The Many Facets of

Pulsed Neutron Cased-Hole Logging

The multipurpose
RST service. Carbon-oxygen ratio,
inelastic and
capture spectra,
sigma, borehole
holdup, porosity,
water and oil
velocities, and
borehole salinity
are some of the
measurements that
can be made with
RST equipment.

Ivanna Albertin
Harold Darling
Mehrzad Mahdavi
Ron Plasek
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Italo Cedeo
City Investing Company Ltd.
Quito, Ecuador
Jim Hemingway
Peter Richter
Bakersfield, California, USA
Marvin Markley
Bogota, Colombia
Jean-Rmy Olesen
Beijing, China
Brad Roscoe
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
Wenchong Zeng
Shengli Petroleum Administration Bureau
China National Petroleum Corporation
China
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Darrel
Cannon, Wireline &Testing, Sugar Land, Texas; Efrain
Cruz, GeoQuest, Quito, Ecuador; Steve Garcia,
GeoQuest, Bakersfield, California, USA; Michael Herron
and Susan Herron, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA; Chris Lenn and Colin Whittaker,
Schlumberger Cambridge Research, Cambridge, England; and Chris Ovens, GeoQuest, Aberdeen, Scotland.
In this article, CNL (Compensated Neutron Log), CPLT
(Combinable Production Logging Tool), ELAN (Elemental
Log Analysis), FloView, FloView Plus, FMI (Fullbore
Formation MicroImager), Phasor (Phasor Induction SFL),
RST (Reservoir Saturation Tool), SpectroLith, TDT
(Thermal Decay Time) and WFL (Water Flow Log) are
marks of Schlumberger.
1. For a detailed description of the RST tool hardware
and the latest scintillation detector technology:
Adolph B, Stoller C, Brady J, Flaum C, Melcher C,
Roscoe B, Vittachi A and Schnorr D: Saturation
Monitoring With the RST Reservoir Saturation Tool,
Oilfield Review 6, no. 1 (January 1994): 29-39.
Sigma is a measure of the decay rate of thermal neutrons as they are captured.
2. Holdup is a measure of the volumetric percentage of
each phase in the borehole. Water holdup plus oil
holdup plus gas holdup equals unity. Flow rate equals
holdup multiplied by area and by velocity.

28

Advanced neutron generator design and fast, efficient gamma ray

detectors combine to make a reservoir saturation tool that is capable
of detailed formation evaluation through casing and more. Lithology
determination, reservoir saturations and flow profiles are some of the
comprehensive answers provided by this multipurpose tool.
To manage existing fields as effectively and
efficiently as possible, reservoir engineers
monitor movement of formation fluids
within the reservoir as well as production
from individual wells. Pressure measurements play a vital role in reservoir management. However, these data need to be augmented by other measurements to detect
fluid movement within the producing well
and the surrounding formation. One
recently introduced cased-hole logging tool,
the RST Reservoir Saturation Tool, provides
abundant single-well data to help reservoir
engineers locate bypassed oil and detect
waterflood fronts, fine-tune formation evaluation and monitor production profiles.

A Multipurpose Service

The RST service was introduced in June,

1992 with a through-tubing pulsed neutron
tool capable of providing both carbon-oxygen ratio (C/O) and sigma reservoir saturation measurements.1 Interpretation of either
measurement, under suitable formation and
borehole conditions, provides quantitative
oil saturation. The high-yield neutron generator and high-efficiency dual-detector system provide higher gamma ray count rates,
and hence better statistics, than previous
generations of pulsed neutron devices. This
has led to the development of many other
applications, including spectroscopy mea-

Oilfield Review

Summer 1996

Inaccurate

Alpha processing

Windows

Accuracy and
precision. Alpha
processing combines
the accuracy of the
elemental yields
computation of oil
volume (bottom left)
with the precision of
the windows
approach (top right).
The result is an oil
volume that is both
accurate and precise (top left).

Imprecise

Yields
0.5

0.4

Sw=0%, Yo=100%
0.3

0.2

Sw=0%, Yo=0%

Sw=100%, Yo=100%

0.1
x

Reservoir Saturation

Reservoir saturation is derived from C/O or

inferred from sigma measurements (see Saturation Monitoring, South American Style,
next page ). Inelastic gamma ray spectra are
used to determine the relative concentration
of carbon and oxygen in the formation. A
high C/O indicates oil-bearing formations; a
low ratio indicates water-bearing formations. Sigma is derived from the rate of capture of thermal neutronsmainly by chlorineand is measured using capture
gamma rays. Saline water has a high value
of sigma, and fresh water and hydrocarbon
have low values of sigma. As long as formation water salinity is high, constant and
known, water saturation Sw may then be
calculated.
Carbon-oxygenCarbon-oxygen ratio is
measured in two ways. A ratio (C/Oyields ) is
obtained from full spectral analysis of carbon and oxygen elemental yields. A second
C/O (C/O windows) is obtained by placing
broad windows over the carbon and oxygen
spectral peak regions of the inelastic spectrum. The C/Oyields is the more accurate of
the two ratios, but lower count rates and,
therefore, poorer statistics make it less pre-

Accurate

Precise

Far carbon/oxygen ratio

surements, accurate time-lapse reservoir

monitoring and evaluation in difficult logging environments such as variable formation water resistivity and complex lithology.
Other features of the tool design allow
several auxiliary measurements such as
borehole salinity and thermal neutron
porosity. The tool comes in two
diametersthe 111/16-in. RST-A tool and
21/2-in. RST-B tool. Both use the same type
of neutron generator, detectors and electronics. However, the larger diameter RST-B tool
incorporates shielding to focus the near
detector towards the borehole and the far
detector towards the formation, allowing
logging in flowing and unknown borehole
fluids and also providing a borehole holdup
measurement.2 More recent applications for
the RST-A tool include WFL Water Flow Log
measurements and separate oil and water
phase velocities in horizontal wellsPhase
Velocity Log (PVL) measurements.
Essentially the RST service provides three
types of measurements:
reservoir saturation from C/O or sigma
measurements
lithology and elemental yields from
analysis of inelastic and capture gamma
ray spectra
borehole fluid dynamics from holdup,
WFL and PVL measurements.
This article summarizes the many facets of
RST logging and reviews several examples.

0.0

xxx x
x
xxxxx
xxx
x xx x
xx
xx

Sw=100%, Yo=0%
-0.1
-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Near carbon/oxygen ratio

Water saturation, Sw, and borehole oil holdup, Yo, crossplot. Far carbon-oxygen ratio (FCOR) is more influenced by formation carbon, and
near carbon-oxygen ratio (NCOR) is more influenced by borehole carbon. A crossplot of FCOR versus NCOR (crosses) can, therefore, be used
to determine water saturation and borehole oil holdup. Overlying the
crossplot is a quadrilateral whose end points are determined from an
extensive data base that depends on environmental inputs such as
lithology, casing size and hydrocarbon carbon density. The corners
correspond to 0 and 100 % Sw and 0 and 100 % Yo. Interpolation provides Sw and Yo at each depth.

cise than the C/O windows . Conversely,

C/Owindows is often less accurate but has better statistics and so is more precise. Each
ratio is first transformed to give an oil volume, and then the two oil volumes are
combined using an alpha processing
method to give a final oil volume with good
accuracy and good precision ( top ). The
transforms of C/O ratio to volume of oil use
an extensive data base covering multiple
combinations of lithology, porosity, hole
size, casing size and weight, as well as a

correction for the carbon density of the

hydrocarbon phase.
Carbon-oxygen ratios are generated for
the near and far detectors. These two ratios
are used to give water saturation and borehole oil holdup (above ).
SigmaSigma is a measure of how fast
thermal neutrons are captured, a process
typically dominated by chlorine. Hence
formation sigma may be considered a mea-

29

Saturation Monitoring, South American Style

Fanny field, situated among the oil fields east of

Sw RST<<SwOH
Sw RST<<Sw OH
Water
Oil
Bound water
Sw from
Total
the RST
Porosity
100 p.u. 0

the Andes mountains, in the Oriente basin,

Ecuador, was discovered in 1972 and is presently
operated by City Investing Company Ltd. (below).

Caliper
Lith.
in. 16
inelastic 6
Sigma
RST
Near C/R
0
c.u. 30
Far C/R
Sand SP from OH
0 25
0
Near C/R 100
p.u.
p.u.
Clay 120 mV 30 -0.10 -0.15
GR
Lime
Far C/R
Fluid Analysis
10 API 110 0
0.25 50
p.u.
100

Differential compaction of sands and shale

probably created the structural high that forms
the field. Primary production is from the M-1
sandstones of the Upper Cretaceous Napo with
secondary production from the Lower U sandstones of the Lower Cretaceous Napo.
There are six wells in Fanny field and these are

Depth,
ft

Water
Oil
Bound water
Calcite
Coal
Silt
Quartz
Clay
Combined Model
p.u.
100

M-1 sand

coupled to three others from the adjoining 18B

field drilled by the national oil company of
Ecuador, PetroProduction. Total output is 4000

7700

BOPD of 22.2 API oil with a fluctuating water cut

of between 37% and 91%. Production is by
hydraulic pump.
Fanny-1 was completed as a commingled producer in 1978 and after 18 years it was still producing about 150 BOPD with 90% water cut from
two zones in the M-1 sand body. The high water
cut prompted City Investing to investigate.
A 111/16-in. RST-A tool was run with the well shut-

7750

in to record carbon-oxygen ratio, formation

sigma, borehole sigma, thermal neutron porosity
and borehole salinity measurements.
Tumaco
Esmeraldas
Balao

Fanny

Lower U sand

Quito
ECU AD O R

Tiputini
8400
Tigre

Fanny-1 RST log results. ELAN Elemental Log Analysis interpretation of Sw and lithology (track 3) shows the
original openhole water saturation. Since then the oil-water contact has risen to 7752 ft (track 2) shown by the
RST Sw of nearly 100% through the bottom section of the M-1 sand. The high carbon-oxygen ratio from 7702
to 7709 ft is a coal seam. Very little of M-1 above the oil-water contact is depleted and the Lower U sand also
shows high hydrocarbon saturation.

Formation sigma and thermal neutron porosity

Fanny field location.
South America

Tests on the interval 7710 to 7720 ft [2350 to

improved on the original formation evaluation by

2353 m] confirmed the RST results with a produc-

providing a better estimation of shale volume in

tion rate of 900 BOPD at only 10% water cut. The

the silty, sometimes radioactive, sandstones,

two new zones were also tested and they pro-

and also more accurate lithology identification.

duced 1300 BOPD at 4% water cut.

The final interpretation showed that high water

The old perforations were cement squeezed

production was caused by a rise in the oil-water

and the well, reperforated and recompleted, is

contact to 7752 ft [2363m] (above). It also

now producing 1000 BOPD with low water cut

showed that other sections of the M-1 sand were

a sixfold production increase.

still at original water saturation and identified

30

two virgin oil zones.

Oilfield Review

sure of the chlorine content or salinity of

the formation, and tracks openhole resistivity curves.
The raw sigma measurement contains contributions from the borehole as well as the
formation. To isolate the formation sigma,
the neutron generator is pulsed in a dual
burst pattern: a short burst followed by a
long burst. Near-detector measurements are
strongly influenced by the borehole environment and hence borehole sigma especially for the short neutron burst measurement. Far-detector measurements are
influenced more by formation sigmaespecially the long neutron burst measurement.
Raw sigma measurements are also affected
by neutron diffusion and environmental
variables related to the borehole, casing,
cement and formation. At the heart of the
correction process for these effects is a data
base detailing thousands of combinations of
borehole sizes, casing types, formations of
differing porosity and lithology, and borehole and formation salinities. Instead of trying to define the response to these variables
by a single set of equations with fixed
parameters, a dynamic parameterization
algorithm uses the data base to compute the
corrected response in real-time, during
acquisition (see The Sigma Data Base,
next page ).3
Time-lapseOnce carbon-oxygen measurements or sigma measurements have
been interpreted to produce saturation logs,
these measurements may be repeated later to
monitor reservoir fluid movement such as
oil-water contacts, secondary recovery processes or hydrocarbon depletion ( right ).
Good precision is important for time-lapse

Gamma Ray
0

API

0
SP
-90

mV

120

Porosity from Core

SO from Core

300

p.u.

100

100

SW (11/7/93)
p.u.

-10

DCAL
in.

100

p.u.

Clay
Quartz
K-Feldspar

DIT-E SO (11/7/93)
p.u.

100

RST SO (11/27/93)
p.u.

100

RST SO (4/16/94)
p.u.

100

RST SO (1/30/96)
p.u.

100

Bound Water
Irreducible Water
Formation Water
Phasor Oil Volume
Steam/Air 1993

Depth,
ft

Steam/Air 1995

X100

(continued on page 34)

Time-lapse logging in California. This log

is from a well in the middle of a field that is
produced by heating the oil in place with
steam. Steam takes a narrow path from
one wellbore to another and will, therefore,
not flush out all the heavy oil. After some
time, the steam needs to be redirected to
produce bypassed oil. RST time-lapse data
are used to monitor steam location and
changes in oil saturation.
There has been little change in oil saturation of the upper intervals X100 to X190 ft
(track 2). The lower interval, X200 to X270
ft, shows some oil movement. Steam has
been turned off in the zone X195 to X205 ft
which has resaturated with water (track 3).
3. For more on the dynamic parameterization algorithm
approach:
Plasek RE, Adolph RA, Stoller C, Willis DJ and Bordon
EE: Improved Pulsed Neutron Capture Logging With
Slim Carbon-Oxygen Tools: Methodology, paper SPE
30598, presented at the 70th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995.

Summer 1996

X200

X300

31

The Sigma Data Base

The Schlumberger
Environmental Effects
Calibration Facility,
Houston, Texas, USA.
Over 4000 measurements were made in
more than thirty formations of differing lithology and porosity, with
different combinations
of formation salinities,
borehole salinities, and
completions to produce
the sigma data base.

Diffusion, borehole and lithology effects must be

EUROPA facility, Aberdeen, Scotland.

considered when transforming raw pulsed neu-

umes of the rocks, fluids and tanks used. CNL

tron capture measurements to actual physical

Compensated Neutron Log measurements veri-

quantities. These effects are difficult to account

fied the porosity values and the homogeneity of

for in direct analytical approaches across the

the formations.

entire range of oilfield conditions. Therefore, an

Matrix sigma values were determined by gross

extensive data base of laboratory measurements

macroscopic cross-section measurements pro-

is used to correct for these effects in real time.1

vided by commercial reactor facilities and by pro-

Over several years, the data base was acquired

cessing complete elemental analyses through

for the RST-A, RST-B and TDT-P logging tools at

Schlumberger Nuclear Parameter (SNUPAR)

the Schlumberger Environmental Effects Calibra-

cross-section tables.2

tion Facility (EECF), Houston, Texas (above and

Water salinity was determined by a calibrated

right). This enables raw tool measurements to be

titration procedure and then converted into fluid

referenced to calibrated values of formation

sigma again using SNUPAR cross-section tables.

sigma, borehole salinity and formation porosity

for a variety of environmental conditions. Each

AlgorithmRST Sigma Processing

tool was run in over 30 formations of different

eling was used to extend the range of available

A three-step sequence is performed to translate

lithologies and porosities. Formation and bore-

sandstone formations. To date, the data base con-

raw log measurements into borehole salinity,

hole fluid salinities were varied and different

tains over 4000 points.

completions were introduced into the borehole

The sigma values of the database formations

representing different casing sizes and cement

are calculated classically

thicknesses.

= (1- ) ma + S fl fl
where is the formation porosity, ma is
matrix sigma, Sfl is the formation fluid saturation
and fl is fluid sigma.

Altogether more than 1000 formation-borehole

combinations were measured for each tool. Mod-

Porosity of the EECF tank formations was determined by carefully measuring all weights and vol-

32

porosity, corrected near and far sigma and formation sigma (next page, top).
The first step is to correct the near and far
detector time-decay spectra for losses in the
detection and counting system, and for back1. Plasek RE et al, reference 3, main text.
2. McKeon DC and Scott HD: SNUPARA Nuclear
Parameter Code for Nuclear Geophysics Applications,
Nuclear Physics 2, no. 4 (1988): 215-230.

Oilfield Review

ground radiation. Typically the background is

Input
Time decay spectra

averaged to improve statistics.

The next step is to generate the apparent quan-

STEP 1

Correction to Spectra
Counting loss corrections
Background adaptive filtering
Background subtraction

tities from the spectra, such as near and far

apparent formation sigmas. These quantities are
not environmentally corrected.
The third step is to apply transforms and envi-

STEP 2
Compute Apparent Quantities
Near apparent borehole sigma
Far apparent formation sigma
Near/far capture count rate ratio

ronmental corrections to the apparent tool quanti-

SBNA
SFFA
TRAT

ties to arrive at borehole salinity, porosity and

formation sigma. The technique uses dynamic
database parameterization that handles both the
transformation and environmental corrections.

Environmental
Parameters
Borehole size
Casing size/weight
Lithology

Data Base

External
Knowledge
(Optional)
Porosity
Borehole salinity

Tool
Calibration
Near/far ratio

Accuracy
A series of benchmark measurements has been
made to assess the accuracy of the algorithm
used with the data base to compute borehole
salinity, porosity and formation sigma (below).
These benchmark measurements include repro-

STEP 3
Transform from Apparent to
Corrected Quantities

cessing the entire data base as well as logging in

industry standard facilities such as the EUROPA
sigma facility in Aberdeen, Scotland (previous

page, top right) and the API porosity test pit,

Outputs
Borehole salinity
Porosity
Corrected near and far sigma
Formation sigma

at the University of Houston, in Texas.

BSAL SIBF
TPHI
SFNC SFFC
SIGM

Database points were reprocessed with the

dynamic parameterization algorithm and the
results were compared with the assigned values.

Simplified RST sigma processing.

60

35

40

30

20

10

-1.5
0.0
1.5
Deviation from assigned
sigma, c.u.

0
0

10

20

30

40

Assigned sigma, c.u.

50

60

250

Borehole salinity, kppm NaCl

Measured sigma, c.u.

Measured sigma, c.u.

Limestone
Sandstone
Dolomite

30

50

25
20
15
10
5
0

41 p.u.
18 p.u.
0 p.u.

200

150

100

50

0
0

10

15

20

25

Assigned sigma, c.u.

30

35

10

20

30

40

50

Sigma, c.u.

Processing accuracy. Benchmark measurements were made to assess the accuracy of the algorithm in computing formation and borehole sigma, porosity and borehole salinity. Sigma measured with the RST-A tool versus assigned database sigma (left) shows average errors are small0.22 c.u. Sigma measured at the EUROPA
facility in Aberdeen (middle) again shows excellent agreement with the assigned values. Comparison of RST-A tool sigma (right) versus borehole salinity shows that
corrected sigma is independent of borehole salinityvital for time-lapse surveys or log-inject-log operations. In the crossover region (shaded area), formation sigma
approaches or even exceeds borehole sigma. Historically, pulsed neutron capture tools erroneously identify the borehole decay as formation sigma and formation decay
as borehole sigma in this region. However, the RST dynamic parameterization method solves this long-standing problem, correctly distinguishing between formation and
borehole sigma components.

Summer 1996

33

The algorithm does exceptionally well in match-

30 p.u.

ing the assigned values. For example, the average errors for formation sigma were 0.22 capture

20 p.u.

500

units (c.u.) for the RST-A tool and 0.20 c.u. for

10 p.u.

the RST-B tool.

calibration facility partially funded by the UK
Atomic Energy Authority with major support from
a consortium of 15 oil companies and government agencies. The RST-A tool was run in all the

20 p.u. 15% Calcite

400

Permeability, md

The EUROPA facility is an independent sigma

Effect of clay and

calcite on permeability. A small
percentage of clay
has a dramatic
effect on permeability. Calcite also
reduces permeability. So to determine a wells producibility or the
cause of any formation damage, it
is important to
understand the
mineralogy.

600

300

200

openhole formations and several cased-hole formations. A smaller number of measurements

100

were made with the RST-B tool. Both tools read

the true formation sigma over a wide range of
lithologies, porosities, formation and borehole

fluids, borehole sizes and completions. Even in

the difficult crossover region, where formation
sigma approaches or exceeds borehole sigma,
the errors are small and the tool does not lock on
to the wrong sigma component.
Both EUROPA and the University of Houston API
pits were used to check porosity readings. The

0. 2

techniques, which by definition look at differences from one log to another over a
period of several months. RST data can be
gathered at logging speeds nearly three times
those of previous-generation tools for the
same precision.4

agreement between the two sets of porosities

Lithology

was excellent.

Assessing reservoir deliverability and

enhancing zone productivity rely on a thorough understanding of the rock matrix. For
example, clay content dramatically affects
permeability ( above ). 5 Elemental yields
derived from RST spectroscopy measurements provide the input to determine clay
and other mineral content and hence
improve understanding of the rock matrix.
Elemental yieldsNeutrons interact with
the formation in several ways. Inelastic and
capture interactions produce spontaneous
release of gamma radiation at energy levels
that depend on the elements involved. Measurement of the gamma ray spectra produced by these interactions can then be
used to quantify the abundance of elements
in the formation. Elemental yields are often
used in various combinations or ratios to aid
complex lithology interpretation, to determine shale volume or to augment incomplete openhole data (see Making Full Use
of RST Data in China, page 36 ).

Precision
Key to time-lapse monitoring techniques is
repeatability or precision. Time-lapse uses differences in measured quantities to monitor, for
example, the progress of waterflooding, the
expansion of gas caps and the depletion of reservoirs. The RST tool has been benchmarked to log
nearly three times faster than previous generation tools for the same level of precision.3
3. For examples of repeatabilityprecisionsee:
Plasek et al, reference 3, main text.

4. For more details on time-lapse monitoring see sections on precision and auxiliary measurements:
Plasek RE et al, reference 3.
5. Herron M: Estimating the Intrinsic Permeability of
Clastic Sediments from Geochemical Data, Transactions of the SPWLA 28th Annual Logging Symposium,
London, England, June 29-July 2, 1987, paper HH.
6. Roscoe B, Grau J, Cao Minh C and Freeman D:
Non-Conventional Applications of Through-Tubing
Carbon-Oxygen Logging Tools, Transactions of the
SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, Paris,
France, June 26-29, 1995, paper QQ.

34

0.4

Dispersed clay, %

At high neutron energies, inelastic interactions dominate. After a few collisions, neutron energy is reduced below the threshold
for inelastic events. The probability of an
inelastic interaction occurring is also reasonably constant for all major elements.
As neutrons slow to thermal energy levels,
capture interactions dominate. Some elements are more likely to capture neutrons
than others and so contribute more to the
capture gamma ray spectrum.
Inelastic and capture gamma ray spectra
are recorded by opening counting windows
at the appropriate time after a neutron burst
from the RST neutron generator. Tool design
allows not only for much higher gamma ray
count rates than previous generation tools,
but also for gain stabilization that enables
lower gamma ray energy levels to be
recorded for both inelastic and capture
measurements. A major advantage of this is
the inclusion of the inelastic gamma ray
peaks on the spectrum at 1.37 MeV for
magnesium and at 1.24 MeV and 1.33 MeV
for iron.6
A library of standard elemental spectra,
measured in the laboratory for each type of
tool, is used to determine individual elemental contributions (next page ).
SpectroLith interpretationSpectroLith
processing is a quantitative mineral-based
7. Herron SL and Herron MM: Quantitative Lithology:
An Application for Open and Cased Hole Spectroscopy, Transactions of the SPWLA 37th Annual
Logging Symposium, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
June 16-19, 1996, paper E.
8. See Roscoe B et al, reference 6.

Oilfield Review

Inelastic Spectra

Oxygen

Silicon
Relative counts

Magnesium

Iron
Calcium

Sulfur
Background

Carbon

Elemental standards for the RST-A

tool. Lower gamma
ray energy levels
are recorded by the
RST tools than by
previous generation
pulsed neutron tools.
This allows measurement of elemental contributions
from elements such
as magnesium and
iron. Elemental
yields are processed
from standard spectra obtained using
laboratory measurements. Shown are
the standards for
inelastic (top) and
capture (bottom)
spectra for the
1 11/16-in. RST-A tool.

Energy, MeV
Capture Spectra

Iron
Chlorine

Relative counts

Silicon

Titanium
Calcium
Sulfur
Hydrogen
Gadolinium

Energy, MeV

lithology interpretation derived from elemental yields. Traditional lithology interpretation

relied on measurements of elements such as
aluminum and potassium to determine clay
content. Aluminum, especially, is difficult to
measure and requires a combination of logging tools; the interpretation is also complex.
A recent detailed study of cores showed
that a linear relationship exists between alu-

Summer 1996

minum and total clay concentration. Of

more importance, it also showed that silicon, calcium and iron can be used to produce an accurate estimation of clay without
knowledge of the aluminum concentration.7
The concentrations of these three elements
can be obtained from RST spectroscopy
measurements.
In addition, carbonate concentrations
defined as calcite plus dolomitecan be
determined from the calcium concentration

alone with the remainder of the formation

being composed of quartz, feldspar and
mica minerals.
SpectroLith interpretation involves three
steps:
production of elemental yields from
gamma ray spectra
transformation of yields into concentration logs
conversion of concentration logs into
fractions of clay, carbonate and framework minerals.
Borehole Fluid

The producing wellbore environment may

include a combination of oil, water and gas
phases in the borehole as well as flow
behind casing. Borehole fluid interpretation
is primarily based on fluid velocities and
borehole holdup. The RST equipment
makes these measurements using several
independent methods, with enough redundancy to provide a quality control cross
check:
The WFL Water Flow Log measures water
velocity and water flow rate using the
principle of oxygen activation. This
method detects water flowing inside and
outside pipe, and in up and down flow.
The Phase Velocity Log (PVL) measures
oil and water velocities separately by
injecting a marker fluid, which mixes and
travels with the specified phase. This
method may be applied to up and down
flow, but only fluids in the pipe are
marked and therefore detected.
Two-phaseoil and waterborehole
holdup may be measured in continuous
logging mode with the RST-B tool.8
Three-phaseoil, water and gasborehole holdup is currently an RST-A station
measurement based on a combination of
C/O and inelastic count rate ratio data.
Borehole salinity is one of the computations made as part of the sigma and porosity log and may be used to compute a
borehole water holdup with either the
RST-A or the RST-B tool.
(continued on page 39)

35

Making Full Use of RST Data in China

Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo are typical of the Shengli

complex of oil fields about 200 km [125 miles]

Sonic and gamma ray data do not provide

MONGOLIA

enough lithology information to account for matrix

CHINA

southeast of Beijing near the Bo Hai Gulf, China

(right).1 Both fields have a similar deltaic deposi-

guished from tight siliclastic streaks. Sonic-

tional environment, with alternating sand-shale

derived porosity may also be inaccurate if litholBeijing

sequences. Thin, tight, calcareous streaks within

the depositional sequences are common. Reser-

ogy and formation fluids are unknown, and also, if

Beijing

the sands are unconsolidated and the compaction

Qingdao

voir layer thickness varies from more than 10 m

[31.2 ft] to less than 1 m [3.1 ft] and each layer is

Bo Hai Gulf

Chinese oil fields have been under water injection to maintain pressure and improve sweep of

because the reservoir sands are rich in micas and

Shanghai
Shengli Complex
Sheng Tuo

sigma-mode pass provided sigma for shale volume estimation and thermal neutron porosity
TAIWAN

gram uses a mix of the low-salinity connate water

Hong Kong

and fresh surface water, which has resulted in

variable and unknown water resistivity in many

(TPHI) for effective porosity evaluation. The

inelastic-capture data were analyzed in detail not
only for the carbon-oxygen ratio (C/O), but also for

reservoirs.
enhanced oil recovery program and maximize oil

feldsparsboth radioactive minerals.

To augment the limited openhole data, an RST

Gu Dao

the heavy hydrocarbons. The water injection pro-

In order to efficiently manage the waterflood

factor is unknown. The gamma ray curve alone is

unsuitable for accurate shale volume evaluation

produced separately.
For more than 30 years, many of these eastern

carbon. For example, carbonates cannot be distin-

elemental yields to provide other ratios. For examLocation of Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo fields.

Through-tubing logging, while the well was

ple, the ratio of iron to silicon (IIR) is indicative of

shale volume if kaolinite and heavy minerals are

recovery, it is essential to know the waterflood

flowing, avoids formation damage and also

not present; the ratio of silicon to silicon-plus-cal-

sweep efficiency, determine residual or remain-

increases operational efficiency in a multiwell

cium (LIR) may be used as a lithology indicator;

ing oil saturation, and pinpoint zones bypassed

campaign.

and the ratio of chlorine to hydrogen (SIR) gives a

by the recovery scheme.

Hydrocarbon saturation evaluation from open-

The 5 1/2-in. casing inside 8 1/2-in. borehole

completion produces a thick cement sheath

formation salinity indicator.

The initial volume of oil was computed from the

hole resistivity logs, run in newly drilled infill

that reduces measurement sensitivity. The RST

openhole resistivity data in 1994 assuming that all

wells, is difficult because the formation water

tool has a high-energy, high-yield neutron gen-

sands were at connate water resistivity. The 1995

resistivity is variable and most of the time

erator and an efficient detection system that

RST carbon-oxygen evaluation computed remain-

unknown. Reservoir saturation monitoring with

provide better statistics in thick cement than

ing oil. A decrease in oil between the two may be

sigma measurements is impractical, as there is

the previous-generation pulsed neutron tools.

due to reservoir depletion, but could also be due

little contrast between the oil and water sigmas

An additional pass in sigma mode provides

to an overly optimistic openhole evaluation if the

and, in any case, the water sigma is unknown.

data useful to accurately evaluate shaliness,

reservoir water was not at connate salinity, but at

These constraints leave carbon-oxygen measure-

especially in wells with scarce openhole data.

the fresher floodwater salinity.

ments as the only viable option.

The Shengli oilfield operatorsShengli
Petroleum Administration Bureau, China National

Measurements such as neutron porosity and

The additional RST data proved invaluable. For

count rates can also be recorded to aid inter-

example, in the Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo fields in

pretation when gas is present.

general, sigma responds primarily to changes in

Petroleum Corporation (SPAB-CNPC)decided to

matrix sigma and therefore provides the best shale

run the 21/2-in. RST-B tool for many reasons:

Evaluation with Scarce Openhole Data

indicator. The lithology indicator ratio LIR was

The shielded dual-detector system alleviates

Key to the interpretation of carbon-oxygen data is

used to identify the tight calcite streaks at X201 m

the effect of a changing or unknown borehole

a knowledge of lithology to account for matrix

and X218 m.

oil holdup, as well as the effect of waxy

carbon, and effective porosity to calculate oil sat-

deposits on the casing.

uration. A typical Sheng Tuo well illustrates the

1. Olesen J-R, Chen Y, Zeng W, Zhu L and Zhang Z:

Remaining Oil Saturation Evaluation in Water Flooded
Fields Under Variable Formation Water Resistivity, to be
presented at the 1996 International Symposium on Well
Logging Techniques for Oilfield Development, Beijing,
Peoples Republic of China, September 17-21, 1996.

36

Interpretation of the salinity indicator ratio (SIR)

is more complicated. However, when the forma-

benefits of additional data provided by the RST

tion water volume remains constant, SIR responds

tool (next page). For this well the openhole data

directly to formation fluid salinity and can be used

were limited to sonic and gamma ray logs.

to determine the progress of injection water

approximately the case in the large reservoir
between X220 m and X245 m.

Oilfield Review

IIR
0

LIR
2.5 0.625

SIGM
0

c.u.

DT
1.25

150 sec/ft

SIR
50 -0.5

ppk

TPHI
3.5 60

GR
100

API

Openhole Analysis
50

p.u.

100

NPHI
250

60

p.u.

p.u.

100

Openhole Fluid 1994

p.u.

Shale
0

Bound Water

The inelastic count rate ratio (CRRA) from the

Quartz

near and far detector is sensitive to porosity

Calcite
RST Oil 1995

Depth,
m

Water

and gas content.

For example, in one Gu Dao well, the upper
sand body, X103 m to X109 m, shows the presence of gas (next page, top). Sigma and CRRA

X200

scales were chosen so that the curves overlay in

clean gas-free formations. In the upper sand they
show negative separation as both sigma and
CRRA are driven lower by the presence of gas.
Similarly, TPHI shows a reduced neutron porosity
when compared to the true formation porosity
taken from the openhole interpretation of 1990.
No gas was apparent on the 1990 openhole
logs, so it is assumed that reservoir pressure has
declined below bubblepoint allowing gas to come
out of solution. Tests indicate that this is a waterbearing zone with some gas, confirming the RST
interpretation.

X250

Determining Water Resistivity and Flood Index

Interpreting openhole logs of newly drilled wells
Formation evaluation with additional RST data. Volumetric analysis (track 4) shows remaining hydrocarbon
saturation determined from RST carbon/oxygen ratio. The 1994 openhole fluid curve indicates more oil due to
either depletion or an overly optimistic evaluation. A comparison of RST porosity (TPHI), cased hole CNL
Compensated Neutron Log porosity (NPHI), and sonic transit time (DT), shows good agreement (track 3),
especially when NPHI is put on a sandstone scale3 to 4 p.u. shift to the left. The lithology indicator (LIR) is
about 1 for siliclastics and decreases for carbonates (track 2). Two tight calcite streaks can be seen at X201
and X218 m. The salinity indicator (SIR) responds to formation salinity if porosity and hydrocarbon saturation
are approximately constant (track 2). The iron indicator (IIR), gamma ray and sigma (track 1) follow the same
trend, and each may be used for shale volume calculation under the correct conditions. Gamma ray indication
of shale will be pessimistic if radioactive sands are presentfor example, those containing micas and
feldspars. Clays, except for kaolinite, contain iron. Sigma responds to formation matrix and fluids. Sigma fluid
is almost the same when oil and fresh water are present, so sigma responds primarily to changes in matrix.
In Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo, sigma has proved to be the best shale indicator.

in reservoirs that have been partially or fully

flooded is challenging. Water resistivity, Rw ,
often varies continuously from the relatively high
value of fresh floodwater to the low value of the
more saline connate water. If connate water
resistivity is used for Rw , then hydrocarbon saturation will be optimistic in partially flooded
zones.
However, by combining openhole and RST data
a continuously varying Rw may be calculated
leading to true hydrocarbon saturation. The eval-

In the shaly lower section of the reservoir,

Identifying Gas-Bearing Zones

uation may be taken further if floodwater resistiv-

salinity is high and probably at connate level,

Carbon/oxygen ratio responds to the carbon con-

ity is known and constant. In this case, the total

indicating minimal depletion. The middle section

centration in pore space. In gas-bearing zones,

volume of water may then be split into connate

is the cleanest, most permeable section and

carbon concentration is low, so C/O is low. Low

and floodwater.

shows a progressive drop in salinity. The water-

C/O can easily be misinterpreted as a water-bear-

flood front has reached this section. The upper

ing zone. However, several auxiliary measure-

cal to the interpretation. It must be late enough

section shows an intermediate salinity and shale

ments can help identify gas-bearing intervals:

after well completion to allow drilling fluids to

content, and also a smaller discrepancy between

Gas sigma is much lower than water sigma or

dissipate, but before significant hydrocarbon

Reservoir saturation acquisition timing is criti-

RST saturation and openhole saturation. Flooding

oil sigma; therefore, at comparable shale lev-

depletion occurs. Four weeks has proven ade-

has reached this section, but is not complete.

els, the RST sigma measurement will be lower

quate for Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo fields.

Similar results have been seen with other RST

in gas-bearing reservoirs.

logs in these fields.

Hydrogen index is also low in gas-bearing

Water resistivity is computed using standard

openhole interpretation methods. Openhole logs

zones. Therefore, neutron porosity measure-

provide Rt , Rclay, Vclay and effective porosity,

ments such as RST porosity (TPHI) underesti-

eff. Water saturation comes from RST interpre-

mate formation porosity.

Summer 1996

37

in.

10

Borehole Fluid

100

p.u.

50

p.u.

Openhole Analysis
0

100

Assumed Cement
Sheath

5.75

p.u.

RST Gas Indicator

1.75

Formation

c.u.

p.u.

100

tation. The flood index is determined as a linear

interpolation between floodwater resistivity and
connate water resistivity.

Bound Water

In a Gu Dao field example, connate and floodwa-

RST Fluid Volume 1995

Quartz

ter salinities are 8.5 ppk and 3 ppk, respectively

50

Calcite

(below left). The lower section, X296 to X303 m,

RST Oil 1995

is shaly and water-bearing. The middle section,

p.u.

TPHI from Sigma mode

SIGM
-10.0

50

p.u.
Shale

Cased Hole Sw 1995 O.H. Fluid Volume 1990

Casing Wall

Depth,
m

Openhole Porosity

Openhole Sw 1990

Radius of Bit
0

30.0 0.5

p.u.

Water

X287 m to X296 m, is the cleanest and is separated

RST Oil 1995

Gas

from the lower section by a thin, clean, sand streak

where the oil-water contact is situated.

X100

The clean midsection has the highest permeability and provides a preferential conduit for waterflooding. The discrepancy between RST-derived
and openhole hydrocarbon saturation is due to the
inadequate Rw estimation for the openhole evaluation. True hydrocarbon saturation is 40% as shown
by RST data and not 60%. Water resistivity, computed from a synthesis of RST and openhole data,
indicates that fresh waterflooding has increased
Rw from the connate water value of 0.35 ohm-m to

X125

about 1 ohm-m. The flood-index calculation confirms that the cleanest levels of this reservoir have
been heavily flooded.
The shalier upper sand section shows general
agreement between RST-derived and openhole
hydrocarbon saturation. Because of the increase in
Gas detection. Inelastic count rate ratios of near-to-far detector counts and sigma are both affected by gas
(track 2). Negative separation of these curves indicates gas. RST porosity, TPHI, also reads lower in gas (track
3). Although no gas was shown on the openhole logs, it is assumed that solution gas has accumulated in the
fully depleted zone between X100 m to X109 m. Tests indicate that the layer is mainly water and gas.
RST-derived Rw

Radius of Bit
10 0

0
Borehole Fluid
Casing Wall
Assumed
Cement Sheath
Formation
Depth,
m

Openhole Porosity
2 50

p.u.

Openhole Analysis
0 0

Cased Hole RST Sw O.H. Fluid Volume 1994

100

p.u.
Flood Index

0 50

p.u.

RST Fluid Volume 1995

0 50

p.u.
Nonmovable Oil

p.u.

100

shaliness and the related decrease in permeability,

waterflooding essentially bypasses this section
and little hydrocarbon sweep is achieved.
Campaign Success
The Shengli oilfield RST campaign has shown that

Shale

hydrocarbon monitoring in waterflooded fields with

Bound water

varying salinity is a viable procedure. In addition,

Quartz
Nonmovable oil
Open Hole 1995

Remaining Oil RST1995 Movable RST Oil 1995

Water
Flood Water

ancillary RST measurements complement openhole information, improving both formation evaluation and detection of gas-bearing intervals. Also,
the combination of openhole and RST data
acquired within one month is a powerful tool for
evaluating the waterflooding process. During the
course of the campaign, RST data contributed to
the achievement of the SPAB-CNPC engineers goal
of maintaining oil output while controlling water
production. RST results showed a large amount of

X290

remaining hydrocarbon, especially in the massive

sands of the Sheng Tuo oil field.

X300

38

Water resisitivity, Rw, and flood index. A flood

index can be calculated from variable Rw (track 2)
computed from RST and openhole data collected
before any hydrocarbon depletion and after invasion
fluids have dissipated (track 3).

Oilfield Review

WFL measurementsWater flow logging,

introduced with the last-generation TDT
Thermal Decay Time service several years
ago, is now available with the RST service.
The RST neutron generator provides
improved burst control, which allows detection of water velocities up to 500 ft/min
[150 m/min] with the far detector alone. In
addition, the introduction of energy discrimination and shielding between neutron generator and detectors results in a significant
improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio, and
extends sensitivity to low flow conditions.
Oxygen molecules in water are activated
by a burst of neutrons producing a radioactive cloud. The cloud moves with the water
along the borehole, emitting gamma rays as
activated oxygen decays back to its steady
state (top right ). As the cloud passes, gamma
rays are first detected by the near detector
and then by the far detector of the RST
sonde, producing a characteristic peak in
the count rate of each. The time between
neutron burst and cloud detectiontime-offlightand the distance between neutron
generator and detector give water velocity.
Other detectors can be added farther away
in the tool string to detect extremely high
water velocities. The RST equipment can
also be turned upside-down to detect downward flow.
In addition, the volume of activated oxygen is proportional to the volume of water
flowing by the detectors. The profile of the
detected signal carries information about
the mean water velocity, water holdup and
water flow rate. These quantities are related
in that the water velocity, water holdup and
effective cross-sectional area of the pipe can
be combined to compute the water flow
rate (see Production Logging in the San
Joaquin Basin, next page ).
PVL Phase velocity logging has been
developed for horizontal wells where stratified flow is present. Like WFL logging, the
Phase Velocity Log measures time-of-flight.
Gadolinium has a very high thermal neutron
capture cross section and is injected into the
producing borehole ( bottom right ). The
injection fluid is designed to mix with either
the water or oil phase only. Gadolinium acts
as a sink, sucking in thermal neutrons and

Summer 1996

Near Detector

Far Detector

Additional Detector

Casing
Minitron

Oil

Water

16

+16O*

p+16N

O+n

16

O+

Half-life ~7.1sec

WFL Water Flow Log service. A short burst of neutrons interacts

with oxygen in the surrounding water forming an oxygen isotope
with a half-life of 7.1 sec. As the activated oxygen decays back to
its steady state, gamma rays are emitted. In flowing water the
cloud of activated oxygen, and hence gamma rays, travels along
at the water velocity. Characteristic increases in count rate are
seen as the cloud passes the various detectors. The distance
between neutron generator and detector and the time-of-flight
give water velocity. The initial cloud volume is proportional to the
amount of oxygen present and hence volume of water. The area
under the gamma ray peak as the cloud passes a detector is,
therefore, also proportional to the volume of water flowing by
(water holdup)allowing for effects of diffusion and decay rate.
Combining water velocity and holdup gives water flow rate.

Marker signal

Start of injection
0

10

20

30

40
50
Time, sec

Oil-miscible marker

Phase Velocity Sonde

60

70

RST tool

80

Oil

Phase Velocity
Logging (PVL).
A strong neutron
absorber is
injected into the
appropriate phase
of producing fluid.
This is subsequently detected,
allowing a time-of90 flight measurement that gives
the velocity of that
phase.

Water

39

Production Logging in the San Joaquin Basin

Elk Hills is one of the largest oil fields in the San

Gas

Joaquin basin about 20 miles [32 km] west of Bak-

Oil

ersfield, California, USA (below). The field forms

Water

part of the Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1 and is

Downhole Flow Rate, B/D

operated by Bechtel Petroleum Operations, Inc.

0

for the Department of Energy. Although Elk Hills

was discovered in 1911, production was limited
until the 1974 oil crisis resulted in opening up the
field to full production in 1976. The field has pro-

Pressure
Depth,
ft
1050 psi 1300 206

3000

Temp

Water Flow Stations

Water Flow Log, B/D

211 0

3000

duced over 1.1 billion barrels of oil and a significant quantity of gas, and now produces about
60,000 BOPD of medium-gravity crude.
Earlier this year, Bechtel wanted to determine

X200

the flow profile and quantify the zonal contributions to oil, water and gas production from a well
in which production from a waterflooded sand
reservoir was commingled with production from a
shaly interval. A production log consisting of temperature, pressure and spinner was run and stationary WFL Water Flow Log measurements were

X400

Thief zone

taken with the RST tool.

The flow profile turned out to be complex,
showing a zone of water recirculation near the
bottom and a thief zone above (right).1
A combination of spinner and WFL data located
the recirculation zone. The spinner indicated down
flow, while the WFL data indicated a small
amount of water flowing up. The temperature log

X600
Recirculating water zone

also showed a strong anomaly over this interval.

The flow profile shows a net flow of oil from this
zone simply because a recirculation zone requires
multiphase flow.
Both spinner and WFL data show an increase in
flow above the recirculation zone before an abrupt
X800
Fresno

WFL Water Flow Log. The flow profile indicates that most of the gas production is from X350 to X370 ft
(tracks 2 and 3). Below this depth is a complex profile of thief zone and water recirculation. WFL stationary readings determined the water production profile, and temperature and pressure (track 1) aided the interpretation.

San Andreas Fault

Coalinga

decrease at X430 ft. The temperature also drops

C A L I F O R N I A

Elk hills

Bakersfield
Taft

occurs across the short perforated interval X350 to

rate and temperature can occur only if the forma-

X370 ft. Here, a large increase in spinner flow rate

tion is taking fluida thief zone. Conventional

and a change in slope of the pressure data indicate

openhole logs and the mud log suggest that there

an influx of gas. The WFL log shows doubling of the

is a highly resistive, low porosity carbonate in

water flow rate across the same interval.

this interval. The FMI Fullbore Formation

MicroImager tool shows what has been inter-

U S A

Location of
Elk Hills field,
Kern County,
California.

40

The next significant event in the flow profile

at this point. The combination of decrease in flow

preted as a calcite healed fracture. This fracture

has most likely been opened by acid treatment
and has created the thief zone.

1. Water recirculation occurs, usually in deviated wells,

when water and oil are present. Water can flow up with
the oil on the upper side of the well and down on the
lower side in a continuous cycle.
A thief zone occurs when a perforated zone has a lower
formation pressure than the borehole, causing flow
from borehole to formation.

Oilfield Review

CPLT Combinable
Production Logging Tool
Pressure and temperature

RST Reservoir Saturation Tool

Oil holdup
Gas indicator

FloView tool
Flow regime
Water holdup

Fluid marker
injector

Total flow rate

Gamma ray
detector

CPLT

GR

RST

FloView Plus tool

Spinner

WFL Water Flow Log

Water velocity
Water holdup
Water flow rate index

Phase Velocity Log

Marker injection for oil
and/or water velocity

The next generation production logging tool string.

changing the borehole sigma. The detection

of this change provides a time-of-flight measurement for the marked phase.
Two-phase borehole holdup The two
detectors of the RST sonde provide two carbon-oxygen measurements that are sufficient to solve for formation water saturation
( S W ) and borehole oil holdup ( Y O ) (see
crossplot, page 29 ). Four points may be
defined on a plot of far carbon-oxygen ratio
versus near carbon-oxygen ratio to give a
quadrilateral:
Water in the formation and water in
the borehole (SW = 100, YO = 0 )
Oil in the formation and water in the
borehole (SW = 0, YO = 0)
Water in the formation and oil in
the borehole (SW = 100, YO = 100)
Oil in the formation and oil in the
borehole (SW = 0, YO = 100).

Summer 1996

The exact position of these points depends

on lithology, porosity, hydrocarbon carbon
density, hole size, casing size, casing weight
and sonde typeRST-A or RST-B sonde.
With the larger RST-B sonde, the quadrilateral is wide since the far detector is shielded
to be more sensitive to the formation and
the near detector shielded to be more sensitive to the borehole. This provides good separation of the signals and a good borehole
oil holdup measurement in addition to a formation saturation measurement. The slimmer RST-A sonde is not focused and, therefore, requires knowledge of the borehole
fluids to separate the formation and borehole signals.9
Three-phase holdupA combination of
RST measurements can be used to compute
three-phase holdup. Gas holdup is indicated
by the inelastic near-to-far count rate ratio.
The near and far C/Oyields depend on gas,
water and oil holdups. By combining these
measurements and applying two conditionsthe sum of the holdups must equal
unity and also the sum of the saturations
must equal unitythree-phase holdups may
be calculated. The RST measurement of
borehole sigma can also be combined with
this analysis to enhance the holdup calculation if the water salinity is known.

Comprehensive Cased-Hole Evaluation

Since commercialization of the RST service

four years ago, many applications have
been developed. With the addition of lithology interpretation, phase velocity logging
and three-phase holdup, the tool is rapidly
becoming a comprehensive cased-hole
evaluation service. 10 A future Oilfield
Review article will explain in more detail
some of these new services, including new
production logging combinations (above ).
AM
9. For an alternative method of measuring borehole
holdup with the RST-A tool: Roscoe B et al, reference 6.
10. Schnorr DR: Determining Oil, Water and Gas
Saturations Simultaneously Through Casing by Combining C/O and Sigma Measurements, paper SPE
35682, presented at the SPE Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, Alaska, USA, May 22-24, 1996.

41