Stoichiometry

Atomic Mass
The Mole concept
Molar Mass
Percent Composition of Compounds
Determination of Formula of Compounds
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Interpreting balance equations, and
Reaction Stoichiometry and Calculations

Atomic Masses
Absolute masses of atoms cannot be obtained too small to
measure the mass directly;
Relative atomic masses are used instead masses relative to
a chosen standard or reference.
Carbon-12 is used as atomic mass reference it is assigned
an atomic mass of 12 u exactly;
Other atoms are assigned masses relative to that of carbon12;
Relative atomic masses are determined using mass
spectrometer;

Calculation of Relative Atomic Masses

Example-1:
An atomic mass spectrum gives atomic mass ratio of
oxygen atom to carbon-12 as 1.3329:1. If the atomic mass
of carbon-12 is exactly 12 u, what is the atomic mass of
oxygen?
Atomic mass of oxygen = 1.3329 x 12 u
= 15.995 u

Calculation of Average Atomic Masses

Example-2:
Chlorine is composed of two stable naturally occurring
isotopes: chlorine-35 (75.76%; 34.9689 u) and
chlorine-37 (24.24%; 36.9659 u). What is the average
atomic mass of copper?
Atomic mass of chlorine
= (0.7576 x 34.9689 u) + (0.2424 x 36.9659 u)
= 35.45 u (as given in the periodic table)

Calculation of Average Atomic Masses

Example-3:
Copper is composed of two naturally occurring
isotopes: copper-63 (69.09%; 62.93 u) and
copper-65 (30.91%; 64.93 u). What is the
average atomic mass of copper?
Atomic mass of copper
= (0.6909 x 62.93 u) + (0.3091 x 64.93 u)
= 63.55 u (as given in the periodic table)

Molar Quantity
The Mole:
A quantity that contains the Avogadros number of items;
Avogadros number = 6.022 x 1023
12.01 g of carbon contains the Avogadros number of
carbon atoms.
1 mole of carbon = 12.01 g
1 carbon atom = 12.01 u (or amu)

Gram-Atomic Mass

Mass of 1 carbon-12 atom = 12 u (exactly);

Mass of 1 mole of carbon-12 = 12 g;
Mass of 1 oxygen atom = 16.00 u
Mass of 1 mole of oxygen = 16.00 g
Gram-atomic mass = mass (in grams) of 1 mole of
an element that is, the mass (in grams) that
contains the Avogadros number of atoms of that
element.
gram-atomic mass is the molar mass of an element
in grams.

Atomic Mass & Gram-Atomic Mass

Examples:
Element

Carbon
Oxygen
Aluminum
Silicon
Gold

Atomic mass

Gram-atomic mass

12.01 u
16.00 u
26.98 u
28.09 u
197.0 u

12.01 g/mol
16.00 g/mol
26.98 g/mol
28.09 g/mol
197.0 g/mol

Molecular Mass and Molar Mass

Molecular mass = the mass of a molecule in u;
Molar mass = the mass of one mole of an element
or a compound, expressed in grams.
Examples:
Molecular Mass
Molar Mass
N2
28.02 u
28.02 g/mol
H2O
18.02 u
18.02 g/mol
C8H18
114.22 u
114.22 g/mol

Calculating Molar Mass

Calculating the molar mass of sucrose, C12H22O11:
(12 x 12.01 g) + (22 x 1.008 g) + (11 x 16.00 g)
= 342.3 g/mole
Molar mass of ammonium hydrogen phosphate,
(NH4)2HPO4:
(2 x 14.01 g) + (9 x 1.008 g) + (1 x 30.97 g) + (4 x 16.00 g)

= 132.06 g/mole

Percent Composition of a Compound

Composition of aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3:
Molar mass of Al2(SO4)3 =
(2 x 26.98 g) + (3 x 32.06 g) + (12 x 16.00 g) = 342.14 g/mole
Mass percent of Al = (53.96 g/342.14 g) x 100% = 15.77%
Mass percent of S = (96.18 g/342.14 g) x 100% = 28.11%
Mass percent of O = (192.0 g/342.14 g) x 100% = 56.12%

Formula of Compounds
Empirical Formula
A chemical formula that represents a simple whole number
ratio of the number of moles of elements in the compound.
Examples: MgO, Cu2S, CH2O, etc.

Molecular Formula
A formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each type
in a molecule.
Examples: C4H10, C6H6, C6H12O6.

Empirical Formula-1
Empirical formula from composition:

Example: A compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen has

the following composition (by mass percent): 68.12% C, 13.73%
H, and 18.15% O, Determine its empirical formula.
Solution:
Use mass percent to calculate mole and mole ratio of C:H:O
Mole of C = 68.12 g x (1 mol C/12.01 g) = 5.672 mol C
Mole of H = 13.73 g x (1 mol H/1.008 g) = 13.62 mol H
Mole of O = 18.15 g x (1 mol O/16.00 g) = 1.134 mol O
Divide all moles by mole of O (smallest value) to get simple ratio:
5.672 mol C/1.134 mol O = 5; 13.62 mol H/1.134 mol O = 12, and
1.134 mol O/1.134 mol O = 1;

Mole ratio: 5C:12H:1O Empirical formula = C5H12O

Molecular Formula

Molecular formula is derived from empirical formula and molecular

mass, which is obtained independently
Empirical formula = CxHyOz; molecular formula = (CxHyOz)n,
where n = (molecular mass/empirical formula mass)
Example:
A compound has an empirical formula C3H6O and its molecular
formula is 116.2 u. What is the molecular formula?
Solution:
Empirical formula mass = (2 x 12.01 u) + (6 x 1.008 u) + 16.00 u
= 58.1 u
Molecular formula = (C3H6O)n; where n = (116.2 u/58.1 u) = 2
Incorrect molecular formula = (C3H6O)2;

Correct molecular formula = C6H12O2

Balancing Chemical Equations

Rules for balancing equations:
1.
Use smallest integer coefficients in front of each reactants and
products as necessary; coefficient 1 need not be indicated;
2.
The formula of the substances in the equation MUST NOT be
changed.
Helpful steps in balancing equations:
1.
Begin with the compound that contains the most atoms or types of
atoms.
2.
Balance elements that appear only once on each side of the arrow.
3.
Next balance elements that appear more than once on either side.
4.
Balance free elements last.
5.
Finally, check that smallest whole number coefficients are used.

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry = the quantitative relationships between
one reactant to another, or between a reactant and
products in a chemical reaction.
Interpreting balanced equations:
Example: C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g);
The equation implies that:
1 C3H8 molecule reacts with 5 O2 molecules to produce
3 CO2 molecules and 4 H2O molecules; OR
1 mole of C3H8 reacts with 5 moles of O2 to produce 3
moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O.

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mole-to-mole relationship:

Example: In the following reaction, if 6.0 moles of octane, C 8H18, is

completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many moles of
CO2 and H2O, respectively, will be formed? How many moles of O 2
does it consumed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

Calculations:
Mole CO2 formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (16 mol CO2/2mol C8H18) = 48 moles
Mole H2O formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (18 mol H2O/2mol C8H18) = 54 moles
Mole O2 consumed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (25 mol O2/2mol C8H18) = 75 moles

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mass-to-mole-to-mole-to-mass relationship:

Example-1: In the following reaction, if 690 g of octane, C8H18, is

completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many grams of
CO2 are formed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

Calculation-1:
Moles C8H18 reacted = 690 g C8H18 x (1 mol/114.2 g) = 6.0 moles
Moles CO2 formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (16 mol CO2/2 mol C8H18)

= 48 moles CO2

Mass of CO2 formed = 48 mol CO2 x (44.01 g/mol) = 2.1 x 103 g

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mass-to-mole-to-mole-to-mass relationship:

Example-2: In the following reaction, if 690 g of octane, C8H18, is

completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many grams of
H2O are formed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

Calculation-2:
Moles C8H18 reacted = 690 g C8H18 x (1 mol/114.2 g) = 6.0 moles
Moles H2O formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (18 mol H2O/2 mol C8H18)

= 54 moles CO2

Mass of H2O formed = 54 mol H2O x (18.02 g/mol) = 970 g

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mass-to-mole-to-mole-to-mass relationship:

Example-3: In the following reaction, if 690 g of octane, C8H18, is

completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many grams of
oxygen gas are consumed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

Calculation-3:
Moles C8H18 reacted = 690 g C8H18 x (1 mol/114.2 g) = 6.0 moles
Moles O2 consumed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (25 mol O2/2 mol C8H18)

= 75 moles O2

Mass of H2O formed = 75 mol O2 x (32.00 g/mol) = 2.4 x 103 g g

A Reaction Stoichiometry
Example:
In the reaction: 2Cu(s) + S(s) Cu2S(s), 2 moles of copper are
required to react completely with 1 mole of sulfur, which will produce 1
mole of copper(I) sulfide.
If a reaction is carried out using 1 mole of copper and 1 mole of sulfur, then
copper will be the limiting reactant
sulfur is in excess.
excess
Only 0.5 mole of copper(I) sulfide is obtained.

Excess
reactant

Stoichiometry Involving Limiting Reactant

Limiting reactant
one that got completely consumed in a chemical
reaction before the other reactants.
Product yields depend on the amount of limiting
reactant.
Look at the picture

Exercise #4: Stoichiometry Calculations

Ammonia is produced from the reaction with
hydrogen according to the following equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
If 25 N2 molecules are reacted with 60 H2
molecules in a sealed container, which molecules
will be completely consumed? How many NH3
molecules are formed?
(Answer: H2; 40 NH3 molecules)

Exercise #5: Limiting Reactants and

Reaction Yields
Ammonia is produced in the following reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

(a) If 118 g of nitrogen gas is reacted with 31.5 g of
hydrogen gas, which reactant will be completely consumed
at the end of the reaction? (b) How many grams of the
excess reactant will remain (unreacted)? (c) How many
grams ammonia will be produced when the limiting
reactant is completely reacted and the yield is 100%?
(Answer: (a) N2; (b) 6.0 g; (c) 143.4 g of NH3)

Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yields

Theoretical yield:
yield of product calculated based on the stoichiometry
of balanced equation and amount of limiting reactant
(assuming the reaction goes to completion and the
limiting reactant is completely consumed).
Actual Yield:
Yield of product actually obtained from experiment
Percent Yield = (Actual yield/Theoretical yield) x 100%

Exercise #6: Limiting Reactant & Yields

In an ammonia production, the reactor is charged with N 2
and H2 gases at flow rates of 805 g and 195 g per minute,
respectively, at 227oC, and the reaction is as follows:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 3 NH3(g)

(a) What is the rate (in g/min) that ammonia is produced if
the yield is 100%?
(b) If the reaction produces 915 g of NH 3 per minute,
calculate the percentage yield of the reaction.
(Answer: (a) 978.5 g/min; (b) Yield = 93.5%)