Choudhury - Estrope Bio Research Paper

Effect of Temperature and Pre-Soaking Time on the Growth of Raphanus Sativus
Tahrim Choudhury - Jillian Estrope

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center
Biology 1
Section 9B
Mr. Estapa/Mr.Acre/Mrs. Gravel
28 May 2014
Choudhury - Estrope 2
Introduction
According to studies, every 3.6 seconds, a person dies from hunger. Seventy-five percent
of those deaths belong to children (Overpopulation: Food Crisis). This is due to an overgrowth
of the Earths population, especially in developing countries. If there was a way to maximize the
production of food, the number of deaths could be minimized. An economical way of possibly
maximizing food production is to figure out ways to grow crops by using a moderate amount of
water and temperature and ensure that the amounts of these are set so that the crops will grow
efficiently. Before finding these optimum values, some background information about world
hunger and population growth should be acquired.
To fully understand the importance of efficiently growing plants, the immense topic of
world hunger has to be addressed. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization, an estimated 870 million people between 2010-2012 were suffering from chronic
undernourishment (2013 World Hunger).
Children are the most recognized of the malnourishment, presumably because
malnourishment is one of the causes of 5 million deaths of children every year. Malnourishment
leads to reduced physical and mental development. For example, it can cause children to be
stunted. According to SCNs World Nutrition Situation 5th Report, stunting affects more than
147 million pre-schoolers in developing countries.
Approximately 852 million of the 870 million malnourished represented 15% of the
population of developing countries. This is because poverty is the main cause of hunger.
Although the world produces enough food to feed everyone, it is not equally distributed and most
developing countries lack the resources and land needed to produce their own food. They also
cannot afford to purchase food.
The exponentially growing population contributes greatly to the scarcity of food on this
planet. The worlds population will grow to an estimated 9 billion by the year 2050, and it will
require about 60% more food to be produced to fit all of the demands. At this rate, a faster way to
produce food is required or the number of yearly deaths due to hunger will increase greatly.
There may be a solution to producing food at a more efficient rate, therefore decreasing
world hunger and death to malnutrition and undernutrition. To increase the growing rates of a
plant, seeds would have to be pre-soaked in water and grown at a specific temperature. In this
particular experiment, the growth of Raphunus sativus seeds were used as the response variable.
It was chosen because it is easily attainable and can grow at a wide range of temperatures. The
independent variables were chosen to be temperature and pre-soaking the radish seeds.
Temperature was one of the two independent variables chosen for this experiment. This
factor was chosen because temperature is one of the main necessities of all plants. Each plant has
a set of boundaries that it can germinate and grow in, and the optimum temperature must be
chosen to maximize the speed of the growth. This experiment showed which temperature causes
the most growth specifically in radish seeds. The boundaries for this plant are about 4 C to 35
C (AZ Master Gardener). Therefore, the low and high temperatures for this experiment were
chosen.
Pre-soaking in water was the second independent variable chosen in this experiment. That
factor would hasten the process of germination. Germination is the process prior to sprouting in
which a seed awakens from dormancy. Dormancy ends in the protrusion of a seeds roots and
begins the growth of the plant ("What Is Germination?"). Breaking the dormancy can be done in
a numerous amount of ways by changing external factors. Pre-soaking was one of the
possibilities. Soaking the seeds prior to planting would break the protective casing of the seed
and allow germination to occur. Pre-soaking the seeds in water was also chosen because water is
more available to developing countries than plant growth hormones would be.
If the solution of such a huge problem such as world hunger could be solved with a
simple experiment, the world would be changed forever. A downscaled version of this has been
carried out and showed that changing the world is possible. Like Vincent Van Gogh once said,
Great things are done by a series of small things brought together.
Problem Statement
Problem:
The effect of temperature in Celsius and pre-soaking time in hours on the growth of
Raphanus sativus seeds to be measured in millimeters over a 4 day growing period.
Hypothesis:
If the temperature is higher and there is more soaking time, then the Raphanus sativus
roots will grow the longest.
Data Measured:
The independent variables were temperature (Celsius) and pre-soaking time in water
(hours). The dependent variable was how long the seeds roots grew over a 4 day period. This is
observed by measuring the length of the seeds roots at the end of the 4 day period, in
millimeters. Three trials were performed for each group.
Experimental Design
Materials:
(204) Raphanus sativus (radish) seeds
(2) 300 ml Plastic cups
(1) Whirlpool Designer Style refrigerator (6 C)
(1) Imperial III incubator (36 C)
(1) 700 ml Spray bottle
(1) Ruler (mm)
(15) Paper towels

Tap water
(1) AcuRite thermometer (C)
(15) Ziploc quart size storage bags
(1) Black sharpie
Procedure:
Pre-Soaking
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Label the cups Cup 1 and Cup 2 using black Sharpie.

Fill both cups with 100 ml water.
Place 8 seeds in Cup 1 and 30 seeds in Cup 2.
Leave both cups aside for seeds to soak.
Take the seeds out of Cup 1 after 4 hours.
Let Cup 2 sit for 8 hours.
Take the seeds out of Cup 2.
Growing
8.
Using the Sharpie, label a Ziploc bag with the researchers names, the date, class, and
Standard.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Place a paper towel on the lab surface.

Fold the towel by of the size.
Place the seeds from Cup 1 onto a piece of paper towel, about 3 cm away from each other.
Fold the paper towel around the seeds to avoid having them fall out.
Spray water 7 times onto the paper towel using the spray bottle.
Place the paper towel into the Ziploc bag and close it.
Using the Sharpie, label a Ziploc bag with the researchers names, the date, class, and +,+.
Fold paper towel by of the size.
Place 15 seeds from Cup 2 onto a piece of paper towel, about 3 cm away from each other.
Fold the paper towel around the seeds to avoid them from falling out.
Using the Sharpie, label a Ziploc bag with the researchers names, the date, class, and -,+.
Place 15 seeds from Cup 2 onto a piece of paper towel, about 3 cm away from each other.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Using the Sharpie, label a Ziploc bag with the researchers names, the date, class, and -,-.
Place 15 seeds that havent been soaked onto a piece of paper towel, about 3 cm away from each
other.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Using the Sharpie, label a Ziploc bag with the researchers names, the date, class, and +,-.
Place 15 unsoaked seeds from the package onto a piece of paper towel, about 3 cm away from
each other.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
Using the Sharpie, label a Ziploc bag with the researchers names, the date, class, and +,-.
Place 15 unsoaked seeds from the package onto a piece of paper towel, about 3 cm away from
each other.
48.
49.
50.
Trials
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
Place the bag labeled as Standard in a safe area.

Place the bag labeled as +,+ in an incubator set to 36 C.
Place the bag labeled as +,- in the same incubator set to 36 C.
Place the bag labeled as -,- in a refrigerator set to 6C.
Place the bag labeled as -,+ in the same refrigerator set to 6 C.
Allow 4 days to pass, but check for progress every 24 hours.
Collect all the bags from where they were placed.
Open each bag and unravel the paper towels. Caution: Seeds may fall out if not done carefully.
Measure the germinated seeds with the ruler, in millimeters, and record data respectively.
Throw away the paper towel and seeds, do not reuse these for other trials.
61.
Repeat all steps for 2 more trials.
Data and Observations
Data:
Table 1
Design of Experiment Values
Table 1 above shows the design of experiment values that were used. The standard value
for temperature was determined by doing some online research and finding the most common
room temperature. The standard value for pre-soaking time was determined by estimating how
longs seeds would soak on an average rainy day. To prepare these values, a refrigerator and
incubator were set to the appropriate temperatures while different cups were set for each amount
of pre-soaking time (see steps 1-7 in Procedure).
Table 2
Two-Factor DOE
Table 2 above shows all of the DOEs that were completed. These are all of the outcomes
for the trials in this experiment, along with their averages.
Observations:
Table 3
Observations
Date
Observations
3/11/2014
Standard and (+,+) have some grown at about 1-2

mm.
(+,-) has some grown at about 1 mm.
(-,+), and (-,-) have not germinated.
3/12/2014
Standard and (+,+) have many grown at about 5-8

mm. (+,-) has many grown at about 3-7 mm.
(-,+) has some grown at about 1 mm.
(-,-) has not germinated.
3/13/2014
Standard has all grown at about 12-18 mm.

(+,+) has all grown at about 10-16 mm.
(+,-) has most grown at about 9-11 mm.
(-,+) has many grown at about 1-2 mm.
(-,-) has some grown at about 1 mm.
3/14/2014

(-,+) has most grown at about 2-3 mm.
3/18/2014
Standard and (+,+) have some grown at about 2-3

mm. (+,-) has some grown at about 1 mm.
(-,+) and (-,-) have not germinated.
3/19/2014
Standard and (+,+) have many grown at about 7-9

mm. (+,-) has many grown at about 2-3 mm.
(-,+) has some grown at about 1 mm.
(-,-) has not germinated.
3/20/2014

(-,+) has many grown at about 1 mm.
Data
Observations
3/21/2014

(-,+) has many grown at about 1-2 mm.
(-,-) has some grown at about 1-2 mm.
3/25/2014
Standard has some grown at about 2-4 mm.

(+,+) has some grown at about 2-3 mm.
(+,-) has some grown at about 1 mm.
3/26/2014
Standard has many grown at about 6-11 mm.

(+,+) has many grown at about 5-8 mm.
(+,-) has many grown at about 3-7 mm.
3/27/2014

(-,+) and (-,-) have some grown at about 1 mm.
3/28/2014

(-,+) and (-,-) have some grown at about 2-3 mm.
Table 3 above shows all of the observations recorded during the experiment. It consists of
approximate growth measurements in mm of each group per day.
Figure 1. Radish Seed Sample

Figure 1 above shows an example of what the radish seeds growth in the (-,-) group
looked like after four days in Trial 1. It can be seen that the length of the germinated root is 2
mm and is being measured with a ruler in mm. The length of the germinated seed root changed
with different combinations of the effect variables. When all the trials were done, it was seen that
all of the corresponding groups had similar outcomes.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Table 4
Factors Used in Experiment
Table 4 shows the factors that were chosen to see how they affected the growth of
Raphunus sativus roots (mm). The temperature (C) and pre-soaking time in water (hours) were
used as the two factors. The tables show the lows, highs, and standards for each factor. The
temperatures used include: 6 C (low), 21 C (standard), and 36 C (high). The amount of presoaking time include: 0 hours (low), 4 hours (standard), and 8 hours (high). The standard for
temperature was chosen by doing some research and finding the optimal room temperature,
while the high and low values were chosen by looking at the maximum and minimum growing
temperatures for radish seeds. The standard for pre-soaking time was chosen by taking into
account how long seeds would soak on the average rainy day, and the high and low values were
chosen from how long seeds would soak on a day with lots of rain and a day without any rain.
Pre-soaking the seeds also affects their dormancy which allows them to germinate quicker.
Table 5
Average Lengths of Seeds Data
Table 5 shows the results for the length of seeds using each combination of temperature
and pre-soaking time. It also shows the averages of all the combinations of the two factors. To
find the grand average, all four averages were added together and divided by four. In this
particular experiment, the grand average was 6
61
180
mm.
Table 6
Effect of Temperature
Figure 2. Effect of Temperature

Table 6 and Figure 2 show that on average, as temperature increases, the average length
of the radish seeds increases by 11
were an average length of 12
average length of
53
90
4
45
1
2
mm. When the high temperature was used, the seeds
mm. When the low temperature was used, the seeds were an
mm. The effect of temperature was found by subtracting the low value,
53
4
1
, from the high value, 12
. With the effect value being 11
, it can be seen that
90
45
2
this variable had a lot of influence on the outcome of the radish root length.
Table 7
Effect of Pre-Soaking Time in Water
Figure 3. Effect of Pre-Soaking Time in Water

Table 7 and Figure 3 show that on average, as the amount of pre-soaking time in water
increases, the average length of the seeds increases by 4
longer, they were an average length of 8
an average length of 4
low value, 4
11
45
13
30
17
90
mm. When seeds were soaked
mm. When the seeds were not soaked, they were
mm. The effect of pre-soaking time was found by subtracting the
11
13
17
, from the high value, 8
. With the effect value being 4
, it can be
45
30
90
seen that this variable had a little influence on the outcome of the radish root length.
Table 8
Interaction Effect
Table 8 compares the total averages of temperature and pre-soaking time when they
interact with each other.
Figure 4. Interaction of Temperature and Pre-Soaking Time

Figure 4 shows the interaction effect between temperature and pre-soaking time. While
the solid segment represents the high temperature, the dotted segment represents the low
temperature. The slope of the solid segment is 3
37
. The slope of the dotted segment is
45
11
30
. The interaction effect is found with those two values. It is found by subtracting the slopes of the
41
dashed segment from the solid segment. In this case, the interaction effect is 3
. Although
90
because the segments did not cross, it appeared that there was no interaction.
When the temperature was high, on its own (use Figure 2 as reference), seeds were
4
45
expected to grow 12
mm on average. When looking at the solid segment, notice that when
4
15
pre-soaking time is low, the high temperature causes seeds to grow 8
mm on average,
which was lower than expected. When pre-soaking time is high, seeds grow 15
41
45
mm on
average, which was higher than expected.

When the temperature was low, on its own (use Figure 2 as reference), seeds were
expected to grow
53
90
mm on average. When looking at the dotted segment, notice that when
pre-soaking time is low, the low temperature causes seeds to grow
2
9
was higher than expected. When pre-soaking time is high, seeds grow
which was higher than expected.
mm on average, which
43
45
mm on average,
Figure 5. Standards Plot

Figure 5 shows the average lengths of 15 seeds when the standard amount of the two
factors are used. The standards show the consistency of the data. The results show that the range
of standards was 2
1
2
mm. There were no major differences between them. It can be concluded
that the experiment was done relatively the same for each trial.
Y =6
61
3
+5 ( T )+noise
180 4
Figure 6. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 6 is the parsimonious prediction equation. It is basically the same as the prediction
equation but only uses the significant effects. In this case, temperature was the most significant.
Y =6
61
3 1
+ 5 ( )+ noise
180
4 2
Y =9
77
360
Figure 7. Parsimonious Prediction
77
Figure 7 shows the parsimonious prediction; a prediction of 9
mm. The
360
significant effect of temperature was chosen because it was the only effect that was outside of the
doubled range of standards (shown in Figure 5). Here, (
1
) was inserted into the equation for
2
the temperature variable. That means that if the experiment were redone, the temperature used
would be 28
1
2
C, which is halfway between the standard and high temperature, it would be
expected that seeds would grow 9
77
360
mm on average.
Figure 8. Dot Plot of Effects

Figure 8 shows the effects of temperature (T), pre-soaking time (S), and their interaction
(TS). A dot plot of effects is used to determine the significant effects. The significant effects were
found by doubling the range of standards (2
1
2
into 5) and seeing which effects crossed these
borders. It can be seen here that temperature (T) is the only variable that passed the borders.
Based on the results of the experiment, each of the factors have somewhat of an effect,
with temperature being the most significant. This is probably because radishes have a large range
of temperatures they can grow in (7 C-35 C). Depending on the temperature, the growing rates
will vary. While most plants can thrive in a cooler temperatures, it causes the duration of the
process to last longer. Also, by having the temperature being too hot, the seeds would not have
enough water due to evaporation and will cause them to wither and die. Finding the ideal
growing temperature for a specific type of seed is essential if an individual wanted it to grow
healthy and quickly. Pre-soaking the seeds in water also had a little bit of an effect because
soaking helps to stop a seeds dormancy, which in turn allows it to germinate faster and grow.
Conclusion
The original hypothesis stated that if the temperature was higher and there was more
soaking time, then the Raphanus sativus roots would grow the longest. This hypothesis was
accepted. This is because both cases show that when pre-soaking time is high, the average length
of seeds increases.When there is a high temperature and the pre-soaking time is low, the average
length of seeds decreases, but when there is a high temperature and the pre-soaking time is high,
the average length of seeds increases.
Based on the results of the experiment, each of the factors have somewhat of an effect,
with temperature being the most significant (refer to Figure 8). This is probably because radishes
have a large range of temperatures that they can grow in (7 C-35 C). Depending on the
temperature, the growing rates will vary. While most plants can thrive in cooler temperatures, it
causes the duration of the process to last longer. Also, by having the temperature being too hot,
the seeds would not have enough water due to evaporation, causing them to wither and die.
Finding the ideal growing temperature for a specific type of seed is essential if an individual
wanted it to grow healthily and quickly. Pre-soaking the seeds in water also had a little bit of an
effect because soaking helped to stop the seeds dormancy. Dormancy is a period in which the
seed is unable to germinate, due to external factors such as temperature, moisture levels, oxygen,
and levels of light. In turn, pre-soaking allows the seed to germinate faster and grow. This would
lead to finding a cheaper and more efficient way to make plants grow faster, which was the initial
purpose of this experiment.
While there were other factors that could increase the rates of plant growth, pre-soaking
time in water and temperature seemed like the more efficient and cheaper approach. The factors
were helped determined by previous experiments made. One researcher tested the effect of
temperature on the germination and growing rates on radish seeds and proved that it did indeed
have a significant effect. Their results showed that the temperature caused one seed to thrive
while an identical one remained dormant for about two weeks (Olshan, The Effects). Another
researcher was able to conclude that soaking seeds prior to sowing helps end their dormancy and
allow growth to begin. They also found out that it was possible to over soak the seeds and that
the amount of pre-soaking time varied per type of seed (Pre-Soaking Your Seeds).
There were a few flaws to the design of this experiment. One of them was the fact that
the lighting of the places where the seeds were stored was not controlled. The amount of light
that the seeds were exposed to might have had an effect on the growth and germination of them.
Also, instead of using tap water to water the seeds, distilled water may have been a superior
choice. There may have been chemicals in the tap water that could influence the growth and
germination of the seeds. Another flaw was that the boundaries of temperatures used could have
been closer. The low value could have been higher and the high value could have been lower.
This flaw was recognized when some of the seeds ended up burning or not growing at all due to
the cold. Lastly, for this experiment, a different type of seed could have been used, preferably
one of a more common food. The results with those seeds could overall help the world more in
the end.
There were also a few errors made in this experiment. The biggest mistake would
probably be the measuring of the roots. After the radish seeds germinated, the roots were not
completely straight. They curled and twisted. This means that the measurements of the root
length may not have been one hundred percent accurate. It was very difficult to measure the
lengths of the roots without harming or breaking them. Also, another mistake may have been the
fluctuation of temperatures. For example, the room temperature may not have always been the
same measure as the one required for the experiment, which could have affected the data. The
same goes for the incubator, which was seen fluctuating about one to two degrees both above and
below the required amount. Nevertheless, these minor issues were worked through and the most
accurate data possible was collected.
Although there were flaws and errors made, this experiment was not all for naught. As
simple as it may be, it contributes to the scientific world. In the future, there could be many
adaptations and discoveries from this type of experiment that could benefit the world as a whole.
As the population grows, finding a simple and efficient approach to increase plant growth rates
becomes crucial. Because this experiment was not perfect, further research on the topic could
develop a procedure to do so. To improve the original procedure, future researchers could
broaden the types of seeds they use. There are many various types of crops that people consume
and each type of seed grows at a different rate and temperature. Obviously not all seeds can grow
in the same area as well. Depending on what type they are, the seeds should be grown in
different climates that suit them.
To conclude, many achievements were made and lots of knowledge was acquired while
conducting this research. A simple subject such as increasing plant growth in an economical way
could lead to an evasion of a disaster. Creating an economical procedure to increase plant growth
would not only help to avert worldwide hunger, it would help economies too. Farmers of any
kind would be able to grow and sell crops for a cheaper price, because the crops were grown
more efficiently. For example, a farmer that grows corn could use this experiments data to learn
that pre-soaking the corn seeds and growing them in a warmer climate could possibly increase
the production greatly. That would allow people on a budget to buy more of the crops to
consume and farmers would increase their revenue. Supporting the farmers would allow them to
keep their jobs and produce more food, thus creating a cycle that would hopefully continue and
make the world a better place.
Works Cited
"Does Enhanced Photosynthesis Enhance Growth? Lessons Learned from CO2
Enrichment Studies[W]." Does Enhanced Photosynthesis Enhance Growth? Lessons
Learned from CO2 Enrichment Studies. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 May 2014.
<http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/155/1/117>.
Galloway, Willi Evans. Pretreatments for Slow-to-Germinate Seeds. How to Improve
the Germination Rate of Seeds: Organic Gardening, n.d. Web. 29 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.organicgardening.com/learn-and-grow/pretreatments-slow-germinateseeds>.
"2013 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics." 2013 World Hunger and Poverty
Facts and Statistics. World Hunger Education and Service, n.d. Web. 10 May 2014.
<http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002.htm>.
AZ Master Gardener Manual: Seed for the Garden. AZ Master Gardener Manual: Seed
for the Garden. The University of Arizona. 1998. Web. 29 Jan. 2014.
<http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/vegetable/temperature.html>.
Olshan, Kraus M. The Effects Of Temperature On The Germination And Growth Rates
Of Radish Seeds. Effect of Temperature on Seed Growth. 16 Nov. 1998. Web. 1
February 2014. <http://web.horacemann.org/academics/science/expbio99/Olshan.htm>.
"Overpopulation: Food Crisis And Future Hunger Wars By Rolly
Montpellier."Overpopulation: Food Crisis And Future Hunger Wars By Rolly
Montpellier. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 May 2014.
<http://www.countercurrents.org/montpellier210912.htm>.
Plants Profile for Raphanus sativus (cultivated radish). Plants Profile for Raphanus
sativus (cultivated radish). National Resources Conservation Service - United States
Department of Agriculture, n.p, n.d. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
<http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=RASA2>.
"Pre-Soaking Your Seeds." Soak.htm. N.p., 1996. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.rain.org/~sals/soak.html>.
"What Is Germination?" WiseGEEK. Ed. O. Wallace. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-germination.htm#didyouknowout>.
"World Food Programme Fighting Hunger Worldwide." What Is Malnutrition?N.p., n.d.
Web. 10 May 2014. <http://www.wfp.org/hunger/malnutrition>.

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Effect of Temperature and Pre-Soaking Time on the Growth of Raphanus Sativus

Tahrim Choudhury - Jillian Estrope

(15) Paper towels

Label the cups Cup 1 and Cup 2 using black Sharpie.

Place a paper towel on the lab surface.

Place the bag labeled as Standard in a safe area.

Repeat all steps for 2 more trials.

Standard and (+,+) have some grown at about 1-2

Standard and (+,+) have many grown at about 5-8

Standard has all grown at about 12-18 mm.

Standard has all grown at about 22-35 mm.

Standard and (+,+) have some grown at about 2-3

Standard and (+,+) have many grown at about 7-9

Standard has all grown at about 12-20 mm.

Standard has all grown at about 23-27 mm.

Standard has some grown at about 2-4 mm.

Standard has many grown at about 6-11 mm.

Standard has all grown at about 13-18 mm.

Standard has all grown at about 15-25 mm.

Figure 1. Radish Seed Sample

particular experiment, the grand average was 6

Figure 2. Effect of Temperature

of the radish seeds increases by 11

were an average length of 12

mm. When the high temperature was used, the seeds

Figure 3. Effect of Pre-Soaking Time in Water

increases, the average length of the seeds increases by 4

longer, they were an average length of 8

mm. When seeds were soaked

mm. When the seeds were not soaked, they were

mm. The effect of pre-soaking time was found by subtracting the

Figure 4. Interaction of Temperature and Pre-Soaking Time

temperature. The slope of the solid segment is 3

mm on average. When looking at the solid segment, notice that when

pre-soaking time is low, the high temperature causes seeds to grow 8

average, which was higher than expected.

mm on average. When looking at the dotted segment, notice that when

pre-soaking time is low, the low temperature causes seeds to grow

Figure 5. Standards Plot

mm. There were no major differences between them. It can be concluded

Figure 6. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 7. Parsimonious Prediction

doubled range of standards (shown in Figure 5). Here, (

C, which is halfway between the standard and high temperature, it would be

expected that seeds would grow 9

Figure 8. Dot Plot of Effects

found by doubling the range of standards (2

into 5) and seeing which effects crossed these

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