taken to ensure random
distribution of fibers in the composites. A
controlled internal vibration was used for the
compaction of the cylinders and prismatic
specimens. Eleven deep beams of size 750mm x
325mm x 75mm specimens with and without holes
as shown in table.1 were cast flat wise and
compacted on a vibration table in three layers.
2. Review of earlier works

Kong,F.K et al.( 1972) investigated the effect of
inclined web reinforcement on deep beams with
different span depth ratio. Leonharadt,F. H.A.R.de
Paiva et al.(1972) discussed the strength and
behavior of deep beams in shear. Prabhar.K
(1976),studied the collapse load of deep beams by
using a truss model analysis with a shear -span
effective-depth ratios of less than 1.0.Kong,F.K et
a.(1973),investigated shear strength of lightweight
reinforced concrete deep beams with openings.
Smith,K.N (1982),studied the effect of vertical and
horizontal web reinforcement and shear-span toeffective depth ratio of inclined cracking shear and
ultimate shear strength. Shanmugam, N.E
(1984),experiments carried out to study the
ultimate load behavior steel fiber reinforced
concrete deep beams. Parameshwaran, V.S
(1995),introduced to theory, properties and
application of fiber reinforced concrete. Vinu R.
Paterl (2010), used polypropylene fiber reinforced
concrete in moderate deep beams.
4. Casting of Deep beams and its Companions
3. Materials and Mix used

OPC of 53 grade with a specific gravity of 3.15
was used for all the specimens cast. The Fine
Aggregate used for casting was clean river sand.
The specific gravity of fine aggregate was 2.71.
The fineness modulus of the fine aggregate was 2.4.
The coarse aggregate used was broken granite
stone of size 10 mm. The specific gravity of coarse
aggregate was 2.84. The bulk density of coarse
aggregate was found to be 1640 kg/m3. Bore well
water available in the Structural Engineering
laboratory was used for casting all specimens of
this investigation. The quality of water was found
to satisfy the requirements of IS 456 -2000.
Figure 1: Location of the web opening at top and

bottom
Two steel rods of 16mm diameter of 415 N/mm2

yield strength were used as the main tension
reinforcement. The bars were anchored by welding
to 6mm thick steel plates at both ends. Each beam
contained web reinforcement consisting of two
layers of welded wire fabric of 3.3mm diameter
and 50mm on centers having a yield strength of
300 N/mm2.Bearing plates and reinforcement cages
was provided at supports and loading points to
Page 386
Table 1: Deep Beam Designation and
Geometric Dimensions
Bea
m
desi
gnat
ion
Beam
dimensions(mm)
Len
gth
Wi
dth
De
pth
Openin
g
size(m
m)
W
De
idt
h
pt
h
DB
W
WO
750
75
325
DB
WO
T
750
75
325
65
80
DB
WO
B
750
75
325
65
80
Detail
Deep
beam
without
web
openings
Deep
beam with
web
openings
at position
A
Deep
beam with
web
openings
at position
B
Cubes of size 150mm which had been cast along

with the slabs were tested on the same day on
which the respective slabs were tested to ascertain
the compressive strength of the concrete used in the
slabs. The cube tests were carried out in a
Compression Testing machine of 200 T capacity
and these tests were carried out as per the
recommendations of Indian Standard Codes of
Practice.
Prisms of size 100mm x 100mm x 500mm were
used for the determination of the flexural tensile
strength of reinforced concrete. The tests were
conducted in the Universal Testing Machine. Each
prism was supported over a span of 400mm. The
two point loads applied at each of the third span
points, i.e., 133.33 mm from each of the two
supports, were gradually increased until the
specimen failed. The failure load was noted down.
The modulus of elasticity of glassfiber reinforced
concrete deep beam was determined by conducting
compression tests on SFR Cylinders that had been
cast along with the deep beams. The test was
conducted in a UTM and the deformations
corresponding to the various loads were measured
by a dial gauge. These tests were carried out as per
IS-code recommendation.
4. Experimental Setup and Testing of Deep

beams
The deep beams were tested in a 100Tons capacity
Universal Testing Machine. All the beams were
tested to failure under Two point loading system.
The test set up for the beam is shown in below fig.2.
Each of the beam specimens was mounted on roller
supports on the Universal Testing Machine. Three
deflectometers were placed at the bottom face of
the beam at mid span and under the loading points.
Two-point loads were obtained by placing the
loading head on the top surface of the beam centre
and distributing the load through a spreader beam.
A small pre load was applied slowly to ensure that
the beam was properly seated and the
deflectometers were functioning properly. The load
was then removed, again applied and removed
slowly. Successive loads were applied in
increments of 10kN. Deflections at the mid-span
and under the loading points were recorded at each
load increment. During the test, the first crack
load was observed and the crack propagation was
carefully marked. All the beams were loaded till
failure. Based on the test results, standard
specimens for the various of addition of glass fibers.
The optimum fiber content as 0.75% to 1.0%. The
main specimens (deep beams) were cast with 0%,
0.75% and 1.0% and were tested to failure.
Figure 2: Test setup for

deep beams
5.1 Discussion of Test Results
5.1.1 Formation of cracksAll deep beam
specimens were tested and all of them failed in
shear. All beams were loaded to failure. The beams
collapsed due to excessive destruction of concrete
in the shear span. The crack patterns and failure of
test specimens are shown in fig.3. No cracking was
observed in any beam up to about 32% of ultimate
load. The first vertical flexural cracks were formed
in the region of maximum bending moment
between 40 % to 55% of the ultimate load a sudden
major inclined crack
Page 387
was formed almost in the middle of the shear span.
The initial crack was usually a sudden inclined
shear crack originating from the bottom corner of
the opening. With further increase of load, cracks
propagated towards the support while crack
originating at the top inner corner of the opening
propagated upward towards the load bearing plate.
Other flexural and flexural shear cracks were
subsequently formed and propagated upwards. At
higher loads, diagonal cracks were developed and
propagated until the beam failed in diagonal shear
mode. This is verified by the test results.
All existing cracks were observed between 55 to
68% of ultimate load. At about 72 to 78 % of
ultimate load, new inclined cracks were formed
parallel to the line joining the load edge and
support blocks. Also at about the same load level a
tension vertical crack appeared over the supports.
This is the results of the thrusts eccentricity which
essentially acts along the inclined crack. Finally,
beam failure occurred by concrete destroyed in
either the reduced compression zone at the head of
the inclined crack and the region adjacent to the
loading block or by fracture of the concrete along
the inclined cracks.
propagated towards the support and loading joint

from a subsequent increase in applied load. The
crack widths tends to increase with load, especially
at loads higher than inclined cracking loads.
Maximum crack width along the major inclined
crack in the shear span occurred almost at mid
depth of the beam.
5.3 Load Deflections
A load deflection curve for all the beams tested are
shown in fig.4.The variation in the early stage is
linear until the first crack is reached. As more
cracks were formed and propagated, there was a
reduction in the stiffness of the beams resulting in
higher rates of deflection. It is also observed that
the stiffness of the beam depend largely on the
extent to which the openings interrupt the vertical
load path.
Figure 3: Deep beams a) DBBOT

b) DBWOB
5.2 Inclined Cracking and Ultimate Loads
The inclined cracking load is defined as the load at
which the first major inclined crack appears in the
shear span. This was sudden cracks that usually
originated in the middle of the shear span and
Page 388
Pu/2
= C1f1f2 (1-0.36 X / d) ftn b D + C2 A(y
2
/D) sin
C1
= 1.0
C2
= 300N/mm2 for deformed bars
f1
= (1- a1)(1-1.667 a2),the reduction factor
for the size of the opening
f2
= h+2(k2)r X(((k1- k2)2/(( a1x)2 +( a2D)2))1/2
1.0, the reduction factor for interruption
of the opening on the radial load parts
N
=1.1 for fiber
=1.5 for web bar and 1.0 for main bar

h
=0.6-2k 0.2
r
=1.0 for centre opening is in the unloaded
quadrant and 2.0 for loaded quadrant
b is the width of the beam, X is the clear span, D is
over all depth of the beam, y is the depth at which a
steel bar intersects a potential critical diagonal
crack, is the angle of intersection, A is the area of
the steel provided, ft is the split tensile strength and
a1, a2 , k, & k1 are the coefficients defining the size
and position of the openings.
Figure 4: Load vs.

Deflection Curve
5.4 Influence of glass fiber on the first crack
load and ultimate load
The initial cracks in the reinforced concrete beams
without fiber were observed in 40% of the ultimate
load where, for glass fiber reinforced beam the first
crack load was found to be between 40% to 50%
the ultimate load. There is a 5% to 10% increase in
ultimate load for fiber reinforced concrete beams
when compared with beams without fiber
reinforcement. Thus the experimental results show
that there is an increase in the ultimate load and the
first crack load for the fiber reinforced concrete
deep beams.
5.5 Analysis of the test results
The proposed equation(modified Kong and Sharps
formula) is suggested by Swaddiwudhipong et al
[6] for reinforced concrete deep beams with
openings to calculate the ultimate shear capacity
and it is including the effect of fibers that provides
an extra shear capacity, fracture toughness and
crack arrest.
The ultimate capacity (Pu) of fiber reinforced
concrete deep beams with openings.
The calculated theoretical ultimate capacity as

given in the table.3 by using above formula.
Tests have been conducted on standard specimens
with different percentage of fiber addition,
i.e.0%,0.5%,0.75% and
1.0%(by volume).The
results had been compared and optimum fiber
centre which can be added to main specimen was
found to be between the range 0.75% and 1.0% for
the available shell fibers. The main specimens were
cast with 0%, 0.75% and 1.0% and were tested to
failure.The comparison of the experimental failure
load with theoretical results in table.3 shows that
the modified Kong and Sharps formula provides
theoretical predication and it is matching with
experimental values. The observation of the failure
load listed in Table.3 in conjunction with the beam
geometry confirms that the effect of web opening
on the load-carrying capacity of deep beams
depends largely on the percentage of fiber interrupt
the load path. The greater degree of interruption,
the greater is the reduction in ultimate strength.
The observation shows that the first crack load was
found to increase 5% to 10% for the fiber
reinforced beams and the beams did not crumble
and fell down. The observation also shows that for
an optimum percentage of 0.75% by volume, gives
maximum ultimate load for the deep beams.
Hence the results presented here in support the
postulates that the ultimate strength of deep beams
depends greatly on the degree of interruption of the
opening on the natural load path and also the
percentage of fiber content present in the beam and
openings in the tension zone weaken the beam. The
modified Kong and Sharps formula provide the
accurate prediction of the ultimate strength of fiber
reinforced concrete deep beams with and without
web openings.
Page 389
1
2
3
4
0
20
40
60
0.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0
0.5
0.7
1.0
80
1.0
1.2
100
120
140
150
200
220
240
First crack
Load(kN)
Ultimate
Load(kN)
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.3
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.4
6
7
8
9
10
Fiber 0.75%
Fiber1.0%
W
W
D
O
B
W
O
T
D
B
W
O
B
Without fiber
Loads
(kN)
D
B
W
W
O
D
B
W
O
T
D
B
W
O
D
B
B
W
W
O
D
B
W
O
D
T
B
W
O
D
B
B
S.No

0.0
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.5
0.0
0.4
0.6
0.75
0.0
0.6
0.65
0.8
0.0
0.6
0.75
1
0.0
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.0
0.7
0.9
1.1
0.0
0.7
1.0
1.2
0.9
1.0
1.3
1.1
1.4
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.5
2.8
1.3
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
2.7
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.6
3.3
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.1
2.5
2.8
1.6
1.9
2.1
2.4
2.7
1.8
2.3
2.6
2.9
3.1
91.0
81.0
102.0
90.5
89.0
221
174
215.0
209.0
163.2
85.0
80.0
75.0
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.0
2.4
2.8
105.0
201
175
165
230.0
Table 2: Deflection at mid span
Theoretical
load(kN)
Fiber -1.0%
Experimental
load(kN)
Theoretical
load(kN)
Fiber -0.75%
Experimental
load(kN)
Opening Position
Theoretical
load(kN)
Experimental
load(kN)
Fiber -0%
Without web opening

(DBWWO)
201
208
230
221
215
212
Web opening at A
(DBWOT)
175
176
221
188
209
180
Web opening position at B

(DBWOB)
165
168
174
161
163.2
158
Table 3: Experimental Analytical results for deep beams
Page 390
behavior of the structure

conducting the accelerated test.
5. Conclusion
The following conclusions can be drawn from the
experimental results:
by
The effect of an opening on the

ultimate shear strength of a deep
beam depends primarily on the
extent to which it intercepts the load
path joining the load bearing block
at the loading point and the support
reaction point, and on the location at
which this interception occurs.
Size of openings may be varied and

percentage if the saving of material
which will not affect the ultimate
loads carrying capacity of the beams
may be studied.

conducted with plastic fibers such as
polypropylene,
high
density
polyethylene fibers and corrugated
steel fibers.
The observation shows that the first

crack load was found to increase 5to
10% for the fiber reinforced beams.
The openings may be stiffened with

stirrups and the behavior of beams
may be studied.
Web openings may be provided in

the compression zone of the beams
and
fiber
content of 0.75% by volume may be
added to improve the strength of the
structure.
The opening in the tension zone

weakens the beam.
Fiber content of 0.75%by volume of

the beam improves the ultimate load
and the
first crack load of the
beam.
Additional of glass fibers increases

the tensile strength of concrete
matrix and also increase in the
flexural rigidity of the beam.
Modified Kong and Sharps formula

provides almost accurate prediction
of the ultimate strength of fiberreinforced concrete deep beams
with or without opening.
Acknowledgement
My sincere thanks to Dr. Suresh Babu, Prof &HOD
S.Gobinath,Department of Civil Engineering,
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering,Hosur &
Mr.Sridhar, Faculty,Civil, Adhiyamaan Polytechnic
College Hosur. The author express his gratitude to
Mr. P.Sabrinathan, PS structures, Chennai for his
support.
6. References
1.
Kong,
F.K.,
Robins,P.J.,Singh
&
Sharp,G.P,.Deep beams with inclined web
reinforcement,
American
concrete
Insititute
Journal,Col.69,No.16,March
1972,PP.172-176.
2.
Leonharadt,F. H.A.R.de Paiva and

C.P.Siess 1972,Discussion of :Strength
and behavior of deep beams in shear by.
Proceedings of the American Society of
Civil Engineers.Vol.92, No. 2, pp 68-69.
3.
Prabhat,K.,1976,Collapse load of deep

reinforced concrete beams, Magazine of
concrete Research,Vol.28,No.94, pp 32-34.
4.
Kong,F.K.,Robins,P.J.,Singh
&
Sharp,G.R., 1972, Shear analysis and
design of reinforced concrete deep beams,
The structural engineer,Vol.50,No.10, pp
23-45.
5.
Smith,K.N and Vamtsiotis,A.D., Shear

strength
of
deep
beams ,proceeding ,American concrete
Institute
Journal,Vol.79,No.3,may
1982,PP 201-213.
5.1 Suggestion for further work
The experimental investigation may

be carried out for fiber with different
aspect ratio.
Different location of openings in the

web may be tried with the same fiber
for a bigger size specimen.

carried out to study the long term
Page 391
6.
7.
8.
Shanmugam,N.E
and
Swaddiwudhipong,S., 1984,The ultimate
load behavior of fiber reinforced concrete
deep beams, the Indian concrete Journal
Vol.58,No.8, pp 12-14.
Parameshwaran,V.S., Introduction to
theory, property and application of fiberreinforced concrete, summer school on
advances in reinforced cement composites
and
design
techniques,
may
215,1995,PP.1-3.
Vinu,R.Patel,Pandya.I.,and
Sandeep
c.Patel,. Prediction of shear strength of
PPFRC moderate deep beams using structand tie models, International journal of
engineering research and application,

Vol.1,No.2,PP.149-152.2008.
9.
ACI Committee 318, Building Code

Requirements for structural concrete and
Commentary (ACI 318-11).
10. Euro code 2, Design of Concrete

structures-Part 1-1: General rules for
buildings(2004).
11. IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced
Concrete Code of Practice Bureau of
Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, New
Delhi, India.
Page 392

hor
in
JPEG Format
Jagadeesha Kumar B G 1, Rishi Rai 2 Souvik Chakraborty 3

1
M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-54, India, bgjagadish@msrit.edu

2 M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-54, India,, rairishi2824@gmail.com
3 M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-54, India, souvik.chakraborty24@gmail.com
uthor (if any)

in
JPEG Format
Abstract
The better construction practices will go long way in saving time, money, materials and safety at workplace. This paper
makes an attempt to introduce a Japanese management technique known as Gemba Kaizen in construction industry so
as to achieve the above mentioned goals. Gemba means a location where value is added and Kaizen means
improvement. It works on the principle of five Ss ,the first stands for sort, the second for setting things in order ,the
third for scrub, the fourth for standardization of the process throughout the workplace and the fifth stands for
sustainability in the changes which have been through the process. The paper also analyses the suitability of such
techniques which is recently introduced in manufacturing sector into construction industry.
Keywords: Infrastructure Development, Management Tool, Construction Practices, Five Ss, Lean Manufacturing.
1. Introduction
Infrastructure development is the key for judging a countrys
growth with countries like India and China developing at such a
rapid rate infrastructure becomes the key. Construction industry for
infrastructure development in any country and its resource
consumption affect the GDP of the country to a major extent. In
India the construction industry has contributed an estimated 6708
billion to the national GDP in 2011-12 (a share of around 9%)
registering an annual growth of about 9 %. Around 16 per cent of
the nation's working population depends on construction for its
livelihood. The Indian construction industry employs over 30
million people and creates assets worth over 200 billion. The
cement industry accounts for approximately 1.2% of gross
domestic product (GDP) while construction industry consumes
around 45% of steel produced in the country. The share of India in
global crude steel production has increased from 2.7% in 1994 to
4.1% in 2008.[3] (Source: Planning Commission Working Group
report on Construction for the 11th Five Year Plan), During the
Ninth Five-year Plan period (1997-2002), the annual demand of
170 million bricks per year [6] was estimated to be generating
revenues of over Rs. 288 billion.
The construction industry playing such a significant role in the
development of the country is highly unorganized, better
construction practices are required to make a change. They will
reduce the overall project cost where savings include enhanced
competitive bidding, contract negotiation, value engineering,
reduced change orders, reduction in time, less polluting and
elimination of unnecessary scope and cost. They will also help in
centralized communication system which helps to integrate all the
participants. They will also enhance the product quality. The most
important advantage being that they will optimize and accelerate
the design and construction schedule. Scientific construction
practices will also reduce the time of construction and hence

save money.
The important prevailing construction management practices
are CPM & PERT. CPM stands for Critical Path Method, it
includes a list of all activities required to complete the project, the
time (duration) that each activity will take to complete, the
dependencies between the activities and logical end points such as
milestones or deliverable items and thus determines the shortest
time possible to complete the project. PERT (Project Evaluation
and Review Technique) is a method to analyze the involved tasks
in completing a given project, especially the time needed to
complete each task, and to identify the minimum time needed to
complete the total project. These methods are being used since
1958 and are to be optimized for the present trends thus there is a
need of fine tuning of the existing construction management
practices to bring about more efficiency, eco-friendly, cost and
time reduction, reduction in environmental pollution and safety at
work place.
2. Gemba Kaizen
Gemba Kaizen is a Japanese concept of continuous improvement
designed for enhancing processes and reducing waste. Within a
lean context, Gemba simply refers to the location where value is
created, while Kaizen relates to improvements. An organization
which has embraced the concept is constantly striving to improve
its processes, promotes discipline and standardization, and believes
the processes in place for solving problems are more valuable than
the solutions themselves. Kaizen is a mindset. Although many lean
practitioners have Kaizen in their toolbox, those who strive to live
Page 393
it each day are the people who are making a difference in people's
lives.
Gemba Kaizen embraces the skills of a whole organization,
inviting and rewarding employee contributions and understanding
even the smallest improvements will create greater value over time.
The concept focuses on achieving continuous improvement through
activities on the work floor.[3]
2.1. The 'Five Ss'
One of the key concepts of Kaizen is the pursuit of operation
excellence through a housekeeping technique known as the 'five
Ss'.The five Ss' are a good place for an organization to start when
introducing the concept, as it allows all employees to get
involved.[3]
The first S stands for seiri or sort which deals with the literal
contents of the Gemba that is to remove excess materials and create
a streamline flow. The second S stands for seiton which means
giving every item its correct place. The third S stands for seiso
which means scrub that is to keep the work place clean and taking
pride in it. Seiketsu is the fourth S which means standardization of
process throughout the workplace. Visual management is an
important aspect to facilitate easy understanding of these standards.
The fifth and the most important S stands for shitsuki which means
sustaining the changes which have been made.[3]
3. Gemba Kaizen in Lean Manufacturing
Lean Manufacturing, normally used in manufacturing Industry
is the implementation of the unique concept that anything that does
not create or add value in the product is to be eliminated. Lean
Manufacturing is a concept of more value for less work and its
simplicity is what makes it work. It works on a set of principles
which are Continuous flow, Lean Machines/Simplicity, Workplace
Organization, Parts Presentation, Reconfigurability, Product
Quality, Maintainability, Ease of Access, and Ergonomics.[4]
These lean manufacturing principles give rise to the usage of
the concept of Gemba Kaizen in lean manufacturing when
constant improvement in work place is carried out through these
principles. The use of Gemba Kaizen in lean manufacturing has
shown excellent results in many cases; the scrap content has
decreased down to less than 3%, there has been an increase in
productivity by 30% through better design & 22% by
standardization, saving of working space and decrease in wasted
area, almost 60% reduction in setup time, 59% lead time reduction
and high employee morale and job satisfaction [5].
Even in hospitals usage of Gemba Kaizen has reduced the
queue time by a significant amount. This method has also helped to
increase the count of MRI of a hospital in US from 86 to 112 per
week which added an approximate amount of $1.2 million to its
bottom line [ref. no.]. This shows how flexible the method is in
its implementation in various fields.[3]

4. Gemba Kaizen in Construction Industry
The construction industry of India like many developing countries
and under developed countries is highly unorganized and lacks
better construction practices and management techniques. Acute
material & time wastage, lack of proper planning and reduced
safety at workplace are the major problems. The methodology of

Gemba Kaizen which has worked in an excellent way in
manufacturing industry can be adopted in construction industry.
The structure of Gemba Kaizen which is based on the five Ss
gives an answer to many of the prevailing problems in construction
industry.
Sorting the materials in construction industry will create a
streamlined flow of work which can be done through the usage of
software like Primavera and also through visual examination.
Only the required amount of material needs to be stacked for the
upcoming work. Next if the things are in order, every item has its
correct place it will result in saving a lot of time and will make the
work organized. If the work place is kept clean which is usually not
the case at a construction site it will lead to better working
conditions just as clean living space creates better living conditions
and this culture should be promoted for better efficiency and
people should take pride in it. The standardization of work which
has come lately into picture in construction industry is a very
important aspect of saving material, cost and time.
Practices like modular construction, which involves specifying
standard sizes for every construction materials, items and spaces
inside the building have already come into practice for apartments
and buildings which have similar requirements. Sustainably
carrying out these changes together becomes a challenge which has
to be implemented.
4.1. Implementation of Gemba Kaizen in Construction
Industry
The construction work in India is carried out through different
levels of construction organizations. The big construction
companies divide their work and sub contract them to contractors,
who further give their work to petty contractors. This system of
working is carried since none of them have the capacity of
providing manual labor and required equipment at such a large
scale and also because the construction market is highly random.
This randomness is due to lack of proper management both at the
private and government level. For e.g.; In India a company needs to
have 93 clearances to setup a power plant. These clearances apart
from being stringent take a lot of time to give a final definite result
which makes the efficiency of the work low and highly random.
The big construction industries have already started the
implementation of Gemba Kaizen for better work results & these
techniques have started showing results too. For e.g.; At a
construction site, where rainfall data was critical for the project, the
available data with agencies and internet was not sufficient and
accurate. Therefore the company involved in the project had set up
their own rain gauge, rain gauge helped in measurement of the
sites local rainfall. The benefits were; easy calculation of delay
analysis during rainy season and everyday measurement of actual
rainfall at site. Another example that can be taken is of grade C24,
which was used at a large construction site. The concrete mix
design with 400 kg/cum of cement for all underground structures
which was replaced with 380 kg/cum of cement following the
minimum cement required standards by testing at site lab. The
benefits with 5% reduction in the cement resulted in a saving of
around 22 lakhs for the complete project.
Page 394
At a smaller scale the construction work is still highly unorganized,

the major reasons being highly random nature of the work,
improper inflow of money, material disposal and usage problems,
material storage problems, lack of safety and cleanliness at site and
lack of technical knowledge. The steel and cement have to be
stored for months before being used at site since proper
management is not available which will make it possible to use the
materials as and when required, reason being to avoid risks and
hike in prices which happen when materials are purchased with a
short span of time. The labor expected turnout is also not definite
5. Conclusion
The application of Gemba Kaizen in manufacturing industry
has given excellent results since its use by TOYOTA in the
mid 1980s[6].The manufacturing industry of most of the
countries of the world are highly efficient now compared to
what they used to be before. Gemba Kaizen in construction
industry too has shown promising results so its time to realize
its importance and work on its implementation even at a local
or a regional level with proper coordination and cooperation
between government agencies which are framing the policies
and private agencies who are carrying out the work.
Acknowledgments
We thank Mr. Himanshu Shekhar (Executive Engineer, L&T
POWER), Mr. H.M Ramesh (M.D, Reliance Developers Pvt.
Ltd, Bangalore) and Mr.Hiranya (Bhagirath Constructions Pvt.
Ltd, Bangalore) for their cooperation and support which helped
in completing this paper. The information given them was
valuable which gave us an insight to the existing problems in
construction industry and thus find a solution to these
problems.
which makes it difficult to plan the process. The stringent

government policies and bad transportation make the situation even
worse. Gemba Kaizen management technique and its application
in construction industry can solve many of the existing problems
right from maintaining a streamlined flow of work at site to
maintaining safety standards for workers everything can be
achieved in a sustainable way. In such a challenging field such as
construction industry where saving few minutes could save lots of
money will bring credit to the company. Proper management at
small
scales
can
also
do
wonders.
References
[1]
Report on Human Resource and Skill Requirements in the

Construction Materials and Building Hardware Sector
(2022)
[2]
http://www.ecobrick.in/indian_Brick_Sector.aspx
[3] www.processexcellencenetwork.com,
www.wikipedia.com
[4] Lean Manufacturing: Principles, Tools and MethodsBosch Rexroth Corporation
[5] Darius Dysko- Gemba Kaizen - utilization of human
potential to achieving continuous improvement of
company
[6] Lean Manufacturing, 5S and Six Sigma 2009 The Folk
Group, Doylestown, PA, www.folkgroup.com
.
Page 395
ABSTRACTS
PROBLEMS AND TREATMENT OF EXPANSIVE BLACK COTTON SOILS
Rajesh Prasad Shukla, Earthquake Engg. Deptt, IIT Roorkee,
Niraj Singh Parihar, Dept. of Civil Engg., JUIT, Solan, (H.P),
Black cotton soil covers more than twenty percentage geographical area of India. It is spread over
Madhyapradesh, Maharashtra, Andhrapradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and some other parts of
India as well. These soils undergo a change in volume with change in water content. Black cotton soil
shrink and swell with decrease and increase in water content respectively. Light weight and small
structures are more susceptible to damages due to relatively small overburden pressure. Uneven
contraction and swelling leads to reduction in the serviceability, emergence of hairline cracks and
sometimes severe cracks even lead to collapse of the structure. Black cotton soil has proved as a source of
damage to the property and economical loss. A lots of alternatives are available to reduce the expansive
characteristic of black cotton soil. Most of the time, addition of additives proves to be a good option to
modify the composition of soil and enhance the performance of soil. Swelling behaviour and effects of
additives have been studied by many researchers but most of outcomes are contradicting and most of
research are useful for academic purpose only. This study presents the result of laboratory testing, where,
sea salt has been used as additive to change the behaviour of expansive soil. Some field cases have been
also presented where black cotton soil has posed problem in new construction and constructed structure.
An attempt has been also made to compare the various solution available in literature to improve the
performance of black cotton soil.
EFFECT OF GEOTEXTILE REINFORCEMENT ON THE SOIL
Parihar, N.S., Dept. of Civil Engg., JUIT, Waknaghat, (H.P),
Rajesh P. Shukla, Dept. of Earthquake Engg., IIT Roorkee,
Gupta, A.K., Dept. of Civil Engg., JUIT, Waknaghat, (H.P),
akgjuit@gmail.com
Geotextiles have been emerged as a well-established materials for ground improvement in geotechnical
engineering and civil engineering within last few years. This article presents the results of series of
triaxial tests conducted in laboratory to determine the effect of different type of geotextile on behaviour of
a c- soil. Woven and nonwoven geotextile have been used in the present study in the form of sheets and
threads. Effect of number of layers and confining pressure on deviatoric stress have been evaluated. The
geotextile sheet layers are placed at equal vertical spacing within the soil sample of dimensions 38 mm x
76 mm and number of geotextiles sheet layers are varied from one to three. Geotextiles threads amount
5%, 10% and 15% are used in study. Deviatoric stress is increased with increase in the number of
geotextile layers and confining pressure. Three layers reinforcement is more efficient as compared to
single and double layer reinforcement. Optimum amount of geotextiles threads are found to be between
5% and 10% by weight of soil. Effect of confining pressure is more or less same for single layer and
double layers geotextiles but in case of three layers geotextiles effect it is very prominent.
Page 396
EFFECTIVE SELECTION OF FORMWORK FOR HIGHRISE BUILDINGS

Gokuldeepan.P
P.G. Student Deptt of civil Engineering,
Construction Engineering and Management,
Erode Builder Educational Trusts group of Institutions,
Tripur, India.
Email-gokul.tna@gmail.com
In a tall building construction with reinforced concrete structures, the selection of an appropriate
formwork system is a crucial factor for the success of the project. Thus, selecting an appropriate
formwork system affects the entire construction duration and cost, as well as subsequent construction
activities. However, in practice, the selection of an appropriate formwork system has depended mainly on
the intuitive and subjective opinion of working level employees with restricted experience. This study is
to focus on identifying the qualitative factors affecting the selection of the formwork at high rise buildings
from the various literatures and the interview with the selected respondents. Questionnaire has been
prepared with keep in mind about residential and commercial projects only and the questionnaire will be
distributed to various Project Managers, Planning Engineers, and contractors in Chennai, Bengaluru,
Coimbatore and Erode areas. Developing a decision support model for formwork, incorporating all the
major constraints, that will help whether the resources is necessary and feasible at site.
ESTIMATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR RAMAGUNDAM WATERSHED USING SCS
CURVE NUMBER METHOD AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
Ms. S.V.S.N.D.L.Prasanna1 and Mr. Anil Kumar2
1. Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering, Osmania
University, Hyderabad- 07
2. M.E scholar, Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad- 07
With the increasing need for water due to industrialization, population growth and agricultural practices,
it has become an essential task for water scientists and planners to simulate and optimize the utilization of
existing water resources. The Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method is widely used
for predicting direct runoff volume for a given rainfall event. Runoff curve number is determined based
on the factors of hydrological soil group, land use, land cover and hydrologic conditions. GIS and remote
sensing is used to provide quantitative measurements of watershed morphology for input into runoff
models so as to estimate runoff response. In the present study, SCS-CN method is used to estimate the
runoff for Ramagundam watershed. Ramagundam is located in Karimnagar district of Telangana state.
Land use from LISS III image is used in the process of determining the spatial distributed runoff curve
numbers and runoff depth are determined for the watershed for different land use classes. The estimated
geographical area for watershed is 16633 ha and the average rainfall is 859 mm. The weighted curve
number for overall Ramagundam watershed is estimated as 85. The rainfall and land use data are used
along with the soil information for the estimation of runoff for the study area. The results of the present
study show that the estimated runoff depth for the study area (Ramagundam watershed) in the monsoon
season is 273.24 mm and the average volume of runoff from the watershed is 45 Mm. The validation
results for estimated runoff depths showed good agreement with observed data for all six years (2006 to
2011) and R2 are 0.936, 0.904, 0.983, 0.962, 0.978, and 0.958 respectively.
Page 397
OPTIMIZATION OF BUS STOP LOCATION USING GIS FOR COIMBATORE DISTRICT

Anitha Selvasofia.S.D1, Prince Arulraj.G2
1
2
Assistant professor, Professor & Dean, Department of Civil Engineering, SNS College of Technology,
Coimbatore.
The Cities in India are growing considerably at a faster rate with the suburbs thriving at a rapid rate.
Coimbatore is also no exception for such development. The problems of congestion and overcrowding are
common predicament in urban life. This situation forces the planners to evolve with new strategies and
ideas for meeting the requirements of the population which is steadily increasing quantitatively and also
having a rapid shift in the cultural pattern which influence much on the living style of the
people. Transportation network can be rightly stated as the lifelines of the people that connect both urban
and rural areas. In Metropolitan cities, public transport especially the corporation buses cater to the needs
of all the sections of the society irrespective of their economic status. On considering all the above
mentioned factors an attempt has been made to ensure optimum utilization of available resources for
development of transport network of Coimbatore city in India using Geographical Information System
(GIS). There are certain parameters which need to be considered for performing the analysis. Weightages
are assigned to each of the parameters based on the existing situation and the requirement of the public.
They are arranged according to their of degree of importance as Maximum & minimum distance between
two successive point locations, Importance of location, Density of population, Time, Availability of
infrastructure and finance, Willingness to walk, Monetary status of the people, Site details such as
junction points etc. The maximum distance between two stops is taken to be not more than 2 kilometers,
this distance is assigned based on the type of settlement, landuse pattern, population density and the
monetary status. The present study is based mostly on ground data with some amount of sampling and
then the data is extended through interpolation technique. The minimum distance is taken as 500 meters.
The problem presented here is about the existing the location of bus stops. Many bus stop
locations are not conducive for everyone. Any facility could not meet the need of each and every
individual, here comes the optimization principle where maximum comfort and convenience could be
given to the public by proper planning, which can be effectively done using GIS by considering the
opposite parameters.
INDEX PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS BINDER MODIFIED WITH POLYETHYLENE
GLYCOL (PEG)
T Srikanth, Assistant Professor, Sree Vidyanikethan Engg. College, Tirupati,
tangudusrikanth513@gmail.com
Disposal of waste materials including waste plastic bags has become a serious problem and waste plastics
are burnt for apparent disposal which cause environmental pollution. Utilization of waste plastic bags in
bituminous mixes has proved that these enhance the properties of mix in addition to solving disposal
problems. This paper develops the techniques to use plastic waste for construction purpose of roads and
flexible pavements have reviewed. In conventional road making process bitumen is used as binder. Such
bitumen can be modified with waste plastic pieces and bitumen mix is made, which can be used as a top
layer coat of flexible pavement.The purpose of this research is to investigate the index properties of
Bitumen using Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) as polymer additives in Bituminous Mix. The properties of
PEG modified binder obtained by fix mixing temperature, was investigated. The binders were prepared by
mixing the PEG of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% (by the weight of Bitumen) with 60/70 penetration
grade bitumen at temperature of 150 C. The study shows the behavior of bitumen in terms of Specific
Gravity of Bitumen, Penetration, Ductility and Softening Point tests with varying percentages of PEG.
The results of unmodified bitumen mix are compared with the modified bitumen mix. The PEG modified
bitumen mix show better binding property.
Page 398
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF KUNIGAL TALUK TUMKUR DIST, KARNATAKA

BY GIS TECHNIQUES
1
Ravindranath. C , Nandeesha , G.Veerappa Devaru3 , SG Swamy4 and T Gangadaraiah5

Research scholar Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur,
Karnataka, India
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur, Karnataka,
India
3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur,
Karnataka, India
4
Fellow KSCST IISC Bangalore.
5
Emeritus Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur,
Karnataka, India
E-mail: ravindranath.civil@gmail.com ndeesh@rediffmail.com gv_devaru@yahoo.com
swamy@kscst.iisc.ernet.in
1
Geomorphological studies the entire Kunigal Taluk by Remote Sensing data and Geographic Information
System were used to analyse the morphological studies of Kunigal Taluk. Groundwater is an important
resource contributing significantly in total annual supply for living beings it contributes geomorphology.
The accurate information to obtain the parameters that can be considered for identifying the
Geomorphological studies such as geology, slope, drainage density; geomorphic units are generated using
the satellite data and survey of India (SOI) toposheets of scale 1:50000. It is then integrated with weighted
overlay in Arc GIS ver 9.2. The alluvial plain in filled valley, flood plain and deeply buried pediplain
were successfully delineated and shown to improve the resources in the study area.
Key words: geology, slope &drainage density
EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL STUDIES ON RC COLUMN WITH FIBRE
REINFORCED CONCRETE CONFINED BY CFRP STRIPS
A.M.Vasumathi1 , K.Rajkumar2 and G.Narasinga moorthy3
1
Professor in Civil Engineering, KLN College of Information Technology, Sivagangai 630612,
Tamilnadu, INDIA
2
3
Associate Professor in Civil Engineering, Assistant Professor in Mechanical Engineering, SBM College
of Engineering and Technology,Dindigul 624 005, Tamilnadu, INDIA,rajstruct.engg@gmail.com
Fibre reinforced polymer composites have found extensive applications in the field of civil engineering.
Due to their advantages properties such as high strength to weight ratio and high corrosion resistance.
This research investigate Experimental and efficient frame finite element (FE) able to accurately estimate
the load carrying capacity and ductility of reinforced concrete of circular columns confined with
externally bonded Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composite strips. Synthetic polypropylene
fiber was used in the rate of 0.50% in the volume of concrete. CFRP strips having a width of 50mm were
used to confine the column. Both experimental and finite element model were effective spacing between
the CFRP strips (20mm and 30mm) and number of layers (one, two and three). Purpose a structure must
be safe against collapse and serviceable in use. Laterally apply load on externally bonded CFRP strips
providing restraining effect and thus effect enhanced the stiffness of column. Finite element simulation
and results are compared based on experimental results. From the test results obtained is suggested that
CFRP strips of three layers with 20mm spacing provides an earth quake resistant structures and 30mm
spacing provides an economical advantage compared to 20mm spacing
Page 399
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND PROBABILITY PLOTTING OF RAINFALL DATA FOR

KUNIGAL TALUK, TUMKUR DISTRICT, KARNATAKA USING GEOINFORMATICS
Ravindranath.C1, Nandeesha2 G Veerappa Devaru3
1
Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Karnataka, India
2
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Karnataka, India
3
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Karnataka,
India
Land, water and soil are limited natural resources and it is same but it will be unevenly distributed, their
wide utilization and conservation with increasing population is a major area of concern, to mitigate the
demand and supply gap between resources and ever increasing demand, it is of prime importance to
conserve the natural resources with proper prioritization for its sustainable development. The present
work mainly frequency distribution of rainfall and determine the frequency of the likely occurrence of
Hydrologic events, plotting of frequency distribution and probability plotting for Kunigal Taluk. The
study area is located in southern part of Tumkur district in Karnataka state. The study area kunigal taluk
covers an area of 981.55 Sq.km, and it consists of 8 rain gauge stations average annual rainfall is 802mm.
The area is bounded by the latitude North 120 4438 to 13081 and the longitude East 760 49 43 to 770
957. The main part of the area is covered under Survey of India (SOI) Toposheet numbers 57 C/16, 57
G/4, 57 D/13, 57 H/1 and 57H/2 (Scale 1:50,000) and having eight rain gauge stations each rain gauge
stations of monthly of pre monsoon, south west monsoon and north east monsoon rainfall data is analyzed
from 1901-2013. The study of uneven distribution of rainfall causes scarcity of water for different
purposes. The rain fall data is analyzed by actual rainfall vs. expected rainfall the hydrological and
meteorological events time series and its normal and log normal components, by conventional methods.
The magnitude of 10% interval, such events estimated that can be expected for a selected probability and
return period of 113 years is 1259.9 mm and 6.30 years the event is 990.2 mm. The first degree equation
is for 113 years equation is Y= 748.45+0.9302x. Here we are mainly discussing about rainfall data and
its frequency distribution throughout the year and for the analysis of the rainfall to know variation of its
value across a vast area in a systematic manner, By evaluating the maximum and the range of the
cumulative deviations from the mean, the homogeneity of the data of a time series is tested. using Arc
GIS Ver. 9.2 software and RAINBOW software.
CARBONATION RESISTANCE OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
G Bhanu Prakash, 2Vidya N, Assistant Professor, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, Tirupati,
bhanubec@gmail.com,, vidyancivil@gmail.com,
This study was conducted to investigate the effects of partial replacement of Portland cement (PC) by fly
ash (FA), silica fume (SF) and metakaoilin (MK), as binary and ternary blends, on the carbonation
resistance of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) and its compressive strength development . Carbonation
properties under consideration were evaluated by Accelerated Carbonation Test as per RILEM CPC-18
respectively. For this, an experimental program was planned in which different concrete mixes were
prepared using PC replacement level of 35% by FA in binary mixes. The ternary mixes were also
prepared by replacing FA by 5% and 10% with MK and SF. In all, five SCC mixes were prepared. The
water/binder (w/b) ratio was kept constant at 0.4 and the super plasticizer was used at 1.55% by weight of
cement. To determine compressive strength, for each SCC mix, 8 cubes of size 100 x 100 x 100 mm were
cast for testing at 7 and 28 days of curing. Also, for each mix, 6 cubes of size 100 x 100 x 100 mm were
cast for testing at 28 and 56 days of curing at 2, 4 and 6 weeks of carbon dioxide (CO 2) exposure for
accelerated carbonation test. The compressive strength tests were conducted on a 2000 KN Universal
Testing Machine.
1
Page 400
GEOCHEMICAL PATTERN VARIATIONS USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

TECHNIQUES IN SALEM TALUK
T.M. Thariq Ali, V. Kesavanadhan and K.Syed Mohammed Abrrar
Department of Civil Engineering, Paavai Engineering College,Namakkal,Tamil Nadu, India.
Spatial variations in ground water quality in the corporation area of Salem City located in the Tamil
Nadu, India, have been studied using geographic information system (GIS) technique. GIS, a tool which
is used for storing, analyzing and displaying spatial data is also used for investigating ground water
quality information. For this study, water samples were collected from 40 of the bore wells and open
wells representing the entire corporation area of Three years 2013 to 2015 The water samples were
analyzed
for
physicochemical
parameters
like
Electrical
conductivity,PH,Ca,Mg,Na,k,HCO3,CO3,SO4,Cl,NO3,Totaldissolvedsolids using standard techniques in
the laboratory and compared with the standards. The ground water quality information maps of the entire
study area have been prepared using GIS spatial interpolation technique for all the above parameters. The
results obtained in this study and the spatial database established in GIS will be helpful for monitoring
and managing ground water pollution in the study area. Mapping was coded for potable zones, in the
absence of better alternate source and non-potable zones in the study area, in terms of water quality.
INORGANIC GREEN COATINGS FOR CORROSION PROTECTION OF STEEL IN
CONCRETE
S.Vanathi*and, R.Selvaraj**
* P.G. Student from Shanmuganathan Engineering College, Pudukkottai-622507
E-mail: vanathi.32@gmail.com
Durability of concrete structure is an important issue global wide among civil engineering community.
The major factor responsible for loss of durability and service life is corrosion embedded steel in
concrete. Although several methods are available to prevent corrosion of steel in concrete, application of
coating to steel reinforcement is an effective method of corrosion control in reinforced concrete
structures. In this study twenty inorganic coatings (Geopolymer based) are formulated and coated on
phosphated mild steel plates and rods to evaluate corrosion performance. All relevant coating tests
according to ASTM standards are carried out and presented and best coatings are formed for effective
prevention of corrosion of steel in concrete.
Page 401
ASSESMENT OF LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SAND WITH SILT CONTENT

USING HORIZANTAL SHAKE TABLE
Gautam Kumar1, Dr. P.G. Rakaraddi2, Prof. Anand. M. Hulagabali3
1
PG Geotechnical Engineering Student, BEC, Bagalkot, Karnataka
2
Associate Professor, BEC, Bagalkot, Karnataka
2
Assistant Professor, BEC, Bagalkot, Karnataka
1
gautamraicivil@gmail.com, 3anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Assessment of liquefaction potential is one of the major parameter in order to minimize the ill-effects of
liquefaction. In the present study, shake table is used to simulate the earthquake ground motions and the
motion of structure excited by an earthquake to investigate the factors that influence the liquefaction
resistance of sand mixed with silt content of 20%, 30% and 40%. The settlement of the concrete model
footing resting on saturated sand is examined. A non-flexible light plastic fibre box of size
360mm310mm260mm and walls of the box are 1cm thick placed firmly over the uniaxial shaking table
and isfilled with soil medium by rainfall technique later it is back saturated. The footing model placed
over the foundation medium is subjected to horizontal uniaxial shaking. The number of cycles required to
liquefy and settlement of the footing, deformation of sand bed and variation of pore water pressure were
measured by varying the relative density of the soil medium and amplitude of oscillation. It is observed
that increase in the relative density leads to decrease in the pore water pressure. It is also noticed that
decrease in the pore water pressure with increase in the amplitude of oscillation. A substantial
improvement in liquefaction resistance of the sand bed is observed with the increase in soil density,
inferring that soil densification is a simple technique that can be applied to increase the liquefaction
resistance.
APPLICATION OF EXTENDED MUSKINGUM METHOD FOR FLOOD ROUTING- CASE
STUDY OF MADDUVALASA RESERVOIR, SRIKAKULAM, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA.
R.Srinivasa Rao1 and Dr. CLVRSV Prasad2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, GMR Institute of Technology
2
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMR Institute of Technology
To keep flood flow at the flood control station within the specified safe limit, routing of floods is very
much essential. In the case of Madduvalasa Reservoir, which is constructed across the Nagavali River
basin, India, the inflows to the flood control station are of two types one is controllable reservoir releases
for the spill and the other is uncontrollable which comprises of inflow from lower tributaries and from the
catchment between the reservoir and the flood control station. In this paper an attempt has been done to
examine the applicability of the extended Muskingum method for routing of floods for Madduvalasa
reservoir, Nagavali River Basin India based on the procedure developed by D.Nagesh Kumar et.al.,.
Muskingum model is improved to incorporate multiple sources of inflows and single outflow to route the
flood in the reach. Suitable coefficients for various types of inflows have been derived using Linear
Programming. Presently, the decisions about the operation of gates of Madduvalasa dam are being taken,
once in 12 h during floods. However, three time intervals of 24, 12 and 6 h were examined to test the
sensitivity of the routing time interval on the computed flood flow at the flood control station using 3
years flood data. From this study it has been concluded that mean relative error decreases with decrease
flood routing interval.
Page 402
EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF SUGAR-CANE BAGASSE ASH IN IMPROVING

PROPERTIES OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
Nikita R C, M.Tech Student M.C.E, Hassan
This experimental and analytical study investigates the strength performance of self-compacting concrete
(SCC) using Ordinary Portland Cement, Sugarcane Bagasse Ash and quarry dust. Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
was obtained by burning of Sugarcane and the Bagasse Ash were then grounded until the particles passing
the 150 micron. The disposal of this material is already causing environmental problems around the sugar
factories. Quarry dust was obtained as a by-product in the processing of granite stones, which is broken
down into coarse aggregates of different sizes. A huge shortage is created in most of the construction
materials especially cement and sand. This experimental study conducted to examine the potential of
Bagasse ash as a cement replacing material which is similar to that of Ordinary Portland Cement and
quarry dust as a sand replacing material. Ten different concrete mixes with the Bagasse Ash replacement
of 0%, 10% and 20% to the Ordinary Portland cement and quarry dust replacement of 0%, 30%, 50%, and
70% to the sand were prepared for M30 grade concrete. The properties of these mixes have then been
assessed both at the fresh and hardened state. Durability assessment of SCC by observing changes in
weight loss and compressive strength values for H2SO4 acid solution within the test period .The results of
the present study depicts that up to 20% replacement of the Ordinary Portland Cement by Bagasse ash
and 30% replacement of the sand by quarry dust has achieved a higher compressive strength, split tensile
strength and flexural strength at all test ages of 7, 14, 28, 56 and 91 days.
ADVANCED HEAVE CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR EXPANSIVE SOIL AN OVERVIEW
Bharamagoud M. Badaradinni1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
2
1
bbharamagoud@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
1
A large part of the central India and part of south India is covered with expansive soil. This soil swells
and shrinks due to seasonal variation, when subjected to changes in the moisture regime causing,
substantial distress to the structure built on them. Heavy damages may occur to buildings, roads, runways,
pipelines and other structures built on such soils if proper preventive measures are not adopted. The
various traditional methods used for treatment of expansive soils are lime treatment, Under ream pile
foundation, Prewetting, Pressure injection and installation of moisture barriers. Recent advanced
techniques like Reinforcement with Geopiles, Cement stabilized fly ash, Micro pile technique, Potassium
chloride treatment, Geofoam micropile system are used to control the heave in expansive soil. The
objectives of these techniques is to reduce the Differential free swell, Swelling potential, Swelling
pressure and Differential settlement. This paper represents the review of advanced techniques used to
control heave in expansive soil.
Page 403
EMERGING TRENDS IN GROUND IMPROVEMENT USING GEOSYNTHETICS - AN

OVERVIEW
Jagadish S.Haranatti1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
jagadish.haranatti@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
The soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for supporting structures such as
buildings, Bridges, Highways and dams. So the soil needs to be improved to increase its bearing capacity
and thus its shear strength. To meet this situation, it involves many operations such as reinforcement,
drainage, protection, barrier, filtration and confinement. Recent developments in the field of geotechnical
engineering shown that applications of Geosynthetics for purpose of ground improvement. Geosynthetic
is a planar product manufactured from polymeric material used with soil, rock, earth, or other
geotechnical engineering related material. Geotextiles, Geogrids, Geo membranes, Geo composites,
Geocells, Geo-nets and PVDs are collectively called as Geosynthetics, which have risen from a relatively
minor and specialty product status to a world-wide. The use of Geosynthetics has progressed at a pace
even faster than envisioned by the most enthusiastic supporters of the use of these materials. This review
paper deals with the functions of Geosynthetics such as reinforcement, drainage, barrier, confinement and
erosion control in various fields of geotechnical engineering.
STRENGTHENING OF POST TENSIONED BEAMS WITH EXTERNALLY BONDED
NATURAL SISAL FRP COMPOSITE
Bharath GR, BIT Banglore , bharath.gr.26@gmail.com
Many existing Pre-stressed concrete (PSC) structures across the world are suspected of being unstable to
carry current loads as a result of over load, poor quality of construction methodologies, construction
materials, substandard design, exposure to adverse environment damage due to natural disasters such as
earthquakes and hurricanes, stress loss due to deterioration of structures. Also, it is important for
structural members to have adequate strength and stiffness so as to assure stable performance of
structures. Pre-stressed concrete (PSC) structures are not exception to this. In fact, the PSC beams
designed without proper codal provisions are often characterized by an unsatisfactory structural behavior
due to loss of prestress in strands and lack of strength hierarchy including global failure mechanisms. The
critical regions in the PSC beams are flexure and shear zones, these zones may be strengthened externally
by using Natural Sisal Fiber Reinforced Polymers (NSFRP) wrapping techniques in order to keep
structures operational. In this paper the materials chosen for structural up gradation must, in addition to
functional efficiency and increasing various properties of the structures, fulfill some criterion, for the cause
of sustainability and a better quality. Among the various natural fibres, Sisal fibre reinforced composite is
of particular interest as these composites have high impact strength. Further an additional advantage of
NSFRPs is in the endless ways in which polymers and fibers can be combined in a material to suit the
specific needs of a structure. Use of NSFRPs provides a high structural efficiency, and their low density
makes physical implementation much easier. NFRPs have capacity to alter the failure mode of structural
members from brittle to ductile apart from increasing the load carrying capacity and hence dominate the
field of retrofitting material. In this investigation, four post-tensioned beams are casted as per IS13431980 in that three beam are strengthened by NSFRP in flexure zone of the beam by using different
wrapping technique and another is taken as control beam. In this study the flexural strength, ductility
characteristics and ultimate load carrying capacity of post-tensioned beams are evaluated under two point
loading. The overall view of the present study is to investigate the flexural behavior of post-tensioned
concrete beams wrapped with natural sisal fiber and to enhance the load carrying capacity and increase
the life span of the structure. To study the flexural behavior, crack patterns and deflection of the posttensioned concrete beams using under 2-point loading case and to compare the experimental results of
tested beams with analytical results.
Page 404
APPLICATION OF EPS GEOFOAM IN VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICES - AN

OVERVIEW
Mahesh S.Chabbi1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
maheshchabbi13@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Geofoam is a block or planar rigid cellular foam polymeric material used in civil engineering
applications. It is formed by the expansion of polystyrene resin beads in a moulding process. The block
moulded EPS is unique among geo foam products for large and diverse variety of functional applications
for which it is technically well suited and relatively economical as well as for its proven long term in
ground durability. EPS blocks have density from 15kg/m3 to 22kg/m3 .It is nearly 100 times lighter than
replaced material. The extremely light weight nature of EPS allows for rapid construction without causing
damaging settlements and also reduces the lateral pressure. This paper presents the review on applications
of EPS geo foam in Retaining walls, Embankments, Bridge foundation and Expansive soils for
controlling swelling pressure.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GEOSYNTHETIC ENCASED STONE COLUMNS IN SOFT SOIL
- AN OVERVIEW
Sangamesh S.Konnur1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
konnursangamesh1991@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Stone column is one of the ground improvement techniques for deep soil strata in view of their proven
performance, durability, constructability and low costs. The technique may not be suitable for soft soils
having undrained shear strength less than 20 kPa, because when stone columns installed in extreme soft
soils, the possible squeezing of the stones in to the surrounding soil and intrusion of the clay into the
stone aggregate will result in poor performance of the stone column. In such situations confining the
individual stone columns within a Geosynthetic (Geotextile and Geogrid) encasement would help in
preserving the functions of the stone column as well as improving its strength and stiffness by many
folds. Another advantage of encasement is having high load carrying capacity and lesser settlement of
composite foundation. This paper presents the review on comparative study of Geotextiles and Geogrids
encased stone columns and their behavior on soft soils.
LUBRICATING OIL SPILL MANAGEMENT USING LOTUS LEAVES; EVALUATION OF
KINETICS
Annapurna.S.M 1 Vignesh.V 2 Vinith.P 3
1,2,3
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur, 635109, India, asm2703@gmail.com
vigneshvchemist@gmail.com, vinithchemist@gmail.com
Lubricating oil is one of the more important for any machines to run smoothly. Lubricating oil spillage
may occur in transportation or while using it, which causes serious environmental issues. In this work
lotus leaves were tested for sorption of lubricating oil from synthetic sea water at different parameters like
different adsorbent dosage, time, pH, particle size of lotus leaves and the kinetics of the reaction were
studied. As lotus leaves are oelophilic and super hydrophobic in nature they shown a great ability to
adsorb lubricating oil. The results were shown for a loading of 0.00944 g/l, 0.71mm particle size of lotus
leaves powder at 15 min time and pH of 7 the adsorption level is more than 96%. The adsorption
phenomena follows Langmuir adsorption isotherm which implies the process is chemisorption, the force
of attraction existing between adsorbate and adsorbent are almost same strength of chemical bonds.
Page 405
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE (SCC) WITH

RECYCLED AGGREGATES AND QUARRY DUST: A SOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Dinesh Kumar.R 1& Saravanan.M2
1,2Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, E.S. Engineering College, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu
rdineshkpm@gmail.com
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is a high performance concrete that can flow under its own weight to
completely fill the form work and self-consolidates without any mechanical vibration. Such concrete
reduce the labor requirement needed for consolidation, finishing and environmental pollution. This study
present an experimental investigation of self-compacting concrete with replacement of Quarry Dust (QD)
and Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA) SCC Mix [20% constant (QD) & 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%
(RCA)] & SCC1 Mix [0%, 25%, 50% (QD) & 0%, 25%, 50% (RCA)] and replacing of mineral
admixtures like super plasticizers (SP). After each mix preparation, cubes specimens and cylinders
specimens for SCC Mix and SCC1 Mix are cast and cured. The specimens are cured in water 3, 7, 14 &
28 days. The Slump, V-funnel and L-Box workability test are carried out on the fresh SCC and in harden
concrete compressive strength and split tensile strength values are determined. Attempts have been made
to study the properties of such SCCs and investigate the suitability of Quarry Dust and Recycled Coarse
Aggregate to be used as partial replacement materials for Fine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate in
respectively. The workability characteristics and 3, 7, 14 & 28 day strength of concrete was found to be
gradually decreasing with increase in Quarry Dust and Recycled Coarse Aggregate.
EVALUATION OF ADVANCED TECHNIQUES OF OPTICAL DATA
PROCESSING FOR CROP SIGNATURE STUDIES
1.Gopi P, 2.Lakshmi Sharan S
Anna University, Institute of Remote sensing, Chennai-600 025
gopisri61287@gmail.com, gopisri88@rediffmail.com
The study on Remote Sensing (RS) based Crop signatures Estimation was taken up in Hissar district of
Haryana state. The major objective of this study was to evaluate crop signatures during Kharif season
using Two - date Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) P6 LISS-III digital data of maximum vegetative growth
stage of major crops during Kharif season. The methodology adopted for crop signatures estimation
consisted of: a) Preprocessing of optical RS Data, b) Ground data collection, c) Crop Signature
Generation, d) Supervised Maximum Likelihood (MXL) Classification of the RS data and advanced
classification for Support Vector Machine (SVM), Accuracy Assessment. The interest in crop inventory
through the use of LISS - III is on the rise owing to need for accurate crop discrimination and the
availability of multi temporal data. Till recently, the multi temporal data has been used for crop
discrimination as well as biomass estimation. With the availability of LISS - III data, the differential
response of crop geometry at various crop growth stages is being explored for discrimination and
classification of crops. An attempt has been made in the current study with IRS P6 LISS - III digital data
for crop inventory. The two date data gave comparable results for crops like Moong, Guar, Bhindi,
Fallow, Paddy, Cotton, Water Body and Urban. The satellite data of proper bio-window of the crops was
also not available due to various reasons, therefore, it was observed that, for better crop discrimination
and achieving higher accuracy, satellite data of proper bio-window is very important. This study brings
out the potentials and limitations of RS based crop signatures using Dual-date RS data.
Page 406
UTILIZATION OF POLYMERS FOR IMPROVING THE STRENGTH OF CEMENT

CONCRETE
S.Manikandan
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Shanmuganathan Engineering College,
Pudukkottai (Dt), Tamil Nadu, India, smanikandanme@gmail.com
Polymer as one of the best admixture can improve the property of concrete than the conventional
concrete. In this project High Density Poly-Ethylene (HDPE) and Poly-Propylene (PP) virgin locally
available polymers were used as an admixture with cement concrete composites. These two different
types of polymers are used at different dosages to modify the cement concrete mix. The various
mechanical properties like workability, compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength
of polymer modified concrete (both HDPE and PP) have been studied. Besides, a series of tests without
modification was carried out. In addition, a comparative study has been carried out to highlight the effect
of two different polymers on fresh and hardened properties of polymer modified concrete. The results
obtained from experimental investigations and thus are optimistic for partial addition of polymer with
conventional cement concrete up to 10% which enhances the compressive strength, split tensile strength
and flexural strength values nearly 50 %, 35 % and 45 % respectively over conventional one.
FRESH AND HARDENED PROPERTIES OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE AS

INFLUENCED BY AGRO-WASTE: A REVIEW
Manjula.V Asst. Prof, Civil Department, Dr.M.G.R. Educational and Research Institute
Chennai.
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is an innovative concrete which can flow into every corner of congested
reinforcement purely by its self-weight without any segregation. The hardened SCC is dense,
homogenous and has better surface finish. The mechanical and durable properties are similar or superior
to those of equivalent conventional concrete. To achieve the flow ability and cohesiveness, SCC mix has
to be produced with high cementations and low aggregate content. But the formation of cement depletes
the natural resources and releases a large amount of carbon dioxide gas. Finding a replacement for cement
and mineral additive is inevitable to assure sustainability. The rice husk ash is an agro waste from paddy
mills used for parboiling paddy that can be used as an admixture in concrete if the rice husk is burnt in a
controlled manner. This paper is based on the comprehensive review of available literature on the effect
on the fresh and hardened properties of SCC incorporation of RHA. The rice husk ash is a highly
siliceous material and the silica content must be kept at a non crystalline state in order to produce an ash
with high pozzolanic activity. The pozzolanic properties improve the strength of concrete and its fineness
enhances the workability of SCC. The experimental investigations of different percentages of RHA of
water powder ratios are evaluated. The rheological, strength and durable properties of SCC are studied.
The main aim of this review paper is to obtain the suitable percentage of RHA as cement replacing
material. (CRM). .Based on the available literature documents it can be concluded that RHA could be
used as CRM up to certain limit without compromising the strength of concrete. The addition of RHA
decreases the density by 72-75% and reduces the water absorption of SCC. Proper consumption of rice
husk ash in concrete industry contributes in solving environment pollution and to produce cost effective
and sustainable self-compacting concrete.
Page 407
BEHAVIOUR OF PARTIALLY CLOSED STIFFENED COLD FORMED STEEL COLUMN

N.Arun, PG student, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology, Namakkal.
This project aims to present and discuss the ultimate strength and buckling behaviour of the pin ended
cold-formed steel lipped channel columns with intermediate web stiffeners with and without lateral
stiffeners under axial compression is reported on this project. This paper describes the results obtained
from a finite element investigation into the load capacity and behaviour of column members of stiffened
cold-formed steel complex section subjected to axial compression loading. The finite element analysis is
carried out using ANSYS software package, material and geometric non-linearity is incorporated in the
finite element model. The section properties and length of the sections are predicted by performing finite
strip elastic buckling analysis using CUFSM software. Initially, the results obtained from the developed
finite element model are validated with the experimental tests carried out by Young Bong et al (2009) and
Yap et al (2011). Verifications show that the model can predict the ultimate strength and behaviour of
stiffened cold-formed steel complex section. Therefore, the verified finite element model is then used for
the parametric study to identify the factors affecting the strength and behaviour of stiffened cold-formed
steel complex section such as varying the width and depth of the section, size of intermediate and edge
stiffeners, length and thickness of the section and a variety of yield stresses. Finally, the results obtained
from the finite element analysis compares with design strength calculated by using the direct strength
method as described in North American Iron and Steel Institute Specifications for cold-formed steel
structures and new modifications for dealing with this are made.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON BEHAVIOUR OF DOUBLE SKINNED CIRCULAR CONCRETE

FILLED STEEL TUBE COLUMNS
K.S.Deepan Raj1 & S. Balaji2 1 PG student, 2 Professor, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology,
Namakkal.
Columns are considered as critical members in moment-resisting structural systems. Their failure may
lead to a partial or even a total collapse of the whole structure. Therefore, it is important to improve the
ductile deformation capacity and energy dissipation capacity of columns so that the entire structure can
endure severe ground motions and dissipate a considerable amount of energy. In recent years, composite
concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST) have become increasingly popular as columns in braced and unbraced
frames. Double-skinned CFST columns have some advantages over single-skinned CFST columns. From
a structural point of view, double-skinned CFST columns have higher uni-axial strength, bending
stiffness, moment capacity, better ductility and excellent seismic performance. From a cost-effectiveness
of point of view, the inner and outer steel tubes act as formwork for concrete placing, which reduces the
construction cost and cycle time. From an environmental point of view, steel is more recyclable than
concrete, so less demolition waste would be produced. Column which has two steel tubes, with the
smaller steel tube located concentrically inside the bigger steel tube and with the annulus between these
tubes filled up with concrete, is known as double-skinned CFST columns. Consequently, the central part
of concrete can be effectively replaced by a hollow steel tube of much lighter self-weight, while at the
same time maintaining a similar uni-axial, bending and torsion capacity. DSCFST columns are the higher
strength to weight ratios.
Page 408
STUDY ON UTILIZATION OF ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES

R Jagadeesan a,V Jagadish b, S Senthil Kumar c
a
Assistant Professor, K.S Rangasamy College of Technology ,Namakkal, Tamil Nadu
b
PG Student K.S Rangasamy College of Technology, Namakkal , Tamil Nadu
c
Professor KSR College of Technology, Namakkal , Tamil Nadu
Email: jagadeesan@ksrct.ac.in, jagadishcivilrmk@gmail.com
In the current scenario, the disposal problem of industrial by-products like fly ash, steel slag etc. has
become an environmental issue. In now a days there are so many construction materials are available in
the development of concrete. Of these artificial aggregates are widely used. Artificial aggregate can be
made out of these materials that are considered waste and pollutants of environment. Consequently the
production of artificial aggregates solves two problems generally prevent environment form pollutant and
reduces depletion of the natural material. These aggregates can be used for various applications such as
wall panels, masonry blocks ...etc. This study mainly focuses on manufacturing process of artificial
aggregates using pelletizer method under the ratio of 1:1 for aggregates manufactured The artificial
aggregates are prepared by using steel slag and pond ash.. The strength property of artificial aggregates is
studied. And also the property of the material are tested and compared with natural aggregates .The ratio
proportion of concrete varies 20%, 40%.....100% percentage. The conventional aggregate concrete mix
has been designed for M20 grade concrete using IS method.
GROUND WATER POLLUTION IN VEDASANDUR BLOCK DINDIGUL TALUK, USING
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS.
M.Periyasamy1, Dr. P.Sureshkumar2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Roever Engineering College, Perambalur.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering, Ariyalur.
Urbanization on account of demographic and economic growth leads to the wide variety of environmental
problems. The supply of infrastructure cannot cope with the demand placed by urban development. it
results inadequacy of urban infrastructure, which leads to degradation of the quality of natural resources
such as air, water, land, vegetation . In addition the industrial pollution in large cities causes effects to
human life. The present study is aimed to analyze the ground water pollution in Vedasandur block
Dindigul taluk using remote sensing and GIS. In dindigul district had on more number of leather
industries. The leather industries waste water is introduced in the surface water. So the surface water
polluted in the leather chemicals. Twenty samples were collected in different locations around the leather
industries. This study was analyzed in the following water quality parameters by adopting standing
procedure. (i) PH, (ii) Turbidity, (iii) Calcium, (iv) Magnesium, (v) Iron, (vi) Chlorides, (vii) Sulphates,
(viii) Nitrates (ix) Fluoride, (x) Total hardness. Ground water quality map has been prepared using Arc
GIS 9.1. The quality of ground water parameter is evaluated considering suitability of water for drinking
and agriculture purpose by using IDW (Inverse Distance Weighted) technique. The map reveals that out
of 25 ground water samples, more than 50% of ground water samples from this study area falls under
poor category around leather industries.
Page 409
ANALYSIS FOR DEVELOPMENT ON DEFERMENT CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

Chalapati Sreenath1, R. Vinod Kumar2
1and 2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, A.
Rangampet, Tirupati
Construction delays can be defined as the late completion of work compared to the planned schedule or
contract schedule. Delays are one of the biggest problems construction firms face. Delays can lead to
many negative effects such as lawsuits between owners and contractors, increased costs, loss of
productivity and revenue, and contract termination. Construction delays can be minimized only when
their cause are identified. The objective of this study was to identify the major causes of construction
delays, and analysis of delays, and methods of minimizing construction delays. This study was carried out
based on literature review and a questionnaire survey. A total of seven factors are cause of construction
delays. The questionnaire survey was distributed to the target respondents. The objectives of the study
were successfully achieved. Time and cost overrun were the common effects of delays in construction
projects. To minimize delays in construction projects it has been identified that first to find what are the
main causes of delays and impact of delays. Projects can be delayed for a large number of reasons. The
reasons are related to the various types of uncertainty associated with activities during the construction
process. The level of importance of the delay variables and the groups were computed and identified
critical causes and giving recommendations how to overcome delays.
STABILIZATION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS USING MARBLE TAILINGS
C.Prashanth Kumar,ACE Engineering College prashanthkumar911@gmail.com,
Expansive soils occurring in arid and semi-arid climate regions of the world cause serious problems on
civil engineering structures. Such soils swell when given an access to water and shrink when they dry out.
Several attempts are being made to control the swell-shrink behaviour of these soils. Soil stabilization
using chemical admixtures is the oldest and most widespread method of ground improvement.
In this study, waste material such as marble tailings, by-product of marble industry, were used for
stabilization of expansive soils. The expansive soil is collected from a site at Armoor, Nizamabad District.
Waste marble tailings was added to the expansive soil with predetermined percentage varying from 0 to
30 percent. Grain size distribution, consistency limits, chemical and mineralogical composition, swelling
percentage, and rate of swell were determined for the samples.
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF GRID FLOOR SLABS
Goutham D.R., Dr.K.Manjunath
M.Tech student, M.C.E.,Hassan, Head of the Civil Engineering department, M.C.E.,Hassan.
goutham.dr03@gmail.com
Reliability Analysis in Limit State of Flexure, Shear & Deflection for Square and Rectangular grid slabs
have been evaluated with varying rib width and for different grades of concrete and characteristic strength
of the steel. Monte Carlo simulation technique and Advanced First Order Second Moment (AFOSM) also
known as Fisselers Algorithm method was employed in the evaluation procedure for both square and
rectangular grid slabs. The variables relating to geometry, material properties and loading are considered
as random. The study investigates the reliability index and probability of failure of the grid slabs and
plotting of the Histogram and probability distribution curve. Timoshenko plate theory was used for
deterministic approach. Grid slab was modelled using ETABS software and the values of moment, shear
& deflection at various points of the grid are taken for probabilistic evaluation. The entire reliability
analysis was implemented through developing a program in MATLAB software.
Page 410
UTILIZATION OF STEEL SLAG IN CONCRETE AS A PARTIAL REPLACEMENT FOR FINE

AGGREGATES
Amiya Akram1, K.Narasimhulu2and K. Mehraj Pasha3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam- 517425
2
Professor and Head Department of Civil Engineering, Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam- 517425
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities and Sciences, Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam517425
Utilization of waste materials and industrial by-products is a sustainable solution to environmental

and ecological problems. Use of such materials makes their reutilization in cement, concrete and other
construction materials, and also reduces the cost of cement and concrete manufacturing. Other
indirect benefits include reduction in landfill cost, energy saving and reduction in solid waste. Slag is a
byproduct of metal smelting and hundreds of tons of it are produced every year all over the world in the
process of refining metals and making alloys. Recent studies recommend applications of non-traditional
materials, like industrial by-products and/or non-hazardous waste in construction, especially in road
construction in industrialized and developing countries. In this experimental investigation an attempt is
made to study the effect of partial replacement of fine aggregate by steel slag in the mechanical properties
of M 20 grade concrete. This work relates the use of steel slag; a locally available waste material used as
fine aggregates in M 20 grade of concrete and recommends the approval of the material for use in
concrete as a replacement for fine aggregates.
ADVANCED IMPROVEMENTS IN DYNAMIC COMPACTION TECHNIQUE USED FOR

GROUND IMPROVEMENT AN OVERVIEW
Prashant I.Hiremath1, Anand M.Hulagabali2
1
2
1
prashanthgkk15@gmail.com, 2anandmhulagabali@gmail.com
Dynamic compaction is a well known and effective method in ground improvement. Dynamic
compaction technique was invented more than 40 years ago. In the early days of dynamic compaction
heavy duty cranes with efficient lift capacities were limited to about 150kN, However it soon became
possible to lift heavier pounders using specially designed and manufactured rigs or tripod. More recently
an innovative and patented pounder release mechanism called MARS (Menard Accelerated Release
System) has been developed. This system is capable of dropping pounders weighing up to 35 tons in free
fall and automatically reconnecting to the pounder. Some other improvements in the dynamic compaction
techniques are Rapid Impact Compactors and Monitoring of ground vibrations induced by Dynamic
Compaction technique as well as Rapid Impact Compaction technique. Recent improvement in dynamic
compaction is application of CPTU (Piezocone Penetration Test) for control of compaction on hydraulic
fill.
Page 411

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International Conference

Infrastructure Development for

SERB, Department of Science &Technology, Government of India

Infrastructure Development for Environmental Conservation & Sustenance

Copyright 2015 Editors

Department of Civil Engineering

Dr. M.G.R Nagar, Hosur,

This book or any part of thereof, may not be reproduced

Cover page design by: Mr.D.A.Ananth, Indigo Multimedia

academicians,researchers,industries, architects, and all other alike quarters of the

DR. S. Suresh Babu

Sustainability Outlook 2030: A Case Study of Israel,

Coal and Sustainable Development

Assessing Sustainability of Ground Improvement Methods: Quantitative Triple Bottom

Transport of Heavy Metal Ions Through Soils

Geosynthetics for Ground Improvement

Seismic Behavior of RC Frames with various Masonry In-Fill Configurations

Compressibility and Chemical Compatibility of Clayey Soil-Bentonite Backfills for

Stability Aspects Performance of Non Perforated vs Perforated Quarter Circle

Role of Structural Engineers in Sustainable Construction

Ranjith Dissanayake and Chaminda Bandara

Shortterm shoreline changes along Karnataka coast, India: A Geospatial

Traffic congestion study for Coimbatore district

Prioritization of Erosion Potential Area through Morphometric Analysis in

Evaluation of Water Quality Index For Surface and

Hydrologic Analysis of Watershed Using

Groundwater Prospectus Map for Kolar Taluk Subwatersheds,

Subsurface Waters In Urban

Performance Of Geopolymer Concrete In Acidic Environment,

Shankar H. Sanni , Dr. R. B. Khadiranaikar

Light Weight Flyash Aggregate Concrete - An Environmental Friendly

Experimental Investigation On Behaviour Of Steel Concrete Composite

Effect Of Fibre Reinforcement On Strength And Stiffness Improvement Of

Behavior Of Circular Footing Resting On Reinforced Sand,

Seismic evaluation and retrofitting of reinforced concrete buildings,

Construction Accidents Indian Scenario,

Ecological Behaviour Of Washbowl From Discarded Printed Circuit Board,

Sustainable transporation planning is key to emissions and energy conservation ,

Slope stability analysis by finite element approach,

Simulation modeling of sustainable infrastructure development in PERI urban

Reliability Analysis of Post Tensioned PSC Girders Designed As Per IS

Effect Of Number Of Loading Cycles On Dynamic Properties Of Solani River

Concrete Performance With Admixtures Of Fly Ash And Copper Slag

Experimental study on stress-strain behaviour of masonry prism with different

Experimental investigation of the combined load response of model piles driven

Non-destructive testing of thin elements using impact echo method,

A Review On Characterization And Application Of Fly Ash Zeolites,

De-fluoridation using tea residue,

Solubilisation Of Metals From E-Waste Using Penicillium Chrysogenum Under

Behavior Of Single Pile In Horizontal And Sloping Ground Under Combined

Experimental investigation on strength and fire resistance of high performance

An experimental study on concrete using selected waste materials as partial

Influence of clay minerals on bituminous mix,

Performance Of Masonry Wall Composites With Natural Fibers,

Investigation On Conductive Concrete Compositions,

Durability Studies On Raw And Calcined Clay Based Geopolymer Concrete,

Rapid Chloride Permeability Test On granite Powder Concrete,

Mechanical And Durability Properties Of Concrete Using M-Sand As Fine

Experimental Investigation Of Hpc Using Metakaolin And Flyash With Partial

Feasibility Study Of Coir Fiber With Coir Pith, As Concrete Reinforcement

A Study On Replacement Of Natural Sand By Blends Of Flyash And Bottom

GEMBA KAIZEN- A New Management Tool for Construction Industry

SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK 2030: A CASE STUDY OF ISRAEL

create and harness opportunities and minimize