Jessica Lewis-1

EDUC 603 Child Development & Education

Signature Assignment Worksheet

Conceptually Understanding Volume

Jessica Lewis
12/12/14

Jessica Lewis-2

Section I: Concept Analysis & Interviewee Profile

Identify the concept:
The concept this learner will tackle is volume. Volume is a very important real life
concept because many different industries use volume in packaging and planning. Volume is the
amount of space an object takes up. It can be measured for liquids, enclosed spaces such as a
room or box, irregular shapes such as rocks, and gases.
The basic understanding of volume could be taught using blocks to conceptualize volume
similar to how area is taught using blocks. In Diagram A below, each of the sides is 4 cm, each
box represents 1 cm. The area of this can then be found by counting the blocks to get 16 cm2 or
using a formula of lengthwidth or 4 cm4 cm = 16 cm2. The formula for area can be described
in this example as 4 groups of 4 cm rows, thus arriving at the formula of 44. In Diagram B we
can see that this same method of using groups can be applied to understand volume. If we had
the ability to take apart this cube we could count every single block and thus come to the
conclusion that the volume is 32 cm3. We can also view this volume as 4 groups of 2cm x 4cm
blocks and thus 442. The formula for the volume of this cube is length width height.
Thus 4cm4cm2cm = 32 cm2.

Diagram B

Diagram A

4 cm
4 cm
4 cm
2 cm
4 cm

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Both volume and capacity are frequently used to discuss the size of objects. Capacity
generally means the amount of something an object will hold. Volume can be used in place of the
word capacity but is also used to describe solid objects such as a block of concrete (Van de
Walle, Karp & Bay-Williams, 2014). Comparisons of capacity and volume may be challenging to
young children, and doesnt necessarily get much easier with age. Simple equations and
comparing the volumes of objects such as cubes, cones, cylinders and spheres are easier. When
comparisons of irregular objects come into play the method of displacement must be used
because all of the nooks and crannies cannot be effectively measured using other means.
Displacement is when an object is placed into a pre-measured container of water. The amount the
water rises after the object is placed into it is the volume of the object. This method is used
frequently in science labs as a way to measure the density of objects, which is mass/volume.

Interviewee profile
Grade Level: 6
Age: 11
Language status: native English speaker
Gender: female
Unique information relevant to your learner & concept: This concept task is designed to
challenge this particular child who attends a private school in Maui. While in 6th grade she is
very bright, however, depending on how well she does on this task, it may become clear that it is
better suited for an older class.

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Profile Explanation:
The type of learner this task would be most appropriate for is a tactile learner. Learners
who enjoy using models to help them understand math concepts would likely excel quicker at
this task. However, this task would be appropriate for any student for whom tactile learning is a
successful method. This task addresses the 8.G.9 standard of solving real-world mathematical
problems involving volume of cylinders, cones and spheres. The student I am working with is in
6th grade, yet she is very bright and has already had a good grasp on volume from both math and
science classes. I believe this task would work for students who are non-native English speakers
as it is a very tactile task; however the interviewee I chose happens to be a native English
speaker. The interviewee is female, however I believe this would work well with either gender.

Instructions
On time?
Complete?
Writing
mechanics?

Clarity/Detail
Can I follow
the narrative?
Are important
details left out?

20%

20%

Task knowledge Examples

Analysis of Ideas
Strong or weak Are clear
Insightful?
content
examples
Unique?
knowledge?
given? Do they
show
understanding?
20%
20%
20%

Jessica Lewis-5

Section II: Learning/interview Task

Describe the task:
In this task the student will first be presented with four cylinders marked A, B, C and D.
There will be no other labels on the cylinders. The center point of each base will be marked for
measuring later.
Part 1: The student will have to make a hypothesis by ordering the cylinders from
greatest volume to least volumes. I will prompt the student to explain their decisions, and have
them write down their prediction. (see worksheet below)
Part 2: The worksheet asks the student to measure each cylinder and figure out the
volumes using the volume of a cylinder formula. They will need to measure and height and the
radius and will be provided with the number for pi.
Part 3: I will give the student a little reflection time where I will simply ask what
happened and what they think about it. If prompting is needed I will ask the student what
measurements are different between the three cylinders, and if they can see any pattern between
the differences in radius or height and volume. I will help them compare the cylinders A, B and
C as progressive steps from the control A. In B we just increased the height by 1 inch and in C
we just increased the radius by 1 inch. I will ask them to note the difference in volumes between
these three cylinders and why they think that is. Ideally the student will notice that when the
radius is changed by one it affects the volume significantly more than when the height is changed
by one.
This task has multiple ways to solve it. Students can notice patterns through using visual
observations, mathematical patterns through the measurements or by looking at the formula and
breaking it down. Different students will demonstrate their understanding using different ways.

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Materials
4 cylinders made of paper dont label the measurements or give them volumes
A radius 2 height 3
B: radius 2 height 4
C: radius 3 height 3
D: radius 2 height 7
ruler
pencil
scratch paper
calculator
Describe your reasoning for how the problem solving task addresses/supports the concept.
This learning task is important because volume is an omnipresent real life problem. In
this task the student will get to use their mathematical skills to measure, manipulate the volume
formula, solve for an answer, visually estimate volumes, and compare relative volumes. This
learning task also requires the student to validate their reasoning and predictions, and it pushes
them to thinking in different ways about comparing volumes and understanding how radius and
height affect volumes in a predictable manner.
My approach to this problem is unique because I am incorporating multiple learning
styles. For those students who are numbers oriented they will get to do a problem on paper and
see the numbers and measurements of the radius and height and start to see a pattern there. For
students who are visual they will get to visually observe the different cylinder shapes and see
what the differences are. And for those tactile learners they will physically hold and manipulate
the cylinders to create their predictions on the relative volumes.

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How is this task planning to encourage

1. Active processing
This task has a lot of active processing. Right off the bat the student will need to visually
assess the relative volumes of four different cylinders and make predictions about them. They
will need to use their real world experience of volumes and different cylinder shapes in order to
help them. Then they will need to assess the missing variables from the volume of a cylinder
formula and discover these variables using a ruler and the cylinders. They will have to figure out
how to measure the radius and understand that you can measure from the center point to
anywhere on the outside of the circle.
After manipulating the formula to discover the volume of each cylinder, they will use
active processing to them the data they have collected. This will require them to reevaluate their
original thoughts and critically assess.
They will then be asked to try to explain the trend occurring between the height, radius
and volume of the cylinders. This will require a significant amount of active processing as this is
a question that requires a lot of critical thinking.

2. Minimizing cognitive load

The instructions are simple and clear. Everything the student needs to write down is
written out on the worksheet. They will only be asked to measure, look at the cylinders, and plug
in their measured numbers into the equation. The real mental work will be in the processing of
these actions. The task is presented in multiple ways through the measuring and use of the
volume formula and the pre assessment of looking at the empty cylinders. This should lessen the
cognitive load for students who are solely analytical, visual, or tactile learners.

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3. Direct Modeling
The student will be manipulating the formula on paper to determine the volume of
cylinders A and B. The student will also be physically handling the cylinders as they measure the
lengths of the height and radius of each. Measuring will help convey their understanding of
height and radius and how to find them on a real object.

Focusing on the learner:

I believe that the prediction they make in the beginning will draw many students in, they
will want to figure out if they are right or not. Then the ability to manipulate the physical
cylinders will engage hands on learners who may not usually be interested in math on paper.

Physical development
The student will need to be able to visually distinguish between sizes of base and height
for the cylinders. The student will also need to be able to measure using inches on a ruler (could
be altered for centimeters if desired). The student will need to write out the formula and work
through it, or could talk another person through writing out the formula if necessary for students
with certain special needs.
Instructions
On time?
Complete?
Writing
mechanics?

20%

Clarity/Detail
Can I follow
the narrative?
Are important
details left
out?
20%

Problem Solving Examples

Analysis of Ideas
Academically
Are clear
Insightful?
important
examples
Unique?
concepts?
given? Do they
Not rote
show
learning?
understanding?
Conceptual
thinking?
20%
20%
20%

Jessica Lewis-9

Volume of Cylinders Worksheet

Part 1: Which cylinder will hold more volume? Order the cylinders A, B, C, and D, from
greatest volume to least volume based on your visual observations.
Hypothesis 1:
Greatest volume

1.

_______
2.
_______
3.
_______
Least volume
_______

4.

How did you decide to create this particular

order? What visual clues are you basing your
predictions on? Walk us through your thinking
as you decided which order to put the cylinders

in.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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_____________________________________________________________________
____________
Part 2: Measure the radius and height of all cylinders and, using the Volume of a
Cylinder formula find the volume of cylinders A and B.

Volume of a Cylinder = r2h

(r = radius; h = height; = 3.14)

Cylinder A

Cylinder B

Height: ________

Height: ________
Cylinder
C _______
Cylinder D
Radius:

Radius: _______

Height:
________
Height: ________
Volume:
________
Radius: _______ Radius: _______

Volume: ________
Would you like to change your
hypothesis at all?

Volume: ________Volume: ________

Hypothesis 2
Greatest volume

1. _____
2. _____
3. _____

Least volume

If you did change your hypothesis, how did you

decide what to change?

4. _____

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Section III Assessment Plan

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Brief Task Description: This task requires the student to predict the relative volumes of four
different cylinders. After making an initial hypothesis, the student will need to mathematically
find the volume of two of the cylinders through measuring the height and radius. Next the
student will use a measurement of beans to prove or disprove their hypothesis. Discussion will
focus around the relationship between radius, height and volume and how they affect each other
in predictable ways.

Low Understanding:
An interviewee with low understanding would be able to place the cylinders in relative
volume correctly at the conclusion of the task. He or she would be able to correctly measure
height and radius and is able to calculate volume of the first two cylinders with minimal
assistance. However they would struggle to find a pattern or explain why certain cylinders hold
more volume than others. They would likely struggle to recognize the differences between the
cylinders in terms of radius and height and compare these to the differences in the volumes. They
may come to a conclusion that wider cylinders hold more volume, but cant progress any further.

Medium Understanding:
My interviewee would be able to correctly measure the cylinders and complete the
Volume equations. They would also recognize that wider cylinders have more volume than
skinnier cylinders, perhaps needing some prompting. They may use the terms radius and height
to articulate what they mean by wider and skinnier, or taller. However, they will struggle to
articulate a clear pattern emerging and will be unable to predict a rule to explain it.

Jessica Lewis-12

High Understanding:
My interviewee would be able to articulate that through increasing the radius, the volume
will increase more than if the height was increased by the same amount. They can explain that
the radius has a greater effect on the volume than the height. They can articulate a pattern than is
emerging amongst the cylinders and can start to predict a rule to explain it. They may also use
the formula as evidence of this rule, that the radius is squared whereas the height is only
multiplied once, meaning that the radius will have a greater impact than the height in the
volumes.

Instructions
On time?
Complete?
Writing
mechanics?
20%

Clarity/Detail
Task knowledge Strategies
Analysis of Ideas
Can I follow
Strong or weak Are clear
Insightful?
the narrative?
development
examples
Unique?
Are important
content
given? Do they
details left out? knowledge?
show
understanding?
20%
20%
20%
20%

Jessica Lewis-13

Phase IV Field Testing

Field Testing Experience:
The student that I worked with in the project was a student I see every day. I shadow
another student in her class and help him out with academics and social activities. However, I
had never worked one-on-one with the student I worked with in this project. As a person who
was very nervous working one-on-one with a teacher as I was young, I could sense that
nervousness in her at first, and I felt a little bit nervous at first as well. I definitely stumbled a
little when I was first trying to articulate what she was to do and what my questions were.
However, I got more confident as we went on. She was nervous at first too and I believe
stumbled on things such as diameter and radius when she actually does know them. Although,
after we both calmed down things went along quite smoothly.

Successful Scaffolding:
One bit of successful scaffolding was when I led her through using the volume of a
cylinder formula. After she measured the radius and height of the cylinders she had to put the
values into the volume of a cylinder equation to come up with the answer. This stumped her
because she hasnt yet used volume of cylinder equations in 6th grade math, nor has she used pi.
She had done volume of a cube the previous year in math and had done very well, so I knew that
she knew what to do but was just nervous and wasnt sure how much she could apply it to a new
shape.

Jessica Lewis-14

I led her through this by drawing a cube for her and labeling it. We also went over the
volume of a cube formula, which she did last year in 5th grade. After she was able to orient
herself with this, she was able to apply it to the volume of a cylinder formula successfully. Our
conversations for this section went something like this:

Student: So now what do I do? (after measuring the radius and height of the cylinder)
Me: Well can you plug it into the equation?
Student: Where?
Me: (I drew a cube) Do you remember what the formula is for a cube?
Student: length x width x height
Me: Yes, and if the length is 3, the height is 4, and the width is 2 how would you find the
volume? (labeled the measurements on my cube drawing)
Student: Oh I see, but how do I use this volume formula?
Me: So it looks a little different but it is basically the same idea. So what is the base of
the cube, how do you find that area?
Student: length x width
Me: Good, and then you would multiply that by the height (I circled the length x width
part) So on the volume of a cylinder formula you also have base x height, and the base is
the area of the circle. Can you underline the part of the formula that is the base?
Student: (after a little bit of hesitation and reiterating the base and height on the volume
of a cube formula she underlined the pi x r2 part of the formula.
Me: Good, now can you figure out where to put in the parts you measured?

Jessica Lewis-15

Student: So it would be pi x radius x radius x height?

Me: Yes.

Another successful use of scaffolding was when she was measuring the height of cylinder
D. The height was 6 inches. She correctly measured this but then was confused about whether
to leave it was a fraction or turn it into a decimal. I prompted her by asking which would be
easier to use in the equation, a fraction or a decimal? She decided decimal but then had trouble
deciding what decimal it would be. What was really helpful in this section was that I have been
with her in classes every day this year, so I could anticipate how she was thinking and why. In
science this year they have started measuring using centimeters and then turning them into
decimals. Because the metric system is a base 10 system, you simply count the millimeter lines
and that is your decimal. For example, 4 cm and 3 millimeters is 4.3 cm. I knew that she was
confused and was applying this strategy to the inches part of the ruler.

Student: Wait, but there are 12 lines, and then 16, what do I do? (counting the small lines
on the inches part of the ruler)
Me: Remember, this isnt centimeters, this is the inches side of the ruler.
Student: What?
Me: You are using inches, not centimeters.
Student: I dont get this.
Me: Why dont you go back to your fraction (6 in) and start again from there.

Jessica Lewis-16

Student: Oh, it would be 6.75 in, duh.

It was very beneficial that I was able to anticipate what she was thinking when she was confused,
because otherwise it would have been difficult to steer her away from thinking of it as
centimeters.
Another successful scaffolding was when we were discussing the patterns that are
forming between the radius, height and volume of the cylinders.
Me: What jumps did we make from A to B, from A to C? How much did we increase the
height by from A to B?
Student: 1 inch, but the radius stayed the same.
Me: Good, and now what did we change from A to C?
Student: The radius went up by 1, but the height stayed the same.
Me: Good, now compare the differences in the volume from A to B and then from A to C.
Student: From A to B it is about 20 in3 in difference and from A to C it is about 50 in3 in
difference.
Me: But we only increased the height or radius by 1 inch in each cylinder?
Student: (paused to think for a while)
Me: Why was the jump from A to C so much bigger than A to B?
Student: (paused to think for a while) Because when you add 1 inch to the radius, you
actually are adding 2 because the diameter is the radius twice, so it makes the volume
more.
Leading her through verbally discussing the difference between cylinders A, B and C helped her
make the judgment that either the radius or the height was making the difference, and then she
was able to decide which one it might be.
Unsuccessful Scaffolding:
We also used the drawn cube to determine what the unit would be (in3). Looking back on
this I can tell this was unsuccessful scaffolding because she didnt fully understand why the
answer was in3 and didnt relate it to what she knew about using exponents, she just simply
remembered volume was units cubed. I think that she had memorized that the units for volume
was cubed rather than really understanding why because she didnt seem to fully understand it

Jessica Lewis-17

when explained. I also remember that they hadnt gone over exponents yet in 5th grade when
volume of a cube was taught so I believe it was just taught as something to memorize. In my
scaffolding I tried to equate the volume for the cylinder to the volume of a cube:
Me: So what unit do you put on your volume?
Student: Inches? Inches squared? Cubed? Oh I dont know!
Me: Well lets look at the volume of a cube, here you have inches for length, width and
height, and then they are all multiplied together, so how many inches are there?
Student: 12 inches (giving me the volume of the cube)
Me: No, for the units. There are three (I counted the inches), so on the volume of a
cylinder there are three also, for the radius, the radius again and the height.
Student: Oh ok.

This was unsuccessful because I rushed and didnt stop and think about a way to explain
correctly or take my time. I basically just told her the answer and I can tell she didnt really
understand it. If I were to do this again I would ask her how to use exponents in the problem 3 x
3 x 3. She could tell me that it would be 33. We would then discuss that this tells us that there are
three 3s all multiplied together. Next I would ask her that we have inches x inches x inches, and
ask her to put that into an exponent form. Hopefully she would arrive at in3. I believe that
approaching it this way would be much better because I would be using what she already knows
and understands about exponents and helping her apply it in a new way.
Developmental Assessment
The student understands the concept to volume very well. She would be ranked in the

Jessica Lewis-18

high understanding for that section. She was able to clearly articulate that through increasing the
radius, the volume will increase more than just increasing the height by the same amount.
However, her struggle to use the formula would place her more on the medium understanding for
that part of the problem. This problem meets an 8th grade standard of using the volume of
cylinders formula, and although she has used formulas for volume of a cube, she has never been
introduced to pi or the volume of a cylinder. I believe that if she had encountered this in school
she would have been able to flawlessly use the formula.
Regardless of her stumbling on the formula it was clear that it did not impact her
understanding of the concept of volume. Even though she expressed confusion about the
difference between radius and diameter at first, she was later able to explain that because the
radius is increased by 1 inch, the diameter is actually increased by 2 inches, demonstrating her
understanding that diameter = 2 x radius.
I would have to score her on the high understanding for the overall concept and in the
future I would change my scoring to reflect the students prior knowledge of volume of a
cylinder. I would separate formula manipulation with concept understanding and give two
separate scores, thus allowing those who understand the concept of volume to still achieve a high
score even if they have some slight stumbles with the formula due to lack of experience with it.

Normative Development:
The students level of understanding was consistent with normative development for a 12
year old. According to Piagets Four Stages of Development, she fits in with her ability to
understand proportional reasoning (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2013). She was able to conceptually
understand how the proportions differed from the increase in volume from A to B and A to C and
how those must be attributed to some variable that we had changed. She was able to separate the
variables: in B we had increased the height by 1in and in C we had increased the radius by 1in,

Jessica Lewis-19

and that A was our control. She deducted the answer from analyzing these different variables we
had manipulated. Through doing this she demonstrated her ability to reason through abstract
ideas and to separate variables. The acquisitions are consistent with Piagets Four Stages for 12
year olds (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2013).
The task also fit in with her particular zone of proximal development, meaning that it was
challenging and she needed some assistance, yet with assistance she was able to complete it
successfully (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2013). Vygotskys theory of cognitive development suggests
that the best learning and assessment of learning occur when students are challenged to a task
that is within their zone of proximal development (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2013). She definitely
needed some help understanding how to use the formula as this was above her current level of
proficiency. However, once aid was given, she was able to successfully reason through the rest of
the problem and discover the reason behind why the volume increased more dramatically from
cylinder A to C. The zone of proximal development is important because it challenges students
and makes them work hard yet also gives them confidence because they can successfully
accomplish the task with hard work and some assistance. Her linguistic development is definitely
appropriate if not above the expected levels of a 6th grader. Her ability to reason through the
problem and effectively articulate her thoughts was above the level of many adults I have met.

Instructions

Clarity/Detail

Task knowledge

Strategies

Analysis of Ideas

Jessica Lewis-20

On time?
Complete?
Writing
mechanics?

Can I follow
the narrative?
Are important
details left out?

Strong or weak
development
content
knowledge?

20%

20%

20%

Are clear
examples
given? Do they
show
understanding?
20%

Insightful?
Unique?

20%

Write up/reflection:

Concept
Strengths: My strength in this section was explaining how the concept of volume can be
thought of using manipulates, namely blocks. I clearly explained how you could move from
surface area to volume in terms of thinking.
Areas of Improvement: My areas of improvement for this section were to explain further
how you could compare different volumes as well as how volume relates to capacity. To improve
this I went deeper into how volume and capacity differ and when you might use one word
compared to the other. I also improved my concept section by discussing other contexts such as
using the method of displacement to measure the volume of irregular objects.

Task Development
Strengths: My current task has numerous strengths. Throughout this course I completely
reworked my task and at its current state it very soundly evaluates whether a student understands
the concept of volume. I use visuals and manipulatives as well as having the student physically

Jessica Lewis-21

measure the variables and then plug them into the equation. I ask the student challenging
questions that causes them to think critically about the task and what they have discovered.
Areas of Improvement: My task developed quite a bit over the course of this class. It
started as a more straightforward task where the student had to find the missing height of a
cylinder and then talk about what might happen if an object was placed in the cylinder filled with
water (water would slosh over the sides). I was cautioned that this was too simplistic and that the
student would only be finding one answer and doing one calculation. I reworked my entire task
to become a comparison between different sized cylinders and the concept evolved into
understanding the relationship between height, radius and volume. I had to dive more into the
concept of volume and comparing volumes and had to challenge myself to think critically about
the relationships and how I would assess whether or not students understood the relationship and
thus the concept of volume themselves. Further ways to improve my task would be to include
more cylinders of different sizes and perhaps objects of different shapes to further solidify if the
student really understands volumes.

Assessment
Strengths: My assessment is strong because it discusses all parts of the task and places the
student on a continuum. I base much of my assessment on how much help the student needs
throughout the task. If the student needs significant help and still does not demonstrate that they
understand the concept then they will score low. If they do not need much help at all and they
demonstrate that they understand the concept then they will score high.
Areas of Improvement: I believe that I could improve my assessment by breaking it up
into categories. Having a separate category for the calculations and for the discussion part where

Jessica Lewis-22

they will hopefully realize the relationship between the variables. This is because, as I found in
my field-testing, the two do not necessarily depend on each other. My student was able to extend
her knowledge of volumes to cylinders, even though she has only dealt with the volume of a
cube equation. On the other spectrum there will be students who will master the equation part of
the task but will be unable to make the connection regarding the relationship between height,
radius and volume. Therefore, in the future I would separate those two realms of the task and
assess the student on them separately, giving the student two scores at the end.

Field Testing
Strengths: I believe that my field-testing session went very well. My strengths were in my
scaffolding. I led the student through certain parts of the task that were challenging by helping
her guide her own thinking in the right direction. In my successful scaffolding I did not give
away the answers but rather asked her questions that would guide her and make her realize what
she already knew that would help her discover the answer.
Areas of Improvement: I could improve on the explanation of the formula part of the
field-testing. I did not take my time in scaffolding and explaining this section on understanding
the formula and therefore the student did not fully understand it. I have since thought a great deal
about this part and have decided that if I were to scaffold volume = units cubed in a way that
connected what the student already knew about exponents to the formula it could have been
much more successful.

Conceptual Adjustments/Refinements:

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In the future I would modify this task depending on the grade level. This task could be
easily modified for different students if I changed the object type used. The student I worked
with is in 6th grade and she had not come across volumes of a cylinder yet. While she is very
bright she still struggled a little when asked to work with a new unfamiliar equation. For most
students I believe this would have been an incredible hurdle of cross. Therefore I would tailor my
task to the grade depending on how far they have advanced with volumes. For example, 5th grade
students have learned volume of a cube, so I would use volume of a cube for them. Depending
on the skills of students in grades 6 and 7 I may still use a cube, or if I think they are up for a
challenge I may use a cylinder. For students in grade 8 I would definitely use a cylinder after
they have been taught the formula. For more advanced students I could use different objects such
as a cone.

Instructions
On time?
Complete?
Writing
mechanics?

Clarity/Detail
Can I follow
the narrative?
Are important
details left out?

Task knowledge
Strong or weak
development
content
knowledge?

20%

20%

20%

Strategies
Analysis of Ideas
Are clear
Insightful?
examples
Unique?
given? Do they
show
understanding?
20%
20%

Jessica Lewis-24

References

McDevitt, T. M., & Ormrod, J. E. (2013). Child development and education, 5th ed. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Van de Walle, J., Karp, K. S., & Bay-Williams, J. M. (2012). Elementary and middle school
mathematics: Teaching developmentally. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.