MARITIME

INSTITUTE

These bad weather systems originate

on the Equatorial side
of the oceanic sub-tropical
anticyclones,
on the periphery of
the Trade Wind flow.

Trade Wind inversion

plays a significant part in their formation.
Subsiding air in the anticyclone heats
adiabatically at the dry lapse rate and a
marked inversion forms at around 500m
on the Eastern side of the ocean.
Air below inversion is moist and
tends towards instability.

THE TRADE WINDS

The trade winds are a pattern of wind
that are found in bands around the
Earth's equatorial region.
The trade
winds are the prevailing winds in the
tropics, blowing from the high-pressure
area in the horse latitudes towards
the low-pressure area around the
equator.
The trade winds blow
predominantly from the northeast
in the northern hemisphere and
from the southeast in the
southern hemisphere

Downstream, the inversion weakens

as the degree of
subsidence decreases,
the inversion level rises, and
cumulus towers
penetrate through the inversion
spreading moisture into
the dry air above.

Tropical waves, or easterly waves, also known

as African easterly waves in the Atlantic region,
are a type of atmospheric trough,
an elongated area of relatively low air pressure,
oriented north to south,
which move from east to west across
the tropics causing areas of

cloudiness and thunderstorms.

West-moving waves can also form from

the tail end of frontal zones in the subtropics and tropics
and may be referred to as easterly waves,
but these waves are not properly called tropical waves;
they are a form of inverted trough
sharing many characteristics with fully tropical waves.

All tropical waves form in the easterly flow

along the southern side of the subtropical ridge
or belt of high pressure which lies
north and south of the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Tropical waves are generally carried

westward by the prevailing
easterly winds along
the tropics and subtropics
near the equator.

They can lead to the formation of

tropical cyclones
in the north Atlantic
and
northeast Pacific basins.

Weather Sequence of an Easterly Wave

In the ridge ahead of the trough:
fine weather, scattered cumulus,
some haze.
Close to the trough :
Well developed cumulus,
occasional showers, improving visibility.
Behind the trough :
Veering of wind, heavy Cu/Cb,
moderate/heavy showers,
good visibility except in rain.

Waves in the trade winds

in the Atlantic Ocean

Few easterly wave depressions

develop into closed
isobaric structures
with cyclonic votices.

2. Tropical Depressions
Principal conditions for the formation
of cyclonic motion
a. Latitude north/south of 5-6 deg N/S
b. Surfcae water temp. at least 27deg C.
c. Presence of groups of small islands
increases convective lift due to higher
insolation.
d. ITCZ should be well removed from the
Equator.

Conditions b and c are found on

the Western sides of the N Atlantic,
N and S Pacific and S Indian ocean
(where the water is shallower and
warmer than on the eastern sides
of these oceans).
Condition d occurs during late summer
when the ITCZ is
farthest removed from equator.

Tropical depressions are

almost unknown in the S Atlantic
and in the eastern side of the S Pacific
for the following reasons :
a)Sea surface temps, are low due
to the cool currents brought about
by upwelling of cold water from below.
b) There are no island archipelagoes.
c) The ITCZ never extends
south of the equator in these regions.

75%
of all
tropical depressions
occur in
the Northern Hemisphere.

3. Tropical Hurricanes :
on the western side of the Trade Wind
where the inversion is
higher and less active,
the surface temp. is highest,
Tropical Depressions
may develop into
hurricanes

In meteorology, a tropical cyclone

(also referred to as a tropical depression,
tropical storm, typhoon, or hurricane
depending on strength and
geographical context) is a type of
low pressure system which generally
forms in the tropics.
While they can be highly destructive,
tropical cyclones are an important part
of the atmospheric circulation system,
which moves heat from the
equatorial region toward the
higher latitudes.

DEFINITION of a TRS :
A tropical revolving storm may be
defined as a roughly circular atmospheric
vortex, originating in the tropics or
subtropics, wherein the winds which blow
in converging spiral tracks
( anticlkws in NH and clockws in SH)
Reach or exceed gale force 8.

Intensity of winds in tropical depressions :

1.Tropical depression less than force 7.
2.Moderate tropical storm force 8 to 9.
3.Severe tropical storm force 10 to 11.
4.Hurricane reach force 12 and above.

Pre-requisite for development

of a tropical storm:
1.Sea surface temp. in excess of 26.5deg C
2.Latitude must not be less than 5deg N or S.
3.Small vertical wind shear.
4.A pre-existing depression.

Model vertical profile of a mature typhoon.

The central portion is the eye and eye wall.

Model vertical profile of a mature typhoon

The central portion is the eye and eye wall

A distinctive feature of
the hurricane is the
warm vortex,
which developes through
the action of
large number of Cb towers
releasing latent heat of condensation
into the atmosphere

the warm core is vital to

hurricane growth because
it intensifies the upper anticyclone,
and stimulates the low level influx
of heat and moisture,
which further intensifies
convective activity and therefore
the upper level high pressure system.

In the eye,
which has a diameter of 30-40 km,
adiabatic warming of descending air
accentuates the high temperatures
and results in calm conditions and
sometimes clear skies.
The temp. of the descending air
in the eye may be up to 18deg warmer
than the temp in the same plane
in the ascending air

The supply of heat and moisture

combined with
low frictional drag at the sea surface,
the release of latent heat through
condensation, and
the removal of air aloft,
are essential conditions for the
maintenance of hurricane intensity.
As soon as one of these ingredients
is lost,
the storm decays

If the vortex passes overland

increased friction hastens
the process of filling,while the cutting
off of the moisture supply removes
one of the major sources of heat.
If the vortex passes over a cool sea,
cooler air drawn into the circulation
results in a rapid decay of the system.

Radar and satellite photography

reveal that cloud and precipitation
within a hurricane are arranged
in spiral bands whose axes are
parallel to the
surface wind streamlines.

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale

Category

Wind speed

Storm surge

mph
(km/h)

ft
(m)

156
(250)

>18 (>5.5)

131155
(210249)

1318
(4.05.5)

111130
(178209)

912
(2.73.7)

96110
(154177)

68
(1.82.4)

7495
(119153)

45
(1.21.5)

Additional classifications
Tropical
storm
Tropical
depression

3973
(63117)

03
(00.9)

038
(062)

Wind speed record of Typhoon York Sept 1999

Indications of a
Tropical Hurricane in the Vicinity
a) Swell
b) Change in Trades
c) Irregularity in semi-diurnal range
d) Oppressive atmosphere

a)A heavy swell approaching from

the storm field
Large waves generated by the storm
pass beyond the limits of the
disturbance, and travel great distances.
The swell travels at a much greater
velocity than the storm centre,
an observer may be forewarned of
the existence of the storm
by 2 or 3 days, and thus giving
first warning and the storm bearing.

b) A change in
the intensity or
direction of the Trades.

c) Irregularity in
the semi-diurnal range,
or the barometric pressure
more than 3 mbs,
below seasonal normal for
the particular region and
time of day.

d) An oppressive atmosphere
with increasing humidity, and
an ugly, lurid sky
at sunset /sunrise.

Sunset view of Hurricane rain-bands

Storm tracks worldwide

Tracks followed by tropical revolving storms

(A).Movement of Tropical Hurricanes :

a) They tend to move parallel to isobars
which lie outside the storm field at
about 10 to 12 kts.
b) They re-curve pole-ward around
the western margin of the sub-tropical
high pressure cells, entering the
circulation of the westerlies.

Track of a typhoon

(B).Movement of Tropical Hurricanes :

c) After re-curvature, they tend to
accelerate to 15 to 20 kts and gradually
die out or degenerate into extra-tropical
depressions.
d) Occasionally, they fail to re-curve
and cross continental coast wreaking
heavy damage especially where the
land is low.

(C).Movement of Tropical Hurricanes :

e) Cirri-form clouds, up to 1000kms from
the centre, in thick bands converging on
the centre.
f) PRESSURE
From 500m to 120m from centre:
slow fall of pressure
from 120m to 60m from centre:
distinct fall of pressure
from 60m to centre :
a rapid fall.
g) Rain showers give way to torrential rain,
With visibility seriously reduced.

Typical barogram of a hurricane

1. To find the
bearing of
the storm
centre:
By Buys
Ballots Law
and facing
the wind

Plotting the probable path of the centre

Plotting the probable path of the centre

Radio reports of the presence of a tropical
hurricane will indicate the present position
course and speed of the centre.
As the information is correct up to the last
observation, the master can only make an
approximate estimation of the future path.
In any one 24 hour period, the centre will
normally be expected to move into an area
covered by a sector extending 40 deg either
side of its present path, so the master should
re-plot the centre on receipt of every message,
and endeavor to avoid that area.

Use of safety
sector for
keeping a ship
clear of a
tropical storm
in the Northern
Hemisphere.

Avoiding tropical hurricanes

Practical Rules for Avoiding

Tropical Hurricanes
1. In the dangerous semi-circle,
make speed with the wind on the
starboard BOW and haul round to
starboard as the wind veers, to
clear the centre.

Practical Rules for Avoiding

Tropical Hurricanes
2. In the direct path of the storm
make speed with the wind abaft
the starboard beam, and run into
the navigable semi-circle,
hauling to port as the wind backs.

Practical Rules for Avoiding

Tropical Hurricanes
3. In the navigable semi-circle run with
the wind on the starboard quarter,
hauling to port as the wind backs.

Note
If the sea and swell are too heavy
to carry out these manoeuvres,
Heave-to with the wind on
the starboard bow.

Note
The shift of the wind is very important,
and care must be exercised to avoid
being taken unawares by the storm
centre re-curving.

Note
Care must also be exercised to avoid
running before increasingly heavy seas,
as the dangers of broaching in small
ships particularly, cannot be overstressed. The results of failing to take
timely avoiding action are evidenced
by marine disasters ( example US fleet
December 1944)

Movement of a ship in a tropical storm

near the point of re-curvature (NH)

Avoiding the Hurricane Centre :

before taking avoiding action
1.Find the bearing of the centre
2.Establish the semi-circle in which
the ship lies
3. Plot the probable path of the centre.

Dangerous semi-circle
is that in which,
if a vessel runs with the wind aft,
she will become further involved
with the centre

Navigable semi-circle
Is that which,
if the vessel runs
with the wind aft,
she will tend to run
clear of the centre.

Semi-circle
a) If the wind shifts to the right (veers),
vessel is in the right-hand semi-circle.
b) If the wind shifts to the left (backs),
vessel is in the left-hand semi-circle.
c) If the wind direction remains steady,

Semi-circle(continued)
c) If the wind direction remains steady,
vessel is either :
1.In the direct path of the storm being
overtaken by it (falling barometer)
2. Running parallel to it, at the same
speed as the storm (steady pressure)
3. Converging with the storm
(falling pressure)

Semi-circle(continued)
If necessary, stop the vessel and
establish the real shift of the wind.
The rule of the semi-circle applies
to both hemispheres
NH--- RH semi-circle is dangerous
SH--- LH semi-circle is dangerous