EMF, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance

Mary Grace DC. Odiamar

De La Salle University
2401 Taft Avenue, Malate, Manila, Philippines
mary_grace_odiamar@dlsu.edu.ph
Abstract This paper is generally about the inspection and
examination of voltage sources of direct-current circuits, known
otherwise as seats of emf or emf devices. The experiment aimed
to illustrate the difference between emf and terminal voltage, to
show how an ideal battery is different from a real one with an
internal resistance, to measure the electromotive force of a
battery, to calculate the internal resistance of a real battery and
to show the variants of a batterys terminal voltage with its
current output through experimentation. In this experiment, the
internal resistance of Daniell cell (wet cell) was computed by
measuring the voltage across the circuit where the values of
resistances R were given; current I and internal resistance r were
then computed through Ohms Law and through the equation of
terminal voltage of a real battery, respectively. On the other
hand, the carbon batterys internal resistance was computed by
measuring the voltage across the circuit where the values of
current were given; internal resistance r was also computed
through the equation of terminal voltage of a real battery. The
acquired results were very likely to show how a batterys voltage
is related to current and resistance, as well as how to calculate a
batterys internal resistance.
Keywords Emf, Terminal Voltage, Internal Resistance, Battery,
Daniell Cell, Dry Cell, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Rheostat

I. INTRODUCTION
Electric circuits are essential means to transport electric
potential energy from one region to another. When charged
particles move within a circuit, energy is transported from a
source such as a battery to an instrument where the said
energy is stored or transformed into other form/s. Generally,
todays modern world is heavily dependent on electric
circuits. They have been used for years because of their
effectiveness and practicality they typically allow energy to
be conveyed without moving any parts. One should note that
electric circuits are at the heart of every electronic device.
Every electric circuit consists of components, and these
often include sources, resistors, and other circuit elements
interconnected in a network [1]. One element to be noted in
this paper is the source of the circuit, more often known as the
battery. In a battery, a chemical reaction occurs when a load
completes the circuit between the terminals. The chemical
reaction then transfers electrons from one terminal to another
terminal. The electric potential difference is caused by the
positive and negative charges on the battery terminals. The
maximum potential difference of a battery is called the
electromotive force or emf, designated by [2].

II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

A. Seats of EMF and EMF
When a potential difference or voltage is applied across a
circuit, current will be allowed to flow. These devices that are
responsible for the flow of charge in circuits are called seats
of emf, emf devices or simply voltage sources. The emf is not
really a force but is the work per unit charge that an emf
device does in moving positive charges from lower potential
terminal (-) to higher potential terminal (+). Its unit is joule
per coulomb or volts. A voltage source is labeled with its emf
value, , which is equivalent to =
[3].
B. Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance
A real battery is made of matter; therefore, there is
resistance r to the flow of charge inside the battery. This
resistance inside the battery is called internal resistance r. An
ideal battery with zero internal resistance has a terminal
voltage equal to its emf, no matter how much current is drawn
from them. However, a real battery in a circuit where current
is drawn from has a terminal voltage which is not equivalent
to its emf [4]. Its terminal voltage is given by b = . In
this equation we notice that the terminal voltage drops as we
draw more current from the battery because of the internal
resistance. In rearranging the equation, we can get a batterys
internal resistance by r =
C. Daniell Cell and Dry Cell
John Frederick Daniell, a chemistry professor in London,
has developed an emf device that supplied constant electric
current. The Daniell cell is a type of wet cell and has also been
called as a gravity cell and crowfoot cell. In the early 1800s,
the cell became a popular power supply in the laboratories and
in the telecommunications industry. The cell is made of
copper and zinc electrodes and an electrolyte solution. This
battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy
whenever a load is present.
Nowadays, better batteries with low internal resistances
have been developed. Cars consume lead-acid batteries, which
is also a wet cell. This battery comprises of lead and lead
oxide electrodes and an electrolyte solution.
In contrast to the batteries of the earlier centuries, modern
batteries have been constructed to be very portable and

maintenance-free. One of todays primary batteries is the zinccarbon battery, a dry cell, and also known as the standard
carbon battery. It is a very cheap battery and comes in various
sizes AA, AAA, C and D [3].
III. METHODOLOGY

slider of the rheostat was adjusted until the ammeter reads

0.05 amperes. The experiment was repeated with different
values of the current. The rheostat was adjusted with the
following readings in the ammeter 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25
amperes. The measured voltages were logged. Internal
resistance r was then computed through the equation r =
.

A. Preliminary Steps
Before starting the experiment, the wires should be
checked for continuity as for the research to have fewer errors
and to yield more accurate results. The functionality of these
wires could be checked by just connecting the probes of the
voltmeter-ohmmeter-milliammeter (VOM) to the ends of the
wires. The VOM should be set to the ohmmeter function. The
batteries to be used in the experiment should be guaranteed to
be new and working as well.
B. Daniell Cell (Wet Cell)
To perform the experiment for the Daniell cell, the
voltage across the terminals of the Daniell cell was first
measured with a voltmeter. The value obtained is equal to its
emf. A series circuit involving a Daniell cell, a decade
resistance box set to 20 and a voltmeter connected to the
circuit in parallel was then constructed. The first reading in
the voltmeter was recorded. The experiment was repeated
with different values of the decade resistance box 40, 60, 80
and 100 . The measured voltage values were then recorded.
Internal resistance r was computed through the equation r
=
. This experiment had two trials.

Figure 2. Setup for dry cell [3].

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A.

Daniell Cell (Wet Cell)

1) First Trial:
= 1.1 volts
TABLE 1
MEASUREMENTS

Figure 1. Setup for Daniell Cell [3].

C.

Carbon Battery (Dry Cell)

For the dry cell, the voltage across the terminals of this
battery was measured first as well. The value obtained was
recorded as its emf. A series circuit was constructed as well,
with the voltmeter connected across the battery in parallel. It
should also be noted that one end terminal and the center tap
of the rheostat is connected, while the other end terminal of
the rheostat is disconnected. In getting the voltage reading, the

Vab (volts)

R ()
20
40
60
80
100

Measured Vab (Volts)

0.26
0.41
0.52
0.60
0.66

I (A)
0.013
0.0103
0.00867
0.00750
0.00660

Calculated r ()
64.62
66.99
66.90
66.67
66.67
Average r = 66.37

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

0.005

0.01
I (A)

Figure 3. Vab vs. I (First trial for Daniell cell)

0.015

Current I was calculated from the measured voltages and

resistances by Ohms Law, I = . With the complete data, the
internal resistances r were calculated through the equation r
=
which was derived earlier. It should be noted from the
data that as the external resistance increases, the current
decreases. The internal resistance increases together with the
external resistance and the average internal resistance
obtained for trial one is 66.37 . In the graph, the slope
determines the internal resistance r. It was computed through
m =
. In this trial, m=
; m = -67.86. The
negative sign in the slope indicates an inverse relationship
between the terminal voltage and the current. The internal
resistance from slope is equal to 67.86 , a value which is
very close to the average r, which is 66.37 . The value of
emf can also be obtained from the graph through the
equation y = mx + b. Y-intercept b is equal to the emf .
Getting emf , 0.52 = (-67.86)(8.67 x10-3) + b. The equation
yielded b = 1.11, a value equivalent to the measured emf 1.10
V.
2) Second Trial:
= 1.08 volts

Vab (volts)

20
40
60
80
100

I (A)
0.0085
0.00753
0.00650
0.00575
0.00520

TABLE 3
MEASUREMENTS

Calculated r ()
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
Average r = 4.00

Measured Vab (Volts)

2.37
2.25
2.05
1.85
1.65

Calculated r ()
107.06
108.97
106.15
107.83
107.69
Average r = 107.54

2.5
Vab (volts)

Measured Vab
(Volts)
0.17
0.29
0.39
0.46
0.52

B. Carbon Zinc (Dry Cell)

= 1.08 volts

I (A)
0.07
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25

TABLE 2
MEASUREMENTS

R ()

data that as the external resistance increases, the current

decreases. The internal resistance increases together with the
external resistance and the average internal resistance
obtained for trial one is 107.54 . In the graph, the slope
determines the internal resistance r. It was computed through
m =
. In this trial, m=
; m = -100. The
negative sign in the slope indicates an inverse relationship
between the terminal voltage and the current. The internal
resistance from slope is equal to 100 , a value which is very
close to the average r, which is 107.54 . The value of emf
can also be obtained from the graph through the equation y =
mx + b. Y-intercept b is equal to the emf . Getting emf ,
0.39 = (-100)(6.5x10-3) + b. The equation yielded b = 1.04, a
value equivalent to the measured emf 1.08 V. It is noted that
the first and second trials have precise results.

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

0.1

I (A)

0.2

0.3

Figure 5. Vab vs. I (First trial for carbon zinc)

0.002

0.004 0.006
I (A)

0.008

0.01

Figure 4. Vab vs. I (Second trial for Daniell cell)

Current I was calculated from the measured voltages and

resistances by Ohms Law, I = . With the complete data, the
internal resistances r were calculated through the equation r
=
which was derived earlier. It should be noted from the

With the complete data, the internal resistances r were

calculated through the equation r =
which was derived
earlier. It should be noted from the data that as the external
resistance increases, the current decreases. The internal
resistance increases together with the external resistance and
the average internal resistance obtained is 4.00 , which is
generally lower than that of a Daniell cells. In the graph, the
slope determines the internal resistance r. It was computed
through m =
. In this trial, m=
; m = -4. The
negative sign in the slope indicates an inverse relationship
between the terminal voltage and the current. The internal
resistance from slope is equal to 4 , a value which is

equivalent to the average r, which is 4 . The value of emf

can also be obtained from the graph through the equation y =
mx + b. Y-intercept b is equal to the emf . Getting emf ,
1.65 = (-4)(0.25) + b. The equation yielded b = 2.65, a value
equivalent to the measured emf 2.65 V.
V. CONCLUSION
The results obtained in the two parts of the experiment
yielded very small discrepancies between the values measured
and calculated. This proves that the equations verify the
theories and laws formulated by renowned physicists. From
the beginning of the experiment, it was expected that the
Daniell cell would have a higher internal resistance than the
carbon zinc battery, and it was confirmed in the experiment.
Therefore, a dry cell is seen as a better battery than a Daniell
cell. It was also verified that as the current increases, the
terminal voltage decreases across both cells. Through the
experiment, it is concluded that the terminal voltage Vab is less
than its emf whenever current is flowing through the battery,
because an internal resistance is present in the battery.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to thank Ms. Katrina Vargas, first
and foremost, for imparting with the author the necessary
knowledge in simple circuits and thermodynamics. She also
wishes to acknowledge her group mates for the term, Nel
Aguilar and Darlene Campado. Lastly, she also gives her
thanks for the assistance and support of the DLSU Physics
department.

REFERENCES
[1] H. D. Young, et al., Current, Resistance, and Electromotive Force, in
Sears and Zemanskys University Physics with Modern Physics, 13th ed.
San Francisco, CA: J. Smith, 2004, pp. 814-831.
[2] J. D. Cutnell and K. W. Johnson, Circuits, in Physics, 7th ed. Danvers,
MA: Wiley, 2007, p. 603.
[3] De La Salle University Physics Department, Experiment 7: EMF,
Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance. Manila, Philippines: De La
Salle University, 2013.
[4] R. Serway and J. Jewett, Direct-Current Circuits, in Physics for
Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, 9th ed. Boston, MA: M.
Finch and C. Hartford, 2008, pp. 833-834.