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PovertyinAmerica:TheNatureoftheProblem
Inthebroadestsense,socialwelfarepolicyincludesanyeffortbygovernmentto
improvesocialconditions
Inanarrowersense,socialwelfarepolicyreferstogovernmentprogramsthathelp
individualsmeetbasicneeds,includingfood,clothing,andshelter
Thepoor:WhoandHowMany?
AlthoughAmericansarefarbetteroffeconomicallythanmostoftheworlds
peoples,povertyisasignificantandpersistentproblemintheUS
Thegovernmentdefinesthe
povertyline
astheannualcostofathriftyfood
budgetforanurbanfamilyoffour,multipliedbythreetoincludethecostof
housing,clothes,andothernecessities
Povertyisconcentratedamongcertaingroups
Childrenwithsinglemotherfamilies
Minoritygroupsmembers
AfricanAmericansandHispanics
Geographicallyconcentrated
Southernstates
Moreprevalentinruralareas
Inthatthelevelofpovertyishigh
insomeinnercityareas
Suburbsaresafehavenfrom
poverty
MostAmericansgreatlyunderestimate
thelevelofpovertyintheUS
LivinginPoverty:ByChoiceorChance
ManyAmericansholdtotheideathat
povertyislargelyamatterofchoice
YetmostpoorAmericansareintheir
situationasaresultofcircumstanceratherthanchoice
ThePoliticsandPoliciesofSocialWelfare
Negativegovernment
holdsthatgovernmentgovernsbestbystayingoutof
peopleslives,sothattheycandeterminetheirownpursuitsandbecome
selfreliant
TheGreatDepressionchangedthatoutlook
Positivegovernment
istheideathatgovernmentinterventionisnecessaryinorder
toenhancepersonalibertyandsecuritywhenindividualsarebuffetedbyeconomic
andsocialforcesbeyondtheircontrol
ManyRepublicansleadersclungtotraditionalideasaboutselfrelianceandfree
markets
Mostprogramsthatsupportindividualsare
entitlementprograms
,meaningthat
anyindividualwhomeetstheeligibilitycriteriaisentitledtothebenefit
Individualbenefitprogramsfallintotwobroadgroups:socialinsuranceprograms
andpublicassistanceprograms
Socialinsuranceprogramsenjoybroaderpublicsupport,aremoreheavilyfunded,
andprovidebenefitstoindividualsofallincomelevels
Publicassistanceprogramshavelesspublicsupport,receivelessfunding,andare
restrictedtopeopleoflowincome
SocialInsuranceProgram
MorethanfiftymillionAmericansreceivemonthlybenefitsfromsocial
insuranceprograms
Thecostofthetwomajorprograms,socialsecurityandMedicare,exceedsone
trilliondollarsayear
Suchprogramsarelabeledsocialinsurancebecauseeligibilityisrestrictedto
individualswhopaidspecialpayrolltaxesduringtheirworkingyears
SocialSecurity
Themainsocialinsuranceprogramissocialsecurityforretirees
Runentirelybythefederalgovernment
SocietySecurityActof1935
Fundedthroughpayrolltaxesonemployeesandemployers
Althoughpeoplequalifyforsocialsecuritybypayingpayrolltaxesduring
theirworkingyears,themoneytheyreceiveuponretirementisfunded
bypayrolltaxesoncurrentworkerssalaries
Posesathreattothelongtermviabilityofthesocialsecurityprogram
becausepeoplearelivinglongerthantheyoncedid
Fewerworkersrelativetothenumberofretirees
Inflowinpayrolltaxesfromworkerswillbelessthantheoutflowof
socialsecuritybenefitstoretirees
UnemploymentInsurance
The1935SocialSecurityActprovidesforunemploymentbenefits
Unemploymentinsuranceisajoinfederalstateprogram
Thefederalgovernmentcollectsthepayrolldecidingwhetherthetaxes
willbepaidbybothemployeesandemployersorbyemployersonly
Theunemploymentprogramdoesnothavethebroadpublicsupportthat
socialsecurityenjoys
Thesituationreflectsthewidespreadassumptionthatthelossofajob,or
thefailuretofindanewonerightaway,isoftenapersonalfailing
Unemploymentstatisticsindicateotherwise
Medicare
PresidentHarrySTruman
TheAmericanMedicareAssociationcalledTrumansplanunAmerican
PresidentJohnF.Kennedyproposedahealthcareprogramrestrictedto
socialsecurityrecipients,buttheAMA,theinsuranceindustry,and
congressionalconservativessucceededinblockingtheplan
The1964electionresultwasMedicare
Theprogramprovidesmedicalassistancetoretireesandisfunded
primarilythroughpayrolltaxes
Medicareisbasedontheinsuranceprinciple,andbecauseofthis,ithas
gainedasmuchpublicsupportassocialsecurity
Medicaredoesnotcoverallhospital,nursinghome,orphysiciansfees,
butenrolleestheprogramhavetheoptionofpayinganinsurance
premiumforfullercoverageofthesefees
PublicAssistancePrograms
Unlikesocialinsuranceprograms,publicassistanceprogramsarefunded
throughgeneraltaxrevenuesandareavailableonlytothefinanciallyneedy
Eligibilityfortheseprogramsisestablishedbyameanstests;thatis,applicants
mustprovethattheyarepoorenoughtoqualifyforthebenefit
Americansarefarlesssupportiveofpublicassistanceprogramsthantheyare
ofsocialinsuranceprograms
Americanstendtolookuponsocialinsurancebenefitsashavingbeenearned
bytherecipient,whereastheyseepublicassistancebenefitsashandouts
SupportforpublicassistanceprogramsisweakenedfurtherbyAmericans
perceptionthatthegovernmentisalreadyspendingvastamountsonwelfare
SupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI)
SupplementalSecurityIncomeisamajorpublicassistanceprogramthat
originatedasfederalassistancetotheblindandelderlypooraspartof
theSocialSecurityActof1935
Primarilyafederalprogram,thestateshaveretainedsomecontrolover
benefitsandeligibilityandprovidesomeofthefunding
Notwidelycriticized
TemporaryAssistanceforNeedyFamilies(TANF)
Beforepassageofthe1996WelfareReformAct,needyAmericans
familieshadanopenendedguaranteeofcashassistance
Aslongastheirincomewasbelowacertainlevel,theywereassuredof
governmentsupport
AFDCwasanentitlementprogram,whichmeantthatanysingleparent
livinginpovertycouldclaimthebenefitandkeepitforaslongasa
dependentchildwasinthehousehold
Creatingwhatwascalledaviciouscycleofpoverty
TANFsgoalsistoreducelongtermwelfaredependencybylimitingthe
lengthoftimerecipientscanreceiveassistanceandbygivingthestates
anincentivetoplacewelfarerecipientsintojobs
Thestateprogramsoperatewithinstrictfederalguidelines
Althoughstatescangrantexceptionstosomeoftherules,theexceptions
arelimited
Statescanevenchoosetoimposemorerestrictiverulesinsome
reas
Thebiggestchallengefacingthestateshasbeenthecreationof
welfaretoworkprogramsthatareeffectiveenoughtoqualifypeoplefor
securejobs
HeadStart
Inthe1960s,aspartofLyndonJohnsonsGreatSociety,thefederal
governmentstartedaneducationprogram,HeadStart,aimedathelping
poorchildrenatanearlyage
HeadStartprovidesfreepreschooleducationtolowincomechildrenin
ordertohelpthemsucceedwhentheybeginkindergarten
Thelowpointwasreachedinthe1980s,whentherewasonlyenough
moneytoenrolloneinthenofthoseeligible
Today,lessthan
halfofalleligible
childrengetto
participate
HeadStarthasnot
metthe
performancegoals
expectedwhenit
wasfounded
becausemanyof
theenrolled
childrenhavea
homeenvironment
thatisnot
conducivetoeducationalachievement,theiracademicperformancein
primaryschoolisnotsubstantiallyhigherthanthatofotherpoor
children
EarnedIncomeTaxCredit(EITC)
Afulltimejobdoesnotguaranteethatafamilywillriseabovethe
povertyline
TheUSBureauofLaborStatisticsestimatesthatroughly10percentof
fulltimeworkers,thesocalledworkingpoor,donotearnenoughtolift
theirfamilyabovethepovertyline
SomeoftheseworkersareeligibletoreceivetheEarnedIncomeTax
Credit
Enactedin1975underPresidentGeraldFordandexpandedduringthe
presidenciesofRonaldReaganandBillClinton,EITCnowcoversabout
10millionlowincomeAmericanfamilies
AlthoughtheEITCissubjecttobudgetaryandpoliticalpressures,ithas
morepublicsupportthanmostassistanceprograms
Thereasonissimple:EITCistiedtoemployment
Onlythosewhoworkareeligibletoreceivethepayment
InKindBenefits:FoodStampsandHousingVouchers
TheFoodStampsprogram,whichtookitspresentformin1961,isfully
fundedbythefederalgovernment
Theprogramprovidesaninkindbenefitnotcase,butfoodstampsthat
canbespentonlyongroceryitems
Foodstampsareavailableonlytopeoplewhoqualifyonthebasisoflow
income
Somecriticssaythatfoodstampsstigmatizetheirusersbymakingit
obvioustoonlookersinthecheckoutlinethattheyarewelfarecases
Moreprevalentcriticismarethattheprogramistoocostlyandthattoo
manyundeservingpeoplereceivefoodstamps
Lowincomepersonsarealsoeligibleforsubsidizedhousing
Likeotherpublicassistanceprograms,housingsubsidiesarecriticizedas
beingtoocostly
Medicaid
Medicaidprovideshealthcareforthepoor
Itisapublicassistanceprogram,ratherthanasocialinsuranceprogram
likeMedicare,becauseitisbasedonneedoffundedbygeneraltax
revenues
Ashealthcarecostshavespiraledfaraheadoftheinflationrate,sohave
thecostsofMedicaid
ItabsorbsroughlyhalfofallpublicassistancedollarsspendbytheUS
governmentandhasforcedstateandlocalgovernmentstocutother
servicestomeettheirshareofthecosts
Medicareisnowthefirstorsecondbiggestbudgetitemformoststates
Medicaidhasbeencriticizedforsupposedlyhelpingtoomaypeoplewho
couldtakecareofthemselves
TheSCHIPProgram
Enactedin1997attheurgingofPresidentBillClinton,theState
ChildrensHealthInsuranceProgramprovideshealthinsurancefor
uninsuredchildrenoflowerincomefamiliesthatdonotqualityfor
Medicaidinsurance
Statescanoptoutoftheprogramandhavesomeflexibilityinsetting
eligibilitycriteria
AdecadeaftertheCHIPprogrambegan,enrollmenthasrisentomore
than6millionchildren
Whentheprogramwasreauthorizedin2009attheurgingofPresident
Obama,itwasexpandedtoincludeanadditional4millionchildrenand
alsopregnantwomen
Anincreaseintaxesontobaccoproductswasusedtofundtheexpansion
The2010HealthCareReformAct
AlthoughtheheathcarereformbillpassedbyCongressin2010
expandedtheMedicaidprogram,itaimstoincreasehealthinsurance
coverageprimarilythroughmandatesonindividualsandcompanies
Startingin2014,individualAmericanswillfaceataxpenaltyiftheydont
havehealthinsurance
Lowincomeindividualswillbelegibleforafederalsubsidyinorderto
enablethemtoaffordinsurancecoverage
Mostcompanieswithmorethantwohundredemployeeswillbe
requiredtoprovidetheiremployeeswithhealthinsuranceandmost
companieswithfiftytotwohundredemployeeswillhavetoprovide
insuranceorpayataxpenalty
Holddowninsurancecostsinordertoeasetheburdenonindividuals
andfirms
Statebasedinsuranceexchangesthatwillnegotiatewithinsurance
companiestoobtainthelowestinsuranceratespossible
Prohibitsanumberofinsurancepractices
CriticshavechallengedtheCBOsestimateandhavederidedtheprogram
asthefederalizationofhealthinsurance
CultureandSocialWelfare
MostAmericansareconvincedthatpeopleonwelfarecouldgetalongwithout
itiftheytried
Thereisconstantpoliticalpressuretoreducewelfareexpendituresandtowee
outunderservingrecipients
Theresultisawelfaresystemthatisbothinefficient,inthatmuchofthe
moneyspendonwelfareneverreachestheintendedrecipients,and
inequitable,inthatlessthanhalfofsocialwelfarespendinggoestothepeople
mostinneed
Inefficiency
TheUShasthemostinefficientwelfaresystemintheWesternworld
Theunwrittenprinciplethattheindividualmustsomehowearnorbein
absoluteneedofassistancemakestheUSwelfaresystemheavilybureaucratic
ThebureaucraticcostsofwelfarearesubstantiallylowerinEuropebecause
mostEuropeancountrieshaveunitaryratherthanfederalsystems,which
eliminatesalayerofgovernment,andalsobecauseeligibilityisoftenuniversal,
asinthecaseofgovernmentpaidhealthcare
Inequity
TheUSspendsasmuch,oremore,onassistanceprogramsforthenonpoor
thanitdoesforthepoor
EducationasEqualityofOpportunity
AlthoughfewAmericanswouldsupporteconomicequalityforall,mostAmericans
endorsetheprincipleof
equalityofopportunity
theideathatpeopleshouldhave
areasonablechancetosucceediftheymaketheeffort
Equalityofopportunityisanidea.Americansdonotstartlifeonanequalfooting
PublicEducation:LevelingthroughSchools
Duringthenationsfirstcentury,thequestionoffreeeducationforallchildren
wasadivisiveissue
Wealthyinterestsfearedthataneducatedpublicwouldchallengetheirpower
Egalitarians,ontheotherhand,saweducationasameansofenablingordinary
citizenstogetahead
Equalitycontinuestobeaguidingprincipleofpubliceducation
Unlikethesituationincountriesthatdividechildreneventhegradeschool
levelintodifferenttracksthatleadultimatelytodifferentoccupations,the
curriculuminUSschoolsisrelativelystandardized
TheUSthroughitspublicschoolsseekstobroadlyeducationitschildren
PubliceducationinAmericawaslabeledthegreatlevelwhenitbeganinthe
early19th
century,andthetraditionhasbeenmaintained
Thenationseducationsystempreservesboththemythandtherealityofan
equalopportunitysociety
Thebeliefthatsuccessis
withinthereachofanyone
whoworksforitcouldnotbe
sustainedifthepublic
educationsystemwere
designedtoservethe
privilegedfew
Moreover,educational
attainmentisrelatedto
personalsuccess,atleastas
measuredbyincome
Infact,thegapinincome
betweenthosewithandthose
withoutacollegedegreeis
greaternowthanatanytime
inthecountryshistory
ImprovingAmericasSchools
BecauseAmericaspublicschoolsplaysuchakeyroleincreatingan
equalopportunitysociety,theyarescrutinizedclosely
Parentsofschoolchildrenarenotshyaboutsayingwhattheythinkoftheir
localschools
Parentstendtoratetheirownchildrensschoolsmorehighlythantheyrate
otherschools
Americasstudentsarenothighperformers
USstudentsrankbelowstudentsinCanadaandmostEuropeancountries
onstandardizedreading,math,andsciencetest
OnereasonisthattheUShasallargerportionofnonnativespeaking
children
MoresegregatedresidentiallybyincomethanareEuropeancountries
Poorchildrenaremorelikelytogotoschoolswheremostoftheother
studentsarealsopoor
Becausethewealthofacommunityaffectsthelevelofschoolfunding,
schoolswithahighproportionofpoorstudentstendtohavefewer
resources
SchoolChoice
Advocatesofschoolchoicesaythatastudentshouldhavetheoptionof
leavingapoorlyperformingschoolinfavorofonethatmightprovidea
bettereducation
Thestudentsnewschoolshouldgetthefundingthatotherwise
wouldhavegonetothestudentsformerschool
Thispolicy,itisclaimed,forcesschooladministratorsandteachers
todoabetterjob,orfacethecontinuedlossofstudentsand
funding
Opponentsofthepolicydonotdefendpoorlyperformingschoolsbut
insteadarguethatschoolchoicewillonlyservetoweakentheseschools
further
Theyclaimthatthepolicybenefitsmiddleandupperincome
studentsbecausetheparentsofpoorchildrenlackthemeansto
transportthemtoabetterbutmoredistantschool
Schoolchoicehasgainedmomentuminrecentyears
Theemergenceofcharterschoolsisacaseinpoint
Operatebydifferentstandards
Havegreaterfreedomindeterminingtheircurriculaandinpicking
theirstudents
Mustmeetspecifiedaccountabilitycriteria
Schoolvouchersareanotherwayofexpandingstudentchoice
Proponentssaythatvouchersforcefailingpublicschoolsto
improvetheirinstructionalprogramsorfaceapermanentlossof
revenue
Opponentsarguethatvouchersweakenthepublicschoolsby
siphoningoffrevenueandsaythatvoucherssubsidizemany
familiesthatwouldhavesenttheirchildrentoprivateofparochial
schoolsanyway
Vouchersareoflittleusetostudentsfrompoorfamiliesbecause
vouchersfamiliesdonothavethemoneytopaytherest
Althoughthecourtshaveupheldtheconstitutionalityofvouchersin
somecircumstances,pollsindicatethatAmericansaredividedoverthe
issueofschoolvouchers
Thequestiongetsmajoritysupportwhenitisframedinthecontext
ofgivingstudentsachoiceamongpubicschools
Butopposedbythemajoritywhenprivateandparochialschools
areincludedinthechoices
MandatoryHighStakesTraining
In2001,PresidentGeorgeW.BushpersuadedCongresstopasstheNo
ChildLeftBehindAct
Schoolsthatshownoimprovmentsinstudentstestschoresaftertwo
yearsreceiveanincreasedamountoffederalaid
Iftheseschoolsshownoimprovementbytheendofthethirdyear,their
studentsbecomeeligibletotransferelsewhere,andtheirschoolsfederal
assistanceisreduced
Thenationaltestingprocesshasnearlyforcedpublicschoolsto
concentrateontestedsubjects
Lawforcesteacherstoteachtothenationaltest,underminingtrue
learning
Democratshaveclaimedthattheprogramhasfailedtoprovide
strugglingschoolswithenoughfundstoimprovetheirqualityof
classroomeducation
Republicanshavegenerallysupportedthelaw,sayingthatitholds
teachersandschoolsaccountableforstudentperformance
TheAmericanwayofPromotingtheGeneralWelfare
Foronlysomecitizens