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1. Fundamentals
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. The
notion of word can refer to a lexeme, word forms or grammatical words.
Exercise of morphemes
1- How many morphemes do these words have?
-
Under: 1
Undo: 2
Unpack: 2
Unjust: 1
Uncle: 1
Baked: bak(e).ed
Reheat: re.heat
Sticker: stick.er
Hardest: hard.est
Enlarge: en.large
Impossible
/mpsbl/l
Intolerable /nIncomplete
tlrbl l/
plit/
Impatient /m
pent/
Indecent
disnt/
Immovable
muvbl/l
Intangible /nIngratitude
tndbl l/
rttjud/
/
-
/km
/nIncompatible
/kmptbl l/
{negative prefix}
{in}
/n/
/m/
//
Cups
/kps/
Mugs
/mz/
Mazes
mezz/
Carts
/kts/
Keys /ki:z/
Beaches /
bitz/
{regular plural}
/z/
/z/ (after sibilants)
/s/
work
worked
shake
shook
meet
met
play
played
take
took
keep
kept
introduce
forsake
forsook
sweep
swept
introduced
ular past
Reg
Types of morph
Subregular
Subregular
Brought
person}
{bring}
tense}
{singular} {past
{present tense}
Types of morphemes
-
Ex: work.s
Obligatorilly bound
Affixes:
Suffixes: they come after the root (homeless, books, truth ful ness)
Infixes: they come in the root itself. These affixes are very weird in
English but in other languages are used a lot.
-
Arabic:
ktb
to write
- k_t_b
German: singen
gesungen
Inflection
(grammatica
l)
(basic)
meaning
-
book (noun)
books (noun)
work (verb)
worked (verb)
4. It is marked
further
from
the root than
derivation in
many
languages
2. It produces
word-forms of
a lexeme
5. It cannot be
iterated
(repeated)
WORK:
work,
works, working,
worked
6.
Inflection
only can add
suffixes
Noun -s
Verb -ed, -ing,
-s, -en (written)
1. Does not
alter
the
word-class
3. No shift in
cognitive
Adjective -er,
-est
vsDerivation
(lexical)
worker (n.)
WORKER
1. May alter
the word-class
or subclass
3.
Possible
shift
in
cognitive
meaning
humour (n)
humourless
(ad)
2. It produces
new lexemes
work
WORK
(n.)
4. It is marked
closer to the
root
than
inflection
duck.ling.s
5. It can be
iterated
truth.ful.ness
6. Derivation
can
add
suffixes
and
prefixes
7. It can be
replaced
by
another word
teacher
person
Root: the form that remains in the word once we remove the
affixes.
- 2. Compounding
-
Compounds
Derivation (suffixes)
hardbook seller
-
post box
hardship
womanhood
Compou
nd
(A
factory that
produces
toys)vs
- toy
factory
-
Syntactic
phrase
(A factory
that is
childrens
toy)
cherry
pie
rice
pudding
cotton
socks
- cherry
cake
- ginger
cake
- perrier
water
4. Oxford
Circus
5. Camden
Town
11.city centre
12.summer
holidays
14.
birthday card
15.Christmas card
16.
There can be compounds with more than two
elements, but they will always have a binary structure.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
30.
Syntactic phrases
24.
Early stress
31.
Late stress
25.
dark room
32.
dark room
26.
29.
Compounds
33.
27.
moving van
34.
moving van
28.
toy factory
35.
toy factory
36.
37.
38.colour
yellow hammer
39.
green
40.
-
red
crimson
yellow
scarlet
45.Types of compounds
-
46.
bookshops
47.
48.
-
pickpocket
butterfinger
50.
51.
52.
-
to typewrite: endocentric
a beehive: endocentric
schoolboy: endocentric
an undergraduate: endocentric
an overcoat: endocentric
a scarecrow: exocentric
Austria-Hungary: copulative
seabird: endocentric
greenfly: endocentric
a bulldog: endocentric
week-end: copulative
55.
-
56.
57.
58.
59.
noun
60.
shoemaker
v s
noun
s
handwritten
v
s
Adjective
Headedness of compounds
61.
In every compounds there is going to be an element which is
more important than the other: head. There are two different heads:
-
62.
63.
Examples
64.Noun
noun
65.bookcase
66.pencil case
67.motor-car
68.Adjective
+ noun
72.Preposition
+ noun
69.greenhous
e
73.undergradu
ate
70.wet-suit
74.oversight
71.High Court
75.
76.Noun
77.Adjective
Noun
Percolation (the head gives its features to
the whole compound)
78.Preposition
(head)
79.non-head
80.(modifier)
81.
82.Noun
+
adjective
86.Adjective
+ adjective
90.Preposition
+ adjective
83.worldwide
87.blue-eyed
84.waterproof
88.goodhearted
91.overwhelmi
ng
85.seaworthy
89.hardheaded
94.
92.outspoken
93.undermentioned
95.Prep + verb
96.undersell
97.outstay
98.oversee
99.underestimate
100. overrate
101. Derivation or compounding?
102. There are instances where it is not clear if a word is derivational
or is a compound:
-
wetsuit
fireman
binoculars
binocular-cases
attorney general
attorneys general
114. That is
-
115.
116.
117. Do these words contradict the RHHR?
-
Bookshops: yes.
Understood: yes.
Scissor-handles: yes.
Turn up: no. Phrasal verbs are exceptional (they are left-headed).
118.
119.
3. Conversion
Shift of stress
129.
130.
131.
(adj)
132.
(adj)
Early stress
record (n)
present
(n)
abstract
(n)
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
frequent (adj)
Late stress
record (v)
present (v)
abstract (v)
138.
frequent (v)
140.
/dvas/
advice (n)
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
-
close (adj)
/kls/
sheath (n)
/i/
advise (v)
/dvaz/
close (v)
/klz/
sheathe (v)
/i/
coffee a coffe
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
- 5. Productivity
Productivity refers to generality. The more general a
word-form process is the more productive it will be.
Limitations on productivity
Phonological constraints
2. Adjetive + ly = adverb
- It is impossible to add the suffix ly to a form that ends with
ly
3. -ee
-
Morphological constraints
1. -hood or ant
When the base is native, we attach the native affix (maiden maidenhood). If the word is latinate, we attach latinate forms
(participate - participant).
There are exceptions. For example, parenthood is fully
assimilated. The more assimilated are the words, the more
possibilities are for these productions to be grammatical.
-
Semantic constraints
- 6. Lexicalization
Also called frozenness or fossilisation, lexicalization is the
morphological process which is not productive any longer. A
stablished word comes to diverge from the productive methods of
word-formation (the words are outside the norm).
Types of lexicalization
Phonological lexicalization
Morphological lexicalization
-
Semantic lexicalization
handle
horse
to
handle
something
Lexical morphology
Examples:
S
tratum
1
S
tratum
2
Morphology
[sane]adj. + [-ity]suf.
[sanity]n.
Phonology
/sen/ + /ti/
Vowel change
/snti/
Non-applicable rule
Non-applicable rule
S
tratum
1
S
tratum
2
Morphology
Non-applicable rule
[alert] + [-ness]
[alertness]
Phonology
Non-applicable rule
/lt/ + /ns/
/ltns/
Morphology
S
tratum
1
[grammar] + [-ian]
[grammarian]
S
tratum
2
ism]
-
[grammarian] + [[grammarianism]
Phonology
/rm/ + /in/
Stress shift
/rmerin/
Vowel change
Consonant change
/rmerin/ + /zm/
/rmerinzm/
-
S
tratum
1
S
tratum
2
Morphology
Non-applicable rule
[care] + [-ful]
[careful]
Phonology
Non-applicable rule
/ke/ + /fl/
/kefl/
/kefl/ + /ns/
/keflns/
S
tratum
1
S
tratum
2
Morphology
[origin] + [-al]
[original]
[original] + [-ity]
[originality]
Non-applicable rule
Phonology
/rdn/ + /l/
Stress shift
/rdnl /
Vowel change
/rdnl / + /ti/
Stress shift
/rdnlti/
Vowel change
-
Non-applicable rule
Example:
Examples:
Examples:
Example:
- 10. Borrowing
Borrowing is the process in which the target language
includes or takes words from the source language. There are two
kinds of borrowing: loanwords and loanshifts. With regard to the first
one, it can be direct or indirect.
-
Loanwords: you take the word from the source language, and you
borrow the word itself with its meaning. It can be direct or indirect.
Loanshifts: you take the meaning of the word from the source
language, but you translate it into the target language.
-
The most borrowed words are nouns and then verbs and
adjectives. Before the Norman Conquest the most important sources were
classical languages (Greek and Latin) and Scandinavian languages. After
1066, the most important source became French, although English had
borrowed some French words before.
-
The need for a word when we get in touch with another country.
Exercise
Barbecue:
Haitian
via
French
Paella:
Spanish
Chocolate:
Aztec
via
Spanish
Tomato: Aztec
via Spanish
Molasses:
Portuguese
Curry:
Tamil
(from India)
Tea: Chinese
Mammoth
(mamut):
Russian
Frankfurter:
German
Moussaka:
Greek
Kiwi:
Maori
(New Zeeland)
Jackal: Persian
via Turkish
Kayak:
Eskimo
Khaki: Urdu
(Pakistan)
Sauna:
Finish
Democracy
: Greek
Ukulele:
Hawaiian
Tulip:
Turkish
Waltz:
German
Soprano:
Italian
Ballet:
French
Cafeteria:
Spanish
Mayonnais
e: French
Denim:
French
Coach:
Hungarian
Yacht:
Dutch
die
expire
>
walk
>
promenade
limb
>
member
get
obtain
house
>
domicile
Ski:
Norwegian
Sex: Latin
Algebra:
Arabic
gushy
>
sentimenta
l
leave
depart
Kangaroo:
Australia
>
sweat
>
perspiratio
n
>